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' - \V ~333¢~$§§5¥j§§9$a git,“ 391‘ a s 1,: *8 ta ‘ w . '5‘"? VFWM" “WNW-A This is to certify that the thesis entitled ETHANOL FUEL FOR DIESEL TRACTORS presented by Jose Marcio da Cruz has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Ag Engr Tech 6 ya Kr Major professg/ Date May 21, 1981 0-7639 UVtKUUt FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return tom charge from circulation records ETHANOL FUEL FOR DIESEL TRACTORS By Jose Marcio da Cruz A DISSERTATION Submitted.to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Agricultural Engineering 1981 ABSTRACT ETHANOL FUEL FOR DIESEL TRACTORS By Jose Marcio da Cruz Ethanol appears to be a feasible motor fuel for farm engines because it can be derived from agricultural surpluses and residues as raw material in the ethanol production process. The use of this fuel in turbocharged diesel tractors is considered in this disserta— tion. This investigation was performed to evaluate the conversion of a diesel tractor for dual-fueling with ethanol by attaching a carburetor to the inlet air system or with the use of an alcohol spray- injection kit. The spray—injection approach consisted of a fuel tank, an air supply line, an orifice, a fuel filter, an instrument panel, and the necessary valves and fittings. In this system the mixture of water and alcohol is injected into the air stream by means of pressure from the turbocharger. The carburetor was attached to a by-pass apparatus which allowed the engine to start and shut off on diesel alone. Different water—ethanol mixtures were used in the tests. For the spray—injection approach, the mixtures and also distilled water were used in combination with various nozzle sizes. One energy unit of diesel fuel could be replaced with about one energy unit of spray injected ethanol, and one energy unit of carbureted ethanol replaced a little more than one energy unit of diesel fuel. Approximately 46 percent of the energy for the turbocharged 65 kW diesel tractor could be supplied by carbureted ethanol, and about 30 percent by the spray-injection approach. Knock limited the extent of substitution of ethanol for diesel fuel. The degree of knock was associated with the amount of water in the ethanol. Spray-injected water had little effect on the engine performance. The dual—fueling with ethanol caused a slight increase in brake thermal efficiency. Exhaust temperatures were much lower for equivalent high torque levels. Maximum power was increased by 36 percent with the spray—injection approach and about 59 percent with carburetion. (a. /& KX’ Major PrqfiéSsor Approved / 2114:QQC¥;%EQE;ZQZZLJZQ{C§LLH. Department Chairman to those who helped me reach the point where I am at today through their continual support and understanding; and especially to Professor William Chancellor from the University of California at Davis; my high school teacher Vicente Aladin; and lastly senhor Geraldo Zebral a fine gentleman from Lafaiete, Brasil. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A sincere thanks to the members of the thesis supervisory committee. I would especially like to thank Dr. Rotz for his prompt- ness and guidance on the project, and for his overall support of my doctoral program in serving as my major professor. The author wishes to express a very special thanks to Duane Watson for being extremely helpful with the building and testing of the apparatus. The author wishes to acknowledge Ford Tractor Operations, Troy, Michigan for providing the tractor used in the work, and M & W Gear Company, Gibson City, Illinois for providing the spray¥injection system. Financial support for the project was provided through a grant from the Michigan Department of Agriculture. Gratitude is also extended to the following members of the Agricultural Engineering Department: Brad Borgman, Dick Ledebuhr, and Dick WOlthuis for their assistance with the construction and testing of the experimental apparatus. Special thanks to Maryanne Favreau for the excellent job in typing the thesis. Also, I wish to thank all the office staff of the Agricultural Engineering Department for their general helpfulness. The author would also like to express his feelings about being a member of the Agricultural Engineering Department at Michigan State University, where teachers and students live as friends and professionals. iii The author wishes to thank Professor Comastri from Federal University of Vicosa, Brazil who provided him with the opportunity to continue his graduate studies in the United States. The scholar- ship granted to the author by the Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Brazil is very much appreciated. Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to my friends Joan Peterson, Carlos Fontana, and Pauline Simons for their friendship and support during my time at Michigan State University. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O C O O O O O O 0 LIST OF SYMBOLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION . CHAPTER 2 _ LITERATURE REVIEW. 0 o o o o o o o o 2.1 Comparison of Available Fuels . . . . 2.1.1 Caloric Value (heating value). . . . 2.1.2 Octane Rating. . . 2.1.3 Heat of Vaporization . 2.1.4 Vapor Pressure . . 2.1.5 Cetane Number. . . 2.1.6 Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio. 2.2 Alcohol Blends. 2.3 Straight Alcohol in 3.1. Engines. 2.4 Alcohol Use in Diesel Engines . . . . . . 2.4.1 Total Alcohol Fueling. . . . . . . . 2.4 2 Blending Diesel and Alcohol Using an Emulsifier Process . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Dual-fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Theory of Knock . CHAPTER 3 - OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 10 11 ll 12 13 15 l7 17 20 22 27 32 CHAPTER 4 - EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES. 4.1 Testing Procedure . c~c~c~a~c~ P‘F‘F‘P‘F‘ uwc~oan>ea Measurements . Temperature. . . . . . . . Turbocharger Pressure. Fuel Consumption . Air Flow . . 4.2 Procedure of Analysis . 4.2.1 b-l-‘J-‘J-‘J-‘fi NNNNNN COO... \lO‘U‘I-l-‘LJJN Fuel Consumption and Thermal Efficiency . . . Volumetric Efficiency. Air-Fuel Ratio . Peak-Power . . . . . . . . Exhaust Temperature. Turbocharger Pressure. . . . . . Maximum Proportion of Fuel Energy from Ethanol. CHAPTER 5 - DUAL-FUELING THROUGH SPRAY—INJECTION . 5.1 Equipment Description . 5.2 Performance . 5.2.1 Maximum Brake Power. 5.2.2 Thermal Efficiency . 5.2.3 Volumetric Efficiency. 5.2.4 Exhaust Temperature. 5.2.5 Fuel Consumption . 5.2.6 Turbocharger Pressure. 5.3 Summary . . . . . . 5.4 Effects of Water Injection on the Engine Performance . 5.5 Problems Encountered. CHAPTER 6 - DUAL-FUELING THROUGH CARBURETION . 6.1 Equipment Description . vi 33 39 39 4O 40 40 43 43 44 44 45 45 46 47 48 48 50 50 53 53 56 58 67 67 67 7O 75 75 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.1.1 Carburetor. . . 6.1.2 By-pass Apparatus 6.1.3 Fuel Pump . Performance. 6.2.1 Maximum Power . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Thermal Efficiency. 6.2.3 Volumetric Efficiency . 6.2.4 Exhaust Temperature . 6.2.5 Fuel Consumption. 6.2.6 Turbocharger Pressure . Effects of the Carburetor on the Engine Performance. . . . Problems Encountered . CHAPTER 7 - DISCUSSION OF RESULTS . CHAPTER 8 - APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C 7.1 Knock. Performance. Efficiency . Turbocharger Pressure. Exhaust Temperature. Control Linkage and Maximum Proportion of Energy Replaced. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . General Engine Specifications . Calculations. Stoichiometric Balance. vii 79 79 82 84 84 84 90 92 92 95 95 98 104 107 108 108 112 115 116 120 121 128 129 APPENDIX D REFERENCES Test and Computed Data. viii Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table LIST OF TABLES Page Properties and characteristics of alcohol, diesel and gasoline fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Summary of different methods of fueling diesel engines with alcohol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Percentages of maximum tractor power obtained using different ethanol/water mixtures at different injection rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Effects of nozzle size and proofs on engine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Maximum tractor power obtained when carbureting different ethanol/water mixtures. . . . . . . . . . 81 Air/alcohol ratio prior to onset of knock . . . . . . 81 Maximum engine torque with carbureted alcohol . . . . 90 Air temperature difference (engine inlet- carburetor inlet) °C, at equivalent brake torque. . 93 Summary of the-tractor performance with spray- injection and carburetor approaches . . . . . . . . 100 ix Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 2a 10 11 LIST OF FIGURES Schematic layout of the test apparatus used to measure performance of the turbocharger diesel tractor with the spray-injection method of dual-fueling. . . . . . . . . . Schematic layout of the test apparatus used to measure performance of the turbocharger diesel tractor with the carburetor method of dual-fueling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arrangements of the apparatus . . . . . . . . Schematic of fuel measurement apparatus for spray— injecting ethanol on a turbocharger tractor . Schematic of fuel measurement apparatus for carbureting ethanol on a turbocharged tractor . Diagram of alcohol injection on a turbocharged diesel tractor, M & W Gear Company (13) . . . Effects of various nozzle sizes on engine maximum power and diesel consumption with different alcohol solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of various nozzle sizes on engine maximum power and alcohol consumption for different alcohol solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of spray-injected alcohol on brake thermal efficiency at various torque levels Volumetric efficiency at best nozzle sizes for various alcohol/water mixtures. . . . . . . . Exhaust temperature at various levels of engine loads for all fuel mixtures tested. . . . Fuel consumption in conventional and dual-fueled diesel tractors with 100 percent ethanol solution 35 36 37 41 42 49 51 52 54 55 57 59 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 12 l3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Fuel consumption in conventional and dual— fueled diesel tractors with 84% ethanol SOlution. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 0 Fuel consumption in conventional and dual—fueled diesel tractors with different ethanol solutions. Fuel consumption in conventional and dual-fueled diesel tractors with 50% ethanol solution . . Maximum proportion of fuel energy displaced with a 50% ethanol solution for different nozzle sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum proportion of fuel energy displaced with a 84% ethanol solution for different nozzle Sizes 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Maximum proportion of fuel energy displaced with 100% ethanol at different nozzle sizes. . . . . Maximum proportions of fuel energy, at various torque levels, that could be supplied by alcohol without affecting the engine maximum power for different ethanol solutions . . . Effects of using different alcohol/water mixtures on turbopressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of various proportions of water injection on engine torque and brake thermal efficiency . Effects of various proportions of water injection on engine torque and volumetric efficiency. Effects of water injection on brake thermal efficiency and exhaust temperature. . . . . . . Intake air carburetor mounting. . . . . . . . . Carburetor by—pass apparatus to gradually increase ethanol flow. . . . . . . . . . . Longitudinal cross—sectional view of the carburetor by—pass apparatus. . . . . . . Effects of carbureted ethanol on brake thermal efficiency at various torque levels xi Page 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 68 71 72 73 76 77 80 83 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Effects of carbureted ethanol on volumetric efficiency at various engine torque levels of 2100 rpm engine speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Exhaust temperature at various engine load for all fuel mixtures tested with carbureted ethan01 O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 O 86 Fuel consumption in conventional and carbureted dual-fueled diesel tractors with 81% ethanol solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Maximum prOportion of fuel energy displaced with carbureted ethanol for different ethanol solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Effects of using different ethanol/water mixtures on turbopressure when carbureting ethanOl O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O 91 Maximum proportion of fuel energy displaced through carburetion and spray-injection of ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Maximum proportion of fuel energy displaced with carbureted ethanol and spray-injected ethanol for selected ethanol solutions. . . . . . . . . . 105 Fuel consumption in conventional, spray-injected, and carbureted dual-fueled diesel tractors with diesel, 50% ethanol, and 81% ethanol respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 xii AF BHP BHP c BTE BT CI df Hc HHV ma mt P1 P2 pto LIST OF SYMBOLS air fuel ratio brake horsepower brake horsepower corrected brake thermal efficiency brake torque orifice meter constant (0.602) compression ignition engine diameter of venturi diameter fuel orifice correction factor gravitational acceleration hydrocarbons higher heating value. pressure difference actual mass of air inducted for intake stroke. theoretical mass of air to fill the piston displacement volume under standard atmospheric conditions mole barometric pressure standard barometric pressure. weight (Newtons) power take off xiii air flow. arm length (dynomometer). orifice meter radius specific gravity. torque intake air temperature during the test (absolute) standard temperature (absolute) volume. specific weight volumetric efficiency density sizing jet coefficient xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In light of the growing dependence of the world economy on fossil fuels, the demand for petroleum has been steadily increasing. This situation has been compounded with the recent political developments in the Middle East, moving energy to the front ranks of concern of the international community. After World War II, the economies of all nations have become more and more interdependent. This economic interdependence was both the cause and the effect of the rapid recovery from the devastation of war and of a long period of desirable economic growth. But, on the other hand it created insecurity, since the nations did not control the destiny of their economies. Petroleum played a very important role, both in promoting economic growth, and in creating an economic insecurity (27). Many studies have dealt with the energy problem from the economic view point. Emphasis has been placed on the impact caused by the re- cent increases in price of petroleum on the behavior of different national economies, on the creation of incentives for developing alter- native forms of energy, and on the formation of international agreements. Alcohol has been a strong candidate as an alternative source of motor fuel because it can be made from renewable resources and, thus, be a net addition to the energy supply without overdrawing fossil fuel reserves. In actuality, the energy ratios for alcohol (energy in/ energy out) is not very satisfactory. However, this technology has been changing quite fast,-and it is expected that the net gain of energy will increase in the future. The production of alcohol from an appropriate energy source can lead to the creation of a highly useful liquid fuel from a less useful form of energy (28). Because of the convenience, natural gas is often used in the production of alcohol at the processing plant. Nevertheless, natural gas is also the prime source for nitrogen fertilizers and low pollut- ing fuel for home and industrial heating, and should not be diverted to the production of alcohol. Other sources such as coal, biomass and solar energy, which are abundant or renewable, may be used. The de- cision of which source to use will depend on the cost of the energy source. Thus, there are alternatives which are independent of external markets and can readily take the place of natural gas at the alcohol processing plant (24). Perhaps we should not analyze alcohol production in terms of energy in and energy out, because a renewable source of energy could be used, such as forest residues and other agricultural residues, and those are not suitable for fueling internal combustion engines. The alcohol net gain controversy varies from place to place and from country to country. In Brazil, alcohol production has proved to be an efficient way to replace fossil fuels (1). Ethanol appears to be a feasible motor fuel for farm engines because it can be derived from agricultural surpluses and residues (in particular, corn in the United States) as raw material in the ethanol production process. Furthermore, farmers can possibly incorporate the production of their own fuel as a by—product of the food produc— tion system. Even though ethanol production is practical through the use of sugar cane rather than corn in Brazil, it does not appear commercially viable in the United States at present (28). Ethanol in the U.S. is mainly made from corn, which has created a controversy concerning the use of food for fuel. However, the part used to produce alcohol is starch, and by-products from the fermenta— tion process can be used as a high protein feed supplement, which adds to the benefits of farm produced alcohol. The by-products can also be used in human consumption; however, it would require a change in eating habits. Such a change can probably be achieved with effective market- ing and advertising. Scientists are currently working on the development of commercial processes that will convert cellulose and plant fiber into alcohol, which, when successful, will open up a vast new source of feedstock for alco- hol production. Cellulose feedstocks can be obtained from sources such as corn stalks, tree farms, saw mill wastes, crop residues, and even garbage (24). The use of alcohols as fuel should benefit agriculture directly and indirectly. A very large proportion of the labor involved in the alcohol production would constitute employment opportunities in coun— tries having labor surpluses in rural areas. In addition, it is possi— ble that development of special alcohol crops may afford beneficial substitutes for crops that appear to be in economic over—production in some areas. For instance, the U.S. government pays farmers to not produce in order to control prices. Instead of eliminating over- production, it should be possible to utilize surplus crops for alcohol production. The impact of the use of biomass fuel has created an international controversy concerning food production. There is a food shortage in various parts of the world because of uneven distribution (27). With adequate planning and management, including the replacement of tradi— tional crops to a substantial extent, a decrease in food production can be avoided (27). Furthermore, experts from the club of Rome (1) ack- nowledge that there is enough biomass for energy production to avoid an impact on food production. Perhaps a world policy should be formu- lated to provide even distribution of agricultural products for both food and fuel. Petroleum will probably have to be replaced by other energy sources for all countries during the next fifty years. The substitution of petroleum for other sources of energy, in most cases, requires highly complex and large technical installations, and the magnitude of this task can only be recognized and assessed within a global context. Agriculture will certainly have to be viewed in this same context (1). Ethanol might become the farmers' fuel. By modifying tractor engines to burn alcohol, farmers can use the fuel produced from their surplus crops to produce more crops (28). Tractors, as well as other agricultural equipment, are powered by diesel engines. Diesel engines burn fuels by compression heating of the air-fuel mixture to the ignition temperature. Because of this, a wide variety of fuels can be used. Alcohol is pre-mixed with the combustion air that is ignited by the flame produced when conventional diesel fuel is injected, provided that the pre-mixed alcohol does not auto-ignite in an uncontrollable way. These characteristics of the diesel engine permit the use of a number of biomass based fuel materials, in this case alcohol, which may be substituted for part of the petroleum fuels. The dual—fueled engine, by virtue of its ability to run either on diesel fuel or on a mixture of diesel and alcohol fuel over a wide range of relative concentrations, in the author's judgement, is an attractive and suitable unit for operation where alcohol fuel supplies are readily available. Furthermore, the engine may be easily changed over from dual-fueling to diesel operation, which is of particular con- venience when the alcohol supply may be fluctuating (4). A kit, which is no longer on the market, developed by M & W Gear Company, allows diesel tractors to be converted to dual-fueling. This system includes a fuel tank, hose and nozzle to deliver the alcohol into the engine. The tank is pressurized with the outlet air from the turbocharger, which forces alcohol from the tank through a hose into the inlet to the turbocharger. This system provides little control of the alcohol fuel because the flow of alcohol into the engine increases with increase on turbocharger pressure. Turbocharger pressure varies as the load in the tractor varies (13). A carburetor can also be used to introduce alcohol into the intake air. This method appears to be promising due to its low cost and the possibility that, with proper guidance and some knowledge of shop mechanics, the farmer could make the modification himself. The dual—fueling of agricultural equipment having diesel engines can help farmers become less dependent on fossil fuels (4). CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Because of the recent interest in alcohol as an alternative fuel, this literature review covers wide aspects of alcohol and its use in internal combustion engines. 