According to the common historical narrative, the area of Nubia, which in the medieval period (ca 550-1500 AD) stretched along the Nile Valley from the first cataract to the confluence of the Blue and White Nile rivers, was ruled by three separate kingdoms. While there is scant historical information on the origins of Nobadia, the northern-most kingdom, Makuria, the middle kingdom, and Alwa, the southern kingdom, many agree that the two northern kingdoms united politically to defend the territory from Egyptian rulers, while Alwa likely served as trading hub for Egypt and other merchants from the Red Sea. These newly converted Christian kingdoms eventually began to deteriorate as Arab Muslims took up residence within the region, changing the dynamics of the land. A worthwhile consideration is whether such changes in religious and political affiliation can be associated with detectable differences in the genetic makeup of the populations of this region. This dissertation examines the population history of the Nubian kingdoms through craniometric analyses carried out on samples from three sites, each from a different kingdom. A total of 25 cranial measurements are obtained from 209 individuals buried at Kulubnarti (n=89), Mis Island (n=93), and Gabati (n=27). In addition, Howells' (1973) and Spradley's (2006) African samples are used to contextualize the Nubian samples within a wider geographic region. The first focus of this research was to examine intra- and inter-site craniometric variation. No statistically significant intra-site differences were identified at Kulubnarti and Mis Island. However, there were statistically significant intra-site differences between the three time periods represented at Gabati. These differences do not support a mass migration into the region, but rather these differences likely result from change over time. The inter-site comparison of the three Nubian samples established statistically significant differences. In fact, 22 of the 25 cranial measurements differed significantly between sites. These findings suggest there was no mass migration into any of these regions, but the identified differentiation strongly suggests extra regional gene flow and/or genetic isolation. The second focus of this dissertation examines the degree of gene flow through analysis of phenotypic variance within the Nubian samples and comparison of that variation with other African samples. Results indicate both Kulubnarti and Mis Island have been relatively isolated, whereas Gabati presents evidence of extra-regional gene flow. Additionally, a comparison of the Nubian samples with other African skeletal samples shows that Gabati was more closely related to Egypt than Kulubnarti or Mis Island. This may indicate Egyptian gene flow into Gabati catalyzed by the known trade economy between those populations. Finally, an examination of the mobility of each sex within the Nubian sites shows that Kulubnarti and Mis Island males had greater mobility while the same held true for the females at Gabati. However, the sex-specific differences at each site are not statistically significant. These mobility patterns may be related to differences in cultural norms governing changes in residence for those reaching adulthood. In the end, this study adds to the unfortunately scant history pieced together from the extant historical and archaeological record of the southern Nile Valley. Thus, the most significant contribution of this research concerns where these individuals came from, populations to which they were most closely related, and the levels of extra-regional gene flow they experienced.
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