IDENTIFYING AND DEVELOPING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ; 7 READING SKILLS OF NIGERIAN - SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WILLIAM AUSTIN COWLEY 1972 I” Liam n {(-7 Michigan State University .Hfib‘s This is to certify that the thesis entitled IDENTIFYING AND DEVELOPING . THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE READING SKILLS OF NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS presented by William Austin Cowley has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _Rh «ADJ—degree in Education \y‘cfigw‘ \4) M Major professor Déte May 31, 1972 p I 0-7639 INDING BY IIIiAG & SIINS' BN‘K IIIIIDEIII IND. L RARY B ABSTRACT IDENTIFYING AND DEVELOPING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE READING SKILLS OF NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS BY William Austin Cowley There is a long-standing relationship between the English language and that part of Africa which includes present-day Nigeria. As Nigeria moved toward independence, English served both as a unifying factor among the scores of language groups which would compose the new nation and as a common means of communication between Nigeria and the British. Though one of Nigeria's indigenous languages might have been selected as the national language, the liabilities attendant upon such a selection have, for the present, appeared to outweigh the assets. While English also has certain liabilities as a national language for Nigeria, it provides several significant assets. These assets together with the evolution of historical circum— stances have placed English in the vital role of a national language. In order for the English language to be the most effective servant possible for Nigeria and Nigerians, the teaching of English must be carefully planned and carried William Austin Cowley out at each level of education. There are, however, a number of problems--some cultural, some personnel, some financial, some inherent in the educational system—-which hinder what is generally considered to be good teaching of English as a second language. The reading of English is of particular importance in Nigerian schools, especially at the secondary and post- secondary levels. A weak oral English foundation combined with inadequate reading skills handicaps many of Nigeria's students. This is particularly unfortunate when one con- siders that the syllabus and examination oriented curricu— lum of the secondary school demands extensive reading by these students. Consequently, students must attempt an overwhelming task for which they are poorly prepared. As a result, many read very slowly with low levels of compre— hension. They perpetually struggle with material too difficult for them and are rarely able to read for pleas- ure. Reading-related study skills are similarly weak and underdeveloped. . In an effort to identify some of the components of reading skills development most in need of attention in the Nigerian secondary school, a search was made of rele- vant materials both in the literature of teaching English as a second language and of teaching reading. The resul- tant compilation of skills is analyzed and commented upon William Austin Cowley with reference to the level of development of these skills, their applicability, and particular problems encountered in their acquisition in the Nigerian school setting. PrOposed solutions are hindered by the same prob- lems which have hindered the teaching of English and the teaching of reading heretofore. Among these are attitu- dinal factors, the lack of research data, and limited funds, personnel, and materials. Proposals must, there- fore, be realistic in terms of what can be accomplished as well as idealistic in terms of what ought to be done. Suggestions are given which have to do with the need for increased reCOgnition of the importance of Eng- lish in Nigeria. The setting of realistic goals in the teaching of English suggests a continued emphasis on oral English but a recognition of the fact that non-standard English may constitute one dialect among several which students use. The teaching of reading must, therefore, take these factors into consideration. A singularly key factor to the success of any proposal is the provision of capable teachers. The identification of problems in the second and third chapters of this study and the compilation and discussion of reading skills in the fourth chapter pro- vide information to assist those who are qualified and empowered to institute some of the proposals. Such William Austin Cowley proposals can enhance the reading abilities of Nigerian secondary school students. IDENTIFYING AND DEVELOPING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE READING SKILLS OF NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS BY William Austin Cowley A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1972 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As is true in most human endeavors, the prepara— tion of this thesis has benefitted immeasurably from the assistance of others. Only a few can be mentioned here but to these and many others I express my sincere appre— ciation. The Nigerian Baptist Convention has provided me the opportunity to teach in its schools for the past seventeen years. Students in these schools and particu- larly in Baptist High School, Jos, Nigeria, have made me aware of their reading problems and have served as willing subjects in my efforts to improve their abilities. The Foreign Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention has permitted me to use two leaves for study and has provided financial assistance as well as general encouragement. Members of Immanuel Baptist Church, Lansing, Michigan, and First Baptist Church, East Lansing, Michigan, have been very encouraging and have made a number of help— ful facilities available to me. Mr. and Mrs. Kennith Stubbs have loaned me valuable office equipment. Mrs. Ellen DeHaus, Dr. and Mrs. Wayne Taylor, Rev. and Mrs. Robert Dye, Dr. and Mrs. W. E. Martin, among many others, have rendered innumerable personal favors. ii iii Throughout my time at Michigan State University, the members of my guidance committee have demonstrated unusual interest in and sympathy for the teaching problems in Nigeria. They have been very considerate in helping me to plan a program of study designed to meet specific and practical needs. I am indebted to Dr. Cole Brembeck, Dr. Dale Alam, Dr. Charles Kraft, and Dr. Irvine Richardson. I am especially indebted to Dr. John Hanson who, as chairman of the committee,has shared his appreciation for and understanding of Africa and Nigeria with me. Dr. William Durr, as director of the dissertation, has made me the beneficiary of his generous patience, wisdom, insight, and friendship. The time spent in study under his direction has been stimulating and inspiring. My wife, besides being my co—worker in the schools in Nigeria and providing the assistance and encouragement which wives usually give, has helped with preliminary library work (until grounded by a broken leg) and has typed the dissertation from rough draft through final copy. My daughters have diSplayed unusual teen-age interest in the study by asking an occasional question, by trying not to slam doors and not to play the radio too loudly, and by pretending they would not really like to do things which might take me away from my study. Appreciation for help of this sort is beyond expression. Chapter II. TABLE OF CONTENTS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA . . . . . . 1 Brief Historical Background Early contacts British colonial influence Early Educational Implications Goals Planning Considerations for a National Language An indigenous language English Summary A NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM—— THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH . . . . . . . . . 20 General Problems Vernacular interference Sociolinguistics Primary School Problems Mother tongue or English——subject or medium Language learning environment Teachers, materials, methods Secondary School Problems Primary school foundation Syllabus system External examinations Attitudes Teachers, materials, methods iv III. IV. Post—Secondary School Problems Prior preparation Thinking and participating Lectures and notetaking Summary A NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM—- THE TEACHING OF READING . . . . . . . . . . 47 Primary School Problems Teaching methods Materials Reading environment Summary Secondary School Problems Reading abilities Syllabus-examination system Staff and reading Materials Summary Post-Secondary Problems Reading ability Obstacles to study Summary COMPONENTS OF READING DEVELOPMENT FOR NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS . . . . 74 Background for Skills Development Oral English foundation Experiences Nigerian students' backgrounds Beginning Reading Skills Whole word method Word attack skills Nigerian students' beginning reading skills vi Literal Comprehension Word meanings Thought groups and sentences Interpretative Comprehension Organizational perception Reader's knowledge of self Reader's knowledge of the writer Reader's knowledge of the material Nigerian students and interpretative comprehension Study Skills Whether and how to read SQ3R Notetaking Following directions Oral Reading Skills Summary CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS . . . . . . . . . 129 Limitations Attitudes Idealism--realism Research PrOposals for Primary Schools Idealism Realism Proposals for Secondary Schools Goals Continued oral emphasis Allowance for dialects Intonation Providing experiences Teachers Materials Methods vii Proposals for Universities Proposals for Training Teachers Primary school Secondary School Summary APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O I O O O O 156 173 CHAPTER I THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA Brief Historical Background The English language-—bane and blessing--has been praised and cursed, admired and ignored, emulated and mu- tilated by generations of Nigeria's traders, colonists and servants, teachers and pupils, nation-builders and men on the street. With the coming of independence, English un— obtrusively but confidently moved into position as Nige- ria's national language and appears ensconced there for the foreseeable future. There are now two important ques- tions. What can be done with English to make it most useful to Nigeria and Nigerians? What can and should education do to help achieve this goal? Early contacts It is impossible to establish the date on which the first contact between the English language and West Africa and Nigeria was made. Events of the period lead to interesting conjecture and there is some evidence which mentions the use of English coincidental to these events and other activities. One early record indicates that West Africans, more specifically from what is present-day Ghana, had been taken to England as early as 1554 that they might be taught English in order to serve the British as interpreters in trading enterprises along the Guinea Coast.1 Later, as the slave trade increased along the West African Coast, there are indications of a continuing practice of sending Africans from Old Calabar (present Nigeria) to England to learn the English language and other skills such as bookkeeping which would be useful both to the Africans and to the British traders in con- ducting commercial and slave trade in the area. There are also historical records showing that some of those who had been to England later established classes or lit— tle schools in Old Calabar to teach fellow Africans those things which had been learned while overseas.2 It is quite possible, indeed, most probable, that similar "scholarships" for overseas study in England were of- fered to individuals, leading to work as interpreters and the subsequent founding of little "English language institutes" in such places as Port Harcourt, Warri, Lagos, and Badagry-—all known as centers of mercantile and slave- trading activity in what was later to become Nigeria. 