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JilhiL'LL L; 1‘1““; 1:4“;4" £14.44 li'L‘L'LIL 1|!“ '4' 1“! “4'14‘: LIIL'L £2411. 14‘?“ [4"‘4‘4‘1'59‘41L'fi1.fin?i'{kfi" ‘44 4.434.314“, L23 .3 1,434; ‘ 54““(1‘14‘10 4:114\ "'014‘4 4"" 441' Kg?) ”4‘ "'4 '4' Isl 11‘ ""'"" "' " W4" 4‘ 4'41“ 1 ‘ 1 41444914 ’3'3'4‘44'. '1’5'14 '41}? 4" .1-2'. F 1'14'411 '4' """ {‘343'. ""'"4""4' 4'44"" ‘1" ""1"' “414,41 L '4'1'4'4' 41. 4'" '."'44' "' 1. “444.? «‘44' 1'44 "1 '.‘1 11 11 '1' 1' ‘ 41L“ .1. . 1.4.4' [4411. l» ' 44‘ ""4"“ 4443'“""4""'"'" 44443 '4'“ $4,444.12"? $44 ' $153» (44444“ 'L""4T4 l. " 441331234 {WEN} ”4.41.11? L M1104 £104.44." \' “41"“??44'4'11‘3“ 34% '1" .L4 '4 (4.4%.) :4 . 4 444“"? '...' 44....'i"'.1“. ' ""1 4'1 4111141444 44".“ “411M. "3114314111, .'_ I“ “M11444“ “1111.11.44 m THESIS This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A Developmental Management Model for Student Affairs Professional Associations presented by Cynthia S. Johnson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. mgmem Education : Major professor Date July 22, 1983 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 )V1ESI.J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARIES remove this checkout from -;,_. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 1‘ 'l- ' .‘; -. " - " "1 " .'- .4“ 3 v- 55: ' J; .2 7 v a ' l ’1'“: 5 an ' Q1 ‘ “.. ‘.- ‘1 I; ' ~ " \v - - "‘1 a.“ ,a'_ -.\ ,' . I»; org. lid-e" .1: :1 *0 A...‘ ”am! 9:562; " fi-‘w-Q- CL‘Prb i A DEVELOPMENTAL MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR STUDENT AFFAIRS PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS By Cynthia S. Johnson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Higher Education and Administration 1983 0 ©1984 CYNTHIA SENN JOHNSON All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT A DEVELOPMENTAL MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR STUDENT AFFAIRS PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS By Cynthia S. Johnson In this study the investigator has developed a theoretical model Of management for Student Affairs pro- fessional associations called the Maturation Model for Professional Associations (MMPA). It adapts and expands an existing model developed for the business community by Gordon Lippitt and Warren Schmidt. This model utilizes a stage development theory developed along a psychological continuum similar to those of human development stage theorists such as Erikson and Kohlberg and Loevinger. Just as in other stage developmental models: there are critical issues at each stage: age and size may not be relevant to maturation: and each stage must be completed before movement to the next stage is accomplished. Such models may provide useful ways to conceptualize and order brOader units. The theoretical management model may have utility as a diagnostic tool for broad range decision making in Student Affairs professional associations by Cynthia S. Johnson providing a framework for predicting and understanding organizational growth. The model was adapted and reviewed for its logic, accuracy, and utility by six experts in the applied field of practice. In addition. six independent rankings Of the model occurred to ascertain the fit of actual events of one organization. the American College Personnel Association, to the data. After it was proved that the model was adequate. two instruments were developed for future researchers to use to empirically test the reality of the model. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS SO many people have been responsible for assisting and supporting me in the pursuit Of my degree. Lou Stamatakos and Max Raines who shared in their knowledge. wisdom. and values and who gave me just the right com- bination Of challenge and suppOrt. My children and parents who encouraged me to pursue the degree and supported me in many significant and loving ways in the process. My friends, especially Ursula Delworth, Peggy Barr, and Marlene Thorn, who kept me going with supportive notes and timely phone calls. ‘ A very special acknowledgment to my colleague and friend John Whiteley. I dedicate this dissertation to him. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I LIST OF FIGURES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I CHAPTER I. II. III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . The Problem . . . Purpose of the Study Significance Of the Methodology . . . . Assumptions . . Delimitations . Limitations . . Definitions . . U) rl' Cocoon... coo-0%... Student Affairs Professional Associa- tions . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Management . . . . Human Development Organizational Theory smary I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I A DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL FOR STUDENT AFFAIRS PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS: FOR PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS (MMPA) . . The Situational Confrontation Of Growth Stages Of the Organizational Model Of Lippitt and Schmidt and the Key crises I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I The Lippitt and Schmidt Adaptation to Student Affairs Professional Associa- tions I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Maturation Model for Professional' Associations . . . . . . . . . . . iii MATURATION'MODEL vi vii 34 39 #0 CHAPTER IV. REPORT OF STUDY FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . Model Adequacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interview Results . . . . . . . . . . MOdel Rankirlg I I I I I I I I I I I I Interview Results--Theory-Based and Practitioner—Based Authorities . . . . Selection ProcessA-Theory-Based Authority . . . . . . Interview Results--Theory-Based Authoriw I I I I I I I I I I I I Selection Process--Practitioner-Based Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . Pr‘ocedures I I I I I I I I I I I I Interview Results--Practitioner-Based Authorities I I I I I I I I I I I I Rankirgs I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Practitioner-Based Authorities Ranking Chronology of ACPA--1923-1982 . . . . Chronological Ranking . . . . . . . . Summary of Rankings . . . . . . . . . . Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rankings . . . . . . . . . Combined Rankings Analysis . . . . . . smary I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I v. SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTIJRE RESEARCIERS I I I I I I I I I I I I Review of the Study . . .V. . . . . . . Review Of the Methodology . . . . . . . Major Findings . '.' . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . 8mm I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I iv 55 55 58 58 59 95 95 98 100 101 102 105 APPENDICES A. B. C. D. E. BIBLIOGRAPHY MMPA Inventory . Evaluating Your Organization (Lippitt Instrument) Complete Chronological Analysis of ACPA (1923;1982) Wrenn Letter . Chronological Outline-~Interviews . . 108 129 133 137 138 147 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Stages of Organizational Growth . . . . . . . . 2. Maturation.MOdel for Professional Associa- tions I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 3. Ranking by Five Former ACPA Presidents (Practitioner-Based Authorities) . . . . . . . 4. Chronological Ranking by Year . . . . . . . . . 5. Combined Rankings: Authorities and Chronology Of Even-t S I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I vi LIST OF FIGURES American College FIGURE 1. Stamatakos Pyramid . . 2. Model Boundaries . . . 3. Model Units . . . . . h. Chronological Outline: Personnel Association 5. Revised Chronological Outline: College Personnel Association vii American 21 #1 an 73 78 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Today there are more than 35 U.S. Student Affairs professional associations serving the 25,000 plus Student Affairs professionals in higher education (Bloland, 1979). The central activities Of these asso- ciations are professional development. publications. and research and placement. The various organizations are called upon to meet the needs of such Student Affairs professionals as graduate students, entryblevel and mid-level professionals, faculty members. and top administrators. Student Affairs professional associations represent cognitive and specialized interests and have grown in size and number since they were begun more than six decades ago. Administrators, educators, counselors. and specialists in areas such as financial aid and academic advising have established associations that represent both specialized and collective interests. Problems Of the profession must be addressed by the professional associations. Areas such as admissions, career planning and placement. and financial aid are faced with increased demands Of The Student asx Consumer in what The Carnegie Council (1980) has called "The Golden Age of the Student." Double-digit infla- tion and declining or steady state enrollment also mean less mobility for faculty and staff--and a greater need for professional renewal and the infusion of new skills. knowledge. and methods of coping (Schwab. 1981). Staffs are in danger Of what Fitzgerald (1979) calls "psychosclerosis" (or hardening Of the attitudes) as their paths Of upward mobility or lateral movement are cut Off. More demands, more burned-out members; and lower budgets through declining memberships or infla- tionary costs make more efficient management of human and fiscal resources difficult. Still. the Student Affairs professional associations must assist their members in coping with those problems. In addition to addressing the problems noted above, Student Affairs professional associations need to develop and enforce professional standards and ethi- cal statements. These associations must respond to increased pressure from members by providing leader- ship. at both the state and national levels. in regula- tions and legislation that directly affect the Student Affairs profession. Furthermore. members of the profession are being asked to develop programs and administrative procedures that will utilize new knowledge and emerging technology in order to meet the needs of diverse student populations (Johnson & Riesenberg. 1979). And these professionals need guidance from the associa- tions to meet these challenges. Managing today's Student Affairs professional associations is a complex organizational task. These largely volunteer organizations face challenges unheard Of when the first such association, the National Associa- tion Of Women Deans and Counselors (NAWDAC), was founded in 1916. How does one achieve accountability and long-range stability with an annually elected leader and a regularly replaced executive board? How does an association set priorities for its goals and Objectives and utilize limited resources to meet the needs of such diverse popu- lations Of membership as those described above? Menden- hall's (1975) study of one Student Affairs professional association, the American College Personnel Association (ACPA), found concurrence among major writers that pro- fessional growth occurred on a continuum from self-interest to community interest. He further found that no way had been devised to measure that growth. Questions of association growth and management are being raised as Student Affairs professional L; associations gather at meetings to work on common issues and to share information (ACE. 1980). The Problem It seems that no management theory is available to address the special problems inherent in the management of professional associations. A theoretical model can provide a conceptual framework for understanding and pre- dicting organizational behavior (Dubin. 1978). The investigator has demonstrated a need for a theoretical model Of management for Student Affairs professional associations. In this study, an existing theoretical model developed for the business community was adapted and expanded. The business community model. developed by Gordon.Lippitt and Warren Schmidt (1967), utilized a stage development theory developed along a psychological continuum similar to those Of human development stage theorists such as Erikson (1963). Kohlberg (1969), and Loevinger (1975)- Purpose of the Study The purpose Of this study was to adapt an existing theoretical management model of organizational growth developed for the business community to Student Affairs professional associations, and to prove the adequacy of the model to enable it to be empirically tested by researchers. The adapted model, based on the work of Lippitt and Schmidt. includes well-defined units for identifying stages of growth along a matura- tional continuum. Descriptions of maturation variables and key crises Of Student Affairs professional associa- tions were defined at each stage of development and thus provide the model's boundaries. The adapted model. the Maturation.Mode1 for Professional Associations (MMPA), may be useful to Student Affairs professional associations because it provides a broader conceptual framework for predicting and understanding organiza- tional behavior. This study constructed an adapted model. the MMPA, and sought to prove its adequacy by (1) interviewing experts regarding the logic, accuracy. and utility of the model, and (2) by Obtaining six independent rankings of the model for one Student Affairs professional association, ACPA. This study reports the manner in which the model was constructed and the results.of the interviews and rankings to ascer- tain whether that model was constructed logically and accurately. Siggificance of the Study Theories of social and human behavior. as stated by Dubin (1978), address themselves to two distinct goals Of science: (1) prediction, and (2) understanding. Dubin cautions against premature commitment to a theoretical model until the model itSelf has been reviewed for its logic and accuracy and has been empirically tested. The theoretical management model may be a use- ful diagnostic tool for prediction and understanding (Dubin, 1978). Officers in a professional association using this model might determine the association's specific level Of growth or maturation on several variables (and therefore better anticipate. predict. and prepare to deal with its problems). If. for example, it was determined that the association was at a youthful stage at which internal stability was a priority, issues of affiliation with other profes- sional associations or attempts at rapid expansion of services and programs might be deferred until internal stability was assured. By viewing an association in terms of the model's conceptual framework, members might develop additional criteria for the selection Of both manage- ment staff and the elected leadership. Entrepreneurial leadership. appropriate for the birth Of an associa- tion. is not effective. according to this model. as the association matures. Budget decisions might be influenced if an association. through applying this model. determined that it was at an appropriate stage to develop a more fully understood and precise public image or identity and thus allocated monies to a public relations effort. Lippitt and Schmidt (1967) viewed their stage model as a model of organizational renewal. They _ applied theories Of personality development to the creation, growth, maturation. and decline Of business organizations. Torbert (197A) has since presented models similar in content and stages. Torbert and Lippitt and Schmidt suggested that further research on human development model building is necessary, yet none Of these theorists had adequately developed their theory into measurable units for empirical testing. They all urged the inclusion Of a developmental dimension in management and organizational theory. Although many organizational theorists have studied the development Of organizations in terms Of size. age, financial resources. and human dimensions. only a few have viewed the psychological developmental continuum. ' Miller and Prince (1976) indicated that a stage development management theory similar to that of Lippitt and Schmidt may be an appropriate management model for Student Affairs. Therefore; in addition to the potential utility Of the model as a predictive tool, this study may have significance by providing a management model that is more consistent with the human development philosophy Of Student Affairs. Lippitt and Schmidt's model. pre- sented in a book in 1967, identified three developmental stages of an organization: birth, youth, and maturity (see Table 1). They also believed that an organization confronts six critical concerns. and that these concerns can occur at°any time. The way the organization deals with them.can be Of primary importance to the growth Of the organization. Referring to the problems Of puberty and aging for the individual--and the way in which the healthy personality resolves these problems or crises--Lippitt and Schmidt concluded that renewal can occur at any time in the cycle of an individual or organization. Lippitt summarized his theory as follows: The growth stages of an organization are an outcome Of the way situations are confronted by organizational management. For the sake Of clarity keep in mind that the word "growth" as used here does not have the same meaning as it does in the marketplace. It does not refer to growth of a stock or capital assets. The con- cept here is that of progressing toward a potential capacity to achieve organizational Objectives. to maintain and improve the STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL GROWTH TABLE 1 Consequences if Developmental Critical .Key concern is stage concern issue not met 1. To create a What to Frustration and new organi- risk inaction zation Birth 2. To survive What to Death Of an as a viable sacrifice organization system Further subsidy by "Faith" capital 3. TO gain sta- How to Reactive. crisis— bility organize dominated organ- ization Opportunistic rather than self-directing attitudes and policies Youth A. To gain How to Difficulty in reputation review and attracting gOOd and develop evaluate personnel and clients Inappropriate. overly aggres- sive. and dis- torted image building 10 TABLE 1--Continued Developmental Critical .Key Cogggggeflce: if stage concern issue not met 5. To achieve Whether and Unnecessarily uniqueness how to defensive or com- and adapta- change petitive atti- bility tudes: diffusion Of energy Loss Of most creative per- sonnel 6. To contri- Whether and Possible lack of bute to how to share public respect society and appreciation Bankruptcy or profit loss Source: Gordon L. Lippitt & Warren H. Schmidt, "Crisis in a Developing Organization," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 45. NO. 6, November-December 1967, p. 103. organization's internal systems; and to adapt to the external environment. In its various stages it resembles the mental and psychologi- cal growth Of an organizational system as relatively orderly, like that of human organi- zations, it must cope with internal ineffec- tiveness. external forces. and various forms of crises that confront it at each stage Of growth (p. 10) . The original model has been adapted and expanded upon by this investigator to meet the needs Of Student Affairs professional associations and has been applied 11 to the American College Personnel Association. The model may enable all Student Affairs professional associations to determine their developmental stage and allow them to identify the critical issues they face at that stage. As stated by the original theorists, Lippitt and Schmidt. it is necessary for the membership to reach a common understanding Of the implications of the developmental stage Of their organization and to recognize that certain decisions must be made. Given the volunteer nature of these organizations and their lack of continuity in leadership, it is diffi- cult for Student Affairs professional associations to address the long-term effect Of decision-making. The broader based conceptual framework provided by the MMPA may prove useful in problem prediction and understanding, resource allocation. and long-range planning. Methodology The proof of a theory is arrived at by Obtaining the consensus Of experts regarding the Observational set and the logic employed in constructing the model (Dubin, 1978). The "fit" of data to the model also helps to establish proof (Dubin, 1978). In proving the adequacy Of this model. six ex- perts, or authorities, were interviewed about the logic. accuracy, and utility Of the model. Six independent 12 rankings of the model in terms Of the actual growth Of one association, ACPA, were conducted in two separate, but related, ways to determine the "fit" of the data to the model. In order to construct an adaptation of an existing theoretical model and to attempt to prove the adequacy of that adaptation. several distinct but interrelated steps had to occur. 1. An adapted model suitable for empirical testing at a later date was constructed. The boundaries and units Of the MMPA were derived from the ori- ginal model. the literature, and the investigator's experience and intuitive judgment. 2. Once the adapted model was completed. one theory- based and five practitioner-based authorities in the applied field were interviewed by the inves- tigator in February and June Of 1983. They were asked to examine and assess the logic, accuracy. and utility of the model in order to determine the adequacy of the model. The results Of these interviews were reported. 3. The five practitioner-based authorities--all former ACPA presidents-~were also asked to rank the adapted model regarding the stage of growth they believed one association, ACPA, to be at during their presidency. 7. 13 Next, a chronology Of ACPA from 1923-1982 was com- piled from primary records and prior research. Emphasis was placed on key dates as they related to units within the model. Then, the chronology was reviewed by the same five former ACPA presidents for its accuracy, and was revised. Using the key dates from the chronology. the investigator also ranked the adapted model in terms Of stage Of growth at specified times to determined the fit of those data to the model. The results Of the six interviews and the six rankings were reported and analyzed. Recommenda- tions were made for future researchers. An instrument called the MMPA Inventory was con- structed for use by future researchers in testing- the model. Assumptions One assumption Of this study is that it is possible to generalize human development theory to organizational development theory. Recognized experts in organizational theory have applied human development theory for some time. McGregor (1960. 1966). for example, built a theory on the work of Maslow (19h3. 1965), and Pinedo (1978) integrated the stage development theory of Loevinger (1967) and Kohl- berg (1968) in organizational models. 1L. Another assumption is that there is sufficient similarity between business and industrial organizations and professional associations to warrant adaptation of a developmental model. Student Affairs professional asso- ciations are sufficiently similar in purpose. clientele. and structure to warrant their combination into a subset of professional associations. A related assumption is that the human development model Of Lippitt and Schmidt is applicable to Student Affairs professional associations. Zannini (1978) suc- cessfully utilized the Lippitt and Schmidt model in a Student Affairs setting in a prior study. Miller and Prince (1976) suggested the applicability of this model. Another assumption Of this study is that the body of knowledge of theoretical model building will be used in adapting this model. This investigator has used the work Of Robert Dubin as the basis for the construction and testing of the model. The words theo , mgggl. and theore- tiga; model building are used interchangeably. and the terms tg_ rove. improve, and test the adequacy and reality all come from the works of Dubin (1978). A final assumption Of this study has to do with how logic is defined for purposes Of proving the ade- quacy Of the adapted model. This study uses Webster's (1979) definition Of logic. the science of correct‘ reasoning. Social scientists state that deductive logic 15 is appropriate for theory development and that inductive logic should be employed in empirical testing (Popper. 1959). Dubin (1978), however, argued that focusing on induction and deduction separately leaves out the nature Of the model itself and describes only a movement or direction. The term lggig as it is employed here is pri- marily deductive, but allows also for inductive logic when appropriate. Delimitations Two delimitations Of this study are related to theoretical model building and adaptation in the field Of human and social behaviOr. Data sources for model building come primarily from intuitive insight and logical analysis (Dubin, 1978). This study will, in part, rely on intuitive insight. The argument concerning the adequacy Of a theore- tical model is always and only an argument about the logic employed in testing the model (Dubin, 1978). Reality is a scientific issue that is resolved in research tests on the model. This study will not test the reality of the model. That will be recommended for future re- searchers. A theorist may seek to 23232 the adequacy of a theoretical model or improve the model. This study 16 will seek to prove the model and not to improve it by collecting and examining non-fitting and deviant data outside the model. The stance to prove the model has been adopted because the original model has been in existence for some time and this investigator wants to prove the adaptation to the original model and does not seek to improve the original or adapted model. Limitations The lack Of previous work in this area Of study makes this work exploratory in nature. To this inves- tigator's knowledge, no previous theoretical models have been developed for the express purpose Of managing more effectively Student Affairs professional associations. Another limitation Of this study is that only one Student Affairs association was used in this study, and all past records of that association were not available. thus limiting the completeness Of the chrono- logical analysis used tO rank the adapted model. There are inherent weaknesses in the validity and reliability of interviewing methodology. according to Gordon.