2.1 Comparison of Available Fuels The combustible elements in fuels are predominantly carbon and hydrogen with small amounts of sulfur as the only other fuel element. Petroleum and alcohol fuels are both mixtures of complex hydrocarbon compounds, which are responsible for different properties of the fuels. Knowledge of these differences is very important to enable good under- standing of the performance of fuels. Fuel comparisons are outlined in Table 1. The definitions of the following characteristics are vital for understanding, evaluating and comparing fuels. 2.1.1 Caloric Value (heating value) The heating value is one of the most important determinations necessary in fuel comparisons. It is defined as the amount of heat energy contained in the fuel, and is the basis for computations of thermal efficiency. The most common method to determine the heat value is the bomb calorimeter. The heating value is determined by actually burning the .Aoa .m mwocwummmmv .mxamu Mona mawnofiouzm ca vows Hmwuw wmumoo awulwmwa <««« "mmousom .HHo Hommfiv Nom mam Hoamnum mnouvhncm Noa um wmcfimmm«x .maHHommm Noa mam Hocmsum msouphnam Noa mm vmafimmmx xkxmumaamcumu .mmmun %xoam .ucha .Hmaaoo .umnnnu .HmsvomH .Honnsu mamfiumume II II .mofiummaa maom .mofiummaa wEom II II :uH3 wfioauommm II II m w om II mdmumu Au .mm “a mmv II Nam omm ONH II mqm whammoum uomm> Aoov mmmumn oflmnm.ou no we wmmnwma N-m.o- uafioa wanaaom wa\mxv :oquN .. ads caH.H HNa oma mos nauoaa> mo Beam Ofiumu c.qH o.¢H m.o o.¢ o.mH m.qa Hm=m\uflm mxmuaH .. Hauoa Noaumm Noaamm omnow wauew maauuo aasm . A Amx\nxv okfi.~m NmH.ss wes.~w Nam.mm amo.sm o~m.ms “nausea swumam Aa\nxv oam.~m m-.~m ooo.wH owm.mm os~.wm mma.mm pamuaou swpmam Aoo\m8mnwv www.o men.o Han.o Now.o www.o mqn.o uzmfims oamaommm II II mommo mommmo x 1VHoncu x B Naolqo mH98uom Hmoo .mmw amusumc Esmaouuma .muostHa .muoswoua II il umouom amusuasofiuwm Esmaouumm Esmaouumm condom «*Honomofln *Honommo Hocmnuwz Hoamnum Homage maflaommo .mamsm mafiaommw mam Homofiv .Hosooam mo mofiumaumuomumso mam mMHuuwaoum .H mHLmH fuel sample and measuring the temperature rise. The temperature rise is converted to heating value for fuel mass by algebraic comparison with the heating value of benzoic acid. Corrections are made for the heat contributed by the ignition wire, and the heat of formation of nitric acid and sulfuric acid, by-products of the combustion process (3). Any fuel containing hydrogen yields water as one product of com— bustion. At atmospheric pressure, the partial pressure of the water in the resulting combustion gas mixture will usually be sufficiently high to cause water to condense if the temperature is allowed to fall below 48 to 60° C. This causes liberation of the heat of vaporization of any water condensed. The low heat value is determined assuming that no water vapor condensed in the process, whereas the high heat value is calculated assuming that all water vapor condensed (3). Ethanol contains about two-thirds as much energy as gasoline and diesel fuels. Methanol has only 48 percent of the caloric value of gasoline. The low energy content of both causes the fuel consumption to normally be higher when alcohol is used. Consequently, a larger volume of alcohol has to be burned to provide the work delivered by petroleum fuels on a normal engine (20). 2.1.2 Octane Rating The octane number of a fuel is determined by comparing the unknown fuel with various mixtures to find the knock tendency. A mixture of iso-octane and heptane is matched to the unknown fuel in knock tendency following the specified procedure in the American Society for Testing Materials -- Cooperative Fuel Research knock engine testing (16). A fuel 10 that causes less knock than iso-octane is rated by the amount of tetra— ethyllead in iso—octane required to match the knock of the unknown fuel (16). The octane rating is a measure of the ability of a fuel to resist knocking during combustion. The knocking ratings of the fuels are in rough proportion to the auto-ignition temperatures. The octane rating of alcohol is significantly higher than that of gasoline. The high octane rating allows the fuel to be burned in a more efficient high compression ratio engine. The benefits gained through higher compression offset some of the disadvantages of greater fuel consumption because of lower energy content (5). 2.1.3 Heat of Vaporization The difference in energy content between saturated-vapor and saturated liquid is called latent heat of vaporization. It represents the quantity of energy required to vaporize a unit mass of a saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure. Because alcohol has a higher heat of vaporization and a lower vapor pressure than gasoline, starting alcohol-fueled engines in cold weather is difficult. The 8.1. engine will not start on alcohol alone in temperatures below 10° C (10). For efficient operation in cold weather, the intake air should be around 90° C (10). The high heat of vaporization causes the alcohol to cool the intake air as it evaporates. This can increase the power output because a higher volumetric effi- ciency can be obtained with the cool compressed air. There is less work done on the compression stroke because vaporization holds down temperature and pressure which forms more dense air. More work is done 11 on the expansion stroke since the mole product per mole mixture is higher (16). 2.1.4 Vapor Pressure .For every liquid, the internal molecular activity is such that molecules escape from the surface until the pressure within the space next to the surface reaches a value that allows the net exchange of molecules between the liquid and vapor to come to equilibrium. This pressure is called the vapor pressure. Because molecular activity depends upon temperature, the vapor pressure in turn is a function of the temperature of the liquid. This induces problems with cold start, because the vapor pressure drops with a drop in temperature (16). Thus the fuel tends to resist evaporation as the temperature is de- creased. This again causes problems in cold starting of engines on alcohol fuels. 2.1.5 Cetane Number The cetane number represents to diesel engines what the octane rating represents to spark-ignition engines. However, the relationship between the cetane number of a diesel fuel and the performance of a diesel engine should not be confused with the relationship between the octane number of gasoline and the performance of a spark-ignition engine. With a spark-ignition engine, raising the octane number improves poten- tial engine performance by allowing the compression ratio to be in- creased. In the diesel engine, the desirable level of cetane number is established by the requirements of good ignition quality at light loads and low temperatures (12). Cetane, also called hexadecane, has 12 a low self-ignition temperature and, therefore, is a good fuel to prevent knock in a compression ignition (CI) engine. The reference scale for measuring CI'knock is based upon hexa- decane and heptamethylnonane as primary reference fuels with assigned values of 100 cetane and 15 cetane respectively (16). The cetane number tends to increase as octane number decreases. Thus, fuels having very high octane numbers, such as alcohol are inappro- priate fuels for direct fueling of diesel engines. In other words, alcohol will not ignite in the conventional diesel engine when compressed, because of its low cetane number. However, it can be used as a supple- ment to reduce diesel fuel consumption. 2.1.6 Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is the chemically correct mass of air used, to convert a given amOunt of fuel into completely oxidized products. The speed with which fuel induction takes place in an engine (CI) makes it impossible to obtain perfect mixing of air and fuel. In order to consume all of one, there must be an excess of the other. If maximum power is desired, an excess of fuel must be supplied so that all the oxygen available will be consumed. If economy is desired, an excess of air must be present so that all the fuel will be burned (12). A lower air/fuel ratio compared to gasoline and diesel fuels is required for alcohol, because of the presence of molecular oxygen in alcohols and the lower number of carbons oxidized in the combustion process (see Appendix C for derivations). 13 2.2 Alcohol Blends When used as a fuel in spark-ignition engines, alcohols may be blended with gasoline or used alone. Alcohol blends are in some re- spects interchangeable with gasoline and therefore, seem to have the advantage of being more adaptable for current spark-ignition engines. Alcohol, when blended with gasoline (90% unleaded gasoline and 10% ethanol), is called "Gasohol."° This mixture has been used successfully in automobiles. When fueling gasoline/alcohol blends made with methanol, many automobiles perform unacceptably by present standards. Modifications are required to replace materials in the fuel system that are not compatible with alcohol blends (10). The most noticeable effect when an alcohol blend is used in an unmodified engine is a leaner air-fuel mixture. An engine operating on an alcohol blend behaves as if the carburetor is adjusted to give less fuel (5). For both methanol and ethanol, the engine can operate satis- factorily with these lean mixtures according to Imgamells and Lindquist research, although the carburetor should be adjusted to compensate for added alcohol, by enlarging the jets (10). Expected effects when unmodified engines are operated on a leaner mixture than the theoretical air—fuel ratio include the following: 1. Lower fuel economy is expected, because of the low heating value of alcohols. However, on the energy basis (km per GJ) the addition of alcohol to gasoline causes improvements in fuel economy, because thermal efficiency is increased. 14 More efficient burning because of its combustion characteristics, particularly when operating under lean conditions (10). Deterioration in driveability, because of the sensitivity to phase separation with low amounts of water (10). Higher power output--the heat of combustion of equal volumes of stoichiometric air/alcohol and air/ gasoline mixtures are nearly identical. More power is obtained because of alcohol's higher latent heat of vaporization which cools the air entering the engine much more than gasoline, and this increases the air density and the mass flow (10). A 10% gain in power output with methanol is possible when very high mixtures are used (10). Lower carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions-- As there is more air available to burn the fuel, combustion is more complete and emissions are lower. If the fuel mixture is very lean, however, hydrocarbon emissions will increase because of poor combustion characteristics (10): Generally, higher emissions of nitrogen oxides-- Emissions of nitrogen oxides peak on the lean side of the theoretical fuel air ratio. Tuning engines increasingly leaner from this peak, however, will again reduce oxide emissions (10). 15 7. Road octane increases, and better engine performance (10). 8. Cold starts generally do not present a problem. (10). 2.3 Straight Alcohol in 8.1. Engines The use of straight alcohol for spark-ignition engines introduces certain new problems. Intake systems of engines have to be redesigned to aid in vaporization of the fuel because of the much higher latent heat of vaporization. Some fuel system metals, plastics and elasto- meters have to be changed to avoid corrosion and incompatibility problems (10). Pischinger (19) points out that a relatively high boiling point of alcohol along with heat of vaporization, which is 3.5 times higher than gasoline, make it very difficult to attain a lean mixture in the engine. The mixture formation along the way to the combustion chamber is hampered by these characteristics even in warm alcohol engines. In the same way, heat is affected in gasoline engines with cold running conditions (leaner air-fuel ratio). This means that the alcohol engine never warms up properly in the carburetion area, so that the operation of a car so equipped always requires a rich mixture. As a result, both the fuel consumption and emissions of carbon monoxide become unaccept- able. To get good performance, the intake air must be pre—heated along with the walls of the inlet manifold. The engine heat radiation con- tributes to this heating. Difficulty in cold starting can be overcome by using a device to spray a second fuel in the intake air. It has also been proposed that l6 heaters be used to evaporate a small quantity of the alcohol instead of the use of a second fuel (19). Other factors that have to be taken into account are the compres- sion ratio and ignition timing. The compression ratio should be raised to take advantage of the high octane fuel. Ignition advance is recom— mended because alcohols have a lower flame temperature and faster burning velocity (19). Power, fuel economy, emissions and maximum torque are determined by the amount of air that can be inducted into each cylinder and the energy that can be liberated by the combustion process utilizing the oxygen in the air. The cooling effect caused by a higher latent heat value decreases compression work or allows induction of a greater mass of air into each cylinder (4). Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are nearly the same for methanol and ethanol compared to gasoline alone, but a marked differ- ence appeared in the emission of nitrogen oxides (7). For methanol, emissions of nitrogen oxides are slightly lower, and they peaked at a richer mixture of air/fuel. Alcohol fuels have been used successfully in automobiles. In extremely severe road tests in Brasil covering more than 100,000 km, no damage whatsoever was observed in the engines that could be blamed on the use of alcohol (19). In January of 1978 the state of California demonstrated that a conventional automobile could be operated on 100 percent methanol. The fuel economy was excellent, ranging from 6 to 7 kilometer per liter (km/l), which corresponds to about 12 to 13 km/l on an energy equivalent to gasoline (because of the lower caloric value 17 of alcohol). The fuel economy of the gasoline version was lower, being about 8.9 km/l (15). A Brasilian magazine "Quatro Rodas" (20) shows a comparison of two Brasilian Ford passenger cars. The cars are the same except that one was designed for alcohol and the other for gasoline. The average fuel consumption was 13.7 km/l for the gasoline version and 11.5 km/l for the alcohol (80 percent by volume) car. At constant speed (40 km/hr) and fifth gear, the alcohol car showed better fuel economy (17.0 km/l) than the gasoline version (16.8 km/l). The surprise was the brake ther- mal efficiency (BTE). The gasoline version had a 27 percent BTE, while the alcohol version had a surprising 37 percent BTE, which is even higher than the diesel cycle (around 35 percent). 2.4 Alcohol Use in Diesel Engines Since the majority of tractors are powered by diesel engines a comprehensive review of the different methods of using alcohols in diesel engines is reported. The methods include the conversion of an engine to burn straight alcohol, and the conversion for dual-fueling or the use of alcohol to supplement diesel fuel. 2.4.1 Total Alcohol Fueling Here, two approaches are possible for fueling a diesel engine with straight alcohol solutions. One approach is to place additives into the alcohol to improve its cetane rating; the other is to modify the engine to straight alcohol. Because alcohols have a high octane ratio, they may be used in spark-ignition engines, which need a fuel that when mixed with air, 18 can be compressed in the cylinders without self—igniting. On the other hand, diesel engines need a fuel with exactly the opposite character- istics; in other words, a fuel that will self-ignite when injected into the cylinders. From the above explanation the question can be raised: How can alcohol (high octane ratio and very low cetanenumber) be used in diesel engines? Holmer (8) solved this problem by adding "cetane improvers" with high self-ignition capacity. Engines are capable of burning alcohol through this method with few modifications. The main change would be the injector pump which must be modified to be self-lubricated, since alcohols do not have lubrication characteristics. Furthermore, the pump also must compen- sate for the fuel injected into the cylinders, because the fuels haVe different heat values, and burn at different air/fuel ratios. Even though this method displaces 100 percent of normal diesel con- sumption it has been proved unfeasible due to technical problems and high price of cetane improvers (8). For these reasons, this method has low potential in saving diesel fuel unless a low price cetane improver is developed. Through major mechanical modifications, an engine can be converted to burn straight alcohol. Modifications would include the addition of a spark-ignition system, bringing the compression ratio to around twelve-to-one, and a change in the fuel injection system (6). A gasoline engine can be adapted and optimized to burn alcohol. This engine must have its compression ratio increased, and consequently its parts may be subjected to overstress because the original engine was not designed for high cylinder pressures. The ideal engine for 19 conversion to alcohol fueling is the diesel engine because it functions at a high compression ratio, and therefore it is reinforced to withstand stress under such a condition. The alcohol consumption in a modified diesel engine is lower than that of a spark-ignition engine not optimized for alcohol. This differ- ence in fuel consumption would increase even more when the engine is working with frequent acceleration and deceleration such as in urban traffic conditions (14). The method of burning straight alcohol in a modified engine is called the Brandt system (26). The compression ratio is lowered to around twelve-to-One. The alcohol is injected at high pressure directly into the cylinders using a self-lubricated fuel pump and specially lubri- cated injectors. Alcohol is thus mechanically atomized into a fine mist which evaporates instantly in the cylinder as it absorbs the heat de- velOped in the compression stroke of the engine. An ordinary spark plug is used to ignite the air/fuel mixture. The required modifications include a decrease in compression ratio, addition of a spark-ignition system and replacement of the fuel injec— tion system with an injection system compatible with alcohol. The engine can have its compression ratio altered by three approaches: 1) by changing the engine head, with a different clearance volume to achieve the desired compression ratios; 2) by replacing pistons with different shaped pistons to obtain the desired compression ratio; and 3) by replacing the connecting rods with shorter rods. The spark plug can be installed by drilling a hole through the head at each cylinder and fitting a sleeve through the water jacket. 