1 John Spencer, "West Africa and the English Lan- guage," in The English Language in West Africa, ed. by John Spencer (London: Longmans, 1971), pp. 8-10. 2Ibid., p. 12. British colonial influence Continued British involvement in trade in Nigeria led eventually to an extension of British administrative influence there and subsequent colonial status for Nige— ria. In the early nineteenth century, perhaps encouraged by the support and safety of British trade and adminis- tration, perhaps stimulated by stirrings of conscience over England's involvement in the slave trade, British missionaries began work in Nigeria. A little later in that same century American missionaries with motives and stimuli similar to those of their British counterparts began work there.3 Increased British involvement signalled increased need for English language on the part of indigenous peo— ples. There are those who say that British administrators were too busy, lazy, or indifferent to learn Nigerian languages. Therefore, the onus for communication fell on the peOples themselves. While this may have been true in some cases, the British were faced, nevertheless, with trying to learn a multitude of languages while Nigerians were faced with only one—~English. Many of the British made commendable efforts to learn the languages. It is a 3L . . . _ L. F. Brosnahan, “Historical Cases of Language ImpositiOn," in Language in Africa, ed. by John Spencer (Cambridge: University Press, 1963), p. 23; J. F. Ade Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria 1841-1891: The Mak— ing of a New Elite (London: Longmans, Green and Co., Ltd., 1965), p. 13; B. Onyerisara Ukeje, Education for Social Egponstruction (Lagos: Macmillan & Co. (Nigeria) Ltd., 1966), pp. 54-56. matter of record that the expatriate staff of the adminis- trative service and many commercial firms often "were given financial and professional incentives to learn the vernacular of their area."4 It is, nevertheless, true that the major portion of language learning became the reSpon— sibility and desire of ambitious Nigerians. Early Educational Implications Goals Missionary activity traditionally has involved itself with education. This proved to be true in Nigeria as well. Missionaries assumed the role of teachers of English, as well as other subjects, usually beginning with a few pupils in their homes.5 In those days the goals of English teaching were to train clerks to carry on routine work in administrative offices, Christians to read the Bible, and assistants and servants of various sorts to be of help in the home, office, church, and, later, school. Probably not a lot of attention was given to the degree of correctness of the 4John N. Paden, "Language Problems of National In- tegration in Nigeria: The Special Position of Hausa," in Language Problems of DevelOping Nations, ed. by Joshua Fishman, Charles A. Ferguson and JyotIfindra Das Gupta (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.. 1968). p. 202 5E. A. Ayandele, "The Coming of Western Education to Africa," West African Journal of Education, XV (Febru— ary, 1971), pp. 22—23; David B. Abernethy, The Political Dilemma of Popular Education: An African Case (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1969), pp. 31—35. language learned according to comments of that day.6 The urgent needs were simple and direct communication and the quickest way to achieve it. There are few indications of early planning for the future of English in Nigeria. All the while, however, its influence was growing. Ckottage efforts at teaching evolved into simple schools euad later into more elaborate, voluntary agency, and then government- ;flanned, —supervised, and —supported educational efforts. All these involved teaching English-~sometimes as a subject in the school, sometimes also as the medium of instruction. Planning By the time of the earliest definite planning for Nigeria's future it was already too late to exclude the English language even if anyone had seriously wanted to. In fact, the British, in contrast to the French in their colonial policies, made efforts to encourage and preserve indigenous languages in the colonies' educational systems.7 . 6Spencer, "West Africa and the English Language," 223.2iE3, p. 13; Elizabeth Tonkin, "Some Coastal Pidgins of West Africa," in Social Anthropology_and Language, ed. by §EWin Ardener (London: Tavistock Publications, 1971), Po 4- For discussion of French policies and a compari— son of French and British policies see Pierre Alexandre, "Some Linguistic Problems of Nation-Building in Negro Africa," in Fishman, Ferguson and Das Gupta, 22, cit., PP. 119-121; Jerry B. Bolibaugh and Paul Hanna, Egucation éélan Instrument of National Policy in Selected Newly; Egyeloping Nations. Phase 2: French Educational Strate- gies for Sub-Saharan Africa: Their Intent, Derivatigg, BBQ DEVEIOpment (Stanford, California: Comparative Interestingly enough, these and other attempts to adapt educational plans to local needs and to develop a more truly functional Nigerian system of education often met with Skepticism and opposition on the part of Nigerians themselves who felt the British administrators vmnre trying to "water down" the education they prOposed to offex‘Ni,. gerians.8 It was felt that what was good enough fcm'tfme administrators should not be thought of as "too good" for the rising nationalists. Furthermore, when Nigerians en— visioned themselves as one day occupying the positions which the British already occupied, certainly they ex— pected their qualifications to be the same as those of the British.9 In the early days of educational planning, evi- dently Nigerians and British alike supported a continuing policy of learning English. While the British themselves raised questions about the importance of indigenous lan- quages in education in their planning in the 19205, it was Education Center, 1964), pp. l9-21, 36, 60; Gerard Lucas and Paul Hanna, Education as an Instrument of National EQlle in Selected Newly Develgping Nations. Phase 3: Egrmal Education in the Congo-Brazzaville: A Study of Educational Poligyyand Practice (Stanford, California: Comparative Education Center, 1964), pp. 42, 58-59, 251. John Hanson, Imagination and Hallucination in African Education (East Lansing: Michigan State Univer- Slty, 19655, p. l 0 James S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nation— 2l2§fl_(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), PP. 120-121. not until perhaps thirty years later that some Nigerians began to wonder whether the English language had become the servant or master. By that time, however, the lan- guage had become such an integral part of Nigeria's edu- cation, commerce, and government, it was too late tx> question whether English should remain. It was rwather firmly rooted and had, in many cases, served the:IVigerians and their nationalistic ambitions well by helping tx>1n1ify diverse peOples and prepare them to govern themselves. Considerations for a National Language It has been said that the British did such a good job propagating their language that they defeated them- selves in West Africa.10 The British have never been possessive concerning the English language. Neverthe- less, it is interesting that the language which they had no choice but to impose on the colonies, with or without permission, became a means of communication and unifica- tion which formed a cohesive force among peoples from an estimated two hundred different language backgrounds. It enabled Nigerians to debate the British in English and win for themselves a peaceful independence.ll L 10 ' L. A. Boadi, "Education and the Role of English in Ghana," in The English Language in West Africa, ed. by Spencer, 22. cit., p. 51. Brosnahan, 22, cit., p. 23. . . . ironically, their eloquence and debating powers could find expression in no other medium than one of the legacies of colonialism, the English language--not because they were not competent in the use of their own first languages but because they had to reach the largest possible number of people within the shortest possible time and at the least expense.l And, while it is the political prerogative of a nation to say what its national language will be, for the new nation of Nigeria to have chosen other than English could easily have raised more serious problems, more difficult to solve.13 An indigenous language Which of many?--Perhaps the first criterion for a national language is that it be "national". English can— not meet this basic requirement for Nigeria and it is an understandable point of pride that many Nigerians prefer an indigenous language as the national language. But which indigenous language when there are perhaps two hun— dred to choose from? Tai Solarin undoubtedly expressed the feelings of many of his fellow countrymen when he wrote, "Whatever Nigerian language we choose is, psycho- logically, a more acceptable language than any foreign language."14 2Boadi, 22. cit., p. 50. l3Alexandre, 22, cit., p. 123. 14Ali A. Mazrui, "Islam and the English Language in East and West Africa," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. by W. H. Whiteley (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 189. o A} ...~ Am 7‘ 9‘» .- Z. ,4~.I \ Political liabilities.--A natural choice would be one of the languages with a viable orthography and a fair amount of literature. With the choice limited by these re- quirements the languages which would become the strongest contenders represent groups which are highly competitive ethnically, geographically, and religiously. The choice of the language of one of these groups could be politically disastrous.15 Aside from the ill-will which mere choice could generate, having one of the indigenous languages as the national language could lead to considerable additional trouble. Those whose mother tongue might be chosen would have an automatic advantage over fellow-citizens and could easily abuse the advantage by attributing to or assuming for themselves intellectual and moral superi- ority, by reason of their language having been chosen, or expose themselves to frequent suspicion and criticism. Native speakers of the chosen language could command priority in consideration for jobs. Their children could benefit from education in their mother tongue, whereas all others would be learning a second language. Such a combination of conditions does not make for a happy or 15Frederick A. O. Schwarz, Jr., Nigeria: The TribeerThe Nation or The Race--The Politics of IndEEen- gence (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Massachusetts In— stitute of Technology Press, 1965), pp. 41-43; Eugene A. Nida and William L. Wonderly, "Communication Roles of Languages in Multilingual Societies," in Whiteley, gg. 312', P- 65- lO . . . 