A CORRELA'I’IEI} MUSIC AND VISUAL ARTS COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Thesis Fox: III-as Degree cf Pia. I}. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Goflan AI Ichnséa I963 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled A CORRELATED MUSIC AND VISUAL ARTS COURSE OF STUDY for THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL presented by GORDON ALLEN JOHNSON has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for JILL. degree in M— Z/m/Mfi ’ Major fil‘dfessor Date April 2; 19m LIBRARY Midligal State University A CORRELATED MUSIC AND VISUAL ARTS COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL BY Gordon A. Johnson AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1963 ABSTRACT A CORRELATED MUSIC AND VISUAL ARTS COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL by Gordon A. Johnson The problem undertaken in this dissertation was that of developing, on a sound phiIOSOphical basis, a correlated music and visual arts course of study for the senior high school which would serve as an elective course in the area of general education. It was recognized that while a majority of secondary schools in the United States offer adequate Opportunities in the performing and creative aSpects of music and art, relatively few offer any courses for the listener or the viewer. It was further realized that there is increasing concern among educators over the lack of educational Oppor- tunities for the consumer of music and art. Some educators have eXpresSed interest in a humanities type of course aimed at all students- With these facts in mind, the Opinions held by out- Standing educational phiIOSOphers concerning music and art in general education were sought. The selection of Specific philosophers was primarily determined by two factors: Whether their views were attuned to contemporary American ‘ l 2 Gordon A. Johnson society and whether their writings included sufficient material dealing directly with the role of the fine arts in education. The philOSOpherS whose views were examined were John Dewey, the pragmatist; Harry S. Broudy, the realist; and Robert Ulich, the idealist. An examination of their writings showed all three phiIOSOphers believe that the nature of the fine arts is such that they should be a part of the educational program of our schools. Each, however, emphasized different benefits to be derived from experience in music and art. Dewey claims that it provides for con- structive use of leisure time and that it helps to deveIOp an active mind which in turn, creates a concern within the individual for the world as it is and as it might be; Broudy and Dewey refer to the enrichment afforded to many of life's eXperiences by the fine arts; and Ulich states that music I and art help to use constructively the different human talents and provide a liberal education which enriches man. To keep the course of study in harmony with overall aims and procedures of contemporary education, attention was next given to an analysis of twentieth century trends in education. The trends presented included increased em- phasis on general education, expansion of the curriculum, increased emphasis on correlation and integration of subject matter, and increased attention to the deveIOpment of the ability to think. Through an analysis of phiIOSOphers' views and twentieth century educational trends, it was determined 4 z1 3 Gordon A. Johnson that major Concerns of a course of study for the consumer in the area of music and the visual arts should be the de- I"eloptnent of appreciation and discrimination of music and art, an understanding of our cultural heritage, and a good fundamental attitude toward the world. These findings served to determine the basic character of the course of study and were also instrumental in establishing its sc0pe and design. In the prOposed course of study, music and art from various periods are studied side by side in order that pupils may have an understanding of how cultural influences affect these arts and are reflected in them. A major por- tion of the course is Spent listening to music, viewing art slides, and discussing music and art and their relation‘to societyu. Although the course is not intended primarily as a singing or drawing class, the activities of music and art mmst, whenever possible, be a part of classroom procedure. The course is intended to be in the general education pro- gram with no prerequisites and with full academic credit. The class should meet daily for an entire school year. The course of study is deveIOped in chronological order and is divided into units in which a certain degree of stylistic unity in music and art is present. Units are divided, as necessary, into chapters to isolate main societal and stylistic mainstreams within the period. The Baroque period (1550-1750) was chosen as the unit of the course of study to be deveIOped at this time 4 Gordon A. Johnson in accordance with the phiIOSOphical basis established in Part I. Three chapters are devoted to the influences of the Counter Reformation, the aristocracy, the rise of the middle class, and the Protestant bourgeois upon the period. These three chapters are preceded by a chapter giving an overview of the whole Baroque period and followed by a chapter summa- rizing the period. While provisions are made for the inde- pendent study of other composers, if so desired, the text has concentrated on Bach and Handel. Artists studied in- clude El Greco, Rubens, Rembrandt, Vermeer, Ruisdael, and Hals. These chapters on the Baroque are illustrative of an approach which, it is hOped, will hold real promise for future education in the arts at the senior high school level. These five chapters represent only one unit out of eight of the entire course . A CORRELATED MUSIC AND VISUAL ARTS COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL By Gordon A. Johnson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1963 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Through this means the writer expresses his in- debtedness and appreciation to Dr. William R. Sur and Dr. Carl H. Gross for their guidance and constructive counsel received throughout the preparation of this dissertation. To Dr. J. Murray Barbour and Dr. H. Owen Reed the writer eXpresses his appreciation for the constructive suggestions they offered. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Virginia Herrin for her time-consuming, careful, and sympathetic reading and correcting of the manuscript. Mention must also be made of Dr. Leon Jacobson who so skillfully and graciously did the photographic work. Lastly, it is stated that my partner in this giant- killing, but rewarding, task from its inception to its satisfying present stage of deveIOpment has been my wife, Margrethe. Together we say to our girls, Diane, Claudia, Rebecca, and Karen, that education is worth sacrificing for it. This statement is made with the full realization that all six of us have made our contributions either directly or indirectly to the final product. ii- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . LIST CD? LIST OF LIST CH? LIST OF Chapter 'I. III. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS IPIJVTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . GUIDES TO LISTENING . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ORIENTATION TO THE DISSERTATION . . . . Statement of the Problem Need for the Course of Study Personal Interest in the TOpic Definition of Terms Organization of the Dissertation PART I. PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS FOR THE COURSE OF STUDY EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHERS' VIEWS PERTAINING TO MUSIC AND ART IN GENERAL EDUCATION John Dewey Harry S. Broudy Robert Ulich Summary of PhilosOphers' Views on Justifi- cation of Music and Art in General Education TWENTIETH CENTURY TRENDS IN EDUCATION . Increased Emphasis on General Education Expansion of the Curriculum Increased Emphasis on Correlation and Integration of Subject Matter Increased Attention to the DeveloPment of the Ability to Think iii Page ii vi vii ix ll 38 Chapter IV. V. Vii. INTRODUCTION TO PART II VII. TWENTIETH CENTURY TRENDS IN MUSIC AND ART EDUCATION . . . . Music Education Art Education SYNTHESIS OF PHILOSOPHERS' AND EDUCATORS' VIEWS AND EDUCATIONAL TRENDS PERTAINING TO MUSIC AND ART IN GENERAL EDUCATION . Music and Art Should Serve the Needs of All Students .Appreciation and Discrimination Should Be Major Concerns of the Course of Study An Understanding of Our Cultural Heritage Should Be One of the Outcomes of the Course of Study The Course of Study Should Contribute to the Development of a Good Fundamental Attitude toward the World CONCLUSIONS TO PART I . . . Summary of Findings General Description of the Course of Study Scepe of the Course of Study Design of the Course of Study PART II. REPRESENTATIVE UNIT OF THE COURSE OF STUDY INTRODUCTION TO THE BAROQUE . . . Origin of the Term Baroque--An Age of Transition and Action Forerunners of Baroque Art Music in the Baroque Conclusion Exercises for Better Understanding iv Page 54 66 71 78 82 Chapter page VIII- COUNTER REFORMATION BAROQUE . . . . . . . . . 116 Counter Reformation Spain Painting in Spain whisic in Spain Italy Art in Italy Conclusion Exercises for Better Understanding Ix. ARISTOCRATIC BAROQUE o o o e o o o o o o o 0 110-3 IFrance in the Time of Louis XIV Rubens Handel Exercises for Better Understanding X. PROTESTANT BOURGEOIS BAROQUE . . . . . . . . 191 Holland in the Seventeenth Century Art Germany Johann Sebastian Bach Exercises for Better Understanding XI. SUMMARY OF THE BAROQUE . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Italy Spain France England Holland Germany Art and Music from the Baroque Compared with That of the Renaissance XII. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 261 APPENDICESooooooooooooooooooooo 265 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 291 LIST OF PLATES Plate , Page I. THE TRIUMPH OF ST. IGNATIUS . . . . . . . . . . 8t. II. El Greco: ST. FRANCIS . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 III. Bernini: CHAIR OF ST. PETER . . . . . . . . . 138 IV. Rigaud: PORTRAIT OF LOUIS XIV . . . . . . . . 1145 V. Vermeer: THE CONCERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Doorway of a Baroque building, Rome . . . . . 86 2. Tintoretto: St. George and the Dragon . . . 90 3. Rubens: St. George and the Dragon . . . . . 90 A. Ruisdael: Wheatfields . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5. Vermeer: Maidservant Pouring Milk . . . . . 93 6. Rembrandt: Syndics of the Cloth Guild . . . 9h 7. Rubens: Landscape with Castle Steen . . . . 96 8. Da Vinci: The Virgin, ChildL and St. Anne . 97 9. Michelangelo: Last Judgment . . . . . . . . 99 10. Tintoretto: Last Supper . . . . . . . . . . 101 11. Some instruments used in the Baroque Age . . 102 12. El Greco: Agony in the Garden . . . . . . . 128 13, El Greco: Golgotha . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 1),. Bernini: Ecstasy of St. Teresa . . . . . . . 135 15. Aerial view of the Palace of Versailles . . . 1A9 16. Versailles: The State Bedroom of Louis XIV . 151 17, Versailles: Hall of Mirrors . . . . . . . . 153 13, Ballet figure representing Music . . . . . . 156 19, The"SunGod"................ 156 20, Rubens: _I_3_a_t_.§]_.g of the Amazons . . . . . . . 160 21. Rubens: The Raising of the Cross . . . . . . 162 Vii Figure Page 22. George Frederick Handel . . . . . . . . . . . 163 23‘ Barge on the River Thames . . . . . . . . . . 168 21h A Baroque stage set for Operatic performances 17A 25- Vermeer: Lady Seated at the Virgginal . . . . 200 26. Vermeer: Young Woman with a Water Jg . . . 202 27- Hals: MalleBabbe ............. 203 28. Ruisdael: The Cemetery . . . . . . . . . . . 20A 29. Rembrandt: Portrait of a Married Couple . . 208 30. Rembrandt: Portrait of Man with the Red Cap 209 Bl. Rembrandt: Christ Healing the Sick . . . . . 210 32. Rembrandt: Supper at Emmaus . . . . . . . . 212 33. Johann Sebastian Bach . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 31... A page of manuscript from one of Bach's organ works . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . . 221 35. Entrance and interior of the St. Thomas Church in Leipzig . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 365. A cantata performance of the time of Bach . . 226 - viii LIST OF GUIDES TO LISTENING Guide Page I. Comparison between a Sanctus of the Ba- roque and one of the Renaissance . . . . . . 110 II. Vivaldi: portions of The Seasons . . . . . . 115 III. Handel: portions of Water Music Suite . . . . 180 IV. Handel: "Zadok the Priest" from the Coronation Anthems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 V. Handel: portions of The Messiah . . . . . . . 181. VI. Bach: Orchestra Suite No. 3 in D Major . . . 232 VII. Bach: portions of The Passion According to St. JOhn O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 238 ix .l LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Justification for Music and Art in Senior Iiigh General Education . . . . . . . . . . . 266 B. Views of Educational PhiloSOphers Dealing with or Having Implications for the Course of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 0. Goals for Music and Art in General Education in the Senior High School Implied from Twentieth Century Trends in Education, and Means for Implementing these Goals . . . 269 D. Four Classifications of Views Forming PhiIOSOphic Basis for the Course of Study 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 O O O O O 275 EL. Design for a Unit within the Course of Study 0 O O 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 279 5'. Division of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 G. Suggested Supplementary Materials for the Baroque Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 CHAPTER I ORIENTATION TO THE DISSERTATION STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The problem undertaken in this dissertation is that of deveIOping, on a sound philosOphical basis, a correlated music and visual arts course of study for the senior high school which will serve as an elective course in the area of general education. NEED FOR THE COURSE OF STUDY It is generally recognized that there are adequate opportunities in the performance aspects of music in the American senior high schools. A vast majority of our high schools have choirs and bands, and many have orchestras. Approximately 25 per cent of the students take part in some performing organization . l A great majority of senior high school students have no Opportunity, however, for any art experiences.2 01' the 1"0fferings and Enrollments in High School Subjects, 191.8419," _B_____iennia1 Survey of Education, 1258-50, U. S. 0f- fico of Educatzo ashington,. ov't. inting Office, 1951), pp. 107-10 2Italo do Francesco, Art Education: Its means and Ends (New York: Harper Brot era, 1 , pp. - . 2 approximately 10 per cent of our high school students in art courses,3 the vast majority are enrolled in courses em- phasizing the creative aspects of art education.“ .Music and art in the general education program have, however, been given very little attention. Various high school history and literature texts make some reference to :music and art, but this information is not utilized to the degree that substantial knowledge or aesthetic sensitivity will be obtained. There are only a few senior high schools in each section of the country where art and/or music courses for the consumer are offered. Music offerings other than performance groups usually consist of "general music." This is a relatively new type of course to be offered at the high school level, and typically consists of a "variety of activi- ties such as playing of social instruments, singing, listen- ing, reading music, creative activity, and so forth."5 Another type of music class found in relatively few of our schools is the specialty course for the serious student of music, such as music theory or music appreciation. Art offerings other than activity classes are restricted to the relatively few schools where art appreciation is taught. 3Biennial Survey of Education. 1258-1220, p. 25. “Edward A. Krug, The Seconda School Curriculum (New York: Harper and Bros., I§555, p. 3EI. 5Mnsic in American Education, MENC Source Book, No. 2, ed. H. N. Mbrgan IEEicago: HERO, 1955), p. 306. 3 There has been an increasing awareness of the poten- ‘tial.contribution of music and art to the general education of all students.6 James B. Conant, in recognizing this, has stated that all students should be urged to include art .and.music in their elective programs.7 The following quo- ‘tations, taken from recent issues of educational magazines and reports, express typical concern of other educators over the lack of educational Opportunities for the consumer of music and art. Angelo Giaudrone, Superintendent of the Ta- coma, washington, public schools, says: None of the arts ever develOped in a void, unassociated 'with its time and period, so why shouldn't an integrated approach to the humanities be more meaningful than study- ing each in isolation? If such a plan makes sense, and if there are possibilities here, I would like to see such a course run through the junior and senior high schools covering the humanities, integrating them, and showing their interdependency. . . . This is no time to say that a humanities-music course won't work because teachers are too busy and too unprepared. we've never tried it. How do we know it won't work? It will take some retooling and some institutes to learn how to do it. But what in the world would be more worth our ef- fort? . . . I would like to see . . . a thorough exami- nation of an integrated course in humanities through junior and senior high school aimed at all students.8 The need for further educational Opportunities in music, specifically, is discussed in an article in Basic Concepts in Music Education. According to the author, an extension 6Tom C. Venable, Patterns in Seconda School Our- riculum (N. Y.: Harper and Hros., Igggi, p. I65. 7James B. Conant, The American Hi h School Toda (N. I.: (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., I§3§§, p. :3. 8"A Problem in Counterpoint," Music Educators Jour- nal, (June-July, 1962), pp. h3-hk, first presented as a speech before the‘washingtonJMusic Educators Association Conference held in Tacoma on February 23, 1962. h of the general core should be provided on an elective basis for those pupils whose musical needs are not met by par- ‘ticipation in elective specialties. He states: Not all learners will wish to continue with organized music activities throughout their school years. Those who do wish further experience with music should have the Option of electing a class which is essentially the same as the required general music class with ma- terial and methods adapted to the increasing maturity of the learners.9 Two quotations from a bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals point out the need for fur- ther educational Opportunities in egg education, Specifi- cally: Ideally all high school students should have eXperience in art bOEH as consumers and producers. For those with- out special aptitudes in the creative arts, there should be courses which would help students to enjoy their art and to relate contemporary art to today's space age. . . . They should discover in art a means to understand- ing other cultures, as well as a source of deep personal satisfaction.1 In an integrated arts program, the common aesthetic con- siderations in art, music, drama, dance, and writing can be explored. To date comparatively little has been done to relate these exPressive areas in education. As yet most such experiments at the senior high school level have been confined to University High Schools with a penchant for experiment. 1 Finally, the overall need for consumer education in all the fine arts is summarized in the Harvard Report as follows: 9Basic Conce ts in Music Education, Fifty-seventh Yearbook o the NSSE, ed. e son B. Henry (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1958), p. 221. 10"The Curriculum," Art Education in the Secondary School, Chapter II, The Bulletin 0 the ational Associ- ation of Secondary School Principals, Vol. #5 #263 (march, 19 1 , pe lZe 11mm. , pp. 27-28. 5 The happiness of many, perhaps of nearly all, peOple will be enhanced or diminished by the presence or ab- sence of aesthetic sensitivity to music and the fine arts, as well as to literature.12 The desirability of a course of study in music and the visual arts in the general education program of the senior high school is hardly Open to question; the feasi- bility of such a course, however, is another matter. There are two main problems-~those of teachers and materials. Any course involving broad fields such as this one (music, the visual arts, and history) requires a teacher with broad interests and backgrounds. Even if such teachers are avail- able and they are in many schools, a teaching assignment in a related arts course of this type is one of imposing pro- portions. It is essential that information and materials be brought together in such form as to be readily and ef- fectively usable by any teacher desiring to teach a course of this nature. Chances for Optimum success are question- able, indeed, unless teachers receive help. The need for this study, stated briefly, then, is found in the desirability of a course in music and the visual arts in the general education program of the senior high school and in the lack of organized information and material for its presentation. 12Report of the Harvard Committee, General Education in a Free Societ (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard finiversity Press, I925), p. 127. 6 PERSONAL INTEREST IN_T§§‘TQ§;Q Personal interest in this t0pic began during the teaching of high school choral groups when colored slides of art masterpieces were shown to motivate student interest in choral selections. It was observed that the showing and discussing of certain works of visual art helped the choirs to understand the emotional and aesthetic qualities of the music they were studying. This experience in correlating music and art was very gratifying and served as a motivating factor in the writer's taking college course work in art history and aesthetics. I Having a background in music and music history prior to tak- ing these courses, the writer became increasingly aware of many similarities in the fields of music and art and found that having a knowledge of one field helped in the under- standing of the other. Knowledge acquired from these formal courses and from considerable reading and study was used in experimenting with the correlating of music and art from the same histori- cal periods with various age groups both in and out of the public schools. Interest in this approach expressed by students of all ages provided the incentive to begin work on a course of study for the age group that could profit most by it--the senior high school age group. In the spring of 1961 the Opportunity arose to teach this "infant" course to two sections of high school students enrolled in general music classes. These classes consisted 7 of 18 and 27 students meeting five days a week for 55 min- utes. The writer taught these classes for a period of ten weeks during which the approach to the course and students' reactions to it were constantly evaluated. The success of this actual teaching experience gave added impetus to the development of the course of study. DEFINITION QE TERMS The terms consumer, correlation, general education, integration, and producer are used frequently in this study. Definition of these terms in relation to their meaning in the study follows: 1. Consumer: refers, in art, to the viewer, and, in music, to the listener. 2. Correlation: refers to attempts to combine related ele- ments fFOm two or more subjects to emphasize their relationships and give added breadth to a given tOpic. 3. General Education: "is that part of a student's whole education which looks first Of all to his life as a responsible human being and citizen” as Opposed to special education which refers to "that part which looks Ea the student's competence in some occupa- tion." A. Inte ration: is the process that takes place within the individual in obtaining a unified concept of the various fields in a learning situation. 5. Producer: refers, in art, to the creator and, in music, to the performer. ORGANIZATION 9: THE DISSERTATION The body of the dissertation is divided into two main parts preceded by an introductory chapter and followed by a concluding chapter. W 13General Education in a Free Society, p. 51- 8 In Chapter I, an overview of the dissertation is given. The problem of the dissertation is stated, the need for the course of study is discussed, and reasons for per- sonal interest in the topic are given. Terms which might need clarification are also defined. In Part I, chapters II through VI, a philoSOphical basis is established upon which an elective course of study in the music and visual arts areas of general education should be constructed. Chapter II, the first chapter of Part I, deals with views of educational philosOphers per- taining to music and art in general education. The phi- losOphers' views selected for analysis were those of John Dewey, the pragmatist; Harry S. Broudy, the realist; and Robert Ulich, the idealist. Prevailing educational thought and practice are examined in Chapters III and IV in order that the prOposed course of study can and will be in har- mony with contemporary educational ideas. Overall trends in twentieth century education are examined in Chapter III; trends in music and art education, specifically, are examined in Chapter IV. A synthesis of these various views and trends, appearing in Chapter V, forms the philosOphic basis upon which the course of study is constructed. The conclud- ing chapter of Part I contains a summary of the findings, a general description of the course of study, and the scape and design of the course of study. Reasons for the selection of the Baroque Period as a representative unit of the_course of study are given in an L 9 introduction to the second part of the dissertation. Part II, consisting of chapters VII through II, forms a repre- sentative unit of the course of study constructed upon the philosOphical basis established in Part I. These five chapters deal with Baroque art, music, and culture. In addition to chapters introducing and summarizing the Ba- roque Period, there are chapters dealing with each main- stream of the period, namely, the Counter Reformation, the. aristocracy, and the Protestant bourgeois. Chapter III summarizes the total dissertation and contains recommendations for further study. PART I PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS FOR THE COURSE OF STUDY CHAPTER II EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHERS' VIEWS PERTAINING TO A MUSIC AND ART IN GENERAL EDUCATION It is the concern of this and the three succeeding chapters to establish a philoSOphical basis for a corre- Ilated music and visual arts course of study for the senior Ihigh school. This chapter deals with Opinions held by out- standing educational philosOphers concerning the place of music and art in general education. Twentieth century trends in general education, music education, and art edu- cation are the concern of Chapters III and IV. Chapter V, the last in this group, consists of a synthesis of the preceding material. In the preparation of a course of study for the pub- lic schools, it is logical that one first consult the views of educational philosOphers. It is their particular role to make inquiry into the nature of man and his ability to live life to the fullest. With these insights, they at- tempt to define the "what," the "why," and the "how" of education. The selection of specific philosOphers for this study has been primarily determined by two factors: whether I1 12 ‘their views were attuned to contemporary American society and whether their writings included sufficient material deal- ing directly with the role of the fine arts in education. There are various underlying philosOphies in the American schools. Every teacher and every school system is guided by slightly different philoSOphies; some lean toward pragmatism, some toward realism, some toward idealism. The overall prevailing philosOphy, if there is one, could best be described as an eclectic one. In some ways it would be satisfying to take one philosOphic position and develop a course of study consistent with it. Under certain con- ditions the resulting course of study would be very bene- ficial to the student. For instance, if the administration, the individual teacher, the students, and the environment were all receptive to a strictly pragmatic approach, a course of study constructed from that point of view would be most effective and beneficial in that particular situ- ation. However, since there are several philosophies present in our schools and since it is heped that this course of study will be of practical value in many situ- ations, the writer has chosen a "logical" approach which in- cludes views from several major prevailing schools of philosOphical thought. The emphasis, in the examination of these philosOphies, is on an analysis of those views per- taining to music and art in general education since that is the primary concern of this dissertation. ' v“ ..u !I n... 'd 13 mass: Pragmatism is one of the mainstreams of American edu- cational thought and practice. Its prOponents believe that the test of truth of ideas lies in their practical conse- quence. Its Operational concepts involve interest, effort, habit, growth, and intelligence. The use of intelligence for the mastery of subject material is subordinate to its use in the solving of problems related to life, the solving of which will help the individual adjust to his ever-changing environment. This is not to say that subject matter is un- important. It is important as it is learned as a means to an end for which the individual has a concern. Youth learn, not under the force of unwillingly accepted authority,but in an atmosphere of freedom and self-development. School is thought of as a laboratory in which life's problems are to be analyzed and criticized; then solutions are prOposed based upon the analysis and criticism. The name of John Dewey is inseparably linked with this movement. Although he is not its true founder, it has been through his leadership and influence that pragmatism has gained strength. As an educational philosOpher, teacher, administrator, speaker, and author, he has exerted greater influence on the American schools than any other human being. In his many books dealing with educational theory, Dewey made substantial contributions in the area of the arts. Many educational philosophers have had little to say in this area. l“ 13 22mm; Pragmatism is one of the mainstreams of American edu- cational thought and practice. Its prOponents believe that the test of truth of ideas lies in their practical conse- quence. Its Operational concepts involve interest, effort, habit, growth, and intelligence. The use of intelligence for the mastery of subject material is subordinate to its use in the solving of problems related to life, the solving of which will help the individual adjust to his ever-changing environment. This is not to say that subject matter is un- important. It is important as it is learned as a means to an end for which the individual has a concern. Youth learn, not under the force of unwillingly accepted authority,but in an atmosphere of freedom and self-development. School is thought of as a laboratory in which life's problems are to be analyzed and criticized; then solutions are prOposed based upon the analysis and criticism. The name of John Dewey is inseparably linked with this movement. Although he is not its true founder, it has been through his leadership and influence that pragmatism has gained strength. As an educational philosOpher, teacher, administrator, speaker, and author, he has exerted greater influence on the American schools than any other human being. In his many books dealing with educational theory, Dewey made substantial contributions in the area of the arts. Many educational philosOphers have had little to say in this area. 1h For purposes of this study, attention is primarily centered on Dewey's Democracy and Education1 and his Ag; ‘gg_Experience.2 Of his many works, these two books contain those of his statements which are most pertinent in deter- mining his views on the place of the fine arts in general education. He firmly establishes his belief in the need for fine arts in the general education curriculum when he states that the contributions of the fine arts "are not luxuries to education but emphatic expressions of that which makes any education worthwhile."3 The purpose of this section on Dewey is twofold: first, to briefly discuss those statements which show the potential contributions of the fine arts to the life of the individual, especially as a consumer, and secondly, to give Dewey's specific suggestions for the means of achieving these ends. His views pertaining to the potential contri- butions of the fine arts to the life of the individual in- clude the following: (1) that fine arts form standards for the fixing of taste; (2) that they develop a good funda- mental attitude toward the world; (3) that they reveal a depth and range of meaning in experiences which otherwise might be mediocre and trivial; and (A) that they provide 1John Dewey, Democracy and Education (N. Y.: Mac- millan COO, 1921;) e 2John Dewey, Art as Experience (N. Y.: Minton, Balch and 00., 193A). 3Dewey, Democrac and Education, p. 279. 15 for constructive use of leisure time. Statements which sug- gest means of achieving these goals include the following: (1) that production and consumption of art should involve active participation of both intellect and emotions; (2) that cultural values should be stressed in music and art; (3) that the past must be studied in order to understand the present; and (A) that art, unless associated with life, tends to become remote. gig; 5525,2253 Standards :25 Egg Developing g; igggg. According to the second edition of the unabridged Merriam- ‘Hebster dictionary, "taste" is the "power of discerning and appreciating fitness, beauty, order, congruity, proportion, symmetry, or whatever constitutes excellence, esp. in the fine arts and belles-lettres; critical judgment, discernment or appreciation.” The question immediately arises, is there such a thing as inherent excellence in a work of art? If the answer to this question is in the affirmative, what shall be the means for deveIOping a taste for this excellence? Since John Dewey's philosOphy is built upon the idea that a student's learning is motivated by his interest, one would expect him to conclude that a work of art has no in- herent excellence, but rather that excellence depends upon the reaction of the consumer who is conditioned by his en- vironment. Dewey implies, however, that the fine arts do contain inherent elements of excellence. He writes, "In their fullness, they [fine arts] represent the concentration and consumation of elements‘of good which are otherwise 1 16 scattered and incomplete.“+ Commenting further upon the in- herent qualities of "goodness" found in the fine arts, Dewey states that they "select and focus the elements of enjoyable worth which make any experience directly enjoyable.”5 Having established his belief in inherent excellence (”goodness”) in the fine arts, Dewey proceeds to give a po— sition of importance to the develOpment of power to discern and appreciate this excellence. As one participates in the fine arts and experiences this excellence, he will, accord- ing to Dewey, "be discontent with conditions which fall be- low their measure."6 The fine arts "create a demand for surroundings coming up to their own 1evel;"7 and because of this, they have "the office, in increased degree, of all appreciation in fixing taste."8 That is, if one's standard of taste is such that he is able to experience the beauty and depth of meaning in Bach's Passions and Beethoven's symphonies, which experts agree have a concentration Of elements of good and enjoyable worth, one would then not be satisfied in other life experiences unless those experiences measured up to the standard set by the music of Bach and Beethoven. Similarly, if one experiences the beauty of paintings by Raphael or Rembrandt, his life would be modi- fied by these experiences. “Ibid. 51bid. 61bid. 7Ibid. l7 Eigg Arts Develgp g figgg Fundamental Attitude 223359 §§3.!gglg. A good fundamental attitude toward the world, according to Dewey, is a concern for what i; and what lg ‘tgflgg.9 One may go a step farther and say that a concern for something implies an interest in which one becomes in- volved as a ”deer" rather than as a bystander. Dewey be- lieves that this concern is brought about by the "scOpe and quality of the activities in which men partake"1° rather than by mere acquisition of subject matter or training of the mind. The desirable type of activities are those which involve the internal and the external man, the intellect and the emotions. If an individual can be guided in such a manner as to stimulate a real concern for the outcome of the activity, the momentum of the resulting absorbing inter- est on the part of the individual will carry him through to the end of the activity and often lead him to other activi- ties. It is therefore the problem of education to provide "typical modes of activity, whether play or useful occupa- tions, in which individuals are concerned, in whose outcomes they recognize they have something at stake and which cannot be carried through without reflection and use of judgment to select material of observation and recollection."11 It is this type of activity that Dewey believes will develOp a good fundamental attitude toward the world. 