THE EFFECTS OF CUTANEQUS STIMULATSON BY SPEECH ON LiPREADiNG PERFORMANCE Thesis for the Degree of p11. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNEVERSITY Geraid Franklin Johnson 1963 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECTS OF CUTANEOUS STIMULATION BY SPEECH ON LIPREADING PERFORMANCE presented by Gerald Franklin Johnson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Speech _&P_ degree in Date LIBRA R Y Michigan Scan University ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF CUTANEOUS STIMULATION BY SPEECH ON LIPREADING PERFORMANCE by Gerald Franklin Johnson The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of combining cutaneous stimulation by speech with lipreading on a subject's lipreading performance. Cutaneous stimulation by speech, as used in this study, means the trans- mission of a verbal speech signal via a Cutaneous Speech Transmission System to the dorsal portion of the forearm, on a subject's nondominant side. The Cutaneous Speech Trans- mission System consisted of four loud-speakers, two inches in diameter. Over the face of the loud-speakers a Pellon fabric membrane was glued so that the membrane made direct contact with the arm of the subject. The resulting vibrations, pro- duced by the speech signal, activated the center of the mem- brane and made an elliptical vibratory pattern. Thus, the loud-speakers became efficient vibrators. The loud-speaker—vibrators were then attached to the ends of metal rods. The speaker-rods were then suspended from an overhead bar and placed inside a metal container, by Gerald Franklin Johnson lined with sponge rubber. The subject placed his arm inside the container, and the speaker-rods were then lowered to the subject's arm. To prevent the subject from hearing the speech, the whole apparatus was acoustically insulated, and the subject also received a masking noise via earphones. The speech stimuli that were employed in testing the subjects in the experimental conditions consisted of twenty- five phonetically balanced words and twenty-five Spondaic words. Two motion picture films employing these fifty words were produced. A silent motion picture film was made for presentation of Condition I (lipreading only) and a sound motion picture film for presentation of Condition II (lip- reading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech). The subject's lipreading performance was tested under the two experimental conditions in both pre-test (before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech) and post-test (after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech) positions. The subjects, after being tested in the pre-test situation, on Conditions I and II, were trained in the utilization of cutaneous stimulation by speech only. This training con- siSted of ten half-hour sessions that were devoted to the perception of cutaneous stimulation by speech. by Gerald Franklin Johnson After a subject had completed the pre-test situation and the training sessions, he was again tested on the experi- mental Conditions I and II. Thus, each subject produced a total of four scores: (1) Pre-test Condition I (lipreading only, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), (2) Pre-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutan- eous stimulation by speech, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), (3) Post-test Condition I (lip- reading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), and (4) Post-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech). Each of the subject's scores was based upon the total number of words perceived correctly out of a total list of 50 words. This comprised the total experiment. On the basis of the analysis of the data obtained within the experimental conditions of this investigation, the following conclusions appear to be warranted: 1. After the subject has had the benefit of a brief training period in the utilization of cutaneous stimu- lation by speech and when cutaneous stimulation by speech is combined with lipreading, the subjects' by Gerald Franklin Johnson lipreading scores are significantly higher than by lip- reading alone. 2. Combining cutaneous stimulation by speech with lipreading without the benefit of training in cutaneous stimulation by speech does not improve a subject's usual lipreading performance. 3. Words with Spondaic stress patterns accounted for higher performance scores and more significant differences between the different experimental conditions than did the phonetically balanced monosyllabic words. 4. This experiment has shown that an efficient and uncomplicated aid to lipreading has been developed. Sub- ject to further modification and research, the Cutaneous Speech Transmission System could be a useful adjunct to the lipreading process. Copyright by Gerald Franklin Johnson 1964 THE EFFECTS OF CUTANEOUS STIMULATION BY SPEECH ON LIPREADING PERFORMANCE BY Gerald Franklin Johnson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Speech 1963 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported in part by a fellowship from the Vocational Rehabilitation Administration. The writer wishes to thank the following members of his guidance committee for reading and constructively crit- icising the thesis: Dr. Kenneth J. Hance, Professor of Speech Dr. Charles Pedrey, Associate Professor of Speech Dr. James Crowner, Assistant Professor of Education A special note of appreciation is given to Dr. Herbert J. Oyer, Professor of Speech, who was my major adviser. Credit is also due to Donald Riggs, Speech and Hear— ing Science Technician, for assistance in the development of the Cutaneous Speech Transmission System. My father and mother, Mr. and Mrs. O. K. Johnson, were a source of encouragement when it was needed most. To my wife, Maxine, and my children, Laura and Brian, my deepest gratitude is given. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part I. Review of Cutaneous Literature . . Cutaneous Sensitivity of Bodily Areas . . The Range of Cutaneous Sensitivity to Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship Between Cutaneous and Auditory Modalities . . . . . . . . . Apparatus Used To Produce Cutaneous Stimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perception of Cutaneous Stimulation by Speech and Music . . . . . . . . . . Combined Cutaneous Stimulation by Speech and Lipreading . . . . . . . . . . . . Part II. Review of Pertinent Lipreading Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Lipreading in Europe . . . . . History of Lipreading in America . . . . Lipreading Training . . . . . . . . . . Factors Contributing to Lipreading Ability. Psychological Aspects Related to Lipreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page ii i-‘ l—‘OCDU'lrhl-J P'H 18 18 19 25 27 30 39 42 45 46 SO 59 62 67 69 Chapter Page III. SUBJECTS, EQUIPMENT, AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . 72 Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 IV. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lll Implications for Future Research . . . . . . 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 APPENDIX A. WOrd List for Presentation of Experimental Condition I Motion Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 APPENDIX B. WOrd List for Presentation of Experimental Condition II Motion Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 i APPENDIX C. Training Tape WOrd Lists, Numbers One Through Ten . . . . . . . . . . . 130 APPENDIX D. subjects' Raw Scores . . . . . . . . 141 iv Table LIST OF TABLES Page Summary Table for the Treatments by Subjects Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Summary Table for the Critical Difference Between Means Analysis. PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Condition II; PoI = Post-test Condition I; PoII = Post- test Condition II . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Summary Table for the Treatments by Subjects Analysis of Variance for PB Words . . . . . 93 Summary Table for the Critical Differences Between Means Analysis for PB WOrds. PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre—. test Condition II; PoI = Post-test Condi- tion I; PoII = Post-test Condition II . . . 94 Summary Table for the Treatments by Subjects Analysis of Variance for Spondaic WOrds . . 96 .Summary Table for the Critical Differences Between Means Analysis for Spondaic WOrds. PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre- test Condition II; PoI = Post-test Condi- tion 1; Poll = Post-test Condition II . . . 97 Figure LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Photograph of Loud-speakers with Pellon Fabric Membrane Glued Over the Face of the Loud- speakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Characteristics of the Loud—speakers Photograph of Loud—speaker Suspension System with the Location of the Loud-speakers in the Metal Container . . . . . . . . . . Photograph of a Top View of the Acoustically Lined Box with a View Inside Showing the Vibratory Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . Photograph of a Top—side View of the Acous- tically Lined Box with a View Inside Showing the Placement of the Loud—speaker-Vibrators on a Subject's Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photograph of a Subject During Training with His Arm Placed Through the Sponge Rubber Seal of the Acoustically Lined Box . . . . . Photograph of the Entire Cutaneous Speech Transmission System. (1) Sound Projector, (2) Tape Recorders, (3) Earphones, (4) Amplifier, (5) Filters, (6) Vibratory Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of WOrds Correctly Identified by All Subjects Under Each of the Experimental Conditions: PrI = Pre—test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Condition II; PoI = Post- test Condition I; and P011 = Post-test Condition II . . . . . . . . .-. . . . Percentage of Phonetically Balanced (PB) and Spondaic (SP) WOrds Correctly Identified by All Subjects Under Each of the Experimental Conditions: PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Condition II; PoI = Post- test Condition I; and P011 = Post-test Condition II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 74 76 77 78 78 79 81 100 103 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Several approaches are utilized in assisting the aur- ally handicapped with their problems of communication. One of these approaches is the teaching of lipreading. As one be- comes more proficient in the art of lipreading, his depend- ence upon the auditory channel for understanding speech is lessened. Thus, lipreading functions as a compensatory mea— sure for the loss of hearing. Some lipreaders have become quite proficient in their ability to receive verbal messages, and can discriminate these messages as well as persons who are hearing. Many others, however, are not as proficient, and some fail altogether in their attempt to read lips. Another approach that has been employed experimentally involves the utilization of the tactile channel. Experi- mental studies have been carried on in both the United States and Sweden that have as their objectives the development of a cutaneous communications system. However, the results of these experiments have been inconsistent. The optimum result of a cutaneous communications sys- tem wOuld be one that would closely approximate the efficiency of a normal functioning aural system. The greatest single problem in cutaneous communication is the human receiver, and more specifically, the human integument. Because man's cutaneous sensibility is not good it is thought that "cutan- eous communication can take place only through the symbolic encoding of language. That is to say, there will have to be some sort of mediation whereby a cutaneous stimulus ('signal' or 'symbol' might be a more appropriate term) is in- terpreted as a symbol for some literate or linguis- tic form which, in turn, is taken to represent some element of language or speech.2 Some other experimenters also prefer the coding of speech signals.3 Geldard succeeded in transmitting speech into the somethetic decoding systems of the central nervous system by transforming information into special stimuli optimally adapted to skin receptors. This coded language he calls "vibratese language." His system is based on work accomplished 1F. A. Geldard, "Adventures in Tactile Literacy,” American Psychologist, 12(1957), pp. 115-124. 2E. A. Alluisi, "Conditions Affecting the Amount of Information in Absolute Judgements," Psychological Review, 64(1957), pp. 97-103. 3B. von Haller Gilmer and L. W. Gregg, "The Skin as a Channel of Communication," ETC.: A_Review g§_General Se; mantics, 18(1961), pp. 199-209. by Howell4 and is founded upon three parameters for each symbol corresponding to a letter of a word. The three para- meters are: (1) intensity, (2) duration of a sinusoidal vi- bration, and (3) locus of the stimulus. One of Howell's subjects was able to decode thirty—eight words per minute. This exceeds the expert military standard for a receiver of Morse Code, which is twenty-four words per minute.5 Geldard,6 Gilmer,7 and Alluisi,8 et. al., base their rationale for coding the cutaneous signal on Geldard's state- ment that the skin does not hear with the competency of the ear. However, an experiment by Gault9 and experiments most recently completed by investigators in Sweden,10 have shown 4W. C. Howell, "Training on a Vibratory Communication System," (unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Psychol- ogy, University of Virginia, 1956). 5F. A. Geldard, "Some Neglected Possibilities of Com- munication," Science, 131(1960), pp. 1583-1588. 6Geldard, American Psychologist, 12(1957), pp. 115-124. 7Gilmer, ETC, 18(1961). pp. 199-209. 8Alluisi, Psychological Review, 64(1957), pp. 97-103. 9R. H. Gault, "On the Identification of Spoken Words by Their Tactual Qualities," Journal g§_Applied Psychology, 10(1926). pp. 75-88. 0 . . Speech Transm1531on Laboratory Qparterly Progress and Status Report, October 15, 1961. Speech Transmission Labora- tory, Division of Telegraphy-Telephony, Royal Institute of that persons receiving cutaneous stimulation by speech can discriminate words and other speech components through the skin well enough to comprehend them. It is doubtful that the proponents of cutaneous stimulation by speech expect the skin to hear with the competency of the ear. The discrimination of cutaneous stimulation by speech is similar to deciphering a specialized vibratory code. Normal speech can be discriminated aurally by its inherent characteristics of duration, intensity, pitch, and quality. Successful utilization of cutaneous stimulation by speech relies most heavily upon discrimination of two para— meters, yig_duration and intensity. Frequency might well be a third parameter, the importance of which could possibly be determined through experimentation that would involve lead- ing a filtered speech signal to the skin of subjects. Statement Q§_Problem and Purpose 9£_Study The problem.involved in this study was the development and testing of a Cutaneous Speech Transmission System11 that could efficiently stimulate the integument. Because it was Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, STL-QPSR-3/l96l, (July - September). 11 . . . For a complete descr1ption of thlS Cutan- eous Speech Transmission System (C.S.T.S.) the reader is directed to Chapter III. thought that coded linguistic cutaneous units would not be feasible to test in conjunction with lipreading, therefore, speech was the stimulus of choice that was delivered to the experimental subjects. In this way the receiver is given the advantage of utilization of two stimuli simultaneously presented to two channels. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect that cutaneous stimulation by speech has on a sub- ject's lipreading performance. An attempt will be made to answer the following general questions: (1) Does combining cutaneous stimulation by speech with lipreading improve a subject's lipreading score? (2) What effect does training in cutaneous stimulation by speech have on a subject's com- bined cutaneous stimulation by speech and lipreading per- formance? (3) Will there be any difference between a per- son's lipreading performance and his combined lipreading— cutaneous stimulation by speech performance? (4) Will the PB words, the Spondaic words, or both types of words account for any significance discovered in the investigation? Hypotheses In order to answer the previously stated questions in greater detail, the following null hypotheses are proposed and will be statistically analyzed. 1. There is no significant difference among the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech,12 (2) lipreading combined with cutan- eous stimulation by speech before training in cutaneous stim- ulation by speech, (3) lipreading only after training in cut- aneous stimulation by speech, and (4) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cut- aneous stimulation by speech. 2. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading combined with cut- aneous stimulation by speech before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech. 3. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading combined with cut- aneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stim— ulation by speech. 2 . . . . . 1 Fora more exp11c1t d1scuss1on of this and other ter- minology the reader is directed to the Definition of Terms on pages ll-l7. 4. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading only after train- ing in cutaneous stimulation by speech. 5. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading combined with cut- aneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stim- ulation by speech. 6. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimula- tion by speech before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading only after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech. 7. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditiéns: (l) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimula- tion by speech before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading combined with cultaneous stimula- tion by speech after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech. Importance Qf_the Study Basically, the initial consideration for teaching lip- reading is to help the deaf or hard of hearing person maintain his communicative relationship with other people. One import- ant aspect of man's daily functioning is his ability to com- municate. Becoming deaf or incurring a serious loss of hearing greatly affects this aspect of social behavior. If the loss of hearing cannot be surgically repaired, other re— habilitative measures can be suggested to these people. Training in lipreading is usually suggested because it can often compensate for the loss of the auditory channel. Once the person becomes proficient in lipreading it tends to coun- terbalance his inability to hear and comprehend speech. Little is known about the lipreading process, and there is very little evidence concerning the factors that contribute to one's being a skilled lipreader. It is for this reason that the more information that is available to the lipreader the easier the task will be and the greater his discrimination score will be. Residual hearing and knowledge of the subject being talked about all give the lip- reader more information and therefore presumably make the lipreading task easier. Residual hearing is possibly the greatest single aid to the lipreading process and is also one of the biggest de- terrents to serious psychological manifestations. Ramsdell writes: Anyone who has closely observed an adult soon after he has lost his hearing has noted that he becomes discour- aged and struggles with feelings of depression. Some- times he even becomes suspicious of friends and family. Ramsdell believes this is because the deaf person is cutoff from the primitive or affective level of hearing. The prim- itive level of hearing is the auditory background of all daily living. At this level we react to such sounds as the tick of a clock, the distant roar of traffic, vague echoes of people moving in other rooms in the house, without be— ing aware that we do hear them . . . Impairment or loss at the primitive 'affective' level is almost fundament- ally and intimately connected with the emotional diffi- culties of the deaf.14 If the loss of this primitive level of hearing can be compensated for in some way through vibrations applied to the skin in some region of the body, the deaf adult might 13D. A. Ramsdell, "The Psychology of the Hard-of- Hearing and the Deafened Adult," in Hallowell Davis and S. Richard Silverman, Hearing and Deafness (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960) pp. 459-473. l4Ramsdell, in Davis and Silverman, Hearing and Deaf- ness, pp. 459-473. 