16 unified nation. Viewed from another perspective, there is no indi— genous language or language group to which Nigeria, as a nation, is especially indebted either emotionally or senti- mentally. "No one single Nigerian language commands the 17 None has admiration of [Ehe speakers o§7 the others." contributed to nation-building an unusual share of commonly recognized national heroes; none has produced truly national songs or provided universally accepted, long—standing lead- ership which would serve to help make its language a natural choice for the national language.18 By contrast, in 1967, Tanzania declared Swahili an official language. While an indigenous language, Swahili does not have offensive tribal and ethnic connotations. In some cases, it has been a prestige language. The fact that about ninety per cent of the people have had access to Swahili and use it with varying degrees of fluency is 16G. E. Perren, "Education Through a Second Lan— guage: An African Dilemma," in Education in Africa: Re: search and Action, ed. by Richard Jolly (Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1969), pp. 199-200. 17J. O. Enenmoh, "Language Problems in Nigeria with Particular Reference to the Teaching of English in Primary and Secondary Schools--A Memorandum," in English Language Teaching_in Nigeria, ed. by Robert Jacobs (Mimeographed supplement to special study report) (Decem- ber, 1966), p. 147. 18Joshua A. Fishman, "Nationality-Nationalism and Nation-Nationism," in Fishman, Ferguson, and Das Gupta, 22, gig., p. 46 comments on this in general terms. 11 in its favor. At present it is designated the language of instruction in all primary schools but the government has as its goal the use of Swahili in all levels of edu— cation including the university. In implementing government policy, Tanzania is faced with the problem of the need for an international language and the lack of literature in the national lan— guage. English continues to serve as a supplementary national language.19 Nevertheless, the government is determined in its policy, although, initially, "the deci— sion to make Swahili the national language of Tanzania was more a decision of intention than of fulfillment."20 Literary liabilities.—-When there is no major indigenous language which can rise up as a natural and largely unchallenged national language, it is sometimes possible to choose a minority language relatively free of undesirable connotations. Unfortunately, such minority languages have relatively little written literary tradi— tion and cannot effectively bear the burden or perform the responsibilities of a national language. They do not offer the people of the nation much scope for development ‘-.— 19Lyndon Harries, "Swahili in Modern East Africa," in Fishman, Ferguson and Das Gupta, gg. gi§., pp. 415- 429, gasgim: M. H. Abdulaziz, "Tanzania's National Lan— guage Policy and the Rise of Swahili Political Culture," in Whiteley, 9E. 912., pp. 160-176, passim. OHarries,_o_g. ci ., p. 419. 12 as their horizons are necessarily limited and free communication is confined to the bounds of the group for whom the language is indigenous. To extend the influence and usefulness of a minority language, massive programs of education would be needed requiring thousands of re- trained teachers and quantities of materials. If an indigenous language is chosen as a national language, many citizens will still find it necessary to learn an additional international language for purposes of trade, many sectors of education, and diplomacy. How much more effective and economical it is if the national language is already an international language thereby eliminating one step from the total process of communi— cation. English Assets.--(l) International prominence. Since English apparently is Nigeria's national language——whether by choice, acceptance (or lack of rejection), or inheri— tance from England--it offers several assets. First, there are a certain number of advantages which accrue to users of English because of its status as an international language. French notwithstanding, a former American As- sistant Secretary of State has stated that "most peOple regard English . . . as the language of advancement."21 21Francis J. Colligan and Walter Johnson, "English 13 Approximately two-thirds of the member nations of the United Nations receive transcripts of proceedings in English.22 English has been described as "the most com— mon 'international' language—-spoken by more people and used as a second language by more countries than is the case with any other language used outside national bounda- ries,"23 so established because of its vast learning re- 2 sources. (2) Extensive literature. Scientifically, the world is dependent on English. The "bulk of scientific writing is first published in English,"25 and more scientific material is translated into English than into any other language. Any scientist today who does not have a working knowledge of English is cut off from half or more of the literature in his field. The Encyclopedia of Education calls attention to the fact that "English is learned at some level of the educational systems of nearly every country in the world, Language Teaching and Fulbright Grants," International Educational and Cultural Exchange (Summer, 1965), p. 26. 22Ibid., p. 27. 23Robert Jacobs, ed., English Language Teaching in Nigeria (Lagos, Nigeria, 1966)(Mimeographed), p. l. 24J. C. Rudd, "A New Approach to Reading Efficien— cy," English Language Teaching, XXIII (May, 1969), p. 233. 25V. E. Leichty, "Education in South America," l2? ternational Educational and Cultural Exchange (Spring, 1968), p. 33 26Jacobs, 22. cit., pp. 35, 38. 14 both in highly developed countries and in those in the pro- cess of development."27 The same work summarizes the inter— national importance of English as follows, Besides serving the infinite needs of its native speak- ers, English is a language in which some of the most important works in science, technology, and other fields are being produced, and not always by native speakers. It is widely used for such purposes as me- teorological and airport communications, international conferences, and the dissemination of information over the radio and television networks of many nations. It is a language of wider communication for a number of developing countries, eSpecially former British colo- nies. Many of these countries have multi—lingual popu- lations and need a language for internal communication in such matters as government, commerce, industry, law, and education, as well as for international communica- tion and for access to the scientific and technologi- cal developments in the West. (3) Politically expedient—-tribally neutral. In the Nigerian context, English serves other purposes which are more distinctive and often peculiarly Nigerian. For example, in the days of preparation for independence the English language served as a unifying force in that it pro— vided something in common shared by the trained leaders of all groups in Nigeria. Furthermore, the fact that it was also shared with the colonial administration lessened the foreignness of the latter and reduced the distance between the two parties. The ease and Speed of turn—over and 7Sirarpi Ohannessian, "English for Speakers of Other Languages," in The Encyclopedia of Education, 1971, III, p. 302. 28Ibid., p. 303. 15 take-over were, no doubt, greatly augmented by the fact that both sets of participants in the transaction had been negotiating in the same language. The report of a special study on English language teaching in Nigeria co-sponsored by the Nigerian National Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of Edu- cation of Nigeria calls attention to the extensive use Nigeria has made of English and to the fact that with careful planning English is in an unusual position to meet even more of Nigeria's needs.29 Although some zealous nationalists feel Nigerian purposes can hardly be served by a non-Nigerian language, English has provided Nigeria with a national language that is tribally neutral-—one which can cross various ethnic boundaries and provide a bond of national unity without putting an indigenous Nigerian language at an advantage by virtue of its having been chosen over other Nigerian languages, or at a dis— advantage by revealing its limitations as a national lan- guage. In View of the highly international character of English, Nigerians may freely use English as a national language without feeling that they have been disloyal to Nigeria or that they have denied the value of any Nigerian language which was not chosen as a national language. 29Jacobs, gp, cit., pp. 4, ll. l6 Nigerian languages are still free to serve their many local functions which do not require extensive literature or wide currency. At the same time, English can serve as the national and international language bearing any criti- cism which may come without suffering ethnic offense. English is able to help meet many of Nigeria's needs in manpower training and human resources development by providing the tools of learning already available in Eng— lish, thereby contributing to Nigeria's national growth and progress. To reconstruct such tools in a Nigerian language would be a time— and money-consuming task which Nigeria can hardly afford at this stage of her development. Nigeria's Parliament has designated English the country's official language. The fact of Nigeria's ac- ceptance of the British bequest of the English language and her provision for the perpetuation and extension of the uses of English in the nation have further strength— ened English as the national language. Both Nigerians and expatriate commentators see the influence and uses of English as unlikely to diminish in Nigeria and predict that the Nigerian Government, while trying to sustain and strengthen vernacular languages, will not do so at the risk of impeding English.3O Nevertheless, there are 30Spencer, "West Africa and the English Language," 22, cit., p. 30; Ayo Bamgbose, "The English Language in‘ Nigeria," in The English Language in West Africa, 92, cit., p. 35. 17 certain charges levelled against English which weaken the contribution it is able to make. Liabilities.-—(l) Linguistic loyalties. English is the mother tongue of none of Nigeria's people,31 it com- mands no natural linguistic loyalty. It is a foreign lan- guage for all and must be so acquired by almost all who would aspire to its use.32 However, it offers, equally to all, the same disadvantage of having to be learned outside the home and puts none at a decided advantage. Thus, it serves to keep all ethnic groups in the nation on an equal footing as far as national language is caicerned. (2) Elitism. The charge that the use of English promotes elitism may be a commendation or accusation de- pending on one's view of elitism. When only five to ten percent of the peOple (for the most part the more highly educated) are proficient in English, it does constitute a cleavage between the educated and the masses. In most societies where the opportunities for education are limited and the demands for those Opportunities are extensive, some sort of elitism is bound to form, encompassing those lPossible exceptions are children of cross-tribal parentage whose parents compromise and use English rather than one or both of their native languages in the home. Here the children learn English as their "mother tongue." 32John Spencer, "Language and Independence," in Language in Africa, ed. by John Spencer (Cambridge: Uni— versity Press, 1963), p. 34. 