9Ibid., p. 155. loIbid., p. 156. llIbid. * 18 Having defined the type of activity that develOps a good fundamental attitude toward the world, Dewey later states that "the ideal of interest is exemplified in the artistic attitude."12 It must be emphasized that the ar- tistic attitude is not restricted by Dewey to the artist or to the composer. He would have the consumer strive to re- capture the creative spirit of the producer. The ideal of listening in music and of viewing, in art, would, then, utilize the intellect and the emotions in a process of re-creation. Referring again to Dewey's idea that the fine arts form standards for the fixing of taste, that they "arouse discontent with conditions which fall below their measure," and that they "create a demand for surroundings coming up I to their level,"13 it follows that one's standards in the fine arts will affect or be transferred to one's standards in all of life's activities. Thus, as the individual's taste is raised, so is his concern for the world as it is and as it might be. On that basis, experience in the fine arts develOps a good fundamental attitude toward the world. manganesmmmmuwin an. Experiences M Otherwise _M_igl_1_p B3 Mediocre Ln; Trivial. Many of life's eXperiences are enriched by various forms of the fine arts. Church services, motion pictures, and com- mencement ceremonies, to mention but a few of the more obvious 162219.. p. 159. 13Ibid., p. 279. 19 examples, are all enriched through the addition of various branches, separately or in combination, of the fine arts. The response to art now being considered is primarily an emotional one which has its roots in the sub-conscious; in- tellectual response can, however, add to the total enrich- ment. As "organs of vision" the fine arts "select and focus the elements of enjoyable worth" which make these experi- ences ”directly enjoyable."1‘ Without the presence of the arts with their inherent qualities of expressiveness and communicability, Dewey believes that "the depth and meaning" of many such experiences might seem "mediocre and trivial."15 Religious architecture of various ages illustrates the depth and meaning that the fine arts add to life's ex- periences. Gothic cathedrals with their lofty vaulted ceilings, stained glass windows, and gargoyles induce a mood of reverence, of seclusion from the world, of fear of the unknown; they typify the religious spirit of the Middle Ages. Churches of the twentieth century designed by men like Frank Lloyd Wright merge the outdoors with the church interior so that the separation between the world and the church, between the life of the worshipper outside the church and inside the church, are minimized or dissolved. These churches typify the twentieth century approach to religion. lthid. lsIbid. 20 Fine Arts Provide for Constructive Use 2; Leisure ‘Tgpp. Dewey recognizes society's need for leisure time and play and believes that art is an ideal medium for the worth- ‘whils use of this time. He further believes that it is the schools' obligation to provide Opportunities for the de- velOpment of skills in and good attitudes toward the arts. In industrialized twentieth century America, it is especially important to provide for constructive use of leisure time. There is an increasing amount of leisure and the type of work that many do "offers little to engage the emotions and the imagination; it is more or less a mechani- cal strain."16 Dewey, in the chapter "Play and WOrk in the Curriculum” of Democracy and Education, further states that "only the hold which the completion of the work has upon a person will keep him going. . . . Where something approach- ing drudgery or the need of fulfilling externally imposed tasks exists, the demand for play persists but tends to be perverted."17 Having recognized the need for play in our society, as it is presently organized, Dewey goes on to discuss the perversion of leisure time. Since emotion and imagination are not stimulated in the regular day by day work and events, there is a demand in leisure time for activities such as "gambling, drink, etc." or in any case "there is recourse to idle amusement; or anything which passes the time with l6Ibid., p. zuo. 17Ibid. 21 immediate agreeableness."18 The need for stimulation of emotion and imagination is basic to man and the need will prevail. Dewey says, "if education does not afford the Opportunity for wholesome recreation and train capacity for seeking and finding it, the suppressed instincts find all sorts of illicit outlets."19 He further states that, "edu- cation has no more serious responsibility than making ade- quate provision for enjoyment of recreative leisure; not only for the sake of immediate health, but still more if possible for the sake of its lasting effect upon habits of mind.”20 _After this discussion on work and play and the ob- ligation of the schools to provide Opportunity for the develOpment of attitudes and skills which will result in worthwhile use of leisure time, Dewey concludes with the simple statement, ”Art is again the answer to the demand."21 Production 53g Consumption 2; App §ppplg Involve Appizp Participation ngpp p Intellect 53g Emotion. The successful music conductor and performer actively bring both intelligence and emotion into their work; the success- ful listener does likewise. were not both intelligence and emotion actively engaged in both the acts of performing and of listening, the experience might be enjoyable to a degree, but it would be incomplete. Dewey would say it was not an Ibid. 19Ibid., p. 241. zolbid. 211b1d. — v. o‘- n. —.___—__4——____. ——L.‘.’__.'_ 22 artistic experience since the intellect and the emotions were not both actively engaged. In any great musical per- formance or creative experience in the arts this active involvement of both intellect and emotions is essential. Too frequently, the intellect is neglected. If intelli- gence is not adequately engaged, warns Dewey, "ideas and feelings are turned upon themselves." Performers, listen- ers and viewers then "take refuge in an inner play of sentiment and fancies." Mental life becomes sentimental, "an enjoyment of inner landscape."22 This incomplete type of activity temporarily satisfies their emotional needs, but leads to no growth or further participation. Thus, production and consumption of the fine arts should involve active participation of both intellect and emotions. Cultural Values Should Be Stressed in Music and ‘ppp —Present.2‘ -gégg,‘yplgpg Associated ggppflppgp,‘zppgp pg Eggpggflfippppp.25 The three underscored statements above, because of their great interrelationship, will be discussed together. Music and art are theoretically justified as a part of education by Dewey on the ground of their cultural value. 221bid., p. 159. 23Ibid., p. 302. 2“John Dewey, Experience and Education (N. Y.: Mac- lillan 00., 1938), De e 25Dewey, Art as Ex erience, p. 6. 23 As he points out, however, too often they are taught with an entirely different emphasis--that of forming technical skills.26 This emphasis on performing skills prevalent in high school music education today was discussed in Chapter 1.27 Dewey further feels that modern schools have tended to place little value upon the study of past events. He points out that it is impossible to understand our present culture without a knowledge of events of the past. Part of that past, often neglected in modern education, is our musical and artistic heritage. As vital segments of the culture of any age they should not be disregarded in a study of the past any more than should political history. Not only is an understanding of the present enhanced by a study of the past, but music and art themselves become more meaningful, more alive, when related to culture, past and present. To better understand one's culture through the arts is only a part of the cultural value to be derived from the arts. Music and art must be associated not only with the past, historically speaking, but with the best and most enjoyable elements of worth in life. As quoted from Dewey earlier,28 "they [music and art) represent the concentration and consumation of elements of good which are otherwise l l 26Dewey, Democrac; and Education, p. 302. A 273.. pp. 1-2. 28See p. 15. 2A scattered and incomplete."29 Unless music and art are as- sociated with life--as a part of culture and also as a con- centration of elements of worth--they tend to become unmeaningful and remote. Dewey says further that, "when, because of this remoteness, the objects acknowledged by the cultivated to be works of fine art seem anemic to the mass of people, esthetic hunger is likely to seek the cheap and vulgar."3° An understanding of art and the factors involved illiits creation tends to eliminate or reduce this remoteness for both the producer and the consumer. Concerning this, Dewey writes: In order to understand the meaning of artistic products, we have to forget them for a time, to turn aside from them and have recourse to the ordinary forces and con- ditions of experience that we do not usually regard as esthetic. . . . It is quite possible to enjoy flowers in their colored form and delicate fragrance without knowing anything about plants theoretically. But if one sets out to understand the flowering of plants, he is committed to finding out something about the inter- actions of soil, air, water, and sunlight that condition the growth of plants. . . . By common consent, the Parthenon is a great work of art. . . And, if one is to go beyond personal enjoyment and understand why he likes it he must turn his thoughts to the bustling, arguing, acutely sensitive Athenian citizens."31 In order to fully participate in an artistic experience, whether it be that of producing or consuming, it is clear that Dewey would have one be familiar with the work of art, its creator, and the environment in which it was created. 29Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 279. 3°Dewey, Art as Experience, p. 6. 311bide , pe he 25 Essentialism is, without doubt, the most widely practiced type of phiIOSOphy in today's American public schools. Even though, during this century, there has been an upswing in progressivism with its pragmatic approach, the curriculum and methods are still heavily weighted by the conservative approach of essentialism. There is a reliance upon guided discipline, orderly sequence, and time-tested content. The curriculum is generally based on a presumed existence of absolute laws and pro-existent facts that have come down to us through modern civilization. There is stress upon objective content and values without which an adult civilization cannot survive and which at the same time are essential to the continuation of a democratic way of life. Contents of courses are clothed in a tra- ditional type of curriculum in which examinations measure the quantity and evaluate the content contained in the mind. A basic characteristic of essentialism is its wide eclecticism "typified by the presence within its camp of both professed idealists and realists--put together not by philosophy but by the culture"32 that they both help to justify and perpetuate. It is only during recent years that these conservative philosOphies have been grouped to- gether under the essentialist label and even today there are 32Theodore J. Brameld, Philoso hies of Education in Cultural Pers ective (N. Y.: Henry HOIt and Co., Inc., 1 ,pe e 26 philosOphers from each camp who object to this title be- cause, in spite of the similarities between idealism and realism, there are important differences. The bases on which idealists and realists are united are twofold. Both stand against pragmatism for what they 'would call its action without direction and its search with- out vision; both also stand for the construction of intel- lectual and moral foundations for a modern culture based upon reality, knowledge, and value--all of which are governed by pro-existent facts and standards. The main difference be- tween the idealist and the realist is that whereas the former bases his beliefs on a spiritual universe, the latter is ”usually associated with a more material, machine-like uni- verse."33 The realists regard the world largely as physical, orderly, and subject to precise examination and understand- ing.3‘ many realists accept the educational theory of transfer of learning and, because of this, recommend the study of Latin, mathematics, and the natural sciences for their disciplinary effects.35 The sources used for the presentation of the real- ists! views on music and art in general education are from the writings of one of its leaders, Harry S. Broudy. One of the sources is "A Realistic Philosophy of Music Educa- tion" which appears as a chapter in the 1958 National Society 33l2i§-. p. 232. 3h1h1a., p. 268. 35Ih1d., p. 20h. ‘ 27 for the Study of Education yearbook, Basic Concepts in JMusic Education.36 The other is Broudy's 1954 publication, Building of a PhilosOphy_of Education.37 ‘Music is justified as a part of the senior high school general education program by Broudy on the basis (1) of the relation between musical values and other modes of value realization and (2) on its ability, through its various levels, to increase the capacity for realizing values. Realization. Concerning the first basis of Justification he states that "musical experience, while not identical with any other kind, is alien to none and can be apprOpri- ate to all. Accordingly, many life activities seem to call for the underscoring that music provides. . . . There is no facet of life that cannot enlist music to reinforce its emotional support and impact."38 An illustration of this relationship between music and life is the closeness of re- ligion and music. ‘Without music, many churches would find it difficult to establish the desired mood for their 36Harry S. Broudy, "A Realistic Philosophy of Music Education," Basic Concepts in Music Education, 1958 Yearbook for the National Society or the Study of Education, ed. Nglgpn B. Henry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 5 . 37Harry s. Broudy, Buildin of a Philoso h of Educa- tion (N. Y.: Prentice Hall, Tnc., I§5II. 38Basic Concepts in Music Education, pp. 75-76. 28 services. Much music, whether played in or out of religious services, invokes a mood associated with religion. The understanding of music and its role in religion, then, will enable one to receive a more meaningful eXperience from a church service. Although stated in different terminology, this view of Broudy's on the relationship of artistic values to other modes of value realization echoes Dewey's idea that the fine arts reveal a depth and range of meaning in experi- ence which otherwise might be mediocre and trivial. Broudy eXplains, however, that the "social utility of an activity does not of itself determine whether or not it shall have a part in general formal education. Some socially useful activities are not learned formally."39 Education Should Cultivate the Capacities for Realiz- gggllglgg. Broudy's additional and qualifying criterion for the inclusion of material in the general education program is that education should cultivate the "capacities for realizing value."40 He asserts that there are various levels of music and that the capacity for realizing value may be increased. 0r stated more Specifically, he implies that Bach's chorales and Brahms' symphonies are better music than childish songs and primitive chants and that the "in- dividual in reSponding to the Bach chorale is exercising his human capacities at a higher level than is the child or 39Ihid., p. 76. ”OIhid. 'e 29 savage, and to that extent is 'better' than they are, that is, further along the road of self--pe1.‘fection."l*l In connection with humans' ability to appreciate these various levels of music, Broudy states that "all human beings have the same sort of capacities,”2 but in varying degrees and that the deliberate development of these capaci- ties toward the perfection of human nature is the purpose of formal education. This opinion is essentially the same as Dewey's idea that the fine arts form standards for the fix- ing of taste, and that as taste is raised so is one's concern for the world as it is and as it might be. . Connoisseurship. Recognizing various levels of music and taste for music, Broudy calls for the "connoisseur.“3 The concept of connoisseurship encourages the use of materi- als which have been proven through the ages rather than re- lying on the Judgment and taste of each individual. Further, this view sees value in having the learner aware of the con- tinuity of the musical tradition. Thus, the study of a twelfth century chant in historical perspective aids the listener when he hears it used in twentieth century music. Broudy would have the student develop the knowledge to discriminate. Since the goal for every rational man is a taste shaped by his own knowledge and discriminative ex- perience, one of the goals of music education is to have the “IMO; P0 77. hZIbide, p. 76. ‘3Ihid., pp. 86-87. 30 student develOp the knowledge to discriminate. In doing this, "one starts with the taste of others, but as knowledge and skill grow, freedom to experiment, to be creative, to judge, to choose and to reject also grow. The goal is an informed taste."“‘ ROBERT.QLIg§ Whereas the realist views the world largely as a physical universe, the idealist views it largely as a spir- itual universe that is orderly and subject to understanding by men. The idealist believes that everything in our finite eXperience is more or less an "appearance" whose nature is seen to be different in the context of wider knowledge. Learning starts with the self and moves outward toward an understanding of the objective world. Whereas pragmatism stresses scientific method, idealism tends to respect and stress individual introspection and intuition.’*5 The good life is to be found in self-realization, that is, in the development of that absolute which is already partially expressed in every man. In spite of the difference between idealism and its partner, realism, which together make up essentialism, phi- losophers from both camps have on occasion been able to work together harmoniously. Evidence of this is found in the Harvard Report, (Education ig_§,Free Societ , described in “Ihid., p. 86. #5Brameld, p. 20h. 31 Chapter III), in which there was a working partnership of both idealists and realists. The report has also been praised by essentialist leaders.“6 One of the authors of the Harvard Report was the idealist, Robert Ulich. As one of the most forward locking of American idealists, he is not only interested in our social and intellectual heritage but also in social change. Education should serve as a guide to this social change.“7 In his curriculum he would insist on a more flexible pro- gram of studies than most idealists. As an essentialist he stresses training in foreign language for its thoroughness and exactness. He is inter- ested in the memorization and acquisition of facts, not only as useful knowledge, but because of the intellectual disci- pline that is required in order for one to become master of these facts. He considers this discipline as needed by all citizens in order for them to be efficient workers. It should be acquired even if the work involved is sometimes distasteful and objectionable."*8 Ulich's views concerning music and art in general edu- cation appear in his History of Educational Thought‘9 of ‘6Ibid., p. 25k. ‘7Robert Ulich, Fundamentals of Democratic Education (N. Y.: American Book 0., , pp. - . ‘slbid., pp. 19k-196. ‘9Robert Ulich, Histo of Educational Tho ht (N. Y.: American Book Co., l9h5 . 32 l9h5, and in Philosophy of Education,50 which is one of the most recent books in this field, its publication date being 1961. According to Ulich, the three great tasks of modern secondary education are (l) to use constructively the dif- ferent human talents, (2) to find a more constructive re- lation between the school and the future vocation of the student, and (3) to combine reapect for future vocational life with a liberal education which prepares man to enrich himself through contact with the cultural values of human life.51 Of these, the first and third tasks assign impor- tant roles to music and art in the general education of students. Education Should Provide :25 Egg Constructive Use ‘gpd Development p§.ppp Different gppgp Talents. Ulich's first point, to use constructively the different human talents, appears frequently in educational literature and ordinarily would need no explanation; however, he imposes the restriction that this use must be accomplished "in such a way that the democratic unity of the nation is not im- periled."52 The background of Ulich's reasoning must be examined in order to interpret this restriction imposed on this task of education. SORobert Ulich Philosophy of Education (N. Y.: American Book Co., 1961. 51U1ich, gistory of Educational Thought, pp. 3A7-3A8. 521bid., p. 3h8. r. 8e. I... .II V.» (I I.{ rd in \H ’TV 33 In order to have democratic unity in our nation, we must have some common basis of education. It is Ulich's belief that "in their emotions men are united, whereas the inevitable differences of intellect separate men from one another."53 Therefore, the common basis of education should consist of "those activities which appeal to the emotions."5h He does not believe that courses with intellectual emphasis will serve to unite men. Furthermore, textbooks for these types of courses should not be "adapted to the capacities of the lower average student" as a means of imparting common knowledge to all.55 The common basis of education should not consist of course offerings in which intellect is the main criterion for success or failure, but rather activities such as useful practical work, sports, music and art which will, through their emotional appeal, help unite men rather than separate them as does the intellect.56 Ulich's concern for the emotions of man as well as the intellect echoes the historic statement of the report of the Boston Academy of Music in 1836 which led to the introduction of music in the public schools. Now, the defect of our present system, admirable as that system is, is this, that it aims to develop the intellectual part of man's nature solely when, for all the true purposes of life, it is of more impor- tance, a hundredfold, to feel rightly than to think profoundly.57 53Ihid. 541bid. 55Ihid. 56Ibid. 57Edward Bailey Birge, Histo of Public School Music (Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson 60., E923), p. #7. 3h Mpppp gpd g p.ip Education Should figlp Prepare M32 gf,§pg§g,§i£g. In commenting on the acquisition of cul- tural values, related to the third task of secondary edu- cation, Ulich expresses dismay at the slowness with which schools all over the world have begun to "assume the obli- gation of educating youth toward a better understanding of the role of art in the life of man."58 It is his belief that we need more and better art education . . . "not only because we are interested in art as one of the finest human values, but also because we wish to provide for American youth the sources of inner wealth and maturity which make possible a rich and creative nation."59 SUMMARY OF PHILOSOPMERS' VIEWS 9! JUSTIFICA— 'TIBE‘EFTEDSIE‘IRD‘IRT‘TN GENERAL EfifiEITIGN' The final task in this chapter is to summarize those views expressed by Dewey, Broudy, and Ulich concerning jus- tification for music and art in general education at the senior high level. A list of these views can be found in Appendix A, List 1. A complete list of the philosOphers' views which deal with or have implications for the course of study can be found in Appendix B. The latter are not, however, discussed at this point, but are rather to be used as a source of reference. 5sUlich, Philosophy of Educatiop, p. 188. 59Ihid., p. 196. 35 The bases on which a composite view can be made are that each of the philosOphers justifies music and art in the curriculum because of (l) the inherent nature and qualities of these art forms, and (2) their benefit to the participant. ‘Whenever views of different men are labelled and classified, there is a danger of misinterpretation and oversimplification. In this case, there is a fine dividing line between views which attach importance to the inherent qualities of music and art and those which are concerned with benefits derived by the participant. In spite of the danger, this arbitrary dividing line has been used to fa- cilitate discussion and should be regarded as serving that purpose rather than attemptingto "classify" the views into compartments for which they were not actually intended. Concerning the inherent features of the fine arts, all three philosophers believe that the nature of these arts is such that they should be a part of the educational pro- gram of our schools. Dewey refers to the fine arts as the concentration of elements of good; the arts thus help in forming standards for fixing of taste. Broudy states that there are various levels in music and claims that this necessitates education to raise the level of appreciation. Ulich comments on the emotional qualities inherent in music and art which serve to unite men. Concerning the benefits derived from experience in music and art, Dewey claims that it provides for constructive use of leisure time and that it helps to develop an active 36 mind which, in turn, creates a concern within the individual for the world as it is and as it might be; Broudy and Dewey refer to the enrichment afforded to many of life's experi- ences by the fine arts, and Ulich states that participation in music and art helps to use constructively the different human talents and contributes to a liberal education which enriches man. The idealist and realist positions on the value of music and art, as found in the writings of Ulich and Broudy, are not in conflict with each other. This is as one might expect. Craftsmanship, connoisseurship, and moral values, important to realism, go hand in hand with spiritual and social values embraced within idealism. One might expect a conflict to appear between essentialism as expressed through Ulich's idealism and Broudy's realism and pragmatism as found in Dewey's writings. Pragmatism, however, when rightly viewed as.a method rather than as a system with pre- determined values and standards, becomes compatible with aspects of other philosOphic positions. The pragmatist would say that participation as a consumer or producer of music and art, like participation in many other activities, is beneficial when it actively involves the emotional as well as the intellectual being. Participation is judged by its results, and under preper conditions the results are very worthwhile. Thus, the Opinions of Dewey, the pragma- tist, of Broudy, the realist, and of Ulich, the idealist, on the value of music and art, though expressed from 37 different viewpoints, do not appear to be in conflict with each other. Together they give strength to the position 'that music and art are important elements in the general education of 5;; students. Each of the philos0phers, how- ever, gives different reasons for this importance of the .fine arts. Put together, these Opinions give added breadth ‘to the place music and art can fill in the general education of senior high school students. CHAPTER III TWENTIETH CENTURY TRENDS IN EDUCATION In the preceding chapter the views of educational philosophers pertaining to music and art in the general education program of the senior high school were stated. Since a course of study, to be effective, should be in harmony with the overall aims and procedures of contem- porary education, attention is now given to an analysis of twentieth century trends in education. In the following chapter, specific trends in music and art education are presented from which implications for this course of study are drawn. These findings plus those of the educational philosOphers in Chapter II will then be used in Chapter V to form a basis for a course of study that is philosOphi- cally justified for the general education program of today's senior high schools. The early part of the twentieth century, though far removed from today in many ways, is included because much of current educational practice has its roots in the educational theory of that time; similarly, it is recognized that much of the next generation's educational practice will evolve from the educational theory of today. ‘33 39 The overall trends to be presented include (1) in— creased emphasis on general education, (2) expansion of the curriculum, (3) increased emphasis on correlation and inte- gration of subject matter, and (A) increased attention to the development of the ability to think. INCREASED EMPHASIS 9! GENERAL EDUCATION During the past generation there has been a definite tendency in the senior high school toward a general or pggip education. This general education is conceived as a program of basic learnings of value to 5;; students aside from vo- cational and special interest aspects of the curriculum. Much of the current interest in general education has been stimulated by (l) a reaction against the great amount of specialization that has characterized some of the educational programs in the past, (2) the need for a basic reorganization of the high school in view of the confusion resulting from the addition of numerous subjects, (3) the ever-growing complexity of society itself, (A) concern evi- denced among some educators that traditional liberal educa- tion has almost disappeared from the schools, (5) overemphasis on electives which often means that the student's program lacks essential learnings and forms no over-all meaningful pattern, and (6) the need to provide for all students a basic education designed to preserve and foster the ideas of a democratic society.1 1Homer‘W’ayne Ramsey, "The Role of General Music in the Curriculum of the Secondary School" (unpublished Ph.D. dis- sertation, Dept. of Music, Ohio State University, 1957), p. 19. #0 Harvard Rgpggp. In l9h5, considerable impetus to the general education movement was given by the Harvard Report, General Education in a Free Society.2 This report was the first important study after the historic "Cardinal Princi— ples"3 that did not emphasize vocational training and specialization as primary needs of youth. Because of the prestige of Harvard University, the Harvard Report received considerable publicity. The points of emphasis in the report were that (1) general education should be an important part of the school curriculum, (2) general education must consciously aim at these abilities: effective thinking, communication, the making of relevant judgments, and the discrimination of values; (3) a liberal arts type of curriculum stressing our cultural heritage, to be used in interpreting the problems of the present and the future, should provide the nucleus of general education, and (A) practical and vocational courses should be delayed until the students acquire suf- ficient backgrounds in English, science, mathematics, social studies, and the arts, after which specialization would follow. Instruction in the arts, according to the report, should be viewed as a part of general education. The claim is made that before reason has matured, our cultural heritage 2General Education in a Free Societ (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I§h3). 339. ppe 115-#5 e ‘1 41 may be understood in the most direct fashion through the arts since the arts appeal to the mind through the senses.A Fur- ther, "the arts give a meaning to our heritage for those who might never gain an understanding of it through abstract concepts. And when reason has become mature, the arts re- inforce what is already graSped conceptually, by giving it sensuous embodiment."5 In other words, for the history student who has trouble graSping any more than the facts concerning the Middle Ages, who is not interested in the relationship between the medieval church and feudalism-- for this student a picture of a medieval stained glass window and a recording of early church music are able to communicate something of the Spirit of the age through the emotions and the senses. To the student who has intellec- tual understanding of the medieval period, these art forms, by presenting direct emotional stimulation, will reinforce and round out an understanding of the age. The report points out that the democratic structure of society and the availability of all types of art have brought about another reason for the need of instruction in the arts in the general education of the student. Patrons of art in twentieth century America come from the larger public rather than being limited to the church, the state, or the educated rich. The level of taste of the public will determine what music is heard and what art is seen; it will hGeneral Education in a Free Seciety, p. 127. 5Ihid., p. 128. A2 affect not only the individual but his environment, his bridges, his factory, and his home. Therefore, "it is of highest importance for the interest of the professional artist himself that the lay public have discriminating taste."6 EXPANSION Q§_1§§ CURRICULUM During the past half-century much attention has been directed toward equal Opportunity in education. This has been in the form of (1) expansion of the curriculum to meet the needs of more students, (2) allowance for individual differences within the classroom, and (3) provision of equal facilities for all, regardless of color, race, eco- nomic status, or religion. The first significant and influential step in the twentieth century toward the achievement of equal educa- tional Opportunity in the public secondary schools was the publication Of the reports of the Commission on the Reorgan- ization Of Secondary Education in 1918, subsequently referred to as the seven Cardinal Principles. During the early part of the twentieth century, the American secondary school consisted primarily of urban stu- dents Of the upper middle class who took courses preparing them.for college. The graduation requirements were set to permit graduates to satisfy strict and inflexible college 6Ib1de, pe 132e #3 entrance requirements.7 As more students from both city and country attended high school, it became apparent that a basic reconstruction of the secondary school program was needed be- cause many of these students had no intention of going on to college. The work of the Committee of Nine in 1910 produced a high school course of study to meet the needs of youth and prOposed that colleges adjust their entrance requirements to the backgrounds of successful high school graduates.8 This report was well planned but remained essentially in the realm of educational theory and had no noticeable effect on educational practice. Continued pressure on the high school for a program more representative of the needs and interests of the non~college bound youth led to the National Education Association's appointment of the Commission on the Reorgan- ization of Secondary Education in 1913 to make further recom- mendations. The Commission felt that there was a definite need for the reorganization of secondary education because of the great changes taking place.9 Continuing industrial- ization and urbanization changed patterns of living and called for increased emphasis on vocational training. Vast 7William E. Drake, The American School in Transition (N. Y.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1933), p. :39. 8"Standardization of Education," Re ort Of the Com- missioner of Education for the Year Ende§ Eune 3Q; I§I¥, VOI. I, Chap. IV (Washington, D. C.: ov't. inting O fice, 1910), p. 90. . 