20 A distributor or electronic ignition system can be used to provide ignition timing. Higher heat is required to vaporize the alcohol when greater amounts of water are present. Therefore, a heat exchanger is necessary to provide adequate vaporization, without interfering with air flow. Either the hot radiator water or the exhaust gases are available as a free heat source. In the case of turbocharged engines, the air is heated by compression, and the heat transferred from the exhaust through the turbocharger case, however, this heat is not enough to provide all the heat needed (9). Control of vaporization is important. Any heat in excess of that required for complete vaporization reduces air density and thus lowers the engine performance (9). Although the Brandt system is quite sophisticated, it is not impossible for the farmer with a good knowledge of mechanics to make the modifications himself with proper directions. However, it should be done by a reliable mechanic, or shop. Even though recent work has not been done, this technique provides potential for replacing 100 percent of diesel fuel requirements. However, the fuel consumption is expected to be greater than diesel consumption, in spite of the fact that efficiency and power are expected to increase. The operational costs will depend on the production cost of alcohol (26). 2.4.2 Blending Diesel and Alcohol Using an Emulsifier Process The preparation and injection of a homogeneous mixture of alcohol and diesel oil is technically feasible but requires a comparatively high engineering outlay. Its disadvantage is demulsification of the mixture when the engine is not running or during cold operation (11). 21 Goering (29) indicated that a diesel engine performed satisfactor- ily on a 10 percent anhydrous ethanol blend with diesel fuel, provided that the fuel system and injector pump were either chilled or pressurized to prevent vaporization of the alcohol and related vapor-lock problems. Solly (23) developed a new fuel called "cocohol." This fuel was produced in a simple process by the chemical combination of ethanol and coconut oil. Cocohol has similar chemical and physical properties to cetane, the chemical pure standard for diesel fuel. The viscosity and solidification temperatures are very similar. Furthermore, the fuel was shown to operate a high speed diesel engine at a greater thermal efficiency than diesel oil. This fuel is still in the phase of research. Pischinger 35 El. (18) tested a Volkswagen's Passat (Dasher in USA) which was available with gasoline, ethanol (in Brazil) or diesel engines. The test included alternative fuels such as: peanut oil and soybean oil, hydrated ethanol with "cetane number improver," and hydrated ethanol. They concluded that vegetable oils considered as alternatives to diesel oil have properties as adequate for diesel engines as those of the alcohols for 8.1. engines. Partial substitution by blending was very attractive because of good miscibility, comparable energy densities, and the absence of any need to modify either engine or fuel systems with the consequent possibility of immediate introduction. They also concluded that alcohol/diesel oil blends with reasonable proportions are possible if the poor miscibility is overcome by chemical or mechanical means. For 30 percent blends, the following rates of substitution can be expected: 22 1. 30 percent by volume vegetable oil substituting about 30 percent diesel oil. 2. 30 percent by volume ethanol substituting about 20 percent diesel oil. 3. 30 percent by volume methanol substituting about 16 percent diesel oil. When compared the car powered by the swirl-chamber ethanol diesel engine with the one powered by the ethanol S.I. engine at comparable vehicle performances, they found the consumption of the S.I. car to be very close to that of the diesel. 2.4.3 Dual-fueling Since the total conversion of the diesel engine to alcohol is expensive, dual-fueling seems more attractive. Different ways of dual- fueling include: 1) the mixture of alcohol and diesel fuel at the intake gallery of the injection pump; 2) the use of two injection pumps (one for alcohol and one for diesel fuel) to supply fuel to a single injector; 3) the dual-fueling of the diesel engine with carbureted alcohol; 4) the use of two injectors in each cylinder with a separate fuel system for each; and 5) spray-injection using turbocharger pressure. In the first process the alcohol is sprayed by means of an injec- tion pump, at the intake gallery of the diesel injection pump. This design calls for a complete and separate diesel fuel system with tank, feed, pump, injection pump and separate injectors (8). This system can replace up to 50 percent of the diesel, but it requires high technology. The fuel consumption in terms of volume, is expected to be greater than 23 the operation with diesel alone. The reduction of the costs of operation will depend on the production cost of the alcohol. Basically, the use of two injection pumps (one for alcohol and one for diesel fuel) to supply fuel to a single injector work in the same way as in the first method, but instead of spraying the mixture of alcohol and diesel into the gallery, it goes to a third injection pump, which sprays the mixture into the cylinder (8). As in the first method, this system can save up to 50 percent diesel fuel, and the engine efficiency is improved. In the case ofdual-fueling a diesel engine with carbureted alcohol, a carburetor is installed on the combustion air intake system of a diesel engine. With the manifold carburetion system, the alcohol is mixed with the manifold air. The ignition is then induced by the con- ventionally injected diesel fuel (4). This method has good potential for a partial substitution of diesel fuel, since it is less expensive to construct than the others, and the farmer can do it himself with proper information. This system can displace approximately 50 percent of the energy for diesel engines (5). Although the production cost of alcohol is prohibitive at present in the United States, the costs of operation can be reduced, since the efficiency and power increase. Smith (22), mentioned that a sonic nozzle which atomizes the alcohol in a modified intake manifold was able to burn more than 50 percent alcohol in a diesel engine without the fuel separation, knocking, and lubrication problems normally associated with diesel/alcohol blends. The alcohol droplets enter the cylinders with the air stream, totally separate from the diesel fuel system. He also reported that compared to using straight diesel fuel, the test engine developed higher power. 24 For dual-fueling with dual injectors, two injectors are installed in each cylinder with a separate fuel system for each. The engine is fitted with a distributor type injection pump, and a simple hole in- jector in each cylinder head is installed. With this system, as much as 80 percent of the fuel energy can be supplied from methanol with proper timing of both injection systems (8). The replacement of diesel fuel here is the highest among the dual-fueling methods, but it requires sophisticated engineering. Furthermore, the investment to install this system is very high. It is doubtful that the operational costs for this process can be lowered, even with low production cost of alcohol, because of the high investment cost in the system. The M & W Gear Company kit, referred to in the Introduction, has been used to convert a turbocharged diesel tractor to dual—fueling. In this system, a mixture of water and alcohol (aquahol) is injected into the air stream by means of pressure from the turbocharger. A tank is pressurized with the outlet air from the turbocharger, which forces alcohol from the tank through a hose into the inlet. This system was promoted to increase power and efficiency, and replace about 30 percent of normal diesel consumption (13). Based upon the literature review for this thesis, the author has prepared a table to summarize the different methods of using alcohol \ in diesel engines (Table 2). 25 Humane swap kmmo “onwwn mason GOflu Hoom magmamo mum> Ho Humvm on awe: hum> Iommaw 03u waHmD .aasm coauomn Hmmmwv law man mo humaamw xmmm ou Hmpvm oxmucfi afiSuHS Hon Hoom manmmmo huw> Ho Hmnwfim om awe: >Hm> Iooam\awmoww wawxflz Hommfiv Honooam nufiz Hoom Hawunson wawmswcoo ou Hmsvm om Swan hum> Hmmmflw wafiwcmam Hommfiv amnu kmmm “mama: coamum> coco manmamo >um> >H¢> Mo Hmadm OOH fiwflm Icoo Hmuou maflwcm m>wmamaxw hum> mum .muo>oua Hosooam hmmm Hmmmww IEH mamumo mzu afl Hw>ouaEH voow >Hm> Hawuaaon %Hm> mm msmm OOH unn .maoz manuoo mo GOHuHUw< Hum: m>wufiuoaaoo new: >3 HoBOQ mam unmopmm unmaumm>GH coamum>aoo mo make vmaafixm ha :owmuw> ma mofiua Ho: wcwawcmm >ocmwofimmm wwomaamflw HmHuHcH Icoo mo hufiawnwmmom Iooam ma mumoo Hmmmwa .hmao muse Imp ou %ufiomamo .Honooam :uHB mmnflwcm Hmmwww wCHHmsm mo mwozuoa ucmumwwfiw mo >Hmaaaw .N manna 26 meow >um> mannamo %um> hmmm Amv umcwfim om wumumwoz ufix ummu 3 w z Hmmmflw amcu Hmmcfiaho huouumm %mmm Hmswfin some a“ muou uoom um manmamo hum> hum> no Hmsvm ow swan >H0> Iommcfi o3u mo mm: mewfic amnu Honooam kmmm nonwwc vmumusnumo woom >uw> mHanmo hum> on new so Hmswm om mumpovoz nuw3 wcHHoDMIHmDQ Mom: m>HuHquEoo mom: >3 um3oa mam unwound ucwaumm>cw :oemuw>coo mo makH wmaafixm %n coamum> ma mowua Ho: wcaapamm hocwwofimwm vmomaamww HmwuHcH Icoo mo kufiawnfimmom Ioon we mumou memfim .Hmao move ton on >ufiomamo Aa.ucoov N magma 27 2.5 Theory of Knock To understand knock we first have to understand the phenomenon of combustion in internal combustion engines. In S.I. engines the combustion normally begins at the spark plug where the molecules in and around the spark discharge are activated to a level where reaction is self-sustaining. Once the reaction is under- way, a spherical flame front will advance from the spark plug. In the vicinity of the chamber walls both turbulence and temperature are low and therefore the flame speed is retarded. In this stage the unburned gas ahead of the flame front, and the burned gas behind the flame front are compressed by expansion of the burning mixture and are raised in temperature. Therefore, the pressure throughout the chamber is continually increasing. The final stage of combustion is when the flame slows down as it approaches the walls of the combustion chamber and is finally extinguished (16). To understand knock we must first define it. However, a satisfac- tory definition for knock is difficult to give because of the complexity of the combustion process. In general, knock is the term used to signify any unusual sound that arises because of autoignition in the combustion process (16). If knock implies autoignition, an infinite range of severity can be present, and high speed photography of the combustion process would be necessary for identification of the knock. If knock implies pressure differences in the combustion process, then the sensitivity of the pressure-measuring equipment would be a factor in the definition. If knock implies sound, which was considered in this dissertation, then the sensitivity of the ear enters the problem. 28 The cause of knock or detonation in spark-ignition engines and compression ignition engines is basically the same. In both situations, compression ignition is followed by a rapid pressure rise. However, 'hhrthespark-ignition engine it is the last part of the charge to burn, while in the compression ignition it is the first part up to, and some- times including, the whole charge"(25). The tendency of given fuel to detonate is measured by its octane number. A higher octane rating means the antiknock (antidetonation) qualities of the fuel are better. In the spark-ignition engine the combustion process rarely occurs without some trace of autoignition (detonation).iflunrautoignition occurs the pressure and temperature may abruptly increase because of the sudden release of chemical energy (16). The consequent rise in pressure compresses the end gas ahead of the flame front and therefore its temperature and density increase causing autoignition at the periphery of the combustion chamber. The combustion time is always shortened by autoignition with consequent sharper rise in pressure that may lead to an audible sound called knock. Two distinct types of autoignition can be developed in the combustion process, and each with various degrees of severity (l6): explosive (usual) and nonexplosive autoignition. Explosive means that the rate of chemical reaction is greater than the rate of expansion. Nonexplosive means that the rate of expansion is greater than the rate of chemical reaction so that the pressure pulse in the autoigniting region is too small to cause the audible sound called knock. In S.I. engines it is relatively easy to distinguish between knocking and non-knocking opera- tion if only because the sensitivity of the ear can afford an acceptable 29 distinction. It is the end portions of the mixture that may self- ignite, and, if knock appears, it will appear near the end of the com- bustion process (16). In the C.I. engine, air alone is compressed and raised to a high temperature on the compression stroke. One or more jets of fuel are then introduced into the combustion chamber. The jet disintegrates into a core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles (16). This envelope is created both by the atomization and vaporization of the fuel and the turbulence of the air in the combus- tion chamber as it passes across the jet and strips the fuel particles from the core. At some location in the spray envelope a mixture of air and fuel will form and oxidation becomes imminent (16). This period of physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection and the attainment of chemical reaction conditions. In the next stage, called the chemical delay, reaction starts slowly and then accelerates until inflammation or ignition takes place. At some location, or at many locations, flame appears. Rather than an orderly propagation of flame along a definite flame front, entire areas may explode or burn because of the accumulation of fuel in the chamber during the delay period (16). In the C.I. engine, the fuel is injected into hot air and combus- tion begins with autoignition. Thus, if pressure disturbances are apparent, it is at the beginning of the combustion period that knocking occurs (16). Self-ignition is the essential condition for establishing either a pressure difference or a rapid pressure rise in the chamber of the C.I. engine. 30 The so—called knock rating of a diesel fuel is found by comparing the fuel with hexadecane, which is more often called cetane. Cetane number describes the ignition characteristics of the fuel rather than knock. Fuels with higher cetane rating have lower ignition delay. Since ignition delay is the primary factor controlling the initial auto- ignition in the compression ignition engine, it is reasonable to con— clude that knock is related to the ignition delay of the fuel (16). If the delay time is long, there will be more opportunity for the fuel and air to mix intimately before combustion starts. The air— fuel mixture in the compression ignition engine is not homogeneous. Regions exist with droplets of fuel alone, with fuel vapor alone, with air alone, and with fuel-air mixtures. When ignition begins in a region that contains fuel and air, flame will propagate if the regions of mixtures is continuous. Adjacent regions on the verge of self-ignition may ignite from heat transferred from the burning region. In any event, it would be difficult to distinguish between flame propagation and self- ignition which is aided, of course, by the high temperatures being generated in the chamber (16). ”Ricardo conceived the combustion process in the compression- ignition engine as taking place in three stages, the first of which is the delay period. The delay is always long enough that, when ignition occurs, there is an appreciable amount of evaporated and finely divided fuel well mixed with air. Once ignited, this fuel tends to burn very rapidly by reason of the multiplicity of ignition points and the high temperature already existing in the combustion chamber. This period of rapid combustion is Ricardo's second phase of the process. After 31 the period of rapid combustion, the fuel which has not yet burned, together with any fuel subsequently injected, burns at a rate controlled principally by its ability to find the oxygen necessary for combustion. This period is Ricardo's third stage of combustion" (25). If the ignition delay of a fuel is too large, too much fuel is injected into the combustion chamber prior to ignition. Simultaneous ignition of this large amount causes an excessive pressure rise and it will produce a sound due to the impact of the gases in the combustion chamber. The high pressure differences created by ignition at different points in the combustion chamber cause the gas to vibrate which in turn cause vibration of the walls of the chamber producing an audible sound called knock (16). CHAPTER 3 OBJECTIVES The overall objective was to demonstrate the feasibility of using alcohol as alternative fuel for diesel farm tractors, and deter- mine any associated problems. More specific objectives were: 1. To evaluate the performance through laboratory testing of a diesel tractor, dual—fueled with the use of an alcohol spray—injection kit. To evaluate the conversion of diesel engines for alcohol use by attaching a carburetor to the inlet air systems of turbocharged tractors. To determine the relationship of water content in the alcohol to the increase in power and fuel consumption. To develop a method for injecting the right amount of alcohol into the tractor under varying load conditions. 32 CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Dual—fuel tests were conducted with a four cylinder turbocharged diesel engine "Ford 7700"1 tractor (see Specifications in Appendix A). A schematic arrangement of the apparatuses are given in Figures 1 and 2. 4.1 Testing Procedure In the first part of the tests, a commercial kit produced by M & W Gear Company1 was mounted on the tractor. In this system the mixture of water and alcohol was injected into the air stream by means of pressure from the turbocharger. .Different water-alcohol mixtures and distilled water were used in combination with various nozzle sizes to determine optimum nozzle size and fuel combination for this system. The graduations and fuel mixtures were as follows: 1. 50 percent ethanol-water mixture, using graduated nozzle sizes of: .51 mm, .76 mm, .89 mm, 1.02 mm and 1.09 mm. 2. 84 percent ethanol-water mixture with nozzle sizes graduated at .13 mm intervals as follows: .51 mm, .64 mm, .76 mm, .89 mm and 1.02 mm. 3. 100 percent ethanol for nozzle sizes .51 mm, .64 mm and .76 mm. 4. Distilled water with nozzle sizes of .51 mm and .64 mm. lTrade names are used in the thesis solely to provide specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a warranty of the product by Michigan State University or an endorsement of the product to the exclusion of other products not mentioned. 33 34 The maximum useable nozzle size in each case was limited by engine knocking. All the tests for the spray-injection method of dual-fueling were run at 2100 engine rpm or 1000 rpm pto speed (the higher pto speed was chosen to accommodate the high speed dynamometer used). For this ex- periment the tractor was connected to two dynamometers through its power-take-off to load the engine (see Figure 1) because the main dyna- mometer would not measure more than 37 kW at 1000 rpm. The procedure used was to load the engine for 5.5 N, read at the main dynamometer scale, and subsequently increase the load by increments of 5.5 N, until the recording range of the main dynamometer was approached. The resulting total load was then transferred to an auxilliary dynamometer and the testing continued by incrementing the load by 5.5 N. The last reading was then obtained by setting the speed control lever of the tractor to full load position, followed by loading the main dynamometer until the tractor tachometer indicated 2100 engine rpm. The second method of dual-fueling was done by attaching a carbure- tor to the inlet air system of the turbocharger. The tractor was connected to a dynamometer through its power—take-off (see Figure 2, 2a). In order to determine the optimum substitution of ethanol for diesel fuel via carburetion, the following feasible combinations were tried: 1. Varying air/diesel fuel ratios. 2. Varying air/ethanol ratios. 