18 who are fortunate enough to be chosen to partake of the Opportunities. Since the acquisition of English usually occurs in a formal educational setting, what is seen as a criticism of English might well be a criticism of edu— cation whether English is involved or not. If, however, one of the nation's purposes of education is to create an elite leadership, then the fact that education has been successful should not constitute a criticism. (3) Effect on national cultures. Increased at- tention to and use of English is also said to be detri- mental to indigenous cultures. This is probably true and, if so, is one of the prices which must be paid for modern education and progress. At the same time, most types of non-traditional education serve in varying degrees to alienate the learner from traditional culture. The fact that English is one element of modern education should not subject it to an unfair proportion of criticism for destroying the traditional way of life. Native cultures would be subject to tremendous pressures of change by other forces of modernity even if English were not a factor. Summary English cannot satisfy all the desiderata which might exist for an ideal national language for Nigeria. Nevertheless, it has been of great benefit to Nigeria. If, 19 for reasons indicated and others less obvious, it is not possible for a vernacular language to serve as the national language, then Nigerians can recognize and appreciate the fact that "this colonially imposed language, by a fortunate chance of history, happens to be one of the most useful of all languages in the modern world,"33 and can make their own carefully considered plans to take from it every pos— sible advantage that it might offer. The 1962 Interna- tional Meeting on Second Language Problems noted that unless in the developing countries measures are taken immediately for the sharp improvement in the teaching of second languages, there will, within about 15 years, be administrative chaos and economic stagnation in many of these countries. . . . There is an urgent need to improve the institutional base for gicond lan- guage teaching in the deve10ping countries. Such plans cannot avoid involving formal education. 33Spencer, "West Africa and the English Language," 92, cit., p. 31. 34Jane Alden, "English Language Teaching Abroad," International_Educational and Cultural Exchange (Spring, 1966), p. 35. Q ‘s L, 'Q is CHAPTER II A NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM-- THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH The fact that English is serving as Nigeria's official national language implies that careful atten- tion must be given to the place of English in the na— tion's educational system and to the effectiveness of the educational system in developing and utilizing plans which fully exploit any potential usefulness of English to the nation. In Nigeria, education, knowledge of Eng- lish, and social status are often equated.1 Every care must be taken then to assure that national values with reference to the first two, at least, are not permitted to settle at low levels. Warning has been given that a country like Nige— ria is apt to underestimate the contribution which English can make to her students' general education.2 Similarly, aside from the pragmatic and utilitarian functions of 1John Spencer, "West Africa and the English Lan- guage," in The English Language in West Africa, ed. by John Spencer (London: Longmans, 1971), pp. 4, 13, 21. 2Donald G. Burns, AfricggEducation. An Intro- ductory Survey of Education in Commonwealth Countriés (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 61. 20 21 English for communication, a number of African writers are making creative use of English.3 The encouragement and development of this trend is also seen as one of the challenges and responsibilities of education.4 The basic guidelines set by the National Univer— sities Commission and Federal Ministry of Education spe— cial study survey team identify the relationship between English and education in Nigeria. 1. English is the language which at present is being used as the official medium of communication in Nigeria, and it will probably continue to be used in this capacity for some time to come. 2. As a national language, English must serve as the language of government, the language of learn— ing, the language of science and technology, the lan- guage of business and commerce, the unifying language of internal communication, and the language of inter- national discourse. In short, the role of communica- tion in Nigerian national deve10pment (economic, social, and political) must be served largely by English. 3Frederick A. O. Schwarz, Jr., Nigeria: The Tribes, The Nation or The Race-—The Politics of Indepen- dence (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology Press, 1965), p. 45. Some writers and critics question whether true African literature can be written in a non-African language. For a discussion, see Obiajunwa Wall, "The Dead End of African Literature," Transition, Vol. 3 (September, 1963), pp. 13—15; and sub- sequent letters to the editor, Vol. 3 (November, 1963), pp. 7-9; Vol. 3 (January-February, 1964), pp. 6—10; and Chinua Achebe, "English and the African Writer," Transi- tion, Vol. 4, No. 18 (1965), pp. 27—30. 4L. A. Boadi, "Education and the Role of English in Ghana," in The English Language in West Africa, ed. by John Spencer (London: Longmans, 1971), pp. 63- 65. 22 3. In view of the above facts, English should be taught as effectively as possible. . . . In a learning situation where English is being used as the medium of instruction, the importance of having proficiency in English is paramount. Its mastery will not guarantee scholastic success, but certainly ina- bility in English can easily lead to failure. Mastery of the language must extend far beyond the ability to "absorb" or memorize content printed in English. Asso— ciative processes, the formation of new concepts, thinking, planning, creating, and analysis and summary are just some of the elements of learning which must be handled in the 1anguage—-and without the intermedi— ate step of translation if learning is to be effective and efficient. Therefore, mastery of the skills of the language must be much more complete than is the case in learning a "foreign" language as a supplemen— tary communication skill. For education to fulfill all that is expected of it with reference to the teaching of English is a difficult task. Problems are inherent in both the educational system and the teaching of English in Nigeria. Several of these problems will be briefly surveyed. General Problems Vernacular interference In addition to the charges of fostering elitism and alienation which have already been mentioned, the teaching of English faces other problems. A major problem is native language interference, elements of which are manifested at all levels of second language learning. 5Robert Jacobs, ed., English Language Teaching in Nigeria (Lagos, Nigeria, 1966)’(Mimeographed), pp. 4, 38. 23 Although English may actually be a third or fourth lan— guage for the learner, the principles of second language teaching and learning still seem to apply.6 Interference may be phonological, syntactic, seman- tic, or sociological in nature. As a matter of principle, features of a language learner's mother tongue intrude upon the second or foreign language during the learning process.7 Features absent in the second language may be inserted by the learner. Features necessary to the second language but absent in the native language will be omitted. The process of interference causes mispronunciations, im- proper intonation, misuse of grammatical forms, omission or miSplacement of words, and confused or incorrect idioms. The extent and degree to which interference is controlled or eliminated determines one's fluency and correctness. Since he is normally learning and using the language with others whose patterns of interference are very similar to his own, they will be able to communicate, 6D. W. Grieve, "English Language Problems in West African Schools--A Survey," West African Journal of Edge cation, IX (June, 1965), pp. 70. 71-72. Grieve classi- fies English both as a second language because of its status and utility in the Nigerian community at large, and as a foreign language because it is the language of the school but not of the home or immediate community. 7Carlos Alfredo Yorio, "Some Sources of Reading Problems for Foreign-Language Learners," Language Learn- ing, V01. 21, NO. 1’ pp. 107-115. 24 though in a non-standard dialect. The form of language which they use, however, if mutant and non—standard, will not be readily understood by someone who uses a more standard dialect. Sociolinguistics The problems of sociolinguistic interference are receiving considerable attention at the present.8 Students of this attitudinal phenomenon raise questions which have to do with the level of correctness of English to be in- sisted upon. It is their contention that interference of various sorts is bound to occur and that it is impossible for a second—language learner to attain native—speaker perfection.9 Why, therefore, should he strive for that which is unattainable? A further contention asserts that native-Speaker 8Mobolaji A. Adekunle, "Toward a Realistic Ap- proach to Problems of English Instruction in West Africa," English Language Teaching (May, 1970), pp. 269-278; Mobo- laji A. Adekunle, Sociolinguistic Problems in English Lan- ggage Instruction in Nigeria (Paper presented at the Ameri- can AnthrOpological Association Annual Meeting, November 18, 1971); Clifford H. Prator,"The British Heresy in TESL," in Language Problems of Developing Nations, ed. by Joshua Fishman, Charles A. Ferguson and Jyotirindra Das Gupta (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968), pp. 459—476; Spencer, 2p. git., pp. 1-33; Ayo Bamgbose, "The English Language in Nigeria," in Spencer, pp. 933., pp. 35—48; Anthony Kirk—Greene, "The Influence of West African Lan- guages on English," in Spencer, gp..git., pp. 123-143. 9This latter point could perhaps be debated by those who know Nigerians who have attained at least near native-speaker perfection. 25 facility in English is not completely useful to most peo- ple in Nigeria and that, in fact, it hinders communication in some cases. A type of English which embodies inter— ference features is more easily spoken by Nigerians and subjects no one to criticism for being snobbish or overly imitative of English speakers. The process of imitation which is essential in developing competent fluency in English is also seen as a degrading exercise which many Nigerians are not willing to engage in. While sociolinguistic objections are legitimate, they are unfortunate for the learning of English as a second language. They easily provide excuses for students and teachers who wish to do less than their best.10 One counter-critic has observed that those who speak English "identifiably like Africans do so because of the failure of English teaching not because of its success [in adapt— ing to sociolinguistic demandg7."ll Whatever allowance might be made for sociolin- guistic problems, the question always arises as to how much consideration should be given and how far one can alter standard English and still be considered as using acceptable English. The answers are so subjectively loPrator, gp. cit., p. 474 11Peter Strevens, "English in African Education: What Kind of English?" in Education in Africa: Research and Action, ed. by Richard Jolly (Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1969), pp. 195-196. 