9"Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education," A Re- port of the Commission on the Reorganization of Seconda?! Education, appoints y the ationa ucation Associat on, Bulletin No. 35 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Gov't. Printing Office, 1918), pp. 1-3. ~ hh increases in percentage and total number of students attend- ing school and the high percentage of drOp—outs resulting from a curriculum built to meet the needs of a small minority modified the character of the school pOpulation. Significant advances made in educational psychology added knowledge about child growth and about individual differences in students, which resulted in implications for the teaching and learning processes. The Commission believed that the need was for education for the masses and the school program could no longer be planned in the manner reported by the Committee of Ten in 1893 for "that small prOportion of the children in the country--a prOportion small in number, but very im- portant to the welfare of the nation-~who show themselves able to profit by an education prolonged to the eighteenth year, and whose parents are able to support them while they remain so long at school."10 The resulting main objectives of education, according to the Commission, were concerned with: (1) health, (2) command of fundamental processes, (3) worthy home membership, (A) vocation, (5) civic education, (6) worthy use of leisure time, and (7) ethical character.11 The discussion of Cardi- nal Principle #3, "WOrthy Home.Membership," stated that "Music and art should result in more beautiful homes and in 10"Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, with Papers Relating Thereto," Re ort Of the Com- missioner of Education for the Year 18 2- , o . ap. II (washington, . .: ov't. Printing ice, 1895), p. 1hhh. 11"Cardinal Principles . . . ,” p. 5. #5 greater joy therein."12 The discussion of Cardinal Princi- ple #6, "WOrthy Use of Leisure Time," stated that: "Education should equip the individual to secure from his leisure the recreation of body, mind, and spirit, and the enrichment of his personality. This objective calls for the ability to utilize the common means of enjoyment such as music, art, literature, drama, and social intercourse. . . . Heretofore the high school has given little conscious attention to this Objective. It has so exclusively sought intellectual discipline that it has seldom treated literature, art, and music so as to evoke right emotional response and produce positive enjoyment."13 The "Cardinal Principles Report" brought to a close a series of educational commissions that labored to determine the function of the high school in American life and concluded by stating that secondary education was for all. A report by the educational organization that was to have considerable influence on the educational Opportunities of secondary students was the Educational Policies Commis- sion's Education for All Youth published through the National Education Association in 19kt. This report called for con- tinued flexibility and expansion of the curriculum to provide educational Opportunities for all. It stated that the start- ing point, or the basis, for curriculum is to be found in the needs of youth and that the subjects, activities, and experi- ences provided should revolve around those needs. The needs as described were: 1. All youth need to develOp salable skills. 2. All youth need to develOp and maintain good health and physical fitness. 1211618., p. 6. 13Ihid., p. 9. #6 3. All youth need to understand the rights and duties of the citizen of a democratic society. A. All youth need to understand the significance of the family for the individual and for the family. 5. All youth need to know how to purchase and use goods and services intelligently. 6. All youth need to understand the influence of science on human life. 7. All youth need an appreciation of literature, art, music and nature. 8. All youth need to be able to use their time well and to budget it well. 9. All youth need to develOp respect for other persons. 10. All youth need to grow in their ability to think rationally, to express their thoughts clearly, and to read aid listen with discrimination and under- standing. 4 Although many of the needs listed above can be partially filled by experience in music and art, needs number 7 and 8, dealing with appreciation of beauty and with leisure time interests, are of special significance to music and art in general education. During the last generation there has been a new wave of statements of educational goals by groups influential in curriculum develOpment, such as the American Association of School Administrators, the National Society for the Study of Education, the National Education Association's Depart- ment of Secondary Teachers, the recently disbanded Progres- sive Education Association, the Society for Curriculum Study, and regional accrediting agencies. These recent attempts to redefine the Objectives of secondary education have not de- parted far from the Cardinal Principles of 1918. 1“Educational Policies Commission, Education for All Youth, A Further Look (Washington, D. C.: NEA and American Association of SOEOOI Administrators, 1952), p. 216. w A7 Accompanying the emphasis on filling the needs of youth has been an increase in course offerings at the secondary level. According to the United States Office of Education, there were 156 Specific subject titles in 1928,15 206 in 1933-34, and 274 in 19h8-h9.16 Conant's report, ppg American High School Today, puts more stress on the need for availability of educational Opportunity for all and recommends that small schools be consolidated in order to improve and increase their course offerings.17 INCREASED EMPHASIS 2N CORRELATION AND INTEGRATION .QF SUBJECT MATTER The large increase in course offerings during the third and fourth decades of this century precipitated a felt need for correlation and integration. According to Graves, there have been three successive steps in the evo- 1utionary process of correlation.18 First, it was recog- nized that geography, history, economics, and social develOpment were related and, to be meaningful, should be taught in their relation to each other. This resulted in 15Biennial Survey of Education, 1926-1928, Bulletin, 1930, No. 16 (washington, D. C.: U. S. Gov't. Printing Of- fice, 1930), PO 963s 16"Offerings and Enrollments in High School Subjects, l9h8-h9," Biennial Surve of Education 1 8- O (washington, D. C.: Gov't. Printing 0 ice, 1 51 , p. 2. 17James B. Conant, The American High School Today (N. Y.: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 195 , pp. - 0. 18Albert D. Graves, American Secondary Education (D. C. Heath & Co., 1951), pp. 239—h1. rs #8 experiments to combine the material of these courses. This recognition and experimentation brought about the second step, the creation and growth of generalized courses with new titles. In many instances, enrollments in general courses expanded while those in more specialized courses declined.19 English replaced literature and composition; biology took precedence over zoology and botany; general science grew at the expense Of other more specific subjects of science, and mathematics grew at the expense of algebra and geometry. In some schools, a single course in physical science replaced courses in physics and chemistry. The third step, still not widely used, has been the develOpment of programs which abandon the traditional concept of a sub- ject and cut across many subject matter lines. Examples of this type are ”Senior Problems" and "Occupation" courses. A few schools presently employ the "broad-fields" type of program which has evolved out of the three steps described above and in which the whole curriculum has been divided into broad fields. For instance, physical educa- tion, hygiene, and some aspects of the biological sciences are grouped into one area--health. In this type of cur- riculum social science could include history, geography, religion, psychology, and political science; the arts could include such areas as music, art, drama, and literature; social living could include social studies, literature and English composition. Some of the Objectives in each of these lgfiigpgggl Survey of’Education, 19A8-1950, p. 28. #9 separate subjects can be achieved as easily in one subject as the other. In combining subjects, the time saved by avoiding duplication allows a more enriched program of ac- tivities in addition to providing a more unified and mean- ingful approach to learning. Any one or more of the types of correlation which have been described above can provide the basis for a type Of curriculum referred to as a core curriculum. There are many variations of the "core" type of curriculum but they all have one aSpect in common, that of providing for the general education of all students-~the common learnings. The Educational Policies Commission in l9hh, in placing emphasis on a curriculum to fill the needs of all youth, provided considerable stimulus for a "core" type of program--one in which academic experiences and life experi- ences would be "related." In 1950, it was reported that 2 per cent of the schools enrolling fewer than 500 pupils and 11.3 per cent of those having more than 500 had core programs; that is, a total of 3.5 per cent of all the nation's secondary schools employed the core curriculum.20 This figure is somewhat on the low side because the questionnaire for de- termining the number of schools using the "core" contained 20Grace S. Wright, Core Curriculum in Public High School: An In air into Practices,‘U. S. Office Of Educa- : tion Bulletin, 1950, NO. 6 (Washington, D. C.: Gov't. . Printing Office, 1950), pp. 5-6. 50 a restricted meaning of the core.21 Therefore, many schools that use a variation of the core hesitated to call it such. The breaking down of subject matter lines with vari- ous degrees of correlation and integration has been an evo- lutionary process which is still growing throughout the United States. Some phases are found in most secondary schools, while others are still practiced in only a few situations. Graves emphasizes the evolutionary nature of these changes. When the changes are viewed as evolutionary in nature, concepts such as common learnings, core, correla- tion, and integration become more meaningful and are not classified as fads, but rather as parts of a logical growth and develOpment emphasizing the functional value of educa- tion.22 At the present time, the greatest obstacle to further growth in this direction is the lack of qualified teachers.23 Weaknesses in the area of teacher training are in two areas: subject matter and methods. Several comments quoted from "The Psychological Bases for Integration" by David R. Krath- wohl offer guides to teachers engaging in this type of venture 3 21H. L. Bossing, "What is the Trend Toward Core Cur- riculum in the Senior High School?”, Bulletin of the National Association of Secondarg-SchooI Principalg, Vol. ‘1» , N00 219 April. , , pe e 22Graves, p. 2A1. 23Bossing, p. 363. 51 l. "The focus of concern is the thinking of the stu- dent. Accordingly, the teacher's role is twofold: (a) develOping classroom situations which cause the student to work at pulling his experience to- gether into a satisfying, unified picture, and b) instilling in the student the desire 50 con- sistently treat his experience this way." 9 2. "The teacher should strengthen the student's back- ground so that the concepts to be graSped are well understood before integration is attempted. . . . 3. He should guide the students' attention to the points of similarity which form the basis of the integrative framework. . . . A. He should make sure that the integrative framework is at a conceptual level appro riate of his stu- dents' abilit and maturity. (Nothing succeeds like successl). . . 5. The students should understand from the outset that integration of material under consideration is a goal of the learning experiences. . . . 6. The teacher should take advantage of the students' various backgrounds to involve them in his presen- tations. . . . 7. Since the teacher ultimately seeks to have the students display integrating behavior on their own, he must present the framework in such a way that the student can accept it and make his own but not feel bound by it--not feel that his ca- pacity for independent thinking is being Ourbed."25 INCREASED ATTENTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT 6?”?fiE‘KEIEITY‘TUETHTNK“‘""“"“" One of the most recent emphases stated by professional educators is that of the develOpment of the ability to think. 2"’David R. Krathwohl, "The Psychological Bases for In- tegration," The Inte ration of Educational Ex eriences, Fifty-seventh Yearbook for the National Society for the Study of Education, Part III, ed. Nelson B. Henry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), p. AA. 25Ihid., pp. 62-63. 52 In 1961, the National Education Association issued a pam- phlet prepared by its Policies Commission headed by Chi- cago's Superintendent of Schools, Benjamin C. Willis, on Egg Central Purpose pf American Education. The l9-member commission reported that "the purpose which runs through and strengthens all other educational purposes--the common thread of education--is the develOpment of the ability to think."26 It claimed that "there is no known upper limit to human ability, and much of what peOple are capable of doing with their minds is probably unknown."27 Much research must yet be done to learn how to teach peOple to think more effectively. we can presently be guided by a few basic principles: (1) "The rational powers of any person are develOped gradually and continuously as and when he uses them successfully. There is no evidence that they can be develOped in any other way. . . . Thus the learner must be encouraged in his early efforts to grapple with problems that engage his rational abilities at their current level of develOpment, and he must experience suc- cess in these efforts. . . . (3) [There must be a] careful selection of teaching procedures deliberately adapted to each learner, and (A) The substance of knowledge . . . is Zézhe Central_Purpose of American Education, Educa- tional Policies Commission‘TWashington, D. C.: NEA, 1961), p. 12. 271bid., p. 1A. 53 the raw material of thought. The ability to think cannot be develOped or applied without subject matter."28 Of Special interest to music and art educators is the view stated in the report that ability to think may be acquired through any body of subject matter; it is not as much the inherent qualities in the subject matter that help the student learn to think as it is the manner in which the subject is approached. "Experience in literature and the arts may well make a larger contribution to these abilities than studies usually assumed to develOp abstract thinking."29 Although the report emphasized the develOpment of the intellect, it did not relegate to a place of minor im- portance the aesthetic side of human personality. This is brought out in the statement that "the society which best develOps the rational potentials of its peeple, along with their intuitive and aesthetic capabilities, will have the best chance Of flourishing in the future."30 28Ibid., pp. 17-19. Zglbide , pe 18e 3°Ibid., p. 11. CHAPTER IV TWENTIETH CENTURY TRENDS IN MUSIC AND ART EDUCATION MUSIC EDUCATION ,ggpformance. The overall emphasis and trend in twentieth century music education at the senior high school level has been on the develOpment of performance groups. This century has seen the high school music curriculum de- velOp step by step in many schools from a single assembly chorus, meeting once a week without credit, to a curriculum giving official credit for chorus, orchestra, and band. Nearly all high schools now have a band and at least one vocal organization in their curriculum. In addition, high schools of over 1000 enrollment frequently have orchestras. The highlight or the focal point of the year for many of these groups is the participation in the annual music con- test Or festival in which their performance is rated or discussed. Although there is considerable individual and small group instruction, eSpecially in the instrumental music area, the overall concern is for the performance of the large group. There has been considerable criticism from both the educator and the public on the effects of this emphasis on -SA 55 performance. Criticism has been aimed at the (l) neglect of cultural values, (2) high degree of Specialization and departmentalization practiced in this area, (3) high degree of selectivity used in these group activities within a school curriculum theoretically designed for the benefit of all students, (A) great cost of financing these groups, (5) frequent cases of conflict of practice with general school policies and objectives, (6) demands of time and effort made upon students, and (7) extra-school activities of these areas, some of which are often questioned in terms of apprOpriateness for secondary school students.1 Per- formance stresses the "activity" of music and, as such, makes a great contribution to the welfare of the student, the school, and the community. Even so, it behooves music educators to keep the aims, objectives, and practices of performance organizations within the Spirit of the total school and to work toward a larger goal--that of general musical and cultural growth of the individual participant. 31113;; Appreciation §_n_d_ £119.12 Theopz. Various types of music "listening" courses, Often called music appreci- ation, Sprang into being in the early twentieth century with the advent of the phonograph and the player piano.2 These types of courses were, and still are, offered in a definite _* lHomer‘W. Ramsey, "The Role of General Music in the Curriculum of the Secondary School," (unpublished disserta- tion, Dept. of Music, Ohio State University, 1957), p. 10. 2Edward Bailey Birge, Histor of Public School Music (Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson 50., I953), pp. 2IO-I5. 56 minority of our schools. The tremendous upsurge of perform- ing organizations has, no doubt, attracted potential students away from this non-performance type of course. In the mid-1950's, secondary schools with an enroll- ment of less than 500 per grade level that offered non- performance courses in music were the exception. However, schools equaling or exceeding this enrollment frequently provided such courses, the ones most frequently offered being music appreciation and music theory.3 Leader and Haynie suggest a set of objectives for the high school music appreciation class which are in keeping with those of the {Music Educators National Conference: (1) to aid pupils in develOping the ability to enjoy music as an expression of a universal language, (2) to cultivate a finer taste and in- telligent discrimination, (3) to present the factors which make music sound as it does, (A) to develOp an appreciation for all types and media of music and musical expression, and (5) to broaden cultural horizons through extended knowledge which comes from hearing much music and studying the litera- ture of music.“ A significant feature of objectives for music appreciation today is the emphasis placed on enjoyment, discriminative ability, elementary theory as it relates to _k 3Gordon A. Johnson, "Secondary School Music Program During the Mid-1950's," (A Research Project Submitted to the Dept. of Music Education, Michigan State University, 1959), pp. 16'32e #Joseph A. Leader and William s. Haynie, Music Edu- fation in the Hi School (N. Y.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 5 . pp- - . .- 57 music, and cultural values rather than the acquisition of facts, per se. The same authors describe the music theory course as a Specialized course that is "primarily offered with voca- tional intent for the potential music major or minor or for the students that are extremely interested in music."5 Generalqugig. The latest trend to be Observed in the high school music program is in the develOpment of a course called general music. The realization that nearly seventy-five per cent Of the high school students go through four years of high school without having any music has given rise to a strong movement to provide a course in music which will be profitable to the entire student body. In 1951 the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools recommended that senior high schools have a music course Open to all students regardless of musical experience--a course similar to Junior High general music (offering a variety of musical activities such as playing, singing, listening, reading music, creative activity, etc.), but adjusted in its content to meet senior high school in- terests and'needs.6 Additional interest in this area is being stimulated by the Music Educators National Conference through its publications and conventions. k 51bid., p. 156. 6"Music for Secondary Schools," Music in American Education, Source Book No. 2 (Chicago: Mbsic Educators National Conference, 1955), p. 306. 58 This interest by music educators is supported by educators in general as they acknowledge the desirability of finding a prOper balance between the sciences and the humanities. "In search for subjects within the humanities which will maintain the balance, educators naturally are seeking so-called ‘Solid’ or ‘study’ subjects. General music fulfills this requirement as does perhaps no other music subject currently Offered without prerequisites."7 Although in existence for a number of years, general music has not settled into a course with a definite, well- ordered syllabus. Leeder and Haynie suggest that a general music class for the high school (1) provide Opportunity to explore and understand music as a cultural force in world civilization, (2) Offer Opportunity to discover and develOp individual talent, both vocally and instrumentally, (3) stress discrimination that leads to appreciation of worth- while muSIC, (A) make a simple study of the theory of music, and (5) include participation in some form of music for pleasure.8 Schools, recognizing the need for a "solid" music course which will be profitable to the entire student body, have been experimenting with a variety of types of courses with titles such as "Music for Living," "General Music," "Consumer Music," "Allied Arts," and "Fine Arts F 7Archie Jones, "General Music-~Introduction," Music Education in Action, Chap. 3, Art. 2 (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1950), p. 89. 8Leeder and Haynie, pp. 23-2A. c. 59 Course." As can be observed from the variety of titles, some of the important questions to be answered are ghgp to present, pp! to present it, and gpppg to find teachers with adequate background to teach such a class. The courses answer a great need but tax the ingenuity of the teacher. Correlation.gpd Integration.ipflMppip Education. There has been a trend, gathering momentum throughout this century, for the music program to become a more integral part of the total school program. Leadership in correlating and integrating music with the rest of the school program has come, not from the high school, but from the elementary school vocal music program and its work with every student in every grade and with every classroom teacher. With the accent on mass education during the third decade of this century, music education began to discard the "art for art's sake" point of view inherited from the studio teacher accustomed to dealing with individual stu- dents, and began to realize that music must be integrated into the student's everyday living. A significant indica- tion of the increased importance being placed on the inte- gration Of music with other subjects was a Speech made on that subject at the 193A Chicago convention of the Music Educators National Conference by Will Earhart,9 one of America's leading music educators at that time. During _‘ 9Heman F. Smith, "Fifty Years of Music Education in Americag" Music Educators Journal, Vol. 36 (June-July, 1950), PP. 3“ 50 60 these decades music was increasingly accepted as having a definite contribution to offer the program of general edu- cation, and music educators' objectives were formed more in terms of values important to the child and society than in terms of art for art's sake. Music is now being correlated with other subjects, eSpecially with social studies, in most of the conscien- tious and progressive elementary school systems. As was pointed out earlier in this chapter, the high school music program emphasis is still on performance groups involving many students meeting on school time and receiving credit recognition.10 Correlation and integration at the high school level, while still not accomplished to any great ex- tent, hold great potential; this potential is being recog- nized and stated by music educators throughout the nation. A word of caution, however, is given us by Dykema and Gehrkens, who say concerning correlation and integration: "In offering a combined course there is always the danger of involving so much material that only slight attention can be paid to any one division. Power in any phase of music re— quires much time and effort." They have observed that, "breadth of view is too frequently a synonym for dabbling and superficiality. DevelOpment in music cannot proceed to proper fruition if music is touched upon only occasionally in a combined course."11 10893 Fe 5“” 11Peter‘W. Dykema and-Karl‘W. Gehrkens, Hi h School Music (Boston: C. C. Birchard and Co., 19Al), p. I3. 1‘ E n” 0!".- s’ m .I‘UI . . .0 0' “‘1. ei‘. {he I... .A.. e s. U'.‘ {f 1. Ir ‘3/5: ‘ O~9_‘l‘ v '4. ‘1) n O 61 ART EDUCATION The breadth of the concept of twentieth century art education is expressed by Clara Macgowan in the Encyclopedia of the Arts as she states: Art education as a twentieth century concept, is con- cerned with the entire world of visual arts and has as its chief aim the develOpment of all individuals who will not only understand, create in or enjoy the arts, but also who will understand that expression in these media is the expression of insights and sensiifivities of others to the world in which they live. Unless one is familiar with the brief history of art education in our public schools, it is difficult to realize the tremendous growth art education has made and the impli- cations of Macgowan's statement for today's schools. In 1870, the Massachusetts legislature passed a law permitting drawing ("industrial and mechanical") to be "freely" taught in any city and town, and making "free" in- struction compulsory in cities and towns of over 10,000 inhabitants.13 This law, passed in reSponse to industrial- ist pressure for the schools to provide workers with skill in drawing and knowledge of historic forms of ornament, marked the beginning of public art instruction in the schools. Art study at that time consisted Of the drawing Of geometric solids and historic ornament. ___._ 12Clara Macgowan, "Art Education," Enc clo edia of the Arts (N. Y. PhilOSOphical Library, 19A , p. . 13I. E. Clark, "Art and Industry," Education in the Industrial and Fine Arts, quoted in Royal Bailey Farnum, "Past and Present Trends in Art Education," Art in American Life and Education, Fortieth Yearbook for the Nat'I. Society fdr the Study of Education (Bloomington, 111.: Public SChOOl Publishing COO, 19‘1), pe ‘hSe 62 With the emphasis on child study and child psychology beginning in the late nineteenth century, the discoveries of the researchers made clear the great importance of emotional develOpment and the way experiences in art contributed to it. Educators became more concerned for the need of a clearer understanding of art as it related to the individual child. "Drawing of geometric solids and historic ornament began to give way to nature drawing, then to the study of form. Later, color was introduced and likewise some at- tempts at handwork were offered."15 By 1890, appreciation of the beautiful became the concern of art teachers15 and recognition Of two broad aims in drawing, cultural and in- dustrial, began to point the way to a wider understanding of art values.l6 By 1908 the cultural value of art rivaled the in- dustrial and practical value. Haney at that time commented on the two distinct forces swaying art practice in the school, one being the insistent economic pressure urging the develOpment of skill and technical knowledge useful in industry, the other being the desire for beauty and the wish for a curriculum giving culture. The first force was l“Present Status Of Drawin and Art in the Elements and Seconda Schools of the U. S. U. 3. Bureau of Educa- t“"""""ion BuJL—l—TTletin, NO. 1 , 1 , p-p."'29-35, quoted in Art in American Life and Educatgpp, p. AA6. 15Frederick M. Logan, Growth of Art in American Schools (N. Y.: Harper Bros., I955), p. 3. “We and Education, p. 1.46. . 63 a "reflection of the industrial Spirit of the age; the second, an expression of that idealism unacknowledged, but an inherent element of the American character."17 As the century progressed, industrial arts depart- ments in the schools assumed much of the responsibility of develOpment of skills necessary for industry, and the art teacher moved closer to an "art for art's sake" approach to the teaching of his subject. 5 By 1936 the correlation movement in art had begun.18 Art was used in connection with other school subjects, es- pecially at the elementary level. Grace Sobotka, in 193A, summarized the art program in the public schools. By way of activities, She reported: In the elementary school stress is usually placed on experiencing (becoming acquainted with) color, form, arrangement, and design through drawing, constructing, modeling, and blockprinting; in many schools each phase of the art work might be centered around such basic needs as food, shelter, clothing, utensils, tools, records, and community surveys; the curricula Of the junior high schools usually include painting, sculpture, modeling, commercial art, simpler phases of interior decorating, metal work, weaving, and pottery, with a little photography, in the industrial arts; the activities and phases of art work stressed at the elementary and junior-high-school levels be- come more Specialized at the senior-high-school level with emphasis on commercial art, architecture, archi- tectural drawing, industrial arts, design, painting, the relation of art to dress and home, and occasionally 17James P. Haney, Art Education in the Public Schools of the U. S. (N. Y.: American Art Annual, 190 , p. 7 . 18Victor E. D'Amico, "High Points of a Study of Art in Our Schools," Art Education Todgy: An Annual Devoted to the Problems of Art Education (N. Y.: Bureau of Publica- iiong, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936), pp. 1"]. e 'a‘l D Iuwl - ‘.e p... Q"" some '1. e M“. saw I. m ode D Int. +-lp— :1 r'» 64 photography, modern industrial designing, and museum courses. 9 There were many types of course offerings throughout the United States, but the enrollment was not very great. The courses usually appealed only to a group of students with specialized interests. Sobotka's main criticism of the nation's art pro- gram at that time was that "high school art tOpics follow too closely those of the art school, with too little corre- lation of art with other school work."20 AET IN GENERAL EDUCATION As early as 19A1, art educators were seriously think- ing about the place of art in general education. Hilpert commented on certain Special practices in art that recog- nized only the talented few and that largely ignored most of the pupils. He added further that: The trend in outstanding schools is to relate educa- tion to the actual needs of all pupils as individuals and as members of contemporary society, and to meet existing problems in real-life situations. Art in education must follow this example more than it has to date and provide all pupils-~not only the talented few-~with opportunities to mgke art function as a vital part of everyday life. 19J. E. Moore, "Art Education," to appear in the En- Wa of Educational Research quoted in Grace Sobotfa', Opinions on the Aims and Methods Of Art Education," Art in fisher-1cm; Life and Education, Sec. III, Chap. 21;, pp- '- IE3 20Sobotka "Opinions on the Aims and Methods of Art dUcation," Art in American Life and Education, p. ASA. 21Robert Stose Hilpert, "Changing Emphases in School if: Programs," mnAmericaniife and Education, pp. AA7- I”! "a ldv 0". not. Sn ‘ do. Lg“ Cu 65 By 19A1, a few schools had taken the initial steps in ex- perimenting with art as a part of general education. With this concern for mass education in art, Hilpert stated that "appreciation has become firmly established as one of the major aims in the majority of published curricu- la, although its actual importance in school art practices is not always evident."22 During the last two decades the sentiment for in- cluding more of art in general education has been increas- ing.23 Contemporary writers on the arts and education, such as Herbert Read, Hopes, and Faulkner, emphasize the need for education in the arts as a necessity for the entire pOpulation. AS yet, however, little has actually been done about it. Logan states that: If such a situation were to be brought about by ad- ministrative fiat, (it) would be chaotic. The fact is that we are not ready or able to teach all high school students in art classes. In the unlikely event that they were suddenly assigned to a required art period, there would be waged, for sometime at least, a heavily unequal contest between doubtful, unconvinced students and teachers by no means sure of their Objectives or of their use of the equipment available. We are lacking in practices calculated to create among these general students an interest in the visual and plastic arts. Unfortunately, in the few schools which have had general art-education programs as a requirement, there has seldom been enough time for planning through experimentation, enough recognition of the wholly different nature Of the job from that of the customary elective senior-high art group.25 \ 22Ibid., p. A52. 23Logan, p. 222. Z‘Ibid. CHAPTER V SYNTHESIS OF PHILOSOPHERS' AND EDUCATORS' VIEWS AND OF EDUCATIONAL TRENDS ’ PERTAINING TO MUSIC AND ART IN GENERAL EDUCATION The purpose of the previous three chapters was to present ideas and educational thought which would serve as a philOSOphical basis for a course of study in the music and visual arts areas of general education. The pertinent views of educational philOSOphers were examined; next an investigation was made of twentieth century trends in edu- cation with Special attention being given to music and art education. In this chapter, all of these views and trends are larought together and synthesized to provide a basis on wthich a design for a course Of study can be made. This synthesis is considered a necessary step, but it should xmcmt be interpreted as adding anything to the views. .Most Of them can conveniently be grouped into four classifica- tions without violating their Spirit. These classifica- tions are (1) music and art should serve the needs of all 8"-‘fl-‘lcients, (2) appreciation and discrimination of music and ‘r't should be major concerns of the course of study, (3) an understanding of our cultural heritage should be one of -66 67 the outcomes of the course of study, and (A) the course should contribute to the develOpment Of a good fundamental attitude toward the world. MUSIC App Ag: SHOULD gpgzg Egg gpgpg 9: App STUDENTS1 The overall picture obtained from study of the views under this Classification shows, first, that music and art should be of benefit to all students at the senior high 1evel--to the terminal as well as the college preparatory student, to the consumer as well as the producer. Secondly, in order that this may be accomplished, there must be a course of study in the general education program which is a so-called "solid" or "study" subject that has no pre- requisites and carries full academic credit. The procedures and contents of this course of study should be adjusted to the interests of the individual student with emphasis upon aSpects of concern to the consumer. .APPRECIATION AND DISCRIMINATION OF MUSIC AND ART _S______HOULD BE MAJOR *CONCERNS OE THE COURSE OF STUD Y2 A synthesis of views dealing with appreciation and discrimination reveals that they deal with: (1) the benefits <>lrtained by the individual and society from the develOpment (>1? appreciation and discrimination, (2) the type and amount of material to be used in the develOpment of appreciation 1k. 1Views under this classification are listed in Ppendix D, List 1. 2Appendix D, List 2. t 68 and discrimination, and (3) means Of develOping discrimina- tive ability. Increasing emphasis is being placed on the importance Of the develOpment of appreciation and discrimination in music and art. The type of appreciation that consists of pure sensuous enjoyment is not, however, stressed. The con- cern is, rather, to develOp a type of appreciation in which there is a healthy balance between intellect and emotions. Since an almost unlimited amount and variety of music and art are available to the high school student, he should be able to make intelligent judgments on the relative merit of the music he hears and the art he sees. He should be aware of the external pressures which compete for his attention (commercialism, and so on), moderate the influence of these pressures, and make wise choices for himself.3 This type of appreciation can play an important part in a student‘s life by helping him understand and enjoy many of the vari- ous facets of life which are underscored by music and/or cart, by contributing to the enrichment of his personality, €18 well as to the constructive use of his leisure time, and by providing emotional release and growth. Resultant benefits to American society are: (a) the C1<3velOpment of a rich and creative nation; (b) the develOp- llliint of discriminative patrons who will insure the perpetu- ation of the fine arts in a democratic society; and (c) _.