3. Different ethanol concentrations——100, 80 and 50 percent by volume. The procedure used was as follows: The engine speed was set at 2100, 1600 and 1150 engine rpm, which corresponded to full, 3/4, and 1/2 35 .wcfiH03mIHmsv mo mosume cowuomncwl%muom ecu :ufiz HOuomuu Hmmmwv pompmnoonu5u osu mo mocmEuowuoo whommms Ou mom: wsumumaom umou ecu mo uso>ma owuwaonom .Pouowwm pwwumnoonuoa mozu owasmuwzc nmumEoEmc>o pmfiafixs< ma HOuomHH maonucoo NH mmuumamfia communfiamo mmwmu HH xcmu Hocmsum noumEoEmcxv oo>u wavmuo m o OH Axamu HmuHH womvxcmu wwusm uoo poop umuoEoEmczv cam: m Axamu kufla mmv momma wofimfluo xcmu mwMSm oHNNoz w umumEocm: r-INMQ’LOKDN OH 36 .wcwaoswlamsv mo monuos nwuouonumo onu Luwz Heuomuu Hommfiw umwumnoonusu wnu mo mocmEHOMpoo muommos cu tom: msumumqom umou mzu mo usomma oHumenom twouswflm HeuomuH Amoxu oHHomuw>Lv HouoEOEmczm Ha . mmuuoofio omumHnHHmu moaosoooaumse 0H xcmu Hosmsum uoo poop unnumpwoame m mxcmu HmuHH womv xcmu owusm MOumuanumo w Axcmu wouHH mmv pmums mowwfluo xcmu wwusm pompmcoonuse n umumEocmz Isl Hormone 37 .msumpmmam msu mo wucwEowcmuu< .mN wHDMfim 38 engine load respectively, using diesel fuel alone. At each of the above engine settings the ethanol/air ratio was then increased by means of the throttle valve in the carburetor until incipient knock was heard. From there, the alcohol was throttled back to the point where no more knock was heard. Because the tractor was rated for a maximum of 63 kW at 2100 rpm engine speed, the aim was to supply the maximum proportion of ethanol combined with the minimum diesel fuel to obtain the 63 kW without inci— pient knock. To accomplish the optimum amount of ethanol, the diesel governor was set to full load on diesel alone, then the throttle valve on the carburetor was gradually opened, until it reached the maximum engine horsepower without undue knock. A mark was placed on the diesel governor cable where the maximum hp occurred. The same was done on the carburetor throttle valve. The diesel lever was then pulled back until knock was heard, then the ethanol was decreased until knock was no longer heard. This procedure was followed until 63 kW at 2100 rpm was obtained. Second marks were placed on the diesel governor cable and throttle valve where the diesel and ethanol were compatible. With those cable traveling distances, a cable was connected from the carburetor throttle valve to the diesel pedal on the tractor's cabin. Once the linkage was installed between the carburetor and diesel governor, the engine was tested again at 2100 rpm engine speed. For tests with the carburetor approach, the engine was loaded to 23 kW and the dynamometer scale read, and subsequently the load increased by 7.5 kW, until the maximum increment of 7.5 kW was obtained. The last reading was then obtained by setting the engine to a full load position on dual-fueling. 39 4.1.1 Measurements Power and torque were obtained using pto dynamometers. Introduc- tory tests with the conventional tractor and dynamometer provided a maximum torque of 482 Newton-meters at 1000 rpm pto speed. For the spray-injection method, the dynamometers used were a General Electric cradle type as the main dynamometer which provided accurate measurement of power output, and :1 M & W Gear hydraulic type as the auxilliary dynamometer which was used to hold the transferred load, as explained earlier in this chapter. For the carburetor approach, the tractor was connected to a dyna- mometer through its power-take-off. The dynamometer used was a M & W Gear P-ZOOO Hydra-Gauge. For both methods, the engine rpm was read at the tractor's tacho- meter located in the cabin. Because of dynamometer limitations, the tests with the spray-injection method were done only at 2100 rpm engine speed (1000 rpm pto shaft speed). With the carburetor method, a tacho- meter located on the dynamometer instrument panel measured the tractor pto shaft speed. 4.1.2 Temperature The exhaust temperatures for both methods of dual-fueling were measured by a pyrometer gage installed on the tractor. For the dual-fueling test with carbureted ethanol, copper constan- tan thermocouples and a "Digistrip II" recorder were used to measure the intake air temperature, which was the same as the ambient tempera- ture, and the air temperature at the tube which connects the turbo- charger to the intake manifold. The Digistrip II manufactured by Kaye 40 Instruments, was programmed to record temperatures at 10 second intervals. 4.1.3 Turbocharger Pressure The turbocharger pressure for both methods was measured by a "Stuart-warner" turbopressure gage number 36OH8232022 installed on the tractor cabin. The gage read from zero to 30 pounds per square inch (psi) with a sensitivity of 114 kPa. 4.1.4 Fuel Consumption A fuel measuring device was built using graduated pippetes to measure the consumption of both diesel and ethanol solutions. A stop watch was used to time the output from two pippetes of calibrated volume. The fuel was then measured under various engine loads, as stated in the Testing Procedure earlier in this chapter (see Figures 3 and 4). 4.1.5 Air Flow Air flow was measured using a 73.5 mm diameter orifice at the end of a surge tank of 95 liters capacity. Another surge tank of 208 liters capacity was placed between the tractor intake air and the smaller surge tank. The 208 liters capacity surge tank was used to buffer pulsations on the manometer. The air flow measurements were taken by using a water manometer which was used to measure pressure drop across the orifice at the inlet of the surge tank (see Figures 1 and 2). 41 .HOuomuu meumno Ionuou o co Hocmsum mewuoomcw >muom HOW moumummam ucoEouommoE away mo oHumecom Awmuowflm wcflfl ousmmopm xcmu Hocmnum mouumawm oHOMflcmE oxmucw mowwcm mucuoomcw mcchm umwnmcoonuoe nocum>ow Hmmmwo r—tqul-OONCO xcmu Hommflo 42 .u0uomuu vowumsoonusu m co Hocmnum wcfluousnpmo MOW woumumoam ucoEmuommmE HmSM mo oHumEosom .VQHDme xcmu Hocmcum QESQ Honk mmuumawm oHOLHcmE wxmucH ocfiwcm mMOuomWCfl mcfiwcm umwumzoonuoa MOuousnumo pocumbow Hommfla HNMQLOONQD© xcmu Homofla G300 m Iasara Ioueqna 43 4.2 Procedure of Analysis Because the internal combustion engine is a complex device, a careful analyses of variables is necessary to provide or to verify new design concepts. To ensure a correct analyses, the following performance factors were used. 4.2.1 Fuel Consumption and Thermal Efficiency For every pound of air inducted into the engine, a proportionate amount of fuel should be inducted. Hence, the brake specific fuel consumption in Kg per hour is proportional to the air consumption. The fuel consumption is a comparative parameter that shows how efficiently an engine is converting fuel into work. This parameter has been used more often and is preferred by the author, rather than thermal efficiency, because all quantities are measured in standard and accepted physical units. Any form of internal combustion engine is a steady-flow machine with air and fuel entering at atmospheric pressure and temperature and products of combustion leaving at atmospheric pressure. For these flow conditions, the heat of combustion that can be obtained from the air-fuel mixture with the use of a calorimeter, is the heat of combustion at constant pressure. The combustion engine produces work and releases heat only as a by-product. Thus, the ratio of work obtained from the engine to the energy input is called "brake thermal efficiency." Brake thermal efficiency is an indication of how well the engine is utiliz- ing the energy contained in the fuel. This parameter was computed from the product of power in kW and a constant divided by the sum of the product of high heat value and mass flow rate of each fuel in every 44 test run (see equation in Appendix B). The high heat values of the fuels were extracted from Table 1. 4.2.2 Volumetric Efficiency Since both air and fuel are partners in the combustion process, it is evident that both are equally important. However, the volume occupied by a liquid or gaseous fuel is a fraction of the volume occupied by the air. For this reason, the induction of the air presents the greatest problem. If the engine does not induct the largest possi- ble amount of air, the power output of the engine will be restricted, no matter how much fuel is added. A basic requirement for an engine is its capacity for inducting a large amount of air during each intake stroke. The mass of air inducted by the engine per intake stroke is called the unit air charge or actual air capacity. The volumetric efficiency is the actual air capacity, when divided by the theoretical air capacity, which is the mass of air that would fill the displacement of the cylinders at inlet temperature and pres- sure, becomes the volumetric efficiency. The actual air capacity was calculated by entering the value of pressure difference for each test run in the continuity equation (see Appendix B). Pressure differences were read at the manometer. The theoretical air capacity was obtained from the product of engine rpm, engine displacement and density of the air. 4.2.3 Air-Fuel Ratio The work developed by the engine depends directly upon the amount of energy released when a mixture of air and fuel burns. To understand 45 the chemistry of combustion, the air—fuel ratio parameter was created. This mass ratio shows the relative portions of air and fuel inducted. This ratio when compared with the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (theo- retical air-fuel ratio). This mass ratio was calculated by dividing the actual air capacity, which was obtained as explained before, by the mass of fuel used at the run. This mass of fuel was obtained in accordance with the time spent to empty the pippete at the respective run, and density of the fuel used. 4.2.4 Peak-Power For a given rpm the engine power can be shown by either torque or brake horsepower, depending on the type of work for which the engine was designed. The crankshaft power from an engine is called brake horsepower, and it is measured with all engine components functioning. Torque is not strongly dependent on the speed of the engine, but depends on the volumetric efficiency and friction losses (16). Thus, if the mass of air of the engine increases by dual-fueling, because the mass of air increases as it cools, torque also increases accordingly. Because the engine tests were done at constant engine speeds, and horsepower is proportional to the product of torque and speed, peak horsepower was one of the major parameters analyzed. Peak horsepower was read directly from the dynamometer scale with the engine running at full load. 4.2.5 Exhaust Temperature Since the C.I. engine inducts a constant amount of air on the intake stroke at a given rpm, a small amount of fuel injected into the engine will not require all of the air in the cylinder. This occurs at 46 part load. As the load is increased, greater amounts of fuel are injected and more and more of the air is required for combustion. At some stage, further injection of fuel leads to part of the fuel not being fully oxidized and to a more rapid increase of the exhaust temperature. Hence, the exhaust temperature is another way to analyze performance. This parameter was measured directly with a pyrometer for each respective run. 4.2.6 Turbocharger Pressure A turbocharger, as the name implies, is a compressor coupled to a turbine which receives its driving power from the exhaust gases from the engine. The function of the turbocharger is to increase the mass of intake air, allowing more fuel to be combusted. Consequently, output power is increased. There is a direct correlation between the centri- fugal compression on the turbocharger and the speed of the impeller (16). Therefore, the ratio of turbopressure and atmoshperic pressure is also related. The pressure ratio and mass flow rate are fixed by the volume demanded by the engine (16). If a greater mass flow rate is desired to obtain more power, the compressor speed must be raised (engine speed constant) with consequent increase in the pressure ratio. But with this increased inlet pressure to the engine, the volumetric efficiency increases and a greater volumetric air flow is received by the engine. Thus, the air capacity of the engine at constant speed varies with varying compressor speed. Because the carburetion of ethanol changes the intake air density, and consequently the mass flow rate and pressure ratio, the turbopressure also was an object of interest in this investigation. 47 4.2.7 Maximum Proportion of Fuel Energy from Ethanol The heating value of a fuel is colloquially called the heat of combustion and is determined by burning the fuel with oxygen in a bomb calorimeter and noting the temperature rise of a cooling bath. The amount of heat transferred to the cooking bath will depend, in part, on whether all or part of the water vapor formed by combustion is condensed. If all of the water vapor can be condensed, a higher heating value is obtained. If none of the water vapor is condensed, a lower heating value is obtained. The maximum proportion of fuel energy from ethanol was computed from the product of the high heat value of the ethanol, mass of fuel used at each run, and the percent of ethanol in the mixture, divided by the sum of the product of high heat value and mass flow rate of each fuel for each run. The high heat value of the fuels were extracted from Table 1. The procedure of determination of these values was explained above. Ethanol has about two-thirds the energy content of diesel fuel and gasoline. However, it improves power output because of its high latent heat of vaporization. How the variables discussed above affect engine performance will depend, in part, on the system used to dual—fuel turbocharged diesel engines. CHAPTER 5 DUAL-FUELING THROUGH SPRAY-INJECTION This system uses the pressure from the turbocharger to inject the mixture of water and ethanol through a feed line and filter. The ethanol solution flows through an orifice that meters the mixture into the air stream going into the intake side of the turbocharger. 5.1 Equipment Description The spray-injection kit consists of a 132 liter tank, an air supply line, ethanol/water mixture (aquahol) supply line, an orifice, a fuel filter, an instrument panel, and the necessary valves and fittings. The system is automatically activated by turbocharger pressure to pro- vide a preset flow of ethanol/water solution. When turbocharger pres- sure drops below a preset point, the flow of ethanol/water mixture is stopped. The turbocharger pressure varies with engine load and speed. The air supply line connects to the air outlet pipe between the turbocharger and the intake manifold. During operation, the line carries pressurized air to an air/fuel separator on top of the fuel tank. This separator keeps the ethanol/water mixture from backing up into the air line. A fuel drain is provided at the bottom of the tank. The ethanol/water mixture supply line connects the tank through a fil- ter to a turbocharger inlet. The system is shut off by closing a valve in the alcohol supply line (see Figure 5). 48 49 .AmHv >cooEou poem 3 a z .HOuomuu Hommflo vmwumLUO£usu m :0 coauUMMCH Hozooam mo Emuwmfla oHOMficmE oxmucH umwumcoonuoe umacfi umwumsoonusa o>am> xowcu \ONCDO\ mafia meow Honooam xcmu mwmuoum HOUmpmaom ufim\uoum3 o>Hm> “molusnm mafia ousmwoum «\ l .m 95me r-iquLfi 50 5.2 Performance* The performance of the tractor was analyzed using a series of six parameters in order to evaluate the optimum performance in terms of maximum brake power, thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, exhaust temperature, fuel consumption, and turbocharger pressure. The results are described under the following appropriate sub-headings. 5.2.1 Maximum Brake Power Although various ratios of air and fuel can be burned in the diesel engine, it was found that a definite ratio was required to obtain maxi- mum torque at a given speed. Thus, the richest ethanol—air ratios that could be used without knock, in combination with the slightly lower maximum diesel fuel—injection, were able to produce about 36 percent more than the engine maximum power when fueling with diesel alone (see Figures 6 and 7).** Data presented also in Figures 6 and 7 shows that the maximum power, when using ethanol for all ethanol/water solutions, peaked higher than when operated with conventional fuel. The 50 percent ethanol by volume shows the best results of maximum replaceable energy combined with best thermal efficiency. The peak power was reduced as the percentage of water in the ethanol/water solution decreased. Maximum power values obtained by dual-fueling were higher than the 54 kW maximum power obtained with diesel fuel alone. The 54 kW of power obtained with diesel fuel alone was designated as 100 percent power. *System output performance of the tests are reported in data tables of Appendix D. **All the figures in this dissertation refer to tests done at 2100 rpm engine speed, unless otherwise specified. Each point in the figures is an average of three readings. 51 (“l/5)" NOIllenSNOO 'l 383 IO .mcowusaom Hocooam ucmpmutwn :uHB cofiuassmcoo Homofim mom :3on E35me mafiwco co momwm mHNNoc moowuo> mo muomwmm .093me :55 mNfi MJNNOZ 3; Na; and and «ed 56 o u p r . - .v moi A_ocm£o§oo: co_HE:mcoo .320 o.......o rump 655m #8: also; E:E_xm_>_ olo 20558 $32 533.8880 .830 1.7.5.; 20:28 *3: 326; £33me + + 2955... $09 cozoEamcoo .820 <.......< lmN :ocmfim excomv $26; E:E_xm_2 1. 1. SI. lmm .. 0.. e. rm». m7. .o. Imm o .. a + ......... 1mm .. * + Owl oo.‘ *\ o * +..............Q+. ......... 'mh * t. (MN) HBMOd anWIXVW 52 (In/5n) NOIlleflSNOO 'IOHOO'IV ism .mccflusaom Hozooam ucmpmwuwm u0m cofiuoaomcoo Hocoofim mam pm3oa €2.5me oCchm co momflm mHNNo: msofium> Lo muuwtm .hwuswfim ASE. wN_m wANNOZ SQ No; mwd end Ed Ed 0 n P n P Li No.1 mE:_o> >9 .95sz o\o¢m 53> cetaEzmcoo .0500? o.......o mp mE:_o> >3 .ocmfim gem 53> cozoEzmcoo _o;oo_< 0.......o vol ... mE:.o> >n BEBE seem 5:5 826m E:E_xm_>_ + + low mE:_o> >9 _ocm£m o\°om 525 $301 E:E_Xm_2 ... ... col ImN l o y we lom CPI .93.... rm” Npl . . .. ow firl 1. 3.. .....m. 19. w? .. tom 81 . rmm NNl ..... ... [8 cm... \ 1mm le *\* + ION le + +\ Imh omL . k Iom NM * * Tum (M’l) HEMOd WOWIXVW 53 Power values obtained with different ethanol mixtures were compared with the diesel fuel standard of 100 percent (Table 3). Table 3. Percentages of maximum tractor power obtained using different ethanol/water mixtures at different injection rates . Nozzle sizes (mm/10) Spray injected liquid 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 10.9 100 percent ethanol per volume 128% 96% 80% * -- -- 84 percent ethanol per volume 121% 132% 132% 115% 83% -- 50 percent ethanol per volume 105% 119% 126% 145% 145% 33% Distilled water 96% 96% -- —- __ __ *The test was done by increasing torque to the point where knock was heard. The dashes indicate that no value was read, because knock re- stricted the measuring of power when using the larger nozzle sizes in some cases. 5.2.2 Thermal Efficiency Data presented in Figure 8 indicates that for the same torque levels, the 84 percent ethanol by volume provided a higher brake ther- mal efficiency. Brake thermal efficiency for the other fuels tested was shown to be close to that of conventional diesel fuel at low torque levels. 5.2.3 Volumetric Efficiency As indicated in Figure 9, the volumetric efficiency increases as torque increases. This is because the level of turbocharging increases 54 .maw>ma oDUMOD moowpm> um mocmflowmwm Hmeuwsu oxmpn co Hozooam mmuommCH xmuam mo muoommm .mmuowflm AEIZV mDOmOP w¥ MOW mmmwm mamuoc umwn um >ocwflowmwm Qfluuoesao> .mwpowwh AEIZ. wDOmOh m¥oH moowum> um mDSumuanou umomsxm AEIZ. mDOmOh w¥ >9 $8. .9555 880?. >Sam *ll... .oE:.o> >n gem. .ocmfiw 848?. >83 olo .mE:.o> >9 $8: .825 880?. >Som+ + 25 as“. .820 o a \. \w\o .opaunwfle o ..os ucmm loan a 18m H v m .84 1 I. .59. m .d a .8... w I. m ram... 3 .58 m. m tame .52 58 is lowered with added water. Furthermore, the cooling effects of water which has a high latent heat of vaporization, contributes even more to this phenomenon. 5.2.5 Fuel Consumption Figures 11 through 14 illustrate the amount of diesel fuel in Kg/hr that can be saved by using the spray—injection approach. As Figures 11 and 12 show, the amount of ethanol solution used is about twice as great as the amount of diesel displaced on a mass basis. This means that there is nearly a direct trade—off of fuels in terms of energy content, since the ethanol contains about half of the diesel energy per unit volume. Figure 13 shows the fuel consumption in conventional and dual- fueled diesel tractors by means of spray-injection with different etha- nol solutions. The maximum net ethanol used to displace ethanol solu— tion was the most suitable in reaching the maximum ethanol/water mixture consumption with engine best performance. The maximum proportion of fuel energy supplied on different ethanol/water solutions in combination with different nozzle sizes are shown in Figures 15 through 18. As expected, the energy supplied in- creases as the nozzle size increases, up to the point where the maximum allowable replacement energy is reached. Then it decreases, as seen for the 10.9 mm nozzle size curve in Figure 15. It is also shown that, as the percentage of water in the ethanol decreases, the fuel energy supplied by the alcohol to the engine decreases, without affecting its performance. One exception is the 84 percent alcohol which contained 59 .cowusfiom Hocmsuo NooH LDHB mucuompu ammoflm omamownamoo mam HmCOflucm>coo cw COfluQEDmcoo Hmsm .Fpmuowflm .EIZ. wDOmOP w¥coo CH cowuaéacoo Hook .NF muswfim .EIZ. wDCmOP w¥m .mcotcgcoo cotoEsmcoo .320 ..." .82. 