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(lo . s p , ,‘ 3 ... .. .. t. , y. . 2 .1 ..v w. n u‘lk ‘ Illm ‘1'"! Ri‘.§oun..|ui.l3=q¥flhuv.fium.!.l......v.[0!>v.1W... .. ....u. .. 2. r... ... I. I... . . n -- in. ... ,o. I- I 1..“ I : ..I . . .I 5n. .:.n. ,.. .-I ‘hv‘... 1'; .. ‘i l 9.1“ u ., y . :nét-L Y I . ‘ l.’ J I 4"! vvlo. I a, I; ..1lll 11‘: ,_, n.v“_‘~'r ‘ 3.10.2“ . ‘ . . 49;, "WI :' .‘h 'H’i" “ I. I" WNW“ 5H «:31 em» HUN. KN t" I 1 ’1 11. 91' v . I in . r0} H1 5:3 LIEBA BY maigaas §tate University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EVALUATION OF INDIGENOUS FEEDSTUFFS FOR THE NUTRITION OF SWINE AND POULTRY IN BELIZE, CENTRAL AMERICA presented by Michael A. Costa has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Sc1'ence_degreein Animal Husbandry /,7 flw Major professor Date June 17, 1981 0-7639 MSU LIBRARIES “ RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. THE EVALUATION OF INDIGENOUS FEEDSTUFFS FOR THE NUTRITION OF SWINE AND POULTRY IN BELIZE, CENTRAL AMERICA By Michael A. Costa A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Animal Husbandry 1981 . tire-0 w ‘i'- I' lpnn-n v I n- v “‘~ . v I... i ICU ABSTRACT THE EVALUATION OF INDIGENOUS FEEDSTUFFS FOR THE NUTRITION OF SWINE AND POULTRY IN BELIZE, CENTRAL AMERICA By Michael A. Costa A feeds research project was organized to increase the use of local feedstuffs in livestock feeds and provide greater profit margins for farmers engaged in animal production. The project was organized into three phases that included: [l] diet formulation and testing at the research station; [2] diffusion of the most reliable and most economical feeding and manage- ment programs into the rural sector; and [3] organization of a national feeds production scheme that would provide a continuous supply of quality feeds. Nutritional parameters of feedstuffs were determined by chemical analysis and by performance of animals on feed trials. Average daily gains (ADG), feed conversion efficiencies (G/F) and cost per unit of gain (C/G) were used to evaluate the performance of test diets. Preliminary studies were conducted to compare the performance of animals fed experimental diets to performance of animals fed commercial feeds as control diets. Least cost rations were formulated to meet the daily requirements for crude protein (or first limiting amino acid), calcium and phosphorus for swine or poultry. Results from preliminary Phase I feed trials are presented. Three grower-finisher swine trials were conducted to determine [1] the feasibility ‘ . u.- . v on Uni ‘fi- iJ.‘ Michael A. Costa of substituting a Belizean meat-and-bone meal (MBM) as an alternative pro- tein supplement to imported soybean meal (SBM); [2] the effects of substi- tuting wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings for corn or grain sorghum in MBM-supplemented diets; and [3] the effects of substituting blood meal or synthetic lysine in grower or finisher diets, respectively, for SBM at three levels of rice bran and polishings in corn-based, MBM-supplemented diets. Two broiler trials were conducted to determine the effects of [l] MBM as a replacement for SBM as the protein supplement in corn or grain sorghum-based diets that contained rice bran and polishings or wheat millrun; and [2] high and low levels of MBM in corn or grain sorghum-based diets. Swine trial results showed that complete substitution of MBM for SBM resulted in a decrease (P < 0.01) in A06 and G/F. A low level of SBM com- bined with rice bran and polishings or wheat millrun improved performance and reduced the 0/6 of animals compared to gains of animals fed imported commercial feeds. Broiler trial results indicated that MBM could be used as the main protein supplement in starter and finisher diets, combined with corn or grain sorghum and rice bran and polishings or wheat millrun, to pro- vide more economical eight-week gains of animals compared to gains of animals fed commercial feeds. v‘ ‘ vu‘ ' I;f PE .- p ..-o( . :n-‘ I O.; If! OI ‘I ()1 f) M" o x. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Robert J. Deans for his excellent guidance, counseling and patience during this long- term research and for his constructive planning efforts of the Belize Live- stock Feeds Project. First, I would like to acknowledge the planning efforts and coordi- nation of activities of Dr. Robert J. Deans, who developed the concept of the project and sought the funding for it, and who gave much of his time to visit the project to provide guidance and direction; Dr. Duane E. Ullrey, Dr. Richard J. Aulerich, and Dr. Herbert R. Bird (University of Wisconsin) for advice and who took the time from their busy schedules to visit the pro- ject to provide on-site guidance and recommendations; and Dr. William T. Magee, for his assistance with computer programming for the statistical analysis of the feeding trials. I owe very much to Dr. Charles W. Laughlin and Dr. J. James Kielbaso, who provided assistance for me during my studies at M.S.U. and who taught me the meaning of being flexible; to Dr. Irving R. Wyeth and Dr. Kim A. Wilson, who were responsible for the administration of the grant received from MUCIA and who gave counseling to me regarding the scope of involvement in international agricultural activities; and to all of the many other people in their office, especially Pat Riley, who assisted me with typing and bureaucratic problems. The laboratory support from Dr. Pao Ku and Phyllis Whetter at M.S.U. was greatly appreciated; and assistance with typing from Kathi Mikulka and Pat Cramer was greatly appreciated. ii '9'- ~lp ’- J v .I Appreciation is expressed to Heifer Project International for their assistance with supportive allowance, livestock equipment and supplies for the project in Belize; to Dr. Jerry Cal, who offered inspiring advice for the development of agriculture in Belize; to Dr. Balmore Silva and Elias Juan, who assisted in the facilitation of establishment and functioning of the project at Central Farm; to Elaine Middleton for her interests and involvement with youth and agricultural production; to Mr. Mark Long, who directed the analysis of feedstuff items in Belize; to Dr. Ian McLeish and his assiStants, who provided livestock health advice and services for the experimental animals in Belize; to the laborers at Central Farm, who altered their schedules to meet the demands of the project and who cared for the experimental animals and facilities; to the enthusiastic assistance received from the students from Michigan State University and Goshen College, and also the Peace Corps Volunteers, who assisted in the planning and implemen- tation of project activities; to Elias Awe, who made available the resources of the Central Farm Agricultural Library; to Godsman Ellis, who assisted the project in planning of extension activities. A special thanks is given ot the members of the Spanish Lookout Mennonite community, who c00perated with the project in its activities, including Peter Friesen for scheduling large supplies of chicks when they were needed for feeding trials, and Reimer‘s Feed Mill for information on feed supplies. Appreciation is also expressed to the Davis family and to Dave Miller for the use of their slaughtering facilities for obtaining data of poultry, and to Norland Farm for use of their slaughtering facilities for obtaining data of swine. maria" U" '0‘ U. 7‘ "rirn‘n Li) ‘3‘") I'ES'S', 1 isn‘t; ‘ Thanks is expressed to Santiago Gomez of the Partners of Americas Program in Belize, and to the Michigan Partners Program for their interest in and support of the project. There are many more acknowledgments that have not been mentioned, but the list seems endless when one is involved in a project of this scope. One final and especially important acknowledgment is expressed to Mr. Rene Montero, my Belizean counterpart, for his patience and understanding during the initial phases of the project, and for the example he set as a person concerned with the progress of his country. Finally, the author is extremely grateful to Sandra Tyacke at Washington State University for her services in the final typing of this thesis; to Joanna Gruber, Department of Dairy Science, Michigan State Uni- versity for her helpful advisement on the final preparation of the thesis, to Dr. Richard Koes, Department of Animal Sciences, Washington State Univer- sity, for his constructive advice in the final preparation of the thesis; and to June Lipe at Washington State University, for her excellent drafts of figures of the animal housing units. iv . V‘Q‘f‘fil ..‘bv’."~ an Lt) “VJ -nnd I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................... Improvement of the Livestock Feeds Industry in Belize ..... Belize Agricultural Production ................. Feed Resources Available in Belize ............... OVERALL PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND DESCRIPTION ........... Goals ............................. Strategies Used for Attaining Project Goals .......... Organizational Structure of Project ............. Strategies for Meeting the Goals ............... Advisory Groups ....................... Project Linkages ....................... Project Evaluation Criteria ................. Reference Library ...................... Staffing ........................... Laboratory Support ...................... Specific Procedures and Strategies Used to Develop a System of Rations ..................... Procedures and Physical Plant Used ............... Facility Design and Basis for Selection ........... Materials and Methods Used in Conducting Swine and Poultry Feeding Trials ....................... DESCRIPTION OF SWINE AND POULTRY FEEDING TRIALS ......... Swine Trials--Review of Literature ............... Swine Trial l ........................ Swine Trial 2 ........................ Swine Trial 3 ........................ Broiler Trials--Reivew of Literature .............. Broiler Trial 1 ....................... Broiler Trial 2 ....................... Page —J USN-J \ 1:3,; .4 A 4" 3.1,.6 Q'wac \ I. iAUVUu lbl- .., .Ib“ I -~--.u A 0 I 'Y' ‘shu ‘0. "WI”: "'~n.u‘. Page IV. RESULTS OF SWINE AND POULTRY FEEDING TRIALS ........... 95 Swine Trials .......................... 95 Swine Trial 1 ........................ 95 Swine Trial 2 ........................ 99 Swine Trial 3 ........................ lOS Broiler Trials ......................... l09 Broiler Trial l ....................... lO9 Broiler Trial 2 ....................... ll7 Summary of Animal Evaluation of Feedstuffs ........... l25 V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .................... l29 APPENDI I. BELIZE: COUNTRY BACKGROUND ................. l34 II. ANALYSIS OF FEED INGREDIENTS ................ I38 III. CLIMATIC INDICATORS FOR CENTRAL FARM, BELIZE ........ l5l IV. METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS USED IN THIS THESIS ........ 153 V. DESCRIPTION OF STATISTICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS ....... l54 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................. 156 vi .4 ‘¥\ «flu flied ‘ I Q, .- V... I‘ O 91,. e e V TIU -.\J 1 a. a ..u n u a A v in - I fih“ C b A!“ l. A.“ ... Table kWN ll. 12. l3. I4. 15. l6. l7. l8. LIST OF TABLES Annual Production of Belize Livestock and Crops ........ Annual Imports of Animal Feeds in Belize ............ Annual Availability of Feedstuffs in Belize .......... Statistical Data on Livestock Production, Demand and Feed Requirements in Belize .................... Analysis of Rice Bran and Polishings, Wheat Millrun, Corn and Grain Sorghum ........................ Belize Vitamin Premix ..................... Belize Trace Mineral Premix .................. Comparison of Feed Consumption and Meat Production of Pigs and Broiler Birds ...................... Hubbard Broiler Performance Standards ............. Swine Trial l: Nutritional Values and Costs of Ingredients Used in Formulation of Diets ................. Swine Trial 1: Composition of Grower Diets .......... Swine Trial l: Composition of Finisher Diets ......... Swine Trial 2: Nutritional Values and Costs of Ingredients Used in Formulation of Diets ................. Swine Trial 2: Composition of Grower Diets .......... Swine Trial 2: Composition of Finisher Diets ......... Swine Trial 3: Nutritional Values and Costs of Ingredients Used in Formulation of Diets ................. Swine Trial 3: Composition of Grower Diets .......... Swine Trial 3: Composition of Finisher Diets ......... vii Page 42 49 50 52 62 67 69 7l 74 76 77 79 80 82 M V I.‘ q. '1' SR DUI . [A .‘I N. ”i H. u “b. A. 'UO 4- V'. (.5 C‘Dx fi_ Rf, ‘ J v Inf". d J 2.» a; i q err ., I I u a If! 1' I 'l.‘ Table l9. 20. 2T. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Broiler Trial l: Nutritional Values and Costs of Ingredients Used in Formulation of Diets ................. Broiler Trial 1: Composition of Starter Diets ......... Broiler Trial 1: Composition of Finisher Diets ........ Broiler Trial 2: Nutritional Values and Costs of Ingredients Used in Formulation of Diets ................. Broiler Trial 2: Composition of Starter Diets ......... Broiler Trial 2: Composition of Finisher Diets ........ Swine Trial 1: Effect of Meat-and-Bone Meal on Performance of Growing and Finishing Pigs Fed Corn and/or Grain Sorghum Diets ............................ Swine Trial 2: Effect of Rice Bran and Polishings and Wheat Millrun on Performance of Growing and Finishing Pigs Fed Meat-and-Bone Meal--Soybean Meal--Lysine Supplemented Diets . Swine Trial 3: Effect of Blood Meal, Soybean Meal and L- Lysine on Performance of Growing and Finishing Pigs Fed Rice Bran and Polishing--Corn--Meat-and-Bone Meal Diets . . . Broiler Trial 1: Effects of Meat-and-Bone Meal with Wheat Millrun or Rice Bran and Polishings in Birds Fed Corn or Grain Sorghum Diets ..................... Broiler Trial 2: Effect of High and Low Levels of Meat-and- Bone Meal on Performance of Broiler Birds Fed Corn or Grain Sorghum Based Diets ..................... A Comparison of Performance of Broiler Birds Fed Increasing Dietary Calcium and Crude Protein Levels ........... Analysis of Feed Ingredients .................. Analysis of Yellow Grain Corn, White Grain Corn, and Corn + Cob + Husk .......................... Analysis of Beer Brewer's Spent Grains, Bone Meal and Burnt Bone Ash ........................... Analysis of Meat-and-Bone Meal ................. Analysis of Wheat Millrun, Screenings, Bran and Shorts + Mids . Analysis of Rice Bran and Polishings, lst Polish, 2nd Polish, and 3rd Polish ........................ viii Page 87 88 89 9l 93 94 96 100 l06 llO ll8 l23 138 l39 I40 l4l l42 Table 37. 38. 39. 4o. 41. 42. 43. Page Analysis of Cohune Nut Meal and Cohune Nut Whole Kernesl . . . l44 Analysis of Soybean Meal ................... 145 Analysis of Pigeon Pea, Pods and Leaves; Leaf Meal and Forage ............................ I46 Analysis of Root Craps .................... I47 Analysis of Leaf Meals .................... l48 Analysis of Grass Meals and Other Items ............ lSO Average Monthly Temperature, Relative Humidity, Radiation, Windspeed, Sunshine, Rainfall, and Evaporation ........ lSI ix . E :I. f .o Nix C I: r . REV . ... .1 a a." LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l. Overall Scheme of Agencies Involved in Rural Development. . . . l2 2. Flow of Events in Ration Development .............. 15 3. Farmer-Agency Interactions ................... l7 4. Iterative Reciprocity Flow Over Time between Farmers and Feeds Project ........................... l8 5. Devel0pment of a Model Production Scheme with Groups of 25 Farmers Given 4 Hectare Land Packages for Grain and Pig Production .......................... 20 6. Project Guidance Linkages ................... 21 7. Broiler Housing Unit ...................... 33 8. Layer Housing Units ...................... 33 9. Broiler Housing Unit Floor Plan ................ 34 IO. Layer Housing Unit Floor Plan ................. 35 ll. Grower-Finisher Swine Housing Unit ........... . . . . 36 l2. Grower-Finisher Swine Housing Unit--Self—Feeder ........ 36 I3. Grower-Finisher Swine Housing Unit Floor Plan ......... 38 l4. Variation in Costs of Feedstuffs in Belize ........... 55 15. Map of Belize ......................... 135 .— ‘ 00...- )“ 3 al- . : n ...-p: A. 0 3 U. J :'::'e'. we 'l'n. i; uvdi. ... “Ia-1 cars 'W‘F . tl‘l‘l‘ ' A 9" Ju. .qllfc:-:A "'“55a I. INTRODUCTION Improvement of the Livestock Feeds Industry in Belize Improvement and expansion of the livestock industry in any country depend upon the development of a continuous supply of good quality feed- stuffs at a reasonable cost (Arnott and Lim, 1966). The use of large quan- tities of high-priced imported feeds has been the main obstacle in developing a viable livestock industry in the Caribbean (Mann, 1935; Gohl, 1975). This problem was also identified in other areas of the world (Arnott and Lim, l966). Substitution of local feedstuffs for imported ingredients entails a radical departure from conventional feed formulation and feeding practices (Gohl, l975). By-product feedstuffs, which are not normally in demand for human consumption, are available for livestock feed. In Belize, expanded crop production and increased output of processing mills and industries have increased the availability of indigenous feedstuffs. Inconsistent methods of processing and variations in local condi- tions of crop production affect the nutritional composition and nutrient availability of feedstuffs. Therefore, it is important to determine the nutritional value of local feedstuffs in order to formulate feeds that will support economically efficient livestock production. Feed prices are affected by inflation, supply, demand and production costs of the feed industry. It is to the livestock producers' advantage to obtain highest performance in terms of feed efficiency and daily gain (Sachtleben, 1975). Environmental effects, price fluctuations, availability of and storage capabilities for ingredients are variables affecting the l r. '6' P ‘1 .bbd' I ' ,an 0 u :‘ .. '- ...! (I‘D ZINE Yn:n0 1'.’ o 9" . ”re‘nn va': ‘nx .- F‘ .g‘ . o... :3. S. 1: ‘FA _ i m '. ‘l a. .1 i. F 3re~ b .0 1'. economics of livestock production. Imported ingredients are subject to nutrient fatigue during shipping and handling. Fatigue of feed nutrients may occur [1] in storage and en route in the country of origin to the site of export; [2] during shipping from place of export to the port of entry in the receiving country; and [3] from port of entry in the receiving country to the site of storage and sales. Ingredients are susceptible to weather (humidity, rain, heat) and mechanical damage (torn bags, soiling from liquids) or insect or rodent damage. Weather damage to feed is not always noticeable (except for molding or rancidity), but may contribute to the reduced per- formance of livestock. For these reasons, the amount of revenue spent per nutritional unit imported can be reduced by shipping smaller quantities of more concentrated feed supplements less frequently. (A nutritional unit is referred to here as the amount of a particular nutrient, e.g., protein, amino acid, vitamin or mineral, in a given quantity of feed.) Belize Agricultural Production Belize exports sugar, molasses, bananas, citrus fruits, coconuts, fish and lobster, while it imports prepared meats, rice, corn, wheat, other cereals, fresh fruits and vegetables, beans and lard (Ministry of Agricul- ture and Lands, 1975). Policies of the Ministry of Agriculture to assist farmers have resulted in upward trends in agricultural production since the devastation caused by hurricane Hattie in 1961 (see Table 1). Land suitable for raising cattle offers a potential production capacity of 60,000 head per year. Cayo District is the main livestock-production area, accounting for 65% of all the cattle in the country (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 1972). The present domestic livestock market is small, with 4,400 head of cattle :C...-::.C.... x..C....S>— _ ......» . w ....u‘ 4 u..- ..fiv) . . «v.4. ..‘.~ ‘4. .-- \ .~.~... ..\ n Qus.-n.\.\ .‘ s ‘u~.\s .co_pu=uoca xoopmm>_— new aogu sop nomamu eNmF :_ «mason acmu_gcaz a .mmmp .mncmA new mgzupzupgm< we Agumpcho ------ ------ mm~.m o~o.w omo.mp mem.~ cmm.e~ nvsmp ...... 5—m.m mme.m omm.o m~m.mp ~w_.m ¢mu.m~ mxmp m_m.- qmm.—m Nom.m coo.m oem.mp _~m.m «mm.- mmm_ mm¢._m woo.mv omm.m omm.¢ omm.m~ mmm.¢ mum.ow —Nm_ ~m~.o_ mpm.e~ Nem.o opm.m om~.m_ oom.m mmm.m~ cum— Nmm.mm ~o~.- 1---- in--- ------ ii--- ------ mom— AmcmNcuv vmagoaxm umgmuzmzmpm umgmgzmzm_m Amcou upgumsv Amcou uwgumsv Amcou u_cumsv Low» umucoaxm mcm~_ocm moo: m—mewc< onwmz mupz mommmpox mama we gonszz mo coneaz woom mo gmasaz wcmucamam cowauzuoga xuoumm>_4 cowuuanoga aogu m.maogo new xooumo>F4 o~_Pmm we :o_au:uog¢ Fm:=:<--.P mqm MMAA*—— FARMER l /\ BLFP———> MMAA— FARMER l /\ BLFP—e MMAA—— FARMER 1 etc. Figure 4.--Iterative Reciprocity Flow Over Time between Farmers and Feeds Project. * Transactions between the farmers and the Feeds Project researchers (BLFP) were mediated through the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Ministry of Social Development Labor and Welfare, and the expatriate and local advisory committees (MMAA). .o .- ; .3..." o ' , . .; ' v. 1' .v . .-.-' “ i . a ,‘ Iv v ‘ l n. C . 1 vi . . a I. ' q I ~-d gr, 1 - b . I 0'1 0 (1‘ A ‘He :' a! "'v 1 ".1! H’c. J v.1" 19 Phase III encompassed the ultimate goal of the project, which was to develop a commercial feed production, storage.and distribution system for Belize. This involved the efforts of those who had interest in the develOp- ment of a feeds industry, including the suppliers of feedstuffs, feed mill operators, and farmers who would use the feeds. DevelOpment of the feeds system could occur in small farming communities mediated by the Ministry of Agriculture. A model production unit scheme was suggested4 whereby a sub- division of farmers could produce grain mainly for pig production (see Figure 5). The program would involve grain and pig production in one unit, which would include the development of a feed mill, supply shops, marketing center, and processing facilities. The models could start with groups of 25 farmers with basic infrastructures provided by the government, such as buildings, loans and technology. Farmers would first receive training at Central Farm. This thesis is concerned with the procedures used for the establish- ment and organization of the feeds project, and the results of Phase I swine and poultry feed trials conducted at the research station. Advisory Groups The project leaders were responsible to two main cores of advisory persons (see Figure 6). Indirect leadership was provided by a faculty advisory committee consisting of four professors, one from the University of Wisconsin and three from Michigan State University. These members advised on the development of test rations for the species of animals studied and assisted with the analysis and evaluation of the results obtained from feeding trials. Direct leadership for the project came from the second advisory group. This 4Dr. J. Cal, Chief Agricultural Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Belmopan, Belize. 20 25 farmers 25 farmers Central Farm Training Feed Mill Base Established Pre-Mix Supplements Provided Central Farm Technicians Involved in Field Work Model A: Production Units Composed of Groups of 25 Farmers. 1 farmer l farmer l farmer 4 hectares 4 hectares 4 hectares 17 1 farmer ‘ : 55:31?;;1 1 farmer 4 hectares - Marketing 4 hectares - Processing l l farmer Etc. 1 farmer 4 hectares (Total of 25) 4 hectares Model 8: Development of a Farm Community Production Scheme. Figure 5.-—Development of a Model Production Scheme with Groups of 25 Farmers Given 4 Hectare Land Packages for Grain and Pig Production. 21 HPI GOB MSU BAS UW DFC INDUSTRIES FEED MILLS _[— FARMERS iv US ADVISORY [A BELIZEAN ' COMMITTEE r ADVISORY COMMITTEE BELIZE FEEDS PROJECT PERSONNEL 1 PHASE I - Research Station FARM SECTOR INTERACTIONS: PHASE II - Field Tests/Feedback PHASE III - Development of Feed Mixing and Feed Delivery Units Figure 6.--Project Guidance Linkages.a aSee text for explanation of abbreviations used. ...-f :' I"’ a .-y :3 JC' o a" , I o n to ”a d . u u ' 9:0-n' "I .~ . ‘91. n : \ no u. z 0‘ " ‘ . II . II " ..-rfi- ' vi ‘ n n O) L.‘ C) n 22 group consisted of Belizean personnel, including [a] representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands and the Ministry of Social Development, Labor and Welfare; [b] persons from the industries that produced by-products for use as feedstuffs; operators of the two Mennonite feed mills; and [c] representative farmers from large and small operations in Belize. This group influenced and directed both the immediate and long-range objectives of the Feeds Project and determined the priorities of the research that were undertaken. Project Linkages Achievement of the goals of the project depended on strong communi- cation linkages between the project staff and the advisory groups. Extension Department personnel (in the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands) supported a strong research-extension linkage, a vital component of agricultural development. Local leaders from the farming sectors, included in the planning, provided a two-way farmer-bureaucracy communication which allowed unimpeded feedback from the farmer. The advisory group representatives served [1] as enabling linkages which provided the authority and essential resources for the project to operate; [2] as functional linkages that provided critical inputs and means for outputs; [3] as normative linkages which allowed for the participating organizations to share overlapping interests; and [4] as diffuse linkages for the sectors of the society that had an interest or involvement in the agricultural development of the country. .. a, a '9 2" r.) u C ... 'I. 90 . .4. :‘;F :1: 3.. b ... Affil'f '1 J "J '-= "res .Ialr ‘ I .. loai I a -v- P“! r .‘dkulu .- 55““ “b\, I” i d' D {II 23 Project Evaluation Criteria This project was subjected to a continuous form of evaluation in its efforts to reach the subsistence farmer and to conduct studies and activities that would be to his benefit. Local participation was a critical means of evaluation as it reflected the amount of contact with and the relevance of the program of activities to the local farmers. Achievements for each of the three phases of the project were evaluated respectively by [1] the bio- logical growth performance of animals fed the test rations and the costs of production; [2] the biological performance and cost of production of animals fed selected test rations in farm trials; and [3] the development of a feed- stuffs supply and feed distribution system for livestock producers. The extent of farmer participation and their desire to try new methods of feed- ing provided feedback indicators for evaluation of the program. Reference Library Funding was provided for the development of a reference library of materials relevant to the goals of the project. Students at Michigan State University compiled reference materials for this library, which consisted of [1] a note card system; [2] filed copies of relevant articles; and [3] a bibliography. This work began one year prior to the initiation of the on- site activities of the project in Belize. The materials which were col- lected pertained to useful feedstuffs and animal production systems in tropical or developing countries. This was a transferable system, which could be useful to other countries as well as Belize. A copy of the refer- ence materials remained at Michigan State University (MSU) and a c0py was located at the Central Farm Library in Belize. S .Dofl‘ 0. PI 1:“ I: 'v ad ‘1- if “*v~ 5v .3.- .‘H 54“.. \1“\ .l ‘5‘] S Fer_ 2"; 24 Staffing The project has been staffed by five graduate students from MSU (over a three-year period) working with three Belizean counterparts in the administration of the program. The counterparts were extension officers in the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, who would continue to administrate the project upon completion of expatriot involvement. The plan was to have the Belizean counterparts continue their education after working with the MSU students at Central Farm and then return to administer the project. Three undergraduate students from MSU, four students from Goshen College in Indiana, and three Peace Corps volunteers also assisted with project acti- vities in Belize. Other students contributed to the project by researching for literature and by the preparation of reports at MSU. The project was assigned seven laborers at Central Farm to assist with the care of animals on feed trials and with the preparation of feeds. These laborers Cleaned the animal pens, checked the feed and water supplies, and assisted with feed preparation and mixing. Laboratory Support Facilities for the analysis of feeds were provided through funding from HPI and MSU. The Central Farm Agricultural Chemistry Laboratory was equpped to do a complete proximate analysis, but certain facilities, includ- ing Kjehldahl nitrogen digester units, Goldfisch ether extract apparatus and a crude fiber analysis unit, were in need of replacement. Backstopping for feeds analysis was provided by the nutrition laboratory at MSU until all facilities at Central Farm were in operation. Representative samples of feedstuffs and mixed feeds were sent to MSU for analysis of calcium, phos- phorus and proximate fractions. 