___¥ 3The Central Purpose of American Education, Educa- tional Policies Commission (Washington, D. 0.: National JEkIucation Association, 1961), p. 7. \ 69 increased democratic unity of the nation through the emo- tional appeal of the arts. Two considerations involved in the inclusion of ma- terial for the develOpment of discriminative growth are: (a) material Should be used which has been proven through the ages or has the approval of the connoisseur; and (b) there must be adequate subject material, including actual music and art, to provide a solid foundation from which judgments may be made. Sufficient acquaintance with and knowledge about music and art will contribute to the develOpment Of an in- formed taste and consequent discriminative ability. AN UNDERSTANDING OF OUR CULTURAL HERITAGE SHOULD RE ONE OR THE OUTOOMES OF THE OOURSE OR STUDTE An examination of the views dealing with the under- standing of our cultural heritage reveals that they deal ‘with the relation of the arts to the life of man and with ways of develOping a meaningful understanding of this re- Llationship. The learner should be aware of the continuity <2f'the musical and artistic tradition. The arts are viewed as being related to life and it is emphasized that an under- standing of the arts will contribute tO a better understand- ing of society with its ever-present problems and, in fact, unless so approached, art itself tends to become remote. The process by which relationships between the arts and the times are unified and become meaningful to the “Appendix D, List 3. 70 student is referred to as integration and, although in the final analysis this must occur within the student, there are several guides which will promote and assist this process. THE COURSE SHOULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF _A'EOOD‘EUNDAEENTKE‘KTTTTUDE TONARD‘LRE‘WORED5 One of the main concerns of present-day education is the develOpment of rational potential. Although much re- search needs to be done in this area to determine how this can be done, it is known that "nothing succeeds like suc- cess" and that a student should grapple with problems at his current level Of develOpment. The results that are being sought today are closely akin to those sought by Dewey when he expressed a concern for the develOpment of a good fundamental attitude toward the world which he ex- plained is a concern for what pp and what ip_pp pg. Although the develOpment of a good fundamental atti- ‘tude toward the world is not unique to the field of music and art, it is important enough to the student's welfare 1to'be of primary concern in any course of study in the general education program. 5Appendix D, List A. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS T0 PART I SUMMARY Q: FINDINGS Contents of Part I indicate that music and art should be major concerns in the general education of high school students. It was revealed that the great preponderance of courses now being offered in the fine arts at the senior high school level are for the producer but that there is an increasing concern among educators that ample consideration be given to the consumer through organized courses. It was determined that major concerns of a course of study for the consumer in the area of music and the visual arts should be the develOpment of (l) appreciation and discrimination of .music and art, (2) an understanding of our cultural herit- .age, and (3) a good fundamental attitude toward the world. {These findings serve to determine the basic character of the course of study and are also instrumental in establish- ing its scape and design. The scope describes the general Jriinge and boundaries of the course of study; the design con- sists of statements relative to materials and actual organi- ‘5Eition of the contents. Appendix E contains an outline of a 1“"SVpical section of the course of study which is within the 1‘l‘éunework of the scape and design. - 71 I. u v. A. .0 "1 day 72 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 9: Egg COURSE QE.§IE2X In the proposed correlated music and visual arts course of study for the general education program of the senior high school, music and art from various periods are to be studied side by side in order that pupils may have an understanding of how cultural events affect these arts and are reflected in them. It is intended that a major portion of the course be spent listening to music, viewing art slides, and discussing music and art and their relation to society. Although the course is not intended primarily as a singing or drawing class, the activities of art must, whenever possible, be a part of classroom procedure. -_S____COPE 9E gig §_Q__U_13_§_E_ OE ST___I_J___DY The course of study deals with music and art in their cultural settings. Correlation could have been made with other school subjects, but since the course is intended to fill gaps in the music and visual arts areas of general education, and in order for these areas to receive suf- ;ficient depth, it was considered advisable to omit certain 13ther subjects, such as literature, although their inclusion could be justified on the basis of contributing to a broader Perspective. Only occasional reference is made to literature 35411 the chronology sections or within the units to aid in the <=€>rrelation of high school literature courses with this ‘=<>urse. Since it is generally agreed that our cultural herit- ‘Se is geographically contained within the Western World, 73 and that it dates back to the ancient Greek civilization, the course of study uses these as its boundaries. Scope of Music, Art, and Cultural Setting. The fol- lowing list of statements describing the sc0pe of music, arfl:, and the cultural setting is in keeping with the philo- sophical basis established in the preceding chapters. 1. Develop appreciation and discriminative ability. 2. Study cultural influences on music and art. 3. DevelOp a more meaningful understanding of music, art and our cultural heritage through a corre- lated approach. A. Gain a better understanding of contemporary music, art and problems through a study of the past. 5. Relate music and art of the period to that of other periods and especially to that of the twentieth century. 6. Foster the development of the ability and desire to think through the study of music and art. 7. In art, place primary emphasis on painting, secondary emphasis on architecture and sculpture, and omit the so-called "minor arts." 8. Place stress on such terms and concepts as homo- phonic, recitative, modal, chiaroscuro, poly- chromatic, and balance which will be of value to the consumer, rather than on those which have more meaning to the producer. 7h 9. Study composers' and artists' lives insofar as they contribute to a better understanding of the music, the art, and the times. 10. Singing representative music is essential, but should be limited to that music which is appro- priate to the capabilities of a class in a general education program. 11. Field trips to hear musical performances and to see paintings, sculpture, and examples of art are encouraged. 12. Include those social, economic, scientific, po- litical, and intellectual trends and develOpments which will further an understanding of the arts and the spirit of the age. 13. Relate facets of each period being studied to other periods and, especially, to the twentieth century. lh. Observe the place of music and art in society. W m: as; 9911.11.32 0_F sum. The course of study is intended to be in the general .ducation program with no prerequisites and with full aca- demic credit. The class should meet daily for an entire sehlool year and would probably be most effective if taken a’i'nllitaneously with World History in the junior orsenior V‘3E1155 music and art to be studied should be selected on the bafiis of its intrinsic worth as determined by the connoisseur l“: 0? 75 and by its reputation throughout the ages. A further con- sideration in the selection is how much it will contribute to the understanding of an age or of a particular style of music or art. The final guide is suitability of the music and art for consumers at the senior high school level. Although pictures are included for purposes of study throughout the text, it is essential that colored slides of each picture be shown in class, also. If appreciation is 150 be develOped, the student must view either the original 'Ork of art or one that very closely resembles it. Accu- rate slide reproductions come much closer to duplication of the original than do the small black and white reproductions in the text. It is also assumed that additional slides and Phonograph records other than those described in the text will be wisely and widely used. A word of caution, is, Care must be exercised to obtain slides however, given. Audio-visual equipment "it-h accurate color reproduction. must also be of fine quality. Reference books in the fields of music and art are, of course, essential for a course of thifi nature for the purpose of browsing as well as for reference 0 The course of study is develOped in chronological Ora-6r and is divided into units in which a certain degree of 81-"3‘:l_:l.stic unity in music and art is present. As in any m)“Jt‘se where time zones are used, it is with hesitancy that linfis of division are drawn because there is always stylistic oVerapping which creates problems for the author, the 76 teacher, and the student. However, it is believed bene- ficial to do so for the sake of the overall teaching and learning process and to facilitate correlation with other a3pects of the general education program, especially with history. Units are divided, as necessary, into chapters to isolate main societal and stylistic mainstreams within the These chapters are flanked by shorter chapters PeriOde Each "Introduction" called "Introduction" and "Summary." chapter serves to introduce a period, point up the main “Pirit of the period, and relate it to the preceding and a(Dinetimes other especially pertinent periods; each "Summary" chapter assists in the correlating process, and relates the Peri ed to preceding periods in addition to summarizing the Period. Much of the correlation and integration, however, 13 to be accomplished through tests or questions at the end °f each chapter. Several groups of fill-in blank or multi- plQ—choice questions, called "Quick Checks," are spaced throughout each chapter to highlight main facts. Answers, gi'en in the left column, are to be covered by the student and checked immediately as questions are answered mentally. It is emphasised that, for the most part, the nature of the Qui ‘21: Check questions differs from that of the Exercises for Better Understanding at the end of each chapter. As the hang implies, Quick Check questions are designed solely as an aid in the acquisition of facts which are needed to make 77 judgments. The Exercises for Better Understanding emphasize thought and the making of judgments. A table of contents for the prOposed course of study is included in Appendix F to indicate the division into units and the suggested amount of time within the school year allotted to each unit. INTRODUCTION TO PART II The Baroque period has been chosen as the representa- tive unit for this course of study. There are several reasons for this. The writer, for an experimental course at. the high school level, had prepared, in outline form, a course of study covering the period from the ancient Greeks “P to nineteenth century Romanticism and had the Opportunity or teaching the course up to the Baroque period. In the Preparation of the outlined course of study and in the teGlcehing of the early units, indications seemed to point ‘0 the Baroque period as being a key, or pivotal, period 1'1 la course of study of this type. Further attention and 9V6): apprehension concerning this particular period was l’:"~"Ought about through the study of various college texts in the area of the humanities in which literature, philoso- ph’, history, art, and music are presented. In these texts it Was observed that many authors apparently experienced difficulties with the Baroque period in a related arts ap- proa ch. There is an overall tendency to neglect or omit Song of the greatest of the Baroque music. This posed a apevaial problem because music is of primary importance in this prOposed course of study. It was believed that if a Ba“t-lefactory solution to the Baroque period, with its mul- tiplicity of styles and relatively long time span, could be 78 O. I“; ' v a. 79 worked out in detail, that a basic approach would be ar- rived at which could also apply to the remaining units. Another reason for selecting the Baroque period was that both music and art, for study purposes at the high school level, would receive approximately equal emphasis and study time. There is an overall balance of great music and great art in this period-«secular as well as sacred. Had the Classical period, for instance, been selected, the time devoted to the great music of Haydn, Mozart, and early Beethoven would greatly exceed that needed for the presen- tation and study of classical art; in a unit such as the 011. on the ancient Greeks, the opposite would be true with the emphasis being given to the visual arts. It should be Pointed out, however, that over the Span of the full school Year a healthy balance-~as in the Baroque period--would 93:1 at. The next five chapters of this dissertation form the representative unit of the course of study. They are il- l“-S‘tur-ative of an approach which, it is hoped, will hold real p r°mise for future education in the arts at the senior high a"211001 level. While these five chapters represent only one unit out of eight in the entire course, eventual completion or the other seven units-«most of which are considerably 311° I‘ter-u-is contemplated . Appendix G contains lists of reference books, musical recordings, slides, and films which may be used by the stu- d‘n‘ts and/or teacher in the study of the Baroque unit. PhRT II REPRESENTATIVE UNIT OF THE COURSE OF STUDY Unit IV THE BAPQQUE Chapter VII. Introduction to the Baroque VIII. Counter Reformation Baroque II. Aristocratic Baroque X. Protestant Bourgeois Baroque II. Summary of the Baroque chapter- 7 INTPQDUCTION TO THE B C A 5.9.9.4. O Q . U E I ‘m’ ' "- ‘ahv' 83 PLATE I THE TRIUMPH OF ST. IGNATIUS, fresco on the ceiling of the church of S. Ignazio, Rome. The overall feeling of Baroque churches was that of dramatic and glorious Splendor in con- trast to a mood of hushed devotion in churches of earlier ages. 85 "You are all brothers, and even if equality is not present every hour of your life, you will find her at least from the moment you open the doors of this church and enter the sanctuary where all these riches are offered to you, the poor- est of men, and you may find treas- ures and pageants of art which before were reserved for the Princes of the Earth."1 ORIGIN 9!: THE TERM Baroque,2 as a style, develOped first in architec- ture. Many late sixteenth and seventeenth century churches in Central and Southern EurOpe were overladen with ornament. Columns were twisted and their tops wreathed with garlands; ceilings and wall space were filled with decorative mater- ial and.altars were decorated with gold and silver. The overall effect was that of heavy, yet dazzling and grandiose splendor’(PLATE I). These churches were especially appreci- Iated by the peasant pOpulation for their dramatic, expres- sive interiors.3 The decorative effects were welcomed with enthusiasm because they brought some ray of light into the darkness surrounding the peasants at that time-~darkness caused by incessant religious wars and plagues. . 1Marcel Reymond, De Michel-Ange 3 Tiepolo (Paris, 1912), p. 1A9, quoted in ictor L. api , hiagggnof Gran: dour, trans. from the French by A. Ross‘WiIf .. Grove Press, Inc., 1960), p. 72. 2Baroque (ba-rok’) 3Tapie’, p. 73. 86 The same degree of enthusiasm toward this artistic style was not felt by art scholars of a later age. They pointed to some of the extreme and grotesque examples of the architecture of the period (Fig. 1) and judged the whole period by its extremes. To them, the style seemed ir- regular, pompous, and vulgar compared to the classic sim- plicity of Renaissance archi- tecture which had preceded it. Consequently they labeled it "baroque.”h The term is possi- bly derived from the Portuguese term "barroco," meaning a pearl of irregular shape, or from the Greek "bares," heavy.5 Both ideas--irregularity and heavi- Fig. l. A doorway of a Baroque building in Rome ness-~seem to apply to some of illustrates the grotesque features of the Baroque the most elaborately designed style. Does this remind you of the gargoyles on churches of this period. Gothic churches? “The origin of the word "baroque" as an art term is similar to that of the word "gothic." It may be recalled that cathedrals of the late Middle Ages were referred to as barbaric, vulgar, and unrefined by men of the Renaissance and that these characteristics reminded them of the Goths, a barbaric and uncivilized tribe, who overran Rome earlier in the Middle Ages; hence the term Gothic. SSheldon Cheney, A New World Histo of Art (N. Y.: Viking Press, 1956), pp. 505-05. 87 The term "baroque" was first used in a derogatory sense. Now it is the accepted name, not only for a stylg in art and music, but also for an art epoch. The time which encompasses the Baroque Age covers approximately two hundred years beginning near the middle of the sixteenth century and ending near the middle of the eighteenth. It should be stated, however, that the Baroque Age contained a variety of styles, some of which are contrary to that style which gave the period its name. Quick Check6 1. Baroque, as a st 1e, developed first in (a) paintin , (b) architecture, (c) b sculpture, Id) music. 2. Decorative material in churches was (a) heavy and grandiose, (b) light and grace- a ful. 3. The term "baroque" was first used by (a) peasants who enjoyed the expressive inter- iors, (b) art scholars of a later age who thought the style was vulgar, pompous, and -b ' irregular. . A. The Baroque period contained (a) one, (b) b several art styles. In earlier chapters we saw how the classic objec- tivity of the Parthenon reflected the Greek approach to life, 6Several groups of multiple-choice or fill-in blank questions called ”Quick Checks" are spaced throughout each chapter to highlight main facts. Answers, given in the left column, are to be covered and checked immediately as ques- tions are answered mentally. As the name implies, Quick Check questions are designed solely as a study aid in the acquisition of facts. '- r;t;, 1... .,a . file/(at... . . 88 how the massive Colosseum reflected the Roman love of public events and sports, and how paintings of the Middle Ages re- flected the Church's desire that its members, most of whom could neither read nor write, know the history and powers of the Church through the pictured lives of its saints.7 This brief recollection puts focus on the relation- ship of art to its environment. It helps one to realize that art reflects or, one might say, "mirrors” the culture in and for which it was created. With this in mind, it should be worthwhile to speculate on the type of society in which this new art style called Baroque emerged. BAROQUE--_A_N AGE 9;: TRANSITION _A_Ij_D_ w People of the Baroque Age were living in a time of transition. It was a time that might well be described as a part of the gradual evolution from the feudal order of the Middle Ages to the capitalistic system of the nine- teenth and twentieth centuries; from an age of church- controlled thought to one of greater individual belief and expression; from an age when wealth was controlled by the church to one in which the state and middle class were in- dependently prosperous. In the course of this evolution, the whole of man's thinking and activities underwent a transformation. (This transformation, which ultimately came to its fruition in the great political and industrial 7Referring to the unwritten preceding chapters deal- ing with the Greeks, Romans, etc. of the proposed course of Stady e 89 revolutions of the nineteenth century, was begun in the Renaissance. The new learnings and theories of the Renais- sance were put into action in the Baroque Age in the form of religious, economic, and scientific revolutions. In fact, the Renaissance is often referred to as an age of theory; and the Baroque, an age of action. Quick Check 1. The Baroque was a period of transition Middle _Ages from feudalism of the a e to capitalistic the (economic system 0 the 1 th system and 55th centuries. 2. The Renaissance is often called an age b of (a) action (b) theory. 3. The Baroque is often called an age of a (a) action (b) theory. A. ‘Uhich one of the following revolutions did not take place during the Baroque? economic b. industrial c. religious b d. scientific The spirit of this Baroque age of action and revo- lutions is revealed in its art. A comparison of Baroque art with that of the preceding age, the Renaissance, serves to highlight the contrast between the two ages. Examine the paintings of St. George and the Dragon (Figs. 2 and 3). One of them belongs to the Baroque and the other, to the Renaissance. The subject is the same, yet they differ greatly. ‘Which one displays more action, vigor, and ten- sion? On the basis of your analysis, you should be able to tell which painting belongs to the Renaissance and ‘ ..‘a as. ‘1'! 90 which one to the Baroque. Turn to page 108 and check your answer. Fig. 2 V Fig. 3 As the art of the period has indicated, this age of transition was one of tension and activity. It was marked by some of the longest wars, most brutal killings and bloodiest massacres that mankind has experienced. Con- flicts, mainly the result of greed for money and of religious beliefs, were such that no one could escape from them. They invaded all aspects of life. Religious Revolution. The roots of the religious conflicts went back to the Protestant Reformation beginning 91 in 1517. Coming upon the heels of the Protestant uprisings was the Catholic Counter Reformation. It was eSpecially active in Spain and Italy for a hundred-year period between 1550 and 1650. The religious conflicts of the early Baroque Age culminated in the Thirty Years"War (1618-16A8), which turned large tracts of Central EurOpe into desert-like con- ditions.8 The end of the Thirty Years' war saw Europe divided on religious lines which have remained essentially unchanged to the present time.9 Catholicism maintained its strength in Central and Southern EurOpe. Protestantism continued to grow and also to divide, with Lutheranism pre- dominating in Germany and the Scandinavian countries, the Dutch Reformed Church stemming from Calvinism being the main but not the state church in Holland, and the Anglican becoming established as the state church in England. Quick Check t§pgig _ l. The Counter Reformation was especially Italy active in and . (countries) I52.;._ 2. It was especially active for a 100 year 1650 period between and . (dates) 8 An indication of the severity of the Thirty Years' War is the fact that it reduced the population of Germany- from seventeen million to less than four million and wiped that country off the political map of EurOpe for a full century. See F. A. Ridley, The Jesuits (London: Secker and Warburg, 1938), p. 268. - 9Ridley, p. 268. 92 3. The religious conflicts of the early Thirty Baroque culminated in the Years' war. Catholicism A. By 16A8, (Catholicism) (Protestantism) ‘ was predominant in southern EurOpe; Protestantism (Catholicism) (Protestantism) was pre- dominant in northern EurOpe. 5. Match each of the following countries with its main religion. Some numbers will have to be used more than once. a. Scandinavian (1) Catholic a-2 countries (2) Lutheran b-l b. France (3) Calvinistic c-h c. England (A) Anglican d-l d. Spain e-2 e. Germany f-3 f. Holland g-l g. Italy Economic Revolution. Sixteenth and seventeenth century EurOpe was the meeting place of two torrents of wealth: the precious metals of America shipped across the Atlantic and the spices of the East brought home by the Portuguese.10 This sudden influx of wealth brought about the rise of an urban middle class in Northern EurOpe, es- pecially in Holland and, to a lesser degree, in England. In fact, it has been estimated that by the middle of the seventeenth century, perhaps nearly half of Holland was urbanized.ll wealthy merchants filled their homes with simple, realistic paintings which they could understand and enjoy-- landscapes and scenes of all aspects of everyday life, as lolbid., p. 23. llTapiJ, p. 71. Fig. A. The beauty of the countryside was captured in many Dutch paintings in the seventeenth century. Ruisdael: Wheatfields. Figs 50 Minor daily household activities be- came the central theme of many Dutch painters. Vermeer: Maid- servant Pourin MIlE. 9A Fig. 6. guilds 0 Dutch artists were in great demand to paint por- ‘ traits, not only of individuals, but also of various merchant Rembrandt: Syndics of the Cloth Guild. well as portraits which would immortalize themselves (Figs. A, 5, and 6). These paintings were often looked upon as investments which would rise in value with the passage of timee metals spices 1. Quick Check Sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe had two great sources of wealth: a. (spices) (metals) from the Americas, and b. (spices) (metals) from the East. middle The influx of wealth brought about the rise of a(n) (middle) (aristocratic) class in Holland. oa‘m Which items are correct in the following sentence? Wealthy Dutch merchants bought paintings of: a. landscapes b. themselves (portraits) c. scenes of everyday life 95 Scientific Revolution. Up to the sixteenth century, men of science had been subservient to the beliefs of the Church, had not been allowed to overstep the limits set by faith, and for that reason had been able to make little progress. In the course of the Renaissance, they began to develOp daring and bold theories concerning the universe, but these theories were not accepted until the Baroque Age. You remember, for example, that Capernicus was excommuni- cated from the Church for his theory concerning the rotation of the earth and planets around the sun. In the late six- teenth century, however, not only did scientists dare to question certain long-held ideas concerning the universe but their theories were proven and became accepted facts. Merchants of the seventeenth century were under- standably interested in the resulting discoveries. Their interest was no idle curiosity but an urgent practical ne- cessity in an age when the small wooden sailing ships which carried the spices of India and the wealth of America were never free from.the menace of shipwreck and loss of life. It has been calculated that barely a fourth of the Portu- guese vessels engaged in the eastern traffic survived the long journey through dangerous seas.11 Consequently, navi- gation and the sciences relating to it were of great impor- tance. Galileo (156A-16A2) invented the telescOpe; Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) postulated the great laws of planetary llRidley, p. 31. 96 motion, and Sir Isaac Newton (l6A2-l727) discovered the laws of gravitation. These new viewpoints subordinated man to the cosmos; man became a very tiny part of the whole scheme of nature. This minimizing of the importance of man was reflected in Baroque painting in two ways. First, there was a trend toward less emphasis on human figures compared to paintings in the Renaissance in which the human figure had been monu- mentalized and the landscape of very minor importance (Figs. 7 and 8).12 Can you remember any paintings from the Renais- sance in which a human figure was not the center of attention? Fig. 7. Notice how inconspicuous the human figures are in this painting. Also notice what a deep sense of space the artist has achieved. Rubens: Landscape with Castle Steen. 12Bernard S. Myers Art and Civilization (N. Y.: McGraw Book 00., Inc., 1957 , p. . 97 Secondly, Baroque paintings suggested the infinity of Space more than had previous art. Diagonal perspective effects were used to guide the eye of the beholder to the edge of the canvas and out into the infinity of space (Figs. 7 and 10). : 3.15.7-7 ”rm. . rim R“' Fig. 8. Da Vinci: The Virgin, Child, and St. Anne. navigation 1. 98 Quick Check Great forward strides were made in the sciences related to (industry) (navigatio ). smaller 2. With the knowledge gained from the dis- coveries of scientists like Galileo, man seemed to be a (smaller) (larger) part of the cosmos than e ha in previous ages. 102'- 301'. 3. Compared to Renaissance art, Baroque paint- ing had less‘) (more)e basis on human figures an Jess more) emphasis on land- scape e diagonals A. In many Baroque paintings, the eye of the beholder is directed toward the edge of the canvas and into the infinity of s ace through the use of circles s uares trian les dia onals in the design. FORERUNNERS‘QE BAROQUE ART Michelangelo. Although Michelangelo was, in many respects, a man of the Renaissance, he was one of those great men, universal giants in spirit, who rise above the times and foreshadow what is to come. Characteristics of his work such as exaggerated broadness of human figures, unrest, tension, and agitation, especially evident in his last works such as the Last Judgpent mural in the Sistine Chapel (Fig. 9) pointed the way to the Baroque style. 99 Figs 90 In his Last Judgment, Miche ange 0 com- pletely discards the classic ob- jectivity of the Renaissance and shows Baroque characteristics of tension and activity. Is form or expres- sion more im- portant in this picture? Tintoretto.1k Venice was an important center for the early develOpment of the Baroque style in art and music. Sixteenth century artists and musicians from all of Eur0pe went there for inspiration and training. Two conditions favored Venice as a center of artistic production. Being a seaport, she reaped some of the gains from the increased amount of foreign trade and became financially able to sup- port art. Secondly, being relatively isolated from the 1[*Tintoretto (tIn t3 ret’t3) 100 Italian mainland, Venice was more independent and able to ignore the restrictions placed on art and music by the Council of Trent and papal forces centered in Rome.15 The presence of these conditions gave the artists and musicians freedom to develOp new styles that were representative of the Baroque spirit of action. Venetian art reached its pinnacle in the works of Tintoretto (1518-159A) who, in stressing expression over form, became the ”father" of the Baroque style. His Lgpp Supper with its supernatural light, diagonal lines, and deliberately unbalanced design, illustrates the drama and intensity of much Baroque painting (Fig. 10). Its charged atmosphere may be best understood when compared to Leonardo da Vinci's version of the same subject. Quick Check 1. Characteristics of Michelan elo's work ‘prpagngsp _ such as exaggerated len th (broadnesil .ERER§P_..._ of human figures, (repose (unrest), an tension (tension) (relaxation , pointed the way to t e Baroque sty.e. exprpspipn_ 2. Tintoretto in stressing form) ex res- form. sion over (form) (express on) scene t e "father 0 t e Baroque style. 15William Fleming, Arts and Ideas (N. Y.: Henry Holt and Co., 1955), p. A21. Fig. 10. How.many diagonals can you see in this painting? Tintoretto: Last Supper. MUSIC IN THE BAROQUE Tension and activity of the time found their way into music as well as into art. One of the results was a greater use of contrast and extremes. The tools of the artist for accomplishing these contrasts were line, color, and form; the tools of the musician were dynamics, tempos, rhythms, and performing groups. Fast tempos became faster, slow tempos slower; loud music became louder, soft music softer. Small melodic intervals were contrasted with large leaps; multiple choirs, orchestras, and organs were used; technical difficulties for singers and instrumentalists alike were in- creased considerably. These extremes of the Baroque were 102 actually somewhat mild compared to those found in the nine- teenth and twentieth centuries, but yet they were considerably greater than those of the Renaissance. Fig. 11. Some of the instruments used in the Baroque Age. Notice the resemblance between these instruments and those of the modern orchestra. By comparing a "Sanctus" composed by Palestrina in the Renaissance to another composed by Bach in the Baroque period, one may easily grasp essential differences between musical styles of the Renaissance and the Baroque. Both selections have the same text, but such a contrast in style! The grandiose conception of the Baroque is evident in the latter with its festival type of orchestra employing three trumpets, three oboes, tympani, and strings, along 103 with a chorus divided into as many as six and eight parts. Whereas the Sanctus of the Renaissance with its three sec- tions of text is completed in approximately two peaceful minutes, the gigantic work of the Baroque takes nine minutes of time, imposes great demands on the energy and skill of' the performers, and almost overwhelms the listener with its massiveness.16 Whereas Baroque painting increased in variety and intensity of pplpp, Baroque music increased in variety and intensity of ppppg. Choirs were combined with organ and even orchestras. The orchestra itself develOped into a rich and colorful ensemble of sound. The family of viols of the sixteenth century was transformed into the modern violin, viola, cello, and bass.17 Colorful effects produced by these instruments were obtained by plucking the strings (pizzicato),18 by rapid fluttering movements of the bow on the string (tremolo), and by playing two or more notes at once (double-stepping). woodwinds, brasses, and, for festi- val occasions, tympani, completed the orchestra. On a small scale, it closely resembled the modern symphony orchestra of today (Fig. 11). 16GUIDE TO LISTENING I on pages 110-111 should be used in listening to these selections. 17Even with modern technology, the world has not pro- duced violins which can surpass those made by seventeenth and eighteenth century Italian masters of the craft like Stradivari, Guarnere, and Amati. Some of these treasured instruments are valued as high as $100,000. 18pizzicato (pit st ki’tO) lOA Composers, as well as artists, sprang up all over Europe. Much of their training consisted of cOpying works of earlier masters. Also, it was a commonly accepted prac- tice to take other composers' ideas or themes, slightly alter them, and incorporate the borrowed themes in their own compositions. Capyright laws were nonexistent in those days! ‘ Each specific occasion, from weekly church services, funerals, and weddings to public dedications and court cele- brations, called for new music, resulting in an incredible number of musical compositions. The prolificness of the Baroque composers is almost unbelievable. It would take a person several years merely to copy the total output of some of these men. Music printing and publishing gradually developed into an industry, permitting a wider distribution of music and eventually eliminating the need for composing new music for each special occasion. Music patrons and employers were found mostly in the nobility and in the church, but the beginnings of public concerts in the eighteenth century provided a limited source of remuneration from the rising middle class in Northern EurOpe and England. By and large, however, the Church was still the only place music was regularly accessible to the citizens. 105 Beginning in 1600 with the birth of Opera, vocal music took on a new expressive quality as composers made their melodies fit the natural Speech rhythms of words. Instrumental music also became more expressive as demands were made upon the performers to portray ideas, emotions, and the descriptive sounds of such things as battles, storms, and birds.19 Such attempts marked the somewhat crude beginnings of what is called instrumental program music.20 For instance, in the aria from Handel's The Messiah, "Thou Shalt Break Then," the strings of the orchestra produce sharp and precise accents giving the ef- fect of a sudden "breaking" of an object. Also fromigpg Messiah, in the famous aria, "Why Do the Nations So Furi- ously Rage Together?," the effect of intense excitement and struggle is produced in the instrumental accompaniment. Quick Check 1. The extremes found in Baroque art and music are greater than those found during ‘Repaispapcg the (period of time) but less than those pipepegnph_ of the and cen- twentieth turies. 19Refer to GUIDE TO LISTENING II on page 115 for an example of this type of music. 20A type of vocal program.music existed in the late Renaissance. Selections performed by groups of singers por- trayed such things as the sounds of war, and the sweet song of birds with their twittering and trilling. That type of music was intended for hjovial entertainment and was not what one would describe as higp art although it was cod and de- lightful art. 1e of this is Le Chant des O seaux (The Song of the AnBirds) by Clement Jannequin. This seIection is included on the record list in Appendix G. 106 2. The Baroque orchestra (differed reatl 5 rn closely from) (closely resembled the mo e resembled symphony orchestra of today. 3. Music patrons and employers were found popilipy_ mostly in the (source of_patronage) and church in the . 1600 A. (year) marks the birth of opera. 