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ABSTRACT

THE TEACHER AS A MEMBER OF
A SCHOOL STAFF AND THE PROFESSION:
A SYNTHESIS OF CURRENT THOUGHT

by Dorothy C. Ferguson

Purpose of the Study

This study was undertaken to determine what is the information
available in the professional literature pertaining to the out-of-
class role of the teacher as a member of a school staff and the
profession. The study focused upon the development of a synthesis
of the current thought on this topic as expressed in publications
of the various professional education organizations and in other

pertinent printed materials.

Procedures

 

An initial search of the appropriate education indices and
bibliographies and university library card catalogs yielded over
760 titles, with an additional forty-three titles later found in
some of the sources themselves. As the sources were located and
read, notes and excerpts were taken from those books, articles,
and research studies that were pertinent to the topic of the study.
A total of 283 different professional writings and studies proved

to be relevant to the study and were included.

Dorothy C. Ferguson

The information relevant to the out-of—class role of a teacher
as a member of a school staff and a member of the profession was
organized into the synthesis of current thought on the issue, based
as much as possible on the divisions and subdivisions of the California
Teacher Role Definition. The synthesis covered the following major
topics of the two areas:

1. Member of a School Staff
Definition of Over-All Aims of the School
Development of a School Program

Responsibility for Over-All School Activities
Evaluation of the School Program

COED)
090

ll. Member of the Profession

The Profession and the Professional Teacher
Contribution to the Professional Organizations
Development of Professional Standards
Responsibility for Professional Growth

00$)
0.

Member of a School Staff

The information located about the out-of-class role of a teacher
as a member of a school staff concerned teachers' involvement in the
development of school policies, aims, and programs and working with
others to attain and maintain the desired ends. Topics discussed
under this area were involvement in educational policymaking (44
sources); public relations responsibilities (i2 sources); censorship,
school aims, and public relations (3i sources); curriculum development
and the teacher power movement (I6 sources); the effect of school
organizational structure and climate on teachers' involvement in
curriculum development (l2 sources); the subject department as it
affects teachers' role in devei0plng the total school program (6

sources); planning and guiding student activities (5 sources);

Dorothy C. Ferguson

assisting in the administrative operation of the school (2 sources);

and evaluation of the school program (4 sources).

Member of the Profession

 

The out-of—class role of the teacher as a member of the profession
concerned teachers' involvement with the status and effectiveness of
the profession, its members and its organizations. Topics discussed
under this area were the issue of teaching as a profession and the
teacher as a professional person (l9 sources); attitudes of profes-
sional teachers toward their profession (22 sources); professional
teacher behavior, including information on the code of ethics of the
profession (32 sources); membership in professional organizations
(l8 sources); the union-professional organization rivalry (I6 sources);
being an active member of professional organizations (l5 sources);
recruitment of teachers (l4 sources); retention of good teachers
(IO sources); improvement of pre- and in-service programs (l7 sources);
need for individual programs of professional growth (27 sources); types
of professional growth activities (45 sources); and time for profes-

sional growth and development (5 sources).

Conclusions

 

Some areas were not amply discussed in the professional literature
available, indicating gaps in information for teachers.

Only fifteen of the sources included in the study were written by
classroom teachers, indicating the need for more definitive information

from teachers themselves.

Dorothy C. Ferguson

Professional organizations play an important role in teachers'
fulfilling their out-of—class responsibilities in terms of negotia-

ting for the right and the time to take part in school policymaking.

THE TEACHER AS A MEMBER OF
A SCHOOL STAFF AND THE PROFESSION:

A SYNTHESIS OF CURRENT THOUGHT

By

Dorothy C. Ferguson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

I970

(:;_, Cég::;”/€§l

/--- a o - "74'!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A research study is neither undertaken nor successfully completed
without the assistance and encouragement of several people.

For their advice and guidance, not only during the conduct of
this study but also for the entire doctoral program, I wish to thank
the members of my committee: Elizabeth H. Rusk, chairman; Charles A.
Blackman and 0. Donald Meaders, of the College of Education; and
Sam S. Baskett, of the College of Arts and Letters.

i wish to thank, also, members of the staff at the ERIC Library
of the Center for Vocational/Technical Education at Ohio State Univer-
sity and the librarians at Michigan State University and Ohio State
University for their cooperation in locating materials for this study.

My family and friends deserve special mention for their encourage-
ment, support, and understanding throughout the program. To them--
and especially to my husband Ed and my son Edward--my deepest gratitude

and appreciation.

Chapter

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE PROBLEM OF THE STUDY . . . . . .
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statement of the Problem . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study. . . . . .
Importance of the Study . . . .
Scope of the Study. . . . . . .
Delimitations. . . . . . .

THE PROCEDURES [N THE STUDY. . . . .
Bases for the Study. . . . . . . . .

Content Analysis. . . . . . . .
Other Studies . . . . . . . . .

Data Collection Procedure. . . . . .
Organization of the Data . . . . . .
Processing and Synthesis of the Data
Organization of the Report . . . . .
MEMBER OF A SCHOOL STAFF . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .

Definition of Over-All Aims of the School. .

involvement in Educational Policymaking

Role of Professional Associations.
Relationships with Administrators.
Problems of Participation. . . . .
Methods of Participation . . . . .

iii

0 O C O

O O O O

Page

IO
IO
ll
l4

l6
I9

2|
23
24
25
26
26
28
29
32
33

35
37

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Chapter

Public Relations Responsibilities . . .

Censorship, School Aims, and

Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . .

Anticipating Censorship. . . . . .
Handling Censorship incidents. . .

Development of a School Program . . . .

Involvement in Curriculum Development.
Organizational Structure and Climate .

Role of Departments. . . . . . . .

Responsibility for Over-All School
ACllVl-l-les O O C O O O O O O I O O O 0

Planning and Guiding Student Activities.

Assisting in Administrative
Operation of the School . . . . .

Evaluation of the School Program. . . .

IV. MEMBER OF THE PROFESSION . . . . . . . . . .
'n1-rOdUC1-ion O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O I

The Profession and the Professional Teacher.
Professionalism of Teachers . . . . . .
Attitudes of Professional Teachers. . .
Professional Behavior . . . . . . . . .

The Code of Ethics . . . . . . . .

Contribution to Professional Organizations .

Membership in Professional Organizations. .
The Union-Professional Association Rivalry.

Active Participation in Professional
Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Development of Professional Standards. . . .

Recruitment of Teachers . . . . . . . .

Retention of Good Teachers. . . . . . .

Pre— and ln-Service Programs. . . . . .

iv

Page
38
39

43
46

49
49
5|
54
56
57
58
59
6O
6O
63
64
65
7O
75
77

77
79

82
84
85

88
9O

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Chapter
Responsibility for Professional Growth . . .
The Need for Professional Growth. . . .
Areas of Interest. . . . . . . . .

Types of Professional Growth Activities
Time for Professional Growth. . . . . .

V. SUMMARIES, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Member of a School Staff. . . . . . . .

Definition of Over-All Aims of

the School. . . . . . . . . . . .
Development of a School Program. .
Responsibility for Over-Ail

School Activities . . . . . . . .
Evaluation of the School Program .

Member of the Profession. . . . . . . .
The Profession and the

Professional Teacher. . . . . . .
Contribution to Professional

Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development of Professional Standards.
Responsibility for Professional Growth

conCIUSionSO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES

A. CALIFORNIA TEACHER ROLE DEFINITION (OUT-OF-CLASS).

B. SOURCE LI ST. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

C. SOURCES LISTED BY TOPICS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Page
93
94
96

97
I02

l03
I03
I04
I04
l05
I07

I08
I09

|09

ll9
123
I44

I49

CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM OF THE STUDY

Introduction

 

In an effort to establish an authentic definition of teacher
competence, the California Council on Teacher Education, in I945,
set up a special committee to investigate the problem. In I952,
the California Teachers Association published a final statement,
the cooperative effort of the committee and many educational
leaders.l The Committee on Teacher Education of the California
association adopted that statement as its official definition of
professional competence in I955.2

During this period, the National Commission on Teacher Education
and Professional Standards was also considering the problem of
defining and measuring teacher competence. It too decided upon the
merit of the definition developed by the California association and

endorsed the use of the definition on a nationwide basis.3 Later,

 

ICalifornia Teachers Association, Measure of a Good Teacher
(San Francisco: California Teachers Association, I952T.

2Commission on Teacher Education, Teacher Campetence:"lts
Nature and Scope (San Francisco: California Teachers Associathn,
I957), p. 5.

3National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards, Factors in Teaching Competence, Report of Special Group
A, Albany Conference (washington, D.C.: National Education
Association, l954).

 

2

the Commission on the English Curriculum of the National Council of
Teachers of English, in Volume V of its Curriculum Series, entitled
The Education of Teachers of English, used the California definition
as a basis for much of its discussion of the diverse responsibilities
of both elementary and secondary school English teachers.4

The California definition is, then, a statement of the role and
responsibilities of the competent teacher that has been accepted by
various professional groups. This definition of a teacher's respon-
sibilities, briefly stated, identifies six major functions: (I)
director of learning, (2) counselor and guidance worker, (3) mediator
of the culture, (4) link with the community, (5) member of a school
staff, and (6) member of the profession.5

Since its development and adoption, the California definition
has been the basis of several research studies, studies that have
had different purposes and results. In a study of the role expecta-
tions of prOSpective English teachers, Shafer found that his subjects
perceived the English teacher role only in terms of classroom
behaviors. He concluded that perceptions of other aspects of teacher
role came as a result of experience, recommending a teacher education

program which incorporates a wide range of these experiences for

prospective teachers.6 Using the six dimensions of the California

 

4Commission on the English Curriculum of the National Council of
Teachers of English, The Education of Teachers of English, ed.
Alfred H. Grommon (New York: AppTeton-Century-Crofts, I963), p. l2.

5Commission on Teacher Education, pp. l2-I9.

6Robert Shafer, "Concepts of Role in Prospective Teachers of
English: A Type C Project" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Teachers

College, Columbia University, I958).

3

definition, Wagoner completed a study to determine the desirability
assigned to certain teacher roles by secondary school teachers and
principals in Arizona. He found two of the roles to be considered
most desirable by both groups: director of learning and member of
the profession, with member of the school staff rated next. The
next most desirable dimensions of the teacher role were counselor
and guidance worker and mediator of the culture. Link with the
community was identified as the least desirable aSpect. In addition,
Wagoner found that members of the college staff who were teaching the
courses in the professional education sequence rated the member-of-
the-profession dimension significantly lower than any other dimension.
Wagoner also found a related neglect of the professional role of the
teacher in the university's teacher preparation program.7

In his study, Fishburn attempted to discover how students perceived
their professional role as teachers during the practice-teaching exper-
ience and how they modified their perceptions after two or more years'
actual teaching experience at the secondary level. Although he found
statistically significant differences between the reSponses of persons
training to become teachers and those of experienced teachers, Fishburn
felt the practical similarities between the two groups of scores to be
of even greater importance. Both groups agreed that mediator of the
culture and director of learning are of more importance than the other

four dimensions and that member of the school staff and member of the

 

7Roderic Lee Wagoner, "Perceptions of Teacher Roles in Arizona
Secondary Schools and Their Relation to the Secondary Teacher Education
Program at the University of Arizona“ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Arizona, i965).

4
profession are of less importance than the others. After gaining

experience in teaching, Fishburn's reSpondents gave greater commit-
ment to those dimensions of the professional role of the teacher
"which are most directly related to their specific job" and less to

"those having to do with more peripheral activities in education;"

the first three role dimensions increased in importance while the
remainder, dealing with out-of-ciass responsibilities, were somewhat

reduced in importance.8

Beckwith's study concerned the kinds and amounts of agreement and
disagreement existing between experienced English teachers and students
preparing to teach English about the role of the English teacher in the
secondary school. She found that there was greater agreement between
teachers and students in areas relating to the classroom performance
aSpects of the English teacher role (director of learning, counselor
and guidance worker, mediator of the culture) than in areas relating
to the out-of-classroom performance aspects of the role (link with the
community, member of the school staff, member of the profession). In
looking at within-group agreement, Beckwith also found that both
teachers and students disagreed among themselves about the items
relating to the out-of-class dimensions. Her findings indicate that
perception of the three out-of-class responsibilities was vague and
confused for both experienced teachers and students preparing to teach.9

8Clarence E. Fishburn, "Learning the Role of the Teacher," The
Journal of Teacher Education, XVII (Fall, i966), 329-33I.

9Gladys May Beckwith, "A Study of the English Teacher Role in
the Secondary School as Perceived By Student Teachers and Supervisory
Teachers of English" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State
University, l968).

5
In developing and expiicating its six-dimensional definition
of teacher role, the California group had this to say:
it is not expected, of course, that even the exper-
ienced teacher can achieve maximum expertness in all roles.
Rather, a floor of minimum competence may be expected for

each role, with a high level of competence in those where
the teacher has special aptitudes and interests. . . .

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O C O O O C O O O O 0

What level of competence in each role should be

provided in the pre-service program of preparation? in

the time now available, only a safety-minimum is possible.