10 not feel so isolated, and the concomitant psychological mani- festations will probably be diminished or modified. The possibility of the deaf's receiving and discrim- inating vibratory signals, and especially verbal communica- tion, is very intriguing. However, this study is interested only in determining if the extra cue of cutaneous stimula- tion by speech will increase a person's lipreading performance. Limitations 9f_ the Study Sixteen subjects will be utilized in the investiga- tion, and will be randomly selected from a stratified popu- lation of college students who are speech majors. This experimental population necessarily presents a limitation in relation to projecting the results of this study to a normal population. The Cutaneous Speech Transmission System, and the vibratory stimuli, present other limitations because of their uniqueness. One vibrator might produce results sig- nificantly different from the use of four vibrators, and menaingful sentences, rather than isolated words, could conceivably contribute to higher performance scores through- out the experiment. 11 The portion of the integument stimulated also presents some limitations upon the investigation, recognizing that there is differential sensitivity as a function of placement. The choice of vibrators could also affect the ultimate out- come of this type of experiment. In view of these limitations however, the experiment was rigorously controlled. Definition 9§_T§£m§_ Experimental Conditions: There will be two experi- mental conditions employed in this study. Condition I will be lipreading only. The subjects will be asked to lipread a series of fifty words, that will be presented on film. Condition II will be lipreading combined with cutan- eous stimulation by speech. In this condition the subjects will be utilizing vision and tactual sensibility simultan- eously while perceiving the series of fifty words in random- ized order on another film. All of the experimental subjects will be exposed to both conditions in the pre-test and post- test positions. Pre-test: Pre-test simply means testing the subjects, in both experimental condtions, before they receive train- ing in cutaneous stimulation by speech. Testing the subjects before they receive this training is necessary so that 12 effects of the training in cutaneous stimulation by speech can be asCertained. Post-test: Post-test means testing the subjects, in both experimental conditions, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech. The test scores the subjects re- ceive on the two experimental conditions in the post-test will be compared with their scores on the pre-test to deter- mine the effect of training in cutaneous stimulation by speech. Training: All of the subjects will be trained in the perception of cutaneous stimulation by speech. The training sessions will last for one half an hour per day for a total of 10 half-hour sessions. After this period of training the subjects will be designated as trained. Thus, training im- plies having participated in the 10 half-hour sessions. The subjects will receive training only after having completed the pre-test Conditions I and II and before they receive the post—test Conditions I and II. Cutaneous Stimulation by_Speech: Cutaneous stimula- tion by speech, as used in this study, will mean the trans- mission of a verbal speech signal via the Cutaneous Speech Transmission System that will be presented to the dorsal part of the forearm on the subject's nondominant side. The 13 arm was chosen so that ultimately the subject's hands could remain free to perform their usual manipulative functions. The speech signal to be vibrated will be taken from the sound track of a sound motion picture film that will be used in the presentation of Condition II. Cutaneous stim- ulation by speech will also be produced from the series of training tapes. Speech Stimuli: Two different types of words will be chosen for this study. The two types combined will comprise a total list of 50 words. Twenty-five of these words will be phonetically balanced (PB) words that were developed by Egan.15 Items in the PB word lists satisfy the following criteria: (1) The words are monosyllabic in structure, (2) They have an equal range of difficulty, (3) They are of equal average difficulty, (4) They are of equal phonetic composi- tion, (5) They are representative of English speech, and (6) They are words in common usage. The other twenty-five words will be chosen from the Spondee word lists. These Spondaic words were developed at the Central Institute for the Deaf as modifications of words 1 15J. P. Egan, "Articulation Testing Methods," Laryngoscope, 58(1948), pp. 955-991. 14 developed at the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory of Harvard Uni- versity. Each of the thirty-six Spondee words is composed of two syllables that are equally stressed. The words were chosen on the basis of familiarity and intelligibility.16 Masking: Masking will mean the application of white noise via earphones to the subjects' ears. Masking is needed to eliminate the possibility that the subjects could hear the speech produced by the Cutaneous Speech Transmission System, thus rendering the study invalid. White noise was chosen be— cause it is "one of the best masking noises yet devised . . . White noise contains a wide band of frequencies at intervals of 1 cycle per second or less, at approximately the same intensity."17 Lippeading: The term lipreading, as used in this study, will mean that process whereby one person (the receiver or 16Hallowell Davis and S. Richard Silverman, Hearing and Deafness (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960) pp. 535-536. For additional information about these words the read- er is directed to: R. W. Benson, et. al., "C.I.D. Auditory Tests W-l and‘W-Z," The Journal g§_the Acoustigal Society g§_ America, 23(1951), p. 719. And: I. J. Hirsh, et. al., "Development of Materials for Speech Audiometry," Journal g§_§peech and Hearing_Di§9;de;§, 17(1952) pp. 321-337. 17Hayes A. Newby, Audiology (New York: Appleton-Cen— tury-Crofts, Inc., 1958), p. 15. 15 lipreader) can discriminate and understand a verbal message that is being sent by another person (the sender or com- municator) without the aid of hearing. The receiver must then rely on his visual analyzer to be able to comprehend the verbal message. This can be accomplished by the re- ceiver by close observation of the sender's lips, facial and body movements and expressions, and by extra cues that are not clearly defined. Other persons interested in the process of lipreading have offered their own definitions and have also developed their own terminology. Bulwer, in 1648, defined lipreading as "the subtle art which may enable one with an observant eye to hear what any man speaks by the moving of his lips."18 Bunger uses the term speech reading which she defines as understanding spoken language while watching the speaker with little or no utilization of hearing.19 English and English also prefer the term speech reading to lipreading. They de- fine speech reading as "the comprehension of another's speech, without the use of hearing, by observing his facial movements 18 . . . . . . El1zabeth H. N1tch1e, New Lessons ;Q_L1pread1ng (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1950). p. 25. 19Anna M. Bunger, Speech Reading -- Jena Method (Dan- ville, Illinois: The Interstate Press, 1944). 16 and other visual cues." They classify lipreading as the "common" word but state that it is "inadequately descrip- . 20 . . 21 t1ve." V1sua1 hear1ng, the term advanced by Mason, is listed as a synonym, but English and English mention that the use of this term is somewhat ambiguous. Mason's visual hearing terminology was suggested to her by G. Oscar Russell. In defense of this terminology Mason writes: The term 'Visual Hearing,‘ seems more comprehensive in scope than etiher 'Lip-Reading' or 'Speech-Read- ing.‘ It does not tend to suggest a focus of at- tention on the lips as does the former, since it is possible for some skilled students to understand what is said when the speaker's lips are covered. Nor does it convey the idea of oral 'reading' of a speech as does the term 'Speech-Reading.‘ It does, however, carry the implication of a functional substituion of the 'eye' for the 'ear' in comprehending spoken lan- guage.22 Further terminology change is proposed by O'Neill and Dyer, who offer "visual thought comprehension" as a possible OHorace English and Ava English, A_Comprehensive Dictionary g§_Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1958), p. 517. 1Marie K. Mason, "A Cinematographic Technique for Testing More Objectively the Visual Speech Comprehension of Young Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children" (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University Department of Speech, 1942), p.56. 22 . . M. Mason, Doctoral Dissertat1on, p. 56. 17 substitute for the word lipreading. Visual thought compre- hension is defined.as"the correct identification of thoughts transmitted via the visual components of oral discourse . . . It is a form of learned linguistic behavior."2 The use of the word lipreading is largely a matter of semantics. When lipreading and other descriptive names for lipreading are operationally defined,the words often become synonomous. Thus, the term lipreading and lipreader will be used in this study and will mean the ability of a receiver or lipreader to convert a lip code produced by a visual word message of a communicator back into a meaningful message that closely approximates or completely duplicates the mes- sage sent by the communicator without the aid of hearing. 23 . . . . J. J. O'Ne111 and H. J. Oyer, V1sual Commun1cation for the Hard 9; Hearing (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1961), pp. 2-3. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Very little research is to be found that encompasses both lipreading and cutaneous experimentation. That which is available is associated with the early work of Gault and is reviewed in Part I of this chapter. It is of interest to ' note that the literature pertaining to cutaneous perception is to be found mostly in technical books and journals, where- as the literature pertaining tolipreading is found largely in non-technical books and journals. H Because the pertinent literature pertaining to lip- reading and cutaneous studies is so diverse, the review of this literature is divided into two parts. In Part I is re- viewed the cutaneous literature and in Part II the literature related to lipreading. PART I: REVIEW OF CUTANEOUS LITERATURE "Despite the fact that the skin is, from the evolu- tionary standpoint, the oldest of the sensitive tissues of 18 19 the body, it has yielded up its secrets reluctantly."l In this review some of the better known facts about the skin's capabilities will be discussed. This part is divided accord- ing to topics because of the diversity of the material presented. Cutaneous Sensitivity g§_Bodily Areas The human body is a multi-modality, highly variable, sensitive machine. One part of this machine, the human in- tegument, is highly variable, i.e. different portions of the skin react differently to external stimulation. For example, It is well known that the skin on the arm is less sen- sitive than the skin on the thumb. To some extent, this difference is a consequence of the fact that the area on the sensory cortex corresponding to a unit of surface on the thumb is much larger than that corresponding to a unit of surface on the arm.2 Not only the thumb but also the rest of the fingers are more sensitive than the arm. In fact, "one of the most important external senses is the touch . . . its most deli- cate seat is in the points of the fingers."3 By the use of 1Frank A. Geldard, The Human Senses (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,l953), p. 159. 2Georg von Békésy, Experiments ig_Hearing (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., 1960), pp. 564-565. 3J. Bostock, Ag Elementary System gf_Phy§iology (Boston: wells and Lilly, 1825). Cited by A. E. Taft, "On Touch as a Special Sense," Journal gf_Nervog§ and Mental_Disorders, 122 (1955). pp. 386-398» 20 the fingers, "we more accurately distinguish the tangible qualities of things than by other parts of the body."4 Pos- sibly the reason why the fingers are so sensitive is because "the pulps of man's fingers have highly developed patterns (papillary ridges) and these are more variable and complex than those of any other parts in any of the primates . . ."5 Many studies support the belief that the finger-tips are the most sensitive part of the human integument. When different areas of the body were stimulated with vibration and the sensitivity of the skin was measured, it was found that sensitivity is highest at the finger-tips and zero over the eyelids.6 In another vibratory sensitivity study, Gilmer found that of the different regions of the hand and forearm tested, the most sensitive areas were on the fatty portions of the palmer side of the hand and the finger-tips.7 4H. Haller, The First Lines gprhysiology (Edin- burgh: Chas. Eliot, 1779). Cited by Taft, Journal g£_ Nervous and Mental Disorders, 122 (1955), pp. 386-389. 5W. A. Kidd, Sense gf_Touch ig_Mammals (London: Adam & Chas. Black, 1907), Cited by Taft, Journal g§_Nervous and Mental Disorders, 122 (1955), pp. 386-389. 6A. Roth, "Measurement of Vibration Sense," War Medicine, 4(1943). PP. 280-282. 7B. V. H. Gilmer, "The Measurement of the Sensitivity of the Skin to Mechanical Vibration," Journal 9; General Ps - chology, 13(1935). pp. 42-61. 21 Using a fine stream of air, DeCillis found that the finger-tip was more sensitive than either the arm or the leg. Schewchuk and Zubek also used an air stream that stimulated the tongue, lip, cheek, forehead, neck,tip of the index fin- ger, thumb, back of the hand, forearm, and upper arm. For each of these locations a critical frequency of percussion (cfp) was determined. The relationship between cfp and pres- sure was the same for all 10 skin areas tested. The cfp for the lip, tongue, and thumb was higher than that of the arms, neck and cheek.9 The skin can also localize the impression of external stimuli. The results of a study by Mookherjee reveal that localizations of this kind go together with the delicacy of the skin. "At the highly sensitive parts of the skin such as the tips of the finger, of the lips, of the nose, etc., "10 localization was made in all cases . . . . Net only are the fingers good at localizing but they also can make fine 8O. E. DeCillis, "Absolute Thresholds for the Percep- tion of Tactile Movements," Archives g§_§§ychology, 52(1944), p. 294. 9L. A. Shewchuk and John P. Zubek, "Discriminatory Ability of Various Skin Areas as Measured by a Technique of Intermittent Stimulation," Canagian Jou;nal_g§flg§ychology, 14(1960), pp. 244—248. 10K. C. Mookherjee, "The Cyclopean Point in Touch," Journal_g§ Experimental Psychology, 17(1934), pp. 600-603. 22 kinaesthetic discriminations. The results of a study by Dietz, who had subjects judge lengths of aluminum rods that were grasped between the thumb and forefinger, were that the fingers showed remarkable accuracy in kinaesthetic discrimination.ll A study by Ahrens has shown that the upper extremities are significantly more sensitive than the lower extremities,12 and it would appear that the end portion of the extremity is the most sensitive. In the testing of the sensitivity of the skin "a dis- tinction is frequently made between sensations of touch, re- lating to light contact, and of pressure, relating to in- creased application of force."13 Gilmer found that the regions of the skin most sensitive to mechanical vibration were those spots which were also highly sensitive to pres- 4 . . . . . sure.l Geldard suggests that sens1t1v1ty to "v1brat1on 11Alfred G. Dietze, "Kinaesthetic Discrimination: The Difference Timer for Finger Span," Journal gf_Psycholpgy, 51(1961). pp. 165-168. 12R. S. Ahrens, "A Study of the Vibratory Sensation,” Archives gf_Neurology and Psychiatry, 14(1925), p. 793. 13Russell E. Mason, Internal Perception and Bodily Functioning (New York: International universities Press, Inc., (1961), p. 344. 14 . . . . . . B. H. Gilmer, "The Relat1on of V1bratory Sens1t1v1ty to Pressure," Journal gf_Experimenta1_2§ychology, 21(1937), pp. 456-463. ‘. 23 involves a mode of operation of the pressure sense."15 The pressure of the tactile stimulation" . . . is a form of en- ergy that distorts the shape of the tissue out of its usual resting form. Stimulation seems to come about by reason of this distortion."16 Tactile stimulation also depends upon the magnitude of the stimulated area. An increase of stim- ulated area leads to a decrease of the threshold.17 Sensitivity of the integument is further complicated because the skin has a tendency to adapt itself to the stim- ulation. Buskirk and Callaway describe three forms of adapta- tion of the skin to vibration: (l) absolute adaptation to a weak supra—threshold stimulus, (2) elevation threshold at the site of a previous strong supra—threshold stimulation, (3) absolute adaptation to a weak supra-threshold stimulus in- duced by a strong contra-lateral stimulation. They further state that all three of these phonemena are considered to be 15F. A. Geldard, "The Perception of Mechanical Vibra- tion: I. History of a Controversy," Journal gf_General Psy- chology, 22(1940). PP. 243-269. 16S. Heward Bartley, Principle§_g£.Pergeption (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958), p. 356. 17V. P. Babkin, O. M. Rozen, L. N. Turmarkina, and R. I. Cherniak, "The Study of Vibrational Sensitivity and the Factors Influencing it," Biofizika, 6(1961), pp. 61-67. 24 mediated by the central nervous system.18 The skin is also subject to fatigue. Kampie found decreased sensitivity due to fatigue,19 but Katz presents evidence to the contrary. Katz found that while the sense of touch tires very readily the vibratory sense is minimally af- fected by fatigue.20 wedell and Cummings found that sensi- tivity to vibratory stimulation applied to the palm of the hand is reduced 5 to 15 decibels after three minutes of con- tinuous stimulation. The loss of sensitivity is greater the higher the frequency and the greater the intensity of the fatiguing tone. After stimulation for three minutes at a cer- tain frequency, the loss of sensitivity is the same whether measured at a frequency equal to or higher than the fatiguing frequency, but it is less if measured at a lower frequency.21 18Charles Van Buskirk and Enoch Callaway, "Observa- tions on Vibratory Thresholds," Copfina Neurologica, 16(1956), pp. 301-308. 19A. Kampie, "Experimentelle Untersuchungen uber die praktische Leistungsfahigkeit der Vibrationsempfinden," Archiv ffir die Gesamte Psychologie, 76(1930), pp. 3-70. Cited by Louis D. Goodfellow, "Vibratory Sensitivity: Its Present Status," Psychological Bulletin, 31(1934), p. 560—571. 20D. Katz, "The Vibratory Sense and Other Lectures," The Maine Bulletin, 32(1930), p. 10. 21C. H. Wedell and S. B. Cummings, Jr., "Fatigue of the Vibratory Sense," Journal g£_Experimental Psychology, 22(1938), pp. 429—438. 25 The Range g£_Cutaneog§ Sensitivity §g_Vibrations Experimental data from the laboratory show that all important elements of speech and music can be perceived through the senses of touch and vibration. The limits of sensitivity have been investigated by many different experi- menters, and various results are reported. Kampie sets the frequency range which can be perceived by the vibratory sense at 16-1300 cycles per second.22 While Thiel sets it at 86- 528 cycles per second.23 Geldard makes note of the maximum sensitivity as be— ing in the region of 250 cycles per second. Hewever, Geldard makes no mention of an upper limit because of the technical difficulties of moving the skin at high frequencies.24 Wagner found that for deaf persons the range lies between 5 and 1700 Hertz (the European equivalent to cycles per second) with a peak between 200 and 400 Hertz, under and above which 22Kampie, Archiv ffir die gesamte ngchologie, 76 (1930), pp. 3—70. Cited by Goodfellow, Psychological Bul- letin, 31(1934), Pp. 560-571. 23F. C. Thiel, "Experimental Studies in the Vibratory Sense in Deaf Mutes," Zeitschrift pg; Psychologie ggg_Phys- iologie g3; Sinnesorgane, 119(1931), pp. 109—178. Cited by Goodfellow, Psychological Bulletin, 31(1934), pp. 560-571. 24Geldard, Journal g£_Genera1 Psychology, 22(1940), pp. 243-308. 26 perceptive capacity drops and amplification has to be in- creased sharply.25 Goodfellow found that the finger—tip can detect vibra- tions as high as 8,000 per second26 while Knudsen found that the lower frequency limit to which the sense of touch responds is about 16 cycles per second and the upper limit is 1600 cycles per second but may be as high as 4000 cycles per second. Knudsen, however, did not investigate the range above 1600 cycles per second in this study, but he did pre— dict that higher frequencies could be felt if the intensity of the stimulation were greater. Knudsen also found that the frequency of a vibrating body must change as much as 15- 30 percent before a difference is noticeable by the sense of touch.27 Gault reports variously about the upper limit of sensi- tivity. In one report he places the upper limit at 2,000 25F. Wagner, "Investigations into Tactile Language. 