(1969). He stated that theoretically mean- ingful categories Of human phenomena present more dif- ficult problems in data-gathering. In addition to the problems inherent in communicating questions, inhibitors 17 to the interview include competing time demands and chronological confusion, to name a few (Gordon. 1969). Although illustrative proposed uses Of the model in the applied field are necessary. caution was exer- cised so that premature commitment to the specific utility value Of the model was not made prior to the model's being empirically tested. Definitions The following is a list Of definitions pertinent to theoretical model building and adaptation. 1. 2. Theorist (Dubin, 1978): Someone who Observes a portion Of the world around him and seeks to find order in the booming. bustling confusion that is the realm of experience. The idea of order, and the tools utilized to create the sense Of order. are in the minds of the theorist. A theoretical model is limited in no way except by the imagination of the Theorist. Theoretical model (Dubin, 1978): A closed sys- tem from which are generated predictions about the nature Of man's world prediction that--when the theorist agreeséemust be Open to some kind Of empirical test. Theoretical models can contribute to pre- dictions and understanding. 3. 18 a. Prediction (Dubin, 1978) 1. That we can foretell the value of one or more units making up a system. or 2. That we can anticipate the condition. b. Understanding (Dubin, 1978): Knowledge about the interaction Of units in a system. Adapted theorigg (Max Raines, personal communi- cation, June 8, 1983): Theory adaptation is designed to translate basic concepts Of an existing model so that useful concepts and hypotheses are generated that are adaptable to a comparable set of constructs in an applied field. Six maturation variables for professional asso- ciations have been identified in the cOnstruction Of the adapted model. The definition Of those terms is listed below. 1. 2. organizational structure: The organizational chart and reporting relationship, as well as the kind Of leadership and delegation of authority are included in this definition. How do the members work? What is the mechanism for decisionémaking? Ethics and standardg: The standards Of conduct for the profession as a_whole and including the 19 statement of ethical standards for the profes- sion. minimum operational standards within the profession. and accreditation of graduate pro- fessional preparation programs. 3. Membership: The kinds and categories Of member- ship found within an association and method of solicitation. A. Public relations: The image of the organization as it relates to both the general public and its own members. 5. Fiscal policies: The financial health Of the organization as well as its fiscal policies and management as part Of the maturation variable. 6. Services andgpublications: ‘Membership services, all publications. professional development acti- vities. placement activities. and any other ser- vices to members or to society. Chapter II is introduced by a brief review Of management issues in Student Affairs professional asso- ciations. A review of relevant literature as the liter- ature pertains to the historical progression Of the application of human development theory to organizations is presented. This literature review provides the foun- dation for following the Lippitt and Schmidt model. which is central to this study. 20 Chapter III outlines the seminal theory of Lippitt and Schmidt and provides a step-by-step account Of the construction of the adapted theory. Relevant literature as well as the logic employed in the model building is included. Chapter IV contains the results of research that was conducted to attempt to prove the adequacy of the adapted model. The results of interviews with six authorities in the applied field and six model ratings of one association, ACPA, are presented. Chapter V contains a presentation Of the major findings, conclusions, and implications of the study and suggested recommendations for future researchers. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter reviews the literature on human development organizational theory as it relates to the development of a theoretical model of management. Also, the Lippitt and Schmidt model of management is introduced. Student Affairs ProfessionalAssociations Stamatakos (1980) defined the purpose of profes- sional associations in Student Affairs as providing leader- ship. support, and direction to the profession. He viewed the profession as a pyramid that operates most effectively when the levels are in congruence. (See Figure 1 below.) Professional practice Professional societies ofessional preparation and literature Philosophy of the profession FIGURE 1 STAMATAKOS PYRAMID 21 22 Bloland (1979). while noting that Student Affairs does not seem to be a profession, stated that for the field to survive, the professional associations must begin inter-association cooperation between ACPA and other major Student Affairs professional associations.’ The most recent attempts at inter-association cooperation occurred in 1969 when the associations began talks Of merging into one association. In 1970. a loose federation of 15 Student Affairs associations formed the Council Of Student Personnel Associations (COSPA). COSPA drafted a statement on student development and attempted to share information on issues and to coordinate major conventions. A careful historical review of the minutes- Of ACPA reveals that the major concerns Of that associa- tion were problem-centered and task-centered, or at most planning-centered. Although the decisions are well docu- mented, a careful review Of executive council records and other primary documents of ACPA Offers little information about a basic management principle or theory that was used by that association to arrive at those decisions. They did not, to any thorough or consistent extent, scrutinize the organization, its issues Of management, or predictable organizational problems. The leadership selection process and the high turnover rate of leaders make the association's perspec- tive by definition a short-term one. 23 Much has been written about the Professional Asso- ciation management of student affairs (Chandler, 1973: Crookston, 1972: Miller a Prince. 1976; Borland. 1977). Little has been written, however, about the management Of Student Affairs professional associations. A review Of articles in Leadership (a magazine for volunteer association leaders) identifies many "how to" articles on motivation of volunteers, the preparation of an agenda, and how to work with professional staff. The Journal Of Association.Management addresses managerial issues such as how to select a consultant and possible conflicts of interest for association executives. This "how to do it" literature, however, is only minimally relevant to building a theoretical model of management for Student Affairs professional organizations. The development of professional associations such as the American College Personnel Association has long been recognized as an important step in professionaliza- tion (Vollmer, 1960). For example. Mueller (1961) analyzed college personnel work as a profession, utilizing Caplow's (195A) definition of a profession. Also. Wrenn and Darley (1949) discussed Student Personnel's claim to profession- alism using some Of Horton's (19nu) criteria for a profes- sion. Stamatakos (1981) replicated the Wrenn and Darley study and found that Student Personnel work met only two of the eight criteria Horton listed for the profession. 24 In his review Of the literature of professional associations, Mendenhall (1975) stated that the major writers on professionalization see that process proceeding on a continuum of growth between self-interest and com- munity interest. but that agreement has not been reached about how that growth is measured. Professional associations exist in a developing state and continually attempt to assess and meet the needs of the occupational group they serve. according to Moore (1970). Bucher and Strauss (1961) developed a process for professionalization that focused on diversity and conflict Of interest. In order to become a profession. there must be a struggle. according to Goode (1969). who proposed a continuum of characteristic changes. Hughes (1965) stated that leaders of the profes- sion performed a role by establishing and strengthening professional associations. He further stated these leaders will engage in conflict both inside and outside of their profession and that this competition and conflict can have positive as well as negative effects. And finally. Mendenhall (1975) did a study of the ACPA to ascertain that professional associations grow toward professionalism according to Pavalko's (1972) eight- step occupation--profession continuum model. He found that ACPA had contributed to achieving growth on six of the eight steps toward becoming a profession. 25 None of the models that discuss the role of pro- fessional associations. however. provide a framework for understanding or predicting how these associations should be managed. nor is there consensus on how the growth of these associations is measured. Organizational Management During the past three decades. contributions to the literature in the field of organizational management have produced many theoretical models. One of the first systematic paradigms was developed by Frederic Taylor (Taylor, 1911). His mechanistic perspective Of an organi- zational setting stated basically that workers were moti- vated by wages. and that attention to the social or psychological consequences of their work was not important. Mayo (1945), known as the parent Of "humanistic management.” believed along with Maslow (19h3. 1965) and Hersey and Blanchard (1972) that human beings have needs beyond physical ones. such as the need to achieve. Mas- low's hierarchy of needs. for example. was based on the following assumptions: 1. Any human is a whole being. 2. Any human has "needs" that, once (at least par- tially) satisfied. will be replaced by others. 3. Some human needs are part Of human nature and can be repressed but not eliminated. 27 Human Development Organizational Theory In order to conceptualize managerial behavior. Blake and Mouton developed a highly structured model called the Managerial Grid (1964). This grid assisted managers in locating their management styles on a con- tinuum from task orientation to people orientation. Her- sey and Blanchard (1972) integrated the Managerial Grid with a humanistic model and produced the Life Cycle Theory of Leadership. This model measured psychological maturity in relation to the individual's location on the task/people orientation continuum. More recently. Hersey and Blanchard (1976) devel- oped dynamic models that measure psychological maturity in terms Of job socialization. Pinedo (1978) contended. howh ever. that Hersey and Blanchard's definition Of the inte- grative force Of maturity is "simplistic and incomplete." stating that one does not.mature as an employee simply by achievement motivation (as Hersey and Blanchard had sug- gested). Pinedo's model integrated stage development theory . with an organizational model. He felt that Loevinger's (1976) definition Of ego maturity Offered a much more com- plete way Of looking at employee growth. Loevinger iden- tified six stages of ego development that occur as one moves toward increased maturity: pre-social or symbiotic, impulse ridden or fearful. self-protective. conformist, 28 conscientious, and autonomous or integrated. Pinedo com— bined Loevinger's definition Of ego maturity with Har- rison's (1972) organizational model that identified four organizational ideologies: Power Orientation. Role Orien- tation. Task Orientation. and Person Orientation. Chick- ering (1969) acknowledged the closeness Of Loevinger's model to Argyris' immaturity-maturity continuum chart. Kaufman (1973) is another theorist who has devel- oped a model Of organizational management based on a psychological development model. His model, termed "Transactional Life-Cycle Theory." attempted to synthesize the work Of Herzberg (1978), Likert (1967), McGregor (1960). Argyris (1971). and Blake and Mouton (196A) with the Transactional Analysis Of Berne (1961). Kaufman believed that role change occurs as the result Of inter- action between leaders and followers that can be charac- terized as parent. adult, or child transactions. Another recent attempt to link organizational development theory with human development theory has been undertaken by Torbert (197A). Torbert's stage development theory described nine natural evolutionary stages through which organizations progress. His model. based on his own observations Of temporary workers in educational settings. posited that subsystems within an organization function at different stages Of mentality: that a transition to the next developmental stage requires an experiential awareness 29 of the concepts and dynamics at play in the preceding stage. Lavoie and Culbert (1978)-~referring to the work of Torbert (1974), Kohlberg (1969), and other develop- mental theorists—-expanded upon Torbert's human develop- ment theory. They argued that a sufficient understanding Of organizations is not gained by merely viewing the roles Of workers on a task/people orientation continuum: much broader processes are at work. Outlining precepts for organizational growth grounded in developmental litera- ture. Lavoie and Culbert stated that: Development implies more than change and movement over time. It involves a definite order of pro- gression or evolution leading to the reorganiza- tion of underlying structures. We believe such evolution should meet criteria similar to those postulated by Dewey (1930) and Piaget (1960). which are present whenever natural development of the individual takes place. Accordingly. we expect the following: 1. In most organizations, the changes which char- acterize development follow more or less the same sequential pattern. 2. Under normal circumstances progressive changes will not easily reverse themselves. 3. Developmental change is a change in the qualit Of responses (format. pattern. structure. etc.¥ and not merely in the frequency of correctness according to an external criterion such as profitability. A. Developmental changes affect a broad range of organizational activities and responses. 5. Developmental change is hierarchical. that is. later forms will dominate and integrate earlier ones (Lavoie and Culbert. 1978). The developmental stages proposed by Lavoie and Culbert are not so different from those posited by Miller and Prince (1976) for student development. 30 . . . Human Development is a continuous and cumulative process Of physical. psychological. and social growth which can be divided into an orderly series of life stages. Each stage is character- ized by certain developmental tasks that require the human to alter his or her present behavior and master new learning. . . . Development is most likely to occur in an environment where change is anticipated, where individuals and groups work together to actively influence the future rather than just reacting to it after the fact. . . . The individual's development can be advanced by exposure to an organized problem- solving process that enables him or her to com- plete increasingly complex developmental tasks. . . . Movement through a particular stage can best be described as a progression from simpler to more complex structures and activities. and at each successive stage they integrate critical aspects of earlier stages in a more articulate organization (pp. 5-6). Miller and Prince went on to state that the abi- lity to predict the probable development sequence and the approximate period when a given phaSe can be expected to occur is very useful. They further suggested that the Lippitt and Schmidt and Lavoie and Culbert models are appropriate ones to apply to Student Affairs management because they are theoretical models Of human development and therefore are congruent with a student development philosophy. The evolution Of the field of organizational development has been reviewed with emphasis on human or psychological development theory as it applies to organi- zations. From Penrose (1952), who first raised the question about the dynamics Of organizational change and the 31 lifeécycle. through Hersey and Blanchard (1972), to Kim- berly and Miles (1980). who describe the organizational lifeécycle. many organizational theorists have raised the question about the change in organizations as they progress from birth, to youth. to maturity. Other theorists such as Kaufman (1973). Lavoie and Culbert (1978). and Pinedo (1978) have linked organizational change to developmental theory as it pertains to the human stages Of development. According to Kimberly and Miles. chronological age may have very little to do with where an organization is going or where it has been. Organizations have rhythms and cycles that are quite independent of chronological age. Intervention strategies appropriate at one develop- ment stage may not work at another. , Lippitt and Schmidt (1967) linked life-cycle theory to developmental theory in proposing a theoretical stage management model that they called a Situational Con- frontation Model (1969). This model sees the organization as a sociotechnical system. a term first developed by Eric Trist at Travistock Institute in London. England. In that theory. the organization is a multifaceted personality that has critical developmental stages: it is a complete assemblage of people. procedures. facilities. and tech- nology. The model developed by Lippitt and Schmidt (1969) has three developmental stages: birth. youth, and maturity. 32 They identified six critical concerns or confrontations that face organizations: 1. TO create a new organization 2. To survive as a viable system 3. TO gain stability h. TO gain reputation and develop pride 5. TO achieve uniqueness and adaptability 6. To contribute to society (p. 29) This investigator located 187 citings Of the ori- ginal Lippitt and Schmidt paradigm since it was first pub— lished in 1967. There is one previous adaptation of the Lippitt and Schmidt model related to Student Affairs. Zannini (1978), working at the University of Nebraska. expanded the model to determine the degree to which com- posite pictures (organizational profiles) of three resi- dence hall maintenance organizations correlated with external assessments Of the organization. Conclusions reached by Zannini were that (1) once the Lippitt and Schmidt model was expanded. the resulting model provides an extremely usable method for analyzing developmental growth Of organizations: (2) utilization of the expanded Lippitt and Schmidt model in analyzing an organization provides an extremely comprehensive study Of an organiza- tion: and (3) organizations go through a number of develop- mental stages that are not directly related to either age or size Of the organization. §ETE§£Y In conclusion. this chapter discusses the histori- cal development Of Student Affairs professional associations 33 and their role and function. Organizational management theories that are based on human development theories are reviewed. The theoretical stage management model of Lip- pitt and Schmidt is introduced as one that may be applicable to Student Affairs professional association management. CHAPTER III A DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL FOR STUDENT AFFAIRS PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS: MATURATION MODEL FOR PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS (MMPA) As stated in Chapter I. theoretical model building and model adaptation come primarily from intuitive insight and logical analysis. This chapter describes how the boundaries and specific units Of the MMPA were actually derived. In order to consider the proposed theoretical model for Student Affairs professional associations. it is important that one first understand the seminal work Of Lippitt and Schmidt's (1967) model called Situational Con- frontation or Growth Stages Of Organizations. The Situational_Confrontation pngrowth Stages of the OrganizationalModel Of L1 1tt and Schmidt and the pr Cpiggg The Lippitt and Schmidt (1967) model utilizes a stage development theory along a psychological continuum similar to that which human development stage theorists use. It was developed for the business community. The adaptation Of the Lippitt and Schmidt model tO Student 34 35 Affairs professional organizations. which was the main purpose of this study. requires the construction Of a model that is applicable to the higher education com- munity and that is directly relevant to the concerns of student personnel workers. The intent is to present a framework for viewing conceptually the growth and manage- ment of Student Affairs professional associations. This chapter describes the six stages Of the original theore- tical model and the key crisis of each stage as identi- fied by Lippitt and Schmidt. The step-by-step process that was used by the investigator to construct the adapted model is identified. Finally. the adapted model. the Maturation Model for Professional Associations (MMPA). is presented. The model identifies each developmental stage. its key issues. and the consequences if the issues are not addressed. With regard to the developmental stages Of birth. youth. and maturity. Lippitt and Schmidt state that not all organizations reach higher states Of maturity. The Objective Of Organizational renewal is to help organizations handle key issues so that they may reach higher levels of maturation. They further declare that the birth stage has nothing to do with the size or age Of an organization. and maturity does not equate with financial health. They gO on to say that a small business can achieve maturity. and a large one may 36 remain forever youthful. This analysis is similar to the one Offered by Kimberly and'Miles (1980). who state that chronological age may have very little to do with where an organization is going or where it has been. Essential to the Maturation Model for Profes- sional Associations (MMPA) are the Six Critical Stages and the Key Crises identified by Lippitt and Schmidt. This investigator's adaptations of these stages to Student Affairs professional associations are included later in the chapter. Stage 1. To Be Born Crisis-~What_and how much are we willing to risk? The critical question at this stage is what and how much are we willing to risk? There is a risk at every stage along the way. but it is more prevalent at the beginning. An idea for an organization is not suf- ficient. The organization will not come into being until this critical question is asked: Who is willing to risk the dollars. time. energy. and reputation to give this idea a chance? Stage 2. To Survive Crisis—-How much are we willing to sacrifice? The critical question at this juncture is. how much are we willing to sacrifice? 'Lippitt and Schmidt state that each gain toward organizational development is accompanied by a loss. Choices must be made. Although organizations are born in a climate of hope and excitement. they must survive in a world of testing: each organization is a jeopardized creation. 37 Stage 3. To Become Stable Crisis--How willing are we to be organized and to accept and enforce discipline? If an organization survives. the next question it must answer is. how willing are its members to be organized and to accept and enforce discipline? As the organization develops complicated policies and record maintenance. loss Of freedom and the surrender Of per- sonal leadership occurs. It is a time Of accommodating the organization to the environment and becoming fully functional. Interpersonal tensions. not noticed at preceding stages. become evident. Differing expecta- tions arise. Parenthetically. Kimberly and Miles (1980) report that the kind Of leader needed at this develop- mental stage is different from the entrepreneurial one who originally gave birth to the organization. Tasks for management at this stage are to develop a long-range plan. focus priorities. delegate authority and decentralize power. develop a team spirit. and sta- bilize a core membership. It is important to realize also that expansion is not necessarily synonymous with growth. It is a time to solidify gains and not overcom- mit resources. Stgge h. TO Gain a Reputation 'Crisis--How much are we willing to engage in self- examination? Lippitt and Schmidt stated that after achieving stability. the organization is concerned with its rela- tionship with the public. The critical question is. how much are we willing to engage in self-examination? Stability can easily turn to stagnation if the organization is unwilling to take a critical look at itself both internally or externally. This stage is reminiscent of the Regeneration vs. Stagnation stage Of Erikson (1959). There is a need at this stage to monitor. review. evaluate. and improve the organization's product. High turnover can occur as leaders effective in the early 38 stages of the organization step down or get out. This turnover results in two problems: 1. Personnel turnover constantly alters the image to the consumer or member. The Old guard is no longer in control. 