Perhaps this should be related to in-service programs of

continued preparation.IO
Certainly, the authors and those who worked on further refinement and
amplification of the definition are advocating a minimum of a basic
awareness and comprehension of all six dimensions of teacher role.
The research studies cited above, however, indicate a good deal of
confusion, disagreement, misunderstanding, and negative attitudes on
the part of administrators, teachers, and prospective teachers about
the role of the teacher, especially about the out—of-class dimensions
(link with the community, member of the school staff, member of the
profession). Shafer's prOSpective teachers had little perception of
their out-of-class responsibilities. Wagoner's administrators,
teachers, and college professors considered at least one of the
three out-of-class dimensions as least desirable. Fishburn's exper-
ienced teachers ranked these dimensions as less important than the
others. Beckwith's teachers and prospective teachers disagreed among

themselves and between groups about a significant number of items

relating to the three out-of-class aspects of teacher role.

 

IOCommission on Teacher Education, pp. l9-2l.

6
The out-of—class dimensions of the role of the teacher are quite
important and necessary to the function of the school and are legiti-
mate areas of concern for today's teachers and prospective teachers.
According to the superintendent of schools of Duluth, Minnesota, the
future teacher, with infinitely. greater total reSponsibiIity as a
teacher, "will need an even broader definition of his professional

role."ll

He must be ready to be uncompromising in weeding out the
Incompetents who enter the profession; to accept and demand meaningful
in-service experiences; to accept responsibility for training,
retraining, and establishment of the entrance requirements of his
profession. in addition, Rasmussen advises that the teacher of
tomorrow realize that it is ethically inconsistent to bargain
collectively on matters of policy without accepting collective
responsibility for the integrity and dignity of the profession and
that, in assuming new authority, he makes himself answerable for
the successful attainment of the total educational purpose.'2

In his research of teacher problems, Lemeshow organized a list
of over four hundred statements of separate and distinct teacher
problem items into eight categories. Six of his eight areas have
to do with basically "out-of-class" teacher responsibilities. The

eight areas are Persons in Authority, Peers and Staff, The Community,

Working Conditions, Professional Role, Personal and Social, Students

and Discipline, and Methods and Curriculum.'3

'IL. V. Rasmussen, "New Role for the Middleman," The American
School Board Journal, CLV (February, I968), ll.

 

 

'Zlbid.

 

'3Seymour Lemeshow, "The Organization of Problems Teachers Face,"
Journal of Secondary Education, XLllI (April, I968), ISO-I55.

It is essential, then, that a teacher understand his position

as a link with the community, so that he

2.

3
4.

Utilizes available education resources of community
in classroom procedures.

Secures cooperation of parents in school activities.
Assists lay groups in understanding modern education.
Participates in definition and solution of community
problems relating to education.l

It is equally important that each classroom teacher perceive his

role as a member of the school staff, so that he

Contributes to the definition of the over-all aims
of the school.

Contributes to the development of a school program
to achieve its objectives.

Contributes to the effectiveness of over-all school
activities.

Cooperates effectively in the evaluation of the
school program.I

As a member of the profession, the teacher needs to be aware of his

responsibilities, so that he

2.
3.
4.

5.

Demonstrates an appreciation of the social importance

of the profession.

Contributes to the development of professional standards.
Contributes to the profession through its organizations.
Takes a personal responsibility for his own professional
growth.

Acts on a systematic philosophy, critically adopted and
consistently applied.

There is evidence that these dimensions of the role of a teacher are

a necessary ingredient of a prospective teacher's professional pre-

paration and essential elements of in-service programs for teachers.

 

l4Commission on Teacher Education, pp. 37-38.

'5lbid., p. 39.

'6Ibid., pp. 40—4l. (For a more complete amplification of the
out-of-class dimensions of the California definition of teacher role,
see Appendix A, pp. ll9-l22.)

8

However, a study of secondary level English methods courses
conducted in I962, by the Committee on the Secondary Methods Course
of the National Council of Teachers of English revealed little to
indicate that those who are preparing English teachers spend much
time or place much emphasis on these three out-of-class dimensions.
Only fourteen per cent of the respondents to the Committee's question-
naire indicated that “Considering the professional role of the English
teacher" was a topic covered in their methods courses.l7 Two other
somewhat relevant topics listed by the methods instructors included
in the study were "Considering current issues, trends, and innova-
tions," noted by thirteen per cent of the respondents, and "Co-curri-
cular responsibilities," noted by five per cent of the respondents.'8
When asked what emphasis is placed on certain areas of content Included
in their courses, only thirty-two per cent indicated "much emphasis"
on "Professional growth of teachers," while fifty-four per cent
indicated "some emphasis" and seven per cent, "no emphasis."l9

"Utilizing community resources" received responses of "much emphasis,"

ten per cent; "some," sixty-six per cent; "none," fifteen per cent.20
A cursory study of ten of the textbooks now available to high

school English methods instructors revealed very little or no inclusion

of material relevant to such aspects of the secondary school English

 

I7William H. Evans and Michael J. Cardone, Specialized Courses
in Methods of Teachin En Iish (Champaign: National Council of
Teachers of EngliSh, I964l, p. II.

'8Ibid.

l9lbid., p. 2|.

ZOIbid.

9
teacher's role as a link with the community, a member of the school

staff, and a member of the profession. Two of these textbooks
accounted for forty-one percent of all texts used in the methods
courses surveyed by the NCTE Committee on the Secondary Methods
Course.2| One of these has one full chapter relevant to one part
of this issue, entitled "The Teacher Who Grows."22

Teachers, all teachers of all subjects and at all levels, need
to know about the nonteaching duties and responsibilities they can
expect as members of the education profession. The existent state
of confusion and the doubts teachers and prospective teachers express
about these duties and responsibilities, along with the identification
of these concerns as problem areas for teachers, indicate a need for

information for teachers about the teacher's out-of-class role.

Statement of the Problem

 

This study was intended to determine what is the information
available in the professional literature pertaining to the out-of-
class role of the teacher.

Specifically, the investigation was aimed at the development and
presentation of a synthesis of the current professional thought-the
principles, practices, opinions-~expressed in the publications of the
various professional education organizations and in other pertinent
printed materials that is relevant to the informational needs of
teachers for greater comprehension and consciousness of their out-of-

class role.

 

2'lbid., p. I0.

22J. N. Hook, The Teaching of High School English (New York:
The Ronald Press, I965).

l0

Purpose of the Study

It is believed that the results of this study might (I) aid
prospective and practicing teachers, as well as members of the
education community involved in the pre- and in-service education
of teachers, In developing a comprehension and application of the
out-of-class role of the teacher; (2) indicate questions for
research studies into the out-of-class role of the teacher; and
(3) indicate to writers and publishers areas of this issue where
there appear to be gaps in available information and/or where there
appears to be a need for more definitive statements, recognizing
that the findings of this study are limited by the restrictions of

the framework of the California definition, upon which it is based.

Importance of the Study

There exists a good deal of confusion among those Involved in
teaching in today's schools about the teacher's function in the
community, with the rest of the school staff, and as a member of
his profession. In light of recent developments in public education
throughout the country, it Is important that all teachers understand
and accept their responsibilities. Incidents such as the New York
City strike in the fall of I968, sparked by the Ocean Hill-Brownsville
school-community dispute, indicate the need for greater communication
between school and community, between teachers and parents. New
developments in teaching such as team teaching, independent study
programs, televised instruction, and the use of paraprofessionals in

teaching are bringing teachers out of the confines or "Inner sanctum"

of their classrooms and into cooperative working relationships with
other members of their departments, other teachers in their build-
ings, and teachers and staff in their school districts. The
changing roles and functions of many of the professional organiza-
tions such as the growth and diversification of the National Council
of Teachers of English, make imperative for teachers an active
participation in their profession.

What can and should teachers do to help keep open channels
of communication with the community? What can and should teachers
do to contribute to the effective implementation of the total school
program? What can and should teachers do to contribute to their
profession and to guarantee their individual professional growth?
It was hoped that by organizing the current information available,
this study would contribute to the informational needs of teachers

so that they may arrive at some answers to these questions.

Scope of the Study

Because of the magnitude of the out-of-class role of the
teacher, the Investigation was directed at synthesizing the infor-
mation about the duties and reSponsibilities of teachers under two
of the three dimensions of the out-of-class role, the teacher as a
member of a school staff and as a member of the profession, indicated
as Roles 5 and 6 in the California Teacher Role Definition. The nine
subdivisions of these two dimensions (listed on p. 7) served as the
broad organizational bases for the initial search for information in

the professional literature. It is recognized that the framework of

I2

the California definition itself is subject to review in that it
contains divisions and subdivisions which arbitrarily indicate a
separation of teacher role and responsibility which may or may not
exist.

Sources for the search for information included:

i. The publications of the various professional education
organizations.

2. Other printed materials in the public domain which are
intended for teachers (journals, books, pamphlets, monographs,
research reports, etc.).

The information included in the study is as current as possible,
primarily taken from sources written and/or published in the six-year
period from July I963 to June I969, because of the need to present
this information in light of current educational needs.

The year I963 marked the publication of The Education of

 

Teachers of English, a National Council of Teachers of English

 

publication. in their introduction to the book, Grommon and Hartley
made reference to the impact on public education of the threat to our
national security of the l950's and the I960's:

. . . concern with the quality of our educational system
quickened. The public in general and state and federal
governments in particular began to examine not only the
programs in the schools and the school buildings them-
selves but also the quality and preparation of teachers.
People now look upon schools as a crucial part of our
defense against forces inimical to our way of life. Signi-
ficantly, a federal program to help strengthen our schools
and colleges is entitled the National Defense Education Act.

Currently, such stirring of interest is everywhere
evident In the spate of articles in newspapers and popular
magazines, in discussions . . . and in the resultant action
of state legislatures. Professional education and academic

I3

groups are also studying with renewed energy problems of
teachers' qualifications, preparation, and certification;
examining the demands created by universal education in a
democratic society; and experimenting with means of
securing enough qualified teachers to meet the continuing
increase in enrollments throughout the education system. 3

In I964, the New York Times was quoted as saying:

 

A resurgence of militancy among the nation's public
school teachers marked the year of I963. There was
mounting evidence that teachers are no longer content
to rule only in the classroom to which they are assigned.
They want a hand in the assignment and a voice in the
policy that controls their professional lives. They are
not asking to run the schools, but they want their view
heard and heeded.24

Thus, the period from I963 to the present was one of changes
in public education, changes in the classroom and In attitudes and
responsibilities of teachers.

At the outset of the conduct of this study, the researcher was
primarily concerned with the problems and needs of secondary school
English teachers. However, the search for pertinent information
revealed that the information appearing In professional literature
contained opinions, practices, etc., that were of relevance and
concern to all teachers in terms of their role as members of a school
staff and members of the profession. The California Teacher Role
Definition, the basis of this investigation, was developed for all
public school teachers. The assumption can be made, then, that the

out-of-class role of teachers as members of a school staff and members

 

23Commission on the English Curriculum of the National Council of
Teachers of English, pp. 3-4.

24The New York Times, in Ronald G. Corwin, "Staff Conflicts in
the Public Sohools" (Calumbus: The Ohio State University, I966),
p. 4|.

 

l4

of the profession, as defined and delineated by the California
definition, does not vary for teachers of different levels and
different subjects. There may exist, however, variations in the
degree of role acceptance and participation among and between
teachers of the different levels and different subjects which
resulted from the preparation these teachers received. There may

be factors in the pro-service programs of the various subject-matter
fields which tend to reduce or encourage acceptance and participa-
tion in the out-of-class role and responsibilities as delineated In
the California definition. The study, then, included all information
available to this researcher relevant to the out-of-class role of all

teachers as members of a school staff and the profession.

Delimitations

 

The study was limited to information written and/or published
during the period from July I963 to June I969.

The study was also limited to those pieces of professional
literature which contained information relevant to the out-of-class
role of the teacher as a member of a school staff and a member of
the profession. Some of the role delineations listed in the California
definition are not actually "out-of-class" aspects and were therefore
excluded from the study. Out-of—class aspects of the role of the
teacher included all the activities and responsibilities a teacher
has In addition to classroom teaching and preparation for teaching.

Further delimitations were imposed by the availability of
pertinent material. The researcher allocated the period from April

I969 to January I970 for gathering the information pertinent to the

l5

study. During this time, the library facilities at Michigan State
University and Ohio State University and the ERIC Library at the
Center for Vocational-Technical Education at The Ohio State Univer-
sity were available to the researcher. Although every effort was
made to obtain all of the articles, books, studies, etc., located
for the investigation in the education Indices searched, for various
reasons not all the sources were found. This study was limited,
then, to those sources accessible to the researcher during the
period designated.

Similarly, the investigation was limited to only those sources
made known to the researcher through use of the various education
indices and because of the field of interest of the researcher. The
researcher included in the study a great many sources written and
published by persons in the field of English because of her knowledge
of the existence of these materials through membership In the National
Council of Teachers of English. Similar kinds of publications of
other subject-matter organizations were not included in the study
unless located through use of the education indices.

A synthesis of information can be no more reliable than the
research reports and professional writings on which it is based.
Every attempt was made to reflect the author's intent in preparing

the synthesis of information.