0n the Perceptive Value of Tactile Sensations and Their Applica- bility as Linguistic Symbols in the Beginning of the Teaching of Speech in the School for the Deaf," Neue §l§tter ffir Taub- stummenbildung, 15(1961), pp. 82-109, Cited in g§p_Abstracts, 2(1962), pp. 226-227. 26L. D. Goodfellow, "The Sensitivity of the Finger— tip to Vibrations of Various Frequency Levels," Journal g§_phg Franklin Institute, 216(1933), pp. 387-392. 27V. O. Knudsen, "Hearing with the Sense of Touch," Journal g§_General Egychology, 1(1928), pp. 320-352. 27 vibrations per second,28 in another report as high as 2,700,29 . . 0 and in a third report as high as 3,000 v1brat10ns per second.3 Investigators have also found that the finger-tip can differentiate two pitches when the frequencies concerned dif— fer by as little as 2-1/2 percent of the standard.31 The finger-tip can also detect difference tones and beats32 and can detect the individual tones in a chord and discriminate . 33 between consonance and d1sconsonance. Relationship Between Cutaneous and Audlpopprodalitigg Because the external stimuli applied to the skin have often had the characteristics of auditory stimuli, the 28R. H. Gault, "Hearing Through the Sense of Touch and Vibration," Journal pf the Franklin InStitute, 204(1927), 29 II ' II R. H. Gault, Fingers Instead of Ears, Welfare Magazine, 18(1927), pp. 1131-1138. 30R. H. Gault, "On the Upper Limit of Vibrational Fre- quency That Can Be Recognized by Touch," Science, 65(1927), pp. 403-404. 31W. H. Reberts, "A Two-Dimensional Analysis of Dis— crimination of Differences in the Frequency of Vibrations by Means of the Sense of Touch," Journal g§_the Franklin Insti- tute, 213(1932), pp. 286-312. 32K. Dunlap, "Palmesthetic Beats and Difference Tones," Science, 37(1913), p.532. 33L. D. Goodfellow, "The Tactual Perception of Musical Intervals." Journal 9; the Franklin Institute, 215(1933), pp. 731-736. 28 cutaneous and auditory modalities have been compared by some writers. For example, Gault, in 1934, believed that there was little division between the auditory and vibro-cutaneous senses. He further stated that the function of hearing may . 34 be taken over by the V1bratory sense. The finger-tip has long been utilized in vibratory experiments, and its sensitivity has been compared to the sensitivity of the ear. Knudsen found that the finger—tip is able to discriminate different intensities about as well as the ear.35 And Goodfellow and Gridley report that the finger-tip can detect differences in short intervals of time . 36, 37 Wlth 90 percent of the accuracy of the ear. In comparing the relationship between cutaneous sen- sibility and hearing, Békésy offers this comparison: When continuous vibratory stimuli are presented on the skin the subject can differentiate several attributes: 4 3 R. H. Gault, "An Interpretation of Vibrotactile Phenomena," Journal 9; the Acoustical Society 9; America, 5(1934), pp. 252-254. 35Knudsen, Journal gf_General Psychology, 1(1928), pp. 320-352. 36 u . . . . . L. D. Goodfellow, Comparlson of Aud1t1on, V1s1on and Touch in the Discrimination of Short Intervals of Time," American Journal g£_Psycholggy, 46(1934), pp. 243-258. 37Pearl Gridley, "The Discrimination of Short Inter- vals of Time by Finger-tip and by Ear," American Journal 2f Psycholggy, 44(1932), pp. 18-43. 29 (l) the frequency of the vibration, which is analogous to pitch in hearing, (2) the subjective magnitude of the sensation, which has many features in common with loud- ness in hearing, and (3) the sensation of the lateral spread along the surface of the skin, which corresponds to the volume of the sound in hearing.38 In another comparison of the cutaneous and auditory modalities Jenkins found that above a frequency of 20 per second the sense of touch melts "into a smooth sense of vibra— tion, which shows characteristics roughly analogous to those of hearing." 39 Hawkes and Loeb studied subjects' vigilance for both cutaneous and auditory stimuli and found a response latency of longer duration for the cutaneous modality than for the auditory sense and that these differences were significant. Also, the number of failures of detection was greatest for the signals applied cutaneously than for the auditory signals.40’41 3 . . . . 8Georg von Bekesy, "Funneling 1n the Nervous System," Jour— nal g§_the Acogstical Society g£_America, 30(1958), pp. 399- 412. 9WilliamL. Jenkins, "Somesthesis" in S. S. Stevens, (ed.). Handbook 9;.Experimentgl.Psychglogy (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1951), p. 1177. 40Michel Loeb and Glenn R. Hawkes, "Rise and Decay Time in Vigilance for weak Auditory and Cutaneous Stimuli," Percep- tual and Motor Skills, 13(1961), pp. 235-242. 41G. R. Hawkes, and M. Loeb, "Vigilance for Cutaneous and Auditory Signals," Journal g£_Auditopy Research, 1(1961), pp. 272—284. 30 Apparatus Used 29 Produce Cutaneous Stimulation Possibly Gault was the first person to investigate the possibilities of transmitting cutaneous messages. The methods he employed were quite unique. As it is with initial efforts, his early equipment was quite crude; but his interest and early significant success led him to develop a more re- fined vibro-tactile apparatus. His initial equipment con- sisted of a long speaking tube that extended through several walls. At the end of the tube he positioned a subject whose primary task was to discriminate by touch the differences between a number of tuning forks that were set in vibration at the end opposite the subject.42 Another of Gault's early instruments was a disk-shaped receiver, analogous to the ear piece in a telephone system. A high quality transmitter was placed at the mouth of a per- son speaking in another room 35 feet distant. Between the transmitter and the receiver was a three tube amplifier. The transmitter was operated by three dry cells. In addition, the system required a six volt 'A' battery and a 110 volt 'B' bat- tery. When the experimenter spoke into the transmitter, the 42R. H. Gault, "Progress in Experiments on Tactual In- terpretation of Oral Speech," Journal gf_Abnormal and Social Psychology, 19(1924), pp. 155-159. 31 subject felt the vibration of the receivers against their hands or against the tip of a finger.43 Gradually Gault developed more refined apparatus for communicating speech to the finger-tips of an observer. This latter apparatus was called the teletactor,44 which consists of five vibrating posts, each responding to a mutually ex- clusive frequency range, and each affecting a single finger of the subject by way of the finger nail.45 With the use of Gault's teletactor many vibro—tactile experiments were ac— complished. A review of some of these experiments will be presented later in this chapter. Other experimenters have also developed tactile ap- paratus. Békésy made a noteable contribution to vibro-tactile experimentation when he developed three different types of vibro-tactile apparatus. These apparatus were actually mecha anical models of the cochlea and were employed to investigate 4 . . . 3R. H. Gault, "Control Exper1ments 1n Relat1on to Identification of Speech Sounds by Aid of Tactual Cues," Journal gf_Abnormal and Social Psychology, 21(1926), pp. 4— 13. 44 L. D. Goodfellow and A. W. Krause, "Apparatus for Receiving Speech Through the Sense of Touch," Review gf_Sci- entific Instppmentg, 5(1934), pp. 44-46. 45Gault, Journal 3: the Franklin Institute, 204 (1927), pp. 329-358. 32 how the nerves react to different vibratory patterns on the basilar membrane. In the use of these mechanical models the skin of the forearm substituted for the nerve supply of the basilar membrane. The three models were also used to demon- strate three of the theories of hearing: (1) the resonance theory, (2) the telephone theory, and (3) the traveling wave theory.46 The resonance model consisted of a series of tuned steel reeds attached to a metal support that oscil- lated slightly around its longitudinal axis. The length of the support was equal to the length of the forearm. Thirty-six reeds, tuned in equal intervals over a range of two octaves, were distributed along the whole length. A small pin on each reed, fastened close to the support, touched the surface of the skin of the arm. When the arm was placed carefully along the pins, so that the points just touched the skin, the reed system transformed any change in frequency into an easily observable displacement of the stim— ulated area on the skin. The model for the telephone theory was a triangular metal frame made of tubing. The frame vibrated per- pendicularly to the axis of the edge in contact with the forearm. The rigidity of the frame ensured that all the stimulating parts touching the skin would vi- brate in phase. The model for the traveling waves was a plastic tube case around a brass tube with a slit. The tube was filled with fluid. A vibrating piston set the fluid inside the tube in motion, and forces in the fluid pro- duced waves that traveled from the hand to the elbow.47 6George von Békésy, "Current Status of Theories of Hear- ing," Science, 123(1956), pp. 779-783. 4 . . . . . 7Bekesy, Experlment§_lp_Hear1ng, p. 546. 33 The mechanical model of the cochlea developed by Békésy to demonstrate the traveling wave theory was later employed in studies that attempted to develop a vibro—cutaneous com- munications system. Keidel was one investigator who employed the Békésy ap- paratus. Keidel's procedure was to record speech on mag- netic tape at the rate of 15 inches per second. The play- back speed was slowed down by a factor of approximately 8 (2 inches per second) which shifted the frequency range from BOO-3,000 cps (recording) down to 40-400 cps (playback). The playback signal was then fed into the apparatus that was placed on the subject's forearm. Keidel reports that intelligibility of speech seems possible with this apparatus.48 Another rather elaborate vibro-tactile apparatus is one currently being employed in experiments conducted in Sweden. The apparatus is called a "vocoder." In the vocoder, ten frequency channels of speech are transmitted into vibratory stimuli each of which varies in amplitude according to the power in one of the frequency channels.49 The tactile vo- coder operates as follows: 48 . . W. D. Ke1del, "the on a New System for V1bratory Com- munication," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8(1958), p. 250. 49 . . Speech Transmiss1on Laboratory, Quarterly Progress and Status Report, October 15, 1961. 34 The speech signal is first compressed in amplitude and then differentiated to emphasize high frequen- cies (+4 db/oct.). The resulting signal was divided' by overlapping filters into ten channels having cen- ter frequencies of 210, 580, 830, 1050, 1800, 2250, 3320, 5800, and 7700 c.p.s. The response curves of the channel filters were triangular with sides hav- ing slopes that approaches 12 d.b. per octave. The output signal from each channel was rectified and smoothed to yield a control voltage. Each of the ten control voltages modulated the amplitude of a 300 c.p.s. sinusoidal signal. The varying 300 cycle signals were amplified and transmitted to 10 bone- conduction transducers which served as vibrators for stimulating the ventral tips of the subject's fingers. Preceeding from left to right across the dorsal part of the two hands, the frequency channels were presented to the fingers in order beginning with the lowest chan- nel and proceeding to the highest channel.50 The vibratory apparatus used at the University of Virginia employs conventional audio equipment for amplifi- cation and transmission of the stimulus. As a transducer a Goodmans V-47 vibration generator is employed which is satisfactory up to about the 1000 cycle region.51 Myers also used a similar set—up for his experiment. His experimental apparatus consisted of a Goodman "shake table" vibrator which had a specially designed finger transducer to stimulate his subject33three middle fingers and thumb. During testing the 0 . . Speech Transm1331on Laboratory, Quarterlerrqgress and §tatug Report, October 15, 1961. 51Letter from John F. Hahn, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Psychology, University of Virginia, October 23, 1962. 35 subjects were seated in front of the apparatus and asked to rest their fingers gently on the finger transducer. A Bell amplifier was used totransmit the signals to the vibrator from an Ampro two-speed tape recorder. In teaching speech to the deaf, Crane and Evans com- bined a Language Master with a tactile-device called the Sonovox, which feeds the speech signal through vibratory means to the hard of hearing subject. The Sonovox vibrator is basically a dynamic transducer with a heavy magnet with an enlarged voice coil that has a large displacement. The authors state that the Sonovox produces a faithful vibratory reproduction of the input signal.53 In cutaneous experiments, electrodes and even elec- tric current have been utilized. Anderson and Munson, using electrodes, applied audiofrequency signals of various types (sine waves between 100 and 10,000 cps and speech signals) in the form of electrical potentials directly to the skin of a few observers. They found that the character of the 52Robert D. Myers, "A Study in the Development of a Tactual Communication System," The Symposium on Air Force mean Engineering, Personnel, and Training Research, 1960, National Academy 9; Sciences--National Research Council, Publication No. 783, pp. 238-243. 53 . . . N. W. Crane and B. B. Evans, "The Talk1ng D1ct1on- ary," Volta Review, 64(1962), pp. 125-127. 36 sensation can usually be separated into at least two distinct parts: (1) a disagreeable "burning" feeling near the surface of the skin, and (2) a more deep seated throbbing whose qual- ity depends upon the frequency of the impressed signal. The relative and absolute magnitudes of these two sensations de— pend upon the size, spacing, and position of the electrodes.5 Gilmer has also employed electrodes in his experiments. His apparatus consisted of Tektronex equipment that was capable of generating square-wave pulses with the capacitance coupled to a triode amplifier that utilized a type 24 power triode to stiffen the pulses so that the resistance of the skin did not distort the waveform. The output of the amplifier is applied to the electrodes at the skin. Any data that are received are punched directly on cards and programmed for a computer. Possibly the most unique apparatus was employed by Hawkes and warm. They investigated electric current inten- sity level as a cue for signalling purposes and found that when intensity levels were equally spaced in terms of the subjective magnitude of sensation, two levels could be ident- ified without error. Maximum transmission of information was 54Attell B. Anderson and W. A. Munson, "Electrical Excitation of Nerves in the Skin at Audiofrequencies," Journal gf_the Acoustical Society g£_America, 23(1951), pp. 115-159. 553. V. Gilmer, "Toward Cutaneous Electro-Pulse Commun- ication," The Journal g£_Psychology, 52(1961), pp. 215-216. 37 achieved using three levels. At 1500 c.p.s. alternating cur- rent was more effective in transmitting information than a1- ternating current at 100 c.p.s. They concluded that current intensity level could be useful as a cue in an electrical, cutaneous communication system.56 In defense of this system HaWkes writes: The equipment problems of a cutaneous communication system could be simplified if one avoided the use of mechanical vibrators, which are bulky and require considerable power, and instead used electrical cur- rent as the source of stimulation. Either direct or alternating current would be suitable for communication purposes. Electrodes are easily mounted on the body surface, and have less bulk and a lower power require- ment than mechanical vibrators.57 With the use of viberators it is necessary to mask or block out the resulting sound from the subject's hearing. Two methods are usually employed: (1) acoustically enclose the apparatus, and (2) present a masking noise in the sub- ject's ears. With the use of the teletactor Gault and Good- fellow prevented the reception of sound by the subject by constructing a double concrete box (3 foot cube, outside 6Glenn R. Hawkes and J. S. Warm, Communication py_ Elecppical Stimplation g£_the Skin: I. Absolute Identifi- cation g§_Stimulus Intensipy Level, Fort Knox, Ky: U.S.A. Medical Research Laboratory, 1959, No. 400. 7 Glenn R. Hawkes, "Potential Answers to Communica- tion Problems," Aerospace Medicine, 33(1962), p. 658. 38 measurement) lined with sound—absorbing material. The vibra- tor was suspended from the top of the inside box; and the observer, in order to place his fingers upon it, thrust his arm into the inner box through a small hole in the wall of each box that was made to fit the arm. Each opening was en- circled with sponge rubber for the purpose of sound insula- tion when the arm was in position.58 In testing the effec- tiveness of the box, sixteen observers were given 3200 trials to decide whether or not a sound had been produced even when they knew what stimulus might be produced and when to expect it. They were entirely at a loss when they had to decide whether or not a sound had been produced. Further more, fourteen naive observers were entirely unable to identify five vowel qualities more times than chance would allow, indicating that no sublim- inal auditory cues are operative either by bone con- duction to the inner ear or by direct hearing.59 Békésy was very careful in his vibratory experiments to prevent the transmission of cues by means of the ear. He acouStically insulated the whole apparatus and closed off the 58R. H. Gault and Louis D. Goodfellow, "Eliminating Hearing in Experiments on Tactual Reception of Speech," Journal g§_General Psychology, 9(1933), p. 223. 59R. H. Gault, "Eliminating Hearing in Experiments on the Tactual Interpretation of Speech and Music," Psyphology Bulletin, 30(1933). pp. 575-576, 691-692. 39 auditory meatus with an earplug that was covered by an ear- phone case. When the sound insulation was not sufficient, masking was used.60 Myers also used a masking noise that was generated by a General Radio random noise generator. This was sufficient to mask out any concomitant audio fre- quencies emanating from the vibrators.6 Perception gf_Cutaneous Stimulation py_§peech and Music Much experimentation has been accomplished using the Gault teletactor. The reports of the research reveal a num- ber of very useful applications of the teletactor in the ed- ucation of the deaf.62 The teaching of speech to the deaf is greatly facilitated by the use of the teletactor. It helps the child to learn many of the elements of speech and aids in building a concept of sound.63 The teletactor also 60Georg von Békésy, "Human Skin Perception of Travel- ing Waves Similar to Those on the Cochlea," Journal g§_the Acoustical Society g§_America, 27(1955), pp. 830-841. 1Myers, National Academy g£_Sciences--National 3;- search Council, Publication No. 783, pp. 238-243. 2Louise Ebeling Dean, "Experiments in the Academic Education of Adolescent Deaf Pupils," American Annals g: ph§_Deaf, 79(1934). PP. 292-305. 63D. T. Cloud, "Some Results From the Use of the Gault-Teletactor," American Annals gf_the Deaf, 78(1933), pp. 200-204. 4O helps the child put more rhythm into his own speech.64 The deaf child is also able tocompare his speech with that of his teacher, and thus recognize his own particular difficulties.6S With training, deaf individuals learn to enjoy music and speech (particularly poetry) communicated to their finger- tips by means of the teletactor.66 Gault found that a sub- ject, normal or deaf, could recognize by means of the tele- tactor after considerable practice: (1) vowels, (2) diph- thongs, (3) consonants, and (4) short sentences.67 In fact, a few cases are on record of totally deaf individuals who have interpreted speech by means of the senses of touch and vibration alone. 64R. H. Gault, "Extension of the Uses of Touch for the Deaf," School §_Society, 23(1926), pp. 368-370. 65R. H. Gault, "Drafting the Sense of Touch in the Cause of Better Speech," Journal g§_Expression, 1(1927), pp. 126-131. 66R. H. Gault, "Pleasurable Reactions to Tactual Stimuli," pp. 247-254, in Feeling and Emotions - A_§ymposium. Edited by Martin L. Reynert (Worcester, Mass: Clark Univ. Press, 1928). 67Gault, Journal gf_the Franklin Institute, 204(1927), pp. 329-358. 68Gault, Journal g§_Applied Psychology, 10(1926), pp. 75-88. 