2. The new members Of the management team cannot share the original feelings Of commitment and sacrifice and lack the "historical perspective." §tage 5. TO Achieve Uniqueness Crisis--Are we willing to direct the changes necessary to make our organization unique? Are we willing to direct the changes necessary to make our organization unique is the question at this stage. This stage. according to Li pitt and Schmidt. is characterized by Drucker's (195A) Observation that "To manage a business is to balance a variety Of needs and goals (p. 36)." There are no clearcut answers at this stage as the organization moves toward "self- actualization." Even at this mature stage. risk is involved as defisions involve far-reaching considerations and projections into the future. Necessary decisions revolve around concerns about technical acquisition. diversification. and other issues that could influence . the future Of the organization. Stage 6.120 Contribute Crisis--What are we willing to give to society without expecting a direct return? Most organizations never reach this stage and are therefore not confronted with that question. Moti- vation to achieve this sta e may emerge after an organization has achieved nternal order and financial comfort. Members at this stage may feel a need to gain society's respect and to engage in image-building. Concurrent with these societal questions are other questions at this stage: How can we help our execu- tives and workers develop themselves? How can we help our community. our nation? How can we use our resources to improve the quality Of human.life? 39 Lippitt and Schmidt (1967) stated that the atten- tion of most organizations fluctuates between addressing these different levels of critical questions. The danger comes when the organization does not recognize the primary issue or significant crisis that is occurring in its organizational life cycle. They quoted John Gardner (1963): "Most ailing organizations have developed a functional blindness to their own defects. They are not suffering because they cannot solve their problems. but because they cannot see their problems." For an organization to recog- nize which stage best characterizes its development is only the beginning. It is necessary for the membership to reach a common understanding of the implications Of the developmental stage Of their organization. and to recog- nize that certain decisions must be made a matter of priority. The Lippitt and Schmidt Adaptation to Student Affairs Profesgigngl_Associatigng The preceding pages Of Chapter III describe the original model. This portion of the chapter discusses the step-by-step process used by the investigator to derive the adaptation of that original model for Student Affairs professional associations. The boundaries Of the model are presented first. Then. the relevant literature that pertains to their selection is cited. Next. the units Of the model within #0 those boundaries are presented and the logic and litera- ture used in their selection are illustrated. Finally. the model adaptation is presented in its entirety. with illustrative Student Affairs professional association examples. Maturation Model for Professional Associations In order to develop measurable units for subse- quent empirical testing. a matrix was constructed using the stages Of key crises at one apex of the matrix and the maturation variables at the other as the boundaries Of the model. Boundarieg The key crises and six stages of growth identified by Lippitt and Schmidt are used in their entirety as one boundary Of the model. The concept Of using maturation variables as a second boundary of the model was first introduced by Zannini (1978) in his adaptation of the Lippitt and Schmidt model for use in residence halls in student affairs. Six maturation variables (see Figure 2) were de- rived from one previous study. Price (1965). and the work Of Lippitt and Schmidt and were used as the second boundary of the model. Those maturation variables are Organizational Structure. Ethics and Standards. Membership. Public #1 «shaves Pawnee o wcfivooaxo Poo lava: avowoom o>fiw on wsaaawz o3 who was: ovsnflppsoo Os «sodas: scavmswcmmuo use ome OP hammmooo: mowsmno on» Poohflu ow mafiadms o3 on< nomadsdass o>ow£o< ea «so vmzwsmKOIMHom cw own O or mundane o3 ohm nose :0: :owvmwmmom m cfimu QH socnfidnomnc couched and vacuum op use eouficmmuo on OP o3 mud mamaaws so: «Anopm osooom Os .n «denounced op manna“: o3 who rose 30x o>w>asm ea .m «gown 0» mafiaawz O: one case so: use pmmB chem on 09 .u cowmeHH Inzm and oow>pom mowowaom Hdomwm msowvmaom unansm awnm lumped: muhmosmvm can mosses oaseosupm Hdcoap Iduflcmwho and mmwupm gaze momwuo ISM .H FIGURE 2. MODEL BOUNDARIES #2 Relations. Fiscal Policies. and Service and Publications. A definition of those variables was presented in Chap- ter I. Price (1965). in his dissertation on the history of the American College Personnel Association. selected from the literature maturation variables for his histori- cal analysis. The variables Of Programs. Membership. Formal Structure. Ethical Statements. and Publicity and Publications were used by Price and are incorporated in this model. Programs and Publicity and Publications have been included under one heading entitled Services and Publications. "Formal Structures" has been changed to "Organizational Structure." TO that list has been added Fiscal Policies. The original model Of Lippitt and Schmidt places heavy emphasis on the financial health and fiscal policies of an Organization in terms of the growth. or maturity continuum. For that reason the maturation variable. fiscal policies. has been added to the list. mus. Within the two boundaries of the model (growth stages and maturation variables) 36 interconnected and developmentally progressive units of growth were identi- fied. These units. six under each maturation variable. represent a continuum for measuring Student Affairs “3 professional association growth developmentally from birth to maturity. The units in this model (Figure 3) were identified in the following manner. Some of the measurable units were identified from the original model. some from pre- vious studies and some from the investigator's experience and intuitive judgment. The units of "Free Wheeling and Creative Leadership." "Flatten Internal Organization to Allow More Freedom." and "Begin to Emerge as a Leader in the Field" were taken directly from the original model of Lippitt and Schmidt. . Units such as "Consists of Founding and Charter Members" and "Annual Convention Held" were derived from the written records of one Student Affairs professional association (ACPA). Other units within the model under the maturation variables of Ethics and Standards and Services and Publi- cations were constructed from two previous studies of ACPA (Mendenhall. 1975: Price. 1965). The remaining units were adaptations of the ori- ginal model or were based on the experience and intuitive judgment of the investigator. One might argue that other units of measure might have been substituted. Under Fiscal Policies. Stage 5. for example. the statement might include "an increase in 4h Free-wheeling and creative leader- Categories and standards for Consists of 'founding and ship with fluid membership charter members. strategy and established. tactics. Basic Olicies Committees formed Solicitation of establ1shed. concerned about 'membership Greater member professional through a cam- involvement. standards and paign. ethics. Restructuring and Ethical statement Membership reorganization to adopted and stabilized. actively involve standards for Sophisticated more members. professional membership cam- Goals and Objec- training and paign established. tives reevaluated. accreditation developed. Long-range plan- ning and inter- association col- laboration under- Enforcement pro- ‘cedure developed and implemented for ethics and More lifelong. Greater awareness of benefits. Accountability taken. standards. and evaluation occur. Internal audit of Professional Members select resources occurs. Delegation of power increased. Communication to members improved. *measures made into law and standards for training. Ethics. training. and standards made routine. l primary affilia- tion and ask how to serve the organization and society. {Flatten internal organization to allow more freeé dom o on Io ~range direct on. Concentrate Professional standards. ethics. and pre- paration reexamp ined. Professional affiliation and professional asso- ciation members synonymous. l FIGURE 3 MODEL UNITS 45 Lack of focus. diffuse presenta- tion of image. Unstable fis- cally. No known amount of money to budget. Dependent on good will and contri- bUtiOns 0 Annual convention held. Informal communication through letters. Image begins to to emerge. Pub- lic relations efforts devoted to attracting new .members. Adequate resources to cover expenses. Fiscal guidelines and dues are established. Annual meetings and newsletter becomes routine. Small journal started. Place- ment service started. l Clarity of image begins to emerge in the associa- tion. loost accounting and financial' planning on pre- dictable and continuing basis. Journal and other‘ publications firmly estab- lished. Increased concern about ser- vice and delivery at local and regional level. T Begin to emerge as a leader in the field. Additional sources of revenue gener- ated. Less dependent upon membership'dues. Quality of pro- fessional develop- ment activities reevaluated and improved. Organization seen as contributing to the profession as a whole and to higher education. Grants and other resources soli- cited. Resources to support self- studies and to commission papers vailable. Greater roducts and serv ces developed. Organization seen as contributing to society. ufficient finan- ial basis to low for lobby- ing and other contributions eyond associa- tion. {development acti- .and expanded ser- Sophisticated professional vities increased Lvices to members OCCUI'. FIGURE 3--Continued A6 revenue due to increased dues and revenue-generating activities." This was not included because the organiza- tion. according to this theory. should be moving toward a more altruistic phase of helping others in Stage 5 and 6 and therefore should attempt to return more to members rather than taking more from them. Further empirical research on the reality of the model might result in revi- sions of these units. What follows is a description of Table 2 that includes a stage-by-stage adaptation specifically for Student Affairs professional associations that was devel- oped by the investigator and a stage-by-stage depiction by maturation variable. Stgge 1: To Be Born Crisis--What and how much are we willing to risk? The first stage is characterized by free-wheeling and creative leadership with fluid strategy and tactics. Categories for membership are established. There is either a lack of focus or a diffuse presentation Of_the organizational image. The association is unstable finan- cially. and the charter members risk their volunteer time. professional reputation. and their own or their institu- tion's capital. Failing to sacrifice at this stage. however. will result in an organization that cannot ade- quately develop. The initial ideas remain abstract. and then the organization dies. Maturation Variables 1. Organizational Structure--Free-wheeling and crea- tive leadership. Fluid strategy and tactics. 47 Table 2. Maturation Model For Professional Associations Maturation Variables Organizational Organizational Ethics and Services and Stage Structure Standards Membership Public Relations Fiscal Policies Publications I. To Be Born Free wheeling Categories and Consists of Lack of focus, Unstable fiscally. Annual conven- What and how much are we and creative lead- ership with fluid standards for membership es- founding and charter members. diffuse presenta- tion of image. NO known amount of money tion held. lnfonnal commu- willing to risk? strategy and tablishcd. to budget. De- nication through tactics. pendent on good letters. will and contri- butions. E] Cl E] E] E] El 2. To Survive Basic policies es- Committees Solicitation Of lmage begins to Adequate re- Annual meetings How much are tablished. Greater formed concerned membership emerge. PR ef— sources to cover & newsletter be- we willing to member involve- about profcs- through a forts devoted to expenses. Fiscal comes routine. sacrifice? ment. sional standards campaign. attracting new guidelines and Small journal and ethics. members. dues are estab- started. Place- lished. ment service started. D E] Cl E] Cl [3 3. To Become Restructuring & Ethical statement Membership Clarity of image Cost accounting Journal and other Stable , reorganization to adopted & stan- stabilized. SO- begins to emerge & financial publications How are we will- actively involve dards for profes- phisticaied mem- in the associa- planning on firmly estab- ing to be orga- more members. sional training & bership campaign tion. predictable and lished. Increased nized & to accept Goals & objec- accreditation de- established. continuing basis. concern about & enforce disci- tives re-evalu- velopcd. service and deliv- pline? ated. ery at local & re- gional level. ‘ Cl D E] E] D E] 4. To Gain a Long range plan- Enforcement pro- More life long. Begin to emerge Additional Quality of Reputation ning 8: inter-as- cedure developed Greater aware- as a leader in the sources of reve- professional de- How much are sociation and implemented ness of benefits. field. nue generated. velopment activi- we willing to en- collaboration for ethics and Accountability & Less dependent ties re-evaluatcd gage in self-ex- undenaken. standards. evaluation occur. upon membership & improved. amination? dues. E] [I] C] E] El E1 5. To Achieve Internal audit of Professional mea- Members select Organization seen Grants and other Greater products Uniqueness resources occurs. sures made into primary affilia- as contributing to resources solic- & services Are we willing to Delegation of law and standards tion, and ask the profession as ited. Resources developed. make change to power increased. for training. Eth- how to serve the a whole and to to support self- make our organi- Communication ics. training. & organization & higher education. studies and to zation unique? to members im- standards made society. commission pa- proved. routine. pers available. Cl E] El [:1 Cl C] 6. To Contribute Flatten internal Professional stan- Professional affil- Organization seen Sufficient finan- Sophisticated What are we organization to dards. ethics. & iation & profes- as contributing to cial basis to 31- professional willing to give society without expecting a direct return? allow more free- dom. Concentrate on long range di- rcction. [3 preparation re-examined. sional association members synony- mous. Cl society. low for lobbying and other contri- butions beyond association. Cl development ac- tivities increased & expanded ser- vices tO members occur. [I] 2. 3. 48 Ethics and Standards--Categories and standards for membership established. Membership--Consists of founding members, char- ter memberships. Public Relations--Lack of focus. diffuse presen- tation of image. Fiscal‘Policies--Unstable fiscally. no known amount of money to budget, dependent on good will and volunteer contributions as well as institutional contributions. Services and Publications--Annual convention, informal communication through letters. and an occasional newsletter. Stage 2: To Survive Crisis--How much are we willing to sacrifice? This stage is a time to establish basic policies. a clear statement of mission and goals. and greater mem- ber involvement beyond the core founding group. Commit- tees that deal with professional standards are formed. A membership campaign is launched. An image begins to emerge, and the organization has adequate resources to cover expenses. Annual meetings are held and communi- cation vehicles are established. Maturation Variables 1. 3. Organizational Structure--Basic policies are implemented and made routine. A focus is found and accounting. recording. and other policies and procedures are established. Open elections are held that include individuals beyond the core group. There is greater member involvement and a possible establishment of a central office and executive director. Ethics and Standards-~Committees are formed that are concerned about professional standards, ethics, and professional training. Membership--A solicitation of membership through a membership campaign is held. Benefits are enumerated. 49 A. Public Relations--The association image begins to emerge. Public relations efforts are devoted primarily to attracting new members. 5. Fiscal Policies--There are adequate resources to cover expenses. Dues and fiscal guidelines are established. 6. Services and Publications-—The annual meetings and the newsletter become routine. A profes- sional journal is started. Other publications such as a monograph are considered. Additional professional development activities are started and placement of members becomes a major organi- zational thrust. Stage 3: To Become Stablg Crisis--How willing are we to be organized and to accept and enforce discipline? This is a time for committing resources to restructuring and to reorganizing in order to actively involve more members. An ethical statement is adopted. Standards for the profession, if they do not already exist, are developed. When the membership has stabilized. a clear image begins to emerge. Financial planning becomes more sophisticated and services such as a journal and professional development activities are firmly established. Authority is delegated. and the associa- tion takes on a less defensive posture. Maturation Variables 1. Organizational Structure--There is a possibility of restructuring or reorganization in order to actively involve more members. Tightening of policies and procedures and stabilizing of methods of operation occur. Goals and objec- tives are reevaluated and clearly articulated. Long-range planning begins. 2. Ethics and Standards-~An ethical statement is adopted, and standards for professional training and accreditation are developed. 3. Membership-~The membership becomes stable and the tracking of members occurs. A more sophis- ticated membership campaign is established. 50 Membership standards may be tightened and cate- gories reorganized. There is a possible crisis of affiliation and identity. A. Public Relations--There is a need to develop a reputation and a clear image. Efforts must be made to develop a reputation beyond the profes- sion as a dependable. reputable organization. 5. Fiscal Policies--Cost accounting and financial planning must be predictable and done on a conp tinuing basis. 6. Services and Publications-~Journals and other publications become firmly established. Pro- fessional development activities in addition to annual meetings become routine. More concern is expressed about delivery of services at the local level. Stage 4: To Gain a Reputation Crisis--How much are we willing to engage in self- examination? Long-range planning needs to be implemented at this stage, and interassociation collaboration under- taken. Accountability and evaluation occur with increased frequency. The organization begins to emerge as a leader in the field. Additional sources cf revenue beyond mem- bership dues are generated, and the quality of programs and services improves. If, however. at this stage the association places more effort on its image building than on creating a quality organization. it misrepre- sents its true capability. Misrepresentation could result in a return to a prior stage of development. At this stage. the organization should reinforce its efforts to improve the quality of professional development and serV1ces. Maturation Variables 1. Organizational Structure-eLong-range planning is implemented. Interassociation collaboration is undertaken. Top leadership is shared and is horizontal rather than vertical. 2. Ethics and Standards--The enforcement procedure for ethical statements is developed and 51 implemented. Standards are adopted and accredi- tation procedures implemented. Legal certifi- cation and accreditation begin. 3. Membership--Members are more lifelong and less dependent on institutional setting. There is a greater awareness of benefits. Accountability and evaluation occur. h. Public Relations-~The organization begins to emerge as a leader in the field. 5. Fiscal Policies--Additional sources of revenue are generated. Investment becomes less dependent on membership dues. The association is able to commission works and programs. 6. Services and Publications--The quality of pro- fessional development activities and publications is improved and reevaluated. Training and skill development activities are made more professional. perhaps for certification or credit. Publica- tions are commissioned by the organization in response to perceived current and future needs. Collaboration of service delivery with other associations occurs. Stage 5: To Achieve Uniqueness Crisis--Are we willing to direct the changes necessary to make our organization unique? At this stage the organization changes to take advantage of its uniqueness and to provide growth oppor- tunities for its members. Members ask how they can serve the organization. The association delegates more responsibilities to its members. Vehicles for communi- cation are improved. Standards become more prescriptive. Ethics reinforcement becomes routine. Resources exist to support self-studies and commission papers. If the association fails to focus on these tasks and does not discover its uniqueness. it can develop a specialty too narrow to allow for future growth. There is also a chance that an.organization can become paternalistic at this stage and never move to the higher level of contri- buting to society. 52 Maturation Variables 1. 2. 3. 5. Organizational Structure--There is an internal audit of resources. Delegation of authority is increased. and communications are improved. including an upward.flow of ideas. The organi- zation is less dependent on a single leader or leadership style. Ethics and Standards-~Professional ethics acquire the force of law. Training. certification. and accreditation are standardized on a state and national level. Statements on ethics. training. and standards for professional preparation become routine. Membership--Members select their primary affilia- tion in an organization and ask how they can serve the association and society. The organi- zation reaches optimal size. Public Relations-~The organization is seen as contributing to the profession and to higher education. A sophisticated image building cam- paign occurs. Fiscal Policies--Resources to support self- studies and commission papers are available. There is an ability to support scholarships and to offer assistance to the membership. Grants. gifts. and contracts are solicited. 'Services and Publications--Products and services are developed to strengthen capabilities for contribution. Stage 6: To Contribute Crisis-~What are we willing to give society without ciation. expecting a direct return? Stage 6 is one of contributions beyond the asso- Affiliations extend beyond the organization. the profession, and higher education in order to contri- bute to society as a whole. Community and national ser- vice are important at this stage of development. 53 Maturation Variables 1. Organizational Structure-~There is a flattened internal organization to allow greater member par- ticipation and freedom. Resources and leadership are committed to larger societal and professional issues. The organization concentrates on long- range direction, long-range research, and devel- opment. 2. Ethics and Standards--Professional standards, ethics, and preparation are reexamined. 3. Membership--Professional affiliation and profes- sional association members become synonymous. A. Public Relations-eThe organization is seen as con- tributing to society as a whole. 5. Fiscal Policies--There is sufficient financial flexibility to allow for lobbying and other poli- tical and societal contributions beyond the asso- ciation. 6. Services and Publications--Resources are committed for services to a community beyond the membership. This chapter contained the steps involved in creating the MMPA. The original Lippitt and Schmidt model was presented. The method of selecting the two boundaries for the MMPA was identified. One model boundary is the six growth stages and key crises of the original model. The second boundary consists of six maturation variables derived from a previous study by Price (1965), Zannini (1978), and Lippitt and Schmidt (1967). The 36 individual units placed within these boun- daries were identified and their derivation explained. Finally. the complete stage-by—stage MMPA for Student Affairs professional associations was presented. 