CHAPTER II

THE PROCEDURES IN THE STUDY

Bases for the Study

 

The procedures used in this investigation were formulated after
careful study of the research method involved in content analysis
and after reference to several similar dissertations, including a
series being undertaken for a number of years in the business

education department at Indiana University.
Content Analysis

Berelson defines content analysis as "a research technique for
the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the mani-
fest content of communications."I Such a definition implies that
the research employ "an exhaustive set of categories and covers all
the material of the body of communications being studied, rather than
simply abstracting material supporting a given hypothesis or point of
view."2 Such studies also are to have reference to "that part or

aSpect of a communication which is similarly understood by the

 

lBernard Berelson, Content Analysis in Communication Research
(New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., I952), p. l8.

2Judah Matras, "Other Social Research Approaches," Handbook
for Social Research in Urban Areas, ed. Philip M. Hauser (Ghent,
Belgium: UNESCO, I965), p. 80.

l7

initiator of the communication, by the receiver of the communication
and by the investigator, and not to 'latent content,' i.e., to
'hidden intentions' of the initiator or to unanticipated reactions
of the receiver of the communication."3

Content analysis, then, is used to describe, as objectively as
possible and using some system of classification, the content of
communications. It focuses on two aspects: substance and form.
Analysis of form examines the symbols employed in communications,
while analysis of substance examines the referents of the symbols.4

To establish a classification system, "what Is said" categories
are determined to describe any one, some, or all of the following:

the nature of the subject matter (What is the communication
about?)

its direction (Is the communication for or against the parti-
cular subject, or neutral toward it?)

its standards (On what grounds is the classification by
direction made?)

the values expressed (What are the goals or desires which
are sought?)

the methods represented (What are the means employed to
attain values?)

the traits described (What are the personality characteris-
tics used to describe persons?)

the actors (Who or what is the initiator of the acts?)

its authority (What person, group, or object is credited
as the source of a statement or communication?)

its origin (in what locality did the communication originate?)

 

3lbid.

4ibid., p. 8i.

f‘:

y-

‘6

av

Re
logy-c

.‘b’
a:
{—7

I8

itsstarget (Who is the intended recipient of the communi-
cation?)

What is essential is that the categories be derived, insofar as
possible, from the nature of the problem being investigated.

The purpose of a content analysis is to classify and quantify
relatively unstructured material to make it more meaningful and more
easily understood. This Investigation was intended to Identify the
Information available in the professional literature pertaining to
the out-of-class role of the teacher and present a synthesis of the
information to those concerned in an accessible and organized format.
The literature, especially the non-research literature, pertaining
to this subject is scattered widely; that is, it Is published in
various periodicals, pamphlets, yearbooks, monographs, books, etc.
In addition to being located in many different sources, some not
readily available to all potential users, the information Is also
unclassified and unidentified. It can appear in material that,
judged by title and/or classification or descriptor entries in
education indices alone, seems to be irrelevant and/or not appro-
priate. Thus, for busy teachers and teacher educators and overwhelmed
prospective teachers, ferreting out information on the out-of-class
role can be a time-consuming, if not difficult, chore.

The categories and criteria used to determine the relevance and
apprOpriateness of the sources to the study were as follows:

I. The nature of the subject matter: the Information had to

be about the out-of-class role of the teacher as a member of a

5Gilbert Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research
(Englewood Cliffs: _PrenticeéHall, Inc., I968), p. 275.

I9

school staff and/or a member of the_profession. The material contained
in the source had to be relevant to the teacher's duties, responsibil-
ities, or expectations when he functions with other teachers in his
school and other members of the teaching profession.

2. The authority: the writer or researcher had to be a member
of the education community. This included members of federal, state,
and local education agencies and organizations; members and officials
of professional education associations; members of school boards;
administrators and other supervisory personnel; and professors and
teachers at all levels.

3. The origin: the source had to appear in material intended

 

for consumption by teachers; that is, in a professional education

 

publication or, if unpublished, be available to members of the

 

education community in some duplicated form. This would include
professional education journals, books, monographs, pamphlets, research

reports, dissertation studies, speeches, etc.

Other Studies

In deciding upon the procedure and format of the collection and
presentation of the data (information) in this study, the researcher
referred to several completed doctoral dissertations which were
similar in purpose. In his study of the contributions of certain
professional publications to the informational needs of curriculum
coordinators, Edgemon analyzed the information in the publications
during one year in terms of two sets of categories: one pertaining

to five areas designated as the informational needs of curriculum

20

coordination specialists and the other pertaining to five classifi-
cations of types of articles (e.g., research reports, expert Opinion,
etc.).6

A series of doctoral studies of this type is also being completed
at Indiana University in the business education department under the
direction of Dr. Elvin S. Eyster. The first three of the studies
completed were analyses and classifications of research studies
dealing with particular areas of instruction in business education:

shorthand and transcription,7 bookkeeping and accounting,8

9

and type-
writlng. In the fourth study, Austin abstracted, classified, and
analyzed all the research studies that have dealt with procedures
for selecting sales personnel, in order to organize the knowledge
about this subject so that it would be more usable.'0 Two of the
Indiana studies were more similar to the one undertaken here in that

they included non-research literature as well as research studies.

Hogancamp's study was a comprehensive analysis and synthesis of

 

6Albert W. Edgemon, "The Contributions of Selected Publications
to the Informational Needs of Curriculum Coordination Specialists"
(unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia University, I964).

7Ruth I. Anderson, "An Analysis and Classification of Research
in Shorthand and Transcription" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Indiana University, I946).

8J. Virgil Herring, "A Synthesis and Classification of Research
in the Teaching of Bookkeeping and Accounting" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Indiana University, I950).

9Harves C. Rahe, "An Analysis and Classification of Research
Studies in Typewriting" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana
University, I950).

l0Ronald L. Austin, "Selection of Sales Personnel: A Review of
Research" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, l954).

2|

I
I In

research findings and thought about business teacher education.
her study of the research and non-research literature available
pertaining to office practice instruction, Miller presented a

synthesis of the information found in the non-research literature
and abstracts of pertinent research studies.'2 Her procedure and

format were helpful in designing the present study, as described

in the remainder of this chapter.

Data Collection Procedure

 

The data collection procedure used in the present study involved
a three-step plan: (I) to familiarize the researcher with the nature
and quantity of the research studies and professional writings avail-
able on the subject of the out-of-class role of the teacher as a
member of a school staff and the profession, (2) to prepare tentative
and revised bibliographies of these research studies and professional
writings, and (3) to select appropriate devices with which to collect
and record data.

The first step was to consult some general references, such as
Carter and Burke's How to Locate Information and Data, which led to
the many indices and bibliographies available in the field of education.
An initial search was made of the appropriate volumes of the following

indices for the period July I963 to June I969: Education Index,

 

 

llThomas B. Hogancamp, "A Comprehensive Analysis and Synthesis of
Research Findings and Thought on Business Teacher Education" (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, I957).

l2Gertrude Mary Miller, "A Synthesis of Research Findings and
Thought Pertaining to Office Practice Instruction" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Indiana University, I96l).

22

Dissertation Abstracts, Research in Education (ERIC), and the newest

index, Current Index to Journals in Education. This search yielded

 

over 760 titles, culled by using various descriptors, over twenty-
five of them, such as: administration of schools; associations,
professional; collective bargaining; education, as a profession;
teachers; staff relations; professional growth; professional ethics;
supervisors and teachers; teaching as a profession; etc. The
descriptors used were decided upon by referring to the main areas
of emphasis in the out-of-class aspects of the California teacher
role definition and by perusing entire volumes of each of the indices.
In addition, the researcher consulted the subject card file of the
education library at Ohio State University, using the same basic list
of descriptors.

This initial list of more than 760 titles of research reports
and professional writings comprised the tentative bibliography. The

Education Index yielded 482 titles; Research in Education, l26; the

 

 

card catalog, 52; Dissertation Abstracts, 35; other sources, 24.

 

Forty-three additional titles were found in some of the sources
themselves.

To facilitate actual acquisition of the periodicals, yearbooks,
and other publications containing each of the professional writings
and research studies included on this tentative bibliography, a list
was made of the l07 different publications involved, including also
each date of publication for every volume and number indicated. Thus,
it was possible to obtain the bound volumes of a journal at one time
and locate the several articles listed on the bibliography which were

included in that particular volume's publications. As each piece of

23

professional literature was acquired, its bibliography was checked
for additional sources pertinent to the study. As an additional
check, the tables of contents of every publication referred to were
perused for additional references. The tentative bibliography
became more refined as more titles were added and titles of refer-
ences which proved not applicable to the study were drOpped.

Devices for collecting and recording the data were selected
after an initial examination of the titles on the tentative biblio-
graphy. As each article, yearbook chapter, research report, or
section of a book was read, its full bibliographic notation was
entered on a 5 x 8 notecard, along with coded Information Indicating
the author's status and the type of information on which the article
was based (e.g., research report, personal opinion). The notes and
excerpts were taken from the information that had to do with the

subject of the study.

Organization of the Data

Throughout the search for sources of information, the collection
and recording of data, and the organization of the data, the researcher
attempted to maintain separate the two areas, member of a school staff
and member of the profession, as specified by the California defini-
tion. Recognizing that this division and delineation are arbitrary,
the researcher determined necessary adhering to the California
definition as much as possible.

Using the two broad dimensions and their nine subdivisions, then,

the researcher reviewed and sorted the notecards to organize them for

the presentation. The two areas and their subdivisions proved to be

24

somewhat cumbersome and unworkable as topics or areas of emphasis.
The main difficulty was that the professional literature did not
neatly fall into the two areas and subdivisions. Many of the
articles and studies, of course, overlapped both areas; some of
the subdivisions were either not dealt with separately or were not
dealt with at all. The information collected, therefore, led the
researcher to develop the following as the outline for the presenta-
tion of the data:

l. Member of a School Staff
. Definition of Over-all Aims of the School
Development of a School Program

Responsibility for Over-all School Activities
Evaluation of the School Program

00$)
0.

ll. Member of the Profession

The Profession and the Professional Teacher
Contribution to Professional Organizations
Development of Professional Standards
Responsibility for Professional Growth

OPP?

Processing and Synthesis of Data

 

The data consisted of notecards containing notes and excerpts
from professional writings and research studies having to do with
the out-of-class responsibilities of the teacher. These notecards
of information were sorted according to the aforementioned outline.
Multiple notecards were made when a piece of professional literature
was applicable to more than one section.

The data in each of the subdivisions were studied carefully.
The researcher then developed a synthesis of the information for
each division. This was done by combining all the principles, prac-

tices, opinions, research findings, etc., expressed in the professional

25

writings and research reports into one organized presentation. After
each finding, opinion, practice, etc., reported and discussed, credit
was given to the authors of the pertinent research reports and pro-
fessional writings by placing in parentheses the numbers of the

sources from which the material was obtained.

Organization of the Report

 

The remainder of this report consists of three chapters.
Chapter III contains the presentation of the synthesis of information
under the first area, Member of a School Staff. Chapter IV consists
of the synthesis of information dealing with the other area, Member
of the Profession. Chapter V contains the researcher's summaries,
conclusions, and recommendations based on the conduct and results

of the study.

CHAPTER III

MEMBER OF A SCHOOL STAFF

introduction

 

The out-of—class role of the teacher as a member of a school staff
concerns involvement in the development of policies, aims, and programs
of the school and working with others to attain and maintain the
desired ends. The California definition breaks this role down into
four major components: (a) contributes to the definition of the over-
all aims of the school, (b) contributes to the development of a school
program to achieve its objectives, (c) contributes to the effective-
ness of over-all school activities, and (d) cooperates effectively in
the evaluation of the school program.

Under the first area, the California definition includes working
effectively with the public to define school aims, interpreting the
relationship of the school program and activities to the desired aims,
and articulating classroom objectives to those of the school. The
second component includes participating effectively in all-school
curriculum development and articulating the classroom program to the
school curriculum. The school-activities area involves participation
in planning and guidance of student activities and assuming appropriate
administrative responsibility for operation of the school as a whole.
Also included in this role delineation, under part four, are defining
school aims in terms suitable for evaluation, participating in

26

27
collection of relevant evidence, and interpreting the evidence to
indicate needed revisions in program and aims.

It is not possible, then, according to the California definition,
for teachers to be concerned only with their relationships to their
students and immediate teaching assignments. A teacher's concern
today must also include the larger interests of a school system and
working cooperatively with a number of people: local boards of
education, superintendents and their assistants, principals, super-
visors, other teachers, state school officials, and secretarial and
custodial staff.|

The professional writings and research reports included in this
study relevant to this topic of a teacher's out-of-class responsibil-
ities as a member of a school staff emphasized several broad areas of
concern. A total of II7 different pieces of professional literature
were found. The eighty-seven professional writings and research
reports which contained information for teachers about the first
component of this role, contributing to the definition of the over-all
aims of the school, Included discussions of the issue of teachers'
involvement in educational policymaking, the impact of professional
negotiations on this issue, and teachers' public relations responsi-
bilities in carrying out the work of defining and determining the
over-all aims of the school. Included in this section also was the

professional literature about the problem of censorship as it affects

 

lLeo M. Chamberlain, Leslie W. Kindred, and John M. Mickelson,
The Teacher and School Organization (Engiewood Cliffs: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., T966), p. v.

28

teachers' relationships with the public and the determination of
school aims and objectives.

The twenty-nine articles, books, and reports pertinent to the
issue of development of a school program contained information
about curriculum development and the teacher power movement, the
effect of school organizational structure and climate on teachers'
involvement in curriculum development, and the subject department
as it affects teachers' role in developing the total school program.