5. Demands made upon performers to portray ideas, emotions, and the descriptive sounds of such things as battles, storms, and birds marked the beginnings of in- program strumental (type) music. CONCLUSION The Baroque Age was one of "evolution" and "revolu- tion." It was part of the gradual evolution from the church-controlled feudal society of the Middle Ages to that of a capitalistic society of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in which there is more widespread individual wealth, expression of individual beliefs, and separation of church and state. The transformation of man's thoughts and activities that accompanied this evolution was expressed through economic, scientific, and religious revolutions. Conditions were ripe for the appearance of new styles in music and art. Four historical mainstreams influenced the direction they would take. The first of these was the Catholic Counter Reformatpon movement which in its desire to reform church practices and to check the spread of Protestantism, attempted to purify music and art in the church and also to make worship more inviting through at- tractive art. Secondly, the Protestant Reformation movement 107 had both negative and positive effects on music and art with Lutheranism emphasizing music, and with Calvinism rejecting both music and art in churches but not in the home. The third mainstream, closely allied to the Protestant movement, was the pise of the middle clgpp in Northern EurOpe. This provided a stimulus for the develOpment of a new art style for the homes of a new class of patrons. Lastly, the growth of monarchies with their accompanying aristocracy provided another type of patron for the artist and the musician. Music and art, as they were affected by each of these main- streams, are the concern of the next three chapters. EXERCISES FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING Questions for Study 1. ‘What is the time span of the Baroque period? What was happening in America during this time? 2. ‘What were four important historical mainstreams of the Baroque Age? 3. How did Michelangelo's Last Judgpent foreshadow the Baroque style? A. Find and list four Renaissance paintings which picture trees. Do the same for the Baroque period. Make a comparison. 5. ‘Which endings are correct for the following sentence? The Baroque was an age of: a. learning and theory b. action c. the beginnings of the modern orchestra d. religious, scientific, and economic revolutions e. the Industrial Revolution f. the rise of the middle class in southern Europe g. the madrigal h. the Counter Reformation in Spain and Italy 1. the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation 108 Increasing Your Vocabulary The numbers in parentheses refer to pages on which the words and terms are used. garlands (85) pinnacle (lOO) grandiose (85) pizzicato (103) derogato (87) tremolo (103) epoch (87 double-stOpping (103) capitalistic (88) prolificness (10A) Calvinism (91) remuneration (10A) Anglicanism (91) aria (105) torrents (92) tranSposed (110) urbanized (92) ornamental treatment subservient (95) (in music) (112) cosmos (96) homophonic (112) monumentalized (96) double choir (112) infinity (97) metrical (113) papal (100) Questions for Class Discussion 1. What are some similarities between historical events of the Baroque period and those of today? 2. Discuss what it would be like in the twentieth century if there were no printing of music and no copyright laws. 'What would be the effect on composers' lives? on music in the school? in the church? in the home? Answer pp Question pp Page 82: If you said figure 2 shows more action, vigor, and tension, you have the right idea. Figure 3 was painted by the Renaissance artist, Raphael, figure 2 by Tintoretto whom you will study later in this chapter. If you guessed wrong, you had better examine the pictures again. Compare the stances of the two St. Georges and the two ladies. Then notice the contrast between the peaceful, well-ordered landscape in Raphael's painting and Tintoretto's stormy background. 109 Did the presence of the lady in each picture arouse your curiosity? According to a pOpular medieval legend, the dragon waszoisoning the inhabitants of a certain town whenever he drew near and breathed on them. To appease it, the townspeople gave a daily offering of two sheep. ‘When their flocks began to fail, they arranged, in desperation, to change the offering to one sheep and a child to be chosen by lot. Nearly all the children had been thus sacrificed when the lot fell upon the king's daughter. Now it just so happened that as the princess was awaiting her fate outside town, St. George, the wandering warrior saint, passed by and, seeing her cry, stopped to offer his help. She tearfully urged him to flee lest he, too, be slain by the dragon. Instead, he wounded the beast--this is the scene of the paintings--and bade the princess lead the dragon, which was now in a trance-like state, to town. St. George then promised the frightened townSpeOple he would slay the dragon if they would all be- lieve in Christ and be baptized. The grateful king offered St. George a great reward, which was refused with the command that it be given to the poor. St. George told the peeple to take care of the church, honor the priests, diligently attend the divine worship, and be ever mindful of the poor.21 21Edwin S. Hartland, Legend of Perseus (London: David Nutt, 1896) III, 38-AO. llO GUIDE TO LISTENING I (from page 103) COMPARISON OF A SANCTUS OF THE BAROQUE WITH ONE OF THE RENAISSANCE Procedure. Read the descriptive comments as you listen to each selection, pacing your reading to coincide with the progress of the music. The length of each selec- tion is given as a guide. There should be a dual purpose in your listening: 1) to become acquainted with some of the overall differences in sound and style of music of the Renaissance and Baroque periods, and 2) to gain an understanding of the new termi- nology used in discussion of this music (homophonic, double choir, ornamental treatment, etc.). The selections should be repeated several times, if necessary, with teacher guidance and class discussion be- tween each playing, to enable you to satisfactorily achieve both the above purposes. It is recommended that the entire class, whenever possible, sing the thematic sections given in the guide. If written ranges are too high or too low for individuals, they may be transposed up or down an octave. "Sanctus" from.Mass Aeterna ChristifiMunera, by G. da Pales- trina (152A-159A) Duration: 1 min., 20 sec. Performers: A-part choir consisting of men and boys Style characterized by: l. smooth and gentle melodic line 2. free rhythm, absence of strong and regular accent 3. use of counterpoint A. no sudden or great amount of change in dynamic levels A. Sanctus: 20 sec. (Boly) - pp, (4 LIE'. n I ’l T . L L l " / flit 1" tit; \____/ I one - fus sane —~ - —— his ) B. Dominus Deus Sabaoth: 20 sec. (Lord God of Hosts) i 1 I seamen). Do -mi-—nus De-us C. D. l. 2. 3. 111 GUIDE I (cont.) Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria: 20 sec. (Heaven and earth are full of Thy glory) ] 1 l ‘ 1 i . I I ' If! I; Zircl, Pie—misunicoe-Iirc't ier-m 3‘0 -- r-i e- a Hosanna in excelsis: 20 sec. ( cry to God in the highest) Ho-SOh-na in ex- cel “' -- -- "" SIS. Questions for Thougpt and Discussion Which of the following adjectives would you use to describe this music? jubilant reflective meditative exuberant joyful fast loud slow soft peaceful worshipful WOuld you call this religious music? Do you think this music would be apprOpriate in a church service today? 112 GUIDE I (cont.) "Sanctus" from mass in B minor, J. S. Bach (1685-1750) Duration: 9 minutes Performers: orchestra and six-part choir concluding with double choir (eight parts) in the final section Background: There were some problems between J. S. Bach and his employers when he worked for the church in Leipzig. The roots of these problems arose from the fact that Bach was not allowed enough freedom nor given enough authority to do what he thought should be done in connection with his work. Almost in desperation, he sent some of his compositions to the Elector of Saxony with the request that he be granted the title of Court Composer. If this position were granted, Bach believed that he would have added status in his dealings with the church officials. The position was finally granted to Bach but only after it was too late to be of any help in his personal problems. This "Sanctus" from the Mass in B minor was one of the principal selections Bach composed to send to the Elector. Style characterized by: 1. strong metrical rhythm 2. combination of homephonic and contrapuntal treatment of thematic.material 3. combination of leaps and ornamental ma- terial in melody Baroque music frequently contained ornamental treatment that reminds one of the decorative effects found in Baroque churches (re-examine Plate 1). In the Opening theme Of Bach' "Sanctus" the essential tones are: - Sane-his, son - his, sonc — has Example A. Theme without ornamentation Sing the theme in this simplified form (Ex. A). Then sing Bach's version (Ex. B) with its ornamental notes. The ornamental notes are indicated in parentheses in this example to help distinguish them from the essential notes. 113 GUIDE I (cont.) fl ’/-’—\ A l l ( Sanc—+us, Sane — —- +us, Same __ —-—- +us, Example B. Theme with ornamentation A. Sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth: 3 min., 10 sec. (Holy Lord God of Hosts) \l__;______,// pm, i 1 +us, sanca .. Sane- +us, c-‘hus, SOHC —*us Do ml- nus De— us So- bo- o‘H’x, Sanc- rsi'u) 1. large leaps in bass part; ornamental upper parts stay on one syllable for many notes 2. rhythmical, metrical 3. grandiose effect obtained by voices in com- bination with strings, trumpets, chaos, and tympani A. Would you call this section homophonic or contrapuntal? *This melody is written an octave higher in the original score. B. C. 1. 2. 3. A. 11A GUIDE I (cont.) Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria ejus: 2 min., A0 sec. (Heaven and earth are full of Thy glory) . f P)e-ni Sund coe-‘i 3+ +er-ro )o —- \ --Il=::-nl:lr ‘ --I---I-l I---- A.- IIIFI-fl-=w'W-IIIIHI-fll , V \_/ ._ ru-o e —:)us 1. combination of leaps and ornamental material in melody 2. Is this section homophonic or contrapuntal? Hosanna in excelsis: 3 min. 10 sec. (Glory to God in the highest) Ho-—san-na, Ho—son—nq, 1. combination of leaps and ornamental material in melody 2. combination of homophonic and contrapuntal treatment of thematic material 3. interplay of chorus and orchestra as well as chorus against chorus Questions for Thought and Discussion Which of the following adjectives would you use to describe this music? loud jubilant worshipful soft meditative joyful fast reflective peaceful slow exuberant Would you call this religious music? DO you think this music would be appropriate in a church service today? What are some of the differences between the "Sanctus" of the Renaissance and this one of the Baroque? 115 GUIDE TO LISTENING II (from page 105) INSTRUMENTAL PROGRAM MUSIC Portions of The Seasonszz: Antonio Vivaldi (composed in 1726) Performers: string orchestra and solo violin Style characterized by: 2. 3. contrasts obtained through typical Baroque use Of loud and soft effects and through interplay be- tween the orchestgg and a solo violin violin virtuosity use Of programmatic effects The descriptive effects obtained by Vivaldi in The Seasopp are quite remarkable, especially in view of the fact that they are obtained without the use of brass, woodwinds, and per- cussion instruments. Vivaldi provided de— scriptive comments in the orchestra score to guide the interpretation. These comments appear below. See if you can match the com- ments with the music as you listen. A. "Spring" Concerto, first movement (timings provided below are approximate) 0-30" 35" 1'20" 1'50" 2530" Spring is come and festive birds salute it with happ songs. (the beginning of trilling bird calls) And the fountains murmur as gentle breezes blow (murmuring violins) Then the sky becomes overcast and thunder and lightning follow (repeated thirty-second notes) Calm weather restored, the birds sing anew (repeated eighth notes in solo violin) This completes the descriptive text for this movement. B. "Summer" Concerto, last movement Musical description Of a rural catastrOphe: All the shepherds' fears come to pass; the sky breaks Open with thunderbolts, and hail stones destroy the trees and grain. 22 The Seasons are a set of four instrumental concer- tos, each having three movements, the first movement of each being fast, the second, slow, and the last, fast. 23Vivaldi, in addition to being a priest and a com- poser, was also a talented violinist. This undoubtedly accounts for the virtuosity of the solo violin part. Chapter 3 COUNTER KEFORMAT I ON B '550 (575 [600 I615 1656 161§_ 1100 (71.5 I750 (Nee-“T a": 13mm} Lo \a L l «hr not“! 3.996..“ S ‘ 41:0,}? Philip :Spoin a-I' he' 1' at} pow P Ila eat Spa .sk Avmad by Erahnd ?6 Vi +0.40 Nf‘ _1 E G"! 4 (1 1C YVon“ ,Oujior 0‘ Don and}! i :—___—:l ‘ ‘an W 1? Niche) nSQ( . ‘ I Theta 1+6 T C" “Q” 0“ T :. + t Mr 9“ oar-a Y (glue. Be. in} \l' 4(ch A R O Q U E 5'00 00 1000 0500 ‘ 2°00 I 'V o c ‘5'. ’4 O '0 7“. Vic 117 PLATE II EL GRECO: ST. FRANCIS. Spanish artists of the Baroque were greatly influenced By the Counter Reformation with its mor- bidity and suffering. 118 COUNTER REFORMATION Prompted by the growth of Protestantism throughout Europe, Roman Catholics began to reform their church from within. Meetings on church organization and policy were held by church leaders periodically from l5h5 to 1563. This series of meetings, known as the Council of Trent, served to unite the leaders of the church and it exerted considerable influence on religious practices of the time. Also, as shall be seen later, it influenced artistic styles of the time. Recognizing that it was too late to stop the Protes- tant Reformation, the Church decided to try to check its further spread. Peeple who were unfaithful to the Catholic church were branded as heretics and severely punished through the Inquisition. The Prohibitory Index served to control the type of literature that was published and read, and secular aspects of music and art were abolished in the church. Positive action included the world-wide evangelis- tic efforts of the Jesuits, a band of devoted missionaries, and the encouragement of expressive, emotional art in churches to attract new and keep old members. 119 Quick Check 1. Catholic church leaders held a series of meetings in the middle of the sixteenth century which greatly influenced religious practices and artistic styles of the time. Council This series of meetings was known as the of Trent . 2. The was a type of censorship which controlled the type Prohibitory of literature which might be read by mem- Index bers of the Catholic church. 3. Positive action of the Counter Reformation expressive included the encouragement of an; _._ _._ in churches and the worldéwide mis- '3esuits sionary activities of the . k. Peeple who were unfaithful to the Catholic church were severely punished through the Inquisition . SPAIN Most Counter Reformation activity was carried on in Spain rather than in Italy.1 Although the headquarters of the Pape was in Rome, Italy was too weak to play an impor- tant part in the affairs of the Continent. The "golden age" of Italy--the High Renaissance--had been virtually doomed on All Saints Day of 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to a church door in‘Wittenberg. A second blow had come exactly ten years later when the Spanish troops of Charles V sacked Rome as part of their conquest of much of Italy.2 1Everard Upjohn, Paul S. Wingert, and Jane Gaston Mahler, Histor of‘WOrld Art, 2nd ed. (N. Y.: Oxford University Press, 1 , p. 370. 2James Lees-Milne, Baro ue in S sin and Portuggl (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd., l§55), p. 15. 120 The voyages of Columbus and the Conquistadors brought great areas of new territory under Spanish dominion as well as tremendous wealth from gold and silver mines of the Cen- tral and South Americas to the national treasury. By the late sixteenth century Spain controlled Austria, the Low Countries, most of Germany, many of the islands of the Mediterranean, large parts of Italy, and Portugal with its African and Asiatic possessions as well as its islands scattered over the seven seas. Philip II maintained, right- fully, that he ruled over an empire on which the sun never set.3 Spain's role in world politics reached its peak dur- ing the latter half of the sixteenth century. It became the prop of the Catholic Church and the real home of the Counter Reformation. During this time Spain also produced some of its greatest art and music. Quick Check 1. Most Counter Reformation activity was Spain carried on in (countgz). Italy 2. The home of the Pope was in (country). Protestant 3. Italy had been weakened by the (religious .Refogmgtiog_ movement) and by the conquests 0 Spain countryf. Counter A. Spain produced some of its greatest art Reformation and music during the (religious movement). 3w1111am Fleming, Arts and Ideas (N. Y.: Henry Holt and COe, 1955), Pe h63e 121 Inquisition. The period of the Counter Reformation was one of sadness and violence. In addition to the wars of Religion there were the various Inquisitions through which thousands were executed for heresy. Unfaithfulness to the Roman Catholic Church was considered an offense against the state as well as against the Church because the teachings of the Church were regarded as the founda- tions of law and order. Death by burning at the stake or beheading were typical and frequent penalties. The Spanish Inquisition was unusually severe because Spain had three main religious groups-~Roman Catholics, Jews, and Moslems. Many of the Jews and Moslems were killed. Others changed their belief or, more than likely, merely professed Christianity so their lives would be spared. Some fortunate Jews escaped to Holland where they were granted religious freedom. The violence, uncertainty, and instability of the time kept the idea of death constantly in many minds. Pepe Innocent IX kept before him an imaginary type of por- trait showing himself on his deathbed; Pope Alexander VII kept his coffin under the bed and drank out of a skull; Father Cajetal preferred to sleep with his head on a skull rather than a pillow. Death was considered full of terror and movement.“ Paintings frequently showed such signs of death as skulls “James Lees-Milne, Baroque in Italy (N. Y.: Mac- Millan Co., 1960), p. 79. 122 and skeletons. The portrayal of death in the Counter Refor- mation Baroque was in contrast to that of the Renaissance which had given a serenity and peace to death, a state not at all to be dreaded. Renaissance paintings of martyrs showed them in an attitude of apparent detachment from the proceedings and displaying few signs of suffering. Painters of the Counter Reformation, however, were interested in por- traying how martyrs met a mercilessly harsh end and wished to give their paintings on this subject a very realistic appearance. To accomplish this end, they frequented public executions and dissected corpses.5 Quick Check Chgigtians_. l. The three main religious groups of Spain Eegs_ __ _ _ were , , and Moslems . 2. Because Spain had three main religions, its was particularly Inquisition severe. 3. Thousands were severely punished for heresy through the Inquisition. A. In Renaissance aintin , death was usually ‘gegene_ portrayed as a (serene; (harsh) end; in harsh the Baroque, as a serene harsh) end. Spiritual Exercises 2;,phg Jesuits. The greatest positive action during the Counter Reformation was the work of the Jesuits. Founded by the Spaniard Ignatius Loyola in the early sixteenth century, the Jesuits had developed into a strong organization by the end of the century and were 51bid. 123 active in many parts of the world, including many areas of what is now the United States of America. Their Spiritual Exercises may be called the soul of the Counter Reformation.6 They were first develOped by Ignatius Loyola as he lived in isolation that he might be- come closer to the world of Christ. These exercises were a series of meditations taking approximately twenty-five days to complete. The meditations were on four subjects: sin and conscience, the earthly Kingdom of Christ, the Pas- sion of Jesus, and the Love of God with the glory of the risen Lord. Neither sight nor sound of worldly life were to disturb the meditations. One was supposed to be in absolute solitude.7 The aim of the exercises was to produce an intense and concentrated impression which could never be destroyed. The soul was to be alternately torn by terror and soothed by the vision of heavenly delights. The designed effect was to produce a type of hypnotic dream of twenty-five days which would have an everlasting effect on the one taking part.8 Much use was made of the "inner senses." The pupil was required to see, in his mind, the boundless flames of 6T. M. Lindsay, A Histo of the Reformation (N. Y.: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1523), p. 532. 71bid., p. sao. 81bid., p. 5L2. 12h hell and souls encased in burning bodies, to hgag the shrieks and howlings, to gmgll the sulphur and intolerable stench, to Eggtg the saltness of tears, and to $321 the heat of the flames. When thinking of the Nativity, he was to picture the actual figures of Joseph, Mary, and the Child, hear their everyday conversations and see them in their regu- lar work. When meditating on the scene in the Garden of Gethsemane, he must imagine a garden, large or small, see its enclosing walls, gaze until he could see Christ and the sleeping Apostles.9 In addition to emphasizing the inner senses, atten- tion was given in the Exercises to the physical conditions helpful to producing states of Spiritual ecstasy. The glare of day, the uncertainty of twilight, the darkness of night were all used for certain effects; some subjects were to be meditated on when standing upright and motionless; others while walking back and forth, when kneeling, or when Stretched prone on the floor; some while the body was weak from fasting; others soon after meals.10 Their importance lies in the fact that they were Practiced, not only by the Jesuits, but also by many other Christians of the time, including the composer and all the artists studied in this chapter. ‘ 9221.91... 1» sn- mmm. p. su- 125 Quick Check Loyola 1. The Jesuits were founded by . 2. The were. Spiritual a series of meditations designed to bring Exercises the participant closer to the world of Christ. 3. This series of meditations was practiced by: a. Jesuits b b. Jesuits and many other Christians PAINTING IN SPAIN Effects g§,thg Council 22.23333, 3 Painting. A fa- mous decree of the Council of Trent in 1563 prohibited all images which might inspire false doctrines and suggest im- purity and indeed anything unorthodox. If art was to be kept in line with the principles of Catholicism and the ' Counter Reformation, there had to be control exercised over its production. Art produced for church purposes was placed under the supervision of theologians, and, especially in the case of large-scale undertakings, the painters had to keep within the bounds prescribed by their spiritual ad- visers. The nude was totally forbidden in the representa- tion of any religious subject.11 Nothing is more typical Of the intolerant spirit of this epoch than the treatment suffered by Muchelangelo's Last Judggent on the rear well Of the Sistine Chapel. In 1559, certain figures appeared too naked for the sensibilities of the Vatican ecclesias- tics, and clothes were added by a minor artist who was known ¥ 11Lees-Milne, Baro us in Ital , p. 17. 126 ever after as ”the breeches maker."12 In 1566, another POpe also had what he considered offensive portions of the fresco removed. Later yet, Clement VIII desired to have the whole fresco destroyed but, fortunately for humanity, was hindered from carrying out his plan by a petition submitted by an Italian Academy.13 Until the eighteenth century the nude was banned from paintings in Spain by the Spanish Inquisition. Such repre- sentations were liable to the severest penalties. Religious personalities were usually painted in a state of grace or in prayer (PLATE II). King Philip would not even tolerate the inclusion of secular details in religious paintings. He sharply reprimanded one artist for depicting a cat-and-dog fight as a detail in a religious picture, and commanded that henceforth "neither cat, nor dog, nor any other in- decorous figure, but only saints moving to devotion" should be represented.l“ In this respect, the orders of the Coun- cil of Trent were indeed observed both in spirit and letter. —.__ 12Sheldon Cheney, A New‘WOrld History of Art (N. Y.: Viking Press, 1956), p. 3 . 13Arnold Hauser, The Social History of Art (N. Y.: Alfred A. Knapf, 1951), , . I‘Lees-Milne, Baroque in S sin and Port al, p. 28. 127 Quick Check 1. As a result of the Council of Trent, art produced for church purposes was placed theologians under the supervision of whose main concern was: a. to prohibit art which would suggest impurity or false beliefs. b. to discourage the use of art in churches. c. to encourage artists to use Michel- a angelo as a model. El Qgggg.l5 The painter to give fullest expression to the dogma of the Counter Reformation was El Greco (15A1- 161A). The few known facts of E1 Greco's life are signifi- cant. Born in Greece, Domenikos TheotokOpoulol moved to Italy where he probably inherited the name "El Greco" (the Greek). While there he had ample Opportunity to study the works of Michelangelo and observe the Venetian master, Tin- toretto. The last half of his life was Spent in Spain where his works were in constant demand. He let the spirit of his time pervade his work and made it express the real teachings of the Jesuits. His art was identified with a fervent desire for mystical union with God. Having participated in the Spiritual Exercises of the Jesuits, El Greco quite naturally absorbed their mystical approach to life and religion. In order to express the spirit of an incident, El Greco did violence to appearances. This is a fundamental principle of his work. Liberties were taken with the human shape. Whereas Michelangelo had broadened the body so as 15El Greco (31 gri’cfi) 128 to emphasize man's physical tragedy, El Greco elongated it in order to express Spiritual fervor (Figs. 12, 13). Not only were proportions of the body disregarded, but those of material objects were also. In his Agony in the Garden (Fig. 12), the mystical quality is heightened by deliberate distortion of color, forms, postures, and lighting.16 It reveals a greater con- cern for Spiritual expression and meaning than for literal representation. Contributing to the Baroque effect of dra- matic mood is the asymmetrical balance and use of various diagonals. Fig. 12. El Greco: Agony in the Garden. 16Philip C. Beam, The Lan ua e of Art (N. Y.: The Ronald Press Co., 1958), p. 172. 129 Like the mystics of his time, El Greco sought to break through the boundaries of the physical world. Notice the use of light in his Golgotha (Fig. 13). The light in this picture, as in many of his pictures, is a kind never seen on land or sea; it is an "otherworldly" light used entirely for its emotional effect. It darts about and flashes fitfully through the blotched and tragic sky. The exaggeration of light and its mood correspond to the exag- gerated body features of the crucified‘ Christ. Notice, also, the skulls at the foot of the cross displayed with characteristic Counter Reformation morbidity. Fig. 13. El Greco: Golgotha. 130 Quick Check 1. The greatest painter of the Counter Refor- El Greco mation in Spain was . Grgege_ 2. El Greco was born in (country), studied in Itgly _ (country), and settled in (country). S ain ‘ SpirItuaI'" 3. E1 Greco participated in the Exercises of the Jesuits. A. Characteristics of El Greco's work include length exaggerated (length) (broadness) of human figures and concern for (literal) (spirit- spiritual ual) representation. seam is. sass. Effect 9}; 333 Council 91 2339.1; 233 Magi-=3. Music dur- ing the Counter Reformation, like art, was to serve as a means of raising the soul to the contemplation of divine truth. There was no place for secularism in sacred music as there had been in some Renaissance sacred music. The Council of Trent decreed that "all musical forms, whether for the organ or for voices, which are of a frivolous or sensuous character, should be excluded from the Church."17 Music had to be conducive to religious contemplation, first and foremost. The music of Palestrina was recognized by the Church as the absolute model. Victoria. The greatest of Spanish composers during the Counter Reformation, and perhaps the greatest religious composer in all Spanish history, was Victoria (151.8-1611).18 Born in Spain, he went to Rome when seventeen years old to 17G. Gietmann, "Music," The Catholic Enc clo edia (N. Y.: The EncyclOpedia Press Inc., 1913), i, 65I. 18 U _/ e Victoria (vic to r a) 131 prepare for the priesthood. Palestrina was teaching in Rome at the same time and it is probable that Victoria studied with him. After Victoria became an ordained priest, he re- mained in Italy for about twenty years, but he did return to his homeland, Spain, for the last sixteen years of his life. One would eXpect the music of Victoria and Palestrina to sound very much alike. Circumstances in their lives and training would indicate so. Both composed for the Church-- Victoria, completely so; both lived in and near Rome for much of their productive lives, and it is probable that Victoria studied with Palestrina. There are many similari- ties between the works of these two composers which even an untrained ear can hear. Yet there are differences. It would probably take a musical scholar with a trained ear to distinguish and explain these differences. It would be a challenge for you to try to hear and describe these differences. Some hints for you might be found in the fact that Victoria, al- though influenced by the contrapuntal style of Palestrina and that required by the Church, was born in Spain, lived there the first seventeen years of his life and returned there for his last sixteen years. His music is therefore likely to reflect some of the emotional characteristics of the Spanish race. Also, he was composing during a time of considerable violence in Spain. 132 One must know the translation of the text of his works to fully appreciate them because ideas suggested by the text are frequently illustrated with extraordinary in- ventiveness, force, and color by the music. It has been said that Palestrina is the Raphael of music. Victoria is the El Greco.19 messages 1. Perhaps the greatest composer of religious Victoria music in all Spanish history was . §pgig _ 2. He was born in , studied in Itgly _ , and finalIy returned to Spain . 3. His music sounds much like that of Palestrina (gomposer). Palestrina A. It has been said that (Palestrina) (Vic- toria is the Raphael 0 music, and Victoria Palestrina)(Victoria) is the El Greco. ITALY Italy was affected by the Counter Reformation as was Spain, but not to the same degree nor in the same way. Spain was particularly affected by the Inquisition with its militant Catholicism, by the inwardness of Jesuit mysticism, and by the presence of.other major religious groups within its boundaries. Italy, however, was a country in which other reli- gions had never gained sufficient foothold to cause any great problems for the Catholic government.20 Consequently, their 19Gilbert Chase, The Music of S ain (N. Y.: W} W. Norton and Co., Inc., l9h1), p. 85. ZOUijhn, pe 370s 133 Inquisition was not as severe. On the other hand, the tre- mendous destruction wrought by the conquests of Charles V, including the sack of Rome, greatly weakened sixteenth cen- tury Italy and brought about its particular problems--the loss of wealth, power, and prestige which it had enjoyed during the Renaissance. There was a need for a colossal restoration and building program throughout the country. By the seventeenth century, Italy had recovered its breath, so to Speak, and money was again more plentiful. The Pepes during the greater part of the seventeenth century were supremely conscious of the position of the church of the Counter Reformation and anxious to have Rome function in full splendor, not only as the papal residence, but as the courtly capital of Catholic Christianity.21 They also wanted art to play the greatest conceivable part in divine worship. This was done for two reasons. First, it was in keeping with the Christian tradition of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance which used art as an instructional device. Second, the Catholic use of art helped to emphasize its antagonism to the Protestant Reformation which was not very friendly to art. In fact, early stages of Calvinism had no use whatsoever for either art or music in the church. What was needed in Italy was not an art that appealed merely to a small group of intellectuals, as had Renaissance art, but a peOple's art, such as the Baroque, in fact, became. 21Hauser, p. A36. 13k Catholicism under these conditions had a more liberal attitude and allowed the artist more freedom. The result was the exuberant, dynamic, and sensuous style which gave the Baroque its name. Architects, sculptors, and painters, extravagantly patronized, produced more churches and chap- els, ceiling paintings and altarpieces, statues of saints and tomb monuments than had those of any previous age. Catholic art became more and more courtly, pompous, and sensuous, or in other words, more baroque in the true sense of the word. Quick Check 1. The in Italy was not as severe as it was in Spain because other religions had never gained sufficient footholds to cause great problems for Inquisition the Catholic government. 2. Because of great destruction in Italy due to the conquests of Charles V there building was need for a great program. 3. A type of art was needed in Italy that the would ap cal to a small rou of intel- peeple lectuals) (the poo 1e . courtly A. Catholic art in Italy became more (com- uous mercial) (courtly) and more (sens sensuous (strict). ART IN ITALY Just as El Greco personified the sterner, sadder, in- trOSpective Spanish Counter Reformation Spirit, so did Bernini22 personify the courtly, papal, sensuous Italian 22Bernini (be’r nE/nd') 135 Counter Reformation Baroque.23 Bernini (1598-1680) spent most of his life in Rome. Familiar with monastic and priestly life, he not only went to holy communion twice a week, but following the counsel of Loyola, withdrew once each year into the solitude of a monastery to devote himself to Spiritual exercises.2h Fig. 1A. Bernini: Ecstasy of St. Teresa. 23Tapi6', p. Al. zhHauser, p. A35. 136 Bernini's Ecstasy of St. Teresa (Fig. 1A) represents not only a high point in the whole of Baroque art, but is one of the most famous pieces of sculpture of all time. Made of white marble, this altarpiece is placed in a very intricate baroque setting in the Coronaro Chapel of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. The Ecstasy of St. Teresa is unique in the history of Christian sculpture. Other artists have made attempts to reproduce a scene of ecstasy but none have succeeded.25 St. Teresa was one of the revered saints of the Counter Reformation. In the story of her life she described a vision of an angel which came to her in a dream. She wrote, "I saw close to me, on my left, an angel in corpo- real form. . . . He held a long barb of gold. . . . It seemed to me that from time to time he plunged it through my heart. . . . The exquisite joy caused by this incompa- rable pain is so excessive that the soul cannot want it to cease."26 Bernini portrayed not only the event, but also the mood and religious fervor inspired by it. His Chair ofSt. Peter (PLATE III), located in St. Peter's Cathedral, although not his greatest work, attracted much attention from visiting royalty in Rome and contributed much to his fame. It is an overpowering figure that rises almost to the ceiling. The bronze figures of the four 25Tapie, p. 61. 26Life of St. Teresa of Avila taken from Tapie, P1. 16, between pp. 62-63. 137 PLATE III Bernini: CHAIR OF ST. PETER, St. Peter's Cathedral, Rome. 431...... in... 1. m I ‘ .fit" .4... 1:...r-n1‘xtll Vifl»ln‘ ’ l . (I: . .lr: ,. .1); e\ ha... , . 139 doctors at the base are approximately twenty feet high. A window is skillfully located to provide a sense of heavenly illumination about the dove of the Holy Ghost. The entire setting is one of sensuous grandeur that is characteristic of the great new churches constructed by the Jesuits of the time.27 In addition to other sculptured figures in St. Peter's, Bernini made the plans for the imposing colonnade that surrounds the entrance to the structure. Mainly through his work at St. Peter's, he gained world-wide fame that brought commissions from foreign courts. Among these commissions were a bust of Richelieu, a statue of Charles I of England, and a bust of Louis XIV of France.28 Orders were so great that he established a workshOp in order that assistants could do much of the routine work for him. Quick Check 1. As El Greco personified the sternness of Counter the Spanish (event) Reformation spirit, so did9 (name) personify . the sensuous Ita an Counter Reformation Bernini Baroque. Spiritual 2. Bernini participated in the Exercises ‘ of the Jesuits. '27Lincoln Rothschild, Sculpture through the Ages (Ne Ye: MCGraw-Hill Bock COe, IDCe, 1 2 , Fe 1 2e 28Tapie, p. A3. 