26 conditioned that there are as many answers as there are teachers and learners of English. Each one feels free to set his own standards; that his English is as good as anyone else's; that his English is good enough. Prator quotes Bloomfield to the effect that such concessions pro- duce "nobody's language but only a compromise between a foreign speaker's version, and so on, in which each party imperfectly reproduces the other's reproduction."12 The goal of the schools should still be standard English as near that of educated and universally intelli- gible native users as possible. The minimum standard should be that which is internationally usable and intel- ligible—-otherwise English has lost much of its value to Nigeria. There are many types of English in productive use in the world today, yet, it is difficult to establish how the purposes of English as a second language can be furthered by advocating and condoning adaptation of the language to the point that it is readily intelligible to certain Nigerian users while unintelligible to users of the language from other English—speaking areas of the world. Rather, a system of teaching is desirable in which teachers are able to provide excellent models for students and then sympathetically help students strive for excel- lence with standard, internationally intelligible English 12Prator, gp.lgig., p. 465. 27 as the goal. Unfortunately, the high standards of this goal may not be realistic and attainable at the present in Nigeria. The school cannot control the type of English that is propagated outside the school. This type of English, nevertheless, has a decided effect upon the pupils. The best and most productive attitude for schools to take toward the problem is to consider the various non-standard types of English as dialects which are, in themselves, useful to students. The facts that such dia- lects are used by students and that various elements in society maintain and utilize them serve as indicators that they should be accepted for what they are. School—centered efforts, however intensive, cannot eradicate them. Some of the non-standard varieties of English are themselves products of the users' efforts in certain schools. The schools are responsible, however, for teaching standard English which will co—exist with non—standard varieties as another dialect with its own times and places of usefulness. This makes teaching of standard English more difficult but may elicit more cooperation on the part of learners. Teachers can do much to help students foster pride in a job well done. Often teachers are uninformed or un- concerned when students succumb to forces which discourage 28 their progress in language learning. Such forces portray the learner as becoming too foreign and demand proof that he has not yielded to foreign influences represented, in this case, by the English language. Such proof takes the form of vernacularized English standing as testimony that the individual has not lost his African characteristics. Those Nigerians who have been able to master Eng- lish have made the necessary sacrifices, sometimes at the cost of ridicule by their less able friends who try to appear more nationalistic. Their mastery of English gains for them and their country the full benefits of the English language. They appear no less African or Nigerian for having done so. Vernaculars are still theirs for use when necessary and appropriate. Pidgin or even "verna- cular English" may be used on certain occasions. These latter styles do not serve as the standard for those who master English. A fully intelligible English is also at their command. Primary School Problems Mother tongue or English-- subject or medium At the primary school level where young Nigerians normally have their introduction to English several prob- lems are inherent. The first of these is determining the time when instruction in English should begin. When should English be taught as a subject and when should it be the 29 medium of instruction? Psychologists normally agree that a child's intro- duction to formal schooling should be in his mother tongue. There is less shock and strangeness attached to the new learning process. The use of another language, either as subject or medium, early in life and education is upsetting to the child. For these reasons it is usually advocated that children be taught in the mother tongue for the first two or three years of primary school. After that time another language may be introduced as a subject with a gradual change-over to the use of that language as a medium if this is necessary. This, generally, was the theme of the Phelps-Stokes Commission report in 1922, the Imperial Education Conference of 1923, and reports in 1925 and 1927 by the Advisory Committee on Native Education in British TrOpical Dependencies.l3 Attempts to follow the recommendations of these conferences created problems almost immediately in Nigerian primary schools. Considering the vast number of different mother tongues in Nigeria and the migration of peoples within Nigeria, it would be physically and financially impossible to provide early primary school instruction in the mother tongue for all Nigerian children. It is l3Julian Dakin, Brian Tiffen and H. G. Widdowson, Language in Education (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 73—75. 30 inevitable that quite a large number of children will not have the privilege of being taught in their own languages. The UNESCO Conference on the Use in Education of African Languages in Relation to English in 1952 recognized these problems and acknowledged the fact that there was a need to begin early study of English. In 1961, the Commonwealth Conference on the Teach— ing of English as a Second Language was less concerned about the mother tongue and approved the teaching of Eng— lish as early as possible in the primary school curriculum. Approval was based on the fact that learning English is essential to the child's future progress. Furthermore, early primary years are the most advantageous for learn- ing a new language if it is ideally taught on an oral approach having linguistically sound foundations. Since that time, several Nigerian school systems have insti- tuted early teaching of English.14 Some have adOpted the "Straight for English" approach which allows only minimal use of vernacular languages. Language learning environment The English learning environment of the Nigerian primary school pupil is not a congenial one. Parents normally feel a sense of pride that their children are learning English. However, little can be done to offer l4Ibid., pp. 69, 83, 84. 31 children the encouragement and reinforcement of meaningful experiences in the English language learning process. Most Nigerian communities provide little, if any, opportunity for the children to practice English in a real- life situation. Those with whom the pupils talk are usually not able to provide examples by which the learner may cor- rect his mistakes. Although the home and community have few English speakers, they continue to exert full vernacular influence between school hours and during vacation times. These circumstances can almost erase whatever has been achieved in learning English either as a school subject or as the medium of instruction. At times, when a serious student tries to imitate the best English of which he is aware, he may be the subject of ridicule. At that age, children are sensitive to disapproving attitudes which serve to debilitate their English language interests. Teachers,_materialsy_methods The use of an oral approach and a linguistically sound foundation in teaching English as a second language to primary school pupils has been mentioned. The condie tions often found in-primary schools constitute hindrances to the correct learning of English. The recommended ap- proach and foundation assume that teachers are well quali- fied to teach English and are able to serve as good models 32 of spoken English. Such conditions are essential in training pupils to hear, distinguish, and imitate cor- rect English speech. Unfortunately, most Nigerian primary school teachers are poorly qualified.15 The Jacobs study in— dicates that seventy-five per cent of Nigeria's 87,000 primary school teachers were unqualified or underqualified as late as 1966.16 They have learned English from non—native Speak- ers and are descendants of several generations of teach- ers who have perpetuated what is sometimes termed "verna- cular English". Teaching of this quality, instead of instilling a standard form of English, serves to reinforce linguistic problems which the pupil brings from his own mother tongue to the learning of English. Frequently, teachers do not recognize themselves as inadequate. Others demonstrate an attitude of indifference or con- tempt for efforts to raise standards. Still others sin— cerely feel inadequate and make no effort at all to teach 15J. O. Enenmoh, "Language Problems in Nigeria with Particular Reference to the Teaching of English in Primary and Secondary Schools——A Memorandum," in En.lish Language Teaching in Nigeria, ed. by Robert Jacobs (Mimeo- graphed supplement to special study report) (December, 1966), p. 148; B. Onyerisara Ukeje, Education for Social Reconptguction (Lagos: Macmillan & Co. (Nigeria) Ltd., 1966), pp. 90-91; Dakin, gp,lgig., p. 82; Harold Jowitt, Suggested Methods_for the African Schgols (London: Long— sans, Green and Co., 1949), p. 93. 16 Jacobs, gp. cit., p. 9. 33 English. Primary school, while serving the age-level at which language learning should be most productive, has proven to be an inefficient agent in the teaching of Eng— lish. Poorly qualified teachers are often a major factor. Language is best learned when there are real life situations in which it can be practiced. Nigerian pri- mary school pupils, however, find their efforts at learn— ing English confined to the classroom because there are few opportunities in their homes or communities to use English. Added to other problems are the usual complaints of lack of teaching materials, equipment, and facilities which plague the teaching of English as well as other functions of the primary school in Nigeria. All these factors combine to produce such poor users of English that secondary school teachers and, later, university teachers turn to the primary school to con— demn its teaching of English. Some who consider the situation hopeless have suggested that all teaching of English be postponed until the secondary school when it is hOped better teaching can be provided. It is unlikely that this suggestion will be followed. The entire educa- tional system applies pressure on pupils to study English as early as possible for the purposes of gaining admission to higher schools and passing examinations. The problem is passed to secondary schools to do whatever they can to 34 remediate and build upon the primary school foundation of English language teaching. Secondagy School Problems Primary school foundation The Nigerian primary school pupil must prove a degree of proficiency in English in order to be among the few offered admission to secondary school. He must pass an entrance examination written in English. Upon achieving a high score on the examination he is usually called for an interview. A number of successful candidates have later admitted that this occasion marked their first con- versation with a native English Speaker—-the secondary school teacher or principal who conducted the interview. This circumstance is, of course, changing as the number of expatriate teachers in Nigeria decreases. Many secondary school admissions are obviously made on the basis of the aspirant’s ability to Speak and understand oral English. It is unfortunate that a pupil's knowledge is measured almost solely by his mastery of a foreign language which he has been poorly taught. Yet, much of his success in secondary school will depend on his knowledge of English. When a primary school pupil is admitted to secon- dary school he is initiated into a predominately English— speaking world. The use of vernacular is prohibited in the interest of inter-tribal harmony and the improvement 35 of students' English.17 The primary school is usually a local school but the secondary school has all the aura of "going away to school". Even students whose parents live in the town where their secondary school is located usu— ally prefer to board at the school if the opportunity is given. The gap between the end of primary school and the beginning of secondary school is a big one. The structure and conduct of the school itself are patterned after the British grammar school. Being British-in tradition and practice, the Nigerian secondary school offers an academic, text-book oriented education. Arts subjects are usually predominant and subjects of a practical nature are few. Proficiency in English is de- manded by this sort of curriculum. The new secondary school student will normally find his primary school Eng- lish foundation insufficient for what he is expected to do in secondary school. Having reached the age of adoles— cence he has, unfortunately, passed the prime years for . . . . . 