Only seven pieces of professional literature contained informa-
tion for teachers about responsibilities for over-all school
activities, and only four were found relevant to the issue of
evaluation of the school program.

Of the II7 pieces of professional literature included in this
chapter, only three were definitely identified as being written by

classroom teachers.

Definition of Over-All Aims of the School

 

Aims and goals in education are designed to give direction to
schools in general and to provide a guide to classroom teachers in
particular. National goals of education, translated Into school
aims and course objectives, provide the necessary guidance for
teachers in planning their own programs. (43)* Teachers must
function within the goals upon which the school has previously
agreed, though they do have the right and the responsibility to work

*Numbers In parentheses refer to the Source List, listed in
Appendix 8, pp. l23-I43.

29

in a professional way to change what they believe needs changing.
(42, 43, 92) This right and responsibility involves working with
various groups to define and Interpret educational goals consistent

with the ever-changing needs of the particular school system.
Involvement in Educational Policymaking

There exists within the teaching profession a growing demand
for teachers to be more actively involved in the educational policy-
making of their school systems. Much of the professional literature
included in this study attested to this fact. (40, 63, 92, ll8, l64,
I78, 223, 226, 229, 245, 253, 264) This demand concerns teachers'
involvement In policymaking for their schools at the local, state,
and national levels. (253) Increased state control over public
education is a concern of teachers. (43) Teachers believe federal and
state officials, as well as local school authorities, have been
ignoring the potential resources of firsthand knowledge and "know-how"
possessed by classroom teachers. (40, 253) These frustrations have
resulted in what is described as the "growing militancy" of
teachers or the "teachers' movement." (25, 76, IIO, I64, I78, 226,
229, 253, 264, 282) Teachers wish to share in the determination of
policy that can help them to achieve success as teachers; they are
urged to utilize their acquired professional competencies and creative
talents for educational decision making at every level and at every
opportunity. (42, 43, I64, I86, 242) As one writer expressed It,

the proper climate within a school system "should guarantee the

30

teachers full partnership in the educational enterprise."2 Research
studies have shown that teachers who feel that their own personal
power and that of their colleagues are influential in school decision-
making processes are often involved in innovative practices and
sharing of ideas. (44, 98, I45)

in addition, two studies were conducted to determine to what extent
teachers actually were involved in decision making and how they felt
about their involvement. A Connecticut study in I968 identified and
described the various ways in which individual elementary schools
utilized their staffs in decision making. The findings revealed that,
although ninety per cent of the staffs were involved in decisions of
minor significance (e.g., scheduling, grouping), there was little
evidence of planned involvement of teachers in major policy deter-
minations and those areas considered by the staff to be most in need
of change.3 The NEA I969 Teacher Opinion Poll showed that the majority
of the teachers polled felt that they were involved in decision making
about as much as they wanted to be, though between one-fifth and two-
fifths of the respondents, especially the male teachers, felt they
wanted more involvement.4

Educational policymaking goes beyond merely assisting in the

establishment of improved working conditions, i.e., higher salaries,

 

2Roy A. Edelfelt, "The Teacher and His Staff," New York State
Education, LV (October, I967), l7.

 

3Margaret Prendergast Godfrey, "Staff Participation in Decision-
Making Procedures" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Connecticut, l968).

4"Teacher Involvement in School Policies and Procedures," Today's
Education, LVlll (April, I969), 6.

3|

free time for lunch and planning, smaller classes. It means contri-
buting to the improvement of the education provided for the school's
children by taking part in the design as well as the implementation
of that education. (40, 42, I78, 229, 245, 253)

Opinions expressed in the professional literature revealed
various explanations of other forces behind greater teacher involve-
ment in defining and interpreting the over-all aims of the school--
a greater voice in the formulation of school policy. In general
terms, the explosion of knowledge, the development of technology,
the increasing demand of minority groups for equal opportunities,
and the growing importance of education to each individual and to
society as a whole all have had an effect on the role of the teacher.
(92) These forces have enlarged the teacher's responsibilities in
several directions, one being as a contributor to the formulation of
educational policy who recognizes that the ultimate control of
education is justly and legally a public function. (92) In answer
to the question, "Who shall control our schools, laymen or profes-
sionals?", one writer expressed the belief that, for the past decade,
two major trends in the history of educational, social, and political
thought have been on a "collision course": the movement toward self-
determination for minorities in urban areas, focusing on community
control of various institutions, and the growth of teacher profes-

sionalization.5

 

5Arthur E. Salz, "Formula for Inevitable Conflict: Local
Control vs. Professionalism," Phi Delta Koppan, L (February, I969),
332.

 

32

Role of Professional Associations

 

That teachers are achieving increased professional status is
evidenced by their longer periods of pre-service training, their
organizing into tight-knit professional organizations, and by their
demanding more and more control over their work environment. (223)
One writer sees the I967 New York City teachers' union negotiations
with the school board as a major breakthrough and a vitally signifi-
cant trend toward professionalization.6 The collectively negotiated
contract he refers to went beyond the area of improved working
conditions, for it dealt with the expansion of the New York City
More Effective Schools Program. At stake was teachers' involvement
in making policy for the entire school system through committee
membership. (229) There are other examples of teachers' unions
having bargained for issues other than salaries, etc., issues such
as the amount of community support of schools, class size, standards
of employment of professional personnel, in-service training, and
educational programs and curriculum development. (63) However,
studies of six large-city school systems suggest that teacher
organizations have played a relatively limited role in the broader
area of school policymaking. Only New York City showed union involve—
ment in educational policy issues other than salary. (ll8)

Many writers are of the opinion that the growth of teacher
professionalism or the professionaiizatlon of teaching, along with

the increased bureaucratization of school organizations, especially

 

6Ibid., p. 333.

33

in large urban school systems, is giving additional strength to the
role of the professional teachers' organizations in deveIOping
educational policy and the general aims of the school system. (49,
60, 63, ll8, 223, 226, 229, 233, 245) Teacher organizations are
becoming more potent members of the educational community. (226)
However, one writer expressed surprise that both teachers and school
management seem to have accepted the "industrial relations approach"--
collective negotiations-~as the answer to teachers' search for power.
His objections are based on the fact that negotiations are conflict-
based and rule-oriented, and perhaps inappropriate in education.

His alternative separates the responsibility into two spheres--the
administrative functions carried out by school managers and the

supervisory functions carried out by teachers.7

Relationship with Administrators

The "Milquetoast teacher who came hat in hand begging for salary
increases" is fast disappearing.8 Teachers are becoming better
organized in their fight to have a greater say in the schools,
eSpecially because of the attitudes of school board officials and
school administrators. (25, I78, 226, 229, 245, 253) Research
studies, in two instances, found that teachers and administrators
disagreed about teachers' responsibilities in educational decision

making. (98, IO4) In Fishburn's study, teachers emphasized the

 

7Richard C. Williams, "An Academic Alternative to Collective
Negotiations," Phi Delta Kgppan, XLIX (June, I968), 572-573.

8

 

Salz, p. 332.

34

importance of their out-of-class reSponsibiIities as well as their
teaching responsibilities, while administrators overwhelmingly
emphasized teaching and mediating the culture as teachers' primary
responsibilities. (IO4) The National School Boards Association
issued a policy statement in I96I to the effect that "the decision-
making responsibility of local boards may not be delegated and
cannot be shared."9 One state commissioner of education made the
statement that boards of education in every school district should
make available to the staff "a comprehensive statement of policies

and procedures."'0

He then went on to say that policy considerations
should be a shared responsibility of the board members, the adminis-
tration, and the teachers. Teachers' professional aspirations and
militancy have brought them into sharp confrontation with the
traditional authority structure of the school, as predicted. (25, 229)
There are deveIOping, as a result, new concepts of employer-
employee relationships in the teaching profession. (94, 95, I78, 2I9,
226, 229, 245) Professional negotiations, by means of strong,
organized teachers' associations, are providing the process by which

teachers are obtaining the right to contribute to the formulation

of aims and policies of education. (94, 2l9, 245)

 

9Frank W. Lutz and Joseph J. Azzarelli (eds.), Struggle for Power
in Education (New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education,
Tfic., I966T, p. 3.

 

 

loJames E. Allen, Jr., "Guidelines for Staff Relationships,"
New York State Education, Llll (February, I966), 7.

 

35

Problems of Participation

 

A number of problems exist for teachers in assuming the
responsibility this right demands. One problem lies in the lack
of or difficulty in communications among teachers, administrators,
and school board members. (43, I48, I78, 226, 253, 268, 27I, 282)
One study revealed that incidents of disagreement occurred more
frequently between teachers and administrators than among teachers
themselves and that the single most frequent type of problem in

II One

teacher-administrator relationships was one of authority.
writer has claimed that teachers are "caught in a nutcracker,"

hearing two distinct, and contrary, calls from their administrators:
one, overt, to act and do; the second, subtle, to be "careful about

rocking the boat."'2

Teachers feel thwarted by their administrators
in their striving for a part in making consequential decisions
regarding education. (IO9, I78, 253, 282) A North Carolina study
has found that teachers, male teachers more than female, are more
favorably inclined toward collective negotiations as a means of
achieving their ends than are principals. (39) It has also been
said that teachers are more concerned with their organizations'
claiming their rights than with fulfilling their responsibilities.
(226) It is felt that the degree to which teachers will assume their

responsibilities depends to a great extent upon their feelings of

loyalty to the school. The writers of this statement described this

 

HRonald G. Corwin, "Staff Conflicts In the Public Schools"
(Columbus: The Ohio State University, I966), pp. 378-380.

'2Philip Freedman and Nathan Kravetz, "The Case of the Disadvan-
taged Teacher," School and Society, XCVI (March 30, I968), 202.

36
loyalty as evolving from common purposes and respect for the
school's aims and goals, as well as the people involved, and
from effective administrative Ieadership.'3
Another issue brought out in the professional literature was
one of time. in order to assume fully the reSponsibility of con-
tributing to the definition of the school's aims and goals, teachers
need time. (63, l09, 2l5, 253, 27I) Progress is being made to free
teachers from routine tasks and relieve teachers' frustrations from
the resulting pressures. Teachers claim they could do a great deal
more toward fulfilling their professional responsibilities if they
had more time to contribute to the decision making of the school.
(253) The NEA Department of Classroom Teachers initiated the "Time
to Teach Project" to give teachers the opportunity, and the time,
to solve some of the problems that confront them in their schools.
(2l5) Two surveys of utilization of teacher time, conducted in
I963 by the NEA and in I965 by Phi Delta Kappa, showed that teachers
spend a good deal of time, at least one-fourth to one-half of the
school day, in various nonteaching or extra-class activities. (63, I35)
At question, also, is whether teachers have perhaps become too
apathetic to make the efforts involved In educational decision making.
(I48, l57) One article included in the study facetiously suggested

that teachers with more than five years' experience be fired because

 

I3Harold C. White and John W. Lee, "What Boards Sometimes
Forget about Teacher Loyalty," The American School Board Journal,
CLV (June, I968), 24.

 

37

they tend to become "cozy," without incentive and sharpness.'4

The suggestion was made to involve teachers in "running the school

district" to overcome this problem.'5

Methods of Participation

The question of how teachers contribute to the development of
the schools' educational policies was also discussed in the profes-
sional literature. (43, 87, 94, ll9, I48) "Teacher power is the
potentiality which teachers have to influence collectively the
conditions under which they work, the rewards they receive, and
the educational work they perform."'6 For reasons of efficiency
and order, the exercise of this power soon becomes Institutionalized,
taking such forms as collective bargaining relationships, continuing
or formal participation In politics of the school (i.e., school board
screening committees, membership in lobbying blocs, etc.), and regular
appointments to decision-making committees. (233) One faculty council
described acts as an independent body, serving as a clearing house for
teacher pr0posals and reconmendations and a liaison between the
teachers and the administrators and school board members. (I48)
Other vehicles for teacher participation in decision making given
in the professional literature are faculty meetings, individual

teacher conferences, and grade-level and department meetings. (ll9)

 

'4"How to Keep Teachers on the Ball," School Management, X
(March, I966), 94.

 

'5lbid.

 

l6Pete Schnaufer, The Uses of Teacher Power (New York: American
Federation of Teachers, AFL-CIO, I966), p. 6.