41 Cloud experimented with the teletactor using eight deaf subjects. After a year's training with these eight subjects the experimenter concluded: (1) The teletactor proved to be an aid in tone pro- duction, (2) it offered an easy means of distinguish- ing between long and short vowels and for drilling on words in which these sounds occur, (3) it affords a convenient means for pointing out silent and un- voiced elements, (4) accent in a combination of syl- lables is more easily developed by aid of the tele- tactor than without it, (5) the omission of an element or a syllable when it should be vocalized, or its vocalization when it should be silent, is more easily corrected by use of the instrument than otherwise, (6) the pupils that used the teletactor have a much smoother speech than is usually found in deaf children of their age.69 Of course, not all cutaneous speech experimentation has been accomplished with the teletactor. With the use of the vocoder, discrimination and identification tests of various spoken sounds indicates that six vowel sounds could be identified with reasonable accuracy, and that the con- sonant features of affrication, voicing, place, and nasality could be discriminated to some extent.70 69Cloud, Amegican Annals pf_the Deaf, 78(1933), pp. 200-203. oSpeech Transmission Laboratory Quarterly Progpess and Status Report, October 15, 1961. 42 Two other studies applied electrodes to the skin. Anderson reports that his subjects could feel differences between such words as "Joe, toe, sew, how, now, cow, blue" and "new" by electrical stimulation of the skin.71 And lastly, Nelson, using a one and two-electrode system, found that after some training his subjects appeared to be able to distinguish between pairs of contrasting vowels. With one electrode the scores were about 60—70 out of 90 and with the two electrodes about 80 out of 90. However, he . , 7 found large individual differences between subjects.72 3 Compined Cutaneous Stimulation py_ Speech and Lipreadlpg_ Cutaneous stimulation by speech has been combined with lipreading with noteable success. Gault found that deaf pupils were able to increase their lipreading score on an average of 20 percent when lipreading was combined with 71A. B. Anderson, "Electrical Stimulation of the Skin, Case 38138," A Report pg_Bell Telephone Laboratory, 1947, pp. 6-7. 72 . M. Nelson, Electrocutaneous Percept1on of Speech Sounds," Archives g§_Otolarypgology, 69(1959), pp. 445—448. 73M. Nelson, "A Comparison of Electro-Cutaneous Dif- ferentiation of Vowels Through a l-Electrode and 2-Electrode System" (unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1950). 43 cutaneous stimulation by speech presented via the teletac- tor.74 In another study, Gault found that a deaf lipreader could understand about twice as many words when he combined cutaneous stimulation by speech with lipreading than by lip- reading alone.7 Gault also reports that when deaf subjects feel speech on their fingers through the teletactor and, at the same time, see it upon the face of a speaker, the combined tactual- visual impressions enable them to interpret speech more fully and accurately than did the visual impression alone, as in ordinary lipreading. The median advantage afforded by the combined stimulation alone was 30 percent when the stimuli were isolated monosyllabic words and scoring was made on the basis of the number of words correctly reported by the sub- ject. When whole sentences were presented as stimuli and scoring is upon the basis of the number of whole sentences 74R. H. Gault, "A Partial Analysis of the Effects of Tactual-Visual Stimulation by Spoken Language," Journal g§_ the Fpanklin Institute, 209(1930), pp. 437-458. 75R. H. Gault, "On the Identification of Certain Vowel and Consonantal Elements in Words by Their Tactual Qualities and by Their Visual Qualities as Seen by the Lip- Reader," Journal p§_Abno;mal_and Social_Psychology, 22 (1927). pp. 33-39. 44 literally reported, the medium advantage of combined stimu- lation was 100 percent.76 Ilieva studied the relative ability of the eye alone, of the finger-tip alone, and of both together to detect dif- ferences in the tempo of speech within spoken sentences. When subjects felt speech on their finger-tips through the teletactor and at the same time saw it upon the face of the experimenter, the combined impressions enabled them to de- tect the quickly spoken words in a sentence more accurately than did the visual impression alone, as it is found in un- assisted lipreading. The percentage of correct judgments increases from 66.0 in the visual situation to 77.2 percent in the visual-tactual situation.77 Thus it would appear that a tactual aid for the deaf would be of considerable value if it is operated as a com- plement to lipreading. In this role a tactual speech ap- paratus should provide indications of some of the features of speech that are most difficult to identify by lipreading alone. 76 . R. H. Gault, "On the Effect of S1mu1taneous Tactual- Visual Stimulation in Relation to the Interpretation of Speech," Journal g§_Abnorma1 and Social Psychology, 25(1930), pp. 498-517. 77M. L. Ilieva, "On the Detection of Variations in Tempo of Speech by Visual, Tactual, and Visual-Tactual Cues," Journal g§_General Ppychology, 7(1934), pp. 100-109. PART II: REVIEW OF PERTINENT LIPREADING LITERATURE .It is conservatively estimated that three million children in the United States have hearing problems. Between two and one-half and three percent have a loss sufficient to warrant special medical care and educational help, and about one-tenth of one percent have a degree of hearing so slight that they may be classified as deaf. Among the adult population, 12 million are estimated to have hearing loss varying from slight to total. About 175,000 of this number were born without functional hearing or lost their hearing before they acquired speech.78 Lipreading is one of the important rehabilitative measures available to these deaf and hard of hearing per- sons. Montague suggests that "1ipreading is a prime ne- cessity for every person with any degree of hearing loss."79 Guilder and Schall agree with Montague's suggestion by recommending lipreading for all patients with a hearing loss, While a hearing aid should be prescribed only in those cases where a sufficient amount of serviceable residual hearing has been ascertained.80 . 78HeggingLoss . . . A Communipy_Loss (Washington, ‘D. C.: American Hearing Society, 1958), p. 5. 79H. Montague, "Lipreading . . . A Continuing Ne— cessity," Journal g§_Speech Qisorders, 8(1943), p. 259. 80Ruth Guilder and LeRoy Schall, "Rehabilitation of the Child Who Is Handicapped by Deafness," Laryngoscope, 54 (1944). Pp. 511-530. 45 46 Newhart and the Ewings qualify their statements about the need for lipreading. Newhart advocates lipreading for those patients in whom there remains only a slight residue of hearing within the speech range.81 Ewing and Ewing state that lipreading is regarded as essential for patients who are deaf to sound above the fequency of 1,000 cycles.82 While slight disagreement may appear to exist among different authors as to the criterion to be used in selecting persons for lipreading training, the fact remains that lipreading is an essential rehabilitative measure to apply to the hard of hearing population. Part II will concern itself with a review of the history of lipreading and some features of the lipreader as a person, and the lipreading process. History g£_Lipreading 1_ Europe The actual teaching of the deaf was possibly delayed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who theorized that even though the deaf had voice, they were speechless. This brief 81Horace Newhart, "Hearing Problems in Education," Journal p§_the American Medical_Association, 109(1937), pp. 839-841. 82Irene Ewing and Alex Ewing, The Handicap p§_Deaf- ness (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1938). 47 statement was thought to mean that the deaf were mentally deficient or in terms of a popular statement: "deaf and dum ." Thus, "Aristotle was saddled with the responsibility of having kept the deaf in ignorance for nearly two thousand "83 years. The Italian Cardan was able to demonstrate that the organs of speech of the deaf could be made effective, thus disproving Aristotle's claim. Ponce de Leon, A Spanish Con- temporary of the Italian Cardan, is considered to be the first 84 . . teacher of the deaf. The reg1stry of h1s monastery con- tains this statement: Slept in the Lord, Brother Pedro Ponce, benefactor of this house, who amongst other virtues, which he pos- sessed in high degree, excelled chiefly in this, which is held in the greatest estimation by the whole world, to wit, teaching the dumb to speak.85 Bonet, in 1620, published what is thought to be the first book dealing with the oral method.86 He thought that 83Fred DeLand, The Sto;y_p§_Lip-Reading (Washington, D. C.: The Volta Bureau, 1931). P.3. 84DeLand, The Story gf_Lipreading, pp. 19-22. 85InpjroductlppmpgLipreading (Elmsford, New York: Sonotone Corporation, 1958), p. 18. 86Juan Pablo Bonet, Simplification p§_the Lette£§_p§_ the Alphabet, and Method p§_Teachipg Deaf Mutes Tp_Speak. Published in Madrid in 1620. Translated from the original Spanish by H. N. Dixon with Historical Introduction by A. Farrar, London, 1890. Cited by DeLand, The Story g§_Li - reading, pp. 28, 39. 48 the deaf had a limited ability and would be largely ineffec- tual in life situations even with training.87 Twenty-eight years later, Bulwer, an English physician, published a book concerning the deaf and thought that lipreading afforded the deaf an avenue for learning to speak.88 Amman, a Swiss physician, published a book in 1692 in which he also desribes a course in teaching the deaf to speak and to lipread. He also advocated mirror practice in the teaching of lipreading and speech. Baker, an English naturalist, poet, and Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1720 became interested in teaching a deaf girl to read, write, and lipread. He became-very successful in his methods but did not divulge his techniques.90 In France, due to the efforts of l'Epee, the teaching of the deaf was accomplished by the manual method.91 In 87Fred DeLand, "Ponce De Leon and Bonet," Volta Rp- View, 22(1920). pp. 391-420. 88DeLand, The Stopy gf_Lipreading, pp. 41-46. 89John C. Amman, A Dissertation pp_Speech (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Low and Searle, 1873), p. 154. The notice and description of this English translation of Surdus Loquens by Dr. Charles Baker, Doncaster, England, appears in the American Annal§_p§_the Deaf, 19(1874), pp. 31-34. 9°DeLand, The Story 2§.Lipreading, pp. 68-69. 91Rae Luzerne, "The Abbe De l'Epee," American Annals gf_the Deaf, 1(1848). pp. 69-76. 49 Germany, however, the oral method was paramount because of the fine work of Heinicke, who believed that the deaf could become useful members of society only if they learned how to speak. It was only after the death of Heinicke that Ger- many turned to the manual method largely due to the influ- . . . 92 ence of He1n1cke's sons-1n-1aw. It took another century before the oral method was again taught in Germany. The re- introduction of the oral method was due to the efforts of F. M. Hill.93 To Frederick Moritz Hill (1805-1874) may be accredited what is distinctively called the 'German System.‘ His- torians consider him one of the greatest of all educa- tors of the deaf. He based his philosophy of education on the concept that a deaf child must be taught to speak in the same manner as nature develops speech in a hearing child.94 In England, Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806) was one of the most important figures in the development of lipreading. His later years were spent exclusively with teaching the deaf.95 92 . . . Rae Luzerne, "A Monument to He1n1cke," Amer1can Annals g the Deaf, 1(1848) , pp. 166-170. 93O'Neill and Oyer, Visual Communication, p. 13. 94M. Mason, Doctoral Dissertation, pp. 15-16. 95Rae Luzerne, "Thomas Braidwood," American Annals 9; the Deaf, 3 (1851). PP. 255—256. 50 History 9: Lipreading lp_America The earliest publication on the education of the deaf that was written by an American, which appeared in 1785, was written by Francis Green. Green's publication was actually a duplication of Braidwood's methods. However, Green did not consult with the Braidwoods about his book and by not doing so incurred the displeasure of the Braidwoods.96 A grandson of Thomas Braidwood, John Braidwood, es- tablished a school for teaching the deaf in Virginia in 1815 with the help of Colonel William Bolling, who had three deaf children.97 About this time (1817) Gallaudet went to England to learn more about the Braidwood method but was discouraged from doing so by the Braidwoods because of their fear of com- petition. While in England, Gallaudet heard a lecture by Abbe Sicard and was persuaded by him to go to Paris to learn the manual method. It was this turn of events that was to have an influence on the teaching of deaf persons in America.98 96M. Mason, Doctoral Dissertation, pp. 16-17. 97DeLand, The Story 2; Lipreading. PP- 93-97. 98 H. P. Peet, "Tribute to the Memory of the Late Thomas Gallaudet," American Annals p§_the Deaf, 4(1852), pp. 65-77. 51 While in France, Gallaudet became friends with a teacher of the deaf, Laurent Clerc, and influenced him to come to America. The two of them started a school for the deaf, now called the American School for the Deaf, that be- came very successful and is federally subsidized.99 Other schools for the deaf were established following the success of the Gallaudet-Clerc teaching effort, and they too used the manual method.100 The oral method really did not get started again in America until 1843 when Horace Mann returned from Europe with glowing reports of this method. However, in America, lipreading was taught only in small private schools. In 1867, John Clarke, the great philanthropist, donated $50,000 to establish an oral school for the deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts.101 Following this a school was established in Boston where Bell taught the Visible Speech Symbols that his father had originated. With the establishment of these two schools lipreading finally achieved stature in America.102 99 . W. W. Turner, nLaurent Clerc," Amer1can Annals p§_ the Deaf, 15(1870). PP. 16-28. 100O'Neill and Oyer, Visual Communication, p. 14. 101DeLand, The Story p§_Lipreading, p. 113. 102O'Neill and Oyer, Visual Communication, p. 14. 52 Alexander Graham Bell, in his early career with teach- ing the deaf, did not teach his students lipreading. It was not until he began to visit the Horace Mann School for the Deaf that he began to concentrate on teaching lipreading and . . 103 . to recognlze its values. A few years later 1n a speech before the Philosophical Society of Washington, D. C.. con- cerning the advantages of lipreading, Bell said that he had made an examination of the visibility of all the words in our language contained in a pocket dictionary, and the result has assured me that there are glorious pos- sibilities in the way of teaching speech reading to the deaf, if the teachers will give special attention to the subject.104 In 1894, the Volta Bureau was constructed in washing- ton, D. C.,largely from a gift of $100,000 from A. G. Bell to his father for the creation and maintainance of the Bureau for increasing and diffusing knowledge concerning the deaf.105 A number of periodicals were published during these early years that were devoted entirely to the teaching of the 103Convention of Teachers of Visible Speech, Worcester, Mass., January 24, 1874. Amepican Annals g§_the Deaf, 19 (1874). p. 98. 104Alexander Graham Bell, "Fallacies Concerning the Deaf," An address delivered at the 239th meeting of the Phil- osophical Society of Washington, D. C., October 27, 1883. Printed in the American Annalg 9: Egg Deaf, 29(1884), p. 32. 105DeLand, The Story p§_Lipreading, p. 124. 53 deaf. The American Annals p§_ppp_2pg£_was started in 1874 at the Harford School; and in 1899 the Association Review, later known as the Volta Review, was published by the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf.106 Lillie E. Warren was one of the first to recognize the needs of the hard of hearing child and to attempt the development of residual hearing. On this subject she pub- lished an article in 1892107 and a book in 1894.108 Warren was also one of the first teachers of adults. She believed that the sounds of English were revealed in sixteen facial configurations and that in training students to lipread they must associate certain numbers with certain sounds. Warren describes her method as follows: The object of my system is to teach the learner to as- sociate the elementary or substantially elementary sounds with the special expression of the human face which invariably accompanies the utterance of such sounds. It includes a series of pictures of the hu- man face in which separately substantially every ex- pression is shown which the face assumes in uttering 106DeLand, The Story 2£.Lipreading, pp. 121-126. 107Lillie E. Warren, "Teaching Deaf Children to Hear," Medical Record, Oct. 22, 1892. Cited by DeLand, The Story p§.Lipreading, p. 134. 108Lillie E. Warren, Defective Speech and Dealness (New York: Edger Werner, 1895). Cited by DeLand, The Story p£_llpreaging, p. 134. 54 the series of elementary sounds used in speaking the language, and it also includes with this series of pictures a series or schedule of characters, marks, or symbols, one for each picture and expression, each arbitrary character referring to its appropriate picture. 09 Warren called her lipreading technique the "Warren Method of Expression-Reading and Numerical Cipher" which was copyrighted and patented. Nitchie, a contemporary of Warren, studied for a time with Warren, but soon left her and opened his own school in 1903 in New York. He devoted many years to teaching adults, and is responsible for creating the New York League for the Hard of Hearing. Nitchie published a book in 1903 which Warren claimed was a plagiarism of her method. But while Nitchie's method did resemble Warren's, it was an improvement because he used a system of symbols instead of numerical ciphers for identification of each consonant position. Nitchie firmly believed in the regenerative possibilities of lipreading, and this belief permeated his writings.110'111 109DeLand, The Story p§_Lippeading, p. 135. 110Edward B. Nitchie, "The Spiritual Side of Lip- reading," Volta Reylgg, 12(1910). Cited by Montague, Jour- pgl.g§_Speech Disorders, 8(1943), pp. 257-268. 111Edward B. Nitchie, "Synthesis and Intuition in Lipreading," Volta Review, 15(1913). Cited by Montague, Journal_gf Speech Disorders, 8(1943), pp. 257-268. 55 Nitchie's last book emphasized the necessity for training the student to grasp whole meanings from the segments of speech that are seen.112 Another early contributor to the teaching of lip- reading was Martha Bruhn, who is credited with translating the Mueller-Walle method into English. In so doing she had to work consonant by consonant, and vowel by vowel, to find equivalent English words to illustrate the lipreading princi- ples expounded by Mueller-Walle. The teaching method is based on sound educational principles for it works from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the easy-to-see to the practically invisible. The first les- sons are almost wholly objective. The drills for eye train- ing involve practice on meaningless syllables, which are carefully arranged and graduated, so as to accustom the pupil to recognize the visible movements of speech. As he progres- ses, the student is given more interesting and more meaning- ful material, and the psychological aspects of lipreading are emphasized; but the syllable practice and eye drill are con- tinued throughout thecourse.113 lledward B. Nitchie, Lipreading, Principles and Prac- tice (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1912). 113Martha E. Bruhn, The Mueller-Walle Method gf_Lip- reading for the Deaf (Lynn, Mass.: The Nichols Press, 1929). 56 Cora Kinzie, who studied with both Bruhn and Nitchie, adapted the methods of her teachers and evolved her own method. Her sister, Rose, later joined her in further de- veloping these teaching techniques which were a series of graded lipreading lessons for children and adults. They found that the graded lessons allowed their students to pro- ceed at their own pace and facilitated their students' progress. In their book they present many lessons that are interesting and purposeful.114 Jacob Reighard translated the Jena method of Karl Brauckmann into English and with the assistance of Bessie Whitaker and Anna Bunger introduced it in America. Whitaker was given the task of trying out this method at Michigan Normal College in 1926. The Jena method advances the theory that since speech has three forms, motor, auditory, and sen- sation, it may be understood equally well by any of the three forms. The pupil begins from the start to recite with the teacher on the theory that when a person makes the same speech movements as a speaker, he will have the same speech sensations, will feel the words as the speaker feels them, and will understand through feeling. The system of practice 4 . . . . . . 11 Cora K1n21e and Rose K1n21e, Llpreadlng for the Deafened Adult (Chicago: The John C. Winston Co., 1931). 