40.0 3% 2302. :ozoEzmcoo .820 4'4 lac (“l/5)!) NOIldwnSNOO 130:! 61 .mCOHunaom Hocmsuw ucmuwmuwv Law: mucuomuu Hmmmwv wmamsmlawaw cam amcowucm>coo CH coflu053mcou Hmsm .m_.muawwm .EIZ. mDOmOH w¥cou CH coauafismcou .330 413305... .EIZ. wDOmOh m¥0umcm Hmsm 00 cofluuoaoua Easfixmz .mwpwuswwm .EIZ. 00000.5 w¥<00 000 005 000 000 00v 000 000 00' 0 . . _ _ _ . _ . 2302 ES 00 ... ... 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I 00 .2302 EE .0 0:05:00 A0.009 +ll+ .2202 SE «0.0. .0550 3.0 4|l|4 .2202 EE 00.0. .0550 0.00 ... ... 0' +\ + [WP +\\\\\ \‘\‘ * \..\\\ 1 ...N \*\* «q * * t I on I 00 T8 (“39°13“) TOHOO'IV W083 ASUSNS 130:! :10 NOLLHOdOHd WflWIXVW 67 a lower proportion of water, but did not provide maximum torque as high as that obtained when using the 50 percent ethanol solution. The effects of water in the ethanol without affecting the engine performance, and the maximum proportion of fuel energy from ethanol are presented in Figure 18. As it shows, the 50 percent ethanol by volume demonstrated best results. Furthermore, the maximum portion of energy that could be supplied by ethanol without sacrificing engine perform- ance was limited to 30 percent. The energy supplied by ethanol with good performance declined as the amount of water in the alcohol increased. 5.2.6 Turbocharger Pressure The turbocharger pressure values decreased with the use of alcohol. The values of turbocharger pressure for spray-injecting different alco— hol concentrations did not change much at lower concentrations of ethanol. On the other hand, the waterless ethanol presented higher turbopressure than the ethanol/water mixtures (see Figure 19). 5.3 Summary Table 4 presents a summary of the tractor performance with the spray-injected approach. As it shows, the 50 percent ethanol solution with the 0.89 mm nozzle size achieved the highest degree of replacement of diesel in combination with maximum torque and brake thermal efficiency. 5.4 Effects of Water Injection 0n the Engine Performance Alcohols are cheaper to produce with higher water content. Since steam produced at the combustion of the diesel creates a controversy about increasing power when injected in the combustion chamber, the 68 .mpsmmmua ~00u03000000 co mquuxHE ~0003\00000Hm 0000000w0 0000: 00 0000000 .0— mpnwwm .ElZ.0DOmQh0¥ 000 000000 000wc0 :0 000000n00 00003 00 00000000000 000000> 00 000000m .FN 000w00 0&9: .5000 0005s er 0, m 0.. w m c 00 -2. \ \ \ \ N \ \ \ \ \\\ \ \ \ \ \ o S L +\o 44\\ team 0 0w 7.. I000 .2302 88 00.0. 0:05P 8.0.0 + + ompl .2302 EE 20.2 020.0... 8.80 * * 0032 as 5.9 5:225 225205 ollo I02. .2302 SE 5.0. >0:0.0_=m 0.00mE:_o> 4 4 031 I000 (“l-N) 300801 BMVUS .00000000600 00:0:x0 000 0000000000 0050000 02000 00 000000.900 00003 00 00000.3. .N N 000w00 3.9.. 30: 0004.; 73 (“13°13“) AONSIOHdB WVWHSHJ. ENVHS 8.. team 180 me. o \+ \ no.8 Owl m. \ \ Iomm 0 0\ m. n o\ \\ 18¢ o o\+ \ \* 8.0 I III-III ‘ ' ON + * \ \ '80 le + * loom on. . . . . 6032 £5 em 0. 0 0 m ole I80 .0082 as Ed. 0.00 4|II4 mm.- .2302 SE «0.0. 00300000000... 039.00.“. + .|||+ I000 .2302 SE 3.0. 050000080... umsmcxm ... ... 8.. I80. (5"!9I90) BUHLVHSdWBJ. .LSflVHXS 74 impurities. As the distillation process was perfected, the problem of impurities in the alcohol was resolved. CHAPTER 6 DUAL-FUELING THROUGH CARBURETION The second method of dual-fueling was done by attaching a carbure- tor to the inlet air system of the tractor turbocharger (Figure 23). 6.1 Equipment Description The carburetor approach consists of a carburetor, a by-pass system, choke plate/throttle valve system, control linkage, electric fuel pump, in line filter, and the ethanol fuel tank (Figure 24). 6.1.1 Carburetor The carburetor used was "Carter YF No. 44998" down draft type, with a 30.5 mm throat diameter and a 1.02 mm diameter main jet. This carburetor was purchased at a salvage yard at a very low price. The sizing of the venturi for the carburetor for dual-fueling the diesel engine with carbureted alcohol, was based upon a continuity equation. From the continuity equation we have that: Qair = W/4 x d2 x Kc x 72g Ahair (l) where: d = orifice diameter, which becomes the diameter of the venturi Kc = orifice coefficient. This was obtained from reference 21 page 305 for sudden expansion and Dl/D2 = 0.0 (see Appendix B for more detail). 75 Figure 23. Intake air carburetor mounting. 77 .3000 0000000 00000000 00000000w 00 0000 000000000 0000I%0\0000000000 000000000 w0000m mwmeHH 000:0 0w0x000 00000009 0000000000 00000 00000 0>00> 00000009 0000:00 00w00000000e 000000 00¢ HNMQ‘LfiONw0 ..VN 0000.00 78 g = gravitational acceleration. Ah the vacuum in the venturi (head of air). This data was recommended as 8.5 KPa by reference 16. Qair volume of intake air by the engine, and is calculated by the following formula: 2 x R.P.M. x displacement 2 or 4(number of strokes per cycle) Qair = The sizing of the carburetor jet for dual-fueling a diesel engine with carbureted alcohol, was obtained from the following formula: AF = 1.64 (Cf—ff? where: AF = air/alcohol ratio, obtained from results of reference 4, page 26. W = air/fuel ratio constant extracted from table in reference 16, page 390. d = diameter of the sized venturi. df = diameter of fuel orifice (jet). 6.1.2 By-pass Apparatus In order to permit the engine to start and shut off on diesel alone, a by-pass system was built (Figure 25). This system was built with the inlet air divided into two parts. One part of air passed through the carburetor to draw alcohol from the carburetor jet. The other part went through the by—pass in order to assure that the engine was not lacking air. A throttle valve placed at the by-pass outlet was used to manually 79 control the direction and amount of air flowing through the system. The by-pass apparatus allowed the engine to start carbureting the alcohol when the engine reached an optimum speed for dual-fueling operation. The system was built from pipes at the Agricultural Engineering shop (see Figure 25). 6.1.3 Fuel Pump A Stuart-Warner model 235 series fuel pump electrically operated with the 12 volt tractor battery was installed to provide adequate flow of alcohol from the ethanol tank to the carburetor. The pump had a "built-in" fuel screen to catch large impurities. An additional fuel filter (Fram 36) was incorporated in the line at the "in" port of the pump to assure clean fuel delivery to the carburetor. The fuel pump was recommended as being compatible with alcohol. 6.2 Performance The performance of the tractor with carbureted ethanol was analyzed through the following parameters. 6.2.1 Maximum Power Maximum.power values obtained with carbureted alcohol were higher than the tractor maximum torque values obtained with diesel fuel alone, which was designated as 100 percent. The following maximum torque values are shown in Table 5. 80 mDH00> 00000009 00000000000 00w00000000e .000000000 0000I>0 0000000000 000 00 300> 000000000I00000 000000000000 r—i N-C’) \T -b- 200900000QOZ mmommm :mHmwm HSM 0' -~ .m N 000w00 “191° (I h mmom* (%>* Diesel fuel only 57 -- 57 —— 38 -- Diesel + 100% ethanol (carbure— ted) 77 20 74 20 4O 22 Diesel + 81% eth- anol (carbureted) 81 24 68 31 48 23 Diesel + 50% eth- anol (carbureted) 9O 34 79 25 4O 19 *Percent of total fuel energy contributed by the alcohol. 82 6.2.2 Thermal Efficiency Data presented in Figure 26 indicates that when the oxygen in the cylinder begins to limit further torque, increased over-fueling (when curves start to peak) with alcohol produced higher brake thermal effi- ciencies than over-fueling with diesel fuel. In these tests, this characteristic was more noticeable with the 50 percent ethanol solution than with the use of other ethanol solutions. The use of the 80 percent ethanol by volume permitted an increase in brake torque without over— fueling, since a steep increase in brake thermal efficiency was noticeable. At low torque levels brake thermal efficiencies appeared higher with diesel fuel alone than with ethanol. This reversal of relative efficiency characteristics between high-torque and low torque condi- tions was also noticed by Barnes, e£_al, (2), Panchapakesan, e£_§1, (17), and Cruz (4). The percentages of water in the alcohol influenced the peak brake thermal efficiency along with torque levels. The 100 percent ethanol presented the highest brake thermal efficiency among the other ethanol solutions tested. The 84 percent ethanol solution showed lower results than 100 percent ethanol at lower torque levels, but was equal or greater at high torque levels. The use of a 50 percent ethanol solution reduced the mass of oxygen inducted into the cylinder by the turbocharger on each intake stroke. At high torques, greater over-fueling was required with the 50 percent ethanol solution than with the other fuels to obtain a given torque level causing brake thermal efficiencies to be lower. 83 .000>00 000000 000000> 00 0000000000 00E0000 00000 00 0000000 0000000000 00 0000000 AElzv mDOmO... m¥0H 050000 0:0w00 030000> 00 0000000000300 0000005090 no 0900500 0000050000 00 0000mmm RN 003%; AEIZV mDOm—Oh mx 00 00500000800 0050Lxm .mmu005w00 AElszDOmOhm¥m .mco_0c0>coo 0:2,, cosaEsmcoo .0005 0.510 .. o0 (In/5x) NOIldwnSNOO 13nd 88 At low torque levels the ratio of alcohol used and diesel dis- placed was about two-to-one. But since alcohol has about half of the caloric value of the diesel fuel, the energy input remains the same. As torque increased the ratio of alcohol consumed to diesel dis— placed was no longer two-to-one. Instead, a smaller ratio between these two parameters occurred. Therefore, more than one energy unit of diesel fuel was replaced by one energy unit of ethanol. The replacement showed best results at the peak torque for conventional fueling. The degree of fuel substitution which can be achieved within the engine performance restrictions determined in these tests is shown in Figure 30. The behavior of the diesel replacement with different alco- hol concentrations indicates that the amount of diesel fuel displaced by the ethanol varies with the torque level and percentages of water in the ethanol. At low torque levels the replacement of diesel appeared higher with the 100 percent ethanol and it decreased as the concentra- tions of alcohol in the alcohol/water solution decreased. A reversal of this phenomenon was observed at high torque levels. Throughout the brake torque ranges otherwise obtained with conventional fueling, the 81 percent ethanol solution presented a more constant degree of replacement (~45 percent). The air/alcohol ratios found at various torque levels before incipient knock was heard are indicated in Table 7. .022003020 03:0:00 0:0000000 0c» Hoc0000 000.00.00.07... 0:3 09:00:12. >503: 0.0.; .0: 5000000000 E5EOX02 .Om 005w0m AEIZV wDOmO... m¥i) aunssaud HESHVHO oaanl N F P 0N9 92 6.3 Effects of the Carburetor on the Engine Performance Performance characteristics of the carburetor relative to the heat requirements for alcohol evaporation are presented in Table 8. Cooler intake air was obtained when alcohol was carbureted. At lower engine speed and load, there was insufficient heat in the air to evaporate alcohol solutions with higher concentrations of water, as demonstrated in Table 10. As load was increased the proportion of unevaporated ethanol decreased until engine inlet temperatures were approximately those of the ambient air. The amount of water in the ethanol influenced the amount of unevaporated ethanol, since the negative differences were greater for ethanol with a higher concentration of water. An exception to these findings occurred at no load for 1600, and 1150 rpm engine speed. The reason why the values did not agree on those was that higher percentages of total energy were contributed by the alcohol. At lower engine loads, an air pre-heater might be required to prevent uneven distribution of liquid particles among the cylinders. The turbocharger does more heating of the air at higher rpm or load. These data presented in Table £3 also indicate that only a limited proportion of carbureted alcohol can be used to fuel diesel engines, and that this proportion decreased as engine torque approached maximum levels. This proportion was restricted to air/ethanol mixtures which were sufficiently lean to avoid knock. 6.4 Problems Encountered Two problems were encountered with this approach. First of all, the engine produced exhaust backfire on sudden increases of ethanol intake. The reason was because the engine did not respond fast enough 93 .Hosooam wnu kn vmusnwuucoo zwnocm Hmuou wo ucwouoa wan mumofivaw wumxomun afl mumnE:z« ”salm.k .malm.ou Hmmlm.o Homlm.a- HNNHN.ON mom“ a. HmNH~.HH .Hmlm.~- ”Hm_m.wa .omlo.m- Hmmao.mq HmMHm.QI _mmls.ka .mml N- qulm.qm qulm.au Emmi m5 «mmmlm.o woumusnumo Hocmnuo Now + Hommwm vouchsnumo Hocwsum Nam + Hummus kumudnumo Hemmeum Nooa + memuo q.Ns «.ma m.mk N.¢H N.¢OH m.Hm sane ammo Humane awed Hana emoH oz emoa Hana emoa oz emoa Haze emoa 02 mm: m5 Aoqmvomfla Ammkvoosa AoooavooHN e H m Avmmmm .o.H.mV woman mafiwcm .mnvuou oxmun uamfim>flsvm um .00 AuchH Houmusaumoluoacfl maflwamv mocmuomwfiw manumumasou HH< 4w magma 94 to completely burn all of the ethanol. Exhaust backfire in C.I. engines is caused by an unbalanced air/fuel ratio, in other words, by excess oxygen obtained from the previous stroke and unburned gases at the following stroke. These two combined were ignited by the hot carbon deposits at the exhaust pipe, causing backfire followed by a black cloud of smoke which originated from the carbon deposits released at the explosion. When the ethanol was carbureted, a sudden opening of the throttle valve caused a larger volume of ethanol to be drawn into the cylinders, and as a result unburned fuel was released. Since the turbocharged tractor operated on a rich air/fuel ratio, some oxygen was left at the exhaust pipe from the previous stroke. Hence, exhaust backfire occurred when excess alcohol came in contact with the hot exhaust air as ex— plained above. This problem, however, did not occur when the ethanol was throttled slowly. Based on this, the problem was solved by attach- ing a linkage from the throttle valve to the choke plate on the carbure- tor. The choke plate was installed to open and close twice as fast as the throttle valve to eliminate the sudden flow of ethanol. Another problem encountered was that the bolts which hold the throttle valve at the throttle rod vibrated loose. They were drawn into the turbocharger which ruined the compression blades. The reason was because the intake air rushing through the opening of the throttle valve caused vibrations, and these vibrations caused the bolts to loosen. To solve this problem, the valve and choke were riveted in place. CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS After tests with the 7700 turbocharged diesel tractor, it became apparent that the ignition delay characteristic of the alcohol fuel was the factor responsible for the onset of the knocking phenomenon which governs diesel performance with the spray injected and carbureted ethanol. Certain factors commonly associated with reduced cylinder temperatures, such as the higher latent heat of vaporization of the ethanol and the induction of water into the cylinder, were related to an increased tendency for knock. The tests indicated that the use of richer alcohol/air mixtures prior to the onset of knock was limited to twenty-one parts of air to one part of alcohol. Furthermore, the com- bustion of alcohol/air mixture depended very much on the relative propor- tion of alcohol. U3.the diesel oil inducted. The ignition delay and associated knock imposed limitations on the extent of alcohol use in engines. It restricted the degree of substitu- tion for petroleum fuel that might be accomplished by the methods of spray injection or carburetion. 7.1 Knock When knock occurs two different types of vibration may be present. In one case a large amount of mixture may autoignite and so give rise to a very rapid increase in pressure throughout the combustion chamber which will be a direct shock on the engine structure. The ear will de- tect a thudding sound from the impact and consequent free vibrations of 95 96 the engine parts. In the other case, a large pressure difference may exist in the combustion chamber, and the resulting gas vibrations can force the walls of the chamber to vibrate at the same frequency as the gas. An audible sound or ping is then evident (16). Any unusual sound that arose because of the dual-fueling with alcohol set the limit of the increase in flow of alcohol. In the C.I. engine, knock becomes apparent when there are signifi- cant pressure disturbances because of autoignition. Autoignition is essential for starting combustion in the C.I. engine. The severity of the pressure rise upon ignition will depend on the length of ignition delay (as well as on the self-ignition temperature). Injection occurs over a~relatively long period. If the fuel has a long delay period, a larger amount will be injected and accumulated in the chamber during the delay period. Autoignition will tend to be un- controllable because of the amount of high temperature mixture in the combustion chamber. The knock which resulted from dual—fueling appears to be very complex. There are two possible explanations for this phenomenon. First of all, during the dual-fueling test, audible knock did not occur when low concentrations of alcohol were being carbureted. This was because alcohol and air were more homogeneous, and the engine was operating in a richer air/fuel mixture, making it easier for diesel to find the right proportion of air to start the ignition. As the mass of carbureted alcohol was increased, regions containing alcohol droplets or alcohol vapor alone, as well as diesel droplets or diesel vapor, existed in the combustion chamber. Air/fuel ratios were leaner, making 97 it more difficult for the diesel to find the right proportion of air to diesel to start the ignition. In other words, the physical delay increased. When the ignition occurred, those regions of fuel previously described became mixed with the air due to turbulence, allowing the flame to propagate. The resulting rapid increase in pressure caused the sound called "knock." The second explanation is that when alcohol was added to the inlet air, most of the alcohol ignited simultaneously as diesel ignition occurred. The cetane rating or octane rating of the alcohol may have had little or no impact on the process. The knock might have happened because of excess energy released by combustion of the alcohol in a very short period of time. For example, if a major portion of alcohol had been injected instead of carbureted, then this problem might not have occurred. In this situation, the combustion process begins as alcohol and diesel fuel are injected and this process continues at a steady rate as diesel and alcohol are being injected. As a result, a longer combustion process and a less rapid pressure rise would ensue. Although the diesel flame continues to burn at a steady rate, the path of combustion for the diesel fuel varies with the percentage of alcohol present in the mixture. The increase of water in the alcohol aggravates the tendency for knocking. As explained before, this may be due to the high latent heat of vaporization of the mixture and the resulting longer ignition delay. Or perhaps this is better explained by the fact that, as the percentage of water in the alcohol increased, the cooling effects of the water caused the diesel to burn at the same steady rate, but along a narrower path or range (see Appendix B for 98 sketch of the combustion process with different alcohol/water mixtures). Consequently, a larger portion of the air/alcohol mixture was available to ignite simultaneously. As the air/diesel ratio decreased to the point where oxygen in the cylinder was insufficient for complete combustion, an earlier onset of incipient knocking was observed limiting the maximum decrease in air/ alcohol ratios. Air/alcohol ratios which could be tolerated without undue knock had to be made leaner as the proportion of water in the carbureted mixture was increased. At lower air/diesel ratios, this tendency was accentuated. With the carburetor method the engine tended to knock less than the spray-injected approach. Consequently, higher displacement of diesel fuel was possible with the alcohol. This was probably because of more uniform mixing of alcohol and air with the carburetor approach. 