18 near—native competence in language achlSltlon. 17 . . . . The latter purpose is coming under increaSLng criticism for sociolinguistic reasons. Its actual value is yet to be proven or diSproven. 18H. R. Huse, Reading_and Speaking_Foreign_Lan- guages (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1945), pp. 6-9; Bernard Spolsky, "Attitudinal As— pects of Second Language Learning," Language Learning, XIX, No. 3—4, p. 272. 36 Syllabus system Each subject has its own syllabus designed to "cover the subject". Teachers are expected to teach the text-books adopted to meet the requirements of the syl- labus. Students feel their time is being wasted and com— plain if a teacher gets off the syllabus. Innovative teachers who have had their training in a less rigid system feel that the syllabus stifles creativity, encour— ages memorization of the textbook, and neither demands nor encourages students to think productively. External examinations Closely allied with the syllabus system are the external examinations. At the end of their course, Ni- gerian secondary school students face the comprehensive West African School Certificate examination in from six to ten subjects. To fail the examination is to be denied further educational opportunity and to be relegated to lower salary scales for the rest of ones life. The nature and content of the examination are such that students are further encouraged in their pat- terns of memorization which have been rooted in the oral tradition of their cultures, nourished by the teaching methods of their primary schools, and further developed by the syllabus system of their secondary schools. Only in the memorization of model answers, textbooks, and 37 class notes does the secondary school student feel he has stored up sufficient knowledge to assure his success in the examination. The requirements of the syllabus and examination encourage the students' propensity to memorize rather than develop their ability to think creatively. The detailed syllabus and the ubiquitous textbook, however, provide support to many teachers who are poorly trained and who lack sufficient confidence and background to attempt inno- vative experimentation in teaching. In the face of fre- quent staff turn-over the syllabus and textbooks sometimes make it possible for students with supervisory help to study without a full-time teacher and still pass the examination. The fact that the system accommodates and even encourages memorization can be quite functional for those whose societies have long valued memorization as a part of their traditional education. Yet, in the words of Hanson, When combined with the African's ability and interest in memorizing (perhaps arising in part from the heri- tage of memorized traditions), the insecurity and in— adequacy of teachers, and job opportunities and salary structures geared closely to certificate examination results, these examinations have tended to produce people adept in verbalizing and reiterating factual information, but peculiarly inept and inexperienced in demonstrating the intellectual initiative and at- titudes most needed in a modernizing society.19 The ominous examination serves as a rigid, external force 9Hanson, 2p. cit., p. 15. 38 to "keep standards up", but it has led one Nigerian edu- cator to ask whether many countries in Africa have "a system of education or a system of examinations".20 Such a system of secondary education constitutes an obstacle to improved language learning,21 especially when it is taught by an audio—lingual approach. Prior to the English syllabus reforms of 1966, Grieve said the syl— labus "bears about as much relation to the true facts of language as the flat-earth theory has to the facts of Geography".22 Modern language teaching techniques call for a great deal of freedom for both teacher and students in language expression and experimentation. It is some- times difficult to achieve enough flexibility and freedom in the syllabus and school schedule to permit effective language teaching and practice. Attitudes Nigerian adolescents are especially sensitive to those socio-linguistic forces mentioned earlier. No less than their counterparts in other parts of the world, they are subject to peer pressure and are eager to prove 20Babs A. Fafunwa, New Perspectives in African Educatign_(Lagos: Macmillan and Co. (Nigeria) Ltd., 1967), p. 46. 21Ronald Forrest, "English Language Teaching ver- sus the Examiners," English Language Teaching‘(January, 1968), p. 119. 22Grieve, gp. cit., p. 72. 39 themselves loyal Nigerians who have not become too de- pendent on the English language. Several studies discuss the vital importance of the learners' attitude in second language acquisition. Spolsky discusses the effect which parents and peer groups have on second language learning. The learner's attitude toward the second language, its native users, and the cul- ture they represent all influence his progress in learning the language which in many ways implies his desire to af- filiate with the new culture.23 Zintz lists desire to learn the second language as a prime factor in a student's ability to acquire it.24 Capps states: "Desire must have strong reinforcement of need to keep a student struggling with the complexities of the English language. . . . Desire or motivation is seriously reduced if that desire produces an alienating situation."25 At a time when Nigerian secondary school students need the best English they can learn, sociological forces converge to weaken their motivation to do their best. 23Spolsky, gp, cit., pp. 273—275. 24Miles V. Zintz, gprrective Reading_(Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1966), p. 123. 25Ethel L. Capps, "Problems in Teaching Reading to Bilingual Children," in Reading Goals for the Disad— vantaged. ed. by J. Allen Figurel (Newark, Delaware: In- ternational Reading Association, 1970), p. 250. 40 Teachers and schools often find these forces difficult to overcome o Teachersy_materialsygmethods The provision of teachers of English for Nigeria's secondary schools is another complex problem. Such teach- ers may be native English speakers or Nigerian teachers who have a good command of English. Ideally, they are Specially trained in methods of teaching English as a second language and have a knowledge of the linguistic features of Nigerian languages. For expatriate teachers, a knowledge of Nigerian languages, coupled with a know- ledge of the country and acceptance by the students, usually comes only after a period of experience in Nigeria. Un- fortunately, most expatriate teachers serve for periods of one or two years and leave just as they are becoming most useful. Both Nigerian and expatriate teachers, while knowing their own languages, may not know the linguistic peculiarities of English and the native languages of their pupils. In a day of increased nationalism the number of expatriates employed to teach in Nigerian secondary schools is steadily decreasing. Those most likely to be retained are teachers of science and technological subjects. Even those who may be engaged to teach English are not likely to have the desired special training and are not likely to 41 serve very long. Except in some schools in southern Nigeria, well- qualified Nigerian teachers with a good command of English do not usually find themselves teaching very long in a secondary school. Their services are sought by government and commercial concerns in positions which are more presti- gious and remunerative than teaching. Their terms of ser- vice are, like their expatriate counterpartsg short and sporadic. Even if they do teach they are seldom assigned to lower classes where needs for English teachers are crucial. These conditions will, of course, change as more teachers become available. Teaching materials for English classes are usually limited by lack of funds and availability. More sophisti- cated equipment such as language laboratories must be im- ported at great cost and maintenance without necessary Spare parts and qualified technicians can become a night— mare. Furthermore, when funds are available they are often used for more popular items such as science equip— ment or sports facilities. Teaching methods as well as materials are more often geared to the syllabus and the forthcoming examina- tion than to the students' individual needs. Even those teachers who feel rebellious toward the system must make their contributions within the system. Furthermore, sym- pathetic teachers are hesitant to do anything that might 42 jeopardize their students' chances on the examination. They usually submit, therefore, to the pressures to coach for the examination, using whatever Opportunities are available for some creative teaching "beyond the sylla- bus." Unfortunately, such limitations do not leave much time or energy for building a good English-as-a—second- language program. Nigerian secondary schools produce a number of School Certificate holders--almost all of whom are con- fident that they are capable of further study. Many ultimately find themselves in higher secondary or sixth form courses. Here, the two-year curriculum leading to the Higher School Certificate involves the study of fewer subjects but is still syllabus- and textbook-oriented and is followed by an external examination. There is less direct teaching of oral English usage, but reading, writ— ing, and creative thinking in English continue to be of critical importance. Following the Higher School Certificate course and, in unusual circumstances, the regular secondary course, selection is made for university entrance. Al- though requirements for entrance are stringent and pre- sumably only the best students gain admission, many uni- versity students are still not proficient enough in English. 43 BeetySecqndary School Problems ££ior_ppeperation The English language problems of the student at the post-secondary level of education in Nigeria are com- pounded of the problems of the primary and secondary schools. Although there are several types of post—secondary schools in Nigeria, problems encountered at the university level are representative of those in other kinds of schools. As Dakin remarks, At the moment there are indications that many uni— versity and training college students suffer in their studies because of an inadequate command of the lan- guage of instruction. . . . If the student is to pursue his higher studies profitably his mastery of Englgsh must approximate to that of the native speaker. 