5h With the model adaptation complete, the next chapter contains a discussion of the methods used to attempt to determine the adequacy of the constructed model. (See Table 2.) CHAPTER IV REPORT OF STUDY FINDINGS The purpose of this study was to construct an adapted theoretical model of management that might assist a Student Affairs professional association in better under- standing and predicting its organizational growth. The preceding chapter contained a description of how the adapted model was derived. In this chapter the investiga- tor documents the steps used in reviewing the adequacy of the adapted model (MMPA). Model Adequacy As stated in Chapter I, the argument about the adequacy of a theoretical model is always and only an argument about the logic employed in constructing the model (Dubin, 1978). Dubin stated that experts should agree or have consensus on the logic of the observational set and the boundaries placed on the units. Interviews were conducted with six authorities. One interview was conducted in person with the theory-based authority. Four telephone interviews were conducted with the practitioner-based authorities. One practitioner chose to write his comments (Appendix 2). These interviews 55 56 and the model rankings occurred between February and June of 1983. The model was subjected to critical analysis in terms of its logic. accuracy, and utility. Responses regarding the boundaries, units, and utility of the model are found in this chapter. Six independent rankings of the MMPA were con- ducted. Five past ACPA presidents spanning 31 years (the practitioner-based authorities) were asked to rank the MMPA in terms of where they believed ACPA was during their term of presidency to determine the fit of the historical information with the model. Research was also conducted on the chronology of events within ACPA relevant to the model to rank the model based on actual events. That research included reviewing primary written documents of ACPA found primarily in the archives. and by utilizing two previous historical studies of ACPA (Price, 1965; Mendenhall. 1975). Once the chrono- logy was complete, it was reviewed for accuracy by the five former presidents. and subsequently was corrected. The model was then ranked by year and stage of growth on the MMPA. The American College Personnel Association (ACPA) was selected for four reasons: (1) it is the largest of the professional associations in student affairs: (2) regarding breadth of coverage. "among professional socie- ties, the.American College Personnel Association most 57 nearly embraces the total field of college personnel work" (wrenn, 1949): (3) in terms of historical record, it was possible to get access to primary documents: and (4) it was possible to interview individuals who had played important roles in ACPA. There are two possible research stances toward a theoretical model: 1. The researcher may set as his task the p399: of the adequacy of the theoretical model; 2. The researcher may set as his task to improve the starting theoretical model. (Dubin, 1978, p. 231) The research stance adopted for this study was to prove the adequacy of the theoretical model. The investi- gator analyzed the data collected from the interviews on the value of the units within the model in an attempt to prove the adequacy of the model. This analysis was neces— sary so that the linkage between the theoretical model and the empirical domain was established and the model could be empirically tested. If the investigator had sought to improve the model, all deviant and non-fitting data would continuously be collected and given prominence as the theoretical model continued to be modified and altered. Because this study was an adapted, model-building study using an original model, the investigator sought to prove the adequacy of that adaptation rather than to improve the model. 58 Interview Resultg In this chapter the results of interviews with one theory-based and five practitioner-based authorities in the field of application are reported. These experts reviewed the model for its logic, accuracy, and potential utility. Model Ranking After the experts reviewed the boundaries and the units of the adapted model, two additional steps were taken in an attempt to prove the adequacy of the MMPA. The MMPA was ranked by stage and variable in two separate but related ways. 1. The five practitioner-based_authorities, who were ACPA presidents over a 31-year period, were requested to rank the MMPA on each of the matura- tion variables at the stage they felt the asso- ciation to be during their presidency. 2. Next, a ranking on the MMPA for ACPA was done using the year an event occurred that was signi- ficant to the corresponding stage of growth. That ranking took place by first developing a chronological analysis that examined dates of specific events by maturation variables of one professional association, ACPA, from the written 59 records of that association. That analysis was verified for its accuracy by five former ACPA presidents (the practitioner-based authorities) (Appendix A). Using information derived from the corrected chronology, the investigator ranked ACPA on the MMPA by the year that an event occurred (Table 3). For example, the MMPA description of Stage 3 (To Become Stable) under the variable of Ethics and Standards read in part: "Ethical Statement Adopted." That event for ACPA occurred in 1980. Therefore, the rank- ing would place ACPA in Stage 3 of that variable in 1980. The final step in Chapter IV is a summary of the results of the experts' opinion on the logic and accuracy of the model and the results of the six separate rankings. Interview Results--Theory-Based and Practitioner-Based Authorities Selection Process-~Theogy- Based Authority Gordon.Lippitt was originally contacted to serve as an authority. He responded that he would be unable to do so but did forward an instrument he recently developed to test his original model. That instrument, not Table 3. Ranking by five former ACPA presidents (practitioner-based authorities) 6O Maturation Variables Organizational Organizational Ethics and Services and Stage Structure Standards Membership Public Relations Fiscal Policies Publications I. To Be Born Free wheeling Categories and Consists of Lack of focus, Unstable fiscally. Annual conven- What and how and creative Icad- standards for founding and diffuse prescnta- No known tion held. much are we ership with fluid membership es- charter members. tion of image. amount of money Informal commu- willing to risk? strategy and tablished. to budget. De- nication through tactics. pendent on good letters. will and contri- butions. D E] E] El Cl C] 2. To Survive Basic policies es- Committees Solicitation of Image begins to Adequate re- Annual meetings How much are tablished. Greater formed concerned membership emerge. PR ef- sources to cover & newsletter be- we willing to member involve- about profes- through a forts devoted to expenses. Fiscal comes routine. sacrifice? ment. sional standards campaign. attracting new guidelines and Small journal and ethics. members. dues are estab— started. Place- CL lished. ment service started. [3 E] Cl C] E] C] 3. To Become Restructuring & Ethical statement Membership Clarity of image Cost accounting Journal and other Stable reorganization to adopted & stan- stabilized. So- begins to emerge & financial plan- publications How are we will- actively involve dards for profes- phisticated mem- in the associa- ning on predict- firmly estab« ing to be orga- more members. sional training & bership campaign tion. able and lished. Increased nized & to accept Goals & objec- accreditation de- established. pM BK WB continuing basis. concern about & enforce disci- tives re-evalu- velopcd. pM (3w BK pM BK cw service and deliv- pline? ' ated. pM 0w W8 W8 CL cry at local & re- BK pM wg gional level. BK CL E] Cl C] D C] E] 4. To Gain a Long range plan- Enforcement pro- More life long. Begin to emerge Additional Quality of Reputation ning & inter-as- cedure developed Greater aware- as a leader in the sources of reve- professional de- How much are sociation and implemented ness of benefits. field. nue generated. velopment activi- we willing to en- collaboration for ethics and Accountability & CL (3w wg Less dependent ties re-evaluated gage in self-ex- undertaken. standards. evaluation occur. upon membership & improved. amination? BK (3w CL dues. GW pM CL WB D E] D C] C] 5. To Achieve lntemal audit of Professional mea- Members select Organization seen Grants and other Greater products Uniqueness resources occurs. sures made into primary affilia- as contributing to resources solic- & services Are we willing to Delegation of law and standards tion. and ask the profession as ited. Resources developed. make change to power increased. for training. Eth- how to serve the a whole and to to support self- WB make our organi- Communication ics. training. & organization & higher education. studies and to zation unique? to members im- standards made society. commission pa- proved. routine. pers available. Cl C] D [3 Cl C] 6. To Contribute Flatten internal Professional stan- Professional affil- Organization seen Sufficient finan- Sophisticated What are we organization to dards, ethics. & iation & profes- as contributing to cial basis to al- professional willing to give allow more free- preparation sional association society. low for lobbying development ac- society without dom. Concentrate reexamined. members synony- and other contri- tivities increased expecting a direct on long range mous. butions beyond & expanded ser- retum? direction. association. vices to members occur. E] E] E] Cl C] D Rater Analysis GW—Gilbert Wrenn I948 BK—Barbara Kirk l964—66 CL—Charles Lewis I970 WB—Willard Blaesser I956 PM—Phyllis Mable I979 Worksheet Instructions: Please indicate with a check mark in the proper box where you believe the American College Personnel Association was during your tenure as President on each of the Maturation Variables. These areas may overlap, but use your best judgment as to the stage the organization had achieved. 61 available at the beginning of this study, resembles in format the MMPA. David Borland agreed to be interviewed, and the results of that interview regarding his observations about the logic, accuracy, and utility of the model follow. Dr. David Borland President, Dispute Resolutions, Inc. Borland is a former professor of higher education administration and currently operates his own consultant business. He has taught doctoral courses on organiza- tional development and has written extensively about the management of Student Affairs. He has developed a matrix model of management for Student Affairs by adapt- ing a previous theoretical model. In addition to his theoretical knowledge about organizational development, Borland served as ACPA president in 1981. Interview Results--Theogy- Based Authority The results of an interview with a theory-based authority regarding the logic, accuracy, and utility of the MMPA are presented below. Borland began the interview by citing a number of other studies, including his own dissertation, that examined theoretical management models and organizational growth. Although he was not familiar with the Lippitt 62, and Schmidt model until the interview, upon study and reflection, he deemed it appropriate to the study of Student Affairs professional association growth. He then examined the MMPA. With regard to the boundaries of the model, Borland felt the Growth Stages and Key Crises were appropriate and logical. He provided the following observations regarding the maturation variables: --Organizational Structure--Does this variable identify the association as different and dis- tinct from nonlstudenteaffairs organizations? he asked. Other labels could be used, but this he felt seemed the most inclusive. --Ethics and Standarg§--This variable is important because it identifies the uniqueness of profesk sional associations and - “ applicable to all organizations. --Membership--This variable, if used in a ,‘c "- making organization, might double as a term for "work force." Overall comments regarding the boundaries included the observation that the maturation variables chosen were appropriate and that he could not identify any additional variables. He stated the variables seemed logical and accurate. Borland did raise hypo- thetical questions for future researchers regarding the 63 interrelationship of the variables and the stages them- selves. Regarding the logic and accuracy of the individual Bfliié within the boundaries, Borland provided the follow- ing judgments: --Organizational Structure: The units defined seemed logical and accurate. --Ethics and Standards: At Stage 4 "adopting" stan- dards might be mentioned. Suggested additions at Stage 6 included "Making society aware of the ethi- cal statement and making the statement a matter of public policy." --Membership and Public Relations: Categories of units were logical and accurate. a-Fiscal Policies: As writ‘ t, it might be difficult to differentiate between 1 4th and 5th stages of the model. Stage 4--Additional SO' :es of revenue gener- ated. Less d. indent upon membership dues. St e --Grants and other resources solicited. Resources to 3 port self-studies and to commission pers available. --Services and Publications: :age 1--Stage annual organizational meeting instead of annual conven- tion. Stage 2--He questioned whether placement services began at the survival growth stage. Stage 6--Publications for college students' parents 64 and other services and publications for the gen- eral public might be appropriate. After reviewing the logic and accuracy of the boundaries and units, Borland was asked to comment on the utility of the model. He stated the model had great utility and was needed: 1. To provide general guidelines for decisionp making to new as well as established profes- sional associations. 2. To quantify and measure more precisely the growth of an association. 3. To assist in organizational decisionpmaking and resource allocation. He concluded the interview by stating he was in the process of starting a new professional association and would share the model with the charter group to assist them in decision-making. He also believed that the model had immediate pragmatic utility in assisting a new professional association in developing short-range and long#range goals. Selection Process-~22actitioner- Based Authoritigg Five individuals were selected as practitioner- based authorities in the applied field. All had served as president of ACPA. They spanned the years as presi- dent from 19h8 to 1979 although one person interviewed . 65 had been involved in.ACPA since 1934. The individuals selected were professionals of national stature who had played key roles in professional association development. In addition, they had all written, taught, and consulted in the field of Student Affairs. They were: 1. C. Gilbert WrennP-ACPA President, 1948. Pro; fessor Emeritus at both the University of Minnesota and the Arizona State University. wrenn has long been influential in the student affairs and counseling profession. He was involved in drafting the 1937 Student Personnel Point of View (SPPV) statement and worked with Esther Lloyd Jones to estab- lish the ACPA charter in 1938. Wrenn served as ACPA President in 1948. He delivered a major address to the 1970 ACPA convention and is considered one of the impor- tant leaders of the profession. 2. Williard W. Blaesser--ACPA President, 1956. Professor Emeritus, Department of Counseling Education, Arizona State University. Blaesser served as President of ACPA in 1956. He was successful in securing a grant from the Hazen Foundation for monies to assist in the restructuring of ACPA. He has been a professor of counseling at Arizona State University and currently serves on the ACPA Long- Range Planning Committee. 3. Barbara Kirk--ACPA President, 1964-1966. ‘66 Kirk served as ACPA President from 1964 to 1966. She was the only President to serve two terms of office. She appointed Charles C. Lewis to develop state divi- sions. and she expanded the number of ACPA Commissions. For many years Kirk served as Director of the counseling center at the University of California, Berkeley campus. She subsequently served as President of Division 17 of the American Psychological Association. 4. Charles C. Lewis-~ACPA President, 1970. Execu- tive Vice President, American Personnel and Guidance Association. ' Lewis served as ACPA President in 1970. He had been active in ACPA and had served as the editor of the first professional journal of the association, assembled on his kitchen table. Lewis also served on the ACPA Long-Range Planning Committee in 1981. Lewis served for a number of years as Vice President of Student Affairs at Pennsylvania State University. 5. Phyllis Mable--ACPA President, 1979. Vice President of Student Development, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia Mable served as ACPA President in 1979. She established the Council for the Advancement of Standards, which consists of all major professional associations in Student Affairs. It was during her term that the first Statement of Ethics was approved. She has written extensively in the field of residence hall management. 67 Procedures The five authorities were initially contacted to determine their willingness to be interviewed. They sub- sequently received a letter and a pack of materials that included: 1. A dissertation abstract 2. Chapter 3 of the dissertation 3. A chronological outline of ACPA 4. A rating scale for the profession entitled Maturation Model for Professional Associations (MMPA) They were asked to rank the model and return it to the investigator with their comments. (See Table 2.) Specific times and dates were established for a telephone interview. One participant, C. Gilbert Wrenn, chose to write his comments (Appendix B) and responded that he would be unable to be interviewed over the tele- iphone. The authorities were infbrmed that they would be questioned about the model and the accuracy of the chrono- logical outline. Interview Results--Practitioner- Based Au horgtggg The results of the interviews with the five practitioner-based authorities in the applied field with regard to the logic, accuracy, and utility of the model are reported. 68 0 With regard to the boundaries of the model. four of the five authorities interviewed stated that the MMPA seemed logical in terms of the stage develop- ment continuum. o All of the authorities said that the MMPA matura- tion variables seemed logical and accurate. Two authorities would add one more variable, leadership. 0 With regard to the logic and accuracy of the indi- vidual units within the boundaries of the matrix, none of the authorities could offer alternative suggestions for the improvement of the logic, pro- gression, or accuracy of the 36 individual units within the matrix. Specific suggestions that were offered by the practitioner-based authorities to improve the model included the following. -- With regard to the stage theory itself, one respondent felt that at the stage "To Be Born? the issue was not one of "What to risk,” as implied in the Lippitt and Schmidt stage one. The authority felt that the risks were small and primarily in the areas of time and energy, and that risk might not be appropriate or might be overemphasized at this stage of the model for professional associations. -- Another respondent felt that the stage theory itself needed to be expanded but offered no 69 concrete suggestions about how this might occur. That authority stated that the stage theory seemed to be a logical approach, but the explanation of the stage might be more fully developed. Responding to the maturation variable, two per- sons interviewed felt that the kind of leadership a professional association had was extremely important to the growth of that association. One person went on to state that the major thrust of a Student Affairs professional association depends on whether the leadership is idealistic or there only to serve their personal needs. The same authority suggested that territoriality between and among Student Affairs professional associations might also be considered, and could be a variable that might affect growth along a continuum. With regard to the unit descriptions, one authority, although agreeing with the logic and accuracy of the descriptions, felt that they should be expanded. No examples, however, of how that expansion should occur were offered. Two of the five persons interviewed felt that ACPA and other professional associations may move very rapidly through Stage 1 and 2 of the MMPA units as described. 7O -- One of the five respondents stated that profes- sional associations probably develop very unevenly: that is, associations may develop more rapidly in one area, such as services and publications, than in another area. 0 Finally, the five practitioner-baSed authorities were asked to comment on the potential utility of the MMPA for Student Affairs professional associa- tions. Four of the five respondents felt that such a model would have been useful during their presi- dency. All interviewees believed the model had utility. Specific comments of the respondents regarding the utility of the model included: -- The model would be very uSeful to ACPA leader- ship in terms of viewing where they needed to grow: -- It would be a useful tool for a president to view organizational growth: -- The model would be helpful in decision-making: -- As ACPh strives and struggles (along with other Student Affairs professional associations) to compile, plan, influence, organize, and motivate the profession, such a tool would be useful. In summary, five practitioner-based authorities were asked to comment on the logic, adequacy, and utility of the MMPA. -- Five out of five believed the stage theory was logical. 71 Four out of five believed the key crises were logical. Five out of five believed that the maturation variables that were selected were logical and accurate. Five out of five believed that the construction of units within the model were logical and accurate. Five out of five believed that the model had utility for Student Affairs professional asso- ciations. The overall results of the interview of all six authorities regarding the logic, accuracy, and utility of the MMPA are summarized below. Six out of six believed the stage theory logical in its entirety. Five out of six believed the key crises logical and accurate. (One felt ”What to Risk” at Stage 2 might not be appropriate.) Six out of six believed that the maturation variables selected were logical and accurate. Five out of six believed the construction of units within the model were logical and accurate. (The theory-based authority had specific changes or additions to suggest in 7 of the 36 units.) 72 -- Six out of six authorities believed the model had utility for Student Affairs professional associ- ations. Rankingg Six independent rankings of the MMPA were con— ducted to ascertain the fit of the units to the actual growth of one professional association, ACPA. What follows is a report of the methodology used to obtain those rank- ings and the results of the rankings themselves. Practitioner-Based Authorities' Rankigg The five practitioner-based authorities who had been interviewed for this study were then asked to rank ACPA on the MMPA where they believed it to be during their presidency. Table 3 presents the results of their independent ranking. Chronology of ACPA--1223-1282 The next portion of this chapter describes how a chronological ranking of the MMPA was derived. To view the developmental model of organizational growth through its various stages it is necessary to review the chronology of a Student Affairs professional association to ascertain the historical events that cor- responded with the growth stages. 73 The complete chronology of the development of ACPA from 1923 to 1982 may be found in Appendix A. This chronology was constructed by the investigator during the spring of 1982 from the Executive Council minutes, the journals, two prior ACPA studies (Price, 1965: Mendenhall, 1975). newSletters, personal correspondence, and other primary documents of ACPA. Once the analysis was completed an outline was developed from that chronological analysis. See Figure 4.) FIGURE 4 CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE: AMERICAN COLLEGE PERSONNEL ASSOCIATION The Beginning--1223-1231 1923 A meeting was held at National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) and National Educa- tional Association (NEA) by people interested in teacher placement. They agreed to meet the following year. 1924 The National Association of Appointment Secre- taries was formed with May Cheney President. Seventy-nine individual and institutional members were listed. 1924-29 Joint meetings with several associations including National Association of Women Deans and Counselors: National Meeting of Superin- tendents: NVGA: National Committee Bureau of Occupations and Personnel Research Foundation: and.Mid-west Personnel Associations. The first committee was appointed in 1926 and dues were established in 1925. 