25 Specific Procedures and Strategies Used to Develop a System of Rations Choosing Animal Species and Feedstuffs The Belize Government has established a high priority for beef cattle research. The Ministry of Agriculture, however, determined that initial activities of the Feeds Project would focus on swine and poultry, since farmers engaged in raising these species were not earning a profit and were demanding more economical feeds. The strategy for ration development was to use maximal amounts of local feed ingredients to produce a marketable animal and a good profit margin. Initially, local feedstuffs that were available commercially on a continuous basis were selected as the primary components of the diets. Freshly harvested, non-commercial items were fed ad Zibitum in certain trials as these items became available. Rationale Used in Developing Feed’FormUlas Swine and poultry diets were formulated on a least-cost basis to make use of indigenous feedstuff items. A number of diets were formulated with alternative feedstuff combinations in order to allow for the replace- ment of one ingredient for another if a particular feedstuff should become scarce or expensive. The stepwise development of diets included: [1] the use of indigenous feedstuffs in alternative least-cost combinations of energy and protein sources; [2] comparison of animal growth and economical performance on local versus imported protein supplements; [3] the use of graded levels of synthetic amino acids or blood meal in place of SBM to pro- vide essential amino acids that were limiting in the local feedstuffs; and 26 [4] supplementation of all diets with the specially formulated vitamin and trace mineral premixes. A control diet was used as an indicator of variation in animals and environment between trials. Imported commercial feeds were initially used as control diets. These feeds provided a baseline to which the experimental feeds were compared. The imported feeds were replaced by an experimental feed as a control diet when the trial results indicated that an experimental diet resulted in animal performance with favorable growth and feed conver- sion efficiency. A diet was repeated in at least two trials before it was considered to be used as a control diet. Locally produced by-product feed- stuffs had lower metabolizable energy levels than grains that were used in diet formulation. Poultry diets that had a lower metabolizable energy level _ than the NRC (1977) recommendations were formulated with an equal percent decrease in other nutrient levels to the extent that this was possible. Protein levels of the concentrate feed were increased in trials based on free-choice fresh feeds. Fresh feed materials were fed in order to deter- mine the amount of concentrate feed that could be spared if the animals were allowed continuous access to fresh feedstuffs. Combinations of corn, grain sorghum, wheat millrun, rice bran and polishings, and MBM were tested which could be fed with fresh materials, including root crops, bananas and cohune trash. Salt, trace minerals, vitamins and supplemental amino acids, which could be made available in a lost-cost premix to farmers and which would result in improved performance,were added to experimental diets. ‘ 'l’. —: r. p I 9‘... In .‘d, .‘A ‘ or.“ v» a .:f‘ 'H4 5" 51' '1‘ l I, 1 I... .3‘43 ‘1‘. ‘ or...“ ‘1‘ 27 Procedures and Physical Plant Used Facility Design and Basis for Selection Phase I facilities were provided by the Government of Belize (GOB) and HPI. The GOB allocated funds for the facilities at the Central Farm Research Station, housing for project personnel, office space, experimental livestock units and feed. Heifer Project funded expenses for expatriote staff, transport and feed mixing equipment. Support from HPI was critical as it provided the means for accurate feed weighing and processing equip- ment and for vehicles needed to visit farmers, obtain ingredients and trans- port materials and animals. A crucial component of the project was to conduct the research using systems that a local farmer could identify with and that were available to him. Local conditions of animal management, especially the feeding prac- tices, were considered when test rations were developed. Most farmers fed concentrates in a trough or in a hanging metal tube feeder (for poultry) and fed chopped fresh feeds in a trough. The project provided feed for birds from two hanging tube feeders per pen, allowing 5.1 cm feeding space per bird in a pen of 50 broilers. In certain trials (Trials 3 and 8, which are not discussed in this thesis), fresh ground moist feeds (cassava root, sweet potato, cohune nut kernels) were fed in separate troughs. A locally manufactured hanging water trough system was used by far- mers to supply water to poultry. This system, consisting of a float and a 123 cm long V-shaped trough, which provided 2.5 cm drinking space per bird and was accessible from both sides, was used by the Feeds Project initially. However, the floats proved to be undependable for the complex layout of pens at Central Farm. The use of one float in each of 20 broiler pens and in 28 each of 16 layer pens required a constant demand on the labor force to check for malfunctioning floats. Other methods were explored to supply poultry with water and the most dependable was found to be hanging plastic bell-Shaped waterers. These imported waterer units were less expensive than the locally made metal troughs and were also practical for farmers to use. Swine and poultry housing units were designed and constructed from materials commonly used in Belize. The units are described in a later section. Pen sizes used for poultry trials were smaller than those used by the local farmer. Fifty birds per pen were used for broiler trials, and twenty birds per pen were used for layer trials. This number of birds per pen was used for two reasons: [1] the farmers could more readily associate their own systems with larger pen sizes, and [2] the large number of birds per pen made it feasible, if desired, to conduct exploratory treatments on a broad range of diets using only one pen per treatment. Then significant differences in performance could be further explored by conducting trials with duplicate groups (2 pens per diet) in future trials.5 The broiler unit was constructed lengthwise in a north-south orientation in order to provide a uniform environment in all of the pens. Originally, it was planned to construct two separate rows of broiler pens so that all of the pens would be affected equally by the east and west sunlight. However, the decision to have two rows of pens contained as one unit caused environmental differences between the east and the west rows of pens. The east row of pens received only a small portion of early morning direct sunlight, while the west row of pens received the direct rays of the warmer west sunlight. The decision to 5H. R. Bird, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Personal communica- tion, 1978. b‘ . V, ." : . I-e Q! F u PD‘ I l ‘ ..sii HI -Ah I are '5 ' I. . u, - < 4 ‘ 4V1 l "I a ‘1 nes'q “..t..? "“' “inn ' v'i‘b-Ig'l 'i "‘ “Igfi '7‘ “lulu-.1 .' A , F t' 1'11 “... 29 make one building with two rows of pens was made in order to reduce the cost of construction. Feed Mixing Facilities Feed preparation and storage facilities were developed at Central Farm. The feed mixing center consisted of a fan scale6 for the measurement of small quantities of ingredients, a platform scale7 for the measurement of bulk feed quantities, two horizontal feed mixers (one 227 kg capacity and one 909 kg capacity),8 two storage bins (150 bushel storage capacity each),9 a pelleting machine,10 a bag-closing machine,11 and a vertical mixer/ 12 hammermill. This equipment would be sufficient for an estimated maximum 13 which could production capacity of 18 metric tons of mixed feed per day, be doubled if twice the regular maount of man-hours were used to prepare the feed. A production capacity of 9,396 metric tons per year could be achieved using these facilities (employing only the two horizontal mixers),14 which could nearly supply the estimated total feed required to support the 6Toledo Computagram Scale Model No. 3710, with a sensitivity of 1 gram. Toledo Scales Co., Toledo, Ohio. 7Toledo Platform Scale Model No. 2181, with a 277 kg capacity and a 114 gram sensitivity. Toledo Scales Co., Toledo, Ohio. 8 9Brock Bins Co. (Hendrickson Distributers, Inc., Wabash, Indiana). 10R. A. Lister and Co., Ltd., Dursley, Glouchestershire, England (distributed in the U.S. by Daffin Co., Lancaster, Pennsylvania). 11 12 H. C. Davis and Sons Manufacturing Co., Inc., Bonner Springs, Kansas. Dave Fischbein Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota. Gehl Company, West Bend, Wisconsin. 13((909 + 227 kg)/batch) x (16 man-hours/day) e 2 man-hours prepara- tion time/batch. 1436 metric tons/day x 261 work days per year. . can . ‘ O. an 'q g by . | - 4 .-5 7 -.u l g .P‘-_ ‘- ” FAA kl ~t ‘ ‘fpo’_ ' r 11‘ u 3‘ uki: 1, w u'oAr ""V '9 7' Cr .. I.‘ a C. - 30 production of swine and poultry in Belize (see Table 4). However, it would be necessary to increase the limited storage capabilities for raw materials and mixed feeds. The procedure for mixing feeds for trials was as follows: bulk ingredients, which composed the majority of the ration,were first added to the mixer, with a portion saved out to mix with the small amounts of supple- mental ingredients. Protein supplements were added second, and the vitamins, minerals and other ingredients used in small quantities were added third (after mixing with the portion of bulk ingredient that was held out). Finally, molasses was dripped into the mixer, if it was included in the ‘5 Feeds were mixed for 10 to 20 minutes, depending on the amount of ration. molasses added. Feeds were mixed weekly in batches of 91 to 227 kg and were stored in 23 or 45.4 kg quantities in polypropylene feed bags. Homogeneous lots of feed ingredients for each trial were stored in 45.4 kg quantities in poly- propylene or burlap bags prior to mixing. (Fresh shipments of bulk energy sources [wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings] were obtained bi- monthly.) Imported feed ingredients (vitamin and trace mineral premixes, soybean meal, alfalfa meal, blood meal, lysine and methionine) were stored in an air-conditioned room at a temperature of 18°C. 15Molasses was dripped into the mixer as follows: a 36 cm diameter flat-bottomed pan (containing 75 drilled holes of 1 cm diameter in the botton) was placed on top of the grid at one end of the mixer. This diam- eter of hole allowed a constant, thin stream of molasses to flow into the feed as it was mixed. O .-4 .v' ....- pg. ‘0 ... -,. a on. .. 4“ a 1.1- w!. n - AP» :- .3 n a . .l n 4 now- a] n I FIN .. . . a a i. . -H\ I R... 31 Poultry Facilities Broilers Broiler birds were raised on a deep litter floor system using hard- wood tree shavings. The open-air building was constructed from local wood posts and wood frame. Hardware cloth (0.64 cm mesh) was used for the sides and for pen divisions. Dimensions of the building were 21.2 m x 7.3 m, oriented in a lengthwise north-south direction in order to minimize varia- tion in the amounts of sunlight and radiation affecting the birds in each pen. (An east-west orientation would have prOvided a cooler environment in the middle pens, with an adverse effect on the end pens.) In this way, one set of replicates on the east side received radiation from the morning sun and one set of replicates on the west side received radiation from the after— 16 noon sun. The 1.2 m overhang provided by the thatched roof was insuffi- cient to prevent direct sunlight from entering the pens. This caused the west pens to be subjected to a more extreme heat exposure (4 to 6°C higher)17 for a short period of time as the sun set (approximately 3:00 to 4:00 p.m.). The unit consisted of two rows of ten pens each, divided by a 2.4 meter wide alleyway (see Figures 7 and 9). Dimensions of each pen were 2.4 m deep x 2.1 m wide x 1.8 m high. This allowed 0.1 sq m per bird with 50 birds housed per pen. The building was located in an open field with crops planted 30 meters to the east and a swine unit 10 meters to the west. There were no shade trees in the immediate vicinity of the building. 16 17A two-point thermograph was used to record temperatures simul- taneously in the east and west pens continuously for 24-hour periods. Made from bay plam tree leaves. '. ‘ 4‘) .u.‘ '- ’ \ v. of V .r 'I ‘ .vvr' d -.- p: .a u o A o n. as \ ...! J1 ... Q, n a.-. .\ -.. =,.. i; K D, Op- ' r l g b a 'l. . :f‘; a ‘1‘ a 9 I '. . ‘A ...r- ..Q 9 4:: FA # VJ "‘ 1 I‘VT" ‘u '50 .1 ' a. Ii 5": . 32 Layers Conditions of management for the layer birds were similar to those for the broilers, except for a few minor differences. Two units of open-air pens, containing eight pens per unit, were constructed in a lengthwise north- South direction, leaving an open field space of 9 m between the two units (Figures8and 10). This allowed all pens to receive equal amounts of the east sun and the west sun with minimal interference of shadows. This was important to provide equal sunlight exposure to both units of pens. Materials used to construct the units were similar to the broiler units, with 0.64 cm mesh hardware cloth sides, a thatched bay palm leaf roof, and wood shavings on the floor. Each unit, comprising a single row of eight pens, was 18.3 m long x 21.3 m wide. Individual pen measurements were 3 m deep x 1.8 m wide x 1.8 m high, which allowed 5.4 sq m for 20 birds or 0.3 sq m per bird. Feeding, watering, and brooding systems were similar to those used in the broiler studies. Swine Facilities The swine grower-finisher unit was constructed using 15 cm wide wood Slat sides spaced horizontally with 10 cm gaps (see Figures 11 and 13). A solid concrete floor witha slope of 4.3 cm per meter directed animal wastes away from both sides of a 0.9 m alleyway located between two rows of eight pens each. The unit was oriented lengthwise in an east-west direction and was covered by a galvanized tin roof. Each pen was 2.4 m deep x 2.1 m wide, providing 5 sq m per pig with 5 pigs per pen. One hog nipple waterer per pen allowed for an ad Zibitum supply of water. A single 1.2 m long wooden self-feeder per pen allowed for ad Zibitum feeding (see Figure 12). .Qeoa.l 33 Figure 7.--Broiler Housing Unit. Figure 8.--Layer Housing Units. /. . boa..nm I RV m . u | .11.. ...:N....AI.:? N13412:? N115- spa-Jain: 59.53 I 34 .copa Loop; awe: mcpmso: gm_poamiu.m ma:m_a 1111:3311! 3m; 23.. ..n ENE Lo _ .. .................................................. I. .... e. . . EN. 5552. . - - . _ n a I a - a . . - a . a I u . . I a - u 4 . . “ o_o o—o Odo o_o 0—0 0—0 0—0 omo o—o Odo .Etm _ _ . n + u . sea .23 “ ><3>uj< ea. c. u .263 . . Eng. . . u u _ ......m. . . . . “a m _ . .EN.. “ L k. k 2:: :80. J E. n I 3.3m 9.2.55 Box a ...... been 225% can. o. .25 n T m m be a 50.50% .... O n . _/.\IIT 1111111 1m IIIIIIII . . 8. EV. Ni :25: 333 n III) tea. .....TEv ~11? c. «1:11 u E (ill N a ,I x‘ II V M 4‘ ,\ :i Q Q N t I . ...- . r 5 Th 1. I a ’ fl.’ 34 .ceE Loo: fizz 9.5.6: awZo.£--.m aha: lllcm<3>u44< 383 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 2:: Eu 0. E. n T11. ”zoom 9.3525 .03. ... IIIIII E ..... r... I /\\ a . E¢.~wa15v.~ial5v_~.|1 con. 2 Eco n V cannon. n O :25... 333 « T" . . u n tum.- 35 E. n It 6.3m moxom .aoz u BH—U 9.2.3.5 .3: :on. o. .63 ’i‘ Eocene ll 0 none...» .203 .1151... . 2:: .59 m fifimeo m. III- E . .»mui.¢F mgamwm 5.310100). Z.0mw - 55 1.... m5. 1 m4m> zmoo 2&1? OOEwm mmmm<402 EDIomOm 22mm moz.zm...0n_ Qz< zom 0.40 «N .O innd reed (bx/sen) sanisoaas :10 1.300 ’4' ir::.C€~ li‘a ( Li; Ltd . n 3 Cast 0. 