57 enables the hard of hearing person to become aware of his own speech sensations and through them to understand the speech of others.115 Until the late twenties these lipreading schools con- tinued to grow and spread, and many of them were prosperous. Then two things happened that halted this steady growth of lipreading. The depression caused the lopping off of many educational enterprises; and the great improvement in hearing aids caused many hard of hearing adults to conclude that lipreading was not so necessary as they had been lead to believe.116 However, there is currently a general revival in teaching the deaf and hard of hearing lipreading. Courses in lipreading are being offered to students interested in teaching the deaf in many colleges and universities. Teachers of the deaf are able to receive scholarships for their study by the Vocational Rehabilitation Administration. Last year (1962) the Vocational Rehabilitation Administration Program graduated 100 teachers of the deaf while 400 will graduate with professional degrees this year (1963).117 llSAnna M. Bunger, Speech Reading -- Jena Method. 116Montague, Journal_gfy§peech Disorders, 8 (1943). p. 261. 117 Mary E. Switzer, "Assessment: Capacity for Useful Living," Exceptional_Children, 28(1962), p. 463. 58 Other developments in the teaching of lipreading are the film techniques of Marie Mason and Morkovin and Moore. Mason's lipreading films are based on exercises de- signed to demonstrate the various movements of speech. After the student becomes familiar with the theory of lipreading, he views the films and studies them at his leisure. Each of the thirty films is composed of three parts, the first part functioning as a text and announcing the topic to be studied. Sentences are printed on cards so that the student can read these before he is asked to lipread the filmed speaker. The second part of the film presents the remainder of the lesson and the third part presents questions concerning the material covered by the lesson.118 Morkovin and Moore's films dramatize "life situations," which they believe make lipreading less of a task and easier to learn. Lipreading, they believe, is most successful when it is taught on the basis of life problems and the necessity for solving them.119 "In learning speech reading from mo- tion pictures, the plan should be to proceed from the obvious phrases and words, which are easily suggested by the action 118O'Neill and Oyer, Visual Communication, p. 101. 119B. V. Morkovin, Through the Barriers g§_Deafness and Isolation. Oral Communlgation g§_the Hearing Impaired Child lp_Life Situation (New York: Macmillan, 1960), p. 178. 59 of the film to the more difficult and abstract words."120 Their method is called the "audio-visual kinaesthetic" method because it utilizes the student's hearing throughout the les- sons. There is no attempt on the part of the teacher to mask out her voice when giving lessons. The student is encouraged . . . 121 to make use of whatever hearlng he has remalnlng. As a summary to this review of the history of lipread- ing, Montague made a poignant statement in 1943. What she wrote then is applicable today: At present, the whole business of imparting lipreading is . . . at a crossroads. The older methods are forty years old; the newer methods are not very radical de- partures, but are more or less a composite of the old. Can anything new be learned?122 Llpreadipg_Training Training in lipreading is necessary if the person ever hopes to become a proficient lipreader. Kropp believes that aurally handicapped children should be taught lipreading 120Boris V. Morkovin, "Rehabilitation of the Aurally Handiccaped Through the Study of Speech Reading in Life Sit- uations," Journal pf_Speech Disordepgj 12(1947). pp. 363-368. 121Lucelia M. Moore, "Life Situation Motion Pictures for Teaching," Volta Review, 44(1942), p. 705. 122Montague, Journal g§_Speech Disorders. 8(1943). p. 267. 60 early in their life123 with most children needing a great deal of training in this skill. During their school careers . . -. . . 124 18 the most opportune tlme for thls tralnlng. Magner thinks that the ideal time to begin lipreading is before the age of two, and hence is home-centered. The longer a child must wait to acquire the skill of lipreading after deafness has been diagnosed, the more difficult it is for him to be- . . . 125 come prof1c1ent 1n the art. The training period for lipreading instruction will vary due to individual differences, but Goldstein suggests that for children lipreading instruction requires a period 126 . . . of from one to two years. Mltchell recommends a mln1mum of two weekly lessons of one hour's duration for maximum benefit from lipreading instruction for children.127 In 123E. Kropp, "Thoughts about the Hard of Hearing Child and His Education," Neue Blatter ffir Taubstummenbildung, 15 (1961), pp. 317-325. Cited in dsh Abstracts, 2(1962), p. 213. 124 . . . K. Jones, "Communlcatlon Scales," Volta Rev1ew, 63(1961). PP. 72-77, 94. 125 u . M. E. Magner, Parents Can Help Deaf Chlldren Ac- quire Ability in Speech-Reading," American Annals p§_the Deaf, 105(1960). PP. 431-433. 126Max A. Goldstein, "The Education of the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Child," American Journal gf_Surgery, 42(1938), pp. 151-155. 2 1 7J. R. Mitchell, "The Education of Deaf Children," Public Health. 52(1939). pp. 271-273. 61 working with adults, Hughson and Westlake recommend at least one year's study in order to attain any real degree of pro- ficiency. They also mention that even with two years' study the student might still be in need of further instruction.128 The effect of lipreading training is dramatically shown in a study by Hofsommer. Seventeen hard of hearing children were given lipreading training for one to three years. In studying these children it was found that 47 per- cent of the group showed an increase in 1.0., 41 percent showed no change, and 11 percent showed a decrease. In 75 percent of the group a definite improvement in classroom achievement was noted. Among 16 hard of hearing children who refused instruction in lipreading none showed an in- crease in 1.0. during the same period, but 75 percent showed a decrease. Only 18.7 percent made classroom improvement and all individuals in this group were personality problems.129 Teaching lipreading by television has also been studied. Oyer, after training his subjects for ten weeks, 128Walter Hughson and Harold D. Westlake, "Manual for Program Outline for Rehabilitation of Aural Casualties, Both Military and Civilian," Transactions p§_the American Academy Q Ophthalmology. (Supp), 48(1944). pp. 1-15. 129A. J. Hofsommer, "Lipreading and the Intelligence Quotient of the Hard of Hearing Child," Journal g§_the Amer- ican Medical Association, 107(1936), pp. 648-650. 62 found that his subjects did improve their lipreading perform- ance. It was also noted that throughout the television training sessions the interest level of the subjects appeared to be high.130 Factors Contributing pp_ Lipreading Ability What makes a good lipreader? If this question could be answered with well defined conclusions, the teaching of lipreading might not be so arduous. A number of conclusions concerning those factors that contribute to a person's lip- reading ability have been discovered. Residual hearing is one factor that contributes to a person's lipreading ability. Results of an investigation by Evans showed that 45 out of 50 deaf children had higher scores when combining listening and lipreading than when lipreading alone.131 This finding is supported by Heider, who found that the more hearing a child has and the more this hearing has been trained, the better his lipreading ability will be.132 130H. J. Oyer, "Teaching Lipreading by Television," Volta Review, 63(1961), pp. 131-132, 141 l.31L. Evans. "Factors Related to Listening and Lip- reading." Teacher o_f_ the Deaf, 58(1960) , pp. 417-423. 132Fritz Heider, "ACOUStiC Training Helps Lipreading," Volta Review, 45(1943), p. 135. 63 O'Neill and Davidson studied relationships between lip- reading ability and five psychological factors. They found no statistically significant relationship between lipreading ability and level of aspiration, intelligence, reading com- prehension, and digit memory span. However, they did find a statistically significant relationship between lipreading ability and non-verbal concept formation.133 Intellectual level and analytical ability are thought to be of secondary importance by Walter. But he does believe that an individual's vocabulary and the extent of his general knowledge appear to be important for gaining proficiency as a lipreader.134 According to Connally, the development of a visual memory span is important for those persons who want to increase their lipreading ability.135 133John J. O'Neill and John L. Davidson, "Relationship Between-Lipreading Ability and Five Psychological Factors," Journal 9£_Speech and Hearing Disorders, 21(1956), pp. 478- 481. 134m, M. Walter, "Vocational Rehabilitation for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing," Transactions pf_the American Academy p£_0phthalmology and Otolagyngology, 49(1944), pp. 103-111. 135E. E. Connally, "Implications of Research for the Classroom Teacher," American Annals p§_the Deaf, 106 (1961). pp. 397-404. 64 Another factor that can affect a person's lipreading ability is his age. Farrimond found that a person's lip- reading ability improves from the second to the third decade of life with a decline in ability thereafter.136 In the research department of the Clarke School for the Deaf it was learned that good lipreaders are apparently more responsive to color than to form, whereas poor lipread- ers are more responsive to form.137 A person's lipreading proficiency is dependent, to a degree, upon the visibility of the components of the spoken language. It would appear to be a logical assumption that the more visible the language the easier that language would be to lipread. Woodward and Barber tested perceptual dif- ferences among English initial consonants. Stimulus mater- ials consisted of pairs of phonemically identical and mini- mally different nonsense syllables. These nonsense syllables provided a consistent, nonredundant linguistic environment 136T. Farrimond, "Age Differences in the Ability To Use Visual Cues in Auditory Communication," Language and Speech, 2(1959), pp. 179-192. 137Clarke School for the Deaf, Northampton, Mass. Reports of the Clarence W. Barron Research Department in- cluded in the School Reports for 1933-1934 and 1935-1936. Sections on lipreading. 65 for the phoneme tested. Results indicate that only four visually-contrastive units are available consistently to the lipreader. They are the bilabial, rounder-labial, labial- . 138 dental, and nonlablal. Kinzie and Kinzie state that more than 50 percent of all speech elements are either invisible or indistinguish- 139 . able (homophonous). One would assume that the distance between the lipreader and the communicator would improve the visibility of the language. However, Neely found that the distance from three to nine feet was not a significant factor . , . . . 140 1n a person s ablllty to llpread. The person communicating the language is also an im- portant variable that can affect a person's lipreading abil- ity. Lott attempted to isolate the role of the communicator. The hypothesis is that the communication skill is more ef- ficient when the interpreter (lipreader) has positive rather 138M. F. Woodward, and C. G. Barber, "Phoneme Per- ception in Lipreading," Journal gf_§peech and Hearing Re- search, 3(l960), pp. 212-222. 139Kinzie and Kinzie, Lipreading for the Deafened Adult. 140Keith K. Neely, "Effect of Visual Factors on the Intelligibility of Speech," Journal pf_the Acoustical Society pf America, 28(1956). PP. 1275-1277. 66 than negative feelings about the communicator. Partial sup- port for the hypothesis came from the results of one experi- ment in which it was found that "most preferred" group mem- bers were lipread significantly better than those "least preferred." A second experiment suggests an additional com- municator variable important for the prediction of lipreading efficiency. Two communicators who had role-played "agressive" and "moderate" discussion leaders were later lipread most efficiently by subjects who had seen them in that role which was the most natural one for them to play, i.e., the one most like their own typical behavior.141 The expressions that the communicator displays on his face while speaking can also affect a person's lipreading ability. Hartman completed a study of the lipreading per- formance of 87 deaf students who watched two speakers that were filmed under different conditions. Speaker I, who over- emphasized his facial expressions, was lipread correctly more often than Speaker II, who concentrated his expressions around the mouth and lower jaw. When the mouth was blacked out, the students correctly lipread 66 percent of the sentences 141Bernice Eisman Lott and Joel LevY. "The Influence of Certain Communicator Characteristics on Lipreading Ef- ficiency," Journal p§_Social Psychology, 51(1960), pp. 419- 425. 67 spoken by Speaker I and 44 percent by Speaker II. Hartman stresses the importance of facial expressions in conveying . 142 . . both the emotlon and sense of a message. G1111at has found from experience that an expressionless face, immobile . . . . . . , . . . . 143 llps, and grlmaces 1nh1b1t a person s 11pread1ng ablllty. Lastly, Lowell found that an unsmiling face is easier to lipread than a smiling face.144 Psychological Aspects Related pg_Lipreadipg, Certain psychological factors have to be considered in recommending lipreading training to the deaf or hard-of-hear- ing person. A reluctance on the part of the patient to admit his hearing loss sometimes can induce an inhibition against the study of lipreading, strong enough to require the 142 . . N. Hartman, Quoted by W. J. Bech1nger, "Conventlon Tb Further Informing and Educating Teachers of Schools for the Deaf, the Hard of Hearing, and Speech Defectives in Baden- Wurttemberg, Heidelberg, January 9 and 10, 1961," Neue Blatter §g£_Taubstummenbildung, 15(1961), pp. 168-184. Cited in g§p_ Abstracts 2, No. 3. (1962). pp. 209-210. 143M. E. Gilliat, "If I Were Teaching Children Again," Teacher g§_ppp Deaf, 59(1961), pp. 55-59. 144 . . . . E. L. Lowell, "New Ins1ght 1nto L1pread1ng," 3g; habilitation Recppg, 2(1961). PP. 3-5. 68 assistance of a medical-social worker.145 It is for this reason that sometimes there is a need for psychological and frequently even psychiatric preparation of the patient before beginning the formal study of lipreading.146 Once the person has undertaken training in lipreading, lipreading will often lessen the burden of deafness and will stimulate compensatory factors within the personality 147 and will also remove a false sense of shame and center the atten- . . 148 . . tlon of the student on achlevement. Goldsteln wrltes: To the partial or incurably deaf the acquisition of lipreading is a manifold blessing; it releases him from the constant handicap of his aural infirmity; it relieves the constant nervous strain and embarassment of isolation from the rest of his fellows; it restores his social status and his means of communication with his fellow men. To the otologist it offers a consola- tion for his inability and impotency to cope with cer- tain forms of aural pathology and it places him in a 145Dorothy Sutherland and Maxine Miller, "Rehabili- tating the Hard of Hearing Child," The Child, 9(1944), pp. 51- 56. 146w. E. Grove, "The Role of the Otologist in a Hear- ing Conservation Program," Annals pf_0tology, Rhinology_and LaryngologY. 54(1945). PP. 458-465. 147A. B. Stokes, "The Psychological Aspect of Deaf- ness," Journal g§_Laryngology_and Otology, 56(1941), pp. 106-110. 148Wa1ter, Transactions p§.the American Academy 2; Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, 49(1944), pp. 103-111. 69 position to restore the peace of mind and to instill new hope in his deaf patient.149 Lipreading is not a cure-all, nor can it be of bene- fit to everyone who undertakes training in it. Hughson and Westlake present an interesting observation that hearing aids will fail to produce a beneficial effect in exactly the same group of patients (extreme nervousness, unwillingness to undergo a learning period, and undue consciousness of their disability) in which lipreading instruction faces its great- est obstacles.150 Discussion In the review of the cutaneous literature it was mentioned that the thumb as well as the other fingers were most sensitive to vibratory stimulation. Supposedly, it was for this reason that the fingers were most often utilized in vibratory cutaneous communications experiments. The vibra— tory signal supplied to the integument of the fingers was generally filtered, with a portion of the signal going to each finger. In the few studies where lipreading was 149Max A. Goldstein. Problene.2f.the Deaf (St- L°uis‘ The Laryngoscope Press, 1933). P. 296. 150Hughson and Westlake, Transactions 2: the American Academy p§_Qphthalmology and Otolaryngology (Supp.), 48 (1944). pp. 1-15. 70 combined with the cutaneous stimulation speech was, by ne- cessity, the vibratory cutaneous stimulant. In the studies cited in the cutaneous review of the literature, two factors became apparent: (l) the cutaneous speech signal was supplied to the fingers, and (2) the speech signal was filtered in the process of transmit- ting it to the integument. Both of these points were rejected in this study. The fingers were not utilized in this study for purposes of prac- ticality. If cutaneous stimulation by speech does enhance a person's lipreading performance and the apparatus can be made functional, the speech vibrator should not interfere with the manipulative function of the hands and fingers. It was for this reason that some other portion of the in- tegument was chosen, namely the arm, for the placement of the vibrators. Filtering of the speech signal, except above 4800 cps in order to filter out the extraneous high frequency noise produced by the lipreading movie and the amplifiers, was also thought unnecessary and cumbersome. Basically then, the speech signal was unaltered. This would ultimately sim- plify the design of the Cutaneous Speech Transmission System. 71 The teaching of a cutaneous vibratory linguistic code for the transmission of messages is a very difficult and time consuming task, as is the teaching of lipreading. Teaching a person to become a proficient lipreader has given rise to a number of methodologies that have demonstrated beneficial results. But the need still remains for further increasing the lipreader's performance. It was this need that prompted some investigaters to turn their attention to some other receptive channel, ylg, the cutaneous modality. It is the combination of the two sensations, vision and cu- taneous perception, that might become the most proficient means for the comprehension of a verbal message by a severe- ly aurally handicapped person. CHAPTER III SUBJECTS, EQUIPMENT, AND PROCEDURES Subjects The experimental population consisted of sixteen subjects. The subjects were undergraduate and graduate stu- dents at Michigan State University and all subjects had nor- mal hearing. Two criteria were employed in the selection of subjects. The first was that they have normal or corrected 20/20 vision, and the second was that they had no formal training in either lipreading or perception of cutaneous stimulation by speech. Both male and female subjects participated. Of the sixteen subjects twelve were female. E ui ent Motion Plcture Camera: An Aurican 16 mm sound movie camera was used for filming. This camera was equipped with a 50 mm f 1.9 lens. The camera lens was focused at 9 3/4 feet and set at f 3.5 - 4.0. Fllm: The film used was a black and white, single- system, plus X, reversal type with A.S.A. 64. The light source that was shown on the speaker was of 250 foot-candle power. 