1A0 CONCLUSION With the conclusion of the Thirty Years' war by the Treaty of Westphalia in 16A8, the Counter Reformation, for all intents and purposes, was over. Religious lines were formed which have stayed much the same to the present time. The Church became more tolerant of the weaknesses of the faithful but it still punished those who did not profess belief in Roman Catholicism. More and more, Catholicism, represented by the Pepe and the higher clergy, adapted it- self to state governments. In many instances, it became a national church and an instrument of political government. EXERCISES FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING Suggested Projects 1. Find out what effects the Counter Reformation and Coun- ‘ oil of Trent had on the plans for St. Peter's Cathedral. 2. write down the titles, chosen at random, of 25 religious paintings of various Renaissance artists; do the same for 25 paintings of the Counter Reformation Baroque. See if there is a basic difference between the two periods in the choice of subject matter. Try to account for your findings. 3. Read parts or all of Don Quixote by the Spanish author, Cervantes. As you rea it notice how exaggeration, while very different from that in El Greco's paintings, is an important part of the story. l. 2. 3. 1A1 Questions for Study The following phrases refer to the lives and works of El Greco, Bernini, or both artists. of the phrases. Copy the numbers After each number write the apprOpri- ate letter from the left column. El Greco Bernini both artists a. b. Ce 13. 1A. 15. 16. Briefly describe five Church tried to check born in and lived in Italy born in Greece and lived in Spain influenced by the Counter Refor- mation mysticism in art sensuous art exuberant art elongation of forms Ecstasy of St. Teresa famous as a painter practiced the Spiritual Exercises A any in the Garden amous as a sculptor and architect so pOpular that he set up a work- ShOp to keep up with commissions other-worldly light studied in Italy patronized extensively by Papes ways in which the Roman Catholic the spread of Protestantism dur- ing the Counter Reformation. Examine other paintings by El Greco. happy or smiling faces? Do you find any Increasing Your Vocabulagz morbidity (117 129) Inquisition (118) Prohibitory Index (118) heretic (118) evangelistic (118) prop (120) heresy (121) profess (121) Passion (123) ecstasy (12A) prone (12A) unorthodox (125) doctrine (125) sensibility (125) ecclesiastics (125) depict (126) indecorous (126) dogma (127) pervade (127) fervor (128) literal (128) asymmetrical (128) contemplation (130) ordained (131) contrapuntal (131) militant (132) inwardness (132) conceivable (133) antagonism (133) liberal (13h) exuberant (13h) dynamic (13h) sensuous (13h) patronized (13h) pompous (13A) introspective (13h) monastic (135) solitude (135) colonnade (139) bust (139) l. 2. 1A2 Questions for Class Discussion How did the Counter Reformation influence the develOp- ment of art? of music? Discuss the difference between the Catholic Baroque art of Spain and that of Italy. What were the reasons for these differences? nnz>zm I’lfi) F")I="‘ 1550 the pier q AR\ST0CRATIC I575 IOOO 1615' (650 [5'75 [100 enJGJ 3 If jfl F "5'47 ign o Vere ilies ecu-3’ Louis xw L Ltu i|+ 9H {—56 New: ll rtign 0" L .uben France ceding is XI “'0?” l Louis X'V = 1125' I . power 500 £— AD q AAAI lhh PLATE IV Rigaud: PORTRAIT OF LOUIS XIV. FRANCE 31 THE TIME (3 LOUIS XIV By the beginning of the Baroque Age, medieval civili- zation was dead. The concept of the "papal monarch" remained alive, but by this time power had been transferred from the Pepe to the King. In the early stages of their nation building, kings had been glad to receive the moral and spiritual backing of the Church. Likewise, the Church had needed the powerful support and protection of the civil authority. As kings became more powerful and more securely established, however, the Church and state came to struggle for preeminence. Each king sought to gain absolute power within his own country and there was gradual acceptance of the idea that the king ruled by "divine right."1 Supreme authority was vested in this single person who was the permanent head of the state. The culmination of this idea is found in seventeenth century France in the reign of Louis XIV. Nowhere is his sense of authority better described than in his "Instruc- tions for the Dauphin,"2 part of which states: lLaurence Bradford Packard, The Age of Louis XIV, The Berkshire Studies of EurOpean History (M. 7.: Henry Holt and Co., 1929), p. 11. 2his oldest son -1A6 1A7 My first step was to make my will supreme; everything that is comprised in our states, all the money in pub- lic treasuries as well as all the money in circulation, belongs to us. You, the Dauphin, must be convinced that the kings, as good patriarchs, have the absolute disposal of all preperty, whether it belongs to clergy or layman. The life of the subject belongs to their princes, and the princes must preserve it as their property. . . .‘We are the representatives of God. Nobody has the right to criticize our actions. Who- ever is born as a subject must obey without asking.3 The idea is also stated simply in his famous dictum, L'etat-, c'est moi! (The State--it is II)“ The portrait of Louis shown in PLATE IV could very well have had that motto for its title. Sixty-three years old when the por- trait was painted, Louis was still the greatest king of Europe. The artist painted him as the image of divine- right monarchy. Each detail takes on symbolic grandeur. The enormous marble column and vast sweep of drapery do not appear to dwarf the majestic and elegant figure of the Sun King any more than the heavily embroidered mantle or the sacramental ornament. Notice his high-heeled red shoes which he wore to give the impression of greater height just as he wore a high wig for the same reason. Though Louis had commissioned the portrait as a gift for King Philip V of Spain, he was so pleased with it that he kept it and had it hung in the throne room at Versailles.5 3Kurt Reinhardt, German 2000 Years, Vol. I: The Rise and Fall of the "Holy Empire" (N. Y.: Frederick Ungar P111). COO, 9 l ’ p. 3 30 “Ibid. 5Rene Huyghe Art Treasures of the Louvre (N. Y.: Harry N. Abrams, 1951 , p. 1 1. 1A8 Quick Check 1. In the Middle Ages, the greater power was the Pope held by (the Pope) (kings). In the Ba- roque Age the greater power was held by kings (the Pope (kings). 2. The government of seventeenth century divine- France was called a right Monarchy. 3. The French king who was the image of this Louis XIV form of government was . Versaillesé and 11;; 992-3 9;: 1493;; £11. Perhaps the best and most delightful way to capture the spirit of the divine-right monarchy of Louis XIV is to study Versailles, the real capital of France during Louis' reign. Versailles has come to mean different things to dif- ferent ages. ‘When it was built it was the center of court life of France and the marvel of the age. Later it became the symbol of the faults of divine-right monarchy and, dur- ing the Revolution, parts of it were ransacked by the mobs. After the Revolution it was nothing more than a museum until 1919 when the signing of the Peace Treaty there after World war I gave it renewed importance in the eyes of the world.7 It was the dream of Louis XIV to make Versailles the symbol as well as the means of his supreme power. As the sygbol of his power, everything about Versailles, inside and out, was planned to accentuate the importance and majesty of 6Versailles (vdr sdfiy) 7Victor L. Tapié: The A e of Grandeur, trans. from the French by A. Ross WilIiamson (N. Y.: Grove Press, Inc., 1A9 the king. As the mgggg of his power, it became the home of the nobility of France. By keeping the nobles at Versailles all the year round rather than having them scattered through- out France on their own estates, Louis was better able to keep an eye on them and maintain his power over them. Originally the hunting lodge of his father, Louis XIII, Versailles grew under the guidance of Louis XIV into the largest, most magnificent palace grounds in all the world (Fig. 15). A fabulous place, everything about Ver- sailles contributed to the impression of ostentation and grandeur, making it the outstanding example of aristocratic Baroque architecture.8 Fig. 15. Aerial view of the Palace of Versailles including a portion of the city, gardens, and park surrounding the palace. 8William Fleming, Arts and Ideas (N. Y.: Henry Holt and Co., 1955), p. 500. 150 The palace was surrounded at the back by a city and at the front and sides by the beauty of formal gardens with sculptured figures and more than 1200 fountains as well as lakes, a mile-long canal, paths, and avenues radiating out from the palace. Beyond the gardens were two parks used mainly for riding and hunting. The Small Park (6000 acres) still exists, but the Large Park (over 2A,000 acres) was cut up and sold during the Revolution.9 The gardens, avenues, and parks were as much a part of the whole as the palace it- self. Everything led, through a narrowing process in the design, to the palace.10 The exact center of the entire plan was the state bedroom of Louis XIV (Fig. 16). A very magnificent, baroque room it is with its heavy ornateness. Throughout the room, decorations cover every inch of space. Above the bed is a gilded relief depicting France between two figures repre- senting Fame.11 At the foot of the bed is a railing at which Louis would kneel to pray. This was called the king's private bedroom, but French monarchs did not know what privacy was. Louis, with- out fail, rose from his bed at 8 o'clock every morning with a formal ceremony in which Princes and Dukes handed him his 9James Eugene Farmer, Versailles and the Court under Louis XIV (N. Y.: The Century Co., 1916), pp. llB-lh. ' 10The city plan of washington, D. C. is a direct descendant of Versailles with the plan of its gardens and paths in relation to the palace. llFleming, p. A98. 151 underwear, shoes, shirts, and other garments. Lesser lords, and ladies pushed and shoved with eagerness to attain the great honor of simply being present! The same formality at- tended him at meals, most of his play, during hours of work, and when he retired for the night at 10 o'clock.12 Such formalities, inseparable from divine-right monarchy, did not signify mere curiosity. If someone did not attend these ceremonies the king was sure to notice and, if after a num- ber of such misses the prince or lord in question asked a favor of the king, Louis was sure to answer, "No, I do not know him; I have not seen him."13 ., .. (ll Fig. 16. Versailles: the State Bedroom of Louis XIV in all its ornate baroque splendor. 12Packard, pp. 21-22. 13Farmer, p. 119. 152 This necessity to be seen by the king, not once, but several times a day led to the following amusing incident at an evening chapel service. The ladies who thronged the daily chapel services used to place lighted candles in front of them, supposedly in order to read their service books, but really to make sure that their presence was ob- served. Brissac, major of the body guards, once played these ladies a fine trick. The king was expected to come to the ceremony which followed the usual evening service. Guards were posted and ladies all in their places, when, close to the end of the evening service, Brissac appeared alone, raised his "baton,"19 and cried,."Guards of the king, retire and withdraw to your rooms! The King is not coming." Immediately the guards withdrew, the ladies whispered to one another, the little candles were extinguished, and all the fair worshippers with a few exceptions, beat a retreat. Meanwhile, Brissac had had the guards stopped at the exits of the Chapel, and as soon as the congregation had diSpersed, he recalled them to their posts. When the king arrived, he was astonished to find the chapel empty and asked the reason. Brissac told him what he had done and the king laughed heartily. The story spread rapidly and Brissac's popularity with the fair sex was not enhanced.15 1"a staff used as a symbol of his office 15G. F. Bradby, The Great Da s of Versailles (N. Y.: Charles Scribner's Sons, , pp. . /‘\ 153 The Hall of Mirrors, salon of Peace, and salon of War, occupying the entire facade of the central portion of the palace on the garden side, form a setting of unrivaled splendor for state ceremonies and f3tes.16a 17 Two hundred forty feet long, the Hall of Mirrors is the epitome of divine right and the grandeur of Louis XIV (Fig. 17). One length of the hall is lined with seventeen windows, the other with seventeen arches filled with mirrors. The windows, each thirty feet high and imported at great expense from Venice,18 Fig. 17. Hall of Mirrors, the grandest room in Versailles. 16Farmer, p. 22. 17f3te (fat) 18Packard, p. 27. 15h overlook the gardens and are reflected in the mirrors within the arches lining the epposite wall. The ceiling is covered with paintings, four years in the making, depicting Louis as the great Sun King. Today, stripped of all its furniture except a few white benches covered with red cloth, the gal- lery is still imposing and magnificent, but at one time the furniture was as Splendid as the decorations. In two long lines on either side, between the windows and mirrors, were placed tables of silver, candelabra and trephies of silver, vases of silver and gold, benches of silver covered with green velvet fringed with gold, and orange trees in bloom in beautifully carved tubs of silver.19 The floor was covered with two gorgeous carpets and the windows were hung with curtains of white damask embroidered in gold with the royal arms. At ceremonies and fates, the gallery was lighted by A000 wax candles. In short, it was a mass of riches.22 This, then, was Versailles, the home of Louis and his family, 3000 or A000 lords and ladies of the court, the 19Louis loved orange trees in bloom. His gardeners developed a method for keeping some orange trees in bloom all year long. These decorated all his fetes and were re- placed in the palace every fifteen days so that, in the palace, trees were always in full bloom.20 The rest were kept in the Orangery, a building which once caused a foreign Ambassador to remark that Louis XIV must indeed be a mag- nificent king since he had a palace for oran e trees more beautiful than the residence of many kings.2 20Farmer, p. 100. 21Fleming, p. A9A. 22Farmer, p. 2A. 155 clergy, the military guard of honor, plus an army of ser- vants, gardeners, and grooms--a total of around 10,000 people.23 Louis established a nobility with no power in govern- ment affairs. The main occupations of nobles were to better their position at court and serve in the Army in times of war. The rest of their lives were divided between the per- formance of their semi-official duties and an attempt to kill tine.“+ To distract the unemployed nobility and to compensate them for their loss of power, great parties, concerts, and plays were held in the gallery just described as well as in the courtyard, gardens, parks, and on the canals. In Spite of various conflicting elements in French society, Louis succeeded in making France the leading Euro- pean nation of his time. Its government was centralized, the Church became a part of the state instead of the state a part of the Church, and Paris became the artistic and intellectual capital of the world. Mggig Lg Egg 92353 9; L93 g XIV. Louis had good taste in the arts and surrounded his court with the most and best of the arts that money could buy. He had paid singers for his Chapel and the first permanent orchestra in Europe.25 23Fleming, p. A98. 2“Bradby, p. A2. 25Fleming, p. 51A. 156 The string orchestra, called the Vingt-quatre Violons,26 had some of the best musicians of the time as its members. This was the group that played for balls, dinners, concerts, and the opera. A wind ensemble provided music for military pro- cessions, outdoor fetes, and hunting parties.27 Opera and ballet became favorite forms of court entertainment. Contrary to our present-day concept of ballet, seventeenth century court ballet was an elaborate form of entertainment including instrumental in- terludes as well as dancing. Louis, himself, was an excellent dancer and frequently par- ticipated in the ballet portraying Apollo, the Sun God (Figs. l8, 19). In the middle of the Fig. 18. ballet the musicians Ballet figure representing of the king's band Music. would appear on the scene to prepare for the appearance of the king and his princes in the final "grand ballet" which climaxed the show.28 Louis was 26meaning 2A violins 27Fleming, p. 51A. 28Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (N. Y.: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1 Al , p. 379. 157 serious enough about his acting to rehearse diligently under the supervision of the director. The leading composer of French opera and ballet was Lully (1632-1687). As Louis XIV's court composer and con- ductor and as head of the French Academy of Music, his in- fluence was felt, not only in France, but throughout Europe. Quick Check 1. The outstanding example of aristocratic Palace of Baroque architecture is the Versailles . Werld 2. The peace treaty following War I was signed at Versailles. 3. During the reign of Louis XIV, Versailles was the: a. hunting lodge of the king. b. real capital of France. b c. national museum of France. A. The French nobility had (no) (much) power no in government affairs. ,Ballgt_, 5. and were favorite opera musical fdnms of court entertainment. A 6. The leading EurOpean nation during the France reign of Louis XIV was . RUBENS A generation before Louis XIV wooed EurOpean artists and musicians to Versailles to embellish and entertain his court, a Flemish painter, Rubens29 (1577-16A0), was in great demand by not one, but all the courts of Europe including that of Louis XIII, the father of the "Sun King." 29Rubens (rdbibdnz) 158 Courtier, diplomat, painter, gentleman--Rubens was all these. It was said that he had so many talents that the knowledge of painting should be considered the least of them.30 Because of his scholarly education including the ability to Speak Flemish, German, English, French, Spanish, and Italian as well as Latin and because of his charming personality, he was frequently sent on diplomatic missions to various European countries. His painting, too, brought him into contact with the kings and aristocracy of the leading seventeenth century EurOpean nations. Eight years were Spent in Italy in the service of an Italian prince; for the remaining thirty years of his life, he was court painter for Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella, regents of Antwerp. Though always employed as a court painter, he had freedom to accept com- missions from other sources. He did many paintings for Philip III of Spain; Louis XIII had him summoned to Paris to do a series of murals for the residence (Luxembourg Palace) of the Queen Mother, Maria de Medici, and Charles II of England commissioned him to decorate the ceiling of the banquet hall in Whitehall Palace. Although this is only a partial list of Rubens' employers it indicates the esteem with which he was regarded by the crownheads of Europe. Rubens was the most sought-after painter in Europe. To take care of all his commissions, he employed about 200 30H. Gerson and E. H. Ter Kuile, Art and Architecture in Belgium 1600 to 1800 (Baltimore, Md.: eng n 00 s, l ,pe O 159 apprentices and assistants in his Antwerp studio. It has been said that in one year alone, he had to refuse the help of 100 students who wanted to work for him. After Rubens had sketched in the major outlines of each painting, assist- ants would be delegated te fill in the landscape, the animal figures, and so on, each according to his own Specialty. Certain choice parts would be reserved for Rubens. Finally the finishing touches, too, were added by him, often at the future home of the paintings, while his patrons watched him work and took pleasure in his conversation. His vital per- sonality dominated even those canvasses which were largely the work of his assistants. The range of subjects in his paintings was as wide as the range of his travels. Landscapes, hunting scenes, mythological paintings, aristocratic portraits, historical cycles, gay peasant scenes, and religious paintings all are associated with the masterful brush-strokes of Rubens. He came to maturity in an age when classic restraint of Renaissance painting was giving wayto the restless ex- uberance of the Baroque, a style that abhors a vacant Space or a point of rest for the eyes. This Baroque Spirit of action is epitomized in his works. Massive figures of humans and animals appear to be unleashed. It is as if Rubens had "let them go"--they are suddenly free. In size, his robust figures resemble those of Michelangelo, but whereas the Italian artist‘s figures appear to be struggling 160 to become free, those of Rubens have been freed and move about exuberantly. The Baroque love of large groups and great mass, as well as action, is found in Rubens' Battle of the Amazons (Fig. 20). The narrow stone bridge is overrunning with violently moving horses and warriors. They are, in fact, literally spilling off from the bridge as a result of this hand-to-hand conflict. The slopes on both sides of the river are also filled with figures and action. The horses seem to be as much involved in the battle as the humans.31 Fig. 20. Rubens: Battle of the Amazons. 31Rubens made a hobby of painting animals, and one of his specialties was horses. This partially explains why they appear in many of his pictures. 161 The only area of rest is found in the center of the picture with the stone arch of the bridge and directly above it, under the feet of the warriors, a headless corpse. The Amazons appear in Greek mythology as a race of female war- riors who took pride in manly appearance and achievements, including the ability to wage war and conquer men. In this picture, however, it is apparent that Rubens was picturing their defeat in battle. In vain the standard-bearer seeks to recover her banner which a youthful Creek is wrenching from her. While graSping it, She is being flung off her rearing horse. Other Amazons are falling off the bridge, while still others are trying to gain their safety by swimming. Just as Rubens' secular pictures reflect aristo- cratic life and thought, his sacred paintings are infused with the Spirit of the Counter Reformation movement. His interest in religion is revealed by the fact that he par- ticipated in the Spiritual Exercises of the Jesuits and at- tended mass daily. His religious pictures are some of the finest the world has seen and are found in many churches throughout Eur0pe and in museums throughout the world. They depict many of the principal events of the Old Testament as well as great moments in the lives of the saints and the Holy Family. Rubens expressed the brutality of the crucifixion in typically Baroque fashion in The Raising_of the Cross (Fig. 21). In it, powerful, half-bare herculean figures 162 are exerting every muscle to put the heavy cross into place. The diagonals and strong contrasts of light and shade are reminiscent of Tintoretto's Last Supper. Light is concen- trated almost exclusively on Christ, who is in front of a dark, rocky background. Rubens used light and shade as the vehicle of expression in this painting; color was added only in a subordinate role. This is in contrast to his Battle of the Amazons (Fig. 20) where color is the very essence of the picture. Fig. 21. Rubens: The Raising of the Cross. 163 - Quick Check l. The most sought-after painter in seven- Rubens teenth century Europe was . He painted for the: a. church b. aristocracy c c. church and aristocracy 2. Rubens worked in the courts of the leading European nations as a as diplomat well as a painter. 3. The body proportions of the figures on Michel- Rubens' canvasses resemble those of (El angelo Greco) (Michelangelo). frgedog _ A. Rubens' secular paintings display free- action dom) (tension) and (actiqp) (mysticism . Spiritual 5. He participated in the Exercises of the Jesuits. Fig. 22. Handel. HANDEL Handel, Citizen pf Europe. George Frederick Hande132 (1685-1759) was one of the two great giants of music during the late Baroque period. He achieved success in Germany, the country of his birth, in Italy where he went to further his studies in music, and in England his adopted homeland. His George Frederick reputation as a composer 32Handel (han’dl) 16A of operas was made in Germany before he was yet twenty-one, but, recognizing that there was still more to be learned, he went to Italy, the real home and center of Opera. While there he became saturated with the style of Italian opera, incorporated it into his own style, and wrote successful Italian operas. German government officials, while visit- ing Italy, heard some of Handel's Operas, recognized the merit of his work, and wanted him to return to his native country. Handel did so and shortly afterwards was appointed to the position of Kapellmeister33 to the Court of Hanover and was thereon obligated to the Elector of Hanover, Georg Ludwig. This relationship with Georg, the great-grandson of James I of England, began a series of events that had great and lasting influence not only on Handel, but on the history of English music. Some of the first work done by Kapellmeister Handel was the composing of numerous keyboard pieces for Elector Georg's daughter-in-law, later known as Caroline, Princess of Wales. After being in Hanover only a short while, he Obtained leave from his new master to visit England, promis- ing to return quickly. ‘While in England Handel had some of his Operas performed and became famous overnight. Naturally, he was reluctant to leave and stayed for almost a year. His employer, Elector Georg, apparently accepted the long absence 33Chapel-master, i.e., conductor of the musicians who played in the chapel and provided the other music of the court 165 without imposing any penalty on him. Upon his return to Hanover, he continued with his regular duties but longed for a return to London, the scene of his previous triumphs with Opera. In 1712, Handel again left Hanover for another "short" visit to London. Elector Georg expected his Ka- pellmeister to return to Hanover and appointed no one to take his place. Handel, however, did not return. He stayed in England even though he still received his salary from Hanover. Quick Check (gepmgny _ l. Handel was born in (country), studied in Italy _ _ , and lived most of his life England in . 2. The main reason that Handel stayed in London was because of the pOpular recep- Operas tion of his (type of musical composition). Handel ppg,ppg English Qppgp. English society during the first part of the eighteenth century had a powerful up- per class composed mainly of the ruling families, a very small and weak middle class, and a large and very poor lower class. This meant that financial support for Handel's music could come only from the upper class. Consequently as he continued to compose, he made every effort to please the English court. It was no easy task to satisfy the artistic tastes of a foreign nation. Handel, a German bringing Italian Opera to England, realized that if he was to be accepted by the English, he must meet them on their own terms. It 166 was customary to honor the English court by musical tributes for Special events. England's greatest composer before Handel had been Purcell and he had composed several Birthday Odes. Consequently, for Queen Anne's birthday celebration in 1713, Handel began to compose a Birthday Ode. Using Pur- cell's music as a model, Handel was able to produce a com- position that had the characteristics Of English music. It was enthusiastically received by the Court. Queen Anne, however, was sick in bed and heard of the performance only through friends. In appreciation of Handel's work she granted him a yearly pension of nearly.£_200 ($1,000.) which he received in addition to his regular salary as Elector Georg's Kapellmeister at the Hanover Court. Through this Birthday Ode and another composition composed to celebrate the Peace of Utrecht, Handel established himself Officially with the English nobility, a task difficult enough to dis- courage an Englishman and an almost insurmountable one for a German who composed music much like an Italian.35 The tide was soon to change, however. At the death of Queen Anne in 171A Handel found himself in an awkward position. His German employer, the Elector Georg Ludwig of Hanover, had naturally become somewhat annoyed with Handel's absence from his post. New, at the death of Queen Anne, this same Elector of Hanover was proclaimed King George I of England. Handel was understandably no longer 31"Stoddard Lincoln, "Handel's Music for Queen Anne," Musical Quarterly, XLV, No. 2 (April, 1959), 193. 167 in favor at the English court and was not asked to compose any music for King George's coronation. What was Handel going to do about this situation? Nothing at present. He was financially secure--for the moment, at least. King George I was an Opera enthusiast and when Handel's Opera Rinaldo was revived in London, the King wanted to attend one of the performances. Because of the strained relationship between the two men, however, he did not attend Openly but visited it incognito. The disguise was of little use because the King was recognized by his manner of entrance in sedan-chairs and by the company he brought with him, but it gave him the Opportunity to hear Handel's music without officially forgiving him. It soon became clear to everyone that there should be a reconcili- ation between the King and Handel. Such an event did take place but no one to this day knows exactly how or when it happened. There are two stories which are Often told to account for it. According to one of the stories, a great violinist, Geminiani, was invited to play some of his recent composi- tions for the court. He stated that the accompaniments were very difficult and that he would consent to play only if Handel would serve as his accompanist.35 As the story goes, this provided a good excuse for George to bring Handel back into his good graces, and he therefore honored Geminiani's 35Edward J. Dent, Handel (N. Y.: A. A. wyn, Inc., 191-p8) , pe Sle 168 request. The King was so pleased with the performance that he confirmed Handel's pension of 200 pounds from Queen Anne and added an equal amount to it.36 Whether or not the de- tails of the story are true no one knows, but it is true that Handel's pension was increased by 200 pounds--making a total pension of A00 pounds (about $2,000.). According to the other story, Baron Kielmansegge, Master of the King's Horse, was unhappy over the coolness existing between the King and Handel and decided to do his part in ending it. When the King decided to have a water party on decorated barges on the Thames37 River, an idea took shape: Handel should compose special music for the occasion and have it played from a Special barge close Fig. 23. George I took trips and held parties on barges similar to this one on the Thames River. 36Ibid. 37Thames (tgmz) 169 enough to the King's so that it would be plainly heard. When this happened, the King was so pleased by the beautiful sounds that he asked whose music it might be. When told that it was Handel's, he instantly relented toward the mu- sician, congratulated him, and restored him to favor. The composition, called the Water Music Suite, is one of Han- del's best known works and is part of the recommended listening for this chapter.38 From this time on, Handel was rightly considered an Englishman for he remained in that country, with the excep- tion of one Short interval, for the rest of his long life. He had arrived there when he was twenty-five, became an English citizen at the age of Al, and even in his lifetime became a great national institution. The type of government in England during Handel's time was a "limited" monarchy. This was in contrast to the "absolute" monarchy of France under Louis XIV. The monarch of England had some power but many decisions affecting the nation were left to the ministers and to the Parliament. The fact that George I was a German did not help his po- sition. He never mastered the English language and conse- quently could hardly take part in important meetings and conferences. Also, the English were reluctant to give any more power to a foreign-born ruler than they had to. His unpOpular reign, begun in 171A, came to an end in 1727 with his sudden death. His son was then crowned King George II. 38GUIDE TO LISTENING III, pp. 180-182. 170 If Handel had reasons for fearing the succession of George I to the throne, he could have none over the crown- ing of George II. The new monarch was his admiring friend and Handel had given piano lessons to George II'S daughters. Soon the new King confirmed Handel's pensions of 200 pounds granted by both Queen Anne and by George I and, in addition, granted another 200 pounds for Handel to serve as music- master to the royal princesses. He was given the honorary title of "Composer of Musick to the Royal Chapel." To this was added the title of Composer to the Court. AS such, he was commissioned to compose music for the coronation of George II. This task was one in which Handel took Special care. Although a text was Suggested by a clergyman of the court, Handel chose his own from the Bible. Four anthems were composed. The coronation ceremony istraditionally one of pomp and Splendor and Handel's music rose to the occasion. The first anthem, "Zadok the Priest," was and still is so impressive that it has been sung at every coronation since 1727, the most recent being for Queen Elizabeth on June 2, 1953.39 The scene for which Handel provided his Anthems was one of magnificence the like of which had never been wit- nessed at westminster Abbey. The dress of Queen Caroline was as fine as the accumulated riches of the city of London 39GUIDE TO LISTENING IV, p. 183. 171 could provide; besides her own jewels, she had on her head and on her Shoulders all the pearls She could borrow of the ladies of quality, and on her petticoat all the diamonds She could hire of the jewellers.“O Quick Check 1. English society during the first part of the ei hteenth century had a powerful (uppe r) (middle) (lowe_) class upon which Handel relied or the support Of his upper Operas. Queen 2. Handel's German employer, Elector Georg Anpe_ _ Ludwig of Hanover, upon the death of King in 171A, was pro- George I claimed of England. 3. Because only a few important governmental decisions were left to the King, the gov- 1imited ernment of England during Handel's time monarchy is referred to as a . ,ngpg. George II had little appreciation for most of the arts and graces which adorn the life of man. There was one notable exception, however, and this was a passion- ate love of music, eSpecially Opera. There were many nights when he and his wife would sit shivering in the al- most empty Haymarket Theater where Handel's Operas were performed.“1 A Had all of the upper class supported Handel's Operas as did George II, Handel would not have gone bankrupt in 40Newman Flower, Geor e Frideric Handel His Per- sonality and His Times (London: Tie Waverly Book Co., Ltd., 123,pe hlArthur Stanley Turberville, En lish Men and Man- ners in the Eighteenth Century (Oxfor : e ClarendOn Press, 1926), p. A29. 172 1737. There was, however, a rival Opera house regularly attended by an enemy of the King. This enemy, it so hap- pened, was the strong and influential Prince of wales. Even though Handel's music was superior, the audience of aristocrats largely followed the Prince of Wales and left Handel and his King virtually Sitting alone. This contri- buted substantially to the bankruptcy of Handel's group. Handel, however, would not accept defeat, organized another Opera company, and tried again, but the odds were against his succeeding. It is to be realized that English music, in Handel's day, was patronized by the aristocrats, and composers there- fore set Out to please them. It was a time of wigs, ruf- fles, and fussy trimmings. In an age when dress, manners, and ideals were artificial to a degree that has never been exceeded, it is not surprising that Opera absorbed and re- flected some of this artificiality.h2 In fact, it would be difficult to explain if such had not been the case. Most Opera in the early eighteenth century seemed to have lost all connection with dramatics. The music was the most artificial, cold, and formal that has ever existed.