56 produced. There was a demand for all of the MBM produced, therefore, stor- age space was not a problem for this by-product. Figure 14 shows that, over the three-year period, the price of corn had a large fluctuation, depending on its availability. Grain sorghum prices paralled those of corn and were generally lower. The price of sorghum rose rapidly when corn was not available. Rice bran and polishings and wheat millrun did not vary in price, over the three-year period, except for a slight increase in the price of wheat millrun. The price of meat-and-bone meal was constant, with only a slight rise, whereas, imported soybean meal prices had considerable variation, depending on the market prices in the United States. Molasses remained at a constant, low price. Cost of Imported Feedstuffs The cost per unit of nutrient had a basic effect on the economics of production. The most important parameters were the cost per unit of protein and the cost per unit of limiting essential amino acid. For example, the level of lysine was a limiting nutrient in the swine diets tested. Synthe- tic L-lysine monohydrochloride cost US $4.71 per kg and contained 78% L- 33 lysine per kg, which amounted to US $6.03 per kg actual L-lysine. Soybean meal, on the other hand, cost US $0.40 per kg and contained 2.8% lysine per 34 When the reduc- kg, which amounted to US $14.28 per kg of actual lysine. tion in transportation cost and storage space required per unit of lysine were considered, and also the more uniform quality of the lysine, the advan- tages of the crystalline amino acid became readily apparent. 3354.71 per 0.78 kg lysine = $6.02 per kg. 34$0.40 per 0.028 kg lysine = $14.28 per kg. 57 Diet Formulation Swine Diets for Swine Trial 1 were formulated to meet the minimum dietary requirements for essential amino acids (especially lysine), phosphorus and calcium. Diets were formulated to compare the performance of pigs fed the local MBM in place of SBM as the protein supplement. Diets used in Swine Trial 2 treatments were formulated with wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings with a synthetic lysine source to improve the amino acid balance. Diets were formulated to meet the minimum dietary requirements for tryptophan and lysine, which are the first and second limiting amino acids, respectively, for a growing-finishing pig fed a diet based on MBM as the protein supplement. Swine Trial 3 included blood meal as an alternative to SBM, and synthetic lysine as a supplementary source of lysine to the MBM. Broiler Broiler Trial 1 was designed to compare a wide range of combinations of the feedstuffs available. In addition, the stepwise replacement of MBM for SBM was compared. Broiler Trial 2 was designed to compare low versus high levels of MBM with low or high levels of SBM to determine whether lower mineral levels, as a result of the decreased MBM levels, would compensate for the sub-optimal protein levels. This was of interest because it was felt that the high mineral contents of the MBM may be detrimental to animal performance. Sub- sequent trials were designed to compare low levels of MBM with different combinations of by-product feedstuffs and synthetic amino acid supplementation. 5::0r‘dirg atric a: tie grace 1975). R in: bags sales in seat pct %Bfng a \ :,m§ “rdDCe Fiare c .15.“; . 58 All diets were formulated on a least-cost basis to meet the dietary require- ments of the swine or poultry. Laboratory Analytical Methods of Feedstuffs and Diets Proximate fractions were determined for feedstuffs and mixed diets according to AOAC (1975) methods. Calcium and phosphorus analysis involved atomic absorption or spectrophotometric methods, respectively, according to the procedures of the MSU feeds analysis laboratory (Schoepke and Covert, 1975). Representative portions of mixed feed samples were taken randomly from bags of feedstuffs from each shipment and from the mixed diets. Feed samples were also obtained from the animal feeders. Fresh feeds (cassava, sweet potato and cohune nut kernels) were sampled as they were prepared for feeding and the samples were stored at -5°C for the duration of the feed trial. The individual samples for each ingredient were combined before the analysis was performed. An analysis of feedstuffs is presented in Appendix II. Statistical Analysis of Feeding Trials The nutritional composition of feedstuffs was determined by labora- tory analysis. Nutritional value was determined by the growth performance and feed conversion efficiencies of the swine and poultry. Feed cost per unit of gain was the indicator used to compare the economics of animal per- formance on local versus imported feeds. Treatment effects were analyzed to compare average daily gain, average daily feed consumption, feed conversion efficiency and cost per unit of gain. The swine trials, with equal numbers of animals per pen, were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with the two factors being diet and weight blocks. A FORTRAN program with \ vii“ Q fl-34 '9‘": 03?“, I':!¥ 59 an SPSS package was used in the Cyber 750 Computer at MSU for analysis of the data (see Appendix V). Significance of treatment means was determined using Tukey's HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) test for all pair-wise comparisons of means (Gill, 1978). Broiler studies were analyzed by Least Squares methods (Gill, 1978) to determine the effects of treatment, sex and location (east versus west). (The location effect was isolated because of interest in the east-west location differences in feed consumption rates and final weights.) Broiler trials were analyzed on an unequal numbers basis. Signifi- cances among treatment means and sex or location were determined using Bonferroni's.t-test(Gill, 1978) for specified non-orthogonal contrasts and Tukey's HSD test for all pair-wise comparisons of means. Death losses which occurred during the trials were handled as missing values. Feed consumption was determined for the number of bird-days that had accumulated until the nearest two-week weigh period. Procedures Used in Feeding Trials Swine and poultry were weighed every two weeks and the feed weigh- back was recorded at that time. Animals were allowed access to feed and water at all times. During weigh periods, fecal samples were collected and later checked for parasites. Pigs were wormed on a monthly basis,35 while broilers were wormed at one month of age, if the fecal samples indicated 36 heavy worm burdens. A coccidiostat was added to broiler starter diets 35Pigs were wormed with Atgard pig wormer pellets mixed into the feed. 36The coccidiostat used was Amprolium, produced by Merck and Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, or Coban (monensin sodium, equivalent to 242 grams monensic acid activity/kg Coban), prepared by ELANCO Products Co., Indianapolis, Indiana. leaning showed bezaase lilcrtt 60 (the first 6 weeks), but was removed during the finisher period. (No coc- cidiostat was used in the first broiler trial.) No antibiotics or other feed additives were used in the swine or poultry diets. Swine Trials Swine grower and finisher studies were conducted with F1 or F2 off- spring of purebred Ouroc, Large White, Hampshire and Spotted Poland China parental stock that were imported from the United States. The breeds were crossed to produce F1 offspring for Swine Trials 1 and 2, which were crossed to a third breed to produce the F2 offspring for Swine Trial 3. Purebred offspring were used when the numbers of crossbreds were not sufficient for balanced replicates. Pigs at Central Farm were weaned at 8 weeks of age, since a 6-week weaning age was not suited for the management levels in Belize. Piglets showed improved gains when left with the sow for the additional two weeks, because good quality creep and starter feeds were not available or were imported and, therefore, not economical to use. The breeding schedule of sows was planned to have farrowings occur within a two-week period to provide a sufficient number of pigs for each study. In some cases, this two-week limit was exceeded by a few days. Male piglets were castrated at two weeks of age. Each pig was weighed after it was weaned and separate lists were made of barrows and gilts, according to increasing weight, from the lightest to the heaviest pig. This list was divided at the median to provide a light and heavy group of pigs. The pigs in each group (light and heavy barrows and light and heavy gilts), were alloted in a stratified randomization experimen- tal design to form an equal number of light and heavy replicates with an £.al ra acyrer figs wer :Tlesen result ire-eter an all- 10 m g'r T’0? the Tatle g CEEtra] E’ton. 61 equal ratio of barrows to gilts in each group. All groups of pigs were fed a comnercially prepared feed37 during an adjustment period of 7 to 10 days. Pigs were put on feeding trials at 10 weeks of aget Pigs were weighed bi- monthly from 8 a.m. to 12 noon using a mobile hog scale.38 They had access to feed and water up to the time of weighing. Animals from the first two trials were slaughtered at the meat packing plant in Belize City and carcass information was obtained. Pigs from Swine Trial 3 had to be slaughtered at a local market over a five-week period due to difficulties at the meat packing plant; therefore, carcass information was not obtained on this group. Broiler Trials Chicks for the trials were obtained on the day of hatching from the 39 Broilers were a Friesen Hatchery at Spanish Lookout in Cayo District. result of the Hubbard Breeder Pullet mated with the Hubbard White Mountain Breeder Cockerel, producing the autosexing Hubbard Broiler. This bird was an all-white broiler, which was claimed to be an efficient converter of feed to high quality broiler meat (Hubbard Farms, 1978). Average performance data for these birds, as detennined by Hubbard Farms (1978) are presented in Table 9. The birds were debeaked by the hatchery and were delivered to Central Farm in cardboard chick cartons with approximately 100 chicks per carton. The cartons with chicks were weighed upon receiving them, chicks 37Prepared by Reimer's Feed Mill in Spanish Lookout, Cayo. The feed consisted of imported Ralston Purina 40% Concentrate mixed with locally- grown grains. 38The scale had a 0.45 kg sensitivity. Purchased from Wadler Mfg. Co., Galena, Kansas. 39This hatchery imported eggs from CWT Farms, International, Gainesville, Georgia. .‘l . p\.v A. a HI. .s , \ TJ A" WE‘ F E: C. 62 TABLE 9.--Hubbard Broiler Performance Standards.a Feed Conversion Average Efficiency Age Weight (Cumulative) (Weeks) (Grams) (Feed/Gain) 6 1355 1.73 8 2010 2.14 aAverages of straight-run (males and females mixed). Hubbard, 1977. were counted and randomly allocated to pens, and the empty cartons were re- weighed. The difference in weight between the empty carton and carton with chicks, divided by the total number of chicks per carton, gave the average initial weight per chick for each trial. (Broilers were a mixture of cockerels and pullets. No attempt was made to sex them until the six or eight-week weigh period, at which time a note was made next to the bird‘s weight whether it was a male or female.) One hundred chicks were brooded in each of ten west-side pens. Brooders consisted of a 46 cm high metal circular enclosure and a metal J hanging square hover, which contained a 40-watt light bulb. Plastic water founts were used to provide drinking water, and feed was placed on cardboard egg trays for the first few days, after which time small feed troughs were used. Chicks were vaccinated at 2 days of age against fowl pox (except for the chicks in Trials 1 and 2). Brooders were removed by 7 to 10 days of age, depending on the weather conditions. At 2 weeks of age, the birds were weighed in groups of 25, and an overall average weight per bird was calcu- 1ated. Each pen of 100 birds was divided into two replicates, with half of were :ar cess dre Passed 63 the birds remaining in the original pen on the west side and half randomly assigned to an east-side pen. Birds were wing-banded at 2 weeks of age and individual weights were obtained for each bird at four, six and eight weeks of age. Weighing took place from 6:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon. Starter diets were fed for the first 6 weeks and finisher diets for the last 2 weeks (except for certain trials, which compared the effects of changing from starter to finisher at an earlier time). Birds had access to feed until the time they were weighed. They were marketed on the morning following the eight-week weigh period and car- 40 cass dressed weights were obtained during that morning on a random sample. Dressed weight included the carcass plus feet, liver, heart and gizzard. Layer Trials Harco sex-link, layer birds, produced by Arbor Acres Farm, Inc., in Glastonbury, Connecticut, were used in layer studies. The birds were brown feathered and produced brown eggs, and were developed to produce a large number of commercial eggs efficiently through consistent high rate of lay, efficient feed conversion, strong livability, premium egg size and out- standing shell quality (Arbor Acres, 1978). These were the desired charac- teristics of an economical laying-type hen. 40Dressed weights were obtained at the Millers' slaughtering facility in Red Creek, Cayo. A Single Dial Autopsy Scale SS was used (10 gm sensiti- vity). Scientific Products, Romulus, Michigan. Samples of lO-ZO birds per group were determined to be sufficient. III. DESCRIPTION OF SWINE AND POULTRY FEEDING TRIALS Swine Trials--Review of Literature Meat-and-bone meal is a protein supplement of variable nutritional value due to the variation in composition (Sathe et aZ., 1964; Beames and .Sewell, 1969; Meade, 1975) and/or methods of processing (Atkinson and Carpenter, 1970; Conrad, 1974; Gohl, 1975). Gohl (1975) defined MBM as having greater than 4.4% phOSphorus and a crude protein content less than 55%. Reduced growth and feed efficiencies of swine have been demonstrated when MBM was used as the only supplemental protein source in corn or grain sorghum-based diets (Pea and Hudman, 1962; Atkinson and Carpenter, 1970; Lynch et al., 1970). Decreased performance of the animals was attributed to the poor protein quality of the meal (Todd and Daniels, 1965; Wilson and Holder, 1967), which was particularly limiting in tryptophan (Bloss et al., 1953; Henson et aZ., 1954). Tanksley and Baker (1977) attributed the reduced palatability of MBM-supplemented diets to the high mineral level of the MBM, which they concluded caused a decrease in feed consumption and body weight gains. They also mentioned that MBM was limiting in both tryptophan and lysine. Babatunde et al. (1975) observed depressed body weight gains, feed consumption and feed conversion efficiencies of growing-finishing pigs fed indigenous sources of MBM in the tropics. Eckert and Allee (1974) and Cohen and Tanksley (1976) determined that lysine and threonine were the first and second limiting amino acids, respectively, in the protein of grain sorghum for the growing pig, while 64 SCiEu‘Cl-‘e lay-file, tn Lantlties Snare-d ‘ xlfshl n; a: .22., l at ‘eed and Lunar. 