72 73 Amplifier: A Newcomb 30 watt amplifier, Model KX-30, amplified the output signal of both the projector and the tape recorder before this signal was sent through the fil- ters and to the vibrators. This additional amplifier was needed because of a significant output loss produced by the passive network filters. Filters: Four Allison, Model 25, filters were em- ployed in this study. These are audiometric filters having a low cutoff, high cutoff, and band pass functions. The design is a completely passive network with a two-section, constant K circuit in each function. The filters were used only as low pass instruments. The high cutoff selector was set at 4800 on all of the filters while the low cutoff selector was in the "off" position. The operation of these filters, then, was merely to filter out extraneous sound above 4800 cps. ' Vibratory Apparatus: The choice of a vibrator to use in this study was a different task. After experimentation with a number of different conventional audiometric bone conduction oscillators, with little success, an unconventional method was tried. This method was the use of miniature loud- speakers of the type usually found in transistor radios. Initially the loud-speakers were used without modification, 74 but it was subsequently determined that the loud-speaker cone was making little contact with the arm. Only the metal rim of the loud-speaker made the contact. It was then de— cided to glue a Pellon fabric membrane over the face of the loud-speakers. Figure 1 shows this arrangement. Figure 1. Photograph of Loud—speakers with Pellon Fabric Membrane Glued Over the Face of the Loud-speakers. The Pellon membrane served the purpose of making direct contact with the arm. Secondarily, this membrane gave a bonus factor to the experiment because when the loud- speaker was activated, the resulting air vibrations acting on this membrane were localized near the center of the 75 membrane in an elliptical pattern. This localization and concentration of the vibrations had a decided influence on the sensations ultimately produced on the arm. The four loud-speakers chosen to become vibrators were Sanyo brand with an input of 0.2 watts and were eight ohm. The frequency response of these loud-speakers is shown in Figure 2. The diameter of the loud-speakers was two inches. There was a quarter of an inch space between loud- speakers with a total over-all distance of eight and three- quarter inches from one end of the speaker system to the opposite end. Each of the loud-speakers was suspended from a metal rod. The suspension system was a loosely fitting tongue and groove arrangement which allowed the speaker to move so as to fit the contour of the arm. These loud- speakers were then placed in a metal container with an overhead bar to hold the loud-speaker-rods. Figure 3 clearly shows this arrangement. The inside of the metal container was lined with sponge rubber. The sponge rubber served two functions: (1) it made the arm feel comfortable, and (2) it held the arm snugly in place. The suspension rods could freely move up and down through their holes in the overhead bar. The only pressure exerted on the dorsal part of the forearm was the dead 76 pcoomm mom mmaomo 0 .U n. 0 0 00 0 0 0000000 0 0 0 00 0 0 0000000 0 0 0000000 0 0 5 4 13 2 1987:65 4 .5 2 1987-65 4 .3 2 J. _ _ ______- 1 _ ___.__ - A l L .mnoxmmmmlpsoq 0£u mo noeunwuwuomumsu honmsqmum .N mhsmflm Volts 77 Figure 3. Photograph of Loud-speaker Suspension System with the Location of the Loud- speakers in the Metal Container. weight of the loud-speaker plus the rod and its connections. This dead weight was measured to be 107 grams. An acoustically lined box was constructed for this apparatus. This was necessary because of the excessive amount of sound generated by the loud-speakers when in opera- tion. Figure 4 is a top view of the open box with the apparatus inside. Figure 5 is a top—side view showing an arm inside the box with the loud-speaker-vibrators in place. The box was constructed of one-quarter inch plywood and lined with Armstrong, random-hole design, acoustical tile. 78 Figure 4. Photograph of a Top View of the Acous-' tically Lined Box with a View InSide Showing the Vibratory Apparatus. Figure 5. Photograph of a Top-side View of the Acoustically Lined Box with a View Inside Showing the Placement of the Loud-speaker Vibrators on a Subject's Arm. '., Ht.“ .'!,' "'/4"u“"" s '. -"" ."‘I . '9. 79 Underneath the apparatus is a piece of two-inch thick wool insulation. A five and one—quarter inch diameter hole was sawed in one end of the box in order to accommodate the arm. One piece of one inch thick sponge rubber was placed on the outside of the box with a horizontal slit cut in it. An- other piece of the same thickness was placed inside the box with a vertical slit cut in it. These two pieces of sponge rubber closely snugged the arm and were an effective acoustical seal for the hole. Figure 6 shows a subject, during a training session, with his arm positioned through the outside sponge rubber seal and into the box. Figure 6. Photograph of a Subject During Training with His Arm Placed Through the Sponge Rubber Seal of the Acoustically Lined Box. 80 The acoustically lined box provided quite an attenu- ation level of the sound coming from the vibrators. The sound pressure level produced by a vibrator, with the micro— phone of the Soundscope one inch distant, was 113 db (in relation to .0002 dynes/cmz) . The microphone was now removed from the box and placed one—half inch away from the outside sponge rubber seal at its slit. With the microphone in this position the sound pressure level was 88 db. An arm of a subject was now placed in the box. The vibrators were lowered to the arm, and the sound pressure level was again measured. This level was found to be 80 db. With the sub- ject's arm still in position, the sound pressure level was measured at ear level. This reading at the subject's ear was measured to be 62 db. Figure 7 shows the complete set-up for the experiment except for the acoustically lined box, which was omitted by necessity so that the other pieces of equipment can be seen. As noted below, the separate items are: (1) Sound projector, (2) Tape recorders, (3) Earphones, (4) Amplifier, (5) Filters, and (6) Vibratory apparatus. 81 Figure 7. Photograph of the Entire Cutaneous Speech Transmission System. (1) Sound Projector, (2) Tape Recorders, (3) Earphones, (4) Amplifier, (5) Filters, (6) Vibratory Apparatus. Procedures Filming Procedure: A male speaker was employed in the filming. This person has had experience in teaching lipreading and was so chosen because he would be less prone to exaggerate his mouth movements. The filmed subject has also had radio and televiaion experience. He was therefore an ideal person to use for filming. The filmed subject was given a list of fifty words, twenty—five PB words and twenty- five Spondaic words. He was asked to speak these in as natural a voice as possible. Three seconds were allowed for 82 filming the word with a 10 second gray-out between words to allow time for the experimental subjects to write down their responses. The filmed person was filmed with a close-mouth position preceding and following the actual word. The pic- ture ultimately taken of the speaker was a top shoulder- full head View. The total film time was almost eleven minutes. General lggplng and lpglning Procedures: All of the subjects were tested and trained individually throughout the experiment. Each subject had an individually assigned ap- pointment time for a total of fourteen, one-half hour,sessions. Four of the sessions were used to present the experimental conditions; two sessions in the pre-test and two sessions in the post-test situations. The other ten sessions were used for training purposes. Throughout the fourteen periods the subjects received a masking noise in their ears via the ear- phones. In other words, the masking noise was a constant condition throughout the experiment. Pre-test: In the pre-test periods both Condition I (lipreading only) and Condition II (combined cutaneous stimu- lation by speech and lipreading) were presented to the sub- jects. Condition I preceded Condition II fifty percent of the time in order to control for any order of presentation variable. 83 In the testing of Condition I the silent motion pic— ture film was shown to the subjects. The subjects were instructed to write down their responses to the filmed words. More specifically the directions for Condition I were: You will be shown a movie of a speaker who is saying fifty words. Your task will be to lipread this speaker and write down the word you think he is speaking. The words are not numbered on the film so if you do not know a word be sure to draw a line after that number on your answer sheet. This way you will be sure to follow the words in their correct order. You will also be wearing earphones through which a masking noise will be presented. You will receive this masking noise through- out the experiment so you will not be able to hear any other sound. Remember, write down the words you think the speaker is saying and draw a line after the corre- sponding number on your answer sheet when you do not think you know the word. The experimenter kept a close watch on the subjects to make sure they did not lose track of any words. For Condition II the sound motion picture film was shown to the subjects. Instead of the subjects' hearing the sound portion aurally, the sound was transmitted to the vibrators and then to the dorsal portion of the forearm. The sound motion picture film word list was the same as for the silent film but in randomized order. Specific instructions given to subjects for Condition II were: You will be shown a sound movie of the speaker who is saying fifty words. Your task will be two-fold: First, 84 to lipread the words and second to make whatever use you can of the vibrations you will be feeling on your arm in order to write down the words you think the speaker is saying. The vibrations you will be per- ceiving on your arm will be the sound portion of the movie. In other words, instead of your hearing the words aurally you will be feeling their vibrations. The words are not numbered on the film so if you do not know a word he sure to draw a line after that num- ber on your answer sheet. This way you will be sure to follow the words in their correct order. You will also be wearing earphones through which a masking noise will be presented. You will receive this masking noise throughout the experiment so you will not be able to hear any other sound. Remember, write down the words you think the speaker is saying and draw a line after the corresponding number on your answer sheet when you do not think you know the word. Training: After a subject was tested in the pre- test situation he began the training sessions. Ten tape recordings were made by the person who appeared on the movie films. One hundred and fifty words, including the fifty test words, were tape recorded. Half of the one hundred and fifty words were PB's and the other half Spondee words. On the ten different tape recordings the words were always presented in a different randomized order. For a copy of these training taped word lists see Appendix C. The tape recordings did vary according to the pre— scribed training task. On tapes one and two, each word was presented twice with a five second interval between the pair of words. 85 On tapes three, five, six, seven, nine, and ten, each word was presented once with a five second interval between words. On these eight tapes the subject felt the vibrations of the words on his arm while he followed the words on a typed sheet of paper alongside the acoustically lined box that enclosed the vibratory apparatus. No in- structions were given the subjects as to the method he should use in these training exercises. Because there is no one best training procedure, it was believed that each subject should develop his own particular method of train- ing himself. Training tapes four and eight were different. In these two tapes words were paired either with each other or with another different word. Thus, when the words were presented in pairs, the words were either the same words or different words. The subjects were instructed to determine whether the vibrations they felt on their arm represented two words that were the same or different. Only through the use of these two tapes did the training sessions vary. After completion of the ten training sessions the subjects were classified as trained. Post-test: After a subject had completed the pre- test-and the ten training sessions, he was again tested on 86 the experimental Conditions I and II. The same directions that were given to the subjects in the pre-test were re- peated in the post-test. The only change made between the pre-test and post-test was in the presentation of Condition I and II. If a subject was presented Condition I first in the pre-test, he was presented Condition II first in the post-test. After completion of the pre-test, the training ses- sions, and the post-test, the subject was dismissed. This comprised the total experiment. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Analysis The data collected consisted of the number of words lipread correctly by each subject in each experimental con- dition in both the pre-testing and post-testing. Therefore, there were four scores for each subject: (1) Pre-test Con- dition I (lipreading only, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), (2) Pre-test Condition II (lipread- ing combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), (3) Post—test Condition I (lipreading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), and (4) Post—test Condition II (lip- reading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech). Since it appeared appropriate to utilize analysis of variance in the treatment of the data, a test was made to determine whether there was homogeneity of variance among the scores. A technique described by walker and Levl: Szmax . = 2 was employed. In the fore901ng formula F max S min - max 1Helen Walker and Joseph Lev, Statigtical lpference (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1953), pp. 191-192. 87 88 equals the ratio between the highest mean variance (standard deviation squared), which in this instance is the variance of the pre-test Condition I (lipreading only), divided by the lowest mean variance, which is the variance of post-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech). The following values were obtained: F = max 69.39 49.00 = 1.42. The crltlcal reglon 1s P [Fmax > 5.5} : a .01 with 15 df and K (number of mean squares)= 4.2 The observed value Fmax = 1.42 does not fall in the critical region of F > 5.5 and so the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference among the before training, lipreading only vari- ance, the before training, lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech variance, the after training, lipread- ing only variance, and the after training, lipreading com- bined with cutaneous stimulation by speech variance, is not rejected. Therefore, it can be assumed that the parametric assumption of homogeneity of variance is met with the data derived from this study. A treatments by subjects design, as described by Lindquist,3 was employed. This design is utilized where all 2walker and Lev, Statlsticgl_lnference, Table VII, pp. 462-463. ' 3E. F. Lindquist, Design and Analysis pf Experiments lp Psychology and Education (Boston: Heughton Mifflin Co., 1953). pp. 156-166. 89 of the treatments (experimental conditions) are adminis- tered to the same subjects. This design also eliminates inter-subject differences as a source of error. Table l is the summary table for the treatments by subjects analysis of variance design. Table 1. Summary Table for the Treatment by Subjects Analysis of Variance. —‘ 1 Source df ss ms F-ratio Treatments 3 535.9 178.6 30.8 Subjects 15 3333.5 222.2 38.3 TXS 45 260.6 5.78 Total 63 4130.0 The critical region is: F > 4.26 which is required for significance at d .01 level of confidence (df = 3.45)4 for the "treatments" source of variance. Therefore the follow- ing null hypothesis is rejected: There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, (2) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, 4Walker and Lev, Statistical Inference, Table X, pp. 468-469. 9O (3) lipreading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (4) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimu- lation by speech, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech. It can be observed further that the inter—subject variance is significantly greater (F‘) 2.52, d .01, df = 15,45)5 than the treatment by subject interaction. In addi- tion it was helpful to know between which experimental con— ditions differences occurred. To determine the extent of the differences a method described by Lindquist:6 d = t7” 223w was employed. It is referred to as a critical differences between means. The results were: d = 2.58 2i§31§) = 2.193. Therefore,the value of d that is needed for significance (0 .01, 2 tail) is: d )2.l93. Table 2 presents the outcome of the test for critical differences between means. The data from Table 2 indicate that the following null hypothesis is not rejected: There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained 5Walker and Lev, Statlgtical Inference, Table X, pp. 468-469. 6Lindquist, Design and Analysis pf_Experiments, pp. 93—940 91 Table 2. Summary Table for the Critical Difference Between Means Analysis. PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Condition II; PoI = Post—test Condition I; PoII = Post- test Condition II. Means: PrII PoI PoII PrI = 17.875 PrI 1.313 3.563* 7.625* PrII = 19.188 * * PoI : 21.438 PrII 2.250 6.312 PoII = 25.5 PoI 4.062* *Indicates significant differences. under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PrI), and (2) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimula- tion by speech, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PrII). Also from the data presented in Table 2 the following five null hypotheses were rejected: 1. There is no signifi- cant difference between the subject's performance scores Obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (P01), and (2) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimula- tion by speech (PoII). 2. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental 92 conditions: (1) lipreading only before training in cutane- ous stimulation by speech (PrI), and (2) lipreading only after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoI). 3. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only before training in cutane- ous stimulation by speech (PrI), and (2) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoI). 4. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimu- lation by speech before training in cutaneous stimulation by (speech (PrII), and (2) lipreading only after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoI). 5. There is no significant difference between the subject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimula- tion by speech before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PrII), and (2) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimula- tion by speech (PoII). 93 In order to test the importance of the roles that the PB and Spondaic words played in this study, two further sta- tistical tests were done. The PB and Spondaic words were statistically analyzed separately by employing the treat- ments by subjects analysis of variance design with the cri-' tical differences between means. This separate analysis was necessary to determine whether the PB words or the Spondaic words were responsible for the variance noted in the major portion of the experiment. Table 3 presents the summary table for the treatments. by subjects analysis of variance for the PB words. The Table 3. Summary Table for the Treatments by Subjects Analysis of Variance for PB werds. A-— J Source df 88 ms F-ratio Treatments 3 95.31 31.77 8.47 Subjects 15 452.94 - 30.20 8.05 TXS 45 168.69 3.75 Total 63 716.94 critical region is: F > 4.26 which is required for signif- icance at a .01 level of confidence (df = 3,45) for the "treatment" source of variance. The critical region for the "subjects" is: F‘) 2.52 which is required for significance 94 at a .01 level of confidence (df = 15, 45).7’ 8 This significant source of variation produced by the PB words was then statistically analyzed by the critical dif- 9 ' . ferences between means test. The d that is requ1red for significance, with a .01 and a two tailed test is: d==l.765. Table 4 is the summary table for this analysis. The data Table 4. Summary Table for the Critical Differences Between Means Analysis for PB werds. PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Con- dition II; PoI = Post-test Condition I; PoII = Post-test Condition II. Means PrII PoI PoII PrI = 6.063 PrI .187 1.375 3.062* ,PrII = 6.250 * PoI : 7.438 PrII 1.188 2.875 PoII = 9.125 PoI 1.687 *Indicates significant differences. from Table 4 indicate that in only two situations did the PB words produce significant differences between means: (1) Lipreading only, before training in cutaneous stimulation 7walker and Lev, Statlptical lpference, Table X, pp. 468-469. 8Lindquist, Design an Analysis pf Expertmentg, pp. 156-166. 9Lindquist, Design an Analysis f xperiments, pp. 93-94. 95 by speech (PrI) and lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimula- tion by speech (P011), and (2) Lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PrII), and lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoII). From observation of Table 4 it can readily be observed that PB words did not signifi- cantly differ from the lipreading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoI) condition to the lip- reading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoII) condition. This finding tends to diminish the role that the PB words had in the rejection of the most important null hypothesis. ylg: There is no significant difference between the sub- ject's performance scores obtained under the following experimental conditions: (1) lipreading only, after train- ing in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoI), and (2) lip- reading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech (PoII). The rejection of this hypothesis can probably be attributed to the Spondaic words. 