1929 Name changed to National Association of Place- ment and Personnel for "those engaged in any 7a FIGURE 4--Continued 1931 1933 1934 1935 1937 1938 1939 1940 form of personnel work in education institu- tions or collegiate level through the United States.” Name changed to American College Personnel Association (ACPA). The Personnel Journal carried a statement of principles, functions, and standards. Ninety-five members were in the association. A free consulting service by ACPA officers was started that year. A joint session of NVGA and ACPA was held. Attendance fell off significantly at the annual meeting due to the economic depression. The Carnegie Corporation funds assisted in the formation of the American Council of Guidance and Personnel (ACGPA). ACPA's first joint meeting with ACGPh was held and the first president of that associ- ation gave a speech "One Common Cause," in which he stated that the purpose of ACPA was to "find jobs for college students and further their advance in college." A Committee on Standards of Student Personnel Work was formed and time was spent clarifying organizational goals. The ”Student Personnel Point of View" was published by ACE. Membership reached 175. Esther Lloyd Jones vowed to increase the membership by 100% (Mills, 1950). The association developed a publication of convention proceedings and published its first newsletter. Committees were formed' that extended services beyond the association. A Commission on the Reorganization of ACPA was formed. It consisted of Esther Lloyd Jones, Karl Onthank, and C. Gilbert Wrenn. Two hundred thirty-nine members belonged to the association. Constitutional revisions occurred so that all members and not just institutional members could vote. ' 75 FIGURE 4--Continued 1941 1942-46 1947 1948 1950—52 1953-57 The first mail ballot for the election of officers was conducted and a membership com- mittee prepared a list of categories for membership. The war years diminished the functioning of the association. Attendance was difficult and the Executive Council were the only ones able to meet. E. G. Williamson asked ACPA to address the problems that would be created for youth in the postwar years. The Personnel- O-Gram was started in 1945 and the first mem- bership brochure was developed. Four publi- cations were produced for ACPA by ACE. The Student Personnel Point of View was revised and the organization became more sharply defined and expanded to include a broad range of services and programs. ACPA issued a strong statement on racial discrim- ination that year. C. Gilbert Wrenn was President and gave an address on "The Greatest Tragedy in College Personnel Work," in which he identified the strengths and problems of the profession. Membership categories were refined and graduate students added. ‘ Membership reached 1,100 but the profession and the professional association were under attack. By 1952 a constitution was adopted that formed the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA). .The organizational structure was a major issue. A committee was appointed to look at the structure and function of the association and adopt a long-range plan. An internal analysis resulted in the decision to remain with APGA and to form the Higher Education . Planning Committee (a forerunner of COSPA). In 1956, Bill Blaesser was President and appealed to the Hazen Foundation for monies to assist with the restructuring of ACPA. Efforts to involve more grass roots members in the association were made, and to integrate 76 FIGURE 4--Continued 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1968 the work of the student personnel worker with faculty began. New groups of member- ship were solicited. An ethics committee was appointed and produced "Standards for Preparation of School Counselors.” In 1957 membership was 2,000. The Journal of College Student Personnel was established and the competencies required to be a student personnel worker were investi- gated. The late fifties saw another dis- satisfaction with APGA relationships. The monograph series began. The commission structure was established with 12 original commissions. Three more would be added by 1974. A formal study was made of the relationship with APGA under the leadership of William Craig. A self-study committee was also appointed. Mel Hardee was President and the membership had grown to 3,189. She initiated a news- letter entitled ACPA Today and appointed a committee to study internal reorganization. Tuw'recommitted continued affiliation with APGA. A Rights and Responsibilities state- ment for Student Personnel Workers was also adopted. Barbara Kirk was President and state branches were considered. A committee to develop a statement of professional ethics was appointed and the membership of the Executive Council was expanded. A committee to reconceptualize the underly- ing theory of student affairs was formed and resulted in the appointment of a committee. A publication entitled Student Development in Tomorrow’s Higher Education was produced and THE Preject continued over the next several years with an emphasis on student development models and competencies. 77 FIGURE 4--Continued 1969 A membership survey was undertaken and dis- cussion of a merger between NASPA and NAWDAC was started that was to last until 1972. 1970 The first convention separate from APGA and other associations was held in St. Louis. 1973 A ballot to consider ”once and for all" the affiliation issue with APGA was taken. ACPA voted to remain with APGA. 1974 The 50th anniversary of the association was held in Atlanta with the major theme Student Development. 1975 A committee was appointed to investigate a name change and two new positions were added to the Executive Council. They were graduate student and Vice President for State Divi- sions. A book, The Future of Student Affairs, was published. Membership reached an all-time high of 9,582 and the publications were reorganized into a media board. 1976-78 A self-study of the organization was conducted and the policies clarified and tightened. Changes were made in the organizational structure to allow for greater member parti- cipation. 1980 Phyllis Mable called for an agenda for the 808 to include professional standards, profes- sional growth, an expansion of the knowledge base and increased skills. The Council for Standards was formed with 15 associations participating. Membership declined to 7,666. On November , 25 years after the first ACPA discussion on the topic, an ethical statement for the profession was adopted. 1981 A long-range planning committee was appointed consisting of former presidents. Another committee was appointed to investigate the affiliation with APGA, and an internal manage- ment committee recommended long-range fiscal policies and a system of officer accountability. 78 FIGURE 4--Continued 1982 The Executive Council voted to remain with APGA. The President urged inter-association cooperation and the organization pledged it- self to furthering human development. The outline was then submitted to the five practitioner-based experts interviewed for this study. They were asked to comment on the accuracy of the chrono- logical outline based on their knowledge of ACPA. The outline was revised based on those interviews. (See Figure 5.) A more complete reporting of those inter- views, including anecdotes regarding the history reported by the experts, may be found in Appendix 0. FIGURE 5 REVISED CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE REVISED BY FIVE FORMER ACPA PRESIDENTS (1948-1979) AMERICAN COLLEGE PERSONNEL ASSOCIATION (Revisions are in CAPS) The Beginnigg--1223-1231 1923 A meeting was held at National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) and National Educational Association (NBA) by people interested in teacher placement. They agreed to meet the following year. 1924 The National Association of Appointment Secre- taries was formed with May Cheney President. Seventy-nine individual and institutional memberships. 1924-29 Joint meetings with several associations including National Association of Women Deans and Counselors: National Meeting of Superin- tendents: NVGA: National Committee Bureau of 79 FIGURE 5--Continued 1929 1931 1933 1934 1935 1937 1938-39 Occupations and Personnel Research Federation: and Mid-west Personnel Association. The first committee was appointed in 1926 and dues were established in 1925. Name changed to National Association of Place- ment and Personnel for ”those engaged in form of personnel work in education institué tions or collegiate level through the United States." Name changed to American College Personnel Association (ACPA). The Personnel Journal carried a statement of principles, functions, and standards. Ninety-five members were in the association. A free consulting service by ACPA officers was started that year. A joint session of NVGA and ACPA was held. Attendance fell off significantly at the annual meeting due to the economic depression. The Carnegie Corporation funds assisted in the formation of the American Council of Guidance and Personnel (ACGPA). ACPA's first joint meeting with ACGPA was held and “~ first president of that associ- "tie - a speech "One Common Cause,” in ..u he stated that the purpose of ACPA was to "find jobs for college students and further their advance in college.” A Committee on Standards of Student Personnel Work was formed and time was spent clarifying organizational goals. The ”Student Personnel Point of View" was published by ACE. Membership reached 175. Esther Lloyd Jones vowed to increase the membership by 100% (Mills, 1950). The association developed a publication of convention proceedings and published its first newsletter. Committees were formed that extended services beyond the association. 80 FIGURE 5--Continued 1939 1940 1941 1942-46 1947 1948 1950-52 A Commission on the Reorganization of ACPA was formed. It consisted of Esther Lloyd Jones, Karl Onthank, and C. Gilbert Wrenn. Two hundred thirty-nine members belonged to the asgociation. ACPA RECEIVED ITS CHARTER IN 193 . Constitutional revisions occurred so that all members and not just institutional mem- bers could vote. The first mail ballot for the election of officers was conducted and a membership com- mittee prepared a list of categories for membership. The war years diminished the functioning of the association. Attendance was difficult and the Executive Council were the only ones able to meet. E. G. Williamson asked ACPA to address the problems that would be created for youth in the postwar years. The Personnel- O-Gram was started in 1945 and the first mem- bership brochure was developed. FOURTEEN 0R FIFTEEN PUBLICATIONS WERE PRODUCED FOR ACPA BY AGE. The Student Personnel Point of View was revised and the organization became more sharply defined and expanded to include a broad range of services and programs. ACPA issued a strong statement on.racial discrimina- tion that year. C. Gilbert Wrenn was President and gave an address on "The Greatest Tragedy in College Personnel Work," in which he identified the strengths and problems of the profession. Membership categories were refined and graduate students added. Membership reached 1,100 but the profession and the professional association were under attack. By 1952 a constitution was adopted that formed the American Personnel and Guidance Assxciation (APGA). ACPA BECAME A DIVISION OF PGA. 81 FIGURE 5--Continued 1953-57 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 The organizational structure was a major issue. A committee was appointed to look at the structure and function of the association and adopt a long-range plan. An internal analysis resulted in the decision to remain with APGA and to form the Higher Education Planning Committee (a forerunner of COSPA). In 1956, Bill Blaesser was President and appealed to the Hazen Foundation for monies to assist with the restructuring of ACPA. Efforts to involve more grass roots members in the association were made; and to integrate the work of the student personnel worker with faculty again. THE HAZEN FOUNDATION FUNDED THE MID-YEAR EXECUTIVE COUNCIL MEETING. New groups of membership were solicited. An ethics committee was appointed and produced "Standards for Preparation of School Coun- selors." In 1957 membership was 2,000. The Journal of College Student Personnel was estainshed and the competencies required to be a student personnel worker were investi- gated. The late fifties saw another dis- satisfaction with APGA relationships. The monograph series began. The commission structure was established with 12 original commissions. Three more would be added by 1974. A formal study was made of the relationship with APGA under the leadership of William Craig. A self-study committee was also appointed. Mel Hardee was President and the membership had grown to 3,189. She initiated a news- letter entitled ACPA Today and appointed a committee to study internal reorganization. They recommitted continued affiliation with APGA. A Rights and Responsibilities state- ment for Student Personnel Workers was also adopted. 82 FIGURE 5-4Continued 1964 1968 1969 1970 1973 1974 1975 1976-78 Barbara Kirk was President and state branches were considered. A committee to develop a statement of professional ethics was appointed and the membership on the Executive Council was expanded. A committee to reconceptualize the underlying theory of student affairs was formed and resulted in the appointment of a committee. A publication entitled Student Develo ment in Tomorrow's Higher Education was produced and THE Project’continued over the next several years with an emphasis on student development models and competencies. A membership survey was undertaken and dis- cussion of a merger between NASPA and NAWDAC was started that was to last until 1972. The first convention separate from APGA and other associations was held in St. Louis. A ballot to consider "once and for all” the affiliation issue with APGA was taken. ACPA voted to remain with APGA. The 50th anniversary of the association was held in Atlanta with the major theme Student Development. A committee was appointed to investigate a name change and two new positions were added to the Executive Council. They were graduate student and Vice President for State Divi- sions. A book, The Future 0;;Student Affairs, was published. Membership reached an all-time high of 9,582 and the publications were reorganized into a media board. A self-study of the organization was con, ducted, a public relations firm was conp sulted, and the policies clarified and tightened. Changes were made in the organi- zational structure to allow for greater member participation. .83 FIGURE 5--Continued 1980 Phyllis Mable called for an agenda for the 803 to include professional standards, pro- fessional growth, an expansion of the knowl- edge base, and increased skills. The Council for Standards was formed with 15 associations participating. Membership declined to 7,666. On November , 25 years after the first ACPA discussion on the topic, an ethical statement for the profession was adopted. 1981 A long-range planning committee was appointed consisting of former presidents. Another committee was appointed to investigate the affiliation with APGA, and an internal many agement committee recommended long-range fsical policies and a system of officer accountability. 1982 The Executive Council voted to remain with APGA. The President urged inter-association cooperation and the organization pledged itself to furthering human development. A lapsed membership survey was completed and a survey of lapsed members was reported. Chronological Rankigg Once the Chronological Outline had been cor- rected, the investigator ranked the model based on the year an event occurred that corresponded with the matura- tion variable. For example, an Ethical Statement was adopted in 1980. That event corresponded with the third growth stage of stability on the MMPA and was ranked accordingly. _(See Table 4.) Given a developmental framework, this investi- gator analyzed one organization, ACFA, from a chrono- logical perspective with regard to the stages of the 84 Table 4. Chronological ranking by year* Maturation Variables Organizational Organizational Ethics and Services and Stage Structure Standards Membership Public Relations Fiscal Policies Publications I. To Be Born Free wheeling Categories and Consists of Lack of focus, Unstable fiscally. Annual conven- What and how and creative lead- standards for founding and diffuse presenta- No known tion held. much are we ership with fluid membership es- charter members. tion of image. amount of money Informal commu- willing to risk? strategy and tablished. 1924 1924 to budget. De- nication through tactics. 1929 ' 1929 pendent on good letters. 1924 '93] will and contri- 1924 1926 1947 butions. 1925 E] Cl E] El D Cl 2. To Survive Basic policies es- Committees Solicitation of Image begins to Adequate re- Annual meetings How much are tablished. Greater formed concerned membership emerge. PR ef- sources to cover & newsletter be- we willing to member involve- about profes- through a cam- forts devoted to expenses. Fiscal comes routine. sacrifice? ment. sional standards paign. attracting new guidelines and Small journal 1940 and ethics. 1935 members. dues are estab- started. Place- 1941 1935 1964 1925 lished. ment service 1964 1929 1933 started. 1937 I956 I931 1938 1945 D D C] D E] D 3. To Become Restructuring & Ethical statement Membership Clarity of image Cost accounting loumal and other Stable reorganization to adopted & stan- stabilized. So. begins to emerge & financial plan- publications How are we will- actively involve dards for profes- phisticated mem- in the associa- ning on predict- firmly estab- ing to be orga- more members. sional training & bership campaign tion. able and lished. Increased nized & to accept Goals & objec- accreditation de- established. 1977 continuing basis. concern about & enforce disci- tives re-evalu- velopcd. 1950 I976 service and deliv- pline? ated. 1930 195] 1932 ery at local 8; re- ]955 1975 gional level. 1956 1959 1961 1960 C] Cl C] D D D 4. To Gain a Long range plan- Enforcement pro- More life long. Begin to emerge Additional Quality of Reputation ning & intcr- cedure developed Greater aware- as a leader in the sources of reve- professional dc- How much are association col- and implemented ness of benefits. field. nue generated. velopment activi- we willing to en— laboration for ethics and Accountability & Less dependent ties re-evaluatcd gage in self-ex- undertaken. standards. evaluation occur. upon membership & improved. amination? 1953 1932 dues 1970 1981 . C] [I] E] Cl E] El 5. To Achieve lntemal audit of Professional mea- Members select Organization seen Grants and other Greater products Uniqueness resources occurs. sures made into primary affilia- as contributing to resources solic- & services Are we willing to Delegation of law and standards tion. and ask the profession as ited. Resources developed. make change to power increased. for training. Eth- how to serve the . a whole and to to support self- make our organi- Communication ics. training, & organization & higher education. studies and to zation unique? to members im- standards made society. commission pa- proved. routine. pers available. [I] [:1 Cl C] C] C] 6. To Contribute Flatten internal Professional stan- Professional affil- Organization seen Sufficient finan- Sophisticated What are we organization to dards. ethics. & iation & profcs- as contributing to cial basis to al- professional willing to give society without expecting a direct rctum? allow more free- dom. Concentrate on long range di- rcction. Cl preparation re-ex- amined. sional association members synony- mous. Cl society. low for lobbying and other contri- butions beyond association. E] development ac- tivities increased & expanded ser- vices to members occur. E] *Sec pages 86—9l for explanation of dates. 85 theoretical model to ascertain if a relationship exists between the actual events in one association and the growth stages or the fit of the data to the model. What follows is an analysis by maturation vari- ables using available chronological data. I. Organizational Structure A. B. C. Stgge 1--To Be Born, 1 24-1 26 An informal meeting was held in 1924, lead- ing appointment secretaries to form the National Association of Appointment Secre- taries. The group continued to meet jointly with other associations. The first commit- tee was appointed in 1926 and charged to make organizational plans (Price, 1965). Based on this information, it seems that ACPA was initially "free wheeling" with fluid strategy and tactics. Stage 2--To Survive, 1240-1241. The first election of officers by the mem- bers occurred in 1941. A constitution was revised in 1940 outlining the goals and policies of the organization and allowing all members to vote (Feder, 1942). Stage 3--To Become Stable, 1255-1226 In 1955, a committee was formed to examine the function and structure of the associa- tion (Norton, 1956). In 1956, the Hazen Foundation funded a "searching appraisal of its (ACPA) total function in Higher Educa- tion" (Blaesser, 1956). Commissions were established in 1961 and expanded in 1964, significantly increasing member involvement. State Divisions were considered in 1964 (Lewis, 1964). A self- study occurred in 1962 (Craig, 1962) and again in 1976 to increase member participa- tion and restate organizational goals and objectives (ACPA minutes, 1976). II. D. E. 86 Stage 4--To Gain a Reputation, 1253-1281 Inter-association collaboration beyond APGA has been undertaken at several historical periods. ACPA held joint meetings with numerous other professional associations since its inception. And affiliation with APGA and its organizational predecessors occurred throughout the life span of ACPA. Formal collaborative efforts beyond APGA have been as follows: between 1953 and 1957 the Higher Education Planning Committee was formed and eventually became COSPA, the Qouneilof Student Pegeonnel_Associations. In 1969: the merger of NAWDAC, NASPA, and ACPA was considered. The Council for the Advancement of Standards was a collaborative effort for the ACPA organization that began in 1980 (ACPA minutes, 1980). A Long-Range Planning Committee was appointed in 1953 (Norton, 195 ) and again in 1981 (ACPA minutes, 1981). Stage 5--To Achieve Uniqueness and Stage 6-- To Contribute The historical evidence as well as the obser- vation of former ACPA presidents does not support the idea that ACPA has reached these ' developmental stages. Ethics and Standards A. B. Stage 1--To Be Born,;929-1231-194z The Association broadened its categories of membership first in 1929 and then again in 1931 and 1947. (See Chronological Analysis, Appendix.A.) Stage 2--To Survive, 1235-1264 The Association began the discussion of standards in higher education for the field in 1933, and the first committee to estab- lish rofessional standards was appointed in 1935 Mills, 1950). The first committee to develop a statement of ethics was appointed in 196 (Presidents' Report, 1964). III. D. 87 Stage 3--To Become Stable, 1280 On November 6, 1980, the association adopted its first statement of ethics (ACPA minutes, 1980). Stage_5--Ethics and Standards Enforcement procedures, laws, and training programs have not yet been undertaken. Membership A. Stage 1--To Be Born, 1224 B. C. D. E. Categories of membership were established in 1924. The organization began with 79 indi- vidual and institutional members (Price, 1965). §tage 2--go Survive.1925-1222 The dues were established in 1925, and in 1929 the organization began to solicit mem- bers more broadly (Sheely, 1975). In 1937 Esther Lloyd Jones vowed to increase the membership by 100% (Mills, 1950). Stage 3--To Become Stable,.1250 By 1950 the membership had reached 1,100 (Martin, 1953) and 2,000 members had joined by 1957 (Rose. 1958) A membership survey was conducted in 1969 and membership reached its all-time high in 1975 with a total of 9.582. Stage 4--To Gaan a Reputation By 1982 some statements of membership accountability were being drafted: however, a survey of lapsed members revealed members were not making life-lo commitments to ACPA (ACPA minutes, 1982 Stages_5 and 6 No evidence exists that these stages have been achieved. IV. V. 88 Public Relations A. B. D. Stage 1--1224-1222 The years 1924 to 1929 saw the association grapple with an identity and image as the group shifted from one of National Appoint- ment Secretaries to Personnel Workers. Several changes in the definition of who should be members occurred during this time. §tage 2--1231-124z By 1931, with the name changed to ACPA, the organization was more clearly defined as members who engaged in "educational coun- seling, general placement, personnel coun- seling, records and research and teacher placement" (Mendenhall, 1975). The organizational image was further ex- panded in 1947 when a broader range of per- sonnel services were enumerated (Feder, 1947). Stagee3--12ZZ In 1977 a public relations firm began work- ing with the Executive Council to attempt to establish a more precise organizational image for the association, both within and outside the organization (ACPA minutes, 1977 . . Stages 41,5, and 6 Although ACPA is the largest of the profes- sional associations in Student Affairs, it is not clear that it has emerged the leader in the field. Fiscal Policies A. Stage 1 Little is stated in the literature about the early fiscal state of ACPA. Dues of $5.00 for institutions and $2.00 for indi- viduals were established in 1925. This B. C. 89 action provided a financial base for the organization (Sheely, 1975). Stage 2--1233-12§6 In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation gave $5,000 to fund the National Occupational Conference, which led to the development of the American Council of Guidance and Personnel (10th Annual Report, 1933). Additional money was solicited from the Hazen Foundation in 1956 for the first mid- year Executive Council meeting to discuss reorganization and a "searching appraisal ofjéps total and function . . ." (Blaesser, 19 . Stage 3--12z6-1282 Tighter fiscal guidelines were instituted in 1976 (ACPA minutes, 1976). Although attempts have been made to generate income through publications and professional development activities in recent years, they have not met with much success. The annual convention continues to be the major revenue- generating activity of the organization. Because of the instability in number of members from.year to year, the budget has not reached a predictable base for planning programs and services. VI. Services and Publications A. B. Stage 1--1224 Beginning in 1924 joint meetings were held with other professional associations on an annual basis (Price, 1965). Stage 2--12§1-1245 The first service offered by ACPA occurred in 1931 and was a free consulting service offered to professionals (Bingham, 1932). A commission to study women in government 90 was appointed by the U.S. Civil Service Commission, also in 1931 (Mills, 1950). The first publication, the News Letter, was printed in 1938 (Martin, 1953). The first journal, the Personnel-O-Gram, was published in 1945 (Price, 19 . Co flageJ--1222-1260 The establishment of state divisions in the mid-sixties provided service delivery at the local and regional levels. In 1959 the Journal of Colle e Student Per- sonnel was eshahIished. In §965 {he Shudent Pegzqnnel Monograph Series began (Lewis, 19 . D. 