1:7“ "’1: W 5;" t. .00).], l and WW SOLTCES F FlSine 65 isoleucine was possibley third limiting. Copelin et a2. (1978) determined lysine, threonine and tryptophan to be the first three limiting amino acids in a grain sorghum-SBM diet. Wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings are available in large quantities in Belize at a cost equal to or less than corn or grain sorghum. Compared to these grains, the analysis of wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings showed higher levels of tryptophan and lysine (NRC, 1973; Miller et aZ., 1975). These by-products have produced favorable body weight gains and feed conversion efficiencies in swine (Thrasher et al., 1965; Brooks and Lumanta, 1975; Campabadel et al., 1976; Erickson et aZ., 1977). Campabadel et a1. (1976) observed an inflammation and ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract and loose faeces in growing pigs fed a 30% rice bran level in the diet, but growth of the pigs was not affected. Blood meal was found to be an important source of essential amino acids, particularly lysine (Squibb and Braham, 1976; Wahlstrom and Libal, 1977), when prepared by new methods of drying blood at a lower temperature (Doty, 1973). Blood mea1 could be used to extend the limited supply of MBM and provide an alternative source of protein to replace imported protein sources such as SBM., Flash ring dried blood meal used in swine studies had a lysine availability of 70% for the growing pig (Miller et aZ., 1976a) and a conservative value of 7.0% was suggested for the lysine content of this product (Miller et al., 1976b). Wahlstrom and Libal (1977) recommended that not more than 2 to 3% of dried blood meal should be used in swine grower- finisher diets. Blood meal combined with synthetic lysine and rice bran and polishings or wheat millrun may serve to reduce the deficiencies of tryptophan and lysine that occur when MBM is used as the main protein sup- plement in corn-based diets. 1308 0 . a" b :17}: UC . I nu 0.1-r." .1 y .l I Fflh‘ q wil- d Teal i) Piliei! C‘ier l 66 Swine Trial 1 The objectives of Swine Trial 1 were to evaluate the nutritional value of local MBM as a protein supplement in swine grower-finisher diets and to determine the maximum level that could be substituted for SBM in fortified corn and/or grain sorghum-based diets in order to decrease the cost per unit of gain. To one diet, which contained 100% MBM as the protein source, zinc sulfate was added to prevent a possible zinc deficiency due to high mineral levels present in the MBM. Analytical values used for the calculation of diets are given in Table 10. Sixty purebred or single-cross pigs of Ouroc, Large White or Hamp- shire breed, averaging 12.1 kg, were randomly assigned to 12 lots of 5 pigs each. The control diet consisted of yellow dent corn and imported soybean meal in pr0portions which provided a calculated level of 16% or 12% crude protein in the grower and finisher diets, respectively (Tables 11 and 12). Other nutrient concentrations met NRC (1973) requirements for 15 kg or 65 kg pigs for the grower or finisher diets, respectively. MBM was incor- porated into this diet, replacing SBM in 50% increments, to make diets in which the protein source was 0, 50, or 100% MBM (Tables 11 and 12). Also, grain sorghum was incorporated into the control diet, replacing corn in 50% increments, to make diets in which the energy source was 0, 50, or 100% grain sorghum at the 50% MBM level. The 16-week trial was conducted from July 13 to November 2, 1977.4‘ 4FSubtropical, humid climate. Mean daily maximum temperature = 31.4°C; mean daily minimum temperature = 21.6°C; mean daily relative humidity = 83.2%; average maximum and 74.6% average minimum for the period of this study (July through November) (Jenkin et al., 1976). 67 .a\_ao¥ moo.~ - Aaoaeuxo eoeoa N~.m_ x »o_.aapumoa.e Rom x gee a\_aox a.mv + Aeaoeoca Na._m x so___e_amoa_e Roe x ewoaoea m\_aox mo.mv ”cowum—zupmu mcwzop_o$ mzu he woumsmumm mzpm> w .m\~aox omo.m - Aeoaeoxo coeoo Ra.m x »u_.aa_»mompe Rom x an» mx\_aox a.mv + Aewoooea em.mm u:o_pmpaupmu mcpzoppom use »a cmumeumm mapm>m x se___aaamam_a Roe x eaoaoca a\paox me.mv mg» co Ppm com =m>wm mam mmuwsg wsmon so was; .ngogamoca n a mazpupmu n no "cameos; ovagu n no .m~ppmm cw .—”N a m: op « "cuppa: xga so umuzuoea so czoem mmezumummw .mqu .mwmapmcm PMUVEwsu u .mucmwvmemcp cmugoqe_ m~wpmm we o_ums mmcmguxmu a .cuggouaasg u ask mmcpwumau n who mmcwcowzpme u um: mm:_mz n m»; “magma“ wpn_ummm_o n we .mump ..Ne em Lo_p_z sage umcpauao mm=_m>m m¢.o -- -- -- -- ..... --- -- -- xpemca .uemcwa munch mo.o -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- stacq evacuw> m_.o -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- u—mm we.o -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- ucmsopaazm _m_ugmesou m~.o ---- ---- ---- oo.m_ oo.Nm ---- ---- ---- ooaeamoea umum:_eo:_$mo __.o -- -- -- ---- oo.~m --- -- --- eoeoumoeas -.o ;o_.o :xm.o gmm.~ Pm.m ~o.e_ ~._m m.mm mmmcm Fame mcom N~.o mo~.o mo~.o meo.~ me.m m~.__ ~.mm m.m¢ mmmow .owe a: -v:a-uomz oe.o mo.o cm._ om.~ oo.o m~.o a.me a.mm momm pcw>_om .Poms camaxom _—.c mo.o mm.o o~.o om.o No.o o.o_ m.mw N_¢m ccwmcm .Eagmsom m_.o No.o mm.o mm.o m~.o No.0 o.m “.mw mmmm uzopyox .ccou -------- ----Am_mmm com m pmcowupcuaz up powgh chZm-.o— mamm AumzcwucouV-.op m4m_e:e eeuepee_eu mme.o .............. ------- ..... - ----- eemeN m.e m.e m.e m.e m.o ---- xVEoea .acoeae ooeee m.e m.e m.e m.e m.e ..... ax_eaea ewe88_> m.o m.o m.e m.o m.e ..... o_am -------------- ---- ---- N.o --- eu Nun .cws .eceumes_4 ---------------------------- m.~ --- Fees ecem e.e~ N.__ ~._P ~.~P ------- ---- mum-ae-m _aoe oeoa-e:a-eaoz ....... m... m.PP m._P e..~ --- ace-ee-m eeo>_om ..eoe eaoesom --------------------- ---- ---- o.m~ enceEepeeem —e_eeeeseu ....... e.e~ e.em ------- ----- --- eee-ee-e cameo .e=emcom a.ma ....... o.em e.e~ P.em e.e~ mmm-me-e :o__o» .ecoe ee_ em em on e cease: coma eeoaeoemee —e=e_»e:eeuem weesepeezm emeueee Pegeh we 2m: «geese; e, m. a. mp N. 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Aeo=e_eeoev-.m_ eemwueeemec .ewueg Numnm e cw mmcwpeews ecu mueesm .ceee wees: we eeeuxwz .Aumee ea eeeee eeecee>e ecv mp epeew cw mumee uceweeemcw we mwmee map so eecwsgeueo .e—assew steee sew .Fp e—eew .eee euecueew eem w .meewuew>eeeee we cewpeeepexe Lew .pp e—eew .eee euecueew meme e .eF=ELew xweeee Lew .pF epeew .eee euecueew meme e .x_e>wueeemec .ewuee mnmnm e cw mmcwzmwpee ezu ece ence we eeeuxwze am.eF oa.e_ mm.e_ -.e_ ee.m_ was eo_\a m: .emoe e~.e -.e me.e me.e .N.e & .a me.e me.e me.o ma.e em.e & .ae m_.o m_.o N_.e m_.e m_.e a .acw Ne.e me.o ee.e me.o em.e & .mxe + ea: .N. mw.e ew.e m~.e -.e N .mxe e.e_ o.e_ ~.e_ ~.e_ e.e_ x .ae «Nam NNNM mamm memm Pmmm mx\_eox .ee eumwmxwece vane—:eFeu m.e m.e m.e m.e m.e eXPEoea .aeaewe ooaew m.e e.e m.o m.e m.e owaoea e_Eae_> m.e m.e m.e m.e m.e 8.8m _.e N.e ~.o ~.e ------- A_e= oewmxe-e Name oe_mse m.m m.m e.e. m..P N.._ «mm-ae-m .aoe mesa-eea-eaoz e.m ~._ m.m ------- m... ace-ee-m eeo>_om ..aoe anaesom ....... e.e~ ------- e.o~ ------- ee~-me-e aesc.__e eaoez e.e~ ....... ---- ----- - ------- nee-me-e ameewemw_oa eea ence oowa m.me «.me e.me e.ee e.ew mmm-Ne-e gazea .eeoe RN em eN mm .N consaz eooa eeoweocee_ pecewuezgepeH smaszz umwo .muewo cezeew we :ewuwmeeseu ”m pewew ecwzm-.v— memeceee we :ewuecepexe cew ..p eweew .eee euecueew meme .e_=ELew stece cew .P— eweew .eee eueeueew meme .a_;Ecow x.Eoca cow ... o_aaw ..e. oeoeeoow oomo .eoweaccomoe cow .e. owaaw ..e: oeoeeoow ooma .eoweawcomoe cow .e. o_aaw ..e. oeoeeoow ooma 77 me.~, ~m.m_ cN.mp mm.m_ em.e. wee ee_\w m: .cmoe ec.e ee.e «c.e ee.e me.e a .a me.e ee.e me.e mm.e me.e a .ae Np.e mp.e ~_.e mp.e e_.e a .acw .m.e mm.e mm.e ~m.e em.o N .mse + co: em.e em.e mm.e mm.e em.e & .mxe a.m. e.m_ e.¢_ c.N_ e.m_ N .ae mmmm -_m em_m emwm mmwm ec\_aox .mo eumwmxpeee eeuepeepeu m.e m.e m.e m.e m.e ex_Eoca .acoewe ooacw me me me me me oxzeca fies; 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NNm-oe-m woos econiucm-umez o.om o.m~ o.e~ e.em a.mm o.o~ meo-me-e omoowemwwoo “Em ..an mu; o.om m.mo m.we me.oo me.oe me.ee mmm-Ne-e zo__o» .ocoe om mm em em me om cooEoz ooow eoowoocoow —mco:mcwmucm mmcwgmwpee ece cecm eewm weeecee ooeo< oowmae-e oz oewmw4-e wee.e em mm em mm mm _m cooEoz oowo .muewo cezmwcww we :ewuwmeeeeu ”m —ewwh ecwzm-.mp m4me eev mp epeew cw memee uceweecmcw we mwmee ezu :e eecwscepeoe .mcewaew>eceee we :ewueeepexe cew .w. epeew .eee .owoecow xweoco cow ... owoow ..o. .owoecow xweoco cow ... owoow ..o. .oowoowcomoo cow .o. owoow ..o. euecaeew eeme eaeceeew eeme euecueew eeme euecueew eeme Aeezcwucoov-.wp mem eeumwev x mwmAMec< weewsegu cw :weuece a .eewuepeepee mcwzeppew Eecw ee>wcee meepe>m .Nwow .oowoocooow .ooowooz .ocowwwzw .erwem cw eeeeeece ce execm mwweameeew weeeee .mueeweecmew eeuceesw es“ we wwe cew :e>wm ece meewce eceee ce eecw .wnm n a m: e» a erwem we ewuec emcezexme .cegeeuexcw n ecw mecweumau - emu mecweewguez u we: meewmAA n ma; .neeuec emwzcecue wee—cev asap .umze .mecesemese u e ”Sewe—eu n ma meweuece eeecu u no ”ceuuez Ago u so .mwmapece weewsegue .cheem eweerweeeuez u m: .Aeeue: emwzcegue mmeweev sump .uzze me.o -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- stece wececwe eeecw mm.o -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xweece :wEeuw> m..o -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- upem mm.o w~.o oe.o mw.o em~.o ewe.p a.m. m.om cwmw wees ewweww< oo.o -- -- -- emo.o emm.o em.~ ew.mw com. ememmepez -.o mo~.o mow.o meo.~ me.m m_.p_ «.mm m.mm comp ewees econ-eeo-ueez oe.o No.o o¢._ mm.~ om.o m~.o o.m¢ e.mm ommm wees :eeeAem m_.o mo.o ce.o ¢~.o mm.o No.0 0.x w.mm omen ezewpe» .eceu p_.o mo.o om.o om.o om.o ~o.o o.ow m.mm owmm ecwecm .segmcem __.o mw.o cm.o mm.o wm._ mo.o e.—w m.mw comm emmewsmwwee ece cece eewm m_.o wc~.o om.o wme.o mm.o ow.o m.m~ m.wm wmwew eeecwpws wees: --------------- Amwmem eew m _m:owuwgu=2 ”w wwwww gmwwogm-.m~ mqmqg 8E3 ' .mce..e.>ecega .eg.e .e :e..e=e.exe we. ... e.ge. .eee euecaee. eem 633.2... a.m..ie e... .. .9. 823.3 .e :3 ewes-.35 3.333 ..e 2......- ee.c.. emcee-5.. a ewe. .e.e..e..-..ee e... co. 5...... :3 .m. e33 ... 5:... 3.5.3.6... we 33.... .8... 3.2.5.3 we: 8.-.. 32... 3e... .eeee....ce..xe .e .38.. ...o.aeoo. a... .o eo..o.coaae co. ... ...o.aeoo. a... .o =o..o.coaoo co. ... 6.2:... 5.5-... ...e. ... 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E39 .m.an..e>m m.m>.o=a oz: ..mou .o =c..~.:u.nu .0. .9w c.3ap .:9= o.ac.co. woma .mcc..a.>u.aao sugac .o co.uccu..xm so. ... o.aop ..e: u.o:aoc. com .xosog. m.a-..oamamz u .2. .c.:§so. x—sasa .5. ... u.:c. .=u: muccuoo. ammo .n.:§go. x.lu.a La. ... 0.3a. .zas vaccacc. cum 9 ...=.maoa. m... .9 =c.....umue .o. ... a.... .... m.o:.oo. owmu ...=.muoo. a... .c :c.....um~u .a. ... «.... .... ~.o=.cc. gym a ..N..on .9... ..ae.oa. gm.=..m ....2 com. m..gu.uz .. somegu.=. 75:933. 5...... ...... .8285 ...-3.9.9 3...... c325. .o 95...... < £9.25. .8398 no. 3.053.. vow. 3.9.2.25”... 9~.9. 9~.9— 99.9— «9.9— 9m.n. 99.9. 9—.m— ~9.m— m—.9 v—.9 n..9 o—.9 ~—.9 9—.9 ~—.9 ...9 9v.9 9n.9 on.9 sm.9 mn.9 no.9 9n.9 «v.9 99.9 ~9.9 99.9 —~.9 95.9 9~.9 sm.9 99.9 N9.- —9.— 9n.— 99.— a... ~9.— 99.— .m.— 99.~ 99.~ 99.. ~n.~ 99.~ ~9.~ nn.— 99.~ n.9— p.m— 9.9p n.9— «.9— n.9— 9... 9.9. 9.9m Ncnw «mmm sovN 9n9~ no- n—ew 9~m~ 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 m.9 m.9 9.9 9.9 m.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 m.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 ---- 9.9— 9.9— 9.9— ---- 9.9— 9.9. 9.9— 9.. 9.. 9.. 9.. 9.v 9.. 9.. 9.. 9.9~ 9.m~ 9.n— 9.9— 9.—~ 9.- 9.9— 9.9— moc” "DIII- Illllll III'I'I U'I'Il| IIIII II IIIUUII III|II' ------ - 9.- 9.9m 9.mm 9... m.~m m.ov n.9n ---- m.~n m.~m m.~m m.~n ---- ---- - uuuuu - 9.9m ---- ...... - ---- - ----- 9.9m 9.9m 9.9m 9— 9— N— 9— m. o. n. ~— 509532 00.9 IIYN-I ‘- l' ”9|.-A' ...-.5-“- l‘}!‘!'l“‘n%- 5! m: .um99 c9.n. om..~ ea. 99..“ 2... ..---- . ...... «v.9 ;-- u .mau + .m: s... ..---- x .3 .... .---- a .. c=.~ ---- . ... n... so... . ... 99m~ g-- 9.x.aux .9: ..m.ma.acu econ—:u.o. m.9 -- ox.t .ago:.s wuu.. m.9 -- ex.a c.5e..> m.9 -- u.am ---- -- awe-99-. .aas n..o..< 9.. ...III gOIgl' wmwmQ—g 9.9. -- NNn-mc-m .noa v:aa-e=-.am: ----- ---- mag-No-e :e..o. .=.°u a.me -- man-vo-o sagascm a.m.c ------- ---- Hem-mo-. umag..m..o. ecu cc.a ou.¢ 9.9m -- cam-mc-e A.,....-....... aces: .. a9. .wceaz ewo. .cm.eu.a=. - I O ': 0"-iilll‘! III .ll .I 'ID I. .occ..n=.mu=. .339 52.39.... .9 993.3939 M. .3... .5389}. .N 9.95 90 Due to a delayed arrival of the imported ingredient supplies, the experimental starter diets were fed for only the first two weeks of age. From two to six weeks of age, all of the groups of birds were fed the com- mercial feed (Diet l0). The ten experimental finisher diets were then fed from six to eights weeks of age. Body weights were recorded at two, six and eights weeks of age. The eight-week trial was conducted from May l6 to July ll, 1977.44 Four non-orthogonal contrasts were used to compare diets containing [1] alfalfa meal versus those with no alfalfa meal; [2] rice bran and polishings versus wheat millrun; [3] corn versus grain sorghum; and [4] SBM versus no SBM (or low versus high level of MBM in the case of the finisher diets). Broiler Trial 2 This trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of including high versus low levels of MBM in the diet, which provided high or low mineral and protein levels, in combination with SBM and corn or grain sorghum in broiler starter and finisher diets. A low level of alfalfa meal was included in the diets. Two different commercial feeds were used as comparative control diets. Analytical values used for calculation of the diets are given in Table 22. Nine-hundred-and-ninety-six newly-hatched broiler chicks with an average weight of 39 grams were alloted to pens according to the methods described on page 6l. 44Subtropical, humid climate. The warm,rainy season prevailed for the period of this study, with mean daily maximum temperature = 32.6°C; mean daily minimum temperature = 2l.6°C; mean daily relative humidity maximum and minimum were 79.l% and 7l.0%, respectively (Jenkin et aZ., 1976). 9l .xem.~ u N99.~ x mmmmw "mcwma. .manmxo co. ..mocogommm Axum—V omz c. v.o< o=_E< Lo. o:.w> mocmem.mm ~..m.. 0.2 c. =.a.o.... . team... x m.m».m:< .mo.sw;u c. =.ouo.m u .co.um.=o.mo 9:.3o—.o. on. 55.. uo>..wu mm=.m> m .m~..om c. cooauoga .o :3o.m m..=pmowm. .moo.m .mucw_om.m:. vmugoae. oz. .o ..m .0. =m>_m oca moo... acme; :o omc. .."N u a m: o. . o~..om .o 0.9m. omcmsoxmu .cmsaOHQALP u a.» .m:.muma9 mxu mocmcomsuoz n no: .wcwmz. u m». .Auouoc omngmguo www.cav mum. .umzo .mzeozamoga u m .E:.u.m9 u no .cwouocm mango u .9 ..oppoz 9.9 u :9 .m.m>.m=m .ao.Eocon ..mtmcm a...~..o.m.mz - .2 ...¢. .Umzm m¢.9 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xpeoga .mcocwe munch 99.9 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- x.so.q :.Emu.> m..o ---- ---- ---- ---- -- -- -- -- ..mm 90.0 -- -- -- umo.o umm.o um.~ o..m. com. mmwmmm.oz mm.c m~.o oc.o m..o omm.o 0.... o... ..om a.m. .mms m..~..< N~.o .-.o ..m.o .em.~ oo.¢ oo.m a.m. a.mm a.m. m.~ms «eon-ocm-oaoz o¢.o No.o o... mm.~ om.o m~.o o... ..mm ommm .aas camaxom ...o mo.o om.o o~.o om.o No.o o.o. m.mm a.mm «a.m.. .E=ga.om m..o mo.o oe.o e~.o m~.o ~o.o o.m ..mm omen m:o..m. .ccou --------------- .m.m~m um. m<. .