6 Tginking and participating Special mention is made of the fact that university students are often handicapped because of their inability to think in English. Factors which encourage memorization rather than creative thinking have already been identified in the education system and in the teaching methods of pri- mary and secondary schools. Teachers who wish to save time and who may not be able to direct discussions which involve much freedom of individual expression often give students solutions to problems or interpretations of state— ments without requiring the students to struggle with their 26Dakin, pp, cit., p. 91. 44 own thought processes. Those students who have not learned to think creatively prior to entering university find it difficult to begin at that late date. Thinking creatively is, of course, even more difficult in English than in the students' native languages. Interestingly enough, a commendable feature of Nigerian culture could be at the root of students' seem- ing lack of ability to think creatively. Most Nigerian children are taught to be obedient and respectful to their elders. To enter into dispute with reSpected elders, such as parents and teachers,is no light offense. Yet, to engage in creative thinking, one must question and dis— pute. Participation in discussions and seminars which are so much a part of university education demand it. Herein lies a cultural conflict which, added to language problems, can affect a Nigerian university student's full involvement in the normal course of aCademic pursuit. Al- though a student may be thinking creatively, he may be hesitant to express his thoughts. Of course, there are those students who have become alienated from their basic culture and who do not observe all the traditional customs. Such students more freely discuss and argue. A Nigerian young person seldom has to deliberate and reach a significant decision by himself. Advice and suggestions are always offered by other members of the nuclear or extended family. The Opinions of Older members 45 usually take precedence and following them is almost mandatory. While very useful in some contexts, this cus- tom is not conducive to independent thinking which is needed in university classes, tutorials, and seminars. Lectures and qgtetaking Those students who lack proficiency in hearing oral English find it extremely difficult to follow lec— tures and take notes. This is especially true when their lecturers Speak English with a variety of accents. Many factors of oral comprehension which have already been discussed affect their skill. Furthermore, what the lec- turer says must often be mentally translated into the vernacular, the process of which prevents the student from hearing the speaker's next remarks.2'7 The normally shorter second-language memory span may not permit the student to retain that which he has heard long enough to formulate notes, write them, and maintain the lecturer's thought 2 sequence. 27David A. Munro, "The Function of a Department of English in a Deve10ping Nation," in Jacobs (Mimeographed supplement), 22, 913., p. 11; Robert Lado, Language Teach: igg; §_§giegtific Approach (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 28Harold B. Dunkel, Second-Language Learnigg (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1948), p. 39; Wilga M. Rivers, Igaghing Fggeigp Language Skills (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 220; Yorio, 22, git., p. 108. 46 Summary Once more in the pursuit of education Nigerian stu— dents are frustrated by the English language dilemma. Their frustration is often in relation to their knowledge and proficiency in English. As in the case of admission to secondary school or passing the school certificate ex— amination, the gaining of a university degree may be based as much on the student's command of English as on his ability in his chosen field. The importance of English in the life of Nigerian students at all levels of the education system cannot be gainsaid. Having been accepted as the national and inter— national language for the educated and elite of Nigeria, English presumes to rule the country's formal education. It provides the reservoirs of knowledge am] the means of transmitting modern learning and technology to Nigeria's developing leaders. Furthermore, it dictates many of the thought processes by which understanding of this knowledge is to be achieved. Perhaps no one fully appreciates these facts and plans accordingly for development of Nigeria's education. Noticeably absent from the discussions of this chapter have been considerations of the reading of English as related to other English language problems in Nigerian education. This very important aSpect of English language learning is considered in the next chapter. CHAPTER III A NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM-— THE TEACHING OF READING The ability to read English is a key factor in the overall achievement of Nigerian students, especially as they enter the secondary school and university. Some students of the problem feel that reading may be more important to Nigerians than to native readers of English. This is partially based on the fact that native readers have constant contact with native Speakers and a number of environmental sources of the language. Nigerian readers, however, often must depend on reading itself for new words and phrases and standards of usage.1 In Nigeria where there are few native speakers for refer— ence, especially in the earlier language learning expe— riences, reading may even serve as a basis for improving Spoken language. Egimary School Problems In order to parallel the study of English language learning in general in Nigeria as discussed in Chapter 1R. Chapman—Taylor, "Notes on Reading," in English Language Teaching in Nigeria, ed. by Robert Jacobs (Mimeo- graphed supplement to Special study report) (December, 1966), p. 76. 47 48 Two, the reading problem as related to the Nigerian pri- mary school will be examined first in this chapter. Reference has been made to the basic importance of a sound oral English foundation as requisite to building good reading development. Further attention to the relation of the oral English background to reading skills is given in Chapter Four. Teachinggmethods English as a second 1anguag§.——Teaching methods for English as a second language emphasize the importance of instilling within learners the English sound system by means of drills and pattern practice. Only after a good oral foundation has been laid is any attempt at reading encouraged. This principle is held to even though the extent of the reading process in its initial stages is restricted by the limited number of phonemes which have already been mastered orally and the small vocabulary which can be built upon them. Ideally, Nigerian primary school teachers should be able to ascertain whether their pupils can distin— guish and discriminate among the various English pho— nemes. Deficiencies can then be corrected through appropriate drills. Reading at this early stage consists of teaching 49 pupils to recognize graphemes which represent the pho- nemes they know. In beginning reading, attention is paid to a high degree of phoneme-grapheme correSpondence. Words and, preferably, phrases and sentences are built from a limited number of graphemes whose phonemes have been mastered. Not all linguistic and reading authorities agree on just which steps should be employed at precisely which stages of reading deveIOpment. Some appear to favor a monosyllabic approach which teaches students to recog- nize and reproduce a number of monosyllables and to arrange them into sentences. Others feel this does not accurately represent and teach actual language patterns and so prefer an approach involving the learning of larger groups of words. Still others favor an intonation approach based on the patterns of English intonation.2 Perhaps what is important for our present consideration is that the method is still basically oral and offers enough variety for capable teachers to be able to choose the approach or combination of approaches which best suits the needs of their pupils. Methods for teaching English as a second language, more generally classified as an audio-lingual approach, 2Dolores Durkin, "Linguistics and Reading Teachers," Education, Vol. 86, No. 3 (November, 1965), p. 156; Ruth G. Strickland, "Language, Linguistics, Reading," Childhood Education, Vol. 42, No. 3 (November, 1965), p. 144. 50 are largely inoperative in Nigerian primary schools. Seve— ral factors contribute to this. First, Nigerian primary school teachers are not usually trained in the method. Bedford states that it is very difficult to train a teacher in Specific second language methods. He feels that the skills are largely developed through the teacher knowing the principles and then applying them with a great deal of versatility and insight.3 Usually, large classes also hinder good teaching. Second, the audio-lingual approach is charac- terized as being very demanding of teachers' time and energy. The teacher must be perceptive of students' needs and flexible enough to change methods quickly and frequently as the occasion demands. Unfortunately, most Nigerian primary school teachers, through no parti— cular fault of their own, have neither the Specific knowledge nor the perception and flexibility needed. Third, most Nigerian primary school teachers have learned English from their teachers who were not native English speakers. Since this process has con- tinued for several school generations, the average teacher is not a good oral English model for his pupils to imitate. What results is an imitation of an imitation 3Richard C. Bedford, "The Aural—Oral Approach Re—viewed," English Teaching Forum, VII, 3 (May—June, 1969), p. 4. 51 ag_infinitum. The result is often a dialect of English which is not completely comprehensible to speakers of more standard forms of English. Weak oral English foundation.--If the principles of teaching English as a second language are inOperable in the Nigerian primary school, a weak oral English foundation for the reading process will result. Inappro- priate phonemes will upset normal phoneme-grapheme cor- respondences, and their recognition, which is essential to early reading skill, will be confused. Nigerian primary school children are usually taught to read by the look-and-say method involving the memorization of whole words. The lack of a totally con— sistent correlation between phonemes and graphemes in English may be one reason for the primacy of this method. However, if correct sounds are not stressed, the phoneme— grapheme correspondences used by Nigerian pupils becomes even more unpredictable. At the phrase and sentence levels of English, non-standard usage fails to coincide with patterns which reflect English thought. Readers whose oral usage fea- tures non-standard English will experience difficulty in understanding reading material expressed in standard English patterns. Some authorities contend that, since it is impos- sible to achieve a true audio-lingual approach in teaching 52 English in Nigeria, less attention should be paid to the correctness of the students' oral English. At the same time, however, there is universal complaint that Nigerian primary school pupils are not being taught to read. The fact that their oral English foundation is weak could be a major reason why it is difficult to teach them to read. Memorization.