'Stage 4 With the Tomorrow's Higher Education (THE) project of the late 70s, skill and compe- tencies for Student Development were identi- fied and Professional Development activities targeted in those areas (ACPA minutes, 1970). ~E. Stages 5 and 6 No evidence of progress at Stages 5 and 6 exists. Once the chronological ranking had been completed, a combined ranking was done that compared the chart rank- ing of five former presidents (authorities) with the chronological ranking done by the investigator. That ranking is found in Table 5. Summary of Rankiags Interview Six authorities were interviewed to attempt to prove the adequacy of the MMPA. They were asked to 91 Table 5. Combined rankings: Authorities and chronology of events Maturation Variables Organizational Organizational Ethics and Services and Stage Structure Standards Membership Public Relations Fiscal Policies Publications 1. To Be Born Free wheeling Categories and Consists of Lack of focus, Unstable fiscally. Annual conven- What and how and creative lead- standards for founding and diffuse presenta- No known tion held. much are we ership with fluid membership es- charter members. tion of image. amount of money lnformal commu- willing to risk? strategy and tablished. 1924 1924 to budget. De- nication through tactics. [929 1929 pendent on good letters. 1924 1931 will and contri- 1924 I926 I947 butionS- 1925 D D D D D D 2. To Survive Basic policies es- Committees Solicitation of Image begins to Adequate re- Annual meetings How much are tablished. Greater formed concerned membership emerge. PR ef- sources to cover & newsletter be- we willing to member involve- about profes- through a forts devoted to expenses. Fiscal comes routine. sacrifice? ment. sional standards campaign. attracting new guidelines and Small journal 1940 and ethics. 1935 members. dues are estab— started. Place- 1941 1935 l964 1925 lished. ment service 1964 CL 1929 1933 Started- I937 1956 1931 1938 1945 D D D D D D 3. To Become Restructuring &' Ethical statement Membership Clarity of image Cost accounting Journal and other Stable reorganization to adopted & stan- stabilized. So- begins to emerge & financial plan- publications How are we will- actively involve dards for profes- phisticated mem- in the associa- ning on predict- firmly estab— ing to be orga- more members. sional training & bership campaign tion. able and lished. Increased nized & to accept Goals & objec- accreditation de- established. pM BK WB continuing basis. concern about & enforce disci- tives re-evalu- velopcd. pM (3w BK 1977 pM BK (3w service and deliv- plinc? ated. pM (3w W8 W8 CL 1976 ery at local & rc- BK ws PM 1980 1950 1982 gional level- l955 1951 BK CL 1956 1975 I959 l96l 1960 D D D D D D 4. To Gain a Long range plan- Enforcement pro- More life long. Begin to emerge Additional Quality of Reputation ning & inter- cedure developed Greater aware- as a leader in the sources of reve- professional de- How much are association col- and implemented ness of benefits. field. nue generated. velopment activi- we willing to en- laboration for ethics and Accountability & CL cw WB Less dependent ties re-evaluatcd gage in sclf-ex- undertaken. standards. evaluation occur. upon membership & improved. amination? BK ow CL I982 dues. GW pM 1953 CL WB 1970 1981 D D D D D D 5. To Achieve lntemal audit of Professional mea- Members select Organization seen Grants and other Greater products Uniqueness resources occurs. sures made into primary affilia- as contributing to resources solic- & services Are we willing to Delegation of law and standards tion. and ask the profession as ited. Resources developed. make change to power increased. for training. Eth— how to serve the a whole and to to support self- WB make our organi- Communication ics. training. & organization & higher education. studies and to zation unique? to members im- standards made society. commission pa- provcd. routine. pers available. D D D D D 6. To Contribute Flatten internal Professional stan- Professional affil- Organization seen Sufficient finan- Sophisticated What are we organization to dards. ethics. & iation & profes- as contributing to cial basis to al- professional willing to give society without expecting a direct return? allow more free- dom. Concentrate on long range di- rcction. D preparation re-ex- amined. sional association members synony- mous. D society. low for lobbying and other contri- butions beyond association. D development ac- tivities increased & expanded ser- vices to members occur. E] 92 comment on the logic, accuracy, and utility of the model. All had been former presidents of one Student Affairs professional association, ACPA. One was, in addition, an expert on management theory. -'- All of the authorities believed the growth stages presented as one boundary of the model were logical and accurate. -- All of the authorities believed the maturation variables selected as a second boundary were logical and accurate. -- All of the authorities believed the MMPA would have utility in the management of Student Affairs professional associations. -- One of the authorities questioned one crisis in the model: "What to Risk?" at Stage 1 of growth. -- Two authorities suggested that leadership be considered as an additional variable. -- One authority made suggestions to modify or change 7 of the 36 units within the model. Ranki s Rankings of the model were done to attempt to prove the fit of actual events with the model itself. These rankings were combined to see if the actual organi- zational events and the past presidents' observations were in concurrence in terms of stage of growth on the model. 93 Combined Rankings Analysis Once the authorities rankings and the chronolo- gical ranking were completed, they were combined (Table 5). The summary of that combined ranking is as fol- lows: o The majority of the rankings of people and events placed ACPA at the third stage of the model, "To Become Stable." 0 At the fourth stage, "To Gain a Reputation," three authorities concurred that ACPA was engaged in long-range planning and inter-association colla- boration. And two authorities concurred that pro- fessional development activities are being reevalu- ated and improved. 0 Only one ranking, that of an authority, placed ACPA at the fifth growth stage: "To Achieve Uniqueness." The rankings, although not in complete concur- rence, did cluster primarily at the third stage of growth, or the stage of stability for ACPA. Some move- ment toward Stage 4 on at least two maturation variables was indicated. §EEEEEXL This chapter presents the results of six inter- views and six model rankings that were conducted in an attempt to prove the adequacy of the MMPA. A majority 94 of the persons interviewed felt the model to be logical, accurate, and to have utility. Suggestions were made with regard to one key crisis of the model and seven of the individual units. The concept of leadership was proposed by two authorities as one variable in organizational growth to be considered. The six rankings of the model clustered the find- ings around Stage 3 of growth, indicating ACPA might be at the stage of becoming stable. There was some indication that ACPA might be moving toward Stage 4, "To Achieve Uniqueness," on at least two maturation variables. Chapter V contains the major findings, conclusions, implications, and recommendations for future researchers that resulted from this study. CHAPTER V SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCHERS This chapter reviews the model adaptation and the methods used in attempting to prove the adequacy of the MMPA model. The major findings of the study as well as their implications and recommendations for future researchers are included in this, the final chapter. Review of the Stggy The purpose of this study was to adapt an exist- ing theoretical model of organizational growth developed for the business community for use by Student Affairs professional associations and to prove the adequacy of that model. The MMPA was adapted from an original model by Lippitt and Schmidt and is a stage model built along a developmental continuum based on human development theory. This adapted model, the MMPA, may have utility for professional associations because it provides a broad conceptual framework for predicting and understanding organizational growth. To the investigator's knowledge, the MMPA is the first theoretical management model designed to meet 95 96 the unique needs of Student Affairs professional asso- ciations, which embrace a broad range of specialists in the profession. There are over 35 associations in the field and over 25,000 professionals (Bloland, 1979). Demands on the profession due to societal changes and changes in higher education mean new roles for the Student Affairs professional associations. For this reason a management model that assists these asso- ciations in better understanding and predicting organi- zational growth may have utility in aiding them in improving management of resources and in more thoughtful decision-making to meet the changing needs of the pro- fession. Because of the compatibility of the human devel- opment philosophy that undergirds the MMPA, and the human development philosophy of Student Affairs, this model may possess additional significance in that it may pro- vide an organizational theoretical model consistent with the human development theory to which the field of Stu- dent Affairs subscribes. Review of Methodoaggy In order to construct an adapted model and review that model for its logic and accuracy prior to any empirical testing of the model, the following proce- dures were followed: 1. 2. 3. 97 An adapted model called the MMPA with boundar- ies and measurable units was constructed. The original Lippitt and Schmidt model was utilized and the adapted model contained their six stages of organizational growth and key crises at each stage. Maturation variables made up the second boundary, and these six variables came primarily from a previous study (Price, 1965). The 36 units within the boundaries were developed from relevant literature and from the investigator's experience and intuitive judgment. Chapter 3 outlines this process. _After the adapted model was constructed, one theory-based authority and five practitioner- based authorities from the applied field were interviewed about the logic, accuracy, and potential utility of the MMPA. The results of these interviews may be found in Chapter IV. The practitioner-based authorities, all of whom had been former presidents of one Student Affairs professional association, ACPA, were then asked independently to rank the MMPA in terms of the stage of growth they believed ACPA to be in during their presidency. 98 4. A ranking on the MMPA by stage of growth according to the historical events of ACPA occurred next. a. The first step in this ranking was to select one professional association, ACPA, to review the chronology of events of that association from 1923-1982. This chronology was derived from archives, professional journals, and other relevant primary documents. b. The five practitioner-based authorities, whose presidencies spanned 31 years, reviewed the chronology for its accuracy. The chronology was corrected in accordance with their recom- mendations. c. The information about specific relevant asso- ciation events in the corrected chronology was then used to rank the MMPA by year that the events occurred. 5. The two rankings were compared and contrasted. 6. Based on the results of the interviews and rank- ings, certain changes were made in the MMPA. 7. Recommendations were made for future researchers to refine and empirically test the model. Major Findings The purpose of this study was to adapt an exist- ing model of organizational growth developed for the 99 business community to Student Affairs professional asso- ciations and to prove the adequacy of that adapted model. The proof of the adequacy of the model was to have been determined by interviewing six experts regard- ing the logic, accuracy, and utility of the adapted model, and by completing six independent rankings of the model to ascertain the fit of the data of one pro- fessional association, ACPA, to the model. Based on a consensus of the six experts who were interviewed and the congruence of the six model rankings, it seems that the major finding of this study is that the MMPA is an adequate model and is now suit- able for empirical testing. The model seems to be logical because all six authorities interviewed concurred that the model was logically constructed. In addition, six separate rankings of the model were essentially congruent and placed one association, ACPA, at similar growth stages on the MMPA. The model seems to be accurate, that is, there was consensus among the experts who were interviewed that the model is an accurate representation of the major maturation variables, stages of growth, and indi- vidual units of a Student Affairs professional associa- tion. Corresponding events of one association, ACPA, were linked with stages of growth by six independent rankings of the model, which further suggest that the 100 MMPA accurately reflects the growth of a Student Affairs professional association. The model also seems to have utility for Student Affairs professional associations. All six authorities interviewed stated that the model had utility, and they provided specific examples of the ways the model could be utilized. They included: The model can provide general guidelines for decision-making for new as well as established professional associations. The model can provide a needed tool to quantify and measure more precisely the growth of an asso- ciation. The model can assist in organizational decision- making and resource allocation. The model would be a useful tool for a president to use in viewing organizational growth. Conclusions Based on the major findings of the study, the fol- lowing conclusions may be drawn. 1. Based on a consensus of experts regarding the logic and accuracy of the model, it seems that the MMPA is adequate and can now-be empirically tested using the MMPA Inventory (Appendix E) or the chart itself (Table 2). 101 2. Although only one association was studied, it seems as though the MMPA may have utility for the management of a Student Affairs professional asso- ciation as evidenced by the interviews of six former association presidents who were in agree- ment regarding the utility of the model. 3. The results of this study and one previous study (Zannini, 1978) lead one to conclude that the Lippitt and Schmidt model, when adapted, may be appropriate for Student Affairs organizations. 4. Based on the findings of this study and one pre- vious study (Price, 1965), it would seem that the six maturation variables selected to measure the growth of Student Affairs professional associations along a maturational continuum are appropriate. 5. The results of six independent rankings of one association lead one to assume that that associa- tion, ACPA, is primarily at the third growth stage--To Be Stable--with some movement being made toward Stage 4--To Gain a Reputation. (See Table 5.) Implications From the major findings and conclusions of this study it may be implied that, should the empirical testing of the model substantiate its reality, the model may prove 102 useful to Student Affairs professional associations in the following ways. 1. The persons interviewed in this study felt this model could be useful to assist with decision- making for both new and established Student Affairs professional associations. Therefore the MMPA may prove to be a useful assessment instru- ment to enable an association to better predict, understand, and plan for its own growth patterns. 2. A second implication of the study concerns the rankings themselves. Should the reality of the model be established, ACPA might want to look at its own growth, based on the model rankings, to ascertain how short- and long-range decisions might be made that would affect its growth pattern. 3. A third implication of these findings is that per- haps a management model, such as that of Lippitt and Schmidt, that is built on a psychological con- tinuum may be appropriate to Student Affairs pro- fessional associations because of the similarities of the philosophical base of the model and the - profession. Recommendationa Recommendations for future research on this study fall in two categories: (1) the manner in which the study 103 itself was conducted, and (2) the testing that needs to be done on the MMPA. 1. 2. include 1. With regard to the study itself: Additional in-depth interviews with experts regarding the adequacy of the model would have strengthened the study. For example, additional ACPA presidents or Executive Council members might verify or invalidate the results of this study. The difficulty in comparing chronological infor- mation with developmental stages is cited by Kimberly and Miles (1980), and other researchers might consider using other means of ascertaining the fit of the information. Other researchers should also consider replicating this study with additional Student Affairs profes- sional associations to ascertain the study's generalizability beyond ACPA. Other recommendations for future researchers the following: Research now needs to be conducted with ACPA and other Student Affairs professional associations to empirically test the reality of the MMPA. As stated by Dubin (1978), a theoretical model is a scientific model if, and only if, its creator is willing to subject it to an empirical test. To conduct that research one might: 2. 3. 104 a. Utilize the model in its present form to obtain rankings and to verify the model's reality. Lippitt utilizes a similar chart with his original model as a test instrument (Appendix D). b. An instrument has been constructed that poses specific questions about the 36 units within the model. It is called the MMPA Inventory (Appendix E). Two authorities interviewed in this study have suggested that the factor of leadership might be important to the growth of an association. A leadership style study that utilizes the Hersey and Blanchard LEAD instrument (1976)--which is philosophically consistent with Lippitt and Schmidt's model-3might be conducted and compared and contrasted with the MMPA to ascertain the influence of leadership style on growth patterns over time. Dubin (1978) recommended that data be collected longitudinally to ascertain the fit of the data over time. Longitudinal data collected on the MMPA might assist in determining if growth does occur in the manner and sequence suggested by the model. 105 4. The specific suggestions regarding the model made by the experts interviewed for this study could be reviewed for possible model revision at a later date. Samara Because of the nature of Student Affairs profes- sional associations, as outlined in Chapter I, it was felt that a theoretical model that would enable them to con- ceptually view their own growth would be of assistance in predicting and understanding the management of the asso- ciation. A developmental stage growth model, built by Lippitt and Schmidt, already existed and had been used in one previous study in Student Affairs (Zannini, 1978) and recommended by Miller and Prince (1976). This study adapted that model for Student Affairs professional associations. The process, utilizing pre- vious studies, the literature, and intuitive judgment, is outlined in Chapter III. The next step was to prove the adequacy of the adapted model so that it could be empirically tested at a later date. That was done by interviewing six authorities or experts in the applied field--one theory-based and five practitioner-based--to ascertain the model's logic, accuracy, and utility. In addition, six separate rankings of the adapted model, the MMPA, were obtained in two 106 separate but related ways. Five former presidents of one association (ACPA) were asked independently to rank the model where they believed it to be in terms of growth stage during their presidency. In addition, the investigator conducted a thorough chronological study of the same association, ACPA, and verified that data with the five former presidents. A ranking was then completed by the investigator that placed key dates that events occurred at the appropriate growth stage on the model. The results of this investigation were that there was consensus among the experts regarding the logic and accuracy of the observational set or boundaries and units of the model. In addition, the experts all agreed on the utility of the model for the management of Student Affairs professional associations and offered some concrete sug- gestions for its use. With regard to the model ranking, the six indepen- dent rankings by the former presidents and the chronology of events placed ACPA at similar stages on the MMPA. Although it was not a perfect fit, there was a high level of congruence. It seems that a model that may be useful to Student Affairs professional associations has been con- structed and that the adequacy of that adapted model has been proved by a consensus of six experts and by six 107 independent model rankings. The next step is for future researchers to empirically test the model for its reality. Theorists, if they are to be other than philo- sophers, should have as their goal the scientific testing and critical analysis of the model they create for its ultimate improvement. It is hoped that, should the reality of the MMPA be verified by testing, it will prove useful to the asso- ciations for which it was designed and that it will be improved by future researchers. . APPENDICES APPENDIX A COMPLETE CHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ACPA (1923-1982) To view the developmental model of organizational growth through its various stages, it is necessary to review the chronology of a Student Affairs professional association. The American College Personnel Associa- tion (ACPA) was selected for four reasons: (1) it is the largest of the professional associations in student affairs, (2) "among professional societies, the Ameri- can College Personnel Association.most nearly embraces the total field of college personnel work" (Wrenn, 1949), (3) it was possible to get access to primary historical documents, and (4) it was possible to inter- view individuals who had played important roles in ACPA. This appendix contains a chronology of the development of ACPA from 1923 to 1982 and was constructed by the investigator from two dissertations, the Execu- tive Council minutes, the association's journals, news- letters, personal correspondence, and other primary documents of ACPA. The Beginnipg--1223-1231 A joint convention was held in 1923 of the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) and the National Educational Association (NEA) in Cleveland, 108 109 Ohio. At that meeting a group of appointment secre- taries held informal discussions to review problems common to their work in the area of teacher placement. These appointment secretaries had as their primary task the placement of teacher education majors in teaching positions. In Chicago, in 1924 the National Associa- tion of Appointment Secretaries, precursor to ACPA, was formed, and May Cheney from the University of California, Berkeley, was elected the first president. They char- acterized their meeting as "informal" and voiced the concern that they coordinate with other professional associations. Seventy-nine individual and institutional members comprised the association (Price, 1965). The following year the organization met jointly in Cincinnati with the National Association of Deans of Women immediately preceding the national meeting of the Department of Superintendents. Joint meetings were to be held for the next 5 years with several organizations. Discussion of possible affiliations continued (Mills, 1950). i In 1925, the dues for institutional members were $5.00, and individual membership was $2.00. In that year the need for a more unified group was expressed. One member called for a clearer definition of the pro- gram for future meetings (Sheeley, 1975). 