--------------- .. m2. ... m.u+ a». e no .0 so .m.\.au.. o:m.um.m=. um.\omou 0 com: o a a a a mu: .m.¢.a .o =o..m.=a.o. c. new: mpcm.uo.m:. .0 a.mou can mm=.a> .mco.....=z ”N .m... .m..o.m--.- m.m<. 92 The basal diet consisted of yellow corn, SBM and MBM in proportions which provided a calculated level of 20.9 or l8.0% crude protein in the starter and finisher diets, respectively (Tables 23 and 24, Diet 21). The SBM and MBM were present in equal levels, while other feedstuff levels varied. Meat-and-bone meal was incorporated into this diet at higher and lower levels, either replacing one-third of the SBM, or being replaced by one-third with grain, while the SBM level remained constant. The purpose of these formula- tions was to determine the effects of mineral levels contributed by the MBM on bird performance. These diets compared either high or low mineral levels at both high and low protein levels. A fourth diet replaced one-third of the SBM with corn, while the MBM level remained nearly constant. Four diets repeated this series, replacing the corn completely with grain sorghum, while maintaining protein and mineral levels similar to the levels in the corn diets. The eight-week trial was conducted from July 18 to September l2, 1977.45 Three designed non-orthogonal contrasts were used to compare per- formance and birds fed corn versus grain sorghum-based diets, high versus low local protein supplement (MBM) levels, and high versus low SBM levels. 45 . . . . Subtropical, humid env1ronment. The warm, rainy season prevailed for the period of this study, with mean daily maximum and minimum tempera- tures being 3l.5°C and 21.8°C, respectively, and mean daily maximum and minimum relative humidity being 83.2 and 76.0%, respectively (Jenkin et aZ., 976 . mama: .NN up...» .3 :03 6.532.523: .55: ... 3:32:98 ...: ... 0...». ...... 3:58.. vow .335 02.82330: u u: r .032 .26 a.m...ucn ...... .u 8.39.” .... .....3 v3.9.2... ecu-:23 ..o 2.....- ou..& 329...... u mayo. 3.8038: 0.... ...: co»... — no v.03... .3... taco—3.3 9.0: 28-5 30:: 30:. .3537350 ... 3859 3:27.... 8...... .88 £8.23 5......» ...... :8. .12.... .. 83.9.... ... 23...... :88 . ...... .85.: ......E: 2...... 8...... ... 33...... < 8...... .25 3.5.8. 5.5.... ...... ...». reunite. 2 33.8.... ... 9339.... 395.888 mu. ...—.2: 3.3.2 ... 9.3:... < ...“... 53.3... .3295 an... 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(l953) showed that the amino acid profile of MBM in combination with SBM was superior to that of MBM alone. Also, it has been noted that the mineral and energy levels of MBM plus SBM were more favorable than those of SBM alone (Meade, l975), since the MBM contained a greater amount of energy than the SBM, while the SBM contained lower levels of calcium and phosphorus. Based on the inferior amino acid profile of MBM (Meade, l975), pig performance might be expected to decrease as the dietary level of MBM is increased. Many studies have found that the complete replacement of SBM with MBM resulted in depressed body weight gains in animals (Peo and Hudson, l962; Beames and Sewell, l970; Meade, 1975). 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A comparison of all paired means using Tukey's test showed that the commercial feed (Diet l0) sustained an increase in body weight gains (P < 0.0l) compared to any of the experimental diets in the starter period, except for Diet ll, which contained the lowest level of MBM and no alfalfa meal, and Diet 19, which was similar to Diet ll, but contained corn in place of grain sorghum. Body weight gains of birds fed the commercial feed were greater (P < 0.05) than body weight gains of those fed any of the other diets, except Diet l9, which contained a low level of MBM with no alfalfa meal and corn replacing grain sorghum. Diets with higher levels of MBM (Diets l3, l7, l8) resulted in reduced body weight gains of birds (P < 0.01) compared to gains of birds fed the basal diet. Diet l4 was an exception to this, which contained no SBM and 10% alfalfa meal combined with wheat mill- run and a high level of MBM (29%). Substitution of corn (Diet 19) for grain sorghum in the basal diet (Diet ll) improved body weight gains of birds, but not significantly. In the finisher period, the greatest body weight gains were observed in birds fed the commercial feed, but these body weight gains were not signi- ficantly greater than body weight gains observed in birds fed the basal experimental diet. Birds fed a diet containing l0% alfalfa meal (Diet 14) showed body weight gains which were not significantly different from those of birds fed the basal diet. Body weight gains improved slightly when corn replaced grain sorghum in the basal diet. The least body weight gains were llZ observed in birds fed the rice bran and polishings-based diets containing alfalfa meal and high levels of MBM (Diets lZ-l4 and l6-18). Performance of birds fed Diet l4, which contained a high level of MBM, was more favorable than anticipated. The high levels of minerals contributed by the MBM were expected to result in decreased body weight gains. There were no consistent trends towards decreased body weight gains as the level of MBM was increased. Scott et al. (l976) showed that MBM meal was valuable as a source of phosphorus of high biological availability as well as a source of protein and amino acids. Large differences in growth-promoting ability of MBM were attributed to variations in the nature of the raw materials and the condi- tions used in processing (Atkinson and Carpenter, l970a). The high calcium content of MBM may be a cuase of depressed growth. In the present study, the calculated calcium levels of diets containing MBM and rice bran and polishings were higher than calcium levels in diets containing MBM and wheat millrun, due to the higher levels of MBM used in the diets containing rice bran and polishings. This could have been one factor causing the reduced performance of birds fed diets containing rice bran and polishings. The calculated methionine and tryptophan levels in diets based on rice bran and polishings were lower than in diets based on wheat millrun. Deficiencies of these amino acids could also have resulted in the depressed body weight gains of birds fed rice bran and polishings-based diets. According to Atkinson and Carpenter (l970b), the limiting amino acids in a cereal plus meat meal diet are determined by the type of cereal used. Although the amino acid balance of the MBM product was slightly different from a meat meal product, the type of cereal used in combination with it would also be expected to influence the limiting amino acids. Skurray (l974) suggested 113 that the cereal masked the amino acid deficiency in meal meal when the meat meal contributed approximately 6% of the protein in a diet. However, when the meat meal contributed l0% or more of the protein to the diet, the amino acids deficient in meat meal were also limiting in the diet. Kondos and McClymont (l972) found that the availability of certain amino acids, especially lysine, histidine and methionine, decreased by 37 and 56%, when meat meals were processed at l40°C and l60°C, respectively, thereby reducing the growth—promoting abilities of the meals. Herbert and 'Norgate (l97l) stated that the normal time and temperature for meat meal processing was two hours at l30°C. The MBM product used in the present study was processed at a higher temperature than this and for a longer period of time (l60°C for four hours), which may have decreased the avail- ability of essential amino acids, especially lysine. Lynch et a1. (l970) reported that the best MBM product was signifi- cantly inferior to SBM in supporting the growth rates of chickens. Runnels (l968) found that at least l0% MBM could be used in least-cost formulated broiler diets that gave maximum body weight gains and feed conversion effi- ciency of birds. Gartner and Burton (l965) found a tendency for body weight .gains to decrease and the feed conversion efficiencies to decrease as the percentage of bone contained in the MBM increased. Ash levels did not appear to be the major causes of differences in performance of animals fed high and low quality meals in a study conducted by Sathe et a2. (l964). Skurray and Cumming (l974) observed an improved feed conversion effi- ciency in animals fed meat meal diets based on wheat and corn compared to those fed diets based on grain sorghum. In the present study, the corn- based diet resulted in improved feed conversion efficiencies of animals com- pared to grain sorghum-based diets. The grain sorghum used in the present 114 study was a non-bird-resistant variety and, therefore, should not have had any adverse effects on bird performance. Studies with grain sorghum have shown that high levels of bird-resistant varieties depressed chick perform- ance (Conner et aZ., l969) due to the presence of high levels of tannin (Armstrong et al., l974; Featherston and Roger, l975). Nelson et a2. (l975) found that the metabolizable energy and amino acid availability increased as the tannin content of grain sorghum decreased. No attempt was made in the present study to determine the tannin content of the grain sorghum used. Damron et a1. (l968) observed no depression in chitk body weight gains or feed consumption when half of the corn in a 2l.7% protein corn-SBM diet was substituted with either bird-resistant or non-bird-resistant grain sorghum. Sykes (l970) reported that grain sorghum can replace corn directly as an energy and protein source in broiler diets. Ali et a2. (1974) com- pletely replaced 60% of the corn in a diet with grain sorghum and observed no effects on bird performance. The most critical period when grain sorghum might have affected chick body weight gains was in the early starter phase, because grain sorghum most probably did not supply a sufficient level of linoleic acid to meet the requirement for this nutrient during that period (Scott et al., l976). The present investigation showed no significant dif- ferences in body weight gains or feed conversion efficiencies between ani- mals fed a corn or grain sorghum-based diet containing 30% wheat millrun and a low level of MBM (l5%). Rice bran and polishings contained high levels of linoleic acid, which may have been sufficient to make up for the deficient levels in the grain sorghum. Certain leaf meals included in broiler mashes up to a level of l0% have had no negative effect on gains or feed conversion efficiencies of birds (Bird, l944; Gerpacio et aZ., l967; Elegino et al., 1974). 115 Squibb et a1. (1953) observed an increase in chick body weight gains when up to 20% of various leaf meals were included in the diets, claiming that the forage meals were excellent sources of protein, riboflavin and vitamin A activity. The l0% level of alfalfa meal used in the present study was detri- mental to body weight gains, probably because it was combined in diets with high levels of an inferior quality MBM protein source and also because it was not a high protein leaf meal. Rice bran and polishings and wheat millrun had lower energy levels, but higher protein and more favorable amino acid levels,than corn or grain sorghum (Table 19). Maust et a1. (l97l) fed 40% rice bran substituted for glucose in a basal diet and observed body weight gains in animals comparable to those in animals fed the basal diet, which contained no rice bran. The rice bran used in that study had a metabolizable energy value of 3.03 calories/g and it contained 30% neutral detergent fiber. Rice bran, replac- ing corn as an energy source at a level of 60%,depressed chick body weight gains by 30% in a corn-SBM diet (Kratzer et al., 1974), whereas 40% wheat bran caused no significant depression in body weight gains. Rathore et a2. (l970) fed 24.5% wheat bran combined with 40% rice bran and did not observe a reduction in animal performance compared to performance of animals fed a standard conventional cereal-fish meal ration. Saunders et a2. (1968) claimed that the heavy cell walls of the aleurone layer of wheat, which com- posed 30 to 50% of the wheat bran, reduced the availability of nutrients. Cave et al. (l965a, b) have shown that certain wheat milling fractions have relatively low metabolizable energy values and result in poor protein utili- zation. The wheat millrun used in this study consisted of approximately 50% wheat bran. 116 One experimental diet containing a high level of MBM, and therefore, a high calcium level (Diet l4), resulted in body weight gains and feed con- version efficiencies that approached those of the commercial feed (Diet 10). This could be due, in part, to the increased levels of essential amino acids contributed by the higher levels of MBM. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that [l] broiler mashes that contained a high level of MBM in combination with wheat millrun or rice bran and polishings resulted in depressed body weight gains in animals compared to those of animals fed a commercial diet; [2] a 30% level of wheat millrun combined with MBM produced greater body weight gains in the finisher period than a comparable level of rice bran and polishings combined with MBM; [3] a l0% level of alfalfa meal depressed gains; and [4] corn resulted in greater body weight gains than grain sorghum when these grains were compared at a level of 38.5% of the diet. Although producing inferior gains, diets based on rice bran and polishings resulted in improved feed conversion effi- ciencies and, therefore, reduced feed cost per unit of gain. Diet l5, which contained rice bran and polishings and 2l% MBM in a grain sorghum-based diet with no alfalfa meal included, resulted in the production of animals with the most economical body weight gains. This diet reduced the cost per unit of gain in the finisher period by 37% compared to that of animals fed the com- mercial feed. All of the experimental diets produced more economical body weight gains in animals in the finisher period compared to animals fed the commercial feed, except for Diet l2, which contained l6% MBM combined with grain sorghum, wheat millrun and alfalfa meal, and Diet l6, which contained l9% MBM, grain sorghum, rice bran and polishings, and alfalfa meal. 117 Pen location affected the performance of birds significantly. Birds in the west pens consumed less feed (P < 0.0l) and had improved feed conver- sion efficiencies (P < 0.05) compared to birds in the east pens. Broiler Trial 2 In this trail, a comparison of corn versus grain sorghum-based diets in the starter period showed that body weight gains of birds fed the corn diet were greater (P < 0.0l) to those of birds fed grain sorghum (Table 29). No significant differences were observed in the comparison of high versus low protein (MBM) levels, but the third contrast showed that high SBM levels resulted in greater body weight gains in birds (P < 0.01) compared to those in birds fed low SBM levels. In the finisher period, there was a difference in body weight‘gains of birds fed corn versus grain sorghum (P < 0.0l), and of birds fed the high level of protein (MBM) (P < 0.05) compared to those fed the low protein level. In both the starter and finisher periods, an all paired means com- parison using Tukey's test showed that two diets, one containing low MBM and low SBM combined with corn (Diet 24), and one containing high MBM and low SBM combined with corn (Diet 22), resulted in body weight gains that were not significantly different from the two commercial feeds used during the starter period. In the finisher period, the body weight gains of birds fed Diet 22 were lower (P < 0.05) compared to birds fed the commercial feed, which gave the greatest body weight gains (Diet 29). The high versus low level of SBM resulted in a greater difference in body weight gains of ani- mals in the starter period than in the finisher period. This indicated that the high SBM level supported greater body weight gains during the starter TABLE 29.