—-Even though Nigerian primary school pupils may be taught to pronounce the words on a page, when learning content material they may be taught by a process of rote training without meaning. The teacher repeats the information to be learned until the pupils commit it to memory. Such information can be retained for repetition on examinations if the right question is asked in the right words; however, it can seldom be transferred or applied in a different context. These children, then, are not taught to think creatively or to comprehend what is read. Scarcity of reading material often necessitates reliance on memorization. When textbooks are insuffi- cient or completely lacking, it is impossible for the teacher to make reading assignments. It is easier for the teacher to read or write on the blackboard from the only available c0py of a textbook or from his own notes. Memorization is an easy alternative to reading for compre- hension for those whose cultural traditions value such an 53 ability and transmit knowkadge by that means. Look-and-say.——The look-and—say method of teaching reading is, therefore, quite popular in Nigerian primary schools. Involving the memorization of individual words, it easily forms a part of the overall memorization syn- drome. The look-and-say method does have value in teach— ing certain words. Its exclusive use, however, tends to produce word-by-word readers who read slowly and seldom comprehend the material. Furthermore, there seems to be a limit to the quantity of words a pupil can memorize in isolation. Materials The lack of reading materials not only encourages memorization but also curbs the incentive of capable readers. For financial reasons, Nigerian primary schools cannot provide a wide range of materials which appeal to various interest and ability levels. The child may find nothing that he wantsto or can read. When there are few books there is little vision of additional horizons to cross. A good reader, surrounded by books, is prodded by their presence to finish one in order to begin another. Scarcity of books can make for slow reading. Why hurry to finish a book when there is not another to be read? 54 Often the tendency is to read and reread and finally memorize, or not to read at all. When there are few books and when reading is not a thinking process, books can not provide English— related experiences which most Nigerian primary school pupils lack. Reading can provide imagined experiences only when there is reading material of sufficient quan— tity and variety. Not only is there a scarcity of books for Ni— gerian primary school pupils, reading material of other sorts is hard to find and usually beyond their means. Magazines on a child's level, if available at all, are published outside Nigeria and are written in a non-Ni— gerian context. Sources of free teaching materials and aids are extremely limited. Normally, teachers are unable to improvise read- ing materials. Although most primary school teachers have studied the methods of making simple teaching aids, the production of such aids depends on availability of materials. The resources of primary school teachers, even in odds and ends, is limited. Their own salaries and the schools' budgets do not allow much to purchase supplies for making visual aids. Often creative ideas for homemade teaching equip- ment are lacking unless a particular teacher is naturally gifted along these lines. Teachers in more developed 55 countries depend on sources such as advertising and tele— vision, for example, for many of their ideas. Sources like these may not be readily available to the average Nigerian primary school teacher. Reading_environment The reading environment of Nigerian primary school pupils is often discouraging. Most homes have no books. Society basically does not value reading, having depended on its oral traditions for transmitting knowledge from generation to generation. The increasing desire for up- ward mobility which education brings promises to change the status of reading in society within a few more years. Presently, however, when the overall rate of literacy in the country is only 15-20%4, little or no social stigma is attached to illiteracy. The lack of compulsory uni— versal primary education, the percentage of the age group enrolled in school, and dropout rates give further evidence of apathy toward education on the part of many parents. While many parents expect their children to learn to read, there is little dismay if a child fails to learn to read or even fails to go to school. Aside from a few very progressive communities, libraries are seldom found outside secondary and higher 4"Nigeria," Encyclopedia International, Vol. 13 (New York: Grolier Incorporated, 1964), p. 171. 56 schools. Primary schools with libraries are few indeed. Even in those places where there are community or muni— cipal libraries, primary pupils are not encouraged (or permitted) to borrow books. Such limited facilities are reserved for those of higher education and those who nor— mally exhibit a greater sense of responsibility toward books than do primary school children. Newspapers reach all but the most remote areas of Nigeria. Neither the quality of English nor of re- porting and writing in many of them is of the sort to help the primary School child learning to read. It is unfortunate that the level of reading in English in the primary school is so low. The Nigerian Aptitude Testing Unit of the West African Examination Council designed a special reading comprehension test for use by the English Language Teaching survey team in 1966. The test was administered to 1623 Nigerian pupils in the last year of primary school. Approximately 90% of the pupils were permitted to finish the test. The material included in the test was simplified and com- mensurate with the ability of children who had studied English (albeit as a second language) for six years. Yet, average comprehension scores ranged from 23.1% to 49.1%. The overall national average was 33.5%5. SRobert Jacobs, English Language Teaching_in Nige- ria, (Mimeographed report of Special Study) (September, 196 ), p. 52. 57 Summary At the time in life when many children of the world are most easily learning to read and enjoy it, many Nigerian primary school children are not deve10ping all the necessary skills for the task. For the majority of them, primary school marks the end of their formal schooling. Without the ability to read independently, many will fail to derive further profit and pleasure from reading. For many, reading will cease because their skills are undeveloped or because there is nothing to read. Comparatively few Nigerian primary school stu- dents go to secondary school. Those who do, continue to be handicapped by reading problems. Secondary_School Problems Approximately five per cent of those who complete primary school are admitted into secondary school in Nigeria. .This highly selective process involves an entrance examination which is largely a reading test. The fact that there are hundreds who do pass secondary school entrance examinations every year indicates that they are not completely without reading ability. Nigerian secondary school teachers assume that the students have learned to read in primary school and are now prepared for the serious study required at the 58 secondary level. Consequently, organized reading instruc— tion is not usually a significant part of the secondary school curriculum. Some attention is given to interpreta- tive comprehension but there is little training in basic skills. Reading abilities While there is evidence of some reading ability on the part of most secondary students, this ability is often minimal and reading skills are not well enough developed to enable the students to pursue secondary school study with reasonable facility. Neither can they read quickly enough to complete required assignments and still have time to read for pleasure. In an attempt to assess the reading skill abili— ties of beginning Nigerian secondary school students, the writer administered a series of diagnostic reading tests to several groups of students in Forms I and II. Since tests designed specifically for Nigerian students were not available, several tests were studied in an effort to find the most suitable series. The Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test6 was chosen for several reasons. First, it appeared to be relatively 6Bjorn Karlsen, Richard Madden, and Eric F. Gard— ner, Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1966). 59 culture free. Students taking the test did not appear to be handicapped because of items foreign in content. Second, the test was diagnostic in nature, "empha- sizing the identification of strengths and weaknesses within a specifig7 area."7 The accompanying manual for administering and interpreting the test clarifies this point. A diagnostic test, however, Should have a larger per cent of easy material since it is developed primarily to assess below average performance. The fact that the diagnostic test is relatively easy means that pupils who may be frustrated by even a well-developed achievement test should experience a good deal more success on the diagnostic test. Furthermore, more accurate , reliable measurement of below average per- formance is afforded by the less difficult nature of a diagnostic test. The Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test is available in Level I for American students whose school class levels range from the middle of Grade 2 to the middle of Grade 4, and in Level II for those from the middle of Grade 4 to the middle of Grade 8. It was finally decided to use Level II tests, as these seemed more realistic in terms of the degree of difficulty of reading material Nigerian secondary school students are expected to handle. At Level II, the test covers Reading Comprehension (sub- divided into Literal and Inferential Comprehension), 7 Karlsen, Madden, and Gardner, Manual for Adminis- Egring and Interpreting Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1966), p. 4. 8Loc. cit. 6O Vocabulary, Syllabication, Sound Discrimination, Blending, and Rate of Reading. It was difficult to use test norms since it could not be determined at exactly which equivalent American grade level Nigerian students should be ranked. Further- more, no scientific authoritativeness can be claimed for any of the test results since they have not been validated or standardized for the Nigerian school population. Never- theless, it was felt that the tests did, in a diagnostic manner, indicate comparative reading skill weaknesses of the students. The tests are structured to be scored either by percentiles based on the scores of the total American population tested or on corresponding "stanines" which assign each score to one of nine divisions. These latter divisions are further classified as "above average", "average", and "below average". Since using norms for native English-speaking children is not appropriate, scores were calculated on a straight percentage basis rather than by using the comparative percentiles or stanines. The table on page 61 shows the scores (highest, lowest, and arithmetic mean) for a total of sixty-one Form I students to whom the Level II test was adminis- tered. 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