“3 As beautiful as some individual arias were, there was not enough drama to hold interest. Arias were written to Show “2d. A. Fuller-Maitland "The Age of Bach and Han- del," Oxford Histo of Music London: Oxford University Press, 1931), IV, E' “31bid., p. vi. 173 off voices. Each soloist had to have the prOper number of solos, and songs had to contain passages difficult enough to display the technical artistry of the singer. By and large, however, the patrons of Opera were not as concerned with drama as with hearing an excellent and well-trained voice. A successful Opera was dependent upon the engaging of the best possible singers. Most of the soloists were imported from Italy, had international repu- tations, and were in constant demand throughout EurOpe. The arbitrary rules of this type of Opera were that there must be six principal characters--three of each sex. The first woman was always a high seprano, the first man an artificial sepranohh who was always to appear as the hero. The villain was the bass. In every act, each of the principal singers had to sing at least one air. During the Opera there also had to be a duet for the first man and woman, and at the end, a so-called chorus for all soloists. It was the convention for each character to leave the stage immediately after his aria, even if dramatic action was destroyed in doing so. This gave the singer the Opportunity hhThe artificial seprano (the castrate voice) was a boy's voice produced with a man's lungs, with the resonance of a man's body, and expressed by a mature musical mind. The castrate singing of the choirboys of the Renaissance Sistine Chapel gradually worked its way into secular music and Spread to Opera shortly after its first outburst of pOpularity toward the middle of the seventeenth century. Although "castrati" sang throughout EurOpe, they achieved their greatest fame in Italy and England. Today, we are not able to hear the arias of Handel sung as they were in- tended to be two hundred years ago because "castrate" singers are not being trained. » 17A to receive applause and perhaps sing encores. Thus, the murderer abandoned his victim, sang his aria, bowed to the audience and retired into the stage wings to wait for his next vocal exhibition.h5 These routines would perhaps have been enough to eventually discourage some of the aristocrats from venturing into the darkness of the London fog and the accompanying risks of the time. Added to this was the fact that all the operas were sung in Italian, a language which was not understood by English audiences. . . E - VI ‘ 1 1 K ‘ Aim! - . I. .2‘ In (‘11: \ . Fig. 2A. A baroque stage set for operatic performances. h5W. S. Rockstro, Life of Handel (1883), pp. 62-63, quoted in Fuller-Maitland, p. . 175 Quick Check the hearing 1. The patrons of Opera in England were more dr of a well- concerned about ama)g(the hearing of a trained well—trained voice) than they were for .19192...... (drama) (the hearing_of a well-trained drama voice). 2. One of the reasons for failure of Handel's Operas is that they were sung in (language) which was not understood by many of the Italian English. Oratorio. Some of the aristocratic patrons grew tired of Italian Opera and others preferred to attend Operas other than those by Handel. For practical reasons, Handel turned to a different musical form-~the oratorio--which be- came a national substitute for Opera in England. He had composed his first oratorio several years before the bank- ruptcy of his Opera company and much to his surprise it met with great approval by the public. This new form was simi- lar to Opera but it was performed in English, dealt with scriptural subjects, and did not require expensive staging. The last of these differences had Special attraction to Han- del's depleted pocketbook; and the first two differences had Special appeal to a rising middle and commercial class. Oratorio-~new to England-~brought in greater profits than Opera and Handel devoted the last years of his life almost exclusively to composing in this new form. Handel is known to the public today as a composer of oratorios although most of his life was Spent with his first love, that of composing, producing, and promoting his A7 Operas. Strange as it may be, his reputation as composer 176 of oratorios is nevertheless apprOpriate because Handel made no contribution to the field of Opera; he was quite content with existing banalities and made scarcely any attempt at improving the dramatic content. Even with oratorios Handel had a difficult time get- ting a large enough audience to make financial ends meet. The main support had to come from the middle class puri- tanical church goers and from the aristocracy. Because of the mixture of sacred and secular elements, however, ora- torio was not fully endorsed by either group. Though the oratorios dealt with scriptural subjects, the puritanical church folks stayed away from them because they were per- formed in theaters and by a cosmOpolitan lot of Italian virtuosos. Because they were performed in English and con- tained the essentials of drama, oratorios appealed to the aristocracy. Yet this same group of supportersshied away from oratorios because they departed from the traditional realm of courtly entertainment. _Quick Check 1. Handel turned to writing oratorios for practical (practical)(religious) reasons. 2. The new class of patrons giving support to Handel's oratorios was from the middle (upper) (middle) (lower) class. 3. Handel is known to the public today largel as a composer of (operas) (ora- oratorios torios)(symphonies). 177 The Messiah. Lack of steady support in London in- duced Handel to present the first performance of his reli- giously conceived oratorio, Messiah, for a charity benefit in Dublin, Ireland. Many subsequent performances of this work were associated with charity benefits in both Ireland and London. For London's Foundling HOSpital alone, Handel gave eleven performances of Messiah which raised a total of 7000 pounds (roughly $35,000.).A6 Messiah was Handel's one creation that ever pleased him.L7 Once, after being complimented on it, Handel said, "I should be sorry if I only entertained them; I wished to make them better.“8 The famous "Hallelujah" chorus was one of his favorites. It was during a London performance of the work that Handel's patron and friend, King George II, was so moved during the "Hallelujah" chorus that he rose to his feet. Of course, when the King stood up, the rest of the audience did likewise. This marked the begin- ning of a pOpular custom for the audience to stand during the "Hallelujah" chorus when Messiah is being performed. Messiah is considered by mankind as the supreme monu- ment to Handel's genius. It owes its reputation not only to its musical excellence--Handel wrote half a dozen oratorios as fine or finer-~but to the fact that it summed up the #6Winton Dean, Handel's Dramapig Oratorios and Masques (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 137. h7Flower, p. 282. “BIhid., p. 283. 178 ethical and completely unmystical religious faith of the average Englishman"9 and one might also say, the average American.5O EXERCISES FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING Suggested Projects 1. Examine the numbers below the chords to the tenor reci- 2. 3. l. 2. 3. A. tative "He That Dwelleth in Heaven" in GUIDE TO LISTEN- ING V. Find the meaning of the term "figured bass" and explain this to the class in connection with the reci- tative. One of Handel's pOpular works, similar to the water Music Suite is the Royal Fireworks Music. Listen to it, examine its stylistic features, andinvestigate ,its background. Prepare an oral or a written report. For a good picture of seventeenth and eighteenth century London, read the essays, London Streets and London Cof- feehouses by T. B. Macaulay. ' Questions for Study Look at the picture of the Baroque church interior (PLATE I). Then examine the pictures of Louis XIV's state bedroom and the Hall of Mirrors (Figs. 16, 17). What Baroque characteristics do they share? Point out similarities between the lives and works of Rubens and Handel. Describe Baroque Opera. Describe Baroque oratorio. What are some differences between the two musical forms? Why did oratorio replace Opera as the most pOpular form of serious music in England? thean, p. 315. 5OGUIDE TO LISTENING v, pp. ISA-188. 1. 2. 3. A. 5. 179 Increasing Your Vocabulary papal monarch (1A6) abhor (159) pro-eminence (146) wrench (verb) (161) symbol (1A8) infused (161) ransack (1A8) herculean (161) ostentation (1A9) reminiscent (162) salon (153) subordinate (162) facade (153) essence (162) fete (153) saturated (16A) epitome (153) insurmountable (166) damask (154) incognito (167) compensate (155) banalities (176) embellish (157) subsequent (177) mural (158) foundling (177) Questions for Class Discussion What are the characteristics of aristocratic Baroque art? Describe the differences between aristocratic Baroque painting and Counter Reformation Baroque painting. Discuss possible reasons for these differences. It has been said that there was a balance between sacred and secular art and music in the Baroque. What were the cultural influences which brought this about? Discuss the meanings of the following terms: da capo, text painting, chorus, aria, recitative, oratorio, opera e How did Handel's music reflect English culture? 180 GUIDE TO LISTENING III (from page 169) Handel: Water Music Suite "Hornpipe" The use of "da capo" form was common in Baroque music. Look up the meaning of "da cape" and "fine"; then notice and understand their use in this selection. This was entertainment music for the court of George I. Follow the notation of the music as you listen and be aware of different instrumental sounds. Is this music homephonic or polyphonic? Notice that the modal tonality of Renaissance music has been replaced by a strong major key feeling in this selection. During the Baroque, music was usually written in either a major or a minor key. V'Ol' o'tég I It .o‘. E ‘ 'fl ‘flbknl30fl‘ni lkwnm tram!!! 181 GUIDE III (cont.) Viohw‘ 3|: ““311 Trumpe+ I and IL Tram pt‘l‘: V) 0‘ Q's .fl‘ a Horns ?"' z¢17fen 182 GUIDE III (cont.) Handel: Water Music Suite "Air" This was entertainment music for the court of George I. Follow the notation of the music as you listen. Try to follow the seprano part, then try to be aware of both so- prano and alto parts. If you can do this, listen to the bass part and gradually become aware of these separate melodic lines. Notice that the French horns are the only instruments used that are not of the string family. Their entrance is indicated. rhythm Of a 1ranqu't) flunk STr'mgs Simuar 1's begtmnin’ WVU’h Odd'fl‘ian 0" horn Par-1' 183 GUIDE TO LISTENING IV (from page 170) Handel: Coronation Anthems "Zadok the Priest" This is one of the four anthems written by Handel for the coronation of George II. In the coronation service this anthem precedes the anointing of the King with holy oil. Handel's setting for this part of the service has been sung at every coronation since that Of George II in 1727. Length: 5'A5" Description: 1. Orchestral introduction (approximately 15 min.) of sustained and solemn chords with movement and intensity provided by the violins. Intensity increases until choir enters with the declama- tion: 2. "Zadok the Priest and Nathan the Prephet Crowned (Anointed) Solomon King." (first Book of Kings) 25" 3. Change in tempo from A/A to 3/A marks the announce- ment: "And all the peeple rejoiced and said." A. Tempo and meter change and music attains almost overwhelming Spirit of grandiosity to the text: God save the King, Long live the King, May the King live for ever. Alleluia, Amen! 18A GUIDE TO LISTENING V (from page 178) Handel: The Messiah No. 26 "All We Like Sheep Have Gone Astray"--Chorus Text: All we like sheep have gone astray We have turned every one to his own way. And the Lord hath laid on Him the iniquity of us all. Isaiah 53: 6 Earlier, you read how Handel and other Baroque com- posers felt free to utilize the music of other composers in their own compositions. Here is an example of borrowing; in this instance, however, Handel "borrowed" from one of his own compositions-~a secular duet. It was not an unusual thing for Baroque composers to convert secular music into sacred music or vice versa. The remarkable thing is the great degree of success they achieved in doing so. In this chorus, mankind is likened to wandering sheep. Man's aimless straying is expressed musically by the roving of themes from one voice part to another. Notice use of "text ainting." An example of this is found on the word "astray" meas. A and 5) as the notes sung on that word appear to become lost (or astray) in their up- ward progression. Notice also the "turning" of the notes sung on the word "turned" in measures 11 and 12. Only the bass part and its text are included below for the Adagio section, but you should easily be able to hear the other voice parts as they enter. 185 GUIDE V (cont.) "All We Like Sheep" soprano ' Vsolfns $0 rsno ? Al) we )ike sheep. A“ we like. Shea): Masques-stray; All we like. Vie) {n SO prano A (To __ we have 'harn ) more in I‘m -— ed; we. have Turn Adag'no s And 44‘: Lord Mk laid on (41....) #-— the Lard Mk \aid on us a“ . “Km—w ‘H'Ie I'n- iq-ui-‘t’y 0" 186 GUIDE V (conte) No. AO Bass solo "Why Do The Nations 80 Furiously Rage Together?" Text: Why do the nations so furiously rage together: why do the peeple imagine a vain thing? The kings of the earth rise up and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord, and against his Anointed. Psalm 2: l, 2 This is a typical "rage" aria. It is a type which originated in baroque Opera and soon found its way into sacred music. The "raging" effect is produced primarily by the fast notes of the strings. Not to be overlooked, however, are the long series of notes sung on one syllable that produce the effect of agitation. Especially appro- priate to the song is the Singing of the word "rage" in measures 23-26. Would you consider this treatment of the word "rage" a good example of "text painting"? AHeS ro 187 GUIDE V (cont.) "Why do the Nations" (cont.) Why do Hue. ha - ‘Hons so W ‘Pu-r-ious-h rage ino- geih-er? Why do Hie Pea-pk .tm- qg-Tne a vdtn H‘fingz Why do “he rte-Hons K 3 3 r09 e Pu- n'ous A», +o— geH-t-er 7 Why do +he peo~p\e'cm —- og - -. -— —. __ .. .. ..__.--- 1642. 0 VGA}. 'Hfin3, a'm- a9 — — - —- — (8‘9 a vain %;n9 7. 188 GUIDE V (cont.) No. A2 "He That Dwelleth in Heaven" - Tenor Recitative No. A3 "Thou Shalt Break Them" - Tenor Aria Text: He that dwelleth in heaven shall laugh them to scorn; the Lord shall have them in derision. No. A2: 20" Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them in pieces like a potter's vessel. No. A3: 2' Recitative is one of the most characteristic features of Baroque music. Found in the operas and in the large scale sacred works of the period, recitatives were designed to imitate and emphasize the natural inflections and rhythms of speech. They were used in connection with prose texts of a narrative character to carry on the action from one aria or chorus to another. Because of the freedom characteristic to recitative the interpretations vary slightly from one performer to the next. What appears one way on the printed page might be performed in a slightly different manner with- out violating the composer's intentions. The accompaniment to the recitative usually consisted of a keyboard instru- ment, which provided the chords, and a sustained bass part in the lower strings (cello and/or string bass). Whereas recitatives move the action forward, arias suspend the action of the narration and prolong the mood set by the recitatives. Read the text of this aria. What words would lend themselves to "text painting"? As you listen, see how Handel treated those words. Notice how the orches- tra part with its great leaps, falls, and accents helps to convey the spirit and meaning of the text. No..42, TenOr- 'Rec'l+a+ive He +ho+ dwell-6+)» in kEQV~en ska” laugh ‘H‘em "0 189 GUIDE V (cont.) No. A2 No. A3 scorn; We. Lev-d shall have them in de- ri -s£on . NO- 43 _ Tenor A l \ - ::1t::EE:d 3 : 5 r 2 A. "to... shaH' ‘ 1A e A 4 ‘ e $938:- 2 r- - I—dl I | I l K _J break 'Hnem WA‘H'IG rod —-—-——-—' °f "'- ron/3__\ €+C n A I I 1 I‘- I ‘Y t l .r l l A l r I L l D I l l C I v 14 ‘ | 190 GUIDE V (cont.) No. AA - Chorus "Hallelujah" Text: Hallelujah, for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth. The kingdom of this world is become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ. and he shall reign for ever King of Kings and Lord of Lords. Hallelujah! Rev. 19: 6; ll: 15; 19: 16 Sing the themes written below several times before listening to this chorus. Then notice, as you listen to the recording, how Handel alternated powerful homephonic sections with polyphonic sections, how he used several themes simul- taneously, and how he repeated themes. The only thematic section that is not repeated or varied is the one that oc- curs near the middle of the selection with the text, "The kingdom of this world is become the kingdom Of our Lord and of his Christ." Notice also that there is no use of "text painting" in this chorus. It would be worthwhile for you to notice the similarities between this chorus and the coronation anthem, "Zadok the Priest." 9‘. Ha) -— Ie-lu-kehl HO) ~‘e -)U~je)\!-HONe-Iu§al\'. (Uh-(“1305! ROI-(e, _ l... 310"! F0? We LOrdGcJ Ont-n) - Pa-T‘efl!’ rag'gn -044". . F. : THO. Ling-A0?“ 0“ 14-55 woe-)6 1': be - come 34‘2. king-dam .4 our Lord and .4 m. Chfid’pm‘ e4 the Christ. h- ”x and He she“ reign Cir-ever and as - er, Fonewer and es -er «('19 0‘; K|hgs. .__—-——- w Lord 0“ Lords...— U27rra= Az33wmm $00] chapter ,0 - BC AD PROTESTANT BOURGEO|S B r 1550 [5'15 (600 [615' 1650 1675 I700 (716' I75b A .- mu' 0‘ "‘3" run 5'00 __ 0 0'30 Int“ Co I'LCJ R .- Hds «. O V b- Iooo __ Q ‘_ Hon‘ court U L. Pie.“ me mad . E "0° P ----J Vermeer: THE CONCERT . HOLLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY To go from France to the Northern or Dutch Nether- lands in the seventeenth century was like stepping from one world into another. French society was shaped by the will of Louis XIV and his desire to glorify the divine-right monarchy; Dutch society was shaped by a large Protestant middle class who were determined to enjoy a maximum of . individual freedom and to have a minimum of governmental authority. In France everything centered around Versailles and the aristocratic court; in Holland the center of ac- tivity was the home of the bourgeois or middle-class burgher. Commerce and Prosperity. At the end of the Thirty Years' War in 16h8, Holland achieved independence from Spain and from the Catholic Church. The country consisted of seven provinces. Each of these provinces had its large towns and each town its local school of painting.1 Com- merce, the main source of wealth, spread prosperity so widely it was said of the Hollanders that not one of their pe0ple was unemployed,2 that every industrious citizen lLudwig Goldscheider, Jan Vermeer The Paintin 3, complete edition, trans. R. H. Boothroyd (N. Y.: Phaidon Publishers, Inc., 1958), p. 12. 2Adriaan Jacob Barnouw, "The Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age," The Netherlands, Chap. III, ed. Bartholo- mew Landheer (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, l9h6), p. hh. 193 19h could hOpe to have at least a share of the good things in life for his home.3 A comfortable home was desirable, but wealthy burghers did not build palaces though they had the means to do so.“ Anything reminding them of courtly pomp and Splendor was understandably unpOpular. Consequently, life remained simple. Foreigners were impressed with the phenomenal eco- nomic expansion of the Dutch and sent men to Holland to study the cause of its wealth and the functioning of its social and political institutions.5 Even the Dutch mar- veled at the sudden upswing of trade and commerce. They honestly believed that their new wealth was a token of God's approval. They were being allowed to reap the benefits of. their parents' and grandparents' struggle against Spanish tyranny. According to their reasoning, the great amassing of wealth was therefore not felt to be an evil. "Help thy- self and God will help thee," began a song of the Dutch Sea Beggars. The Dutch had helped themselves to freedom, and God had come to their aid by giving them peace and pros- parity.6 According to their Calvinistic beliefs, the glori- fication of work and thrift rather than pleasure and leisure 3William Fleming, Arts and Ideas (N. Y.: Henry Holt “Ibid., p. 5h5. 5Barnouw, p. #1. 6Franklin Charles Palm, The Middle Classes Then and Now (N. Y.: The MacMillan Co., 15567, p. 52. 195 constituted not only the one sure road to heaven but also a dependable way to economic independence.7 Religion and the Place of Music and Art in the Church. Religion was more important to the Dutch burgher than politics. In that small country several religions and hundreds of sects lived peaceably side by side. Calvinism was the main but not the state religion. Even though Protes- tantism had lost some of the driving energy it had during the Reformation, it was still a powerful force in seventeenth century Holland.8 Emphasis was placed on the responsibility of the individual before God. Every home was encouraged to have its own Bible and to carry on its own family devotions, hymn singing, and Bible reading. The printing press made the Bible available to all, and because of the high degree of literacy in Holland, most were able to read it. In the Reformed Church (Calvinism), paintings, stat- ues, organs, choirs, orchestras, and an elaborate liturgy were frowned upon since they might distract the worshipper from the true purposes of attending church--those of hear- ing a sermon and singing praises to God.9 In fact, most music and all art in churches were condemned by early re- formers as being temptations of the devil. Choral music, Ibid. 8Jacques DuPont and Francois Mathey, The Seventeenth Century, The Great Centuries of Painting (Geneva, Switzer- land: Albert Skira, 1951), pp. 60-61. 9Fleming, p. 525- 196 for which the Netherlands had been famous in the early six- teenth century, was forbidden. One writer maintained that choir singing sounded like "the bleating of brute beasts." He said, "Choristers bellow the tenor as it were oxen; bark a counterpoint as it were a kennel of dogs, roar out a treble as if it were a number of hogs."lo Therefore, only congregational singing of psalms and hymns was permitted11 "provided it was 'in one voice and with a plain tune.‘ But the 'trowling of psalms from one side of the choir to the other,' accompanied by organ playing and 'squeaking of chanting choristers disguised in white surplices," were considered degrading to a church service.12 The early re- formers, in their extreme zeal, had even removed organs from the medieval Roman Catholic churches which had been taken over by the Calvinists.13 Due to the Hollanders' great love for the instrument, it wasreintroducedlh early in the seventeenth century to play the preludes and post- 1udes.15 The many years of musical starvation, due to the strict teachings of Calvinism, however, left a lasting mark on Dutch culture, and music in Holland never again rose to its former position of prominence.16 10William Pyrnne, Histrio-Mastix, quoted in Smith, p. 68. llBarnouw, p. 55. 12Leo Smith, Music of the Seventeenth and Bi hteenth Centuries (London: Went and WW. 13Barnouw, p. 55. liggig. 15Fleming, p. 538. 16Barnouw, p. 55. 1‘ 197 Quick Check 1. The center of activity in Holland was the home (court) (home). Ti 2. Dutch society was shaped by the (lower) middle (middle) (upper) class. 3. At the end of the Thirty Years' war, Hol- Spain land achieved independence from (country). A. The main source of wealth in Holland was commerce (commerce)(industry). 193k __ 5. The Dutch were great believers in (work) thrift (leisure) and (pleasure) (thrift). ‘Religign_ 6. Politics Reli ion was more important politics to the Dutc than olitics reli ion . 7. There was a (high) (low) degree of liter- high acy in seventeenth century Holland. 8. Church choirs and organs were (pOpular) (forbidden) in the Calvinistic Re orme forbidden Church. ART Patronage. Dutch art was the chief glory of the Golden Age of Holland. It was shaped by two main circum- stances: Protestantism discouraged art in churches, and the bourgeois society was anxious to have paintings, of a certain type, in their homes. This meant that the artist was no longer patronized by the church; instead, he was de- pendent on the Protestant bourgeois. Every home had at least a small collection of paintings. Here we have our first view of an artist working in a system of free compe- tition. The result was far greater artistic freedom for seventeenth century Dutch artists than for such Counter Reformation artists as El Greco and Bernini, who had to 198 please the theologians, or those artists living in a society dominated by the aristocracy who had to please some sover- eign or prince. In the following century this new type of patronage was to be found in some other countries, eSpecially England, and by the nineteenth century it would be a world- wide condition.l7 Styles. As has been stated previously, the Baroque was an age of contrasts. One of the greatest contrasts in the Baroque was the difference between the art styles of Southern and Northern EurOpe. The new patrons in Holland were the merchants whose successful trade had provided them the means for buying pictures. These middle class merchants did not want Italian pictures of Greek gods and goddesses nor did they want the sensuous, courtly pictures of Rubens. Such Baroque styles were too foreign to the Calvinistic Dutch way of life. Instead, they wanted simple, realistic pictures, such as family portraits and scenes of the every- day world, to hang on their parlor walls. Remember, there were no cameras or photographers in the seventeenth century. Because of this and because all things, even the most com- monplace or insignificant, were considered gifts of God, seventeenth century Dutch painting truly mirrored in great- est detail the simple day-to-day life of the burgher. Titles like The Pantry, The Apple Peeler, Family-Life, gag: ing a Blessing, Mother's Joy, The Letter‘Writer, and Th3 17Bernard S. Myers, Art and Civilization (N. Y.: Mc-Graw Book Co., Inc., 195 , p. l. 199 Oyster Meal were common and show us the importance attached to the home. Other titles like Cattle on the Dike, Shipp before the Coast, The Big Market, Townhall at Haarlpp,‘1hg Fishmarket, The Inn, Thg_Little Street, Directors of the Cloth Guild, and Graduation Ceremony at Leyden give a won- derful picture of life outside the home. Can you imagine any one of these pictures on a wall of one of the grand salons of Versailles? Hundreds of painters Sprang up throughout Holland. Most of them Specialized in various areas of painting like landscapes, homey scenes, still lifes, animals, or por- traits. Some even Specialized in landscapes with cows: For perhaps the first time in history, the number of paint- ers exceeded the demand for paintings. As a result, many painters were forced to live in actual poverty. Most artists, in fact, resorted to other trades to supplement their artistic income. Quick Check 1. Dutch (art) (music) rose to great heights art in the seventeenth century. middle 2. Artists were atronized by the (aristocracy) class ((middle class§(church). 3. The Dutch peeple wanted paintings which .Eiflpl€_._ were ornamental sim 1e and realistic) realistic (sensuous . [peg _._ A. A Dutch painting would be liable to contain lipn_ _ a (cow) (lion) rather than a (cow) lion ; ppphgr_ a (queen mother) rather than a‘_ ueen (gugep,_. mother); a (home) (palace) rather t an home_ _ a ome i (palace). 'vww'v—V 200 Vermeer (1632-1675).18 One of Holland's leading art- ists in the seventeenth century, Vermeer specialized in painting the middle class in its leisure pursuits within the home. Throughout all his paintings is a calm and dignified glorification of the middle class with its riches and ma- terial possessions. In Lady Seated at thg Virgina; (Fig. 25), Fig. 25. Vermeer: Lady Seated at the Virginal. l8Vermeer (fer mar) 201 evidences of riches are the painting on the wall (such as one would find in most Dutch homes), the rich drapery in the left corner, the richness of the lady's costume, and the instruments. Both of the instruments, the virginal and the viola da gamba,19 were pOpular for music-making in the seventeenth century Dutch homes. The virginal was a fore- runner of the piano. Notice that it has a painting on the inside of the top lid. The string instrument in the front foreground is a viola da gamba, predecessor of the modern cello. Although the cello was already in existence and was beginning to replace the viola da gamba in orchestras, the viola da gamba remained the more widely used instrument in the home in seventeenth century Holland. Just as instru- ments and pictures on walls are objects seen over and over again in Vermeer's paintings, so are maps (Fig. 26). The maps reflect the Dutch commercial interests, the Dutch colonies in America and the activities of the Dutch East India Company. These were the sources of Holland's new wealth and therefore a very meaningful part of Vermeer's paintings. ‘ In Vermeer's works, representations of peOple were not meant to be penetrating character studies, but rather an idealization of the middle-class and an important part of the design. They were sometimes objects upon which light was reflected, sometimes blocks of color which pro- vided balance or contrast to the composition. Always they 19viola da gamba (vy3/la da gém’bé) 202 Fig. 260 Vermeer: Young Woman with a Water Jug. were painted in a cool, impersonal style which reminds one of Raphael. Almost always, too, the person is standing or sitting in the light of a window. Sometimes the window is visible in the painting as in Young Woman with a Water Jug (Fig. 26). Other times it is not visible, but its presence is just as real as if it could be seen (PLATE V). Hglp (1580-1666).20 One of the Dutch artists to stand in strongest opposition to the elegancies and formal- ities of the Baroque court was Frans Hals. He spent most onals (halz) 203 of his time in the streets and taverns where he loved to study the faces of the barmaids, the singers, the smokers, and the drinkers, who were without the moral restraints of the more sober Bible-reading burghers.21 These faces he painted very rapidly with crisp, rough brush strokes. The woman in Malle Babbe (Fig. 27), typical of the characters in Hals' paintings, is caught in an informal pose with a spontaneous grin on her face. His characters might be called "diamonds-in-the-rough." Fig. 27. Hals: malls Babbe. 21Fleming, p. 533. 20A Ruisdael (c. 1628-1682).22 To people of the twentieth century, landscapes do not seem at all out-of-the-ordinary, but it must be remembered that prior to the Baroque, land- scapes appeared only as incidental backgrounds in paintings. The major concern of Renaissance artists was the human figure. Many seventeenth century Dutch artists, on the other hand, seldom painted human figures; the landscape be- came important for its own sake. The most important land- scape painter of this time was Ruisdael. Windmills, skies, fields, and forests of the Dutch countryside were his subjects. Fig. 28. Ruisdael: The Cemetepy. These landscapes, often with brooding storm clouds, express a mood of tension characteristic of the Baroque period. In The Cemetegy (Fig. 28), the stormy sky, rainbow, 22Ruisdael (rfz’dil) 205 ruins of a castle, skeleton-like trees, and stone slabs of the tombs all add up to more than a merely pretty landscape. There are reminders of death, a subtle mood of struggle and of conflicts of man. Buried under the slabs are Jews who had fled from the Spanish Inquisition and in Holland had found freedom to live and worship as they pleased. Ruisdael projects the mood of the Jews“ struggles in this picture without showing a single human being. Quick Check l. The paintings of were in- formal, Spontaneous studies of peOple Hals like barmaids and singers. 2. The paintings of glorified the middle class andfiits leisure activi- Vermeer ties in the home. 3. was a painter of Dutch Ruisdael landscapes. A. A virginal was an instrument which was a pignp _ forerunner of the ; the viola cello da gamba was a forerunner of the . 5. Which of the adjectives in the left column below best describe the paintings you have seen of the artists in the right column? Match the numbers with the let- ters. a-l a. dignified l. Vermeer b-3 ' b. gay 2. Ruisdael c-2 c. moody 3. Hals Rembrandt (l609-1669).23 The artist who towered above all others in seventeenth century Holland was Rem- brandt. Like the Flemish master, Rubens, he did not spe- cialize in any area such as landscapes, but was master of 23Rembrandt (rem/brhnt) 206 many, including portraiture, Biblical stories, scenes of everyday life, and landscapes. Unlike Rubens and most other seventeenth century artists and musicians, Rembrandt never diSplayed any inter- est in going to Italy to study. Instead, he remained close to home throughout his life. His parents, anxious for him to rise from the uneducated lower middle class to the cul- tured upper classes, encouraged him in his classical Greco- Latin studies.24 Later he studied painting in Leyden and Amsterdam in addition to studying works of the masters. Like other Baroque artists, he made a practice of cepying the works of masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo to learn more about them. An ardent art collector, he some- times bid at the Amsterdam auctions just to drive up prices and in that manner heighten his countrymen's appreciation of artistic work. The wealthy bourgeoisie of Amsterdam, true capitalists that they were, considered an art collec- tion as a safe investment and a means of increasing their fortunes as the values of their collections rose in the course of time.25 Rembrandt's intention in buying art works, however, had never been to make a fortune but rather to col- lect more and finer Specimens of paintings, statues, and etchings as a source of personal learning and reference. 2“Lajos Vayer Rembrandt (Budapest, Hungary: Szikra Printing House, 1955 , p. 5. 251bid., p. 15. 207 At one time, the Governor of Holland commissioned Rembrandt to do a series of religious paintings. This, remember, was the age when the Flemish painter, Rubens, was the idol of all EurOpean courts. Rembrandt made an effort to conform to the government's taste for the Flemish mas- ter's style, but he only followed similar religious paint- ings of Rubens insofar as they showed, in Rembrandt's own words, "excessive and most natural animation."26 Rembrandt, at this time, might have altered the course of his life and work by conforming to public taste and striving for a court appointment. This might have led to other royal commissions. Instead he chose to paint in a style to suit himself.27 All his art, in the final analysis, was focused on man and showed a concern for moral and Spiritual beauty rather than shallow, physical prettiness. To emphasize his concern for Spiritual beauty, he avoided brilliant colors and instead used light and shadows (chiaroscuro) in such a manner as to illuminate the characters on his canvases and etchings from both within and without. The light in Rem- brandt's paintings, like that in El Greco's, is other- worldly. It seems to break through the boundaries of the physical world.28 Where Vermeer painted prOper middle class burghers in a cool, impersonal style and Hals pictured 26Ibid., p. 13. 27Ibid. 28Rene Huyghe, Ideas and Ima es in WOrld Art (N. Y.: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1959), p. 3A2. 208 slightly disreputable characters in their lighter, informal moments, Rembrandt chose, more and more, to Show the suffer- ings of the lower classes. In his earlier years, Rembrandt had been one of H01- land's most pOpular portrait painters. Wealthy burghers had flocked to him to be immortalized on canvas. The resulting fashionable portraits almost invariably showed sober, down- to-earth citizens with features encased in white starched collars, citizens seeking to improve their status in the world (Fig. 29). They were not penetrating character studies, but substitutes for photographs before the age of the camera. Fig. 290 Rembrandt: Portrait of a Married Couple. Fig. 30. Rembrandt: Man with the Red Cap. With the passing of years, Rembrandt gradually withdrew from the company of the wealthy to frequent the Ghetto and the outskirts of town where the poor lived.29 Most of his finest por- traits other than those of himself30 and of his family, are of the old bearded men from these lower classes whose faces expressed suffering (Fig. 30). These he painted with tremendous sympathy and a spiritual depth which give them universal appeal. Many of those same faces with sad expressions were used as models for his religious pictures as in Christ 29Vayer, p. 25. 3oRembrandt painted more self-portraits as studies throughout his lifetime than any other major artist. 210 Healing php s_ieg (Fig. 31). In this wonderful etching,3l Shadows represent disease and broken Spirits; light stands for health and life; and Christ, glowing with a spiritual light, symbolizes healing power. Much of the picture is cast in shadow with sick, sad faces peering out of the dark- ness. Others, finding Christ, gradually emerge into the light. Rembrandt has depicted these broken, sick people who are looking for the light with tenderness and sympathy. On the other side of Christ, however, is a complete con- trast. Here are a group of onlookers standing in the light of good health but whose facial expressions betray cynicism, Fig. 31. Rembrandt: Christ Healing the Sick. 31An etching is made by scratching a wax-covered metal plate with a stylus. When the plate is dipped into an acid solution, the uncovered or scratched portions are eaten into or "etched." Ink impressibns can then be taken from the etched plate to a paper. 