7.2 Performance At part load, a small amount of fuel injected into the engine will not need all of the air in the cylinder because the C.I. engine inducts a constant amount of air on the intake stroke. As the load is increased, greater amounts of fuel are injected and more and more of the air is re- quired for combustion. At some stage, further injection of fuel leads to part of the fuel not being oxidized and to the production of smoke. Even with this condition, part of the air in the engine may not react because of failure of the injected fuel to find air which will cause the engine torque to level off. With dual—fueling this phenomenon happened later than with conventional fueling, permitting the tractor 99 to reach much higher torques. Table 11 presents a summary of the tractor performance both with and without dual—fueling. The increase in power due to the use of alcohol was greater for carbureted alcohol than spray—injected alcohol. Combining the richest alcohol/air ratios that could be used without knock with the minimum diesel fuel injection, produced 59 percent more torque, when ethanol was carbureted, and about 36 percent higher torque with the spray— injection approach. At the richest diesel/air ratio an increase in alcohol/air ratio did not cause much increase in torque, as this amounted to over—fueling with limited oxygen. Increasing the water content in the carbureted ethanol/water mixture caused an increase in maximum power. This fact was even more noticeable for the carbureted alcohol than spray-injected alcohol. Although alcohol caused a decrease in volumetric efficiency, it increased torque and power quite substantially. The reason was that alcohol, with a high latent heat of vaporization, acted as an inter— cooler when evaporated into the intake air. The reduction in tempera- ture was beneficial to the engine performance because more dense air entering the engine allowed a greater mass flow of air. The volumetric efficiency of the engine decreased because of the lower temperature and pressure in the manifold. Intercooling reduced both compressor effi- ciency and the inlet pressure to the engine, but increased the density and mass flow rate which increased torque and power. The results of the carburetor approach were plotted in Figure 32. Also, the most Suitable ethanol solution and nozzle size (50 percent and lOO Ammumnsnumov H.mm w.nm o.aooa m.©~ Hocmgum Now + Homoflm Ammumunnumov m.Hw w.nm 5.0mm m.Nm Hocmsuo Nam + Hmmmfio coca Ammumusnumov m.ww o.am m.wmm o.wm HocmSuo NOOH + Hommflm N.ma o.o~ H.¢Nk .. 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The probable cause was the incomplete combustion of alcohol resulting from low cylinder temperature. However, at lower air/alcohol ratios the opposite occurred. Higher brake thermal efficiency was obtained with carbureted alcohol. The lower air/alcohol ratios in combination with the higher air/ diesel ratios caused higher efficiency than the opposite combination when different alcohol concentrations were carbureted. The addition of water in the alcohol decreased efficiency, since problems with ignition delay were accentuated. This was even more noticeable for carbureted 50 percent ethanol than with the spray—injection system. 7.4 Turbocharger Pressure A parallel between an increase of water content in the alcohol and turbocharger pressure drop was observed when compared to conventional fueling. This phenomenon can be explained by either of the following: 1) the alcohol displaces the air that would be drawn otherwise; 2) fanning loss due to denser flow of air/alcohol mixtures; and 3) inter- cooling reduces both compressor efficiency and the inlet pressure to the engine. When the engine speed is increased, compressor operation is rela- tively inefficient while the boost pressure strongly increases. This 108 is undesirable for most engines, since maximum pressures on combustion are also raised (16). Therefore, alcohol improves compressor effi- ciency, because it lowers the outlet pressure of the turbocharger particularly at high speed and load. 7.5 Exhaust Temperature Exhaust temperature with carbureted alcohol and spray-injected alcohol was lower than that with diesel fuel alone by approximately 90° C at high torque. This was because of the lower burning tempera— ture of the alcohol. Even though the exhaust temperature was low with spray-injected alcohol, it gradually decreased further as the amount of water increased in the carbureted alcohol. This occurrence was not noticeable for the carbureted alcohol, because the portion of the energy contributed by the alcohol was different for each alcohol con— centration at equivalent torque levels. 7.6 Control Linkage and Maximum Proportion of Energy Replaced Based upon results obtained with the manually operated carburetor, a control linkage was built to replace the maximum allowable amount of alcohol. The tractor specifications stated that the tractor was capable of a maximum power of 65 kW at full load. Farm tractors, however, usually work between 70 and 80 percent of the engine maximum power. At 65 kW the maximum energy displaced by the ethanol was 37 percent because of earlier onset of knock. At a lower power output of 54 kW or less, up to 47 percent of the diesel energy could be replaced by the carbureted ethanol. If the maximum allowable power it to be obtained, 109 the linkage control can be set for a maximum of 37 percent replacement. However, the linkage system can be adjusted to replace 47 percent of the energy by a simple adjustment of the linkage. This could normally be used on a farm tractor since maximum power is seldom used. This practical implementation of replacing the maximum allowable amount of alcohol with the carbureted ethanol was done by using a throttle valve at the carburetor and by—pass outlet. This valve varied the proportion of the inlet air drawn through a fixed jet carburetor, and it was connected to the carburetor choke plate through a linkage. This valve/choke system functioned such that the throttle valve remained partially open at no load. The choke plate opened gradually, together with the throttle valve at the rate of 2 to 1. Once the choke plate was fully opened, and the system required more alcohol fuel to meet the load, a spring system allowed the throttle valve to continue to Open until the demand was met. If the system called for a reversal, the throttle valve closed gradually until it reached the point where the choke plate was fully opened. Then the choke plate started to close at a faster rate together with the throttle valve, until it was completely closed. The engine continued idling at 1000 rpm on diesel fuel alone. Thus, any stalling due to a sudden burst of alcohol was avoided. A coordinating linkage was connected from the throttle valve at the carburetor by-pass apparatus to the diesel pedal at the tractor's cabin. The coordinating linkage functioned such that: l. The choke plate opened and closed twice as fast as the throttle valve. 110 2. A minimum diesel injection level sufficient for pilot ignition was maintained at all times. 3. The valve started supplying alcohol when the engine reached 1000 rpm (determined by obser- vation of engine sound and exhaust smoke during the test), and it varied the amount of alcohol supplied to meet all torque levels up to that achieved by the minimum pilot diesel injection in conjunction with air/ethanol ratio just short of that which produced knock. 4. Torque levels beyond that described in (3), would be met by injecting increased amounts of diesel fuel beyond that required for pilot ignition. The linkage system allowed the engine to start with diesel alone. Then when the engine was run at 1000 rpm, the valve started to increase the volume of ethanol in accordance with the torque required until it reached the maximum amount of alcohol before incipient knock. If more torque was required and the maximum allowable air/ethanol ratio was not sufficient to supply it, the system will increase the energy input from injected diesel fuel. When a torque decrease was called for reversing the system, the linkages maintained the maximum allowable ethanol and the energy supplied by the diesel first decreased (by means of the diesel governor) until it reached the minimum diesel required. Then the energy supplied by the ethanol decreased until the desired output torque level was reached. 111 The throttle valve controlled the half of the intake air which entered through a fixed jet carburetor, and the other half was supplied through a by-pass. At full throttle, the by-pass was fully blocked forcing the air to go through the carburetor to fuel the maximum allow- able ethanol. Under these circumstances, the diesel injection rate remained at the minimum allowable value, and the engine maximum capacity to induct air was not reduced. CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Tests with the converted turbocharged diesel tractor to dual— fueling by means of the spray-injection and carburetor methods led to the following conclusions: 1. Partial substitution of diesel fuel can be achieved by these approaches. The replacement of diesel with ethanol is limited to 30 percent for the spray- injection method. With direct control linkage, the carburetor approach can replace about 37 percent of the diesel with alcohol if the engine is set for 65 kW maximum power or 47 percent if the engine is set for 87 percent of the tractor maximum power. An increase of water in the ethanol of up to 50 percent resulted in a decrease of the replaceable diesel fuel. The spray-injection kit developed the best results for power, brake thermal efficiency and replaceable energy with the 50 percent ethanol in combination with the 0.89 mm nozzle size. This combination resulted in an increase of about 36 percent in the engine maximum power. 112 113 For the spray-injection method, the best nozzle sizes for use on the Ford 7700 at the respective ethanol concentrations of 50 percent by volume, 84 percent by volume, 100 percent by volume; are 0.89 mm, 0.64 mm, 0.51 mm respectively. The carburetor approach showed the best performance with the 81 percent ethanol solution. And this combination developed 43 percent more power than the engine maximum power with conventional fueling. With the 50 percent ethanol solution, the carburetor approach resulted in an increase of about 59 percent in the engine maximum power. The rate of torque increase with an increase in ethanol/air ratio, was greater for ethanol with larger concentrations of water. This occurred because the engine had a tendency to knock less with lower ethanol concentrations. For both methods, the brake thermal efficiency of the tractor was slightly greater with ethanol and an increase of the portion of water in the ethanol caused a reduction of the thermal efficiency. With the spray-injection method, except for the 50 percent ethanol solution, the volumetric efficiency was decreased by the use of ethanol solutions. Furthermore, the addition of water in the ethanol resulted in an increase of volumetric efficiency. 10. 114 With the carburetor method, the volumetric efficiency was also decreased by the use of ethanol solutions. The amount of diesel fuel replaced increased with an increase of water content in the spray-injected ethanol solutions tested. Among all ethanol concen- trations and methods, the carburetion of the 81 percent ethanol solution presented the highest degree of replacement. Spray-injected water did not increase power and had little effect on engine performance. 115 APPENDIX A 116 APPENDIX A GENERAL ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS General Dimensions* Height to top of Ford cab Height to top of exhaust Ground clearance under front axle Ground clearance under rear axle Width at minimum track Overall length (to end of lower links) Wheelbase (long) Wheelbase (short) Turning diameter (long wheelbase) without brakes Turning diameter (long wheelbase) with brakes Weight (with Ford cab) Total with fuel, oil, and water On front axle (long wheelbase) On front axle (short wheelbase) On rear axle (long wheelbase) On rear axle (short wheelbase) Weight (without Ford cab Total with fuel, oil, and water On front axle (long wheelbase) 2880 3070 584 679 1880 3815 2580 2172 4290 3680 3710 1180 1250 2220 2460 3220 1130 *Dimensions measured with 7.50 x 16 front tires and 15.5 x 38 rear Ford 7700 mm mm mm kg kg kg kg kg kg kg tires. Weight (without Ford cab) cont'd On front axle (short wheelbase) On rear axle (long wheelbase) On rear axle (short wheelbase) Engine No. of cylinders Bore Stroke Displacement Compression ratio Firing order Idle speed Maximum no-load speed Rated speed Tappet clearance intake Exhaust Cooling System Type Thermostat Starts to open at: Fully open at: Pressure cap Clutch Type Pedal free travel 117 Ford 7700 1190 kg 2090 kg 2030 kg 4 112 mm 107 mm 4195 cm3 15.6:1 1-3-4-2 600-700 rev/min 2325-2375 rev/min 2100 rev/min .355-.406 mm .432-.482 mm Pressurized recirculating by—pass 75.6° C 890 C .5 (.9 with air conditioners) (bar) Single dry plate 31—38 mm 118 Power Take Off Ford 7700 Type Independent, hydraulically actuated Engine speed for 540 rpm PTO speed 1900 rpm Engine speed for 1000 rpm PTO speed 2060 rpm Hydraulic System Type ‘ Live with position control, draft sensing and category II - 3—point linkage Draft sensing systems Dual sensing upper link S Load monitor 8 Nominal system pressure 172.4 bar Flow at rated engine speed @ 2100 PSI (147.6 bar) @ remote outlet 36.7 liters Steering Type Hydrostatic with tilt steering wheel Front sheel toe—in 6-13 mm Brakes Type Mechanically actuated disc Pedal free travel 25-32 mm Electrical Equipment Alternator 12 volt, negative ground 32 amp -_ 51 amp Std. Starter Positive engagement, solenoid operated Battery 128 amp./hour 119 Lubricants Ford 7700 Transmission/rear axle Ford M2C53A Power steering reservoir Ford M2C41A Front wheel bearings Ford MlCl37A Lubrication fittings Ford M1C137B Engine oil Ford M2C121A (300) Viscosity Grade and API Classification Temperature: Diesel: Below 32° F (0° C) Ford 300 or SAE 10W (CD) - low ash 120 APPENDIX B 121 APPENDIX B CALCULATIONS 1. Torque (N, m) kW x 9 549 2 ROP OM. "or" T Dyno reading (lbs) x 2.0336 2. Power (kW) 2m]: x :2— (:)0.5 60,000 Pl t2 kW corrected = 3. Specific gravity * Specific gravity, ethanol = 0.785 grams/cc at 25.6°C * Specific gravity, diesel = 0.853 grams/cc at 25.6°C Liquid flow m1 Ethanol -—-x 3.22 = kg/hr alcohol sec . ml . Diesel Egg-x 3.071 = kg/hr of diesel Distilled water 3%; x 3.6 = kg/hr of distilled water 4. Proportion of energy from alcohol HHV alcohol x kg/hr x Z of alcohol in the mixture HHV diesel x kg/hr + HHV alcohol x kg/hr x Z of alcohol in the mixture 5. Brake thermal efficiency B T E = kW x 3600 ' ' ' HHV diesel x kg/hr + HHV alcohol x kg/hr X % 0f alcohol in the mixture NOTE: HHV from Table 1 and reference 3. 122 6. Air flow Pic 0P2 V1 V2 Pl Vi P2 V3 V3 Qair Z1 + 2g = 3air + Z2 +‘2_'+ K2; le = VZA — v1 = v2 = 9- = V1 A Z1 Z2 Pl - P2 ‘ Q2 Bair - A 2 2 g. Q = AK 72 AP Bair Q = AK 72g x Ah Q(kg/hr) = %-x (orifice diameter)2 x orifice coefficient x Bair x J2 x g x Ahead (air) Orifice coefficient = 0.62 from reference 21 pp 531 3(water) Ah(air) = Ah(water) x 8(air) 3(air) L—R-E—l N/m3 "U ll Pabs = Patm(std) + Pgage 123 Tabs = tstd + thermometer R = 8311.4 N ° m/kg mole °K Air fuel ratio (AFR) = Kg/hr air Kg/hr fuel AFR Volumetric efficiency (0) . = Actual air capacity (Kg/hr) Theoretical air capacity (TAC) TAC = rev. x min. x No C linders x 1_intake stroke x m3 min. hr ' y 2 rev. cylinder intake stroke is x 3 m 3 m i = . ' r . D splacement No cylinde s x intake stroke 1 TAC = r.p.m. x 60 x engine displacement x %-x density Sizing the venturi for the carburetor for dual—fueling diesel engine with carbureted alcohol _ 2 . Qair - fi/4 x d x Ke x \/2g Ah(air) Ke = frictional loss coefficient 124 Sudden expansion Dl/D2 Re 0.0 1.0 0.1 0.98 0.2 0.94 0.4 0.71 0.6 0.41 0.7 0.22 0.8 0.13 0.9 0.04 From reference 21 pp 305. Assume Dl/DZ 0.0 = Ke = 1.0 Ah = 2 - 3 in Hg (from personal conversation with Ford) Take Hg = 2.5 in Hg 2.5 in Hg = 34.0 in H20 7.355 x 10"2 fig— in HeO 34 in H O x 62.4 lb 2 . _ 3 Ah(air) — ftléwater) = 28,213 in air 0.0752 ft (air) Qair = Volume of intaked air by the engine = 2(cylinders) x RPM x displacement . 3 . Qair 4 (strokes) (in /m1n) Ford 7700 displacement 256 in3 RPM = 2060 engine or 1000 PTO 125 _ 2060 x 256 _ . 3 Qair — 2 x 60 — 4, 394.67 in /sec Since Q = W/4 d2 * Ke x /2gAair d2 x 1.0 /2 x 32 - 2 x 12 x 28,213 4,394.67 = #4: d2 = 1.1983 d = 1.20 in or 30.5 mm diameter of the venturi. 10. Sizing the jet for the carburetor for dual—fueling diesel engine with carbureted alcohol (equation from reference 16) _ .212 AF - 1.64 (df W W = from table in reference 16pp 390. d = diameter of venturi df = diameter of fuel orifice (jet) AF = from results of reference 4 pp 26 torque ? alcohol/air ratio thousandths inverse = 27 air/alcohol I I I I I I I I the maximum allowed I minimum diesel) 36 alcohol/air thousandths = 36 (this air/alcohol ratio is alcohol combined with the 126 For AP = 34 in of water, it was from table 11-1 reference.16that = 0.0250. 2 d AF 1.64(Ef-) \P 1 2 2 37 = 1.64(:fi: x 0.0250 \/I.64 x (1.2)2 x 0.025 27 df = 0.043 in diameter of fuel orifice (jet) df " 127 SCHEMATIC QE_THE DISINTEGRATION QB FUEL JET (16) [ depth of 1et )1 [‘— periphery of jEt core of jet core of IIID-' fuel nozzle NH. front of jet velocity disintegration of jet “-.-"__,/’,‘OF jet PATH 95 DIESEL FLAME WHEN DUAL-FUELING DIFFERENT ALCOHOL/WATER MIXTURES. (’———fuel nozzle compression of the oases at the periphery of the flame. ‘ _I h/NA *1\ 7 ... K 100% ethanol 84% ethanol 50% ethanol \ \_ . ' - _.—. ~——_——- ..-- K}, x, ' \., \_ K' 4—piston at too dead center. 128 APPENDIX C 129 APPENDIX C STOICHIOMETRIC BALANCE Ethanol C H OH + 30 + 3 (3.76) N2 + 2 CO 2 5 2 + 3 H20 + 11.28 N2 2 (24 + 6 + 16) + (3 x 32) + (11.28 x 28) + (24 + 64) + (6 + 48) + (11.28 x 28) 467.84 + 467.84 96 kg 0 required for 46 kg fuel 2 02 + N2 + Air + 96 + 327.14 = 423.12 kg of air air _ 423.12 = . _ fue1'_ 46 9°11 " AFstoich _ 9'11 Methanol CH3 OH + 1.502 + 1.5 (3.76) N2 + CO2 = 2 H20 + 5.64 N2 32 + 48 + 157.32 +’44 + 36 + 157.92 + 237.92 + 237.92 48 kg 0 required for 32 kg of fuel 2 02 + N2 + Air + 48 + 157.92 = 205.92 kg of air air _ 205.92 _ . _ fuel — 32 — 6'44 " AFstoich _ 6'44 Diesel Fuel + 24.5 0 + 24.5 x 3.76 N + 16 C0 + 17 H O + 92.12 N C16 H34 2 2 2 2 2 (226) + 784 + 2679.36 + 704 + (306) + (2573.36) 3589.36 + 3589.36 784 kg 02 required for 226 kg of fuel N 2 130 + 02 = air 784 + 2479.36 = 3363.36 air _ 3363.36 _ . fuel — 226 _ 14'89 °° AFstoich = 14.89 I" 131 APPENDIX D TEST AND COMPUTED DATA 132 .oooa mmmmm cam 006mm .3 .00HN 00000 msflmcm .m .u:\:fl mw.wm 00000000 aflpumaoumm .N .0 cow oHSumHoQEmu ucwflnam 0mmgm>< .H u,wmuoz 0.0mH 0.0N 0m.N 0.0a 05m m.qa 00H 0.05 0 m.mHH 0.mN 0H.N 0.NH 0mm 0.0a 00H 0.00 m H.0HH m.q~ 00.H 0.0a 00m m.5a 00H 0.0m q 5.HOH 0.0N 00.H 0.m 000 0.0a 00H 0.00 m 0.00 5.mN m0.H H.m 00m 0.0m 00H 0.0m N 0.0m m.mN 0H.H 0.m 00m 0.mm 00H 0.0 H o. o. N 0mm 0. . .numo umuwm .0000 000000 0 m\:fi 00000000 .0500 omm He 0: 5 00m munumummawa musumummeme m< cause umsmnxm H005 Hmmmwm 00300 mumn ummH mcflwcm MouompH Hmmwfio 0055 0000 wmwumnoonusfi m :uflz umme Hmsm Hmmmfio 133 .Hw\wN\N0 0000 .m .0000 mmmmm 05m ummmm .3 .OOHN mmmmm mmflmam .m .w£\cfi mw.mm 0m=mm0ua oflpu0Eowmm .N .0 cow 0usumu0afi0u 000H050 0wmum>< .H "00002 m.mHH 0.0H N.HN m.0m 0.0mm m.mmm N.HN 0 N.0HH 5.5H H.0N 0.00 0.N0¢ 0.00m N.0H m 0.00H 0.0H m.wH m.0¢ 0.mwm «.mmm 0.5H q 0.NOH m.mH 0.ma m.mm 0.00m 0.0Hm N.0H m 5.50 0.ma 0.NH N.qm 0.Hmm q.H0m «.mH N 5.05 H.0N 0.0 0.0 0.0 H.00N 0.0 H N 600m“ u .z.z 0:\mx >oc0fiofiwwm H000H0 >000H05000 33 050000 30am Boam * cam H0300 H0m0fln 0H000E0H0> 00¢ Hmaumnu 0x000 03000 Hw< 0000060umm 0009 00000500 £000u00< coauowmcH >000m LDHB Houomua H000H0 00wumnuonune m 00HH0DMIH000 134 .mm5 mmmmm 00m 0060m .000H 00000 000000 .0 .m .m£\00 00.0N 00000000 0000080000 .N .0 com 00000000800 0000080 0w000>< .H "00002 m.00H N.5m 0H.H 0.0 0mm 0.5H 00H 0.H5 0 m.Hm 0.0m mc.H 0.0 000 m.wH 00H 0.00 m N.M5 5.0m 00.0 H.5 000 0.0H 00H 0.50 q 0.N5 5.mN 00.0 0.0 000 0.0m 00H 0.00 m 0.m0 0.0N 00.0 0.0 00m m.HN 00H 0.mq N 0.00 0.0m 00.0 0.H2 00H 0.mm 00H 0.0 H 00 00 N Hma DO 0. .n000 00000 .0000 000000 0 m\00 00000000 .060 MM0 0mmma 00mm 0 000 00000000809 00500000509 04 00009 uwsmnxm a w H .0 m 0000 0009 000000 0000009 H00000 0055 0000 000003000009 0 £003 0009 H000 000000 135 .000 00000 000 00000 .0 .0000 00000 080080 .m .m0\00 mm.wm 000000000 0000080000 .N .0 000 00000000800 000 0000080 0w000>0 .0 "00002 0.00 0.00 0.0m m.mm 0.0mm H.00N 0.00 0 0.nm m.00 w.0N 0.0m N.Nm0 0.00N 0.00 m 0.00 m.00 m.MN 0.00 m.me m.wNN w.m0 0 H.Nn m.00 0.0m m.oq 0.00m 0.NNN «.mH m 0.00 N.m0 0.00 0.0m 0.0m0 m.00N m.00 N m.wm n.0N 0.0 0.0 0.0 w.HwH 0.0 0 N 00000 N .E.z 00\mx 30 0000000000 000000 0000000000 30 000000 3000 00 0 000 00300 000000 000008000> 000 0080000 00000 00000 000 0000080000 0009 00000800 0000000< 000000m0H 00000 0003 0000009 000000 000000000009 0 M000000I0000 136 .oqm wmmmm cam ummnm .w:\cH mw.wN whammmum afluumaoumm .0 com wHSumHmaEmu udenEm mwmum>< .O .OmHH OmmOm maHmam .m .N .H uwmuOZ 0.00 O.mN m0.0 O.m OOO m.H~ OOH O.Hq O N.mm O.m~ mq.O O.m ONO 0.0N OOH 0.00 m “.mq 0.0N O0.0 m.N Omm 0.0N OOH 0.0m O 0.00 H.mN mm.O O.H OOH O.mm OOH O.ON m «.mm O.ON Om.O O.H2 OmN m.nm OOH 0.0H N H.OO H.HN Om.O m. e OOH m.mq OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N HOO O . .numu Hmumm .numu muommn o m\cw whammmua .aamu 0mm He as § cam m4 Hmsw Hmmmwm Hm3om muaumumaame mHSumHmaamH onHSH umsmsxm mama umme mafiwcm HOuomuH Hmmmfln Gown cuom vmwumnwonuse m Luwz ummH Hmsm Hmmmflm 137 .Hw\wN\N muwm .m .OOO OmmOm OHO ummnm .q .omHH vmmam mafiwcm .m .w:\afi mm.w~ mudmmwua uwuumaoumm .N .0 com musumumaamu ucmfinsw mwmum>< .H "mmuoz m.Hm H.HH N.HN m.mm N.Omo m.me m.qa o o.Hm m.NH H.0N m.Nm ¢.o~m q.nma w.NH m H.m¢ o.qH N.wH N.