 

38

Public Relations Responsibilities

Two of the subdivisions under this part of the California
definition of the teacher's out-of-class role as a member of a
school staff involve teachers' responsibilities for including the
public in making decisions about aims and goals and interpreting
these in terms of the school program. In view of developments in
collective negotiations and the current emphasis on professionalism
and teacher power, there is need for teachers to be concerned about
their public images. The publicity that salary negotiations receive
needs to be balanced by public awareness of teachers' commitment to
the educational needs of their school systems. (59, 68, 97, I89)
Aside from demonstrating their own concern and involvement, teachers
need also be concerned about the public--its attitudes and opinions
regarding the aims and goals of the schools. It is the duty of each
member of the school staff to be knowledgeable about his school
system and to be able to discuss it intelligently with others on the
staff and in the community. (ll, 32, 68, 85, 97, l24, I46, I93, I99)

The professional literature on this issue stresses the fact that
accomplishing this goal involves "two-way street" communication:
telling and listening. The classroom teacher who communicates most
effectively with the public regarding school issues will also listen
closely to what those outside the school have to say. (II, 85, 97, I99)
Feedback from the community is an essential component of an effective
public relations program and effective teacher-community involvement

in arriving at school aims and goals. (97)

39

The types of public relations activities that teachers can
utilize to work with the public in defining and interpreting school
aims and goals are teacher-community advisory councils, speakers'
bureaus, publicity releases to the various media, public liaison
committees, and other in-school activities such as open houses,
conferences, etc. (97, I49, I89, I93) Essential to each of these
measures are an honest approach and mutual respect. (I89, I99)
Teachers who do involve themselves in these kinds of activities
for the improvement of schools agree that they also need c00peration
from the administration and from various community and professional
agencies and organizations. (97, I99)

Two of the articles which stressed teachers' need to listen
to the community pointed out that listening should precede action.
(ll, 85) When teachers act upon "messages of the community," they
are more able to anticipate problems and misunderstandings. (II)
One writer viewed this issue as part of "what is wrong with the

'7 His point was that English teachers have

teaching of English."
not been made aware of the need to communicate to laymen the signi-
ficance of English; they only communicate with the public when trouble

arises and the backing and support of the community are needed.

Censorship, School Aims, and Public Relations

A major Issue discussed in the professional literature which is

relevant to the point of working with the community is censorship.

 

'7Kenneth L. Donelson, "Playing the Game in English Teaching,"
The CIearinngouse, XLlIl (April, I969), 480.

 

40

The censorship issue is a concern of all teachers, not only English
teachers, as it concerns not only the textbooks and literary
selections used in the schools but also the basic issue of the

aims and goals of the schools.

Teachers of English share with others a concern lest the
free exchange of ideas in school and college, no less
than in American society as a whole, be restricted by
irresponsible efforts to limit access to controversial
books. They share with parents an obligation to help
young people cope with ideas, distinguish the valid
from the invalid, develop standards for discrimination.
And they share the reSponsibility of introducing these
readers to some of the great literary works of American
culture, many of which present controversial ideas and
images with all the richness and power of language that
the great artist can command.l8

At stake in censorship issues between the school or the teacher and
community groups is a fundamental aim of education, preparation of
youth for their roles as citizens in a free society. (I3, 54, l08,
l20, l59, 236) In a nation which has strong convictions about the
subject matter taught and the materials used in public schools,
individuals and groups employ censoring tactics to reserve freedom
through reinforcing what its proponents regard as the true values
and beliefs. (I3)

To the teacher, any attempt by outsiders to censor

teaching materials is self-evidently wrong. To the

censor, it is self-evident that a responsible society
must supervise what is taught to its children.'9

 

'BJames R. Squire, "Preface," in John P. Frank and Robert F.
Hogan, Obscenity, the Lawyyand the English Teacher (Champaign:
National Council of Teachers of English, I966), p. v.

 

'9Wayne C. Booth, "Censorship and the Values of Fiction,"
English Journal, Llll (March, I964), p. l55.

 

4|

Teachers accept their responsibility to educate youth to succeed
at home, at school, and in society and that their purposes must
reflect the society in which we live. (54, l20, l59, 273)
Although the censorship of textbooks and other materials is
and should be of concern to all teachers, all of the professional
literature located for this study was written by and/or for those
concerned with either school libraries or the teaching of English.
That a great deal has been written on this complex subject is
evidenced by the bibliography of materials on censorship included

in the February, I969, issue of the Arizona English Bulletin, an

 

issue devoted entirely to the subject of censorship and the English
teacher. (70) The information contained in the articles on censor-
ship included in this study can be interpreted for use for all
teachers.

Textbooks of all kinds, and social studies textbooks more
frequently than English textbooks, were the basis of censorship
Issues in nearly a third of the state legislatures from I957 to
I962.20 These are times of widespread criticism of schools, finances,
policies, school staff, and books and times of growing concern of
schools with their public images and relations. (4, 273, 283) One
writer blamed the increased militancy of teachers and instructional

improvement leading to a more individualized selection of reading

material for the increased censorship activity.2| Certainly, the

 

20Harry Bach, "Censorship of Library Books and Textbooks In
American Schools," Journal of Secondary Education, XL (January, I965),
4.

 

2'Lee A. Burress, Jr., "Censorship and the Public Schools," The
American Library Association Bulletin, LIX (June, I965), 49I.

42

phenomenal growth of the paperback book industry, making access to
reading of all kinds, the emphasis on the study of contemporary
literature, and concern for the relevance of education to all
segments of society have also Spurred censors and censorship,
criticism of the books and materials and the reading lists of today's
high school and college classes. (I08, 283)

The prevailing attitude of the writers of the pieces on censor-
ship in this study was that as citizens of a democratic society, all
have the right to voice Opinions, to express approval, to criticize.
(I3, 24, 54, 65, 82, 83, I08, 273, 283) They stress the necessity
for the criticism to be honest and informed lest the criticism and
concern become a censorship that endangers the freedom guaranteed
by a democracy. Censorship is not a regulation for freedom of
movement, but a restriction upon some to satisfy the moral standards
of others, "class legislation," in a sense. (I30)

Of concern to the authors of these professional writings are
the results and effects of uninformed, Irrational censorship that
restricts or proscribes the use of specific books in the public
schools. Results of censorship attacks are varied. Administrators
and school board members may or may not support the teachers and
their choice of materials. Some cases have been decided by courts
of law, teachers have been fired, committees have been formed to
remove from the schools any "twentieth century trash." (54) Teachers
and administrators have been bullied into submission by vocal book
censors. (I66) The teacher's act of selection and rejection of text-

books and reading materials is in itself a form of censorship. (I9,

24, 207, 236, 262, 283) The fact that It is a benign form of censorship

43

is based on the idea that teachers, because of their training and
experience, are the best qualified to exercise the professional
judgment necessary for book selection. It is the professional right
and responsibility of teachers to choose their own teaching
materials. (I3, 24, 54, 65, 82, l59, 236, 262, 273, 283) However,
the fear of censorship has caused and is causing many teachers to
restrict themselves to "safe books," to books that are not likely

to cause problems with the administration and the community. (I9,
36, 83, l6l, I66, 235) This self-censorship provoked by fear is
prevalent throughout the country, among administrators and school

librarians, as well as teachers. (I3, 36, 54, I3l, I66, 235)

Anticipating Censorship

 

The concern teachers and administrators have for community
approval of instructional materials is understandable and necessary.
However, censoring books and materials on the basis of fear of
reprisal negates the purpose of education to prepare youth for
responsible citizenship by denying access and free choice. What
is recommended by the authors of these articles and studies is a
concerted effort on the part of teachers, librarians, and adminis-
trators to be prepared for censorship before it occurs. A first
step recommended is that of establishing book selection committees
and/or written policies of book selection. (I3, 36, 82, 83, ISI,
I47, 273, 283) One writer described a well-organized program of
book selection that relates to both the community and the total

educational program as "the only long-term way to secure the schools

44

against the inroads of unwarranted censorship."22

A Wisconsin study
of censorship conducted in the early l960's concluded that wise

book selection, or selection of "good quality books," did not prevent
censorship, since schools which did have such procedures still
experienced incidents of censorship. (36) However, the writer
agrees with the consensus of opinion that book selection should be
based on a formal procedure involving a number of people: first,
teachers; then, administrators, school board members, and the public.
What is suggested is a bringing together of all the forces available
to insure teachers' rights to freedom of choice of materials. A
formal book selection procedure, which would apply to all teaching
materials in all the disciplines, requires that the teacher who
recommends use of a particular book present a written statement
attesting to the value of the book. (83, 283) "Of basic importance
In this recommendation should be the proposed contribution of the
book to the total program for the grade level to which it has been
recommended, and, if possible, its value to the curriculum in
general."23 The book selection committee then gathers together all
available information on the books, including reviews and comments
from other teachers, librarians, administrators, and organizational
endorsements, etc. If the book selection committee is operating

solely within a particular department, efforts should be made to

 

22W. Winston Young, "Censorship: The Need for a Positive Program
to Prevent it," The Growing Edges of English, edited by Charles Suhor,
John Sawyer Mayher, and FranRTJ. D‘Angelo (Champaign: National Council
of Teachers of English, I968), 202.

23lbid., p. 206.

 

45

include teachers out of the department. (54, 283) All the Opinions
and information gathered on books and materials accepted for use in
the school should be maintained in department and library files and
be made available to all interested parties. (I3, 24, 54, 83, l62,
283) Thus, teachers and the schools are providing themselves with
specific defenses in the event censorship attack comes. (24, 83)
Publicizing the book selection procedures and lists of textbooks

and other materials in use in the schools is also recommended. (I3,
36, 54, 82, l08, I47, l59, 207, 283) This can be done by circulating
lists, taking part in various media presentations, or having PTA
meetings based on book discussions. This Is helpful in attempting
to test the reactions of parents and the public to new titles added
to reading lists and new textbooks added to the curriculum. (283)

Another step in this "before-the-fact" preparation for censor-
ship attacks as suggested by the writers is for teachers to be willing
to confront the issue Openly with students. (I9, 83, I08, 207, 236,
273) This is not to imply that teachers should encourage indiscrimi-
nate reading, but they should be ready and willing to discuss any book
with any student who wishes it. (236)

One article presented a list of seven responsibilities of a
department in dealing with censorship. Although the author speaks
specifically about English departments, the responsibilities he
includes are pertinent to all departments:

I. TO establish and maintain a nucleus of English teachers

who know literature well and who understand what consti-
tutes literary merit and adolescent appeal in any work.

II. TO know and to understand the implications Of arguments
for and against censorship.

46

III. TO develop an English department capable of fighting
censorship through discussion Of works likely to be
attacked and to implement a formal policy for hand-
ling attempted censorship.

IV. TO prepare a rationale or defense for any book to
be taught in any class by any teacher.

V. TO communicate to the public and to students what is
going on in the English classroom and why it is going
on.

VI. To woo community supporters of academic freedom and
to gain their support before censorship strikes.

Vll. TO recognize that the censor may sometimes have a
legitimate complaint and to recognize that not all
English teachers are defensible, either for what
they teach or how they teach.24

Handling Censorship Incidents

 

However, according to the writers Of the articles and studies
included in this study, censorship Of some type and at some time is
almost an inevitability, and an unpredictable one at that. (24, 36,
54, 83, I62, 235) Four studies, aimed at discovering the prevalence
Of censorship pressures on the public schools, found that censorship
is a prominent part of school life. (4, 36, 8|, l6l) Aside from
the "before-the-fact" procedures described, the writers strongly
recommended the establishment Of a formal, fair process whereby
censors can make their Objections known, for censors must be listened
to. (I3, 54, 65, 82, 83, l20, 273, 283) Groups such as the National
Council of Teachers of English, the American Library Association, the

American Book Publishers' Council, the American Civil Liberties Union,

 

24Kenneth L. Donelson, "Challenging the Censor: Some Responsi-
bilities of the English Department," English Journal, LVlll (September,
l969), 87l-874.

 

47

the National Education Association, and the National School Boards
Association have published statements to guide schools with censor-
ship problems. (283) The I962 publication Of the Committee on the
Right to Read of the National Council of Teachers of English, entitled
The Students' Right to Read, contains a suggested format for a formal
statement from a censor, "Citizen's Request for Reconsideration of a
Book." It is to this procedure that many Of the writers make refer-
ence. (82, l20, l6l, 283) One very basic point that the statement
attempts to ascertain is whether the complainant has read the entire
text he Objects to. Censors are so often guilty Of not having read
what they wish removed from schools and shelves. (l58) The state-
ment also requires the complainant to present his objections in
writing, an attempt to reverse the procedure and put the censor on
the defensive. (I88)

Teachers involved in censorship incidents are advised, first
and foremost, to remain calm. (I3, 24, 82) It is essential that
all censorship disputes be conducted in an Open atmosphere, that
other teachers, the administration, parents, and the public be made
aware of the issue and the steps taken to resolve it. (I3, 36, 54,
82) Opinions vary as to the arguments teachers should use in dealing
with an attack on a specific book or textbook. Some suggest defending
choices on the basis Of the principles of freedom to read, the pro-
fessional rOSponsibility Of teachers (and/or librarians), and the
moral value Of good literature, rather than on the basis of the merits
Of the book itself. (2, I3, 283) If the book has been approved by

the department according to a well-organized procedure, the censor can

be informed that his Objections and viewpoints regarding censorship Of

48

the book are within his rights for himself or his own child but not
for others. (36, 283) It is also recommended that books be defended
on the basis of their individual merit. (24, 36, 54, 83)

What teachers are advised to consider in handling censorship is
that censors are Of two types: the rational and the irrational.
Some censors are "men Of good will whose values, at certain points,
coincide with ours. . . . Most censors want to preserve some form
of society in which they can exercise their own freedom."25 Censors
are usually pleasant and decent adults who are concerned about some-
thing specific they have seen in a book and are objecting to the book
on that basis. (I3, 36, 82) Reactionary censors are described as
having:

I. A threatening attitude

2. A belief in personal superiority, a conviction others
would be gravely injured by what he wants to surpress

3. An absolute lack of a sense of humor

4. A tendency to make the part stand for the whole and
making it seem that incidental factors are true for
the whole book

5. Lack of knowledge

6. NO understanding Of history, a lack Of realization that
their game Is one of the Oldest and most unsuccessful
in the world

7. Absence of belief in freedom of expression

8. A tendency to bypass and disregard well-established
policies and procedures, an unwillingness tO be con-
fronted with Obstacles in the way Of policies
regulations, and well-established practices.26

 

25Boo+h, p. I55.