--Broiler Trail 2: 118 Effect of High and Low Levels of Meat-and- Bone Meal on Performance of Broiler Birds Fed Corn or Grain Sorghum Based Diets. Diet Number 21 22 23 24 High MBM Low MBM Corn-Based Item High SBM Low SBM High SBM Low SBM Starter period (0-6 weeks) Number of Birds 101 98 101 97 Avg 6-week wt, 9 1116 1135 1167 1118 Avg daily gain, 9 26 26 26 26 Avg daily feed intake, 9 58 58 64 59 Feed/gain 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.3 Feed cost/100 kg gain, US $ 48.25 44.44 49.34 45.49 Finisher period (6-8 weeks) Number of birds 99 96 101 97 Avg 8-week wt, 9 1628* 1641* 1740 1708 Avg daily gain, 9 36 36 41 42 Avg daily feed intake, 9 109 109 114 114 Feed/gain 3.0 3.1 2.8 2.7 Feed cost/100 kg gain. US $ 60.15 59.21 54.88 50.44 Overall (0-8 weeks) Number of birds 100 97 101 97 Avg daily gain, 9 28 29 30 30 Avg daily feed intake, 9 70 71 76 72 Feed/gain c 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 Feed cost/100 kg gain, US $ 51.22 48.13 50.73 46.73 Dress percentage 74 74 72 72 TABLE 29.--(C0ntinued) 119 Diet Number 25 26 27 28 29 30 High MBM Low MBM Grain Sorghum-Based b T x L High SBM Low SBM High SBM Low SBM Commercial : 50Ha (p <) 99 101 100 103 96 100 1086 1017** 1038** 966** 1126 1128 169 0.02 25 23 24 22 26 26 4.0 56 54 62 49 56 61 5.6 2.2 2.3 2.6 2.2 2.2 2.4 39.16 39.22 44.56 36.06 55.06 58.08 98 101 97 103 94 99 1614* 1630* 1466** 1452** 1781 1700 263 0.00 38 44 31 35 47 41 10.7 0.00 109 111 98 104 116 111 7.2 2.9 2.5 3.2 3.0 2.5 2.7 48.14 39.25 50.85 44.82 56.93 58.21 99 101 99 103 95 100 28 28 26 25 31 30 4.7 0.00 69 68 71 63 71 74 4.9 2.4 2.4 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.5 41.41 39.23 46.13 38.25 55.53 58.11 73 71 73 71 74 73 *Value is less than (P < 0.05) control diet (Diet 29). **Value is less than (P < 0.01) both control diets (Diets 29 and 30). aSDM = Standard Deviation of the Means. b T x L = significance of treatment x location interaction. cOverall feed cost/100 kg gain was calculated by a sum of 75% of the value for the starter period plus 25% of the value for the For example, in Diet 21: finisher period. + [($60.15/100 kg gain) x 25%] = $51.22/100 kg gain. [($48.25/100 kg gain) x 75%] 120 period, which may have been due to more favorable amino acid levels, needed for the early growth period, that were contributed by the SBM. The significant differences in bird body weight gains observed from feeding corn or grain sorghum diets in Trial 2, as compared to results in Trail 1, where no difference occurred, could have been due to the fact that wheat millrun or rice bran and polishings were not used in the experimental diets in Trial 2. These feedstuffs may have provided more favorable amino acid or fatty acid levels, which would have prevented the depressed body weight gains that occurred from feeding the grain sorghum diets. Another factor contributing to the difference in results of animals fed corn or grain sorghum diets in the two trials could be that in Trial 1, a commerioial feed was fed from two to six weeks of age, a period when the low linoleic acid content of grain sorghum may have critically affected growth. There were no significant differences in feed conversion efficiencies of birds fed any of the experimental diets. However, lower feed conversion efficiencies occurred in broilers in the west pens compared to those in the east pens. The experimental diets in Broiler Trial 2 contained higher levels of metabolizable energy than the diets in Trial 1, because of a greater pro- portion of grains used in the Trial 2 diets, as compared to by-products used in Broiler Trial 1, which had a lower energy content. In Broiler Trial 1, birds in the west pens had improved feed conversion efficiencies compared to those in the east pens, but the differences were not significant. Birds in Broiler Trial 2 consumed less average daily feed and had decreased body weight gains compared to birds in Broiler Trial 1. In Broiler Trial 2, birds in the east pens had greater body weight gains compared to birds in the west pens (P < 0.01). 121 Fuller and Mora (1973) stated that during heat stress, the chicken may have difficulty in consuming sufficient amounts of feed to provide net energy for optimal growth when fed diets containing a high heat increment. They claimed that high environmental temperatures caused a reduction in feed intake of animals, creating an energy deficiency in the bird, which resulted in reduced body weight gains. An increase in the metabolizable energy con- tent of the diet would tend to reduce feed consumption by animals and, therefore, could cause decreased body weight gains due to an inadequate intake of other nutrients (Scott et al., 1976). This may be one explanation for the lower body weight gains of the birds in Broiler Trail 2 compared to those of birds in Broiler Trial 1. Agudu (1971) observed an increase in body weight gains and feed con- version efficiency in layer birds as the protein level of the diet was increased from 16 to 24%. He mentioned that higher protein diets seemed desirable in situations where maximal growth was required in a shorter time period (for example, broiler production). In the present study, an increase in protein level was accompanied by an increase in mineral levels, which appeared to be detrimental to the performance of the birds, but the metaboli- zable energy content of the diets remained nearly constant. Body weight gains were greater in broiler birds fed diets containing lower levels of MBM and, therefore, lower protein and mineral levels. Njike et a1. (1975), working in Nigeria, found that by increasing the dietary protein level from 10 to 16% by using increasing levels of SBM, the body weight gains and protein efficiency ratios of White Plymouth Rocks were improved, but then decreased when birds were fed diets containing more than 16% protein. In studies using groundnut meal and SBM as a single pro- tein supplement toacereal-based diet, Hethli et a1. (1975) found that a 122 maximum growth rate could not be obtained, even when very high dietary pro- tein levels were used. These researchers suggested that the amino acids supplied by the low-quality protein source were in such disporportion com- pared to the animal's needs that utilization of the first limiting amino acid(s) was impaired. They concluded that the quality of an inferior pro- tein source cannot always be offset by increasing the level of dietary pro- tein. They also mentioned that while a maximum growth rate was an important objective in a competitive economy, it may not be an important criterion for poultry production in other parts of the world. The MBM product used in this trial was of improved nutritional value compared to that which was used in Broiler Trial 1. It had an increased protein level and a decreased mineral level, due to a refinement in the processing methods which removed a greater amount of the bone from the meal. Gartner and Burton (1965) found a tendency for body weight gains to decrease and food conversion efficiencies to increase as the percentage of bone in MBM increased. Diets which contained high levels of MBM and, therefore, con- tained high calcium levels, resulted in decreased body weight gains and decreased the feed conversion efficiencies of birds in Broiler Trial 1. In the present trial, it was shown that improved body weight gains and feed conversion efficiencies could be obtained when lower calcium levels (due to lower levels of MBM) were contained in corn-based diets, especially in the finisher period. However, the results were opposite when grain sorghum replaced corn in the diet (Table 30). As the calcium and protein level increased in the diet, there were decreased body weight gains, feed consump- tion, and improved feed conversion efficiencies of birds fed corn-based starter diets. There was a decrease in feed conversion efficiencies of birds fed corn-based diets in the finisher period, indicating that the 123 ..em ucm mm mmpamhv N .m... cw..ccm a. meansac umpu 8:» cu mcwmmc 2835:: Hope u .cmmw we “Pg: can now; u u\m ”new; appmo mmmcm>< n mo< .:_muoca muzgu u go .Ezwu.mu u moo .mmm mo mxwmz m o. 0 Susan .mum we mxmmz o o. o saga» m.~ ... one. 8.5. mm.. m.~ am ..o. ~..~ ma.. mm m.~ mo. 4.8. a.m. m~.. ~.~ on one. o..~ em.. mN o.. co. mme. 8.8. N... ~.~ me mom «.m. m¢.. mm ~.m mm 88.. ..m. ...o c.~ N8 mmo. a.m. 80.. .N 4.13:5: “at. Ezcmuom space ..m mo. .58. ..m. om.. ~.~ mm m... ...N mm.. mm o.. mo. mmo. a.m. em.. m.~ mm m... m.o~ em.. .N ..N 5.. mo.. a.m. ~m.. m.~ mm m... a.m. m¢.. 4N m.~ 4.. o... m.u. ~w.o 5.~ 58 .mm. ..m. we.. mm ucwaszc umwv :cou u\a aa< m ..z .aaz-m au . no . uw\a aao< a ..3 9663-8 680 n one a 268532 .a.o 888.268 cagm.=.a aaa.caa La.ca.m .m.m>m. :Pmuoca mnaco new s=_u.au a.m.m.o m=.mmmcu=. um. muLPm cm..ocm mo mucasgoecma .o com.caasoo <1-.om m.m<. 124 higher protein level was more beneficial than a lower mineral level for improved performance of birds fed corn-based diets in the starter period. The reverse appeared to be true for the finisher period. Birds fed grain sorghum-based diets showed improved performance as mineral and protein levels increased in both the starter and finisher periods. Kondos (1968) stated that after four weeks of age, body weight gains of chickens were little affected by high calcium levels in the diet and that the amin problem of using meat meals after this age was one of amino acid imbalances and deficiencies. Hammond (1942) concluded that yellow milo (grain sorghum) was equal in value to white corn as a source of energy in properly-balanced layer hen diets, but that corn was superior to milo in low-quality diets (for example, feeds containing no protein supplement). Yellow grain sorghum was higher in protein and lower in fat than yellow corn and contained only one-tenth of the vitamin A activity (Smith, 1930). Damron et al. (1968) found that bird resistant varieties of grain sorghum did not depress feed intake or body weight gains. In the present trial, grain sorghum-based diets resulted in an inferior bird performance in body weight gains and daily feed consumption was lowered. However, the lower cost of grain sorghum made the cost per unit of gain more economical in birds fed diets based on this grain. Reduced bird performance in the present study may be related to deficient levels of linoleic acid or excessive tannin levels of the grain sorghum-based diets. Skurray and Cumming (1974) noted that methionine was the first limiting amino acid in a corn-based diet and that valine, isoleucine and arginine were not limiting, but that in a grain sorghum-based diet, the imbalance of essential amino acids was greater. It can be concluded from this trial that [1] grain sorghum depressed body weight gains of broiler birds to a greater extent in 125 the starter period than in the finisher period compared to those of birds fed corn diets; [2] the difference between high versus low levels of MBM were more pronounced in the finisher period than in the starter period, and showed an advantage of low MBM levels with corn-based diets, but a greater advantage of high MBM levels with grain sorghum-based diets; and [3] a higher level of SBM appeared to be more essential for improved performance of birds in the starter period compared to the finisher period. From an economical viewpoint, Diet 28 (containing grain sorghum, a high level of MBM, and a low level of SBM), reduced the cost per unit of gain in the starter period by a margin of 34.5% compared to the more econo- mical of the two commercial feeds. Costs per unit of gain in birds fed the other experimental diets approached these economical gains, and body weight gains in birds fed any of the experimental diets were more economical than body weight gains of birds fed the commercial feeds. In the finisher period, the cost per unit of gain improved in birds fed any of the experimental diets compared to the cost per unit of gain of birds fed the commercial diets (except for the corn-based diet, which contained a high level of MBM). Birds fed Diet 26, which contained grain sorghum, a high level of MBM and a low level of SBM, showed the most improved performance in the finisher period by a reduction in the cost per unit of gain. For the entire eight- week period, the most economical performance was observed in birds fed Diet 28, indicating that the grain sorghum-based diet, containing low SBM and MBM levels supported economical body weight gains of broiler birds. Summary of Animal Evaluation of Feedstuffs Market swine and broiler birds had economical body weight gains on various rations consisting mainly, and in some cases entirely, of local 126 feedstuffs. The body weight gain levels were lower than those of animals fed commercial feeds, and resulted in longer periods to reach market weight. However, the cost of body weight gains were lower. Swine fed diets containing Belizean meat-and-bone meal as the only protein supplement had less efficient feed conversion efficiencies and lower rates of body weight gains (see Table 25, Diet 16). The feed cost of produc- tion was higher for these animals than for those fed diets containing some soybean meal. Body weight gains improved when supplemental lysine sources were used in combination with the MBM. This was shown in Swine Trail 2 in the improved performance of animals fed diets containing a low level of SBM and synthetic lysine (Table 26, Diets 23 and 27), and in Swine Trial 3 in the performance of animals fed blood meal and lysine (Table 27, Diets 31 and 33). In both cases, the feed cost of production was improved. In Broiler studies, an effect similar to that in the swine was - observed when MBM was used as the only protein supplement. In Broiler Trial 1, birds were produced at a lower cost per unit of gain, compared to those fed the commercial feed, when fed diets containing MBM and SBM (Table 28, Diet 15). Birds-fed this diet had the most economical gains, which were 37% lower compared to the cost per unit of gain of birds fed the commercial feed (Table 28, Diet 10). Supplementation of the MBM with SBM in the broiler diets resulted in a proportionally greater increase in performance during the starter period than during the finisher period. This was also true in the grower period of swine compared to the finisher period. During the finisher period of both the swine or the broilers, economical body weight gains were obtained when the animals were fed diets containing MBM as the only protein source (Table 27, Diet 36 and Table 28, Diets 11 and 15). 