¢N w.mmq ¢.w¢a 0.0H q o.mq m.qH w.ma H.0H N.mwm w.me m.m m o.~q m.mH m.m H.w ©.Nqa c.mNH N.@ N o.a¢ o.oH 0.0 0.0 o.o m.wNH w.o H N OHumu N 2x .z.z un\wx %u¢mauamwm Hmmmfiw koamfloflmmw Hm3om mavpou Scam Scam * cam cauumEDHo> Hfi< Hmapmnu wxmpm mxmum ufl< Hmmmfin mumumEmHmm ume wmusano somouaa< coauommaH %muam :uHB Heuumua memfin vmwumzoonuna m wSHHQDMIHwDQ 138 .OOOH Ommam ONO OOOOO .m .OOHN Owoam wcchm .q .m:\cH mw.wN mgsmmwua OHHquowmm .m .0 com QHDumpmaEmu udenEm mwmum>< .N .wEDHo> ma NO.O HOLOOHm wzu mo ucmuaou uwum3 msfi .H "mmuoz 0.0MH m.nm mO.m 0.0H OOO O.mm OOH m.mH OOH O.mm m m.OmH 0.0N mm.N w.mH me m.mm OOH m.OH OOH 0.0m w H.NHH O.mm mm.N m.MH Omm O.nm OOH O.wH OOH 0.0w 5 H.HOH m.mN mH.N O.HH qu 0.0m OOH O.HN OOH 0.0n O O.~n H.qN OO.H N.O qu m.mN OOH m.wN OOH 0.00 m H.Hm O.mm OO.H N.w OHq m.mN OOH O.Hm OOH 0.0m q m.OO O.MN OO.H m.m Omm m.NN OOH m.nm OOH 0.0q m H.mm w.NN mO.H w.O Ohm O.HN OOH O.Hq OOH 0.0m N m.mm «.mm mN.H m.m OHm m.mm OOH m.m¢ OOH 0.0 H Oo O N H3 Oo . . .numu Hmumm .numo muowmn O m\CH musmmwua .mEmu com HE 00m HE a: * cam wHSumpwaEmH musumuwaEwH m< OAHDH umsmcxm Hm=w HosooH< stw memHQ Hmzom mama ummH wchcm AHo:OOH< Omumusnhmo £uH3 waHHwSOIHmDQV ummH stm H0£00H< 139 .Hw\mN\NO mama .O .OOOH Owwmm OHm ummnm .m .OOHN Ommam mnchm .q .m:\cH mw.wm wgsmmwua OHuquoumm .m .O oON wynumummawu ucmHnEm mmmum>< .N .masHo> %n No.0 H0£00Hm mnu we ucwucoo Nouns wnB .H umMUOZ w.mNH m.ON m.nq m.mH m.qm 0.0n m.Hmm O.Nwm H.w w.OH O q.HNH m.HN H.Nq H.ON m.qN O.NN O.mOO m.qnm O.w O.wH m 0.0HH H.NN H.mq H.HN m.mN m.qo 0.0HO N.mmm O.m H.NH O m.HHH m.mN w.mq m.m~ O.MN m.om 0.0mm H.q¢m O.“ O.¢H O m.qOH «.Om N.ON 0.0m N.HN «.OO O.Noq «.mmm H.HH w.OH m O.NOH m.Oq m.mN w.Hm m.mH m.oq O.mwm w.OHm “.OH m.m O H.OO N.mq «.ON «.mm . 0.0H m.Nm O.wOm m.mom O.NH N.w m N.Nm «.mm «.mm N.Oq H.NH N.¢N O.HMN q.HOm m.mH m.w N O.mm O.mm w.HN O.wm 0.0 0.0 0.0 m.NON O.NH w.O H N HonouHm aouw oHumu OHump N 3x .z.z u:\mx un\mx u:\wx hoawfioflmmw NAwHQCm O V HOSOUHN memflv hoflwfloflwwm HwBO mSUHOu BOHM BOHW BOHM xx. GEM UHHquHHHO> w o Hfl< .H..n< HMEHGSH MMMHM m mxmum HH< HOSOUH< meOHQ mymqumumm ummH Owusafioo H0£00H< Omuwusnpmo JuHa pouomHH HmmeO mepmsoonuse m waHHmSMIHMDQ 140 .OOOH OmmOm ONO OOmOO .m .mmm memm maHmam .q .w:\:H mw.wN musmmoua OHuquoumm .m .U oON musumuwaEwu ucanEm wwMHm>< .N .mEDHo> z: N0.0 HozouHm wzu mo Ocmucou “mums Mae .H "mmuoz O.NOH N.NN mm.H «.mH OOO O.q¢ OOH m.wH OOH O.NO O N.HO 0.0N ON.H a.OH qu m.qq OOH O.HN OOH O.qw w wumw n.ON mH.H O.m ONm 0.0q OOH m.HN OOH m.mm N 0.0n m.mN OH.H O.N qu m.m¢ OOH O.NN OOH O.Hm O 0.00 O.mN mm.O H.m omq O.¢¢ OOH m.qN OOH O.¢O m 0.0m O.qN Om.O m.m OOq m.qm OOH m.wN OOH O.nm c w.mq N.¢N Om.O N.m Onm m.mm OOH 0.0m OOH 0.0m m N.Hq m.¢N mw.O m.¢ Omm m.Om OOH m.Hm OOH O.NO N w.mH «.mN no.0 O.N OmN O.Nm OOH 0.0¢ OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N H3 Oc . . .numu Mwuwm .numo muowmn O :\:H muswmwwm .QEmu 0mm HE 0mm HE a: * cam mHSOmeOEoH mudumthEwH m< OAHDH umsmsxm Hmsw H0500H¢ stm memHa umBom mama ummH mcchm AHOJOUH< Owuwhsnumo LuHB wcHHmdlemsov umme Hwnm HonooH< 141 .HO\ON\NO OOOO .O .OON Ommmw OHm uwmnm .m .OOOH Owwmm OGHmcm .q .m:\aH Ow.wN ounmmmna OHHumEonm .m .0 oON wunumwmmamu ucmHOEm mwmyw>< .N .wEDHo> >O NO.O HOLOUHm wnu mo ucmucoo Hmums «:9 .H “mwuoz m.ww O.mH O.Nq «.OH O.wN N.On m.wmw O.NNN q.O 0.0H m m.mw m.HN m.Oq O.NH O.mN N.OO N.Omw O.NON q.O O.¢H O m.Hm q.HN O.Hq O.NH O.NN O.NO «.Omm O.HON H.O m.qH m N.On N.NN O.Nm O.NH m.mN m.nm H.¢NO H.O¢N m.O O.qH O H.qn m.qN O.mm m.mH m.qN O.HO O.NOO N.ONN ¢.O O.NH O H.NO O.Nm N.ON N.ON O.mN 0.0q m.me O.NNN N.m w.OH q H.Nn O.Nm O.wN w.HN H.HN m.Oq o.mOm O.NNN O.N N.OH m H.On «.mm 0.0N N.NN m.mH N.OM O.wmq m.OHN O.N O.m N m.HO O.wm w.qN O.qN 0.0 0.0 0.0 N.OOH O.N O.N H N HonoOHm Eoum oHumH OHOmu N 3x .z.z Hn\mx H£\mx H:\wx >ocwHOwaw wwHOCO o H0£OOHm mewHO zocwHunwm wsvuou Bon BOHO BOHM O cam mo m pmsom OHpuwssHo> HH< HH< HmEHmcu wxmum mxmum HH< HonouH< memHO wgmqumumm ume Owusaaoo Ho:OOH< wwumusnumo SOHB MOuumuH HmmmHQ Omwgmcoonuse m mcHHmalemsm 142 .qu OOOOO ONO Ommnm .m .OOHH OmmOm OOHOOO .O .wn\dH mO.wN whammmua OHuumEouwm .m .0 oON musumummawu uannEm mwmum>< .N .oesHo> kn NO.O HOLOOHQ mzu mo ucmucoo HOOQB mna .H "mmuoz O.mq 0.0N mq.O q.q qu 0.00 OOH 0.0N OOH 0.0m O N.Om N.ON Oq.O H.m Onm m.~O OOH O.Nm OOH 0.0q m N.Om 0.0N mm.O m.N ONm O.qm OOH 0.0m OOH 0.0m q m.mN O.qN mm.O O.Hz OON m.Om OOH O.Hq OOH 0.0N m O.HN O.mN mm.O O.Hz ONN 0.0m OOH m.Oq OOH 0.0H N m.ON m.qN Om.O m.Oz OHN O.Hw OOH 0.0m OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N H8 O0 . . .numo Hmuwm .numu muomwn O m\dH whammmua .mfimu 0mm HE omm HE an * cam musumummame unaumquEmH m< cause umsmaxm Hmsm H0500H¢ Hm=m HummHO HmBom mumo umma mcchm AHOSOOH< Omumusnumo zuHB mcHHmsmlesmv umMH Hash H0£OQH< .HO\ON\NO mOmO .O .qu OOOOO ONO OOOOO .m .OOHH meOm OOHOOO .O .m:\:H OO.ON mHDmmmpa UHHquoumm .m .0 oON OHSHMHwaEwu uHm uanOEm mmmum>< .N 3 .mEDHo> ha NO.O H0£OUHm m£u mo ucwucoo kums wna .H M "mwuoz O.HO O.HN «.Om O.OH N.ON 0.0q O.OHN O.NOH N.q 0.0H O H.Oq O.HN «.mm N.OH O.HN O.Nm «.ONO «.OOH N.O 0.0 O O.mq H.NN 0.0m «.OH O.NH N.ON O.NNO 0.00H O.m m.O O m.mq 0.0N O.Nm 0.0H N.OH H.OH N.OON O.OOH N.m O.N m O.mq H.mN m.OO O.HN O.N H.O O.NOH O.OOH m.m 0.0 N O.Hq 0.0N O.Nm 0.0N 0.0 0.0 0.0 m.ONH m.m H.O H 00 HonoOHm 50C 03mg 033 N 3x .z.z it? Eth Etmx Nwoflwfloflmmw NAmeVCm O a HOr—OUHQ wawHU koflwHUmem HMBO mSUHOH BOHM BOHM 3OHM «x. CUM UHHUNESHO> w k HH< HH< HQEHwfiu Uxmhm m wxmhm HH< HOSOUH< HmmeQ Ho£OOH< Omuwwsnumo muwqumMmm uwwH kusano SOHB Houomua Hmmem OwNHMSoonHDH m NCHstwIHmsm 144 .OOOH OOOOO ONO OOOOO .m .OOHN Owwmm mchcm .q .wn\nH mw.wN munmmwua OHuumEonm .m .0 oON ousumuwmamu ucanEm mwmuw>< .N .mEsHo> kn NOH H0500Hm mnu mo Oamucoo umum3 wSH .H "mmuoz m.HNH m.qN mn.N 0.0H OOO m.qN OOH m.mH OOH 0.00H m m.qm N.ON mq.N w.mH qu O.HN OOH m.wH OOH 0.00 w m.wm O.MN mN.N O.HH OOO 0.0N OOH O.HN OOH 0.0w 5 O.Nm O.MN OO.N w.m qu m.mH OOH m.mN OOH 0.0m O N.Oq N.MN OO.H O.w ONO O.wH OOH 0.0m OOH 0.00 m N.Oq O.mN OO.H O.w OOq 0.0H OOH O.Hm OOH 0.0m q H.5m O.NN OO.H H.O mwm 0.0N OOH m.mm OOH 0.0q m H.qm N.ON OO.H N.O OOm O.NN OOH m.qm OOH 0.0m N O.HN m.mN ON.H O.m ONO O.mN OOH O.Hq OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N HBO O0 . . .ahmo wmuww .numo wuowmn O m\aH mhswmmpa .mEmu 0mm HE 0mm HE an * dam quumumemH wpsumpwaEmH m< onHDH umsmsxm HODO Ho500H< Hmsm HmmmHQ Hmzom mama ummH wcchm AHOJOUH< Omumudnumo SOHB NGHHQDMIHmSQV ummH Hmsh HonooH< 145 .HO\ON\NO OOOO .O .OOOH OOOOO OOO OOOOO .m .OOHN OOOOO OOHOOO .O .wn\aH O0.0N mhsmmmum UHHumEoumm .m .u oON OHSHmHmaEmu “Hm uanQEm wwmum>¢ .N .mEDHo> kn NOH Ho£OUHm mnu mo uamucoo HmuNB m£H .H "mmuoz H.ONH N.ON O.Nm O.OH O.ON O.OO O.ONN H.OOO H.NH O.OH O O.OHH 0.00 O.nN H.NN H.ON O.NN O.OOO O.NOO N.OH O.OH O 0.0HH HN.mm N.ON O.ON N.ON m.OO 0.0HO O.Nmm O.OH m.OH N O.NOH m.OO m.OH N.ON O.NN 0.0m 0.0mm O.HOO O.NH N.HH O 0.00H N.OO O.OH O.Hm m.ON 0.00 O.NOO O.mNO m.OH N.OH m O.NOH O.mO H.ON O.Nm O.NH 0.00 0.000 O.OHm N.OH O.O O O.OOH O.mO O.ON O.mm N.OH O.Nm O.OOO O.OHm O.OH N.O O N.OO N.OO O.NN m.mm N.NH N.ON O.HON O.OON N.OH O.O N m.mO m.mO O.HN 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 O.NON O.HH O.N H Noam N HOOOOHO aouO OHOOO OHOOO O N 2x 2 z us\Ox NO\OO OO\OO HUHMwm hwhmfiw mo o\ HOSOUHN Hmmmflw UCQHUHMMQ Hw30m GDUHOH 30H.“ 30.5% BOHM «x GUM UHHHQEDHO> o HH< v.3» HNEHGSU mxwum mxmhm HH< HOSOUH< memflm Ho£00H< Omumusnumo :OHB HouumuH HmmmHO meuwsoonuse m wcHHmDMIHmDQ mumumfimumm ummH Omusmsoo 146 .OON OmmOm OOO OOOOO .m .OOOH Ommmm wcdem .O .w£\CH OO.ON musmmmua UHuumaoumm .m .0 °ON OHSOmMmOEwu ucmHnEm mwmuw>¢ .N .mESHo> On NOH Hosoon mnu mo uamuaoo HmumB mza .H "mmuoz H.Om m.ON OO.H O.w OOO O.NN OOH O.NN OOH O.¢w m O.NO m.MN OO.H O.N OOO 0.0N OOH m.qN OOH O.HN O H.Om «.ON OO.H O.N qu 0.0N OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O m.mm O.MN O0.0 H.O OOO O0Om OOH m0ON 0 OOH O.NO O H.ON O.mN O0.0 H.O OOm O.Hm OOH 0.0N OOH O0Om m m.mH n.mN O0.0 m.q ONm O.Nm OOH m.Om OOH O.mq N «.OH N.MN O0.0 m.H OON 0.00 OOH 0.0m OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N H0O O0 . . .numu Hmumm .numu muommn O m\aH whammmua .mamu 0mm HS 0mm HE a: O cam muSumumaEMH wHSOmumaEmH m4 cause umnmfixm Hmsm HosooH< Hmsm Hmmea Hmzom wumn ummH mcchm HHOOOOHO OOOOHOOOOO OOHs OOHHOOOIHOOOO Omme Hmsm HOOOOHO 147 .HO\ON\NO OOOO .O .OON OmmOm ONO OOOOO .O .OOOH OOOOO OOHOOO .O .w£\:H mw.wN musmmwua QHMumEoumm .m .o oON musumumaawu HHm ucmHOEm wmmum>< .N .wEDHo> kn NOH HosoUHm mcu mo udmudoo uwuwB mfifi .H umwuoz O.HO O.ON O.NN O.OH O.NN N.NO N.OOO O.HON O.HH N.OH N O.NN N.Om O.NN N.OH N.ON O.Nm H.ONN O OON O.OH O.NH O O.ON O.OO O.NN O.OH N.ON O.HO N.NOO O.OON O.OH O.NH O H.ON O.OO H.ON N.OH O.HN O.OO O.HOO N.ONN 0.0 O.HH O H.NN N.Hm O.ON N.ON O.ON O.OO O.OOO O.NNN O.O O.OH O H.ON O.Nm O.ON O.HN O.OH N.OO O.OOO O.OHN O.O H.OH N O.OO O.OO O.ON O.NN O.O O.O O.O O.HOH O.O H.O H N HOOOOHO souO OHOOO ONOON N sx .z.z OO\OO NO\OO NONOO >ocwHUHmwm HOSOUHm Homev hocmHUwam mzvuou BOHO BOHO BOHM O sax Owuwcw mo N umsom UHHumEDHo> HH< MH< HmEuwnu mxmum mxmhm HH< HonooH< memHQ mnwuwawumm umme wmusano HOSOOH< Omuwusnumo SuHB Mouuth HmmmHQ Ommumaoonuze m wnHHmDMIHMSO 148 .OOO OOOOO OOO OOOOO .O .OOHH Ommam QCchm .O .w:\aH OO.ON whammmum OHuumEoumm .N .O oON annumumaamu ustnam mwmum>< .N .mesHo> >3 NmH Ho£OOHm mnu mo ucmuaoo Hmumz maa .H "mmuoz N.Om 0.0N mm.O 0.0 OOO O0mq OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 m 0.0m 0.0N mq.O 0.0 ONO 0.00 OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.0N O.MN O0.0 H.m OOm O.mm OOH O.Nm OOH 0.00 m N.HN H.ON O0.0 N.N OON O.NO OOH 0.0m OOH 0.0m O H.OH O.NN mm.O O.H OON O.HO OOH O.HO OOH 0.0N m 0.0H O.NN mm.O O.Hz OmN 0.00 OOH 0.00 OOH 0.0H N O.NH O.NN Om.O m. 2 OOH O.NO OOH O.NO OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N HOO O0 . . .numu Hmumm .npmo mnemmn O m\cH musmmmua .Oamu 0mm HE 0mm Ha a: O cam OHSOOHmQEOH muaumummSmH m< cause umsmnxm Hw=m H0£00H< Hmsm HmmmHm umBom wuwn ummH mcchm AHonooH< Omumusgumo zuHB NGHHOSOIHmDQV ummH Hmsm HOOOOH< 149 .HO\ON\NO mumm .O .OOO OmmOm OOO OOOOO .O .OOHH Omwmm mcchm .O .m£\GH mw.wN wusmmmum OHuumBoumm .m .0 oON musumumaamu HHm ucmHnEm mwmnm>< .N .mEDHo> On NOH Ho£OOHm man mo uamuaou kumz may .H "mmuoz 0.00 N.NN N.ON N.OH m0qN 0.00 0.000 0.0NH 0.0 m0NH m O.HO O.NN 0.0N 0.0H O.NN m.OO O.mHm O.NOH H.O 0.0H O 0.00 «.mN 0.0N 0.0H 0.0N m.Nm 0.0nm m.qu 0.0 0.0 m H.OO 0.0N N.ON O.NH N.OH N.ON 0.0NO 0.00H N.O 0.0 O N.OO 0.0N N.ON N.OH O.NH H.OH N.OON O0omH 0.0 O.N m 0.00 0.0N 0.0N 0.0N 0.0 H.O O.NOH 0.0mH 0.0 N.O N O.HO 0.0N 0.0N O.HN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0NH 0.0 0.0 H N HOSOOHm Scum OHOmH OHumH . N 33 02.2 H:\wx u:\wx u£\mx hocmHOmem prmcw 0 H0£00Hm HmmmHO OosmHUHmmm msvuou BOHM aon BOHM O cam mo N Hmsom OHuuwaaHo> HH< HH< HmEumnu mxmum mxmum HH< HonooH< HmmeO mumumfimumm ummH Omusano HosouH< Omumusnymu nuH3 Houomufi Hmmmfin Ommumnuonuna m mnHHmDMIHmDQ 150 .OOOH wwmam OHm ummsm .O .OOHN Ommam mafiwcm .O .wn\:H H.ON wusmmwpa UHNOQEoumm .m .0 °ON OHDOMNmaEmu udenEm mmmum>< .N .mEDHo> On NOO HonoOHm mnu mo udwucou pmum3 059 .H "mmuoz 0.00 H.ON OO.N 0.0H OOO 0.0 OOH 0.0H OOH O.NHH OH 0.00 0.0N OO.N O.NH OOO O.NH OOH O.NH OOH 0.00H m 0.00 0.0N ON.N O.HH OOO O.NH OOH 0.0H OOH 0.00 O N.NO 0.0N OH.N N.OH ONO O.NH OOH 0.0H OOH 0.0w m O.HO N.ON OO.N N.O OOO 0.0H OOH O.HN OOH 0.0N O 0.00 0.0N OO.H 0.0 OOO 0.0H OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.0m 0.0N OO.H O.N ONO 0.0H OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.00 0.0N OO.H 0.0 Omm 0.0H OOH O.NN OOH 0.00 m O.Hm 0.0N OO.H N.O OOO 0.0H OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 N N.HN N.ON OH.H O.N ONN O.NN OOH 0.00 OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N HOO O0 . . .numu kumm .numu wuowmn O :\cH whammmpa .asmu owm HE 0mm HE a: O cam OHDumumaEmH OHSumuwaEmH m< OAHDH umsmfixm Hw=m HonouH< stm Hmmmfln uw3om wuma ummH OCHmcm HosooH< Owuwusnumo :uHB wcHHmSMIHmsnv ume Hmdm H0£00H< 151 .HO\OO\MO mama .O .OOOH OOOOO OOO OOOOO .O .OOHN OOOOO OOHOOO .O .w£\cH H.ON OHSOOQHO OHHquoumm .O .O OON OMSOOMOOEOO “Hm ucanEm mwmuw>< .N .mEDHo> On NOO Ho£OOHm man mo usmuaoo “mums wnH .H "mmuoz O.NNH 0.0m N.HH O.NH O.NN 0.00 0.00w 0.000 0.00 N.HN OH O.NHH 0.00 0.0H 0.0N 0.0N 0.00 0.00N 0.000 0.0N O.NH O 0.0HH 0.0N N.OH N.NH N.OH O.NN H.NwO O.NOm 0.0N 0.0N w O.HHH N.Hm O.NH 0.0H N.OH 0.00 N.OHO 0.00m 0.0N 0.0H N 0.00H 0.00 N.OH 0.0N 0.0N 0.00 0.0mO 0.0mm N.NN 0.0H O N.OOH 0.0m 0.0H 0.0N N.OH 0.00 0.000 0.0NO N.NN 0.0H O O.NOH 0.00 N.OH 0.0N 0.0H 0.00 O.me 0.0Hm N.NN O.NH O 0.00 0.00 0.0H 0.0N N.OH O.NO 0.00m O.HOm H.ON O.HH m N.OO N.Om H.OH 0.0N O.HH 0.0N 0.0NN 0.00N O.NH 0.0H N O.HO 0.00 O.NH 0.0N 0.0 0.0 0.0 O.HON 0.0H 0.0 H N HOSOUHm EOHM OMuMH OHUMH N 3x 02.2 .H£\wx H£\w& H£\mx hosmHonmw Owuwcm 0 Hosoon Homoflw OocmHUmew wdvuou 30Hw BOHM BOHM O max OO O NOBOO OHHquDHo> HH< HH< HmEHwnu mxmum mxwum HH< HonouH< memHO wuwuwemumm umwe OwusmEoo H0500H< Owumusnumo SuHB MOuomuH Hmmeo Omwumcuonusfi m wcfistmlesa 152 .OON OOOOO OOO OOOOO .O .OOOH Ommam mawwam .O .O£\cfl H.ON musmmmua OHHumEOHmm .m .0 OON muaumumaEmu unmanam mwmum>< .N .mESHo> On NOO HoSOOHm map mo ucmunoo uwum3 may .H "mmuoz N.HO 0.0N OO.H O.NH OOO 0.0H OOH 0.0H OOH 0.00 OH 0.00 0.0N OO.H N.HH OOO 0.0H OOH 0.0H OOH O.NO O 0.00 N.ON ON.H 0.0 OOO 0.0N OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O N.Nm 0.0N OH.H 0.0 OHO O.HN OOH 0.0N OOH 0.0N m 0.00 N.ON OO.H O.N OOO O.HN OOH O.HN OOH O.HN O O.Hm H.ON O0.0 0.0 OOO O.NN OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.00 O.NN O0.0 0.0 OHO 0.0N OOH 0.0N OOH O.NO O 0.0N N.NN O0.0 0.0 OOO 0.0N OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.0N O.HN O0.0 0.0 OOO 0.0N OOH O.NN OOH 0.00 N 0.0H N.HN O0.0 O.H OOH 0.00 OOH O.NO OOH 0.0 H O O0 N OOO O0 . . .numu mmumm .numo muowmn O =\CH whammmua .aEmu owm HE 0mm HE a; O cam musumumasms ousumumaama m4 onusy umsmnxm stm H0£OOH< HODO Hmmwflm Hm3om mumm umma mcHOcm AHOSQOH< Omumusnumo nqu OGHHm3mIHmsnv ummH Hmsm HonooH< 153 .HO\OO\OO mumm .O .OON OOOOO OHO OOOOO .O .OOOH meam wcHOam .O .O£\aH H.ON musmmwum oauumfioumm .O .O °ON eunumummeu uHm ucanEm mwmum>< .N .wESHo> On NOO HonouHm wnu mo uamucoo uwumB 05H .H ”mmuoz H.OO N.ON 0.0H 0.0H O.NN H.ON O.HOOH 0.00N O.NH H.NH OH N.OO N.ON 0.0H 0.0H H.NN 0.0N N.OOO 0.00N 0.0H N.OH O 0.00 N.ON 0.0H N.OH 0.0N 0.00 0.000 0.00N H.OH 0.0H O O.HO 0.0N 0.0H 0.0H 0.0N O.NO 0.00N O.HON 0.0H 0.0H N O.NN N.ON H.OH 0.0H N.ON 0.00 O.NHN 0.00N 0.0H 0.0H O H.ON 0.0N 0.0H H.NH N.NN N.HO H.NOO N.ONN 0.0H 0.0H O H.NN 0.0N 0.0H O.NH H.HN 0.00 0.0NO O.NNN N.OH O.NH O 0.0N 0.0N 0.0H O.NH 0.0H 0.00 0.000 0.0HN H.OH O.NH m 0.00 0.0N N.OH 0.0H O.NH 0.00 0.000 0.00N O.NH O.HH N 0.00 0.0N O.NN O.HN 0.0 0.0 0.0 O.HOH 0.0 0.0 H N» N HOSOUHG Eouw Ofluwh O.Oumh N 3% 02.2 H£\mx atmx Biwx uawHOHmwm Owuwco o 0 HosoOHm Hummfiw OucmHOHmww msvuou 3on Bon BOHO O cam m N uwzom OHpuwasHo> HH< HH< Hwaumcu mxmwm wxmum HH< HozoOH< HmmeO wumumEmHmm ummH OOODQEoO H0£00H< Uwumunnpmo :uHB HouomHH mewHQ wwwumcoonusy m waHHwDMIHmDQ 154 .OOO OOOOO OHO OOOOO .O .OOHH meam mdwwcm .O .O£\aH H.ON whammmua oapuwfioumm .O .O °ON OHSOOHOQEmu ucmHOEm mwmuw>< .N .wESHo> On NOO HoOOOHm wzu Oo ucmucou kums OSH .H ”mmuoz H.Om N.NN O0.0 0.0 OOO O.NO OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O N.ON O.HN O0.0 0.0 ONO O.HO OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.0N 0.0N Om.O N.N OON 0.00 OOH O.HO OOH 0.00 O N.NH N.ON O0.0 O.Hz OON O.NO OOH 0.00 OOH 0.0N m 0.0H 0.0N Om.O O.Hz OOH 0.00 OOH 0.00 OOH 0.0H N H.OH 0.0N O0.0 O. 2 OOH O.NO OOH 0.00 OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N OOO O0 . . .numu umuwm .meo wuowon O :\cw mpsmmwum .aEmu owm HE 0mm HE a: O cam ousumpwaawa mhnummeEwH m< cause umsmnxm Hmsm HonooH< szw HmmmHO umBom wumn uwme wchsm HHOOOOHO OOOOOOOHOO OONB OOHHmsOuHOOOO “may Hmsm HOOOOHO 155 .HO\OO\OO mumo .O .OOO OOOOO OHO OOOOO .O .OOHH OOOOO OONOOO .O .O£\cfl H.ON wusmmmua afluumEoumO .O .U °ON whsumuwaEwu unwflnam mwmym>< .N .wEDHo> On NOO HOJOOHw wSu mo uamucoo Hmums use .H "mwuoz O.HO 0.0H H.OH H.OH O.HN 0.00 0.00N O.NOH N.O O.NH O H.OO 0.0H 0.0H 0.0H N.OH O.NO 0.000 0.00H O.N 0.0H O 0.00 H.OH 0.0H N.OH 0.0H 0.0N H.ONO 0.00H H.N 0.0 O O.NO 0.0N 0.0H 0.0H N.HH 0.0H N.NON 0.0NH 0.0 N.O m O.HO 0.0H O.HN 0.0H 0.0 0.0 O.HOH 0.0NH 0.0 O.N N O.HO 0.0H 0.00 0.0H 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0NH 0.0 H.N H N HonoOHm SOHO owumu oaumu N 3x 02.2 u:\mx un\wx u£\wx OucwHowwww Omuwcw 0 Hogoon Hmwmfiv OocwHoflmwm wsvpou aon Bon Bon O cam «o N NmBom ONHOOEDH0> HH< NH< Hmauosu oxmum mxmum pw< HOSQOH< HmmmHO HonouHO muwumEmHmm ume OwusanO Omuousnumo :ONB Heuumua Hmmmflm meumnoonuny m OGNHQDOIHMDO 156 .OOOH OOOOO OHO OOOOO .O .OOHN OOOOO OONOOO .O .m£\sfl NO.ON munmmwua OHHOmEoumm .O .O oON wwnumummeu uaanEm wmmpm>< .N .mEDHo> On NON HOLOOHm mnu mo ucwucoo uwumz OLE .H "mmuoz 0.00 0.0N OH.N O.NH OHO 0.0H OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O O.NN 0.0N OO.N O.HH OOO 0.0N OOH O.HN OOH 0.00 N N.HN 0.0N OO.H 0.0H OOO O.HN OOH 0.0N OOH 0.0N O 0.00 0.0N OO.H 0.0 OOO O.NN OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.00 0.0N ON.H 0.0 OHO 0.0N OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O 0.00 0.0N OO.H O.N OOO 0.0N OOH 0.0N OOH 0.00 O N.NO 0.0N OO.H N.O OOO 0.0N OOH 0.00 OOH 0.00 N N.ON 0.0N OO.H O.N OON 0.00 OOH O.NO OOH 0.0 H O0 O0 N OOO O0 . . .npmu kumm .nhmo muowwn O m\:H whammwua .aEwu omm HE owm HE a: O cam wMSHMMwaEwH wusumuwaEwH m< onusfi umsmnxm Hmsm H0£00H< Hmsw mewfla HOBOO owumEouSO OHHsm mama ume wcwwcm nHosooH< Owumuznumo LuHB OCHHwDOIHmDQV OOOH Hmsm HOOOOHO 157 .HO\OH\OO OOOO . .OOOH OOOOO OHO OOOOO . .OSN:H N0.0N whammwua afluumEoumm . .O oON QNDumHOQEwu “Hm ucanEm mwmum>< . .mEDHo> On NON HosouHm m5u mo ucwucoo “mums wfiH . O O .OOHN vmmmm wchcm .O O N H "wuoz N.OHH 0.00 O.NN N.NN N.ON N.OO 0.000 0.000 N.OH 0.0H O 0.00H 0.00 H.ON 0.0N 0.0N 0.00 H.OOO 0.000 0.0H 0.0H N N.OOH 0.00 H.ON H.ON N.HN 0.00 0.000 N.NNO N.OH H.OH O 0.00H N.OO 0.0N 0.0N 0.0H O.NO 0.000 N.OHO 0.0H O.NH O 0.00H H.OO 0.0N 0.0N O.NH N.OO 0.0NO 0.0HO N.NH O.HH O N.NO 0.00 0.0N O.NN 0.0H O.HO H.OOO O.HOO N.HH O.HH O H.OO N.OO 0.0N H.ON O.HH 0.0N O.NNN O.NON O.HH N.OH N 0.0N O.NO 0.0N 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00N 0.0 O.N H N HonoUHm ECHO oaumu OHONH N .z.z H£\Ox HONOx u£\mx NucwHONOww Omuwcw wo N HOLOOHm Hmmwww Nucwfloflwmw wawm wsvuou BOHO SOHO BOHO O cam oauumEDHo> HH< ufl< HmEumSu mxmum mxmpm HH< H0£00H< Hmmmflo HOOOOHO UHumEou5< OHHsm muwuwamumm umwe Owunano Omumusnumu :uHB HouomuH mewflo Owwumfiuonusa m OGHHwSOIHmDQ 158 .OOOH OOOOO ONO OOOOO .O .OOHN Ommmm unawam .O .EE H0.0 mHNNo: Hmmw 3 O z .O O£NGN OO0ON whammmum OHHumaoumm .O .O oON eunumummamu uannam mwmuw>¢ .N .mEsHo> Na NO.O H0£OUHm mcu mo unmuaou “mumz OSH .H ”mmuoz O0.000 ON.N N0.0N ON.N N.OH ONO O.N ON 0.0H OOH ONO O NN.NOO OO0O H0.0H OO.N H.OH OOO 0.0 ON 0.0H OOH OON N OO.HOO O0.0 OO.NH ON.N ON.HH OHO 0.0H OO 0.0H OOH OON O OO.HOO O0.0 O0.0H OO.N 0.0 OOO 0.0H OO 0.0N OOH OON O O0.0NO O0.0 O0.0H OO.H 0.0 OOO O.NH OO 0.0N OOH OOH O O0.0HO O0.0 O0.0H ON.H O.N OOO O.HN OO O.NN OOH ONH O OH.NON ON.O ON.NH OO.H 0.0 OOO 0.0N OO 0.0N OOH OO N OO.NNN ON.N N0.0H OO.H 0.0 OOO O.HO OO 0.0N OOH OO H up ON u: ON NO ON N OOO O . . 