26Bach, pp. 9-II.

49

Teachers are also advised to keep informed-about censorship cases
and decisions, about phiIOSOphical arguments Opposing censorship,
and about using methods of literary criticism for defending books.

(86)

Development of a School Program

 

Just as teachers, by virtue Of their training and experience,
have the right and responsibility to take part in defining and inter-
preting the over-all aims Of the school, they also have the right and
responsibility to contribute to the development of the school program
to achieve its aims. (I, 40, 43, 56, 68, Il9, l29, I72, I86, 204,
240) This, according to the California definition, involves parti-
cipating in all-school curriculum developments by utilizing effective
curriculum building procedures and keeping up with deveIOpments in
curriculum patterns and projects. The issue of teachers' involvement
in curriculum development is similar to the previously discussed
problem Of defining over-all aims of the school. Curriculum is a
matter of vital concern to all teachers, it is an issue that is
becoming part of the collective bargaining and teacher power move-
ments, and curriculum deveIOpment necessitates cooperative efforts

on the part Of teachers and supervisors.

involvement in Curriculum Development

The issue Of teachers' involvement in curriculum development does
not seem to be one that is contested to any extent by those within the

educational community. It has, though, been the subject to some degree

50

of bargaining efforts undertaken by teachers' unions. (63, ll8)
Whether curriculum development'lg an issue rightly in the realm Of
teachers' unions is a controversial point. One writer declares that
teachers want to negotiate about "the nature of the districts' educa-
tional programs," along with issues of conditions Of employment and
their professional duties.27 A survey Of teacher organization
leadership in five metropolitan areas showed that these leaders
viewed their own power as low in the area Of curriculum. Three of
the five preferred to rely on other professionals in the school
system to make policy in areas other than salaries. (ll8) Other
writers are Of the Opinion that the teacher power movement is too
new and too involved in major salary disputes and establishing its
rightful place in education to have accomplished much in the area Of
curriculum development and development of the total school program,
though it should and most likely will. (I29, 278) Another writer
is of the Opinion that:

The approach to negotiations that may Offer the best pros-

pects for the future is to limit discussions at the

negotiating table as much as possible to such items as

salaries and basic conditions Of employment and to provide

for year round study committees Of teachers and adminis-

trators to consider such professional problems as

curriculum, textbooks, and teaching techniques. 8

The few research studies found in the professional literature

pertinent to this issue Of teachers and curriculum development were

 

27William H. Medlyn, "First Swallow Hard: 'Bilateral' Management
is What Teachers Are After," American School Board Journal, CLVl
(April, l969), l2.

28Joan Roos Egner and Kenneth Lane, "Collective Bargaining and
Administrative Prerogatives," Peabodnyournal of Education, XLVI
(November, I968), pp. l45-l46.

 

5|

aimed at determining to what extent teachers do participate or should
participate. (40, 98, ll9, 266) The Connecticut study Of 564 prin-
cipals found that there was little evidence of teachers' involvement
in curriculum decisions and textbook selection, though these areas
were Of concern to the staffs. (ll9) The Oregon study found that
teacher interest in formal participation, defined as membership on
committees charged with making recommendations or being given the
authority to establish policy, was highest in matters pertaining to
the economic welfare Of teachers and to curriculum. Curriculum
included three areas: organization and content Of the curriculum,
curriculum planning and development, and selection of instructional
supplies. However, a majority Of the administrators, school board
members, and community influentials included In the study agreed
that formal participation Of teachers was appropriate in only one

of the three curriculum areas: curriculum planning and development.
(40) The Wisconsin study Of thirty-one public school systems found
that the teachers who were involved in curriculum planning were more
willing to implement curriculum changes. (98) The fourth study, an
Opinion pOll Of teachers, found that seventy-two per cent Of the
respondents believed negotiating for instructional supplies was a

concern Of teachers. (266)

Organizational Structure and Climate

Organizational structure and climate have a great deal to do with
the extent Of teachers' participation in curriculum development activi-

ties. (22, 4o, 43, 45, l03, ll9, I7l, 230) The authors of a book that

52

is pointed toward preparing teachers for the wide variety Of
instructional duties and responsibilities in addition to teaching
itself and toward familiarizing teachers with professional organ-
izations and Obligations stressed that certain aSpects of the
curriculum of the public schools is determined by state and local
law and regulations, such as the use Of state curriculum guides or
teaching units on alcohol, tobacco, and narcotics.29 The teacher,
according to the authors, "has the responsibility to use his best
professional judgment in deciding whether to teach about a particular
issue and in seeing that instruction remains within the limits set
by the board," adding that "the good teacher will live a little
dangerously."3O

Aside from the problems of the pre-determined curriculum, other
writers were also concerned with other effects elaborate hierarchies
have upon teachers and curriculum development. (I7l) One writer
believes that many responsibilities, including curriculum development,
have been moved to levels above the teacher by the creation Of such
positions as department heads, assistant principals, curriculum
coordinators, and other supervisory personnel. (I7l) He paints a
bleak picture:

. . . where bureaucratization Of schools restricts,

routinizes, and specializes his subject-matter reSpon-

sibility; where decision making is limited to the trivia

Of daily instruction; where "groupism" replaces Indivi-

dual initiative; where curriculum is pre-developed for
the teacher's ready digestion and regurgitation; where

 

29Chamberlain, Kindred, and Mickelson, p. 59.

30lbid., p. 34l.

53

clerical tasks occupy a substantial portion Of teacher

time; and where he is rewarded gy his superiors for

conforming, dependent behaVior.

This writer sees, though, the teacher moving into a position as a
professional resource, an Operational curriculum writer or developer
who coordinates his individual instructional program.

More highly organized school systems also promote problems Of
staff relationships and make essential strong, COOperative efforts
on the part Of teachers to work with each other and with their
supervisors. Research in small-group dynamics has shown that a
high level of satisfactory peer activity seems to be important in
effective governmental and industrial organization, and that peer-
group cohesion, loyalty, and Open communication channels among group
members seem to decrease alienation and improve worker satisfaction
and effectiveness. (45) Several writers agree that similar bene-
ficial effects result in schools where staff relationships are Open
and free. (22, 33, 45, 67, 78, l03, I60, 230) Writers believe and
research has found that school leaders must provide Opportunities
for teachers to relate to one another for effective, lasting educa-
tional improvement in schools. Teachers who associate with one
another, on committees or simply by traveling to school together,
are more likely to know and support each other's ideas. (43, 45)

A study of the organizational climate Of thirty-three high schools
in Minnesota found that principals and teachers did not agree in
their estimates Of the various dimensions Of the organizational

climate Of their schools, implying problems of communication in these

 

3'Dean M. Laux, "A New Role for Teachers?", Phi Delta Knppan,
XLVI (February, I965), 266.

 

54

schools. (230) Another study pointed to a trend for principals

to perceive what transpires in their faculty meetings differently
than do teachers; another problem of interpersonal relations which
tends to debilitate the effect of the faculty meeting as a device

for development of educational programs. (22)
Role of Departments

The professional literature points out, then, the importance of
teachers' working together to improve their schools. It stresses
that individual teachers have little opportunity for curriculum
organization, planning, and development and selection of instructional
supplies because Of the highly structured nature Of today's schools.
Much of this work is done in groups by committees and/or within
departments. The National Council of Teachers Of English Conference
on High School English Departments recommended that:

All teachers should be involved in discussing the philo-

sophical Issues underlying curricular decisions, but the

responsibility for writing guides and preparing materials
evolved from these decisions should be assigned to a few
teachers who are given released time for this additional

work, or, preferably, compensatory pay for work during

periods when school is not in session.

One writer expressed the Opinion that teachers need the sharing of
experience, the mutual encouragement and confirmation that working

as a group can Offer. (78) The group situation suggested by the

writers for carrying out much Of the responsibility of curriculum

 

32Conference on High School English Departments, High School
Departments Of English: Their Organization, AdministraTion, and
‘Sipervision (Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English,
I964), p. l7.

 

55

deveIOpment is the subject department. (56, 7i, 78, l03, I42, 23I) An
organization such as a subject department stimulates the interaction of
teachers. One writer states: "if each subject department accepts the
function Of implementing the educational Objectives of the school as a
whole, through a committee of chairmen and interdepartmental curriculum

committees, the possibility Of a synoptic curriculum seems enhanced

.1033

Though the major emphasis Of the professional literature included
in this area of this study is on the role Of the department itself
and the department chairman, some of the information is primarily
directed at teachers themselves. All teachers have a stake in the
organization of their departments. (IO3) Teachers should willingly
and actively participate in the administration of department activi-
ties. (23l) For a department to function effectively, teachers must
see themselves as part Of the department. (IO3)

Department meetings provide teachers with intellectual and
pedagogical stimulation. (I42) One writer indicates five basic
functions Of a subject department:

I. TO decide what to teach, when, and to whom

2. To improve and capitalize on the department's material
and personnel resources

3. To implement the educational objectives Of the school
as a whole

4. TO give continuity to the program

 

33Bryant Fillion, "Designs in Departmental Organization: Problems
and Alternatives," The Growing Edges of Secondarnyngiish, edited by
Charles Suhor, John Sawyer Mayher, and’Frank‘J.’D'AngeTO (Champaign:
National Council Of Teachers Of English, l968), p. i70.

56

5. To promote the continuous revision and updating
of the program34

Other writers agree, and also stress the point that the department is
the locus of much of an individual teacher's opportunity to keep up
with curricular developments and take part in textbook and other
instructional materials selection. (56, 7|, l03, I42, 23l) Department
meetings are logical places for discussions Of developments in curri-
culum. (7i, I42) In addition, textbook selection procedures within
departments provide Opportunities for teachers tO participate in
discussions Of classroom practices, course Objectives, and trends

concerning their subject matter. (23l)

Responsibility for Over-All School Activities

 

The third aspect Of the out-of-class role of the teacher as a
member Of a school staff involves the teacher's responsibilities for
student activities and the Operation Of the school as a whole. The
researcher located very few pieces Of professional writing aimed at
providing definitive discussions Of the teacher's duties and respon-
sibilities in these areas. Many articles in the professional
literature dealt primarily with information about procedures for
specific kinds of student clubs or extracurricular activities. Also,
there were many articles written about the growing trend toward the
employment Of paraprofessionals (differentiated staffing) in schools

to alleviate the problems of overburdened classroom teachers.

 

34lbid., pp. l76-l77.

57

Planning and Guiding Student Activities

Planning and guiding student activities and assuming appropriate
administrative responsibility for the operation of the school involve
a good many hours of a teacher's week. A I965 study of 630 elementary
and secondary school teachers in lndiana showed that those teachers
in the study spent about three hours a week in building assignments
(lunchroom and hall supervision, etc.); two to four hours a week in
meetings and student activities; lOO to 300 hours a year in paid
activities such as coaching and advising for the yearbook; twenty-five
to fifty hours a year in unpaid extra assignments (chaperoning,
ticket-taking); and seventeen to eighteen hours a week in class
preparation, grading, record-keeping, other student supervision,
and conferences with students and parents. (l35) One writer notes:
"There should be no question that a teacher has obligations beyond
those directly related to the meeting of a limited number of
classes."35 These obligations or "duties" are the "extra-class"
assignments all teachers must expect. (II6, l74, 203, 243) There
is a question of reasonableness in the assignment of these duties;
school boards and administrators are advised not to assign extra-
curricular activities which are not professional, too demanding, or
not reasonably related to the school program. (203, 243) Although
all teachers can expect extracurricular duties, some writers are of

the opinion that teachers of English can be particularly overburdened.

 

35William S. Sterner, "Extracurricular Duties and the Law,"
School Activities, XXXVlll (September, l966), l9.

 

58

(II6, I74) The teacher of English plays a key role in the total
activities program because so many of the school activities are
language-centered. (I74) For this reason, many English teachers
and English departments have difficulty determining their prime
responsibilities and maintaining the premise that English teachers
have no greater responsibility in achieving all the worthwhile aims
of the school system than do other teachers. (ll6) It is a shared

reSponsibility.

Assisting in Administrative Operation of the School

The search for information relevant to the teacher's responsi-
bility to assist in the administrative operation of the school yielded
just two pieces of professional literature. A l964 study of seventy-
four principals, forty elementary school teachers, and forty-nine
secondary school teachers revealed that teachers are mainly negative
and/or neutral about faculty meetings, while the principals' attitudes
were positive. The study found that the teachers were primarily
concerned with the immediate problems of their classrooms; the
principals were concerned with the whole school. (7)

The other professional writing was a book about the administration
of schools for teachers, written because the authors believed that many
persons enter teaching with little understanding of how the school
system is administered. This lack of knowledge of how all the com-
ponents of a school system-teachers, administrators, and school board
members-work together to bring about the smooth functioning of the

school serves as a divisive wedge among these groups. (l33)

59

' Evaluation of the School Program

 

This area received virtually no attention in the professional
literature available for this study. One writer made mention of
the teacher's need to be c00perative and efficient with reports and
records and with supervisors and principals who observe and evaluate
the teaching performance. (276) Three others referred to the pro-
blem of a lack of harmony and cooperativeness that exists between
teachers and counselors. (l2, l34, I65) An essential aspect of
this area is participating in the collection of relevant evidence,
which involves cooperating with the guidance staff of the schools.
The increasing size of the guidance staff in the schools has brought
to the fore the lack of rapport that is prevalent with teachers and
counselors. (l65) One writer feels that the friction is inevitable
because teachers and counselors evaluate students from a different
frame of reference; their goals and means of assessment are at odds.
(l2) Another says, "Professionals within the school need to under-
stand that the classroom and the counseling office cannot be exclusive

and protected domains of jealous practitioners."36

 

36Brian R. G. Heath, "Letters . . . and Comments," Personnel
and Guidance Journal, XLVI (January, I968), 505.