127 Mill by-product feedstuffs used to replace grain portions of the diets, resulted in more economical gains and improved feed conversion effi- ciencies. These resulted in body weight gains at a reduced cost due to the lower prices of the rice bran and polishings and wheat millrun. High levels of the wheat millrun resulted in greater cost per unit of gain compared to the rice bran and polishings (Table 26, Diets 26 and 27 and Table 28, Diets 11 and 15). The rice bran and polishings in diets resulted in the produc- tion of animals with lower cost per unit of body weight gain compared to diets containing wheat millrun, if the two were available for the same price. The wheat mi11run, however, offered advantages in storability, which made its use worthwhile even at a price equal to the rice bran and polishings. The occurrence of rancidity at a rapid rate in the rice bran and polishings did not permit long—term storage (not greater than two weeks) without a reduction in the acceptability of the feed by the animals. Price differences and storability, therefore, were important reasons for the development of a number of different composition rations. Low levels of molasses replaced a small portion of grain as an energy source in broiler diets (Tables 20 and 21; Tables 23 and 24). High potassium levels contributed by the molasses in combination with high calcium and phosphorus levels in the MBM may have caused much of the feather soiling that occurred. Birds fed diets containing high levels of MBM had soiled feathers compared to birds fed SBM and little or no MBM. Some of the experimental diets, although they resulted in a reduced feed cost, also resulted in decreased feed conversion efficiencies, which caused an increase in the cost per unit of gain. This was observed in Diet 12 in Broiler Trial 1 (Table 28), which cost less than the commercial feed (Diet 10). Both diets resulted in approximately the same cost per unit of 128 gain. Other diets, however, which also cost less than the commercial feed, resulted in the production of birds at a lower cost per unit of gain compared to the commercial feed. This was seen, for example, in the results from the use of Diet 15 in Broiler Trial 1 (Table 28). Differences in feed conver- sion efficiencies by birds fed these diets were caused by the level of wheat millrun and alfalfa meal (Diet 12) or rice bran and polishings (Diet 15) in the diet. V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This project has demonstrated that a number of organizations with common interests can combine their efforts in a strong linkage system to assist in the development of agricultural production. The need of the small-scale animal producer for more economical feeds has led to an increased awareness of the potential use of local resources. Until these studies were conducted by the Feeds Project, the Government of Belize could offer no specific recommendations to farmers with regards to the economical advantages of various feedstuff combinations. These studies showed that increased pro- fits were possible with the use of feeds composed of indigenous feedstuffs. Rations were developed with a degree of flexibility in that certain itens could be replaced for one another as prices of feedstuffs fluctuated or as the availability of ingredients varied. This research has shown that it was possible to produce rations containing a minimum amount of imported ingredients and which would result in lower costs of gain than the commer- cial feeds. Proximate analysis of feedstuffs and animal growth performance and feed conversion efficiencies were used to obtain an indication of the nutri- tional values of feedstuffs available in Belize. Results from the swine and poultry diets tested showed that [l] a low to medium-level of MBM combined with grain sorghum resulted in the most economical animal performance if the cost of grain sorghum was less than corn; [2] if grain sorghum and rice bran and polishings were priced nearly the same, then a mixture of 50% grain 129 130 sorghum and 50% rice bran and polishings could be used with a low level of MBM to produce animals having economical gains; [3] if wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings were the same price, then a 50/50 mixture of these two could be used in a 50/50 mixture with grain sorghum and used combined with a low level of MBM. Wheat millrun and rice bran and polishings could be used interchangeably, depending on price, availability and proximity to the farmer. Also, wheat millrun could be stored longer than rice bran and polishings without spoiling, and pigs wasted less wheat millrun than did chickens. Corn could be used to replace grain sorghum in rations to cause a slight advantage in body weight gains, if corn and grain sorghum had a simi- lar price. If more rapid gains were desired, the addition of L-lysine increased gains and improved feed conversion efficiency. Environmental differences or variations in energy contents of diets altered feed intake. In these situations, the feed consumption information should be used to calculate the levels of nutrients that are needed in the diet to assure that the minimum daily requirements are consumed by the ani- mal. It is necessary to establish more precise nutrient levels in diets for animals in the tropics and especially for combinations of unusual feedstuffs. Different feedstuffs that were similar in chemical composition and sold at the same price varied in actual feeding value (Arnott and Lim, 1966). For this reason, it was wise to adopt a flexible approach in the development of rations. An example of price determination versus feeding value was given by Gunn (1951), where he noted that gingelly cake was a popular feed in India, but it was not outstandingly nutritious. He attributed its p0pu- 1arity as being the reason for its high price. In Belize, the cost of rice bran and polishings and wheat millrun were lower than the cost of corn, although these feedstuffs were of a comparable nutritive value. Results 131 from Broiler Trial 1 indicated that rice bran and polishings improved feed conversion efficiencies compared to the grains. When corn had to be imported, the price increased until it approached the price of MBM. Flexi- bility in ration formulation allowed an economical ration to be maintained by the substitution of corn with rice bran and polishings or wheat millrun. Another example of demand affecting the price of feedstuffs was the small amount of cohune nut meal produced by the cohune processing industry. Increased demand for the by-product over the three-year period caused an increase in the price from US $0.11/kg to $0.16/kg, even though the nutri- tional value of the feedstuff did not change. Testing of alternative least- cost rations demonstrated that lower-priced ingredients could be substituted for higher-priced ones as prices fluctuated and still provided rations that produced economical gains. Limited amounts of protein supplement have determined the capacity for commercial feed production from local feedstuffs in Belize. Belize has enough by-products to produce sufficient animal feeds to meet the energy demands of livestock production. In addition, increases in the production of sugarcane, bananas, citrus, beer, meat and seafoods will result in larger amounts of by-product resources that can be used in livestock feeds. Wastes from some of these industries, such as the beer brewer's grains, banana waste, and blood from the meat packers create disposal problems, which will result in increased pressure to convert the wastes into commercial feed- stuffs. The beer brewery, for example, cannot depend on the farmers to col- lect the wet spent grains daily. Also, farmers waste energy if they trans- port the brewery by-product waste too great a distance, because the wet grains contain about 80% moisture. Once at the farm, the grains spoil rapidly, if they are not preserved. Banana production results in piles of 132 rejected fruits which rot and are wasted. There is not enough livestock in the area where this fruit is produced to consume all of the waste bananas during the season of harvesting. Ensiling or drying the bananas would pro- vide an additional feed resource for animal producers. At the meat packing plant, the disposal of blood from slaughtered animals creates a problem. Processing this waste into a blood meal would provide an additional protein supplement source. Fish trash from the fishing cooperatives is not used, due to lack of appropriate transport, storage and processing equipment. This is yet another untapped protein supplement resource that would improve the livestock feeds situation in Belize. It should be noted that in the determination of the costs of imported versus local feeds used in this study, the values were calculated using FOB (Free on Board) prices at the Belize port of entry. If a more thorough sys- tem of shadow pricing was used to determine the feed costs (Gittenger, 1972), the result would be a decreased actual cost to the Belizean economy in the use of indigenous feed items. This is due to the drain in foreign exchange (which is a limited resource to a nation), when feeds are purchased from abroad. For this reason, the imported feeds should be assigned a higher value than the actual price paid for them. The restraint on domestic pro- duction when importing feeds must also be considered when placing an economic value on imported items. In effect, this would cause rations composed of indigenous feedstuffs to be even more economical as the proportion of local feedstuff consumed per unit of body weight gain increased. In a lesser-developed country, submaximum animal performance may be inefficient from the biological standpoint, but medium to low levels of ani- mal performance still often result in the highest economic efficiency (McDowell, 1977). The studies presented in this thesis have demonstrated 133 that lower-quality by-product feedstuffs, when used in a ration balanced to meet nutritional requirements, were valuable for providing economical body weight gains of animals. APPENDIX I BELIZE: COUNTRY BACKGROUND APPENDIX I BELIZE: COUNTRY BACKGROUND £9993199. Belize is located on the eastern seaboard of Central America between latitudes 18°29'W and 15°54'N and longitudes 80°9'W and 88°10'W. The main- land area totals 22,662 km2 imately 300 kmz. , while the offshore islands area totals approx- The country is bounded by the Republic of Guatemala on the south and west and by the Republic of Mexico in the north (Jenkin et al., 1976). (See map of Belize, Figure 15). Belize City, the main port and former capital, is situated on the eastern seaboard. Belmopan, the capital, is 80 km inland. Central Farm, Agricultural Experiment Station, where the feed trials for Phase 1 of the project were conducted, is located in the Cayo District, 35 km west of Belmopan. Climate The climate is subtr0pical with a temperature range of 10°C to 35.5°C on the coast, and a greater temperature range inland (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 1972). Rainfall ranges from an average of 128 cm annually in the North to 436 cm annually in the South (Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, 1975). 134 135 Corozal MEX/CO mm COROZAL ...,oISTRICT Orange eralk . own '0 ’55 I R1 .1“ o - .1 "oo ’ Lifl ! BELIZE . -.-.-....-.-....-....-.1 ORANGE WALK DISTRICT ! DISTRICT -' ' I .2}, i 801qu15 - - Inil Airport '- ~ 88 2801129 3:2. City , I Spanish Lookout _SEA .0 3.... CENTRAL , FARM : * ' / San Ignacio Benquo V 1010 ISTANNri1S'°1'-':wf"°k;’g I ! CAYO , ;CREEK 1 / .6. r I - .. . ‘ ‘ .0 . . 1’ $ . ' . j 0 o mm / BRITISH mm" " HONDURAS GUATEMALA ’ ."...I.I 0;." 0 25m .- Panto Gerda 1 1 ' ' ' Roads — Figure 15.--Map of Belize. 136 Dramatic changes in climate occur during May and June, and again in October and November. The main rainy season is hot and begins in June and continues through October, with an occasional short dry spell. The rainy season usually ends in October, when the transition from summer to winter occurs (Jenkin et aZ., 1976). At the end of October, the weather becomes cooler, leading into the cool season with occasional light rainfall from 1 November through February. During this period, the night temperature may drop to 7.2°C in low-lying areas (Barclays, 1969; Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, 1975). By January or February, skies are clear with 6 to 8 hours of daily sunshine, high daytime temperatures and low night temperatures, low relative humidity and low rainfall, and occasionally, a completely dry month (Jenkin et al., 1976). There is a more gradual change to summer occurring from April to June. The period from May to October is characterized by increased cloud formations and less sunshine, lower day and higher night temperatures, higher relative humidity and heavy rainfall. Heaviest rainfall occurs in May and June and a second rainfall peak occurs in September and October. There is a mid-season drought between the two heavy rainfall periods (Jenkin et al., 1976). The average dry season temperature in low-lying areas is 30.5°C with a maximum temperature of 38°C. Average relative humidity is 85 percent (Barclays, 1969). The highest elevation in the country is 1,128 meters above sea level. Elevation at Central Farm is approximately 46 m above sea level. Day length ranges from 11 to 13 hours (Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, l975). 137 Land. Approximately 2.2 million acres are suitable for agricultural development, half of which is best suited to arable farming, and half suit- able for grazing (Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, 1975). Only 15 percent of this land is currently utilized for agricultural production. Agricultural products rose from 40 to 75% ot total domestic exports from 1960 to 1970. The agricultural sector accounts for 40% of the total Gross Domestic Product (Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, 1975), an increase fran 16% in 1972 (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 1972). Peogle Belize consists of a population of which 40% are of African descent, 40% are Latin-Indian descent, 15% are of Jamaican, Lebanese, Chinese and other descent, 3.4% are of European descent and 1.6% are of East Indian descent. The Belize District and the main road to Cayo (San Ignacio) are predominantly composed of Creole villages. West of Cayo are people of Mayan Indian and Spanish/Mayan descent. There are a number of Mennonite settle- ments, which are a Protestant sect of European origin. Expatriates consist mainly of United States Caucasians involved with farming (Jenkin et al., 1976) and English who hold overseas office positions. APPENDIX II ANALYSIS OF FEED INGREDIENTS 1138 .xcuaaou ova—am an Amvomm a=.e=—u=_ uocv mmu.:a avaumanca new «mecca uo :o_uu:vogn osu sac» mama: u a .33-u.ou ma: m.q&am mouoo.v:. 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