30Mw SMHO 30AM O =\GH mu=mmmua .mEmO 0mm HE 0mm HE mnH O cam HN< H0£OOH< Hmmmwo m< onnsH umamsxm HODO HosouH< HOSO Hmmmflo wouom mama ummH mcfimam Azumouaa< aOHuommcH Omumm nuflz mafistmlesav ummH Hmsm H0£OUH< 159 .OO\OH\HH mama .N .OOOH Ommmm OHm uwmam .O .EOH OOHN Ommam mcflwcm .O .58 H0.0 mHNNoc Hmmw 3 O E .O .O:\:N OO.ON munmmmua ONHOOEOHNO .O .O oON mNSOOHmaEmu Ham uamHnEm mmmum>< .N .mEDHo> On NO.O HOSOUHm mnu mo uawucou umums 059 .H "mmuoz N0.0NH O0.0H HN.OO O0.0H ON.NN HN.HN ON.OOO O O0.0HH NN.OH ON.OO ON.OH OO.HN ON.NO H0.000 N O0.0HH O0.0H ON.OO O0.0N O0.0N ON.OO O0.000 O NO.NOH ON.OH OO.NO HO.HN O0.0H N0.00 NN.OOO O ON.OOH NO.NH O0.00 OO.HN HN.OH O0.00 O0.0NO O N0.00H H0.0H O0.0N ON.NN OH.OH O0.0N O0.00N O O0.00 H0.0H O0.00 ON.ON OO0O OO.NH OO.NOH N O0.00 O0.0H NO.HOH H0.0N H0.0 O0.0 OO.HO H N H0£OOHm SOHO OHOOH oaumu N 3x .z.z OucwHOHmOm Owumam mo N H0£00Hm HH< mewaw MAO Ooamfluwmwm meom msvuoa O cam OHuumEDHo> 0 . . 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BOMO BMHO 30AM O m\:H musmmwpa .aEmu omw HE 0mm HE mnH O cam MH< HonooH< HmmmHQ m< cause umsmcxm Hmsw H0500H< Hmsm memflo munch Mama umwa mafimcm Acomouma< COHuumncH Omuam :ONB OCHstlemsmv ume Hmsm H0500H< 161 .EE OO.O OHNNOG umwO 3 O z .O£\:N OO.ON cowuflwcou uwwumaoumm .O .O .O oOH mudumuwaEmu “Hm udmfinem wmmuw>< .N OEDH0> NO NO.O Ho£OOHm an» O0 ucmucou pmumz One .H "mwuoz NH.OHH HN.NN HH.OO ON.ON OH.HN ON.OO O0.000 O ON.OOH OH.HN NO.NO ON.ON O0.0H N0.00 NN.OOO O H0.00H NO.NN HO.HO O0.0N O0.0H O0.00 O0.0NO O OO.NO ON.ON NN.OO N0.0N O0.0H O0.0N O0.00N O O0.00 N0.0N O0.00 O0.0N ON.O OO.NH OO.NOH N O0.00 N0.0N ON.OO OO.NN N0.0 O0.0 OO.HO H N N .Z.z Ouawfloflmww HMMOMWM EMHW o MWHMH mmwwmhu OocmHonwm ”Mo mDUHOH O dam owuumEDHo> H m N H a H HH< H .O H< HmEumnu wxmum H m mxmum mumumEMMmm ummH OmusanO uwM umwO 3 O E £ONB uouomue mewHO m OGHHOSOIHODO 162 .OOON Omwam mawwcm .O .65 ON.O mHNNoc “mmO 3 O S .O .OSNGH OO.ON musmmwua oauumfioumm .O .O oOH mHDHOHmaEmu uamwnam mwmum>< .N .mEDHo> On NO.O HosoOHm mnu mo uamuaou Hmumz mnH .H "mmuoz OO.HOO ON.OH HO.HH OO.N 0.0 OOO 0.0 ON 0.0N OOH OON O OH0OHO ON.O NH.HH OO.H O.N OHO 0.0 ON O.NN OOH OOH O O0.000 H0.0 H0.0H ON.H 0.0 OOO 0.0 ON 0.0N OOH ONH O OH.NON HN.N H0.0 OO.H 0.0 OOO O.HH OO O.HO OOH OO N OO.NNN N0.0 H0.0 OO.H 0.0 ONO 0.0H OO 0.00 OOH OO H a: OM a: OM u: OM Hmm Oo . . 30AM 3MHO 30mm ONONcH whammmua .aEmu 0mm HE 0mm HE mOH O cam HH< HonouH< HmmeO m4 onuafi umsmnxm Hmsm H0500H< Hmnm Hmmwfin mouom mama umme wufiwcm Acumouaa< cOHuumOcH Omuam nuNS OaNHmSOIHOUOV umwa Hmsm H0500H< 163 .EE ON.O mHNNoa ummw 3 O 2 .O .O£\aH OO.ON COHuwwaoo oauamfioumm .O .O oOH mHSumumOEmu Nam unmanam mwmum>< .N OEDHo> On N0.0 H0£00Hm mnu mo uamuaoo umum3 mza .H "mwuoz NO.NOH O0.00 ON.NO O0.0N O0.0H N0.00 NN.OOO O H0.00H O0.00 ON.NO O0.0N O0.0H O0.00 O0.0NO O OH.OO O0.00 HO0OO O0.0N O0.0H O0.0N O0.00N O O0.00 O0.00 OO.NO O0.0N HO0O OO.NH OO.NOH N O0.00 NH.HO OO.HO O0.0N ON.O O0.0 OO.HO H N Honoon SOHO owumu OHOOH N 3M 02.2 Ooawflowwww Owumcm o 0 o co m mmw Ouamfiofiwmm mDOHOH O 55M OHuumEDHo> O N H a H HH< H HO HN< HmEumsu mxmum umSom wxmum mumumamumm ummy Omudano OHM ummO 3 O z nqu Houumue Hummfin m OcHHmsmlesn 164 .OOON OOOOO OONOOO .O .55 H0.0 mHNNoa Hmmw 3 O 2 .O .OLNcN ON.ON whammmua uauumfioumm .O .O oON musumumOEmu ucmwnsm mmmum>< .N .mEDHo> OO NOH H0£OOHm ecu mo uamuaoo Hmum3 may .H “mmuoz O0.0NO O0.0 N0.0N OO.N 0.0H OHO 0.00 OO 0.0H OOH OON O OO.HNO N0.0 H0.0H OO.N 0.0H OOO 0.00 OO 0.0H OOH OON N H0.000 O0.0 N0.0H OO.N O.NH OOO 0.00 OO O.NH OOH OON O O0.000 OH.O OH.OH OO.N N.O OOO 0.00 OO 0.0H OOH OON O OH.OHO O0.0 ON.OH OO.H O.N ONO 0.00 OO O.HN OOH OOH O OO.HOO O0.0 N0.0H OO.H 0.0 OOO O.HO OO 0.0N OOH ONH O OO.NON OH.O OO.NH OO.H N.O OOO 0.0N OO 0.0N OOH OO N OO.NON HO.N ON.OH ON.H H.O OOO 0.00 OO 0.0N OOH OO H H: mm an ON O: OO N NOO O0 . . Bomw BNHO Bomm O m\cw whammmum .aEm umm Ha 0mm HE mnH O asm NN< HonooH< Hmmmflm m< canny umsmzxm HODO Ho£OOH< Hm=m HmmeO munch mumm ummfi wsfiwam Anomouaa< coauommaH Nahum zuHB OGHHGSOIHODOV umma Hwam HonooH< 165 .EE Hm.O mHNNo: Hmmo 3 w z .q .m£\aH mn.wm coHUchoo UHHumEonm .m .0 o¢N mpzumuwaamu “Hm ucanEm wwmuw>< .N 0E3H0> kn NOH Hofioon wSu we ucwucoo gwums mSH .H "mmuoz mm.NNH mm.qH N0.0m wq.wH OO.NN mm.mo OO.NOm w HN.ONH NO.mH mm.nm mn.wH MH.NN Nn.qo Hq.oom m ON.NHH mo.mH NO.HO NH.ON O0.0N nq.mm oo.ww¢ o mw.wOH OO.¢H mm.qo ON.ON Nq.mH mm.o¢ NN.OO¢ m Hq.MOH «q.QH OO.HN «O.NN OO.NH O0.0m wm.mmm q OO.NO NN.MH mm.wm OO.MN OO.¢H «N.NN MO.¢¢N m mm.Hm qm.NH O0.0w Oq.mm ON.OH mq.wH OO.NOH N OO.mw mm.HH H0.00H mm.¢m no.0 mm.m qm.Hm H N N .E.z kocmHUHmmm HMMMMHM EMHW OHumu OHUMH mucmHonww 3x mDvHOH k cam owpumEDHo> m A Hosoon HH< HammHv HH< HmEumnu wxmpm meom mxmum muwqumumm ume wquQEou uHM Mama 3 a z nqu Mouumue HmmmHo m MCHHmDMIHmso 166 .OOON wmmam maflmam .m .55 M0.0 mHNNoa ummu 3 O z .q .ws\cH ON.ON whammmua UHuumaoumm .m .0 oqN manumumaamu ucmHnam mmmpm>< .N .mESHo> %O NOH Honoon man we uamucou nwums wnH .H "mmuoz HH.mwm O0.0H H0.0H ON.N H.OH OOO O.HN OO 0.0H OOH ONm O OO.Hmm «0.0H N0.0H OO.N H.MH mmm m.m~ OO O.NH OOH OON m OO.Hmm O0.0 OH.OH ON.N O.HH OOm 0.0N OO 0.0H OOH OON O mO.Hmm «H.O N0.0H OO.N H.O OOO 0.0N OO O.HN OOH OON m OH.OHm OH.N mm.mH OO.H O.N mam O.mm OO O.mm OOH OOH q O¢.HOm HN.O «O.NH OO.H N.O mOm 0.0m OO 0.0N OOH ONH m Om.mwm Om.m NH.HH OO.H H.O Omm qu OO O.NN OOH OO N Om.NON mq.q Hq.OH ON.H O.m OOm O.mm OO 0.0N OOH Oq H as wx H: mm u: mm N Hma co . . 30Mm 3MHM 30AM O m\cH whammmua .aEm 0mm HE omm HE mnH * cam HH< HosooH< HmmmHO m< OOHDH umsmsxm HwSM H0£OUH< Hm5m HmmmHm mouom mumn ummH mcchm Asomouaa¢ cOHuommcH mmuam saws wGHHmSMIHmsmv ummH Hush HosooH< 167 .58 m0.0 mHNNoa ummw 3 O z .q .w:\:H ON.ON SOHunaoo UHHumaoumm .m .0 oqN wusumumaamu “Hm pamHnam mwmum>< .N .mEDHo> kn Nam Honoon mnu mo ucmuaoo Hmum3 mnH .H "mmuoz 50.0NH NO.MN O0.0m «0.0H OO.NN Om.mn ON.OOO w HN.ONH OH.MN O0.0m O0.0N OO.HN NN.OO Hq.mOm N O0.0HH Nm.mN ON.Om ON.HN O0.0N N0.00 O0.000 O Nm.nOH mH.MN ON.OO OO.NN Om.OH mN.Oq NN.OOO m Hq.mOH OO.NN M0.00 Om.mN HH.NH O0.0m Om.mNm q OO.NO OO.HN mm.wq O0.0N mm.qH ON.NN MO.qu m HH.mm O0.0N O0.00 mm.mN Nq.OH O0.0H OO.NOH N O0.00 O0.0H N0.00 ON.ON ON.O ON.O Om.HO H N Hosoon Eouw OHumu OHumH N 3x .z.z hoamHonmm kw mam o o o co m H mama Ha huamHonwm umBo mDOHOH § cam UHHumEDHo> u m k H n H H< H .O .< Hmaumcu mxmum m mxmum mumqumHmm ummH Omusmsoo uHM umwu 3 O Z squ Houomua HmmeQ m OCHHmawIHmzn 168 .OOON wmwam mcflwam .m .55 ON.O mHNNoc umwu 3 O E .q .w:\aH ON.ON wuswmwua UHHumEoumm .O .O o¢N wusumummfimu uamHOEm wwmuw>< .N .mESHo> mm NOH Honoon wnu mo uawucoo Hmuwa wnH .H umwuoz OO.NOO ON.OH “0.0H OO.N H.OH OOO 0.0H ow O.NH OOH ONO O NN.nOm ON.NH OH.OH OO.N O.NH ONO 0.0H om 0.0H OOH OON N OO.qu HO.HH N0.0H ON.N «.OH an 0.0N Om O.HN OOH OON O O0.0mm ON.OH O0.0H OO.N 0.0 OOO 0.0N OO 0.0N OOH OON O O0.0NO ON.O ON.NH OO.H O.N OHO 0.0N Om 0.0N OOH OOH q Oq.OHm ON.O NO.HH ON.H 0.0 OOO 0.0N Om 0.0N OOH ONH m O0.00N OH.N O0.0H OO.H 0.0 OOO 0.00 ow 0.0N OOH Om N OO.NNN O0.0 A0.0H OO.H 0.0 ONO 0.00 ow 0.00 OOH Oq H 2 3 2 mm 2 mm N #3 P. . . 30AM BMHO 3omw O m\cfl wusmwwpa .aEmu umm HE 0mm HE mnH * cam uH< HonooH¢ HmmmHO m< OOHSH umsmnxm Hmsm HosoUH< Hmsm HammHO wouom mumm ummH mcchm Anomouma< COHuowflcH kmumm nuHB wCHHwJWIHmsmV ummH Hmsm HozooH< 169 .28 ON.O mHNNoa Hmmw 3 O E .O oqN muaumumaEmu HHm uamHnam wwwum>¢ .q .O£\:H ON.ON GOHuHano oHuumaoumm .m .N .H .mESHo> On NOH Hoaoon may mo unmuaoo Hmumz may "mmuoz NN.NNH O0.0m N0.0N «N.HN OO.NN O0.0N ON.OOO O O0.0HH O0.0N ON.ON NN.NN OO.NN NN.OO H¢.OOO N ON.NHH O0.0N ON.OO O0.0N ON.HN N0.00 O0.000 O O0.00H O0.0N ON.NO OH.ON O0.0H ON.OO NN.OOO O ON.OOH N0.0N O0.00 O0.0N «O.NH O0.0m O0.0Nm q N0.00H NN.ON OO.NO ON.NN O0.0H ON.NN O0.00N m NH.OO NN.ON OO.HO O0.0N OH.OH O0.0H OO.NOH N O0.00 O0.0N O0.0q NO.NN N0.0 ON.O OO.HO H N Honoon Eouw OHHOH OHumu N 3x .Z.z OocmHonmm Ow mam o o o co m Ha wmm H hochUHmmm 30 MDOHOH N cam uauumasHo> H m N H n H .< H HO H< HmEuwnu mxmum Hm m mxmum muwumampmm umme Omunano uHM ummu 3 O z auH3 HouumuH HmmmHO m OCHHmsmIHmsO 170 .OOON Ommam maflwam .O .88 O0.0 mHNNoa Hmmu 3 O E .O .O£\:w HO.ON whammmua UHHuwfioumO .O .O oON musumumOEmu uamHnEm mOmum>< .N .mEDHo> On NOH HOSOUHm mnu mo unwucoo “mumz waH .H "mmuoz O0.000 N0.0H ON.NH OO.N 0.0H ONO 0.0 OO 0.0N OOH OON N O0.000 OH.OH NH.HH ON.N 0.0 OOO 0.0 OO O.NN OOH OON O O0.000 OO.NH O0.0H OO.N 0.0 OOO 0.0 OO 0.0N OOH OON O OO.NNO O0.0H ON.OH OO.H O.N ONO 0.0 OO 0.00 OOH OOH O H0.0HO O0.0H H0.0 OO.H N.O OOO 0.0H OO O.HO OOH ONH O OO.HOO OO.NH O0.0 OO.H N.O ONO 0.0H OO O.NO OOH OO N OO.NON H0.0H NH.O OO.H 0.0 OOO O.NH OO 0.00 OOH OO H 2 mm .2 NM 2 mm N Sn 6.. . . 30AM BmHm soflm O m\aH whammmua .qu 0mm HE umm H8 mnH O cam ufl< HonooH< HmmmHn m< cause umnmsxm Hmsw HOSOUH< Hmsm Hmwmaa munch mumm umme mcHOam Anomouam¢ COHuumnaH Omnam nuOB Oaflstmleaov ummH Hmam HonooH¢ 171 .85 OO.O mHNNoa Hmmu 3 O E .O .O£\cw ON.NN cowufiwaou UHHumEoumO .O .O oON wusumumaamu uHm uamHnam mOmuw>< .N .mEDHo> Np NOH Ho£OUHm m:u mo udmudou HmumB mzH .H ”mwuoz O0.0HH O0.00 OH.OH N0.0N ON.NN OH.OO H0.000 N ON.NHH H0.00 NH.OH NH.HO N0.0N N0.00 O0.000 O O0.00H HO.NO O0.0H ON.HO NN.OH H0.00 NN.OOO O OH.OOH O0.00 HH.HN HO.NO N0.0H O0.00 O0.0NO O OO.NOH O0.00 HO.NN ON.HO HO.NH OO.NN O0.00N O OO.NO HO.NO O0.0N OO.HO O0.0 N0.0H OO.NOH N OO.HO O0.00 OH.NN N0.00 Om.O OH.O OO.HO H N Honoon Eouw OHumu OHumH N 3x .z.z OocmHonww Ow am 0 a o 00 m H mmma H hocmwofimmm Hm3o mdvuofi N cam QHHumasHo> Hm m N H a H w< H .O HO Hmaumnu xmmum m mxmum mumumfimumm umwe OvuSQEoo uHM Hmmw 3 O 2 gufis Houomua HmmmHm m OcHHmszHmsm 172 .OOON wmmam chmsN .m .55 O.H mHNNoc Hmwu 3 O E .O .O£\cfl ON.ON mpsmmwpa oayumaoumm .O .O oON wusumumaEmu ucprEm wmmuo>< .N .masHo> On NOH Hozoon wnu mo ucmudoo Hmumz age .H "wwuoz O0.000 N0.0N NN.O OH.N 0.0 OOO 0.0 OO 0.00 OOH OON O OO.NNO N0.0H NN.O OO.H O.N OOO 0.0 OO 0.00 OOH OOH O H0.0HO OO.NH NN.O OO.H 0.0 OOO O.HH ON 0.00 OOH ONH O OO.HOO O0.0H H0.0 OO.H 0.0 ONO 0.0H ON 0.00 OOH OO N OO.NON O0.0H O0.0 OO.H 0.0 OHO O.NH OO 0.00 OOH OO H u£\OM H:\OM H£\OM ONm\:H Hma . Oo .omm HE .uwm HE mnH BOHO BOHM BOHM wusmmmua mama N cam MH< HocooH4 mewNO m< OOMDH umsmfixm Hmsw HosooH< Hmsw mewHQ wuuom mung ume wcHOcm Acumouaa< coauowmcH Omhmm :uHB OCHHmSMIHmsnv ume stm H0£OUH< 173 .EE O.H mHNNoc Hume 3 O z .O .O£\aH ON.ON COHuHOGou UHuquoumm .O .0 oON mpnumwmaEmu Hfim uawflnam mmmpw>< .N wasHo> O; NOH HOOOUHm m:u we ucwusou Hmum3 05H .H ”mwuoz NH.OHH ON.OO O0.0H ON.OO O0.0H NN.OO NN.OOO O OH.OOH N0.00 O0.0H OO.NO OH.OH O0.00 O0.0NO O OO.NOH OO.NO OO.NH O0.00 OO.HH ON.NN O0.00N O OO.NO O0.00 O0.0H N0.00 O0.0 O0.0H OO.NOH N OO.HO OO.NO O0.0N O0.00 ON.O ON.O OO.HO H N o co m Son 0 amp oaumu N 3 .z.z hudeonwm H n H m H . OucmHUOMMm x wDONOH N com hmuwcw mo N mewwv HH< memflw HH< Hw30m ofluquSHo> Hmapmcu wxmum wxmum mpwqumumm ummH Omusaaoo uHM Mmmw 3 O 2 SuHB Heuumufi memHQ m OdHHmsmleso 174 .OOON wmmam maflwam .m .55 H0.0 wHNNoa ummO B O E .O .O:\:H OO.mN whammmum ofluumEoumO .O .U oON mNSumumOEmu ucMHnEm mwmnw>< .N .mEsHo> On NOO Honoon msu mo ucmucoo umum3 may .H "mmuoz O0.0NO N0.0 OH.HN OO.N m.OH OmO O.NO Om 0.0H OOH OON N m0.0NO m0.0 N0.0N OO.N 0.0H OOO 0.00 Om 0.0H OOH OON O Om.HOO ON.O H0.0H ON.N 0.0H ONO 0.00 Om 0.0H OOH OON O Om.OOO O0.0 O0.0H OO.N O.m OOO 0.00 cm 0.0H OOH OOH O H0.0HO mN.O O0.0H OO.H N.N OHO O.NO Om 0.0N OOH ONH O OO.HOO N0.0 O0.0H OO.H 0.0 OOO 0.00 Om O.NN OOH OO N OO.NON Om.N HO.HH OO.H N.O OOO 0.00H OOH 0.0N OOH OO H p£\OM HL\OM H£\OM Hma Uo .omm HE .umm Ha OOH 30Hm 30Hw BOHO whammmua .mEmu O cam ufi< HoaooH< Hmmmfio onusa umsmsxm HmSO H0£OUH< stm Hmmmwn muuom mumm umma wcwwdm Afiumouaa< GONuommcH Omumm nuOB OaHHmsmlesav ummH Hmsm H0£ooH< 175 .OO\OH\HH wumo .O .EOH OOON Ommam «GHOCO .O .EE H0.0 mHNNoc ummu 3 O E .O .O£\GH OO.mN GOHuHano UHMquoumO .O .o oON wusumwaEmu HHm ucwflpam mmmum>< .N wEUHo> On NOO Hosoon wcu mo uawusoo Hmumz mzH .H nmwuoz mO.NNH mO.m m0.00 OO.NH OH.ON Om.OO O0.000 N OO.HNH OO.m m0.00 O0.0H Om.OH mN.OO O0.000 O O0.0HH OO.m OO.HO Hm.OH OO.NH N0.00 NN.OOO O O0.00H O0.0 ON.NO ON.ON ON.OH O0.00 O0.0NO O OO.NOH ON.O N0.0N O0.0N HO.NH m0.0N O0.00N O OO.Nm NO.N ON.OO OO.NN OO.m Om.NH mO.NOH N HH.Om HO.N m0.0m O0.0N m0.0 Om.O OO.HO H N Hocoon SOHO oaumu OHuwp N 3x .E.z OoamHUHmwm OO 9 w hocwHuwwww m=OHOH O cam afiuumEDHo> Hwaw wo N Hono Hm MH< Hmmwwc NH< HmEumLu mxmum Hwaom wxmum muwqumumm ume Omusano uOM ammo 3 O z Sufi: HouomHH mewfio m OCHstmleso 176 .OOON OOOOO 9HOOOO .O .52 O0.0 OHNNOO OOOO 3 O 2 .O .O£\:H N0.0N musmmwua uanuwfioumm .O .0 °ON unaumumafiwu ucmHnEm wwmum>< .N .mEDHo> On NOO Honoon mfiu mo ucmudoo Hmums OSH .H "mwuoz OO.NOO O0.0H O0.0N OO.N H.OH OOO O.OO OOH O.OO OOH NON O NO.OOO O0.0H NO.ON ON.N O.OO ONO O.OO OOO O.OO OOO OON N O0.0NO ON.O OO.OO OO.N N.OO ONO 0.00 OOO O.OO OOH OON O OO.OOO O0.0 OO.NH ON.N O.OO OOO 0.00 OOH O.OO OOH OON O OO.HOO NO.N ON.OH OO.N 0.0 OOO 0.00 OOO O.OO OOO OOO O O0.0HO Om.O ON.OH OO.H 0.0 OOO O.OO OOO O.ON OOH ONH O OO.OON OH.O OO.NO OO.H 0.0 OOO O.NO OOH O.ON OOO OO N OO.NON NO.O OO.HO OO.H 0.0 OHO 0.0N OOO O.ON OOH OO O O; OM up OM u: OM OOO O° . . 5901\nw BMOHM BOflw ONE\CH O.H:mmwha .QEwu 0mm HE me HE mQH O» CUM MH< HonooH< Hmmwfln m< OLHDH umsmnxm Hmsm H0£00H< HODM Hmmmflo wouom mumm ume wcHOcm Afiumouaa< mafiuuwmcH Omumm :uOB OSHstwIHmsmv ummH Hmnm H0500H< 177 .EE OO.O mHNNoc Hmwo 3 O E .O .O:\:N NO.ON wusmmme owuuwaowmm .O .o oON eunumumaEmu HHm ucanEm wOme>< .N .mEDHo> On NOO Hosoon onu mo ucwuaou Mwum3 OOH .H nmwuoz NN.NNH O0.0H mH.NO O0.0H HO.HN O0.00 O0.000 O N0.0NH O0.0H OO.NO HO.mH ON.HN H0.00 HO.mOO N HN.ONH ON.OH O0.00 Om.mH m0.0N NN.OO O0.000 O O0.0HH OH.OH NN.OO O0.0N O0.0H O0.00 NN.OOO O NO.NOH H0.0H O0.00 NO.HN O0.0H OH.NO O0.0NO O OO.NOH OO.NH OO.mO OO.NN H0.0H OO.NN O0.00N O NH.Om OO.HH HO.NO ON.ON ON.OH N0.0H mO.NOH N OO.Hm NN.OH N0.00 O0.0N ON.O mN.m OO.HO H N N .Z.z kocmfiofimww HMMOUHO Eouw OHumH oaumu Oofiwfiofiwww 3x wsuuoa O cam afiuquDHo> umcw wo N Hocoon MH< mewflv MH< HmEMOSu wxmum Mmzom mxmum muwumEmumm ummH Owusaaoo ufiM ummu 3 O E nuw3 heuomHH Hmmmfla m OGHHmswnHODQ 178 .OOON Ommam wcflwcm .O .86 ON.O wHNNoc HmmO 3 O z .O .O£\GH OO.mN musmwmua OHuquoumm .O .O oON ONSOOMOOEOO quHaEm mOmuw>< .N .wEsHo> On NOO Hozoon wnu mo unaucoo umums mzH .H "mwuoz H0.000 O0.0H OH.HN Om.N 0.0H OOO O.mH Om 0.0H OOH NHO O OO.NmO O0.0H HO.mH OO.N 0.0H OOO O.HN Om 0.0H OOH OON N OO.HNO OO.NH N0.0H OO.N O.NH OOO 0.0N Om O.NH OOH OON O O0.000 OH.HH OH.OH ON.N O.m OOO 0.0N Om O.mH OOH OON O OO.HOO OO.m Om.OH OO.N N.O OHO O.HO Om 0.0N OOH OOH O Om.OOO OH.O O0.0H ON.H 0.0 OOO 0.00 Om 0.0N OOH ONH O OH.NmN NO.N OO.NH OO.H N.O OOO O.HO Om 0.0N OOH OO N OO.NNN O0.0 Nm.OH OO.H 0.0 OON O.HO Om 0.0N OOH OO H 2 OO E OM E OM N OOO O0 . . BOMM BNHO 30MM 0 m\:w whammwua .meu owm HE 0mm HE wnH O cam MO< Ho:OOH< HmmoHO m< OOMDH umsmcxm Hw=m HonouH< HmSO Hmmmfin wouom wumn umwe mcfimcm AxumOHaa< coauommcH makam suflB OEHHQDMIHNDQV ummH Hmdm HOLOQHO 179 .H—HE ©N.O wHNNOC .HmGU 3 Q E . .O oON OHSumuwaEmu “Om uchOEm wOmMm>< . 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"mouoz OO.NOH O0.0N N0.0H O0.0N OO.NN OO.HO OH.NON m OO.HOH OH.mN N0.0H NH.HN HO.HN NO.NN ON.OOO O Nm.ONH NH.mN HN.NH Nm.HN O0.0N N0.00 HO.mOO N OO.mHH OH.ON NO.NH NN.NN mm.OH N0.00 O0.000 O ON.NHH OO.NN NO.mH ON.ON OH.OH ON.OO NN.OOO O OH.OOH O0.0N Nm.ON N0.0N mH.OH HN.OO O0.0NO O OH.mm N0.0N H0.0N Hm.ON N0.0H OH.NN O0.00N O O0.0m O0.0N HN.ON O0.0N mO.m HH.OH mO.NOH N O0.00 OH.NN OH.OO O0.0N m0.0 OO.m OO.HO H N HOSQUHO Eouw OHOOH oauwu N 3x .Z.z Oucwfloflwww Owuwcw o 0 o ow O NH mmwa HH Oocwflofimmw H030 msvuoe O com OOpquDHo> O N H n H .4 H .O .< HmEuwnu Oxnam m wxmum muwuwampmm ume Owusano OHM Hmwu 3 O z :uHB Heuomufi Hemmflm m OdfiHOdmlesn 182 .OOON Ommmm OGHOGM .O .85 O.H OHNNoc HOOO 3 O 2 .O .OO\CO OO.mN OHDOOOOO OHOOOEOMOO .O .O oON Ouaumuwmfimu ucmOOEO OOOHO>< .N .OESH0> OO NOO HOOQOHO OOO mo uamucou HOuOB OOH .H ”Owuoz OH.OHO O0.00 mH.mH OH.O 0.0H ONO O.N ON 0.0H OOH OOO m H0.000 OH.ON N0.0H Om.N H.OH OOO 0.0 ON O.NH OOH ONO O Nm.HOO ON.ON O0.0H OO.N O.NH OHO 0.0H OO 0.0H OOH OON N NN.NOO O0.0N O0.0H OO.N m.OH ONO 0.0H OO 0.0N OOH OON O Om.HOO NO.HN ON.OH ON.N O.m OOO O.NH OO O.HN OOH OON O OO.NNO NO.mH OO.NH Om.H H.O OOO 0.0H Om 0.0N OOH OOH O O0.0HO HO.NH OO.NH ON.H 0.0 OmO 0.0H OOH 0.0N OOH ONH O O0.0mN Om.OH Nm.OH OO.H N.O OOO O.HN OOH 0.0N OOH OO N OO.NON OH.NH ON.OH OO.H 0.0 OOO 0.0N OOH 0.00 OOH OO H E OM E OM E OM N OOO O0 . . 3omw Bme 30mm 0 m\cw OMJOOOHO .mEmu OOO HE OOO HE OOH O cam MOO HOOOOH< HOOOOQ m< OOHDH OODOOxm HODO H0OooH< HODO HOOOHQ wouom Oumm OOOH Onwwcm AOumouma< COHOUOOCH Ompam OOH3 OEOHODOIHODOV quH stm HOOOOH< 183 .EE O.H OHNNoc ummu 3 O E .O .OO\:H OO.mN OODOOOMO OOHOOEQHOO .O .O oON OHDOOHOOEOO OHO OOOHOEO OOOMO>< .N .OESHo> OO NOO HoOQOHO OOO mo usmuaoo Omums OOH .H "Owuoz O0.00H H0.00 ON.OH NO.HN OO.NN OO.HO OH.NON m O0.00H N0.00 O0.0H HO.NN ON.HN NO.NN ON.OOO O ON.ONH H0.00 O0.0H H0.0N mN.ON N0.00 HO.mOO N O0.0HH Om.OO Nm.OH Nm.ON N0.0H N0.00 O0.000 O O0.0HH OO.NO O0.0H O0.0N NO.NH ON.OO NN.OOO O OH.OOH ON.NO Om.OH H0.0N OH.OH HN.OO O0.0NO O N0.00H ON.HO OO.NH NN.ON NN.NH OH.NN O0.00N O NH.Om O0.00 NO.mH OO.NN OH.m HH.OH mO.NOH N OO.Hm OO.NN ON.ON OO.NN OH.O OO.m OO.HO H N N . .2.z NocOOOmew HMMMMMM EMHW OHOOO ofiump Oucmwoflmmm 3O ODUHOH O cam OHuuwasHo> m N HoOoOHm MOO HOOOHO HMO HOEHOOO OOOHO um3om Oxmum OHOuOEmuOm uOOH OOOSOEoO OHM “OOO 3 O z OuH3 HouomuH HOOOOO m OOHHODOIHODO 184 .OOON OOOOO OOOOOO .O .55 H.H OHNNoa HOMO 3 O 2 .O .OO\OH N0.0N OHDOOOHO OHHOOEOHOO .O .O oON OHSOOHOOEOO OOOHOEO OOOHO>< .N .OEDHo> OO NOO HoOouHO OOO mo ucwuaoo HOOOB OOH .H "Omuoz .OHHOHOOOOOODO OOHDO OOOOOHodw Ocflxooax mo HO>OH OOu OOO OOOOOOOHO >um> OOHOOOOO OOB Houomnu OOO OOSOOOO OHOHOOOO OO3 OOOH so OOOmuoaw HOOquw oz « OO.HOO OO.NH O0.0H OO.H 0.0 ONO O.NH Om O.NN OOH OO N OO.NON OH.OH NO.HH OO.H H.O ONO 0.0N OOH O.NN OOH OO H HO\OM HO\OM HO\OM ONO\OH OOO Oo .OOO HE .OOO Ha OOH onw BOHM BOHO OHDOOOHO .Oamu O: o co m: OOOH mono O cam OHO HOOOOHO HOOOOO O4 cause Omsmnxm H O H O HO H O H .O O Oumm OOOH OOHOOM AOOOOHOQ< OOHOOOOOH OOHQO OuH3 OOOHOUOIHOJQV uOOH Hmnm H0OooH< 185 .EE H.H mHNNOG Hmww 3 a 2 .¢ .wn\cH NO.ON whammmua UHHumEoumm .m .O omm mucumumaamu “Hm uamHnEm mwmum>< .N .wesHo> hp Now Hosoon mnu wo ucmuaou umuma mnH .H ”mwuoz OO.Nm N0.0N OO.NH OO.NN «N.m mm.OH mO.NOH N O0.00 HH.mN mm.ON Nm.mm cm.q ON.O Om.Hm H N Honoon Scum OHumu OHumu w >uamHUHHmwm 3x .z.z >oaoHonmm %wumcm mo V HO£00Hm HH< HmmmHO HH< mmEpmnw mxmpm HmBom msvuoe * cam UHHumEDHo> . . . mxmum mumumEmumm ummH Omusanu uHM umwo 3 O 2 nuH3 Houomua HmmmHo m waHHmamlenm 186 .OOHN wmmam maHmcm .m .58 «0.0 mHNNo: ammo 3 w z .q .w£\cH mm.ON whammmua oHuumEoumm .m .0 omN mHSuMHmOEmu ucmHnEm mwmuw>¢ .N .uwuma OwHHHumHO .H "mmuoz NN.NOO OO.HH OH.HN mq.N H.NH ONm O.mH Oq m.qH OOH NmN O mO.qqm OO.m HO.mH mH.N 0.0H moq m.qH Oq m.OH OOH OON m mw.Hmm mn.w mm.NH OO.N 0.0 qu m.OH Oq m.mH OOH OOH q «O.mom OO.N OO.mH ON.H 0.0 mom m.ON Om 0.0N OOH ONH m OO.NON HN.O OO.MH Om.H N.m omm 0.0N Om O.NN OOH Om N mm.NON mw.q HO.NH Om.H H.O OOm O.mm Om m.mN OOH Oq H H: mm a: wM H: OM Hmm Oo . . 30M“ BmHm Bomw on\:H wHSmmwua .aEwu 0mm HE 0mm HE mnH * cam uH< “mum: HmmmHO m< cause uwsmaxm Hmsw umumz stm HummHO wopom Mung ume mancm uHM ummo 3 a z :uHB Houomgw HmmmHO Omwpmzoonusa m SH pmumz wcHuowmaH 187 .EE «O.O mHNNOG Hmmo 3 O E . .wz\cH mO.wN whammmua oHHumEoumm . .O omN wusumgwmamu ucwHOEm mwmum>< .kumz OwHHHumHO . '4qu "mwuoz \N \r O0.0HH w qm.mH mN.ON HO.mm ow.an O wq.HHH OO.mH mm.OH mm.OO NN.OOO m Nm.NOH HO.mH mm.OH HH.mm wm.mNm q MH.OO NO.mH mq.qH mw.nm mo.¢qN m HH.mo mm.ON O0.0H mm.wH OO.NOH N wo.ow HN.NN OH.O mN.O Om.Hw H N Hosoon Eogm OHumu oHumu zocmHonwm 3x .E.z OucwHUHmww km 0 . . . . wzvuow * cam oHuuwssHo> uwcw mo A Hosoon HH< wawHO HHO HmEumnu wxmum umBom mxmum wuwumEmumm ummH OmusmEoO uHM ammo 3 O z :uHB Heuowue HmmeO OmwumsuonnsH m dH Hmumz mcHuuwmcH 188 .OOHN Owwam waHmcm .O .55 Hm.o mHNNoc HmmO 3 O z .q .m£\EH O0.0N whammwum UHuumEonmm .m .0 oMN musumummawu uGMHOEm wwmum>< .N .pmums OwHHHumHO .H ”mwuoz OO.HNm Om.N OH.HN OO.N O.NH ONO m.OH OO m.OH OOH NON O OO.HOO H0.0 HO.mH ON.N 0.0H qu O.NN Om O.mH OOH OON m OO.HOO mO.m NO.mH OO.N 0.0 qu O.Nm Om O.NH OOH OOH q O0.0Hm Om.O ON.OH ON.H O.N OOO O.NO Om m.OH OOH ONH m OO.NON OO.m OO.mH OO.H O.m Omm 0.00 Om O.NN OOH ow N OO.NON mo.m OO.NH OO.H H.O OON 0.00 Om 0.0N OOH OO H 2 mm 2 mm 2 E N H8 00 . . BOMO BWHO 30mm O :\:H wudmwwua .aEwu owm HE 0mm HE mOH * cam MH< “mum: HmmmHO m< OOHDH umsmnxm Hw3w umumz stm HmmmHQ mogom wuma away wancm uHM uan 3 O 2 :uHB nouomue HmmmHo OwOHOOUOOMSH m CH “mumz maHuowncH 189 .OO\N\HH mumm .O .EQH OOON Ommam dewcm .m .55 H0.0 wHNNo: ummu 3 O z .q .w:\sH OO.ON mpsmmwum oHuquopwm .m .0 omN musumumaamu uHm udenEm mwmym>< .N .umums OmHHHumHO .H “mmuoz v 3 HN.ONH NO.NH ON.ON HO.mm OO.HNO O O0.0HH ON.NH OO.mH O0.00 NN.OOO O NO.NOH mm.OH Nm.OH HH.mm Om.mNm O N0.00H . HN.OH O0.0H OO.NN O0.00N m HH.Om OO.HN O0.0H Om.OH OO.NOH N O0.00 . NN.NN OH.O ON.O OO.HO H N koawHonmm HMMMMMM EMMW OHump oHumu OocwHonww 3x wsvuoa * dam oHuquDHo> w m Honoon HH< HmmeO HH< HmEhwnu oxmym umBom mxmpm mumuwfimumm umme Owusaaoo uHx umwo 3 O E :uHB uouumua memHO Omwumsoonuse m :H umum3 wcHuuwncH 190 REFERENCES "Balanco Energetico Nacional," Brasil, Ministerio de Minas e Energia, Brasilia D.F. 1978. Barnes, K. D., D. B. Kittleson, and T. E. Murphy. 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