211 hate, doubt, and disbelief.32 The more one examines this seemingly unassuming picture, the more meaning and symbolism one finds. Like fine chamber music which does not dazzle and overwhelm the senses with bigness, the etching does not unlock all its secrets to the beholder at the first care- less glance. The beholder inSpecting it with care finds treasures unnoticed at first. Not created for public dis- play in a church, Christ Healingthe Sick achieves a greater intimacy than is possible with large, colorful canvases found in public halls or churches. . One of the most subtle, tender, and Spiritual stories in the Bible is told by Luke in the New Testament and retold by Rembrandt in one of his most famous paintings, Supper at Emmaus (Fig. 32). Luke relates how two of Christ's lesser followers met Jesus after the Resurrection as they were walking from Jerusalem towards Emmausand did not recognize Him. Christ, seeing their bitterness and deSpondency over the shame of the Crucifixion, began to eXplain the necessity of it all and they, heartened by His words, persuaded Him to eat with them at Emmaus. As He took the bread and blessed it, the disciples recognized Him as their risen Lord; then He was gone, but His Spiritual presence seemed to remain with them. Often, in His three years of ministry, Christ had stressed the importance of belief in His Spiritual pres- ence saying, "Where two or three are gathered together in 32Ph111p 0. Beam, The Lan ua e of Art (N. Y.: The Ronald Press Co., 1958), pp. 280, 282. 212 My name, there am I in the midst of them." As soon as He had made this point to the disciples at Emmaus, He van— ished. The servant who waited on them did not see Christ at all. Rembrandt painted this scene in simple, quiet, reverent terms with monochromatic coloring in the various hues of brown used so often by him and with suffused light- ing highlighting Christ. In this manner he captured and emphasized the Spiritual nature of the story.33 i' , V Fig. 32. Rembrandt: Supper at Emmaus. 33Ibid., p. 666. .2; 3“ 213 Quick Check 1. The greatest painter in seventeenth cen- Rembrandt r tury Holland was . 2. He (did) (did_not) go to Italy to study did not the works of the masters. 3. His concern was to Show (Spiritual) Spiritual (physical) beauty. GERMANY Germany between 1650 and 1750. While Louis XIV shaped France into EurOpe's leading power and the middle class of Holland reaped the harvest of their explorations throughout the world, the German nation was still in its struggling, formative years. Divided by the Protestant movement and ravaged by the Thirty Years' War, most of which was fought on German soil, Germany was too occupied with its own internal problems to take part in the explo- ration and colonization of the New world or to be a leading power in EurOpe. At the close of the Thirty Years' war in 16A8, there was no central government in the area now known as Germany. Instead, there were several states, similar in size to some of our eastern states, in addition to over 300 separate small principalities and free cities.3A Each of these states and principalities was governed by a prince or a guild. Rivalries between the various princes and guilds led to constant strife. In the course of the seventeenth 3“George N. Shuster and Arnold Bergstraesser, Ger- many, a Short History (N. Y.: W. W} Norton and Co., Inc., 19AA), p. 55. 21A and eighteenth centuries, the princes of the larger states succeeded in increasing their power while the rights of the small principalities dwindled away more and more.35 There was, however, to be no central political power until the nineteenth century when Bismark unified the German Empire. Not until then would Germany rate as a major European power. Several basic differences between the cultures of the northern and the southern states made German unification eSpecially difficult. The culture of the southern section of what we now call Germany resembled that of the southern EurOpean aristocracies. The peOple were, basically, easy- going and eager to enjoy life. Opera and Italian music such as Vivaldi's The Seasons dominated the musical scene. Ca- tholicism, with its accompanying sensuous and exuberant art, was the predominant religion. The culture of northern Ger- many more closely resembled the Protestant bourgeoisie of Holland. The people were industrious, sober citizens whose interests lay in the church and in the home. Lutheranism flourished with its serious and straightforward music and with its neglect of painting. During the first half of the eighteenth century, a minor reformation took place within the Lutheran church which was to have important effects on Protestant German thought and music. This religious movement, known as Pie- tism, was begun by Lutherans who wished to have a more —‘ 3SErich Brandenburg, "German ," Encyclopedia Bri- m. (ed.) 1913, I, 253. 215 personal approach to religion and a greater voice in the management of church affairs. The movement emphasized the need for informal devotional meetings, Bible study, and personal religious eXperiences as Opposed to formal reli- gion and intellectualism. Religious poets grew in number and brought forth a great amount of sentimental poetry in which the majesty of the Baroque was missing.36 Music of this movement was limited to simple Spiritual songs. Like the Pietists' poetry, it was sentimental and lacking in the craftsmanship that usually accompanies great art. After nearly a century of turmoil due to religious strife and political rivalries between princes, Germany, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, was finally on the road to financial and cultural recovery. It was also about to enter into the beginning of its long period of domina- tion of EurOpean music. Two of its great musicians, Handel and Bach, belong to the Baroque period. Handel came from Hanover, the northwestern German state governed by the Elector Georg Ludwig. Both Handel and Georg Ludwig left Hanover, however, to live in England, Handel to become England's most pOpular composer and Georg to become Eng- land's unpOpular German king, George I. The other great musician, Bach, was born in the central German state of Saxony, and there he remained his whole life working for various courts and churches. 36Paul Henry Lang, Music in western Civilization (N. Y.: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., I9A1), pp. A59-70. 216 Quick Check 1. During the Baroque period, Germany was weak politically (powerful) (weak). 2. Germany became a unified nation in the nine- (seventeenth) (eightegpth) (nineteenth) teenth century. 3. Lutheranism was predominant in (Northern) Nopthepn_ (Southern) Germany and Catholicism was pre- Southern dominant in (Northgrn) (Southern) Germany. A. A religious movement known as took place within the Lutheran church in Pietism the first half of the eighteenth century. 5. The music of this movement tended to be sentimental (contrapuptal) (sentimental). 6. Germany, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, entered into its lon period of music domination of European (art) (music). JOHANN SEBASTIAN M37 Differences between Eggh gpg Handel. Both Bach and Handel, now recognized as the greatest composers of the Baroque period, were born in the year 1685 in Germany. Similarities in their lives, however, did not last long. Whereas Handel traveled consider- ably and made his final home in England, Bach never Fig. 33. Johann Sebastian Bach. left Germany. Handel 37Bach (bak) 217 composed mainly for the aristocracy (operas); Bach, mainly for the church (cantatas). Handel was famous during his lifetime, even before his death becoming a national legend in England; Bach died with his great powers as a composer relatively unknown even in his native Germany. Handel's personality was active, dynamic, and forceful. ‘When faced with seemingly insurmountable difficulties, he used his great energy, enthusiasm, and his skill as a business man to overcome them. Bach, on the other hand, when difficul- ties became over-bearing, tended to retire to the seclusion of his Church and his family which were the sources of his inner strength.38 .Musical Masterpieces fppflflgpy Mediums. The abilities to play well and to compose were almost instinctive with Bach because of his rich musical heritage. In Germany the Bach name was synonymous with music making for many genera- tions. Johann Sebastian's ancestors had been excellent musicians; he fell right in line and attained the highest pinnacle of musical achievements in the Bach family. Sev- eral of his sons became the last of the famous musical Bachs. Bach composed for various mediums and produced master- pieces in each. Organists have utmost admiration for his many preludes, fugues, and chorale preludes for that instru- ment. Pianists refer to his keyboard compositions as the "Old Testament" which, together with the Beethoven piano '38Lang, p. A93. 218 sonatas (the "New Testament"), make up the pianists "bible. String players are as delighted in playing his orchestral concertos and suites as they are challenged in performing his works for solo instruments. His choral works form a part of the basic repertoire of all choirs. These composi- tions have not only stood the test of time but are becoming increasingly pOpular with performer and audience. Most Baroque composers wrote Operas in addition to church and chamber music. Bach was an exception, however, and made no contributions to this important area of Baroque music. This made it harder for him to secure desirable positions and partially accounts for the fact that his greatness was not fully realized or appreciated during his lifetime e Quick Check (Baph_ _ l. The greatest composers of the Baroque Handel were and . 2. composed mainly for the Bach church. 3. composed mainly for the Handel aristocracy. A. became famous during his Handel lifetime. 5. _ was not fully appreciated Bach during his lifetime. ermgny _ 6. Bach was born in (country) and lived in Germany . Gegmgny _ 7. Handel was born in and lived England in . 219 Quick Check (cont.) 8. Many generations of the family Bach were famous as musicians. did not 9. Bach (did) (did not) write operas. did 10. Handel (did)(did nop) write Operas. Throughout this text it has been observed how a com- poser or artist reflects or portrays the society in which he lives and works. It may be recalled how Handel's Operas mirrored the cultural desires of the English aristocracy and how Bernini's sensuous sculpture reflected the Counter Reformation desire to beautify the church in order to attract and hold members. Here, with Bach, the greatest musician of the Baroque, is an example of a musician whose works were not a true ex- pression of his times. In his studies, Bach had learned much about seventeenth century French, Italian, and German Baroque music. Elements from these various styles were ab- sorbed into his own compositions making them a culmination of seventeenth century Baroque music. During the last half of his lifetime, however, the pOpularity of the Baroque style waned as Pietism and other cultural forces ushered in new artistic styles. Bach's own background and person- ality were too closely bound to that of seventeenth century Protestantism and its music to be able to adapt to the sentimental aSpects of Pietism prevalent in eighteenth cen- tury Germany.39 Papa Bach with his old religious and 39Lang, p. A95. 220 musical ideas was not quite "in tune" with the age and, technically Speaking, "his music was not a true eXpression of the time."l*O His musical sons, although they received much of their training from their somewhat conservative father, were some of the leaders in the new music styles. Conflicts with Pietism pp Mfihlhausen. The religious aSpects of the Pietist movement may have been worthwhile, but the artistic results were not only questioned by Bach, but abhorred by him. While employed in his first position at Mfihlhausen in 1707, the twenty-two year old Bach was drawn into a quarrel involving Lutheran orthodoxy and Pietism. Being true to his family tradition and to his personal and artistic convictions, he sided with the or- thodox view even against the pastor of his own church. He could not work in a church where sickly sentimental songs prevailed. His art meant too much to him, and he stayed at Mfihlhausen for only one year before moving to another position.hl Court Composer pp Weimar and COthen. Although most of Bach's life and effort were devoted to the glorification of the church through music, his contributions to the field of secular music were also great. Many of his secular compositions were composed in his earlier years when employed by various German courts. h01b1d., p. A80. thanfred F. Bukofzser, Music in the Baro ue Era (N. Y.: W.'W. Norton and Co., Inc., 19A7), p. 272. 221 In 1708, after leaving Mfihlhausen, Bach accepted a position as court organ- ist at Weimar. It was there that many of his organ pieces were com- posed. During his lifetime Bach received more recog- nition for his performing ability than for his skill at composition. In his position at Weimar he was able to utilize his tre- mendous skill as an organ- . :7 i.e.,f‘. .et'iglt; :13»: -_‘ Fig. 3A. A page of manuscript ist. It is due to Bach's from one of Bach's organ works. technique of fingering key- board passages that the thumb became an integral part of the pianist's hand. Prior to Each, only four fingers had been used in scale passages. Bach, however, used the thumb as a fifth finger, and used it so skillfully that its use became an accepted technique for the keyboard player."2 In addition to his keyboard duties at Weimar, he became concert- master43 of the court orchestra and by so doing, utilized thvelyn Porter, The Stor of Music (N. Y.: The Philosophical Library, 1951), p. 102. thirst chair violinist and leader of the orchestra 222 still another of his performing talents, that of playing violin. After Spending nine years at Weimar, Bach moved to Cathen. His new employer, Prince LeOpold, was a Calvinist. Consequently, the only music to be heard in the court chapel was congregational singing of psalms. Bach therefOre had nothing to do with church music in his new position. Prince LeOpold's disapproval of music in the church was countered by his enthusiastic approval of instrumental concerts in which he, himself, was a participant.55 Bach was conductor of the eighteen-piece orchestra which furnished music for court festivities. It was probably at COthen that he wrote the four Orchestral Suites. The third and most famous of these suites contains the selection from which the well- known "Air on the G string" has been arranged.‘5 Quick Check 1. Bach's personality was close to that of the a. seventeenth century Protestant. a b. eighteenth century Pietist. did 2. Bach (did)_(did not) write sacred music. did 3. Bach (did) (did not) write secular music. A. Durin his lifetime Bach received (more) less recognition for his Skill at com- less position than for his performing ability. M'Alfred Frankenstein, Notes on Suites by J. S. Bach (RCA Victor Record, LM-6012), p. I. “5GUIDE To LISTENING VI, pp. 232-237. 223 Bach Moves pp‘g Church Position ip Leipzig. Upon returning to COthen from a short trip, Bach was surprised to find that his wife had passed away suddenly. In the year 1720, people could not be reached as quickly in an emergency as in the twentieth century Since it was well be- fore the age of the telephone or other Speedy messengers. Consequently, his wife had already been buried before he arrived home.“6 Bach, who had led a happy home life, was shaken by this tragedy. His grief led him to seek a new place of employment, one which would not remind him of his previous home associations and also one in which his children would receive good Lutheran schooling."'7 Eventually he was ap- pointed to the post of cantor at the St. Thomas School in Leipzig. This school supplied the choirs for the city churches and Bach, himself, as cantor, was to direct the choir and orchestra at the St. Thomas Church (Fig. 35)."’8 His duties also included several menial chores, not the least of which was to teach Latin to his choir boys.“9 AéLang, p. A92. ‘7Ibld. “8Charles Sanford Terry, "Johann Sebastian Bach," Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. 3 (N. Y.: Macmillan Co., 1952):I, 161. h9The choir boys lived under the care of the church during Bach's time. They lived at the school and received their schooling and musical training directly from the. church and its leaders. -~|.:' é . A e , a; '- f, , (‘14.: 5. ‘ EL Sf, ~ 5"" I. - '1 A 14 _ I .T _ 7'12 ‘~ w . g. ( r ----l ‘ I , ( 4. a Fig. 35. Entrance and interior of the St. Thomas Church in Leip- zig where Bach was can- tor. 221; Bach almost failed to receive this position. In Mfihlhausen, you recall, Bach ran into difficulties because of opposition to certain as- pects of Pietism. In applying for the position at Leipzig, his difficulties were due, not to Pietism, but to the popu- larity of the Baroque operatic style. The church Officials wanted to hire an up-to-date musician who would modernize the music of the church. Their policy in Leipzig at this time was to hire a musician competent in the field of Opera who would be able to incorporate some of the ideas used in opera into church music. Bach, however, had not composed any operas nor was he engaged in their production. After the church officials found that their first two choices for the posi- tion of cantor were not available, one of them remarked that "since the best musicians are not available we must select a 225 mediocre one."5O Bach, of course, was not a mediocre mu- sician nor was he regarded as one, yet the statement reveals that conservative musicians, like Bach, were not as much in demand as those who were associated with new musical styles. The foregoing paragraph Should not be interpreted to mean that Bach's music was not accepted or reSpected. It was. It does, however, indicate one of the reasons why the greatest composer of the Baroque was not fplly appreciated in his time and why his name was forgotten for many years after his death. Bach, upon entering his new position as cantor in Leipzig, stood somewhat alone in his artistic as well as his religious ideals. He still composed in the contrapun- tal style used by the Renaissance composers but avoided by many Baroque composers; he did not compose Operas as most Baroque composers did, and he resisted much of the contem- porary religious movement of Pietism. Master pf Counterpoint. The organizational aSpects of Bach's mind were nothing less than phenomenal. In his compositions, there is a limited amount of melodic material which is develOped to its fullest through the use of various devices. These devices are not unique with Bach; they are among the basic tools of composers. What is significant is the extreme mastery Bach had over all devices of counter- point. ‘Whereas many composers regard these tools of counter- point as confining or as artificial, Bach literally thrived 50Lang, p. A93. 226 under the discipline and restrictions they imposed. No small part of the greatness of his compositions comes from the unity he Obtained through the use of contrapuntal de- vices. Tpp Religious Cantatas. In the Lutheran church, the sermon assumed a very important part in the Sunday morning service. This was in contrast to the Catholic church where the ritual of the mass was predominant. Next to the sermon in importance came music. This had been true in the Lutheran church since the days of Martin Luther and is true in most Protestant churches today. A big difference between today and 1700 is in the length of the service. The sermon in those days was between One and two hours long, and the entire morning service usually lasted as long as four hours. To prepare for such a long church service each Sun- day, Bach was kept busy com- posing new music for the organ and choir. It was no small formance of the time of feat not only to compose new Bach showing part of the instrumental group. music for each week, but also 227 to teach it to his choir and soloists. The music immedi- ately preceding the sermon was called a cantata. This was a composition, usually about 20 or 25 minutes in length, which consisted of choruses, recitatives, solos, and a final chorale. Texts of these cantatas were related to the Bibli- cal text to be emphasized on the particular Sunday they were performed. In that way they helped to unify the entire ser- vice. For the Leipzig churches, Bach composed over 250 of these cantatas (over five complete yearly sets). The most dramatic time of the church year occurs during Holy Week, and to the music for this season Bach has given great emotional impact. His Passions for soloists, chorus, and orchestra are the closest the German master came to writing an Opera. The story of the passion of Jesus Christ, although familiar, is always an engrossing one and provides a natural setting for dramatic music. Of his two extant passions, the Passion According to Saint John is perhaps not as well-known as the Passion According to Saint Matthew, but it is more dramatic. Soloists representing St. John (the narrator) and Biblical personalities such as Peter, Pilate, and Christ tell the story. Bach gave the most beautiful, restful, and contemplative sections to Christ who is portrayed in a simple, quiet, and reverent manner reminding one of Rembrandt's portrayal of Christ in Supper at Emmaus. The chorus frequently takes the role of the crowd attending the trial of Jesus before Pontius Pilate. 228 It is heard Shouting to Pilate to crucify the King of the Jews, and later, gambling over who shall receive Christ's purple robe. Then again the chorus is found in the role of the believers who sing beautiful, simple chorales (sim- ple hymns) eXpressing their faith in Christ and their love of God. The chorales serve as reverent, contemplative in- terludes or outbursts of praise in this Passion that is brimming over with excitement in the contrapuntal choruses and tense recitatives. Unfortunately, much of Bach's music that is heard to- day is performed in large formal halls by large orchestras and choirs of several hundred voices. This is contrary in Spirit to Bach's intentions. His music was written to be performed and heard in the intimacy of the home or small concert hall or in the worshipful atmosphere of the church.51 It is in these places that one may expect to find a true insight into the personal and subjective qualities of his music. Until these insights are received, one is hearing only sounds and is missing the living and vital quality of the music.52 511h1d., p. 51A. 52GUIDE To LISTENING VII for selected portions of the St. John Passion is found on pages 238-2A5. 229 Quick Check 1. Lutheran churches, in the Baroque stressed music (art) (music). 2. The musical form used by Bach that con- sisted of choruses, recitatives, solos, and chorales that preceded the sermon is cantata called a . 3. The large musical form performed during Holy week is known as a -and Passion resembles Opera. 1. 2. A. 5. 7. 4 EXERCISES FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING Suggested Projects Determine what instruments are pictured in Vermeer's The Concert, PLATE V, p. 192. Find out what instruments have taken their place in the modern orchestra. De- scribe differences between the modern instruments and their predecessors. Make an investigation of other seventeenth century Dutch painters. Compare the lives and artistic styles of Rembrandt and Rubens. , Read John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. How does it reflect the culture of that time? What similarities can you find between it and the music and art of the seventeenth century? Listen to music of another of the famous Bach family. Compare it with that of Johann Sebastian. Listen to portions of Bach's Egandenburg Concertos; select a part of one concerto to be played or t e class and present information which will make the listening meaningful to the class. A vocal quartet, or larger group if possible, may per- form a Bach chorale for the class. 1. 2. 3. A. 1. 2. A. 230 Increasing Your Vocabulary bourgeois (193) flourished (21A) burgher (193) Pietism (21A) commerce (193) insurmountable (217) phenomenal (19A) synonymous (217) amassing (19A) pinnacle (217) constituted (195) preludes (music) (217) sects (195) fugues (217) Calvinism (195) chorale preludes (217) literacy (195) repertoire (218) liturgy (195) culmination (219) virginal (201) prevalent (219) viola da gamba (201) orthodoxy (220) idealization (201) menial (223) broodin (20A) feat (226) ardent %206) cantata (227) bourgeoisie (206) Passion (227) Ghetto (209) engrossin (227) cynicism (210) chorales %228) suffused (212) Questions for Study Why did art thrive in seventeenth century Holland while music did not? Why did music thrive in seventeenth and early eighteenth century Germany while painting did not? How do seventeenth century Dutch paintings reflect the culture of Holland? Who were the two greatest Baroque composers? Discuss similarities and differences in their lives and music. Questions for Class Discussion Compare the styles of Rembrandt, Vermeer, Ruisdael, and Hals. How did Baroque art styles in northern EurOpe differ from those in southern EurOpe? ‘Why? Compare El Greco, Vermeer, and Rembrandt in their use of light. Much of Renaissance music was based on plainsong; much of Baroque music was based on chorale melodies. Discuss reasons for this. 231 Suggested Class Activities Examine piano, choral, or instrumental music of the Ba- roque period. Notice that it is definitely in either a major or minor key. See if you can find any music which is still written in the modes as was Renaissance music. In the complete collection of Bach chorales, you can find a few modal melodies. 'With the aid of an Opaque or overhead projector, analyze several contrapuntal selections of Bach. The teacher may point out and discuss the devices of counterpoint such as imitation, sequence, augmentation, diminution, inversion, and stretto. Perhaps a student can play one of Bach's selections on the piano or, if not, a record- ing should be used SO the music can be heard as well as seen. The Bach fugues or inventions would be good for class study. Also, a chorus or chorale prelude based on a chorale melody would be fine for analysis purposes. Select a phrase of a familiar folk tune and, on the chalk board, alter rhythms and/or melodic features to illustrate augmentation, diminution, sequence, and in- version. The class may then Sing the phrase in its altered forms. 232 GUIDE TO LISTENING VI (from page 222) Bach: Orchestra Suite No. 3 in D Majpr Entertainment music played by a chamber group consisting of strings, 2 oboes, 3 trumpets, timpani "Gavotte" The gavotte is a dance of French origin and is recognized by its duple time. Closely examine the form. It is called a three part form. The first art consists of melodies using the rhyth- mic patternr UT): r U“: . In the section A1, notice that Bach has used the same rhythmic pattern as for that in A. He has, however, turned the melody upside down in what may be called a "free inversion" of the melody. Compare the melodic skips and leaps in both versions and see if you can tell why the term "free" has been used. Part two consists of B and B1 both of which use the rhythmic material (Eff (Ur Ur (f . Notice that each section is repeats . Part three is a return to part one. Notice the typical use of "da capo." 8:2: 233 GUIDE VI (cont.) Gavotte Al Fine BI Trumfcfr l 23A GUIDE VI (cont.) Bach: Orchestra Suite NO. 3 in D Major Entertainment music played by a chamber group consisting of strings and harpsichord or other keyboard instrument "Air" The "Air" is in two-part form with each section being repeated. Each of the four string parts have interesting melodic lines. Notice the octave leaps in the bass part which provides the pulse to the music. The "Air" has been arranged for violin and piano and in that version is known as the "Air for the G string." ViOh'n I 235 GUIDE VI (cont.) dehn I 236 GUIDE VI (cont.) Bach: Orchestra Suite No. 3 in D Major Entertainment music played by a chamber group consisting of strings, 2 oboes, 3 trumpets, timpani "Bourree" The bourrée was originally a French round dance of a lively character in duple time. It uses a two-part form, A-B, with both sections being repeated. Find out how the rhythm of a bourree differs from that of a gavotte. A. . 237 GUIDE VI (cont.) Bach: Orchestra Suite No. 3 in D Major Entertainment music played by a chamber group consisting of strings, 2 oboes, 3 trumpets, timpani~ "Gigue" The gigue is a dance of English origin (jig). It is a very lively dance and literally bounces with its long- short rhythmsr W N characteristic of 6/8 time. It also used a two-part form, A-B, with both sections being repeated. Violin I etc. . 238 GUIDE TO LISTENING VII (from page 228) Bach: The Passion According to St. John Performed in church during Holy Week as part of a religious service "Selections 2-7" NO. 2 Recitative following Opening chorus No. 3 Chorus: Jesus of Nazareth No. A Recitative No. 5 Chorus: Jesus of Nazareth NO. 6 Recitative NO. 7 Chorale: O Boundless Love Performing forces: orchestra, chorus, soloists for the roles of the Evangelist and Jesus Procedure: The class, with a minimum amount of practice, can rehearse the melodies below and sing with the recording at the apprOpriate places. NO. 2. Recitative following Opening chorus EVANGELIST: Jesus went with his disciples over the brook Cedron, where was a garden, to which came Jesus, and his disciples. Judas also, which be- trayed Him, knew the place full well: for Jesus resorted thither oft to be with his disciples. Judas therefore, having gathered a body of men whom the chief priests and the Pharisees had sent him, now cometh thither with lanterns, torches, and with weapons. Therefore Jesus, knowing all things that were to come upon Him, went straightway forth, and said unto them: JESUS: ‘Whom seek ye here? EVANGELIST: And they answered to Him: No. 3. Chorus: Jesus of Nazareth: CROWD: (T) w I mim)Je.su5) Je-sus,.)e- ans 0" None-reds! Je-sus e‘ Nave-re“: JC-sus o‘ “Oz-0"“)!- No. A. Recitative EVANGELIST: Jesus said to them: JESUS: I am he! 239 GUIDE VII (cont.) St. John Passion Selections 2-7 (cont.) No. A cont. EVANGELIST: Judas also, he which betrayed Him, stood there among them. And as soon then as Jesus said: "I am He," all of them went backward, and fell to the ground. Then asked He of them a second time: JESUS: Whom seek ye here? EVANGELIST: Again they answered: No. 5. Chorus: Jesus of Nazareth: CROWD: QumreJue-SUO,J¢—sus,Jg.mdimip‘h'd“ MS or .-¢-M‘§|. J‘.ws June-o-re-HI' No. 6. Recitative EVANGELIST: Jesus answered and said: JESUS: I have said, I am he, if ye seek for me, then let these go their way. No. 7. Chorale: O Boundless Love CHORUS OF ELIEVERS: O bound-less love, 0 love lac-10nd all he“ - I'n3,\J)-.¢r¢- gore TH... made tk’Is sVreei'O‘c *tors Th7 dwell _;n3( I “we. WO'A’5" M wow-U,'Its (Jens—ures chem-.- I'Sk,And m 11‘.“ Mus *— per- .- I S h 2A0 GUIDE VII (cont.) Bach: The Passion According to St. John Performed in church during Holy Week as part of a religious service "Sections 1A-l8" No. 1A Recitative: Evangelist, Maid, Peter, Jesus, Servant, Officer No. 15 Chorale: Who was it thus did smite Thee? No. 16 Recitative No. 17 Chorus: Art thou not one of his disciples? No. 18 Recitative: Evangelist, Peter, Servant Performing forces: orchestra, chorus, soloists for the roles of Evangelist, Maid, Peter, Jesus, Officer, and Servant Description: Although the music is self-explanatory, notice No. 1A. the SXpressiveness of the long vocal passage on the word "wept" in No. 18. Recitative: Evangelist, Maid, Peter, Jesus, Servant, Officer EVANGELIST: That other disciple to the high priest had been known, and went with Jesus within, and had entrance into his court. But without at the door- way Peter stood. Then did that other disciple, who was known to them in the palace, go out, and Spake unto her that tended the door, and brought Peter also within. Then saith the maid that tended the door to Peter: MAID: Art thou not also one of his disciples? EVANGELIST: He saith: PETER: I am not. EVANGELIST: The officers and the servants who stood there had made them a fire out of coals; for it was cold; and warmed themselves. Peter also stood among them, and warmed himself. Then did the high priest ask and question Jesus of his disciples, and of his doctrine. Jesus answered to him: JESUS: I ever Spake Openly and freely to the world; and in the synagogue I Often-times was teaching, and in the temple, wherein the Jews always do re- sort; nor have I ever in secret said aught. Why askest thou this of me? Ask thou of them who have heard me, what I have said to them and what I taught them: ask thou, for behold, they which heard know all that I have said. II J" (1 (1 2A1 GUIDE VII (cont.) St. John Passion Sections 1A~18‘(cont.) No. 1A cont. EVANGELIST: And when Jesus thus had Spoken, an officer standing near to Jesus struck Him with his Open hand, and said: OFFICER: And dost thou then dare to answer the high priest so? EVANGELIST: Jesus answered unto him: JESUS: If I Spoke ought of ill, bear thou witness to my evil words: but if I have spoken well, why smitest thou me? No. 15. Chorale: Who was it thus did smite Thee? CHORUS OF BELIEVERS: l-VJHO was It ‘Hnus did 5m°I+c Thee, My Loo-J, and who re... 1’“: I by guiH‘ en-oum abercdflfly sins like sands u..- gufl‘c “we ”I“ FIE-me and cru - eJ blow 7 For numebered TM? ”ea up~ on Hue. shore . “Thase Thou wcr+ no O; - Tend:- er, As we To 5"! sur... Sims 1% was 'Hno‘l’ brought} “me Th1 mis~ ar- y and n a ren- der; No eat-H (1565+ Thou ex —-eI- know; “'70“ng Thee. 0“ mar—+yr- dam fH’ie Qw—Ful s+are.. NO. 16. Recitative EVANGELIST: Now Annas had had Jesus bound, and had sent him bound to Caiaphas. Simon Peter stood and warmed himself. They said then unto him: NO. 17. Chorus: Art thou not one of His disciples? CROWD: Art thou not one of His disciples? 2A2 GUIDE VII (cont.) St. John Passion Sections lA-18 (cont.) No. 18. Recitative: Evangelist, Maid, Peter, Jesus, Ser- vant, Officer EVANGELIST: But Peter denied it, and said: PETER: I am not. EVANGELIST: Then said one of the high priest's servants, being kinsman of him whom Peter had. smitten and cut his ear off: SERVANT: Saw I not thee in the garden with Him? EVANGELIST: Then did Peter deny a third time: immediately crew the cock. Then did Peter bring to mind the word of Jesus . . . and he went cod and wep+ “’7“ WQP‘V bif—‘UCT -'Y and wept .— “‘ ,__‘\ ¥ yea wept b'I‘)’ —- -- - - fer-J... ly , 243 GUIDE VII (cont.) Bach: The Passion According to St. John Performed in church during Holy Week as part of a religious service "Sections 53-57" No. 53 Recitative No. 5A Chorus: Do not rend it or divide it. No. 55 Recitative: Evangelist, Jesus No. 56 Chorale: All things fashioned He with care. No. 57 Recitative: Evangelist, Jesus Performing forces: orchestra, chorus, soloists for the roles of the Evangelist and Jesus Description: In the Chorus No. 5A, "Do not rend it or divide it," it has been suggested that the agitated movement in the cello part, was meant by Bach to represent the actual shaking of dice as the crowd gambled for the robe of Christ. No. 53. Recitative EVANGELIST: And then did the soldiers, after thus they had crucified Jesus, portion out his garments in four equal parts, and for each of the soldiers there was a part; and also his coat. Now the coat had been woven with no seam, from end to end one piece it was throughout. They said therefore one to the other: No. 5A. Chorus: DO not rend it or divide it. SOLDIERS: Do not rend it or divide it. no no)’ read .1" or d'I— vidg _1_'I“’, (animus and cost -fine... who she“ HaVE 'rt', ZAA GUIDE VII (cont.) St. John Passion Sections 53-57 (cont.) No. 55. Recitative: Evangelist, Jesus EVANGELIST: That thus the scripture might be ful- filled, that which saith: They parted out my raiment equally among them, and for my vesture they cast lots, yea, for my vesture. These things therefore were done by the soldiers. Now standing before the cross of Jesus was his mother, and the sister of his mother, Mary, CleOphas' wife, and Mary Magdalene. Now when Jesus therefore saw his mother, and the disciple standing by, whom he loved, he saith unto his mother: JESUS: Lo! ‘Woman, behold thy son! EVANGELIST: Then saith he to this disciple: JESUS: See, thou, here behold thy mother! No. 56. Chorale: All things fashioned He with care. CHORUS 0F BELIEVERS: m A A“ “has Vosh~IOneJ H1 w’d‘k care In His kOuI- o-C Part—Ina : Son *0 MO‘H'ver gives He fkere, Her 1'?) him '9"- guard—ing . m 0, man, sel- Your (He 0- rfgki", Love {my God and "6(9)..- bar; (:1 Wk no more w?“ “e: a- Criah‘)’, Sued +57 resl- {ram )0- bar . 2A5 GUIDE VII (cont.) St. John Passion Sections 53-57 (cont.) NO. 57. Recitative: Evangelist, Jesus EVANGELIST: And from that hour he took her to his own home. And now, since Jesus knew full well that all was accomplished, as was written in the scripture, he saith: JESUS: I thirst. EVANGELIST: Now stood there a vessel of vinegar: they filled from the vessel then a Sponge with vinegar, and put it to his mouth, to drink it. Therefore Jesus, when he had received the vinegar, saith he: JESUS: It is fulfilled. chap+er H SUMMARY or:- THE: B m C Q 0/0 > 1500 BC. AD 600 I 1 [002 T ' l Tl ‘annl I5 50 [575 [500 1675 rue 171.: 1750 oun‘eréformai4m ocfivd in Spain! SPAIN .<<<<<<<<<:«<<<<<<sa m.» M, F I ...«’9 .i' a “a . . . x":.‘7=‘,.>**9~ 1"" " M'TthlTILllllLfljfllLHfilfllflujfflTflWJIflfljT/W .A