110 Membership increased to 107 by 1926 (Sheeley, 1975). The first of many committees was appointed by President Margaret Cameron. The charge to this first committee was to work with other associations including the NVGA, the NAWDAC, the Department of Superintendents, the Personnel Research Federation, and the National Committee of the Bureau of Occupations (Mills, 1950). The committee was asked to share common concerns, plan future conventions, and discuss the desire to merge into a single group. The year 1928 found the association attempting to define itself more broadly and to solicit additional members. A name change in 1929 to the National Asso- ciation of Placement and Personnel reflected an expanded definition of the association for members "engaged in any form of personnel work in educational institutions or collegiate level throughout the United States (Price, 1965). Further broadening occurred in 1931 when the name was officially changed to the American College Personnel Association (ACPA). The consitution was revised to broaden the definition of membership to include those engaged in educational counseling, general placement, personal counseling, records and research, and teacher placement. In that year, the first organi- zational attempt was undertaken to study the professional 111 issues of "College Personnel Principles, Functions and Statements" (Mendenhall, 1975). The offer of a free consulting service provided by ACPA officers was the first professional services on record (Bingham, 1932). That year the first membership study of trends in college student personnel members occurred. The year 1931 also represented another first. An ACPA commission to study opportunities for women in government was appointed by the U.S. Civil Service Com- mission. An annual report to members was published and distributed (Mills, 1950). In summary, the early years saw a group of teacher placement personnel come together to discuss common needs and concerns that werenot being addressed by NVGA or other existing organizations. A new organi- zation was formed, a president and secretary elected, and a membership of 79 individuals and institutions were represented at the first meeting. Even at that time the group discussions focused on how to affiliate and hold joint meetings with other orgnizations that had similar interests. Records from the next several years show that the association met concurrently at an annual convention with a variety of professional asso- ciations. Members began calling for more structure in the convention programs and in 1931 established the 112 first committee to study professional issues and report to the members (Clothier, 1932). The Growth of the Profession and the Phhfhhhihhh::flssociation--1232-1253 With a new name and broader constitution the association began to take on multiple roles. It pro- vided for the airing of common problems, the marketing of professibnal ideologies, and also enabled the asso- ciation to provide services to professional workers who were not members of the association (Mills, 1950). The trend toward cooperating with other asso- ciations continued. The Carnegie Corporation contri- buted $5,000 to fund the 1933 National Occupational Con- ference, which led to the development of the American Council of Guidance and Personnel (ACGP), later known as the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA). Another important event occurred at the 1933 meeting. Some association members who had as their pri- mary concern teacher placement decided to separate from ACPA (Tenth Annual Report of ACPA, 1933). The first meeting ACGP held jointly with ACPA occurred in 1934. The President, Harry Kitson, delivered a speech entitled "One Common Cause." In that speech he described the mission of ACPA as being to "find jobs for college students and further their advance in col- lege" (Tenth Annual Report of ACPA. 1933). By 1934 113 there were 84 individual members and 18 institutional members. The central theme of the 1934 ACPA Convention was Research (Mills, 1950). During 1935 and 1936 the association clarified its organizational structure and constitution and ex- panded its services. A membership drive was conducted and over 7,000 college student personnel workers were contracted. Preliminary investigation of a placement service for members began, and ACPA supported ACGP in developing standards for preparation of professionals. By 1937 Esther Lloyd Jones was President. She addressed the convention on "What Is This Thing Called Personnel Work?" sharply defining the scope of the field. She also made "continued, careful, patient, but aggressive attempts" to cooperate with other professional organi- zations and to increase the membership by 100% (Mills, 1950). In 1937 the "Student Personnel Point of View," the first comprehensive statement on the definition of the profession, was developed by ACPA and published by the American Council on Education (ACE, 1937). This document was central to the reorganization of ACPA, culminating in.the adoption of a new charter in 1939 (ACPA Newsletter, 1939). The year 1938 saw the development of a publica- tion called the News Letter to communicate with members 114 about the profession and to "maintain a spirit of unity in the association" (Martin, 1953). Two hundred and thirty-nine members belonged to the association under the leadership of Helen Voorhees in 1939, and one of the major issues that year was the need for a strong national association. The years 1940 and 1941 saw the further expansion of membership and services. All members were now entitled to vote (accord- ing to the revised constitution) rather than only insti- tutional members. The first election of officers by a mail ballot prior to the convention occurred in 1941. New categories of membership, including associate mem- berships, were developed (Feder, 1942). The war years of 1942-1946 presented new organi- zational problems and challenges. E. G. Williamson, 7 the 1942 ACPA President, addressed the profession about the challenge of preparing itself for dealing with youth and their problems in.the postwar days (William- son, 1943). It was difficult to hold meetings during - the war, but the 1942 meeting in San Francisco was attended by 104 members and described as "one of the strongest in history" (Feder, 191:2). Because of wartime travel restrictions between 1943 and 1946, national meetings were not held: however, it was possible for the Executive Council to hold meet- ings. Publications during those years included the 115 first Personnel-O-Gram, edited by Fred McKinney in 1945: brochures developed by ACPA members and distri- buted by ACE entitled "Counseling and Postwar Educa- tional Opportunities" and "Student Personnel Work in the Postwar College." In addition, the proceedings of the Council were published in the Educational and Psy- chological Measurement Journal (Price, 1965). The postwar era began in 1947 under the leader- ship of Daniel Feder. He called for the association to address the problems created by the "veterans bulge" (Feder, 1947). At the 1947 convention the broad range of personnel services that had evolved were enumerated. They included pre-entrance advising, orientation, remedial programs, student activities, student health services, direction of housing and foods, financialaid programs, student employment, placement and follow-up of graduates, record maintenance, and coordination of veterans affairs (Hopkins, 1948). In 1947 ACPA issued a strong statement against racial discrimination. It also changed hotels that year and moved the convention from Chicago to Columbus because the Stevens Hotel would not promise to accommo- date all the ACPA members (Mills, 1950). In 1948 the groundwork was laid for the Ameri- can Personnel and Guidance Association (Feder, 1948), and ACPA endorsed the concept of a new association. 116 Also in 1948, C. Gilbert Wrenn, as President, addressed the Chicago convention on the "Greatest Tragedy in.Col- lege Personnel Work." In that address he identified the strengths of.the profession. He further noted that the demand for the student personnel worker was acute and that extensive progress had been achieved in the technical tools and procedures available to the worker. Finally, he identified the "Greatest Tragedy" as the lack of preparation standards and ethics: the lack of involvement of students and faculty in student personnel development: the poor coordination of student personnel programs and organizational cohesiveness: and the isola- tion of the student personnel worker from significant influences in the life of a student (Wrenn, Presidential Address, 1948). Membership categories were refined that year, and graduate students were added as nonvoting ACPA members. That year "personnel" as a term was favored over guidance and counseling (Mills, 1950).‘ In 1950, ACPA heard its president, Thelma Mills, review the history of the 12 previous association presi- dents (five of whom.she pointed out had been women). The years 1950 and 1951 saw both the profession and the association come under attack: the profession was attacked because some saw it as isolated from other student influences and unable to view the student as a whole. The association was criticized because it was 117 an organization that only consisted of "specific com- mittees, a journal, an annual convention, affiliation with other organizations, and a program that was some- what nebulous and seriouSly in need of articulation and integration" (Martin, 1953). Although membership had increased to 1,000, complaints persisted. The national convention, for example, was portrayed as presenting programs that were repetitious and the "same old faces and the same old topics in the same old manner" (Martin, 1953). By April of 1952, a constitution was adopted forming the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) as a result of the agreement between the ACPA and NVGA to unite to form APGA, with NVGA and ACPA hold- ing divisional status within the umbrella association, APGA (Minutes of the APGA, 1952). In summary, 1932-1952 were years of definition and expansion. As the profession broadened and defined itself, so did ACPA. The constitutional structure was refined and membership categories, publications, services to members were expanded. A continuing theme was affiliation with other professional associations. Membership dissatisfaction with ACPA was one motivating factor in forming APGA. 118 1953 to the Present--Organization ’in TranSition The years 1953-1957 saw the organizational structure of ACPA as a major theme. One group wanted to completely restructure the American College Personnel Association to place increased emphasis on the personnel administrator, counselor, trainer, clinical counselor, researcher, and graduate student (Martin, 1953). This group felt that there should be more meetings of sub- groups and fewer programs for the membership at large. By 1955 a committee had been appointed to examine the function and structure of the association (Norton, 1956). They were to take a look at long-range planning for the association. Also by 1955. members of the association were becoming dissatisfied with APGA because they felt that organization was too concerned with secondary schools and vocational guidance. An "internal analysis" committee was formed to carefully scrutinize the rela- tionship (Personnel-O-Gram, 1956). As a result of the internal analysis two things occurred: (1) in 1955, ACPA created a Higher Education Planning Committee to work with other professional associations, and (2) ACPA agreed to remain with APGA and work on the problems that existed. In 1956 the President of ACPA, Bill Blaesser, approached the Hazen Foundation for monies to assist 119 with the restructuring of ACPA. His request for $5,700 read in part: The American College Personnel Association, the largest and most broadly representative profes- sional association in the diverse student per- sonnel field, is at critical crossroads in the 32 year history. There is a great need to assist college personnel workers during the changing years ahead to better serve the individual stu- dent in all phases of his education . . . intel- lectual, spiritual, social, and emotional development. Yet the association seems somewhat confused as to purpose, progress, and direction. Before it can provide significant services it must undergo a searching appraisal of its total function in higher education today (Blaesser, 1956) . Although the money was not forthcoming, the need remained. Problems within ACPA included the lack of grass roots participation and the fact that it was "overly dependent upon the performance of the central office of many tasks which could be equally well per- formed by committee members" (Shaffer, 1956). Efforts to increase membership and define the role of ACPA as coordinating student personnel workers and integrating their work with teaching faculty was begun (Minutes of the ACPA, 1959). Areas of membership such as student health work, admissions, and campus religious work were stressed, and efforts were made to strengthen program offerings at the national conventions. In 1955 an ethics committee was appointed that produced "Standards for Preparation of School Counselors." By 1957. membership in ACPA was 2,000. By June of 1958, 120 the Journalof College Student Personnel was established, and the Personnel-O-Gram eliminated. A series of mono- graphs was proposed (Ross, 1958). In 1958 a joint meeting of Interrelationships in Higher Education was held with 20 associations (Craig, 1962). The late 1950s saw continued dissatisfaction with the relationship between the APGA and ACPA. Con- cerns about financial arrangements and leadership were expressed. The year 1960 heralded the beginning of the ACPA Monograph series entitled "Student Personnel Mono- graph Series," although the first monograph did not appear until later (Lewis, 196h), and 1961 was the year that the commission structure was developed. Twelve commissions representing specific aspects of student personnel were appointed. Three more were added between 1962 and 1974. By 1962, the President, William Craig, formed an Association of Student Services in.Higher Education, the precursor of Council of Student Personnel Associa- tion (COSPA) and requested a formal study of the rela- tionship between ACPA and APGA (Craig, 1962). He also appointed a self-study committee. The early 19608 saw ACPA broadening its definition of its services and investigating international relations. The association also attempted to improve the quality of graduate 121 professional preparation programs for student personnel workers (Executive Council minutes, 1962). By 1963, the membership had grown to 3,189. Five hundred members were present at the Boston.Conven- tion at which President Melvene Hardee presided. She initiated a newsletter entitled ACPA Today, and appointed a committee to study internal reorganization. They were asked to: . . . study and recommend at the 1963 ACPA meeting the ways by which the association can exercise more responsible and independent action in meeting its obligations to students in Ameri- can higher education, including a consideration of the relationship of this association to APGA and to other professional groups (ACPA Executive Council Minutes, 1962). The committee recommended that ACPA continue affiliation with APGA but give more priority to working with associations such as the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA). They called for APGA to appoint an executive secretary to represent college student personnel. The recommendations were adopted (ACPA Minutes, 1962). That year a Statement on the Rights and Responsibilities of Student Personnel Workers was also adopted. In 196b, during Barbara Kirk's presidency, the formation of state branches was first considered, and Paul Bloland was asked to spearhead this activity. President Kirk appointed a committee to develop a 122 Statement on Professional Ethics. Membership on the Executive Council was increased, and an executive secre- tary was sought (Kirk, 196M). In 1967, a Joint Statement on the Rights and Freedom of Students was adopted by ACPA. In 1968, a committee was appointed by President Donald Hoyt to reconceptualize the theoretical foundations of the student affairs field (Mendenhall. 1975). That commit- tee appointment resulted in the Tomorrow's Higher Edu- cation (THE) Project. An ACPA-commissioned publication by Robert Brown entitled "Student Development in Tomor- row's Higher Education: A Return to the Academy" advo- cated that the profession adopt a human development theoretical base and become developmental educators (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1968). In 1969, a membership survey was undertaken. There was also a discussion of a merger between the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors (NAWDAC) and the National Association of Student Per- sonnel Administrators (NASPA). A tri-party Feasibility Task Force was appointed. This task force continued its deliberation until 1972. One joint convention was held, but a merger between these associations did not result from this committee effort (Mendenhall, 1975). In 1970, ACPA held a conference separate from APGA in St. Louis, Missouri during the presidency of 123 Charles L. Lewis (ACPA Executive Council minutes, April 1968). In 1973 a ballot was taken to "decide once and for all" about affiliation with APGA. The result of the ballot was a strong vote to remain with APGA (Men- denhall, 1975). The next year witnessed the theme of student developmert theory and publication under the leadership of Harold Grant. A major 50-year anniversary celebra- tion was held in Atlanta, Georgia. A publication of biographic sketches of all ACPA past presidents was distributed and the presidents were honored at a banquet (Sheely, 1975). A committee was appointed in 1975 to investi- gate the advantages and disadvantages of a name change for ACPA. The constitution was revised to allow for the first graduate student member-at-large to be repre— sented on the Executive Council. The addition of a Vice-President for State Divisions was another addition to the Executive Council along with a commitment to develop more state associations (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1975). The first ACPA hardcover book, entitled 2g; Future of Student Affairs (Miller & Prince, 1975). was published in cooperation with Jossey-Bass publishers. 124 Membership reached its all-time high that year of 9,582 (APGA Membership Report, 1975). The years 1976 and 1977 were years of transition for ACPA. A self-study, initiated by President Anne Pruitt, took a fresh look at the organizational struc- ture of the association and the mission and goals of ACPA. It was felt that ACPA needed to refocus its energy and involve more members in a meaningful way. That self-study also called for tighter policies in the area of fiscal affairs and nominations and elections. It was felt that the organization needed more precise short- range plans. Public relations and the public image of ACPA were a recurring concern. A New York firm was cone tracted to assist with a public relations campaign to sharpen ACPA's image (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1977). By 1978 most of the changes recommended in the self-study had been instituted. A sophisticated member- ship campaign was under way with both short- and long- range goals. It was aimed at students, entry-level professionals, and community college professionals (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1978). New policies in the areas of convention, pro- fessional development, continuing education, and publi- cations were adopted. Because APGA was holding its convention in a non-ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) state, 125 members at the business meeting, after emotional debate, voted to move the ACPA Convention to Los Angeles. ACPA voted to not hold any future convention in a non-ERA state (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1979). In 1979, President Don Creamer noted the deaths of five association leaders: Daniel Feder, E. G. Wil- liamson, William Martinson, Phil Tripp, and Harold Marquardt. Four new books published by ACPA were announced, and the minority and women's task forces were made permanent standing committees. A statement was endorsed called ”Standards for Preparation of Coun- selors and Other Personnel Services Specialists” (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1979). In 1980, President Phyllis Mabel called for an "Agenda for the 808" that included professional stan- dards, professional growth, expansion of the knowledge base, and increased skills as a major step toward pro- fessionalization. The Council for the Advancement of Standards for Student Services was formed under the active leadership of ACPA. Fifteen professional asso- ciations were represented on the Council, and Louis Stamatakos presented a white paper entitled ”The Future of the Profession and the Association” (1979). Member- ship declined to 7,666, and a brochure was developed to assist in increasing members. 126 On November 6, 1980, g5 years after ACPA first discussed the need for a code of professional ethics, the Statement of Ethical and Professional Standards was adopted (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1980). A long-range planning committee was appointed in 1981 by President Cynthia S. Johnson. It was chaired by Paul Bloland and had as members William Butler, William Blaesser, Charles L. Lewis, Robert Shaffer, and Melvene Hardee, all former presidents of the association. That year a lapsed membership survey was conducted. It was determined that members were not renewing their membership in ACPA because of a change in professional direction, dissatisfaction with APGA, and rising costs. A committee was once again appointed to investigate ACPA's relationship with APGA. A Graduate Student News- letter was initiated, and more awards were established. A meeting chaired by ACPA was held with other Student Affairs professional associations at the American Counp oil of Education's annual convention (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1980, 1981). In 1982, after discussions in open business meetings, the Executive Council voted to remain with APGA and to work to solve some of the problems of affi- liation. The council also devoted time to recommenda- tions of the Long-Range Planning Document. A commitment 127 was made to make Human Development the focus of the association. These goals were established: (1) Support the extension of knowledge in develop- mental theory (2) Support increasing sophistication of the assess- ment of developmental change (3) Support for practitioner efforts to apply theo- retical development constructs to programs in the field (A) Support increasing knowledge of organizational behaviors so that effective tactics and stra- tegies might be applied to the implementation of developmentally focused programs on the campus (ACPA Executive Council minutes, 1982). During 1982, the theme of continued inter- associational cooperation recurred and President Susan Bowling pledged her full commitment to that task (Devel- opments , Fall 1982) . C In summary, the association raised serious ques- tions about its relationship with APGA during 1953 to the present. These years also represented important shifts in organizational structure with broader and greater membership involvement through commissions, the Executive Council, and committees. The operating policies of the association were defined more sharply and both services and publications were expanded. Membership reached an all-time high in 1975. a Statement of Ethics was adopted in 1980, and a . . ' C Council of Profess1onal Standards was launched in 1980. 