 

CHAPTER IV

MEMBER OF THE PROFESSION

Introduction

 

The out-of-class role of the teacher as a member of the profession
concerns involvement with the status and effectiveness of the profes-
sion, its members and its organizations. The California definition
delineates this role into five major components: (a) demonstrates
an appreciation of the social importance of the profession, (b) contri-
butes to the development of professional standards, (c) contributes to
the profession through its organizations, (d) takes a personal respon-
sibility for his own professional growth, and (e) acts on a systematic
philosophy, critically adopted and consistently applied.

Under the first area, the California definition includes rendering
appropriate service to society beyond that for which contracted, con-
tributing to the honor and prestige of the profession by personal
conduct, upgrading professional standards through selective recruit-
ment and retention, and interpreting to others the goals and practices
of the profession. The second component includes taking part in the
development of a functional code of ethics, adhering to the accepted
code of ethics, helping to enforce the code of ethics in upgrading
standards of professional behavior, supporting an adequate system of
certification and accreditation, and helping improve pre-service and
in-service programs of preparation. The professional-organizations

60

6|

area involves membership in the organization, taking an active part
in the formulation of the organizational policies, supporting the
policy formed until it is changed by democratic process, and seeking
and supporting legislative programs to improve the program of educa-
tion as well as the economic and social status of the profession.
Under part four, the role definition includes developing and testing
more effective classroom procedures; keeping informed on current
trends, tendencies, and practices in his field by use of professional
literature; participating in conferences, workshops, etc., dealing
with professional problems; and enlarging horizons through academic
and non-academic experiences. The last component concerns expressing
a systematic philosophy of education held with deep personal convic-
tion, identifying and clarifying the philosophical assumptions
underlying various and conflicting policies for his work in the

six roles of professional practice, and utilizing explicitly his
phi|050phical views in making consistent choices of educational
policies and practices.

This sixth section of the California teacher role definition,
then, adds a great deal of reSponsibility to the teacher's out-of-
class role. Teachers' recognition and comprehension of this area
is perhaps a vital issue today because of the current turmoil in
the profession regarding its status and economic welfare.

The professional writings and research reports included in this
study relevant to this topic of a teacher's out-of-class responsi-
bilities as a member of the profession emphasized several broad areas
of concern. A total of I78 different pieces of professional literature

were found. The sixty-three professional writings and research reports

62

which contained information for teachers about the first and fifth
components of this role, the profession and the professional teacher,
included discussions of the issues of teaching as a profession and
the teacher as a professional person, attitudes of professional
teachers toward their profession, and professional teacher behavior,
including information on the code of ethics of the profession.

The forty pieces of professional literature pertinent to the
third component of the role definition, contribution to professional
organizations, contained information about membership in professional
organizations, the union-professional organization rivalry, and active
participation in professional organizations.

Forty additional articles, books, and research reports were
located containing information relevant to the second component,
development of professional standards. Included were information
and discussions about recruitment of teachers, retention of good
teachers, and the improvement of pre- and in-service programs of
preparation.

The last component dealt with in this report, responsibility
for individual professional growth, was the topic of seventy-three
pieces of professional literature. Included in the information were
discussions about teachers' need for individual programs of profes-
sional growth, types of professional growth activities, and time for
professional growth and development.

Of the I78 pieces of professional literature included in this
chapter, only twelve were definitely identified as being written by

classroom teachers.

63

The Profession and the Professional Teacher

 

There were several pieces of professional literature located for
this study which were concerned with the issue of whether teaching is
a profession. (9, 6|, 62, 87, 90, lI2, l25, IS3, I73, l80, l84, I98,
22l, 229)* The writers believe that professionalism is crucial for
education and for teachers and there is a need to arrive at an
appropriate definition of teaching as a profession. The following
is a composite of the criteria of a profession which fit or should
fit education, synthesized from the articles which suggested defini-
tions of teaching as a profession. A profession:

I. Involves activities essentially intellectual

2. Commands a body of specialized knowledge

3. Requires extended professional preparation

4. Demands continuous ln-service growth

5. Affords a life career and permanent membership

6. Sets up its own standards

7. Exalts service above personal gain

8. Has a strong, closely knit, professional organization

9. Provides an essential service to mankind

I0. Bases its methods and practices on research

ll. Has a written statement of objectives in the form of
a code of ethics

l2. Uses the power of the professional organization to
impose a discipline upon its members to insure the
ethical conduct of members

*Numbers in parentheses refer to the Source List, listed in
Appendix 8. pp. l23-l43.

64

I3. Controls entry into and expulsion from its membership

(87, 9o, lI2, l25, ISO, 153, I73, I98, 22:, 229, 234, 244)

In I963 the National Education Association issued a position
paper stating the premises upon which the work of the Commission
on Teacher Education and Professional Standards is based:

l. Teaching is a profession to the degree that its
members are professional.

2. Education is a public responsibility in a free society.
3. Autonomy is requisite to professional effectiveness.
4. Many diverse groups must work together in education.

5. The teaching profession must be open to diverse and
conflicting opinion.

6. High standards of preparation and practice are essen-
tial for better education.

7. Innovation is essential to progress in teacher
education.I

Professionalism of Teachers

Writers expressed concern for the issue of the professionalism
of teachers under the present conditions in public education. (9,
29, 90, l25, l50, l53, I73, 256) Some were of the opinion that
teachers do not possess adequate knowledge of the obligations and
privileges of professional status, that teachers are not fully aware
of the implications of professional status. (9, I53, I73) One

writer suggested that education take a cue from other professions

 

|National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards, A Position Paper on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards (Washington, D.C.: NationaTTEducation Association, I963),

9P0 2’2-

65
and offer specific courses that would emphasize ethical behavior and
reSponsibilities of membership in the teaching profession. (l53)
Another writer considered the large number of women in teaching to
be a serious problem in the achievement of professionalization. He
asserted that three of the common criteria for a profession that are
difficult to fulfill because of the majority of women in teaching are
the extended period of preparation, continued in-service growth, and

achievement of a life career with permanent membership.2

Attitudes of Professional Teachers

A problem basic to this aSpect of the teacher's role as a member
of the profession is, then, teachers' attitudes toward their profes-
sion. (8, 23, 43, ll5, l52, I63, 206, 22l, 260, 263) A frustrated,
unhappy teacher cannot carry on the responsibilities of his profession
and conduct himself as a professional person. The status and prestige
of the teaching profession have a good deal of influence on teachers,
their attitudes, and their occupational commitments. (43, ll5)

Part of being a professional person and conducting oneself as a
professional involves setting an example by Speaking up for the pro-
fession and protecting its image. (37, 92, I77, I92, 2ll, 260) The
writers cited enthusiastic, optimistic, verbal teacher behavior as an
effective means of promoting the profession, retaining good teachers,

and recruiting new teachers.

 

2Samuel Brodbelt, "Teacher Professionalization: lts Determina-
tion and Achievement,"'$chool and Society, XCVIl (March, l969), l5l.

 

66

The search of the professional literature revealed differing
opinions regarding teachers' attitudes toward their profession. There
are in the profession today three kinds of teachers, according to one
writer: "dilettantes," who feel no commitment to teaching but are its
most vocal critics; "technicians," who perform as skilled laborers; and
"professionals,“ who perform as responsibly as possible.3 A study of
392 beginning teachers in Georgia who left their teaching positions
after one year revealed that 226 were truly dropouts, teachers who left
the profession permanently, for such reasons as disillusionment by the
lack of ethics and professional pride among the more experienced
teachers and the lack of inspiration and encouragement from their
professional organizations. (23)

One writer is of the Opinion that teaching lacks the occupational
commitment of other professions because a teacher, during his training
and teaching service, does not accumulate any "valuables of a kind that
would be lost to him if he makes a change."4 She cites such points as
the low prestige of teaching, the lack of a body of knowledge or skills
which would make it a social waste if the teacher did not use them, no
investment of time and money beyond a usual college education, lack of a
strong professional association which could protect teachers from the
encroachment of the partially trained, and lack of opportunity for

advancement without experience in the classroom and additional education.

(IIS)

 

3Clark Oliver, "We Are a Profession," Michigan Education Journal,
XLIV (May I, I967), 38.

 

4Blanche Geer, "Occupational Commitment and the Teaching Pro-
fession," The School Review, LXXXV (Spring, I966), 32.

 

67

Two surveys were made of teachers' attitudes toward teaching
and teachers, in terms of occupational commitment. (I7, 263) One
was based on a questionnaire replied to by fifty teachers enrolled
in a summer course for teachers in gifted programs. The findings
pertinent to this issue are:

80% would choose teaching again

62% would encourage a son to teach

56% do not think that successful businessmen want their
sons to teach

85% do not agree that teachers are people of low drives,
ambitions, and material needs

45% feel there is no other occupation in which they
would be happier

62% do not feel the public believes teachers are
failures

87% have noticed improvements in teacher status
69% have not been embarrassed for being a teacher5
The other survey investigated how teachers view their colleagues, using
the opinions of fifty elementary school teachers who had one year of
teaching experience but were older, having been recruited into teaching
from other careers. These teachers tended to perceive teachers as
falling into two groups: the "dedicated" and those who see teaching

as "only a job."6 The basic differentiating characteristic appeared

to be the degree of commitment to a teaching career; the greater

 

5Gerald Webb, "What do Teachers Think of Teaching?", Illinois
Education, LIV (March, l966), 3|3.

6Michael V. Belok, "Career Orientations-~a Teacher Typology,"
Education, LXXXVI (October, I965), l02-l03.

68

proportion of the teachers in the study emphasized the dedication of
teachers and their interest in their work. (l7)

Three other studies pertinent to the issue of teacher attitudes
were located in the professional literature. (8, 73, I52) All three
studies compared attitudes, the attitudes of teachers rated most
professional and least professional by their administrators, the
attitudes of teachers who are members of the National Education
Association and teachers who are members of the American Federation
of Teachers, the attitudes of teachers and state association leader-
ship personnel. The first study found that the teachers rated as
most professional had a higher average score on nine of the ten items
investigated: competency image of the teacher, authority, profes-
sional spirit, personal autonomy for the teacher, status symbol,
solidarity, service first, safeguarding individuality, and professional
education. (8) The second study found no real difference between NEA
and AFT teachers insofar as their professional attitudes; both were
"professional." (73) The third study found that association leaders
viewed activities and conditions designed to foster professional
advancement and associational gains more positively than did the
teachers, and the two groups did not differ significantly on views
toward activities and conditions designed to improve working rights
and privileges. They agreed that teaching should have professional

status, though they differed on acceptance of responsibilities asso-

ciated with professional status. (l52)
According to the writers, a professional person is characterized
by his attitudes toward: (I) the client, (2) his colleagues, (3) par-

ticipation in decision making, and (4) his monopoly of skill and

69
knowledge. (6|, 62, I84) Thus, teaching can be seen as a profession
if its members are professional in attitudes and actions. In a
study which examined how teachers think others expect them to behave,
a list of teacher activities which represented behaviors that
teachers themselves thought to be important or controversial in
their social relations included attending PTA meetings regularly,
accepting nonprofessional duties willingly, maintaining orderliness
and quietness in the classroom, encompassing a broad range of educa-
tional goals, using corporal punishment, using free periods only for
professional matters, adhering strictly to a prescribed curriculum,
giving voice publicly on controversial topics, having an occasional
drink at a local bar, and preparing pupils to succeed in life. (3)
Another study investigated the relationship between professional
orientation and pupil control ideology among 638 elementary and
secondary school teachers. (I68) The teachers were classified as
to professional orientation by their emphasis on items based on three
areas: technical competence, autonomy, and the service ideal. The
results of the study showed that secondary school teachers were
slightly more professionally oriented than elementary school teachers,
younger and less experienced teachers were more professionally
oriented than older and more experienced teachers, and teachers
placed more emphasis on the items representing autonomy and the

service ideal than on the technical competence items.

70

Professional Behavior

Several writers listed what they believed to be the attributes
of a professional person in education. (87, 90, l07, l22, I70, 20l,
225, 254, 256) Included in their listings were:

I. Assumes personal responsibility in determining how
his time is spent

2. Determines from personal expertise the procedures
by means of which he will render his services

3. Consults with colleagues in the interest of his clients

4. Is involved in training activities and in self-policing
and quality control within the profession

5. Is familiar with the code of ethics and works toward
its implementation, adherence, and evaluation

6. Maintains an attitude conducive to lifelong learning
of new developments in research

7. Supports professional association activities by
participating

8. Maintains a positive attitude toward himself, his
colleagues, and his profession

9. Advances the cause of education in word and deed

lO. DeveIOps and applies a philosophy, personal and
educational.