96 To test the assumption that the Spondaic words were largely to account for the significant variation between the post-test Condition I (lipreading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech) and post-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech) another treatments by subjects analysis of variance was performed employing the scores obtained on these words. Table 5 is a summary table for this analysis. The critical region for Table 5. Summary Table for the Treatments by subjects Analysis of Variance for Spondaic werds. Source df ss ms F-ratio Treatments 3 181.81 60.6 15.578 Subjects 15 1579.94 105.33 27.077 TXS 45 175.19 3.89 Total 63 1936.94 significance of the "treatments” source of variance is: F > 4.26 at a .01 level of confidence (df = 3, 45). The critical region for significance of the "subjects" source of variance is: F') 2.52 at a .01 level of confidence 97 10.11 (df = 15, 45). This significant source of variation was further analyzed by the critical differences between means test.12 Table 6 is the summary table for the critical dif- ferences between means. The d that is required for signif- Table 6. Summary Table for the Critical Differences Between Means Analysis for Spondaic words. PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Condition II; PoI = Post-test Condition I; PoII = Post-test Condition II. Means PrII PoI PoII PrI = 11.813 PrI 1.125 2.187* 4.562* PrII = 12.938 * PoI = 14.0 PrII 1.062 3.437 PoII = 16.375 PoI 2.375* *Indicates significant differences. icance, with a .01 and a two tailed test is: d = 1.798. These data indicate that the Spondaic words produced sig- nificant results in all but two situations: (1) Pre-test Condition I (lipreading only, before training in cutaneous 10walker and Lev, Statistical Inference, Table X, pp. 468-469. llLindquist, Design and Analysis g§_Experiments, pp. 156-166. 12Lindquist, Design and Analysis g£_§xperiments, pp. 93-94. 98 stimulation by speech) did not differ significantly from pre-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, before training in cutaneous stimu- lation by speech), and (2) Pre-test Condition II (lipreading ecombined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, before train- ing in cutaneous stimulation by speech), did not differ sig- nificantly from post-test Condition I (lipreading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech). It can be observed from Table 6 that the Spondaic words in the post- test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimu- lation by speech, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech) did differ significantly from all other situations. Therefore, from the foregoing analysis and discussion, it would appear that the Spondaic words were mostly responsible for the significant findings throughout the experiment. Discussion Analyses of the data show that a significant varia- tion exists among the experimental conditions in the pre- and post-test situations. The variance was associated with either the experimental Conditions I and II or with the training procedure in cutaneous stimulation by speech. It seems evident that the training in cutaneous stim- ulation by speech was largely to account for the observed 99 differences because there was no significant difference between Condition I and Condition II on the pre-test. This finding largely rules out variation due only to differences between Condition I and Condition II. .It would be expected that if the training in cutaneous stimulation by speech did not affect the variance, there would be no significant dif- ferences between Condition I and Condition II on the post- test. Furthermore, there would not have been any signifi- cant difference between the pre-test and post-test experi- mental conditions either. waever, there was a significant difference between all but one pair of means. The non- significant difference was that between the pre-test Con- dition I and the pre-test Condition II. This suggests that before training the combination of cutaneous stimulation by speech and lipreading does not produce significantly greater scores than lipreading alone. vHowever, there was a small difference in scores as shown by percentages in Figure 8. It was necessary to train the subjects to make use of the subtleties that cutaneous stimulation by speech pro- duced. The subjects were not required to be able to dis- tinguish words only by feeling the vibrations on their arm. Such a task would have required much more extensive train- ing than that which was actually received. Even with Figure-8. Percentage of words Correct 75 7O 65 6O 55 50 45 4O 35 30 25 20 15 10 100 Percentage of werds Correctly Identified by All subjects Under Each of the Experimental Condi- tions: PrI = Pre—test Condition I; PrII = Pre- test Condition II; PoI = Post-test Condition I, and P011 = Post-test Condition II. 51% 42% 35% 38% ,PrI PrII PoI PoII Experimental Conditions 101 extensive training, it is doubtful that the discrimination score by vibratory means alone would have produced signifi- cant results. In this study it was not believed necessary to try to train the subjects to a definite criterion of proficiency with cutaneous stimulation by speech. Because cutaneous stimulation by speech was to be combined with lipreading, it was thought that the lipreading process would be of primary importance while the cutaneous stimu- lation by speech would be of secondary importance. Cutane- ous stimulation by speech was included with lipreading in order to present "extra" message cues. Some extra cues that cutaneous stimulation by speech presented to the sub- ject may have been: (1) The duration characteristics of individual sounds and words, and (2) the intensity of these sounds and words. All of the subjects reported that throughout the training sessions they were able to dis- tinguish a certain vibratory pattern for some of the sounds and words. Although these sounds and words were not the same from subject to subject, nevertheless, the vibratory patterns produced had meaning for the individual subject. Some subjects were amazed at differences in duration between the individual sounds and words. Visually, the eye perceives a printed word that is composed of four letters. 102 When this same word is presented through vibratory means to the skin, its duration is much longer-—the vibratory sensation does not fit the visually printed pattern. The duration of the vibratory stimulus surely must have been a factor in helping the subjects distinguish between the PB words and the Spondaic words. One would expect that the words of two syllables would produce-a different general vibratory pattern on the integument from words of one syl- lable. Figure 9 presents the percentages of PB words and Spondaic words correctly identified. The intensity of the individual sounds also gave the subjects extra cues. Some sounds have more power and naturally produced more intense vibrations on the skin than did others. The combination of the extra cues of duration and intensity helped the subject to delimit his word choice, thus enhancing his lipreading performance. This is veri- fied by the statistical analysis of the data. After the subjects received training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, significant differences between the Conditions I (lipreading'only) and II (lipreading combined with cutane- ous stimulation by speech) became apparent. 103 Figure 9. Percentage of Phonetically Balanced (PB) and Spondaic (SP) Words Correctly Identified by All Subjects Under Each of the Experimental Conditions: PrI = Pre-test Condition I; PrII = Pre-test Condition II; PoI = Post—test Condi- tion I, and P011 = Post-test Condition II. 75 - 70 - 65- 65% 60 )— 56% g 55-— ° 47% U 45 - m E , g 40- m 35_' 36A 0 0- °° g 3 29/ g 25 - 24% 25% m 2 20 t 6 Q4 15- 10- 5.. 0 PB SP PB SP PB SP PB SP PrI PrII PoI PoII Experimental Conditions 104 After training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, there were significant differences between the post-test Condition I (lipreading, after training in cutaneous stimu-' lation by speech) and both of the pre-test conditions: (1) lipreading only, before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech, and (2) lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, before training in cutaneous stimu- lation by speech. This finding probably means that the subjects became familiar with the word list during train- ing, which in turn improved their lipreading performance. Even though the training word lists included a total of 150 words, of which 50 were the original test words, this may have been a factor in the final lipreading scores. Had there been no learning effect of the word lists, it would be expected that there should have been no significant dif- ferences between the post-test Condition I and the pre-test Conditions. The test scores produced by the subjects were possi- bly depressed by the constant presentation of the white masking noise. This depression of lipreading scores by masking has been experimentally investigated by Leonard, who found that when white noise was presented to lipread- ing subjects, their lipreading scores were depressed 33 105 percent.13 Therefore it is quite possible that the same effect was present in the present study. The most important finding of this study is the sig- nificant difference between the post—test Condition I (lip— reading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech) and the post-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech). This demonstrates that cutaneous stimulation by speech can and does improve a per- son's 1ipreading performance after a brief training period in the use of cutaneous stimulation by speech. The results of this investigation generally support the findings of Gault.l4 Gault was able to show that the addition of cutaneous stimulation by speech to the lipread- ing processes produced significantly higher lipreading scores. Hewever, Gault's experimentation and the present investigation differ in important details: (1) This inves- tigation utilized a different portion of the integument. The dorsal part of the forearm was utilized in this study l3Ralph Leonard, "The Effects of Selected Continu- ous Auditory Distractions on Lipreading Performance" (unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1962). l4Gault, Journal g£_Abng§mal_and Socigl Psychology, 25(1930). pp. 498-517. 106 so that ultimately the subject's hands could remain uncon- strained for manipulative purposes. (2) The speech signal, for all intents and purposes, was unfiltered. This tended to simplify the entire procedure and will make the modifi- cation of the present apparatus more uncomplicated than would otherwise be the case. (3) Experimental procedures and statistical analyses were also quite different. The subjects in the present study were naive lipreaders and had no formal training in lipreading. They received training only in the perception of cutaneous stimulation by speech. They were also normal hearing subjects. Most of Gault's subjects were taken from hard-of-hearing and deaf popula- tions. While Gault expressed much of his data in percentages, the present study utilized a parametric analysis of variance. (4) Finally, this investigation and-Gault's differ in the type of vibrator employed. The vibrators utilized in this investigation were quite efficient, and entirely different from Gault's vibrating posts.15 15Gault, Journal pf_the Franklin lnstitute, 204 (1927). pp. 329-358. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Summary An important rehabilitative measure to recommend to a person who has a hearing loss, with a poor medical prognosis, is lipreading. The teaching of lipreading is often a demand- ing task for both teacher and student; therefore if it were possible to apply some other technique in conjunction with lipreading in order to enhance a person's lipreading per- formance, it would be worthwhile to do so. Cutaneous per- ception of oral speech, in the form of cutaneous stimulation by speech, appears to be a technique of some merit. The purpose of this research has been to investigate the effect of combining cutaneous stimulation by speech with lipreading on subjects' lipreading performance. It has not been the purpose of this study to determine if cutaneous stimulation by speech alone would be satisfactory as a com- munications system. The review of the literature was divided into two parts. Part I was concerned with presenting a review of the literature pertaining to cutaneous stimulation. Determining 107 108 the sensitivity of bodily areas to cutaneous stimulation (mostly vibration) has been accompliShed by many experi- menters. It is generally conceded that the part of the integument most sensitive to this stimulation is the palmer side of the fingers, and in particular the thumb. The integument also displays a rather wide range of sensitivity to vibration. The lowest limit reported was 5 Hertz (the European equivalent to cycles per second) while the upper limit was 8,000 c.p.s. Hewever, it is thought the skin is most sensitive to vibrations of 200 c.p.s. to 400 c.p.s. Cutaneous sensitivity, because of the response characteris- tics of the integument, has been compared with the function- ing of the auditory modality. The comparisons range from a belief that there is little division between the auditory and vibro-cutaneous senses to the statement that the skin does not "hear" very well, i.e. the skin is a poor sensory organ and does not compare favorably with the sensitivity of the ear. Many devices have been utilized for the transmis- sion of cutaneous messages. They are either electrical or mechanical stimulators. With the use of these devices it has been possible for subjects to discriminate speech and to decipher coded vibratory messages. Cutaneous stimulation by speech produced by rather elaborate apparatus, has also 109 been combined with lipreading with significant results. Part II of the review of literature pertained to lip— reading. A review of the history of lipreading in Europe and America was presented. It is evident that a period of training is necessary to develop the skill of lipreading because there are numerous factors that influence a person's lipreading performance. Once lipreading is learned it has a profound effect upon the hearing handicapped person be- cause it tends to help him to relate more meaningfully to those around him. The subjects employed in this study were undergradu- ate and graduate students at Michigan State University. All of the subjects had normal vision. Cutaneous Speech Transmission System was devised for presentation of speech. The Cutaneous Speech Transmission System was simply constructed of four loud-speakers, two inches in diameter, with a Pellon fabric glued over the face of each one. The fabric membrane made each loud-speaker an efficient vibrator. The four vibrators were then placed on the dorsal part of the forearm of each subject. The Cutaneous Speech Transmission System was acoustically insulated, and each Subject received a masking noise via earphones to guard against the subject's hearing the speech, thus rendering the experiment invalid. 110 Two motion picture films,utilizing a male speaker who was filmed while presenting twenty-five phonetically balanced words and twenty—five Spondaic words,were produced. The presentation of the word order was randomized so that the words were presented in one order on the silent motion pic- ture film and another order on the sound motion picture film. The silent motion picture film was shown to the subjects for presentation of Condition I, which was lipreading only. The sound motion picture film was presented for Condition II, which was lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech. As was mentioned above, all of the subjects were presented a masking noise in their ears so they could not hear the speech. The subjects were presented both of the experimental conditions twice, once during the pre-test and once during the post-test. ‘ After the subjects were presented pre-test Conditions I and II, they received ten sessions of training in the utilization of cutaneous stimulation by speech. After a subject had completed the training sessions he was again tested on the experimental Conditions I (lip- reading only) and II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech). Thus, each subject produced a total of four scores: (1) Pre-test Condition I (lipreading only, 111 before training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), (2) Pre-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, before training in cutaneous stimu- lation by speech), (3) Post-test Condition I (lipreading only, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech), and (4) Post-test Condition II (lipreading combined with cutaneous stimulation by speech, after training in cutaneous stimulation by speech). Each of the subject's scores was based upon the total number of words perceived correctly out of a total list of 50 words. This comprised the total experiment. Conclusions On the basis of the analysis of the data obtained within the experimental conditions of this investigation, the following conclusions appear to be warranted: '1. After the subject has had the benefit of a brief training period in the utilization of cutaneous stimulation by speech and when cutaneous stimulation by speech is com- bined with lipreading, the subject's lipreading scores are significantly higher than by lipreading alone. 2.V Combining cutaneous stimulation by speech with lipreading without the benefit of training in cutaneous 112 stimulation by speech does not improve a subject's usual lip- 'reading performance. 3. werds with Spondaic stress patterns accounted for higher performance scores and more significant differences between the different experimental conditions than did the phonetically balanced monosyllabic words. 4. This experiment has shown that an efficient and uncomplicated aid to lipreading has been developed. Sub- ject to further modification and research, the Cutaneous Speech Transmission System could be a useful adjunct to the lipreading process. Implications £2; Future Research The results of this study have indicated that the addition of cutaneous stimulation by speech to lipreading improves a subject's lipreading performance. Hewever, fur- ther research is indicated to investigate the following questions: 1. Will one vibrator, which is placed on some por- tion of the integument, produce as significant an increase in lipreading performance as did the present apparatus that utilized four vibrators? 113 2. What portion of the integument should be utilized for the placement of the vibrator? 3. What effect does differing speech stimuli presented by cutaneous stimulation, have on lipreading performance? Is cutaneous stimulation by speech even more efficient when conversational speech is employed rather than individual, isolated words? 4. In what ways can the existing Cutaneous Speech Transmission System be modified and improved? 5. What application does cutaneous stimulation by speech have for the totally deaf? 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"Rehabilitating the Hard of Hearing Child," The Child, 9 (1944), 51-56. Switzer, M. E. "Assessment: Capacity for Useful Living," Exceptional Children, 28 (1962), 463. Taft, A. E. "On Touch as a Special Sense," Journal gg Nervous and Mental Disorders, 122 (1955), 386-389. Thiel, F. C. "Experimental Studies in the Vibratory Sense in Deaf Mutes," Zeitschrift ffir Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, 119 (1931), 109—178. Turner, W. W. "Laurent Clerc," American Annals g§_the Deaf, 15 (1870), 16-28. Walter, M. M. "Vocational Rehabilitation for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing," Transactions g§_the American Academy g; Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, 49 (1944), 103-111. Wedell, C. H. and Cummings, S. B. Jr. "Fatigue of the Vibratory Sense," Journal g§_Experimental Psychology, 22 (1938), 429-438. Woodward, M. F. and Barber, C. G. "Phoneme Perception in Lipreading," Journal g£_Speech and Hearing Research, 3 (1960), 212-222. Reports Anderson, A. B. "Electrical Stimulation of the Skin, Case 38138, A Report tg_Be11 Telephone Laboratory, 1947, 6-7. 124 Clarke School for the Deaf, Northampton, Mass. Reports p§_ the Clarence W, Barron Research Department, included in the School Reports for 1933-1934 and 1935-1936. Sections on Lip Reading. Hawkes, G. R. and Warm, J. 8. Communication py.Electrica1 Stimulation p§_ph§_Skin: I, Absolute Identification p§_Stimulus Intensity Level. Fort Knox, Ky.: U.S.A. Medical Research Laboratory Report, 1959, No. 400. Myers, Robert D. "A Study in the Development of a Tactual Communication SyStem," The Symposium_gp Air Force Human Engineering, Personnel, and Training Research, 1960, National Academy of Sciences--Nationa1 Research Council, Publication No. 783, 238-243. Speech Transmission Laboratory, Qparterly Progress and Status Report, October 15, 1961. Speech Transmission Labora- tory, Division of Telegraphy-Telephony, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, STL-QPSR, 3/1961, July—September. 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APPENDICES 125 APPENDIX A WORD LIST FOR PRESENTATION OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION I MOTION PICTURE 126 127 WORD LIST FOR PRESENTATION OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION I MOTION PICTURE CONDITION I LIPREADING PRE-TEST POST-TEST NUMBER RIGHT*_____ PB BEFORE AFTER SCHOOLBOY FLAT KNEE TREE AIRPLANE AND EARDRUM HOTDOG WOODWORK TOOTHBRUSH BASEBALL GAVE BIRTHDAY MUSHROOM NEW HARDWARE DUMB HORSESHOE ARMCHAIR OATMEAL JAW STAR ICEBERG WAY OWN EAT PADLOCK MOUSETRAP PLAYGROUND CARS EASE GREYHOUND LIVE RAILROAD *NUMBER RIGHT IS NUMBER OF WORDS CROSSED THROUGH NAME DATE SPONDEE CONDITION II YOUNG NOW OAK NORTHWEST MOVE SIDEWALK HOTHOUSE COWBOY STAIRWAY SHOW THAT PANCAKE CAP SMART ROOMS ONE APPENDIX B WORD LIST FOR PRESENTATION OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION II MOTION PICTURE 128 129 WORD LIST FOR PRESENTATION OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION II MOTION PICTURE CONDITION II COMBINED LIPREADING NAME AND VIBRATORY SPEECH DATE PRE-TEST POST—TEST NUMBER RIGHT*_____ PB SPONDEE BEFORE AFTER CONDITION I HARDWARE STAIRWAY TREE ONE GREYHOUND EAT HOTHOUSE FLAT WOODWORK SHOW PLAYGROUND WAY ARMCHAIR NOW PADLOCK COWBOY THAT ROOMS EARDRUM YOUNG SMART AND RAILROAD OATMEAL BIRTHDAY KNEE BASEBALL NORTHWEST MOUSETRAP STAR TOOTHBRUSH MUSHROOM HORSESHOE SIDEWALK PANCAKE CAP NEW ICEBERG HOTDOG SCHOOLBOY AIRPLANE JAW EASE CARS OWN OAK DUMB GAVE MOVE LIVE *NUMBER OF WORDS RIGHT IS NUMBER OF WORDS CROSSED THROUGH APPENDIX C TRAINING TAPE WORD LISTS, NUMBERS ONE THROUGH TEN 130 BONBON AN ROOMS STOVE HOUSEWORK ICEBERG LIVE STAR THEREFORE CUPCAKE OR SHE COWBOY EAT COOKBOOK TOE VAMPIRE TRUE UP OATMEAL BIRTHDAY DOVETAIL LOW HARDWARE MUSHROOM SCHOOLBOY OWL DEAF OWN LAW WIRE THEM ONE ARMCHAIR SIDEWALK ME NOT FELT YOUNG DUCKPOND HORSESHOE OUTLAW OAK THERE CARVE GIVE HEDGEHOG HUNT YOU BACKBONE SMART HEADLIGHT ACE PLAYGROUND EGGPLANT EYEBROW BLACKOUT TREE STAIRWAY ACHE DRAWBRIDGE WOODCHUCK ISLE COULD SUNDOWN LIFEBOAT PLAYMATE KNEES GREYHOUND NEW DOORMAT AS BLACKBOARD EARN CHEW THING 131 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER MISHAP BOBWHITE BUCKWHEAT POOR HARDSTICK SOYBEAN NORTHWEST MIDWAY SKIN WHAT SHOW CARGO PADLOCK WAY ALTHOUGH AIRPLANE BATHE FOOTSTOOL SEE HIGH TOOTHBRUSH MEW SCARECROW JAW EARDRUM FIREFLY EAST MOVE GRANDSON EASE IT WATCHWORD HOTDOG COUGHDROP DUMB DOORSTEP AND ONE NONE CARS FAREWELL BEEHIVE THAT DAD EARTHQUAKE HIM WOODWORK GAVE KNEE PLATFORM FLAT US BAGPIPE CAP BASEBALL STARLIGHT HOTHOUSE RAN JAM BELLS JACKNIFE WORKSHOP RAILROAD NOW OUTSIDE DAY PANCAKE WET YARD DAYBREAK MOUSETRAP BLOODHOUND TWINS NUTMEG WIGWAM NOT DOORMAT LIVE EAT WIRE HOTHOUSE SIDEWALK SCARECROW EARN BEEHIVE BLACKBOARD BUCKWHEAT YOU YARDSTICK BAGPIPE OR ARMCHAIR LIFEBOAT NONE ISLE STAIRWAY BOBWHITE GREYHOUND COULD EYEBROW WIGWAM ROOMS MOVE MISHAP EARDRUM HIM SCHOOLBOY EGGPLANT TOOTHBRUSH CAP TWINS KNEES CUPCAKE 132 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER TWO AS AND EARTHQUAKE OWN MIDWAY BIRTHDAY BLACKOUT GIVE DRAWBRIDGE UP STOVE PLATFORM OAK TRUE BONBON MUSHROOM BACKBONE WET SKIN ONE PLAYGROUND WORKSHOP SHE BLOODHOUND POOR BATHE YARD PADLOCK WHAT HORSESHOE OUTSIDE DUMB FAREWELL CHEW RAILROAD HOTDOG DUCKPOND LOW THAT SEE WOODWORK CARVE DOORSTEP COWBOY OATMEAL BASEBALL SMART JACKNIFE SHOW FOOTSTOOL EAST HARDWARE DAD BELLS NORTHWEST WATCHWORD AIRPLANE COUGHDROP HUNT TOE WOODCHUCK PANCAKE JAW NEW ACHE NOW HIGH FIREFLY ACE DAYBREAK RAN SUNDOWN HOUSEWORK AN STAR THEM IT US MOUSETRAP JAM FLAT YOUNG 1 NUTMEG ICEBERG SOYBEAN STARLIGHT KNEE THING MEW OUTLAW TREE OWL GAVE MAY HEADLIGHT COOKBOOK FELT LAW HEDGEHOG THEREFORE EASE DAY ALTHOUGH VAMPIRE CARS DOVETAIL DEAF THERE GRANDSON PLAYMATE CARGO ME TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER ME MUSHROOM CARVE CHEW HORSESHOE YOUNG OUTSIDE BACKBONE SCARECROW NOT WHAT YARDSTICK TOOTHBRUSH ONE OATMEAL ROOMS MEW HOTDOG OWL PLAYMATE STAR EASE THEM COOKBOOK GAVE HOUSEWORK SIDEWALK JAM BLACKBOARD UP RAN DEAF US EAT OR VAMPIRE BOBWHITE SKIN PADLOCK FLAT STARLIGHT STAIRWAY PLATFORM HEADLIGHT PANCAKE EAST DAY THAT FAREWELL DUMB POOR DOORMAT MOUSETRAP NEW AIRPLANE ACE FOOTSTOOL AN MOVE COWBOY OWN SOYBEAN THING CARGO THEREFORE NOW BIRTHDAY ARMCHAIR FELT HOTHOUSE HUNT DOVETAIL LAW PLAYGROUND THERE EARN IT CAP OUTLAW EGGPLANT HIM ACHE ALTHOUGH HARDWARE SUNDOWN YOU ' WATCHWORD GREYHOUND LOW MISHAP GRANDSON BASEBALL SMART WAY STOVE DRAWBRIDGE ISLE RAILROAD BEEHIVE TWINS LIVE COUGHDROP SHOW GIVE CARS KNEES TREE OAK ICEBERG EYEBROW DOORSTEP DAD COULD THREE NONE TOE AS SCHOOLBOY DUCKPOND WIRE BATHE BAGPIPE WORKSHOP NORTHWEST HIGH MIDWAY TRUE WIGWAM LIFEBOAT FIREFLY EARTHQUAKE BUCKWHEAT WOODWORK BLOODHOUND DAYBREAK WET WOODCHUCK BONBON EARDRUM SHE JACKNIFE BLACKOUT AND BELLS SEE CUPCAKE KNEE YARD HEDGEHOG JAW NUTMEG 134 SAME-DIFFERENT TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER FOUR SMART - SMART HOUSEWORK - ACE EASE - THEREFORE TWINS - TWINS ICEBERG - ICEBERG NEW - NEW BATHE - EARN WATCHWORD - WATCHWORD BACKBONE - GAVE YOU - DUCKPOND OWL - OWL HEDGEHOG - HEDGEHOG AND - AND AS - AS IT - MEW FOOTSTOOL - BLOODHOUND LOW - GREYHOUND ROOMS - MIDWAY SCHOOLBOY - HORSESHOE TOE - YARDSTICK TOOTHBRUSH - TOOTHBRUSH COUGHDROP - WORKSHOP EAT - JAM DAYBREAK - LIVE BASEBALL - BASEBALL SOYBEAN - EARTHQUAKE THERE - THERE STAIRWAY - NORTHWEST DOVETAIL - ACHE AN - AN DOORSTEP — DOORSTEP STARLIGHT - DRAWBRIDGE STAR - THING WOODCHUCK - WAY UP - EGGPLANT PLATFORM - KNEE BELLS - VAMPIRE CHEW - OR RAILROAD - RAILROAD MISHAP - MISHAP EYEBROW - EYEBROW ME - MOVE JAW - JAW SKIN - BEEHIVE BLACKOUT - CARVE COULD - COULD THEM - MUSHROOM PLAYGROUND - OAK NUTMEG - COWBOY HEADLIGHT - HOTDOG DEAF - DEAF DUMB - YARD SUNDOWN - HOTHOUSE BOBWHITE - BOBWHITE HIM - BIRTHDAY DOORMAT - BUCKWHEAT 'WIRE - ISLE GIVE - KNEES FAREWELL - FAREWELL POOR - OUTLAW NOW - RAN FELT — FELT BAGPIPE - SHE PLAYMATE - HIGH MOUSETRAP - MOUSETRAP JACKNIFE - JACKNIFE EAST - HUNT FLAT - ONE CARS - TREE ARMCHAIR - ARMCHAIR CARGO - CARGO OUTSIDE - OUTSIDE US - US STOVE - LAW COOKBOOK - LIFEBOAT SIDEWALK - SIDEWALK OWN - OWN PANCAKE - WET BLACKBOARD - SEE NONE - SHOW HARDWARE - YOUNG GRANDSON - DAY BONBON - BONBON ALTHOUGH - ALTHOUGH CAP - NOT FIREFLY - FIREFLY AIRPLANE - OATMEAL CUPCAKE - CUPCAKE WIGWAM - PADLOCK WOODWORK - THAT TRUE - TRUE DAD - WHAT SCARECROW - EARDRUM ROOMS BASEBALL HEDGEHOG CAP SHOW EGGPLANT STARLIGHT DOVETAIL STAIRWAY EAST MIDWAY RAN WET EYEBROW COUGHDROP WIGWAM COULD BAGPIPE KNEE CARGO FLAT BLOODHOUND NOT SCHOOLBOY ME HOTHOUSE HORSESHOE AND HARDWARE EARDRUM GAVE FAREWELL POOR WHAT STAR YOUNG SIDEWALK CHEW SKIN JAW DAY ICEBERG WORKSHOP EAT BATHE SMART MUSHROOM CARVE WIRE US BOBWHITE TOOTHBRUSH THEREFORE OR ACE HOUSEWORK FELT CARS DOORMAT OUTSIDE EARTHQUAKE ACHE TOE IT WOODCHUCK PANCAKE ONE BEEHIVE GREYHOUND MOUSETRAP LAW EASE AIRPLANE STOVE PLATFORM UP 135 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER FIVE TWINS AS THING LOW MOVE NORTHWEST THAT COOKBOOK GIVE RAILROAD DRAWBRIDGE BLACKBOARD MEW DEAF ALTHOUGH OWN HIM YOU DUCKPOND WOODWORK LIFEBOAT PADLOCK OATMEAL NOW DUMB JAM BACKBONE BUCKWHEAT VAMPIRE HEADLIGHT ISLE TRUE YARD COWBOY TREE THERE WATCHWORD OUTLAW NEW BLACKOUT BELLS NUTMEG FIREFLY SCARECROW YARDSTICK HUNT MISHAP BONBON DOORSTEP EARN DAD PLAYMATE ARMCHAIR HIGH GRANDSON BIRTHDAY SUNDOWN CUPCAKE THEM NONE OAK JACKNIFE PLAYGROUND SOYBEAN SEE LIVE OWL SHE DAYBREAK KNEES HOTDOG AN WAY FOOTSTOOL HOTHOUSE NUTMEG CARGO WAY WORKSHOP THEM ME STAIRWAY ISLE MIDWAY BACKBONE BAGPIPE WHAT AIRPLANE EARDRUM MOVE DOORMAT DOORSTEP YARDSTICK EAT NORTHWEST CAP OUTSIDE VAMPIRE ARMCHAIR ACE HEADLIGHT UP CARVE MOUSETRAP HARDWARE BLACKOUT EGGPLANT HUNT THAT GIVE EASE DOVETAIL AN CARS BLACKBOARD COUGHDROP DAYBREAK TWINS SUNDOWN AND SCHOOLBOY ICEBERG KNEES PLAYGROUND THERE RAILROAD YARD CHEW ONE MEW TOOTHBRUSH MISHAP MUSHROOM GREYHOUND FLAT PADLOCK NOW HIGH WIGWAM COWBOY DRAWBRIDGE BOBWHITE OATMEAL JACKNIFE RAN BELLS CUPCAKE STAR OAK BEEHIVE 136 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER SIX FOOTSTOOL BUCKWHEAT KNEE GRANDSON FAREWELL WOODWORK EARTHQUAKE NEW US LIVE BIRTHDAY SEE WATCHWORD SCARECROW SKIN EYEBROW PLATFORM POOR OUTLAW BONBON WIRE WET JAM HOTDOG NOT SHE DAY TOE DAD COOKBOOK FELT YOUNG PLAYMATE LIFEBOAT JAW HORSESHOE EAST DEAF ACHE DUCKPOND THEREFORE TRUE BATHE BASEBALL SHOW SMART OWN OR EARN AS LOW LAW SIDEWALK OWL GAVE COULD FIREFLY STARLIGHT WOODCHUCK DUMB BLOODHOUND PANCAKE SOYBEAN ROOMS TREE ALTHOUGH HEDGEHOG YOU HOUSEWORK STOVE HIM NONE IT THING KNEE STARLIGHT THAT RAILROAD DAD DRAWBRIDGE SHOW BAGPIPE PANCAKE TOOTHBRUSH ICEBERG DOORMAT SHE OATMEAL NORTHWEST TWINS ONE OUTSIDE PADLOCK OWN BONBON FAREWELL SCHOOLBOY ME WORKSHOP BLOODHOUND CARVE MUSHROOM JAW THEM AIRPLANE DAY NUTMEG PLAYGROUND NONE COOKBOOK HORSESHOE STAIRWAY MIDWAY BLACKOUT BOBWHITE WIRE GRANDSON AN BACKBONE YOU THERE WOODWORK HEDGEHOG UP YARDSTICK WATCHWORD US NEW TOE DOORSTEP NOW BUCKWHEAT SIDEWALK DAYBREAK HARDWARE ROOMS MEW BATHE CARGO FELT EARTHQUAKE JAM YOUNG JACKNIFE DUCKPOND OUTLAW EASE ISLE SCARECROW AND 137 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER SEVEN STAR MOVE HUNT BASEBALL HEADLIGHT OAK LIFEBOAT WAY WET EAT EARDRUM ARMCHAIR MOUSETRAP WOODCHUCK TRUE PLAYMATE ACHE PLATFORM POOR KNEES DOVETAIL THEREFORE BELLS SUNDOWN AS HOTHOUSE OWL LIVE ALTHOUGH FIREFLY EARN DUMB LOW BIRTHDAY BLACKBOARD EAST THING FLAT EYEBROW COWBOY GAVE HIM SEE CHEW IT RAN HIGH BEEHIVE SKIN GREYHOUND WHAT HOTDOG DEAF TREE CARS MISHAP HOUSEWORK STOVE SOYBEAN GIVE NOT LAW COUGHDROP COULD WIGWAM EGGPLANT FOOTSTOOL SMART YARD CUPCAKE ACE VAMPIRE OR CAP 138 WWEB I BEQBDO MOQHEEBEEQ I HUGHEESEEQ EEUE I ZHMm QOOBmBOOm I AOOBmBOOh ZSOQZDm I EgonZDm ME I m2 HEB I BBS EOOm I MOESOU mD I EEO EZEQEEHE I MESEHEBm AD I ED E>EEU I W>EEU BOEm I BOEm EOOEEmDE I EEOEMEHEB mEEmHZ I QAWEMEEE SHE I SHE mflqmm I 902 m>HA I EEZE 3EEU I SEED BEEEm I BZEAEGOW EEEEENEQ I MEOBEmDOE BEE I 3m: EDEB I QADOU EH I OEZBDZ BEE I SEE BEER I mmHZMOEh SEBGHS I BEWESMUDE AHEBW>OQ I AHEBE>OQ mmDOEBOE I mmDOEBOE ZEMENOm I ZEmmNOm BmWBEBmOZ I QEQZEUBES ZEEE I EEO NEWER I EEMEB BEUHAQEHE I EEBm QEEOEMUEAE I MEBEE SOEUMEEUm I NEH? BEA I SEA ZEE I MUHBmQEEN DO? I DO? mmmZM I MEEBQEEE Ron I 30A mAmH I mqu BZDE I QZDOEUWEAE m>HEmmm I EOHE BOEmmwm I BOEEMNE MHEEEHE I MQEEEHE EEO I ZOEZOE OEEEWUH I EOEmMEOB WBHEBEOE I EBHEBEOE E0 I NEQEBEHE MEMO I MEMO mZHBB.I mmHmem mEEBmmDOZ I QZDOEQOOQE QZOEEUDQ I QZOEMUDQ mEOOE I mZOOE MEBQHS I NEBQHS m>02 I SEEQEEM WQHmBDO I MZOZ m>OBm I m>09m BEES I ZE OMEN I OMEN BEE I BEE BEAE I E>EU H>HO I 230 MOOEEOOU I MOOEMOOU BEZMOOQ I BESEOOQ BEOEEEHA I MUDEUQOOB MED I WED MUOQQEE I mE AAEmmem I DZE OZDOM I SEER EEDQ I HOB EODOEBAE I EUDOEBQE qum I mmEm AEEEHEO I MAEBEQHm mmBmEOOQ I EEOEBEAA MOEAOOEUm I MOEQOOEUm GOQBOE I mEEU 302 I MES WMEDOEBEEE I EMEDOEBEEE GEO I QEQ mmm I mmm H30 I A30 EBEEMEQE I EBEENEAE EmDmmEBOOB I QEOEQHEE QZDOEMMEU I EOEQEODOU EOE I BDOMUEAE EEm I mEm BEOHAEEBm I EMEUEDU MEOBDOOS I EMEUZEE ZOmQZEEU I ZOmDZEEO BmEm I BmEm EHEEUEEE I OOEEU OZHEB I OOEMUQEE 3E6 I BEb EEHEZE> I EOEmmmEOE SEb I SEb HZOEMUEE I EZOEEUEE BEUHM mmmZDz BmHQ QEOS mmEB UZHZHEEB BZEEEEEHQIMEEm NORTHWEST AS POOR STAIRWAY COUGHDROP WOODWORK EARTHQUAKE CHEW FELT WATCHWORD CAP ACHE SHE GREYHOUND ISLE VAMPIRE ONE TOOTHBRUSH CARS EAT SMART OUTSIDE WAY KNEE HOTHOUSE YARDSTICK WET BAGPIPE DOVETAIL WIGWAM SIDEWALK WOODCHUCK BATHE TOE FOOTSTOOL TREE PLAYMATE YARD EARDRUM KNEES JAM DOORSTEP DUMB NOW DAY AND SKIN NOT DEAF ICEBERG IT ARMCHAIR HIM NEW HARDWARE DOORMAT FLAT AIRPLANE PLATFORM SOYBEAN MOUSETRAP LIVE PLAYGROUND UP MEW HIGH DRAWBRIDGE BUCKWHEAT CUPCAKE HOTDOG OATMEAL CARVE GIVE HORSESHOE BASEBALL THEREFORE 139 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER NINE BACKBONE OAK COOKBOOK OR DAD PADLOCK LIFEBOAT BONBON THING STAR ROOMS OWL SCARECROW BELLS BOBWHITE MOVE FAREWELL GAVE THEM RAN FIREFLY OUTLAW LAW PANCAKE MIDWAY STARLIGHT 'BIRTHDAY COWBOY HOUSEWORK THERE MUSHROOM WIRE OWN ACE MISHAP TWINS HEADLIGHT LOW BLACKOUT TRUE COULD BLACKBOARD STOVE NONE EASE YOU EGGPLANT ME AN SEE YOUNG WORKSHOP US SUNDOWN CARGO DAYBREAK HEDGEHOG JACKNIFE THAT BLOODHOUND RAILROAD SCHOOLBOY GRANDSON JAW EYEBROW SHOW BEEHIVE DUCKPOND EARN ALTHOUGH WHAT EAST NUTMEG HUNT AS OUTSIDE STAR UP BASEBALL HOTDOG ARMCHAIR SIDEWALK IT EYEBROW NOT DOVETAIL EAST YARD BIRTHDAY OWL BUCKWHEAT CAP WOODWORK COWBOY GIVE BOBWHITE CARGO RAILROAD POOR BLACKBOARD NORTHWEST HOTHOUSE ONE CARS GREYHOUND BELLS ICEBERG THING OWN MOVE GAVE DOORMAT ACE HOUSEWORK WAY PLAYMATE EARTHQUAKE FLAT CHEW EARDRUM BLACKOUT THAT PLAYGROUND LIFEBOAT LAW EASE THEREFORE WHAT FAREWELL AN OAK CUPCAKE TOOTHBRUSH NOW TREE HEDGEHOG DEAF BONBON STOVE KNEE FIREFLY PLATFORM HORSESHOE YOUNG THEM SCHOOLBOY HIM FOOTSTOOL EARN TRUE 140 TRAINING TAPE WORD LIST NUMBER TEN JAM MUSHROOM AND ROOMS PANCAKE HIGH WORKSHOP EAT GRANDSON HEADLIGHT PADLOCK ACHE MEW BATHE DAY NUTMEG STAIRWAY RAN SMART TWINS WIRE DRAWBRIDGE HUNT ME MOUSETRAP WOODCHUCK JAW LIVE ISLE BLOODHOUND SHE THERE MISHAP WET JACKNIFE DUMB BAGPIPE OR COOKBOOK KNEES EGGPLANT YOU TOE STARLIGHT WIGWAM MIDWAY SEE SUNDOWN CARVE LOW FELT DAYBREAK OUTLAW SCARECROW NONE YARDSTICK COUGHDROP WATCHWORD ALTHOUGH DOORSTEP BACKBONE NEW BEEHIVE SOYBEAN VAMPIRE‘ US COULD SHOW OATMEAL DUCKPOND SKIN HARDWARE DAD AIRPLANE APPENDIX D SUBJECTS' RAW SCORES 141 142 RAW SCORES SUBJECT fi1_ PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I—II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Coprect Condition I: Total Score 22 44 P B Score 7 l4 Spondee Score 15 30 Condition II: Total Score 24 48 P E Score 9 18 Spondee Score 15 30 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 25 50 P B Score 10 20 Spondee Score 15 30 Condition II: Total Score 28 56 P B Score 8 16 Spondee Score 20 40 143 RAW SCORES SUBJECT fl PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Corpect Condition I: Total Score 21 42 P B Score 4 8 Spondee Score 17 34 Condition II: Total Score 22 44 P B Score 6 12 Spondee Score 16 32 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words ngrect Condition I: Total Score 24 48 P B Score 6 12 Spondee Score 18 36 Condition II: Total SCore 27 54 P B Score 6 12 Spondee Score 21 42 144 RAW SCORES SUBJECT fig, PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 18 36 P B Score 6 12 Spondee Score 12 24 Condition II: Total Score 20 40 P B Score 8 l6 Spondee Score 12 24 POST—TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Cogrect Condition I: Total Score 25 50 P B Score 9 l8 Spondee Score 16 32 Condition II: Total Score 28 56 P B Score 8 l6 Spondee Score 20 4O 145 RAW SCORES SUBJECT fl PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 28 56 P B Score 8 16 Spondee Score 20 40 Condition II: Total Score 28 56 P B Score 9 18 Spondee Score 19 38 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Corpect Condition I: Total Score 29 58 P B Score 9 18 Spondee Score 20 40 Condition II: Total Score 35 70 P B Score 13 26 Spondee Score 22 44 RAW SCORES PRE-TEST 146 SUBJECT fi§_ PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Condition I: Condition II: POST:TEST Number of Percentage of Words Coppect Words Corpect Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 2 1 4 2 18 12 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Condition I: Condition II: Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Copgect Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 9 2 17 12 18 4 14 34 10 24 147 RAW SCORES SUBJECT ¢_I:_6_ PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 19 38 P E Score 10 20 Spondee Score 9 18 Condition II: Total Score 23 46 P B Score 11 22 Spondee Score 12 24 POST—TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Word§7Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 22 44 P B Score 7 l4 Spondee Score 15 30 Condition II: Total Score 24 48 P B Score 8 l6 Spondee Score 16 32 147 RAW SCORES SUBJECT fig PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Corgect Words Corpect Condition I: Total Score 19 38 P B Score 10 20 Spondee Score 9 18 Condition II: Total Score 23 46 P B Score 11 22 Spondee Score 12 24 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Copgect Condition I: Total Score 22 44 P B Score 7 14 Spondee Score 15' 30 Condition II: Total Score 24 48 P E Score 8 16 Spondee Score 16 32 148 RAW SCORES SUBJECT fl PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 16 32 P B Score 5 10 Spondee Score 11 22 Condition II: Total Score 12 24 P B Score 5 10 Spondee Score 7 14 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 18 36 P B Score 8 l6 Spondee Score 10 20 Condition II: Total Score 19 38 P B Score 8 16 Spondee Score 11 22 149 RAW SCORES SUBJECT §§_ PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Coprect Condition I: Total Score 32 64 P B Score 11 22 Spondee Score 21 42 Condition II: Total Score 33 66 P B Score 11 22 Spondee Score 22 44 POST—TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Copgect Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 38 76 P B Score 15 30 Spondee Score 23 46 Condition II: Total Score 39 78 P B Score 15 30 Spondee Score 24 48 RAW SCORES PRE-TEST 150 SUBJECT fig PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Condition I: Condition II: POST-TEST Number of Percentage of Words Coppect Words Correct Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 9 2 17 13 18 4 14 34 8 26 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Condition I: Condition II: Number of Percentage of Words Corpect Words Correct Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 15 4 11 22 7 15 30 8 22 44 14 30 RAW SCORES PRE-TEST 151 SUBJECT #10 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Condition I: Condition II: POST-TEST Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Corpect Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 12 4 8 17 13 24 8 16 34 8 26 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Condition I: Condition II: Number of Percentage of Worgs ngrect Words Correct Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 19 7 12 20 7 13 38 14 24 4O 14 26 152 RAW SCORES SUBJECT #11 PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 21 42 P B Score 8 16 Spondee Score 13 26 Condition II: Total Score 15 30 P B Score 3 6 Spondee Score 12 24 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Corgect Condition I: Total Score 21 42 P B Score 6 12 Spondee Score 15 30 Condition II: Total Score 29 58 P B Score 18 36 Spondee Score 11 22 153 RAW SCORES SUBJECT #12 PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 10 20 P B Score 5 10 Spondee Score 5 10 Condition II: Total Score 11 22 P B Score 6 12 Spondee Score 5 10 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 11 22 P B Score 7 14 Spondee Score 4 8 Condition II: Total Score 12 24 P B Score 7 14 Spondee Score 5 10 154 RAW SCORES SUBJECT #13 PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 6 12 P B Score 1 2 Spondee Score 5 10 Condition II: Total Score 6 12 P B Score 1 2 Spondee Score 5 10 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 11 22 P B Score 3 6 Spondee Score 8 16 Condition II: Total Score 17 34 P B Score 5 10 Spondee Score 12 24 RAW SCORES PRE-TEST 155 SUBJECT #14 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Condition I: Condition II: POST-TEST Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Cgrrect Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 29 10 19 25 7 18 58 20 38 50 14 36 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Condition I: Condition II: Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 29 11 18 31 11 20 58 22 36 62 22 40 RAW SCORES PRE-TEST 156 SUBJECT #15 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Condition I: Condition II: POST-TEST Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 15 7 8 21 15 30 14 16 42 12 30 PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Condition I: Condition II: Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Total Score P B Score Spondee Score Total Score P B Score Spondee Score 19 6 13 30 11 19 38 12 26 60 22 38 157 RAW SCORES SUBJECT £16 PRE-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS II-I Number of Percentage of Words Correct Words Correct Condition I: Total Score 26 52 P B Score 8 16 Spondee Score 18 36 Condition II: Total Score 24 48 P B Score 7 14 Spondee Score 17 34 POST-TEST PRESENTATION ORDER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS I-II Number of Percentage of Words Correct. WordggCorrect Condition I: Total Score 28 56 P B Score 9 18 Spondee Score 19 38 Condition II: Total Score 30 60 P B Score 9 .18 Spondee Score 21 42 m)|)i|)WfiHIlWI)I IUIWIVIIIIIISIHIII IILHIHIWIIIES 3 1293 03047 0722