128 Organizational emphasis was placed on the development of a body of knowledge and theoretical base for the pro- fession grounded in developmental theory. New skills and competencies were taught and organizational models based on student development began to emerge. APPENDIX B WRENN LETTER ARIZONA STATE U N I V E R S I T Y man. .uuzoxx sszsx coueoeoreoucamou Please address me at: DEPARTMENT or couwsnon EDUCATION 26145 E. Southern Ave. , Apt.30 5 December 22, 1982 Tempe, AZ 85282 Ms. Cynthia S. Johnson Faculty Associate Office of the Vice Chancellor for Student Afrairs University of Maryland College Park, MD 207h2 Dear Cynthia: Your request for reaction hit me at a time at which I find myself pretty well committed, and I am afraid I am pretty well committed all the time! For this reason, I can only respond briefly to your outline. Part of this is because I do not think of myself as an organiza- tional specialist at all. I know very little, actually, about the prin- ciples of organization. Fbr this reason, I would have to bow to your better knowledge and assume that what you are doing fits in with what an organiza- tional specialist would see as appropriate. I liked very much the historical outline and thought it was a contribution I would like to put in my own files to remember by. One final thought there. The long-range planning report has been written and you might want to get a cOpy of it from Paul Bloland or Chuck Lewis since it contains some very interesting material that I think relates to your thesis in a very special way. I do not know how public it is as yet, but I know Paul sent me a copy. It is a strong document with some very powerful proposals made for the future of'ACPA. Since it probably will be made public some day, I think it is proper for you to ask Paul whether or not you might see a copy and whether or not you might utilize it in your disser- tation. He will have an answer on that I am sure. My first reaction is that on pages 20 through 2“ you are proposing the Lippett and Schmidt six steps. Hy trouble here is that as you propose Stages 1, 2, 3, u and so forth, you do more than propose the Lippett and Schmidt outline. You insert comments having to do with ACPA or a special kind of organization. Since later on you are taking these same six steps and talking about their relationship to ACPA, it is confusing to me to have this mixture of Lippett and Schmidt and Cynthia Johnson for these four pages. It seems to me it might be much clearer if you stuck to what Lippett and Schmidt said, making no reference to its application to ACPA until later. 129 Ms. Cynthia S. Johnson -2- December 22, 1982 Your outline might be made a little clearer by using Roman numerals to mark off the major sections. For example, Roman numeral I and then the title that you have on page 3, Roman numeral II and the title that you have on page 25. When you are using Arabics as frequently as you do it is clearer, I think, to use Roman numerals for the main sections. You have gone to some expansion and very clear origins for your study when you set up the six stages by Lippett and Schmidt, then when you come to Roman numeral II, your framework, it is not clear where you secured these other six maturation variables. Where do they come from? Out of the air, or out of the literature, or out of some experience, or where? Or are these specifics out of the Lippett and Schmidt stages? This is not clear. As I look at your developmental matrix, Stage 1, on page 26 and then look back to what you have said about the application of Lippett and Schmidt to student affairs associations on page 20, I think that my idea of taking that material from the bottom of page 20 and making it a part of your intro- duction of Stage 1 on page 26 would be a strengthening of your basic outline, which really is the one which begins with Roman numeral III on page 26, ”Developmental Matrix for Student Affairs Associations.” This is the body of your thesis. You have led up to it now, and I think you can strengthen it by taking some of the earlier material and putting it in the introduction to each of these sections. As a matter of fact, the material on the relating of Lippett and Schmidt to student affiirs associations really has more strength when you put it in as the introduction to each of your six stages, considered now for a specific kind of organization. The brief introductions you have now on the second consideration of the six stages seems a little weak or a little obvious as it stands. I wonder if it would be a stronger proposal if you had an illus- tration of one organization, such as ACPA, to next apply the six stages in terms of what might have happened and indicate what has happened in one organization and how the organization might have profited from the more careful understanding of the six stages and the various maturation variables. You can see that I am reacting rather holistically to your thesis. I have no suggestions on writing since you write well, and I have none in terms of the structure since I think you know that much better than I do. The two or three ideas I have shared here may be helpful or you may discard them entirely. I am not on your committee! that I think is of less significance than what someone on your committee thinks. I wonder if you have any cues on that as yet, particularly the chairman. I note that I have failed to comment on the historical outline in terms of w recollections. You have the years 1923-33 down much more clearly than I have ever seen them before since I have never examined the history of the organization prior to the time I became involved, which was about 1933 or 1931:. 130 Ms. Cynthia S. Johnson -3- December 22, 1982 Since the "Student Personnel Point of View," written in 1937, had a considerable influence at the time, and I think later'as well, the names of the members of this might be useful as a historical reference. Hal Cowly was chairman, as I remember. You were a little off on the 1939 datum. What Esther'and Karl and I did was to set up a charter for the American College Personnel Association. This was printed in the Proceedings of the 15th American College Personnel Association meeting, held in Atlantic City, February 1938. This was also published as a reprint. Here again, this was the beginning of a clearer picture of what the organization might been. a I think it is not clear that ACPA was a member of the CGRA starting back in 193“. It did not just meet with them. it was a member of the council, consisting at that time of perhaps four or five national organizations. Nor is it clear in your 1950-52 section that ACPA became a division of.APGA. It is this fact that it was so closely a part of APGA that created some of the problems later on in its relationship. The relationship is one involving finances and the like, as you well know. It may be worth noting that morale among student personnel workers was at a low ebb during the late 19603 and early 1970s due to the campus demonstrations and the challenging of authority in general, including student personnel administrators. As a consequence of this, I was asked to give an address at the annual meeting of‘ACPA which met in St. Louis in 1970. This came out as part of‘an ACPA monograph. My part was entitled "Reflec- tions and Directions in Higher Education." It was in Students in the University ang_in Society, Student Personnel Series, number 13. I must have given the talk in 1958. I recall trying to indicate the continuing expec- tation that there would be student personnel workers in universities and colleges, by whatever name. I cannot recall what I said exactly and my copy is over in the archives now. If you have access to these, look it up there and see if there is anything worth mentioning as a step in terms of an attempt to breathe new life and encouragement into student personnel workers at an.ACPA convention. As an aside. it seems interesting to me that the question of ACPA's relationship to APGA comes up so frequently. The officers are unhappy but_the membership is happy with the affiliation. At some meeting at which you were present, I think--perhaps it was in 1982 at the conven- tion--I suggested that we needed a network of support and that we had that network support better with APGA than we would with Higher Education or some other unit where our place on the totem pole would be much lower. This may be an explanation of why the affiliation continues, because most of the membership feels that such a network of support is essential and we have one now which has fair respectability and a lot of compatibility. It might be worthwhile to see what the long-range planning report by Bloland, Lewis, and so forth, suggests at this point. There are, I know, some definite suggestions at this point. 131 Is. Cynthia S. Johnson ~4- December 22, 1982 I cannot be sure now about the possibility of’a telephone interview because I cannot be sure of its usefulness. I am not a specialist in this field. I have a long-time affiliation with ACPA, to be sure, but I do not really know too much about associational relationships, which is the topic of your thesis. On January 13 or 17, as you suggest, I am deep in writing the introductory chapter to a book fer NVGA and preparing two addresses for the March convention. So my mind will be somewhere else. Why don't you call and let's talk about it at that time if you like, or just consider that it might be wasted time upon your part. I do wish you the best of luck on the thesis. It is a strong approach, providing your committee will accept an organizational-type thesis. Some committees like them and some committees give the old refrain of empirical data. This does not seem to me very sihsible because research is 'so much wider than empiricism. But a few people are funny about this yet. I am sure you have checked this out already. If'acceptable, then this is a good approach, I am sure, and will be a good thesis. Best regards, ' a n >7LWZ\ C. Gilbert Wrenn Professor Emeritus, Counseling Psychology CGWsddf 132 APPENDIX C CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE--INTERVIEWS The following is a summary of the questions asked and the responses of the person being interviewed on the accuracy of the Chronological Outline developed from the written records (Figure 4). Question 1: Could you comment on the accuracy of the chronological outline? A. Egggn commented that the years 1923-33 were "done much more clearly than I have ever seen them before." His own involvement came in 1933 or 193h. 1. He believes the "Student Personnel Point of View" written in 1937 should be mentioned as well as Hal Cowley's name as chair. 2. 1212--He stated that 1939 data was a "little off." A charter for ACPA was established in Atlantic City in February 1938. The proceedings were published in 1939. Wrenn felt that because ACPA was such an integral part of APGA, it created some of the problems later on in its relationship. "The relationship is one involving finances and the likes as you well know.“ He also recalled the fact that morale was at a low ebb during the late 19603 and early 1920s due to campus demonstrations and the challenging of authority in 133 general. 134 Wrenn recalled his address entitled "Reflec- tions and Directions in Higher Education" in St. Louis in 1970. And finally, wrenn had these comments on.APGA: "Nor is it clear in your 1950-52 section that ACPA became a division of APGA." B. Blaesser cited the following inaccuracies in the historical outline: 1. 2. 1242-h6--Fourteen or fifteen brochures were pub- lished by ACE, not four as stated. ACE produced copies to send to every college president. He went on to refer to his own ACE publication, Student Personnel in the Post-War Years, written in 1945. He recalled work with Henry Chauncuy of ETS and Alice Lloyd of NAWDAC. He said that the first mid-year workshop meeting focused on new goals for ACPA and the relationship with APGA. A second workshop meeting was held as a pre- convention session and was used as a follow-up to the mid-year meeting. 1253-§Z--The first mid-year workshop meeting was funded by the Hazen Foundation. The Personnel- O-Gram was used heavily as a communication vehicle within the Association and with other associations. Work was done during his 135 presidency on the Standards for Preparation of School Counselors. He also recalled the years when Ed William- son was President, Dan Feder was Treasurer, and he served as Vice President. They had little money then. He said the interaction on the ACE/ACPA committee was "fascinating." Blaesser stated that Williamson was sometimes a dictator who could be abrasive to work with. Esther Lloyd Jones had very broad views of the Profes- sional Association. Blaesser was sometimes called on to mediate between the two. Kirk saw no major difference in the historical out- line and the history as she knew it. She offered a number of useful anecdotes for the record. She served two terms as President because of the untimely death of Denny Trublood. She stated that Charles Lewis was extremely helpful in her untimely transi- tion to the presidency. She took a "stab" at reor- ganization of the Association and added a number of commissions. Ms. Kirk said she added Counseling and Placement as Commissions and had in fact wanted to become President so that she and colleagues in the counseling profession could better understand other professionals in Student Affairs. D. E. 136 One of her goals was to remain organizationally affiliated with APGA even though some in ACPA looked down on others in APGA. She felt ACPA people were "full of self-aggrandizement." The organization was filled with people "jockeying for position," and who lacked idealism. She felt she had done a good public relations job with other associations, but she had become "disillusioned" with ACPA. ngig responded by saying that he had just completed an historical review of the literature for ACPA Long-Range Planning Report. He believed that the outline presented "an accurate and precise job of reviewing the history of the association." He conp cluded by saying he felt the historical chapter he wrote for the Long-Range Planning Committee Report and the historical outline he had received as part of contributing to this dissertation were amazingly parallel. Mgblg said: "I could see from memory and from what I have heard other people say that it is very accur- ate.” She went on to say that most of the major highlights in terms of ACPA's development are reflected in the historical outline. m<>..c>....zm <0...» OwQ>Z.N>._..OZ btmeUHx U AthwHee Hzmemcgmze v ....3......0=.. 50.020 0...... e 0:00.000... 5 ...0 0.0.00. :0... 0.0 0.80 0.. 8.0.0... 2 £50.. 0.0.. .3. <0... 085.025: .0 :0... 5 3.2.0: .0 ...0 300: 558055. 5:005. ..0. <0:. 085.505. :00 <0... .00.. 50850:. :0 .0 ...0 0.80 0. 8.0.0... <0: .00. <0... 08552.0: .5. 3.0000... 030),..N). $I... >20 IC3>2 .ZZO<>._..OZ t2°m.d)w.r.d< mOn.>.. 4.02).. 8m< .MMCm 2.)...Am220 m.2>20.>.. t100¢fi§<3< ammocanm >20 03 m.2>20.>.. mmvaZm.O..v.._ 0205...... arena ammocznmm c.2...~>...oz nam>4.<.4< 3.6.5.: 40 mm 0032 :0... 500.. >§=00000 5.. >00..:20 05:». ..5:......< .0 .303: 30......0 $000.0: 300:0. ...0 032. 2.0: :53. 303:.» 50 8:2 5. 000......0: 2.». 50 38:33 .0 300000 5...». 003050. .0 500. 0. «02.00 £50.. 0. 0.0... 5.. .00.. . £55.. .0 300:0..00230 53.0.. 5...». 300:0. 0. 5...». 00000 .0 :00000 0...... .0 0.3.3.200 0:0: 32.00 0 D O D O _U 0 D O D O D . do mca<.00..:20 02...». >05... .0 300000 32:35 00.3 0.»: 300:0; .0 2.30. 250.0 00.82.05. :50». 002.8. .0 500. 080.8 50 3000300 .0 . .0 500. 3.00.3. 00:550. 50 0.0.... 0.8... 0...: 0020503. 800.200 0.50:3. 00...... 5005.0 55.0 30.... 05.0.0300 5.. 300...»...0 50 00......03 00:32.... 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Our leadership was full of creative P S X ideas but often lacked necessary follow-through to get things implemented 2. Our constitution and by-laws were P S X revised to expand the decision-making process and involve more members in the association 3. A few charter members assumed most of P S X the responsibility for organizational decisions 4. We had difficulty making any long-range .P S X plans as an organization 5. Our organizational chart was getting P S X flat. It was amazing how many members were becoming involved in the association 6. For the first time; we successfully P S X collaborated with another professional association on a project 7. We could never seem to work coopera- P S X tively with other professional associations in our field 8. We didn't spend much time discussing P S X our goals and objectives 138 10. 11. 12. 13. 11+. 15. 16. 17. 18. 139 We knew just what human and fiscal resources this association had and we felt good about our assets Our members began to become more involved in running the association Our association was moving ahead with great enthusiasm but with a limited sense of order and structure We were ready to try anything to get things going but we had a real struggle getting a system established We were happy with the way we ran our association and felt more membership involvement would only complicate the process We didn't try to tell our members what to do. They were all involved in running our organization and they had a lot of freedom for independent action We began to establish some basic organi- zational policies ' Our organizational decision-making was highly centralized The members had no idea what the organi- zation was doing Our association ran itself internally. Our job was to focus on the big picture and do long-range organizational planning Ethics and Standards 19. 20" 21. Our executive group was interested in survival issues and had no time to ,discuss issues of ethics and standards The way we prepared our graduate students was not appropriate to the times -Our ethical statement was firmly enforced 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32- 33- 31P- 1h0 With the standards established we are able to begin accreditation processes for training programs Training. using our ethical State- ment, was now routinely done in graduate training programs We were accepting anyone into member- ship who was interested in joining We adopted an ethical statement but couldn't seem to agree on profes- sional standards The national accreditation associations adopted our standards of operation for the profession The profession has changed so much over the past several decades it is time to reevaluate the standards of operation Our ethical statement was finally adopted We began to become concerned as an organization about some basic stan- dards of professionalism We hadn't established any fixed stan- dards for membership We formed a committee to take a look at professional training Our organization formed a committee to develop a statement of ethics for the profession Now that our ethical statement was old, it needed to be reexamined All professional certification ques- tions and issues of questionable practice are brought before this association 35. 36- 141 Our association became involved with other associations to develop professional standards and discuss accreditation Members were seldom concerned with the credentials of new members Membership 37- 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. an. 45. 46. We decided that we needed to reach out and identify and attract more potential members in a better way than we had before It was assumed that our members would join the association as graduate students and continue all their lives We never knew how many members we would have from year to year We believed that we had grown just as big as we would ever be There was no question that ours was the organization to join in the pro- fession If our members were polled, they could enumerate most of the benefits of membership in our association Our members volunteer readily and ask how they can serve For the first time in our history the members of our governing structures were being held accountable for their actions and being evaluated on their performance Membership was still a problem. People were confused about which organization to join We had trouble keeping track of mem- bership 47. 48. 49. 500 51. 52. 53- 54- 142 We paid little attention to member- ship at conventions as long as people paid their registration fees We held our first major membership campaign Most members of our profession don't belong to any associations There was considerable prestige in being one of the charter members Categories of membership did not exist There was little concern about how many members we had. We were quite happy with the size of the group If you were a member of our profes- sion you were automatically thought of as being a member of our associa- tion (just like a doctor and the AMA) Our profession stands united and we represent our profession and its members Public Relations 55. 56. 57a 58. 62. People had a difficult time under- standing just what our organization stood for People were still confused about just who we served and how our association differed from other professional asso- ciations in our field Our association is difficult to dis- tinguish from other associations in our profession It finally became apparent just how our association differed from other professional associations in our field Our idea of public relations was pretty much to grow rapidly 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72- 143 When faculty have questions about their teaching. we are the ones to whom they turn Our association is responsible for the advances in our profession We didn't give much consideration to the kind of image we were projecting to our members When Washington, D.C., has an issue that has to do with college students, we are the group they turn to We have been instrumental in assisting Higher Education in accomplishing their goals Whenever there is an issue related to our field, College Presidents and others automatically turn to our asso- ciations It is apparent to the profession that we are the most significant profes- sional association in the field Membership remains very competitive with other like groups Other members of the profession and professional association began to really understand what our organization represented We knew our association was different from others in the field Fiscal Policies 73- 74. 75- Our services and publications are finally beginning to pay off financially Our "grantsmanship" is pretty sophis- ticated We are never able to find the funds to study ourselves or commission "white papers" 76. 77- 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 144 Our lobbying effort at the national level was seen as sophisticated and effective We have had difficulty in locating funding sources other than membership dues No one would even think of leaving any money to our association Our association has contributed much to the scholarship funds for low income students and students with learning disabilities We make a lot of money on our annual convention We don't have sufficient funds to sup- port services to our members Our organization finally had enough money to support its activities We had trouble projecting how much money we would have next year for pro— gramming We instituted some new cost accounting practices and more sophisticated fiscal guidelines Our main solution to financial problems was to raise the membership dues If we over-spent our budget we figured that concerned members or our institu- tions would help us make up the deficits We decided to develop some fiscal guidelines to help us manage and allo- cate our resources We paid little attention to how we managed our finances We decided just how much for dues we should charge different kinds of members 90. 145 At last we knew how much money we would have to operate on each year Services and Publications 91. 92- 93- 94. 95- 96. 97. 98- 99- 100. 101. 102. There was no service our members could want that we couldn't provide Our workshops were in great demand and were making money for the association The Parents magazine we published for college students' parents had a very large subscription base Government organizations. business. and the military have increasingly utilized.our consulting. professional development activities and publications Our newsletter was widely accepted and finally proceeded in a predictable manner We were awarding credit for our pro- fessional development activities and they were evaluated very favorably We haven't done a very good job pro- viding retraining and new knowledge to our members Our publications have become so numer- ous and in such demand that we have established our own press and clearing house We published a Newsletter on a routine basis Our professional journal became known as one of the best in the field Our members could finally count on our annual meeting being held at approxi- mately the same time each year Our main method of communication was through a newsletter and personal correspondence 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 146 We began to establish more services for people in their local region of the country No one had given much thought to devel- oping publications Our association provided in-service training for faculty and college administration on freshman develop- mental styles and stages Our computer search network also pro- vided placement opportunities Frequently. we didn't know what was happening until we got to the con- vention We finally published the first issue of our professional journal BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abell. P. Model building in sociology. In R. Dubin (Ed.). Theogy building. New‘York: The Free Press 9 197 o ACE (American Council on Education). Notes from the 1980 Annual Meeting. San Francisco. 'ACPA Constitution. Washington. D.C.: American College Personnel Association. 1931. ACPA Executive Council minutes. 1968. 1975. 1976. 1977. ACPA Tenth Annual Report. College Personnel Principles and Functions and Standards. Tenth Annual Report of the American Colle e Personnel Asso- ciation (p. 115. 1933. . American College Personnel Association Conference on Organizing for Student Development. Overland Park. Kansas. Breech Academy. February 1976. American Council on Education. The student ersonnel point of vie . Washington. D.C.z ACE. 1937. American Counseling Personnel Association. The News- 1, 9133.320 1939: 2(1) - Argyris. C. Mana ement and or anizational develo ment. New'York: McCraw-HiII. 1971. Barber. B. 'Some problems in the sociology of a pro- fession. In K. Lynn (Ed.). 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