A study was conducted to determine teachers' preferred activities under
four factors descriptive of the professional teacher: professional
service, professional growth, community service, and assignments as a
teacher. (IOO) The teachers were asked to rate these four factors'
importance; assignments as a teacher received a weighting of fifty

per cent; professional growth,twenty-five per cent; and professional

and community service,twelve and one-half per cent each. The findings

7l

of the study also indicated that the most important activities for
each of the four factors were:
Professional growth: graduate study, workshops and con-
ferences, in-service training,
classroom visitations, travel
Professional service: membership in professional organi-
zations, service on local committees,
leadership service, research and
writing, committee work
Community service: service in community organizations,
service in PTA, service as a resource
person, sponsorship of community organ-
izations, participation in community
surveys
Assignments as a teacher: performance in classroom, teacher-
student relationships, administrative
duties, extra-class assignments7
Another writer conducted a study to analyze court decisions and
current tenure statutes pertaining to public school teachers' dis-
missals to determine the minimum level of conduct and competence
expected of teachers. (l6) He found that the professional teacher
must be loyal and patriotic, honest, cooperative, must perform at a
minimum level of accepted proficiency, and must conduct himself so
as not to have a detrimental effect on students.
A professional teacher has expectations to live up to. (43, 76,
93, ll3, l23, I44, 20l, 25l, 28l) The fact that he signs a contract
sets him apart from private practitioners and indicates there will

be limitations on his actions. (206) In the past, teachers were

subjected to stringent restrictions on their private and professional

 

7Joseph Carl Felix, "An Analysis of Selected Factors Descriptive
of the Professional Teacher" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Brigham
Young University, I964).

72

lives. Today, teachers are experiencing more freedom. (43, 76, Il3,
l23, I44, I92, 20l) Writers stress the fact that teachers should avoid
abusing these privileges and freedoms, that they set an example for the
youth they profess to lead and teach. However, one writer emphasized
the need for teachers to lead a "normal social life," not to be a
"prude" or someone students would reject as a model. (I44) Teachers
are still expected to be

protectors, inspirers, critics, appreciators of excellence,

and enemies of shoddiness. They cannot be aloof but they

should not be too bold. They must give as well as receive.

And most of all, they must be above reproach, indefatigable,

dedicated, zealous, and self-controlled.8
One state education association asserts that professional teachers share
the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities enjoyed by other
citizens, that outside of school there should be no curtailment of
"personal, political, or religious activities which are socially,
morally, and ethically acceptable to the community."9 However, one
writer reported the results of a study which suggested that possibly
many teachers believe that their superiors and the community actually
do restrict their freedom. In the study of fifty teachers, thirty-
three said that their freedom is restricted to a great extent. (l8)

In two Ohio court decisions, teachers have been looked upon as

subject to the same human frailties as others are and have been

excused "aberrations of conduct that appeared to be displeasing" to

 

8George E. Dickson and Samuel L. Creighton, "Who Is This Person
We Call Teacher?", Educational LeaderShip, XXVI (February, I969), 455.

9Educational Policies Commission of the Minnesota Education
Association, "The Professional Teacher," Minnesota Journal of
Education, XLV (October, I964), l5.

73

their school boards. In one case the teacher had written a letter
to the local newspaper about the school system and, in the other,

the teacher had left the scene of an accident. The courts ruled
these actions were not grounds for dismissal from teaching contracts.
(Il3)

Two articles appeared in the professional literature that were
based on a case similar to these, in California. (27, 259) The
case involved the courts' reversal of a school board's dismissal of
a teacher who wrote a letter critical of the school district to the
local newspaper. The author of one of the articles saw several
implications for the teaching profession in the outcome of the case;
it has bearing on the nature and use of ethical codes, the function
of educational journals, the role of the teacher in shaping policy,
and the scope of the First Amendment. (259) Both writers agreed
that teachers often have no private lives nor civil rights, according
to their school boards and administrators. They stated that teachers
should hold themselves accountable primarily for the quality of
instruction and felt that ethical codes are ineffective in cases of
"unprofessional conduct."

The American Civil Liberties Union issued a statement recently
to the effect that

. . . outside the academic setting a teacher can engage

in political activity, dress as he pleases, and engage

in whatever sports, recreations or pastimes he chooses

unless his behavior can be proved to be demonstrably
deleterious to his professional performance.'0

 

'oCalvin Grieder, "ACLU Takes a Narrow View of Professional
Responsibility," Nation's Schools, LXXXIII (March, l969), l0.

 

74

The author of the article took issue with this statement in that it
ignores "Restraint, self-imposed or enjoined by professional asso-
ciations on their members, (which) constitutes the reSponsibillty
attached to academic freedom."l' He questioned whether parents and
administrators would agree to having the children taught by persons
who might be drunk on weekends, or use drugs, or otherwise pursue
pastimes parents would not want their children to follow.

Two of the articles included in this area were based on survey
studies of topics relevant to the issue of the professional behavior
of teachers. One was an NEA teacher opinion poll of 500 members to
determine whether they believed that they have a responsibility to
set an example for students in matters of dress and grooming. (25l)
Teachers responded that dressing suitably in school is part of being
professional, mentioning that some school systems have arbitrarily
imposed dress and grooming standards on their teachers. The other
survey involved the hiring of "nonconformists" as teachers. (28l)
Seventy-seven superintendents responded to a questionnaire to determine
if they would hire: an unwed mother (25 yes, 52 no), an activist
(8 yes, 69 no), an "Afro" (27 yes, 50 no), an aesthete (l7 yes, 60
no). In some cases, these prospective teachers were rejected by the
superintendents on the basis of their lack of competency or exper-
ience; but in most cases, the superintendents admitted they were
acting on purely emotional reactions to the individuals and their

extent of differentness.

 

"ibid.

75

The Code of Ethics

 

Because it believes that individual members reflect the total
profession in all their actions, the National Education Association
has developed a "Code of Ethics of the Education Profession." (48,
52, 53, l55) It is the result of the teaching profession's attempt
"to assume more adequately its responsibility and accountability for
the competent performance and ethical behavior of its members.“2
The Code also serves to protect teachers from unjust treatment.

There are four major principles covered in the Code: I. Commitment
to the Student, ll. Commitment to the Community, III. Commitment to
the Profession, and IV. Commitment to Professional Employment Prac-
tices. (48, 52) It includes such matters as: client welfare,
professional autonomy, academic freedom and tenure, occupational
competition, confidentiality, political action, altruistic aims,
offering and withholding services, tutoring, gifts and gratuities,
and relations with occupational organizations. (48, 52)

The NEA publication on implementing its Code of Ethics states
that implementation requires that the profession "deveIOp an orderly
process for dealing with specific situations and applying the prin-
ciples to the situations as may be appropriate.“3 The committee

contends that ethics problems of teachers can and should be solved

 

'ZJoint Committee on Professional Practices Regulations of the
National Commission on TEPS and Commission on Professional Rights
and Responsibilities, Professional Practices Regulations (Washington,
D.C.: National Education Association, I965), p{“i .

'3Committee on Professional Ethics and Committee on Professional
Rights and Responsibilities, Implementing_the Code of Ethics of the
Education Profession and Strengthefiing_ProfessTonaI Rights (Washington,
D.C.: National Education ASsociatTon,‘T964), p. I.

76

within the province of the profession, and the Code of Ethics imposes
responsibilities upon the profession to protect the public and to
defend its ethical members. Several state education associations
have adopted codes based on the national one. (274)

A study of teachers' responses to situations involving profes-
sional ethics found that teachers adhered to the principles of the
Code in most given situations. (205) The Code principles which
received the least agreement among the teachers in the study had
to do with conducting professional business through the recognized
educational professional channels, adhering to conditions of a
contract until terminated legally or by mutual consent, acknowledging
the right and responsibility of the public to participate in formula-
ting educational policy, and cooperating in recruitment of prospective
teachers and orientation of new teachers.

One writer has developed her own code of ethics. (258) Her code
contains three sections: (I) Character of the Educator-~character,
responsibility, competence; (2) Duties of Educators to Their Learners--
welfare, confidentiality, relationships; and (3) Obligations of the
Educator Toward the Profession-~knowledge, relationships to colleagues,
obligations to schools, employment behavior, obligations to parents,
relationship to society.'4

The question of the effectiveness of the NEA Code, or any code,

was raised in the professional literature. (43, 265) One writer

finds the NEA Code innocuous, with only the last section being usable

 

'4Louise L. Tyler, "A Code of Ethics for Education," The Clearing
House, XL (January, l966), 265-266.

 

77

as a guideline. (265) The writers believe that as practical standards
of conduct for teachers, most codes leave much to be desired. One
writer states

. . . a high degree of specialization, life service, and

strong organization are needed if a code of ethics is to

become a dynamic force in governing conduct, . . . and

these the teaching profession has not fully attained.'5
However, it is also stated in the professional literature that
teachers do have the responsibility to be familiar with the Code,
help frame the association machinery necessary to its implementa-

tion, help build the climate important to adherence to the Code,

and participate in evaluation of the Code. (87)
Contribution to Professional Organizations

The role of the teacher as a member of the profession involves
his membership in professional organizations and his active and
supportive participation in and concern for the work of these
organizations. The professional literature found relevant to this
issue focused on three areas: knowing about and joining the profes-
sional organizations, the union-professional organization rivalry,

and being an active participant of the professional organizations.
Membership in Professional Organizations

It is considered essential, by many of the writers whose articles

were located for this study, that teachers become members of their

 

l5Leo M. Chamberlain, Leslie W. Kindred, and John M. Mickelson,
The Teacher and School Organization (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., l966), p. 459.

 

78

professional associations. (69, I36, I44, I77, I8l, 20l, 2l2, 237,
245, 247, 270) Several reasons were given for teachers to join:

A professional organization provides teachers with the
opportunity for service to his profession. (270)

A professional organization enables members to carry out

their tasks more efficiently by providing meetings for

the dissemination of the most recent developments in

education and/or their subject matter fields. (227)

A professional organization publishes journals, conducts

and publishes research studies and reports, etc., which

are helpful to classroom teachers. (I44)

A professional organization affords teachers the oppor-

tunity of being united with other teachers by a common

sense of purpose and professional pride. (l25)

Two of the writers suggested that membership in a national professional
organization be compulsory for teachers who hold teaching certificates.
(34, 245) A study of sixty-seven secondary school mathematics
teachers who had applied for a National Science Foundation institute
grant revealed that not one of the teachers belonged to the Mathemati-
cal Association of America, only thirteen belonged to the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics; thirty-eight, to the National
Education Association; thirty-five, to their state education associa-
tion; and thirty-four, to a local teachers' association. (209)

A basic problem for teachers in the issue of professional
organization membership is obtaining information about the various
professional and subject-matter organizations. (I4, 43, 47, 237, 247)
In order to make intelligent decisions about joining and participating
in the organizations, teachers

. . . need information not only concerning current acti-

vities, but a basic or fundamental knowledge of the
professional organizations, their historical origins,

79

how they happened to exist and why, and what purpose they

fulfilled for the members, for the profession, and for

society.l
Pro-service introduction to professional organizations was suggested
by some of the writers. (47, 237, 247) Included in this introduction
should be information about national professional organizations,
national subject-matter organizations, and state and local profes-
sional and subject-matter organizations. Membership in more than
one type of organization is encouraged. (43, l25, I36, I44, 209,

2l2, 247) There are l500 state, regional, or national organizations
in the country that have some concern with education. (43)

Teachers are urged to study carefully the activities and purposes
of the organizations. Criteria suggested for gauging an association's
activities were meetings; social functions; selection of delegates;
workshops or leadership training programs; newsletters or periodicals;
calendars of events, programs, financial reports, and committee

reports; public relations endeavors; and orientation programs for

new members. (I4, 47)
The Union—Professional Association Rivalry

A problem demanding the attention of teachers today is the choice
between the two national teachers' organizations: the National Educa-
tion Association and the American Federation of Teachers, or the
union-affiliated organization. This division in the profession is

seen by some of the writers of the articles included in this study

 

l6Stella Winn Bailey, Teacher Associations in American Education
(New York: Vantage Press, Inc., l966), p. I2.

 

80

as detrimental to the cause of education and the status of the
profession. (43, 87, l96, 208, 234) Teachers are confused and
concerned about being affiliated with a union, about maintaining
professional status, about the ethics of strikes. (87, I44, 237)
The writers admit to teachers that this is not an easy question

for them; they suggest teachers study the issues; arrive at their
own, tenable conclusions; and take action. (58, 87, I44, l8l, I96,
208, 234) One writer is of the opinion that teachers need not fear
their ability to be loyal to their school systems and a union. (267)
He states that dual allegiance is possible because both groups serve
useful functions for teachers.

The differences between the NEA and the AFT are fading, according
to one writer. (I97) Classroom teachers who were members of NEA
insisted that the organization become more actively concerned with
conditions of employment and occupational objectives, employing
techniques, associated with union-affiliated organizations, that
insured their success.

Two authors see the deveIOpment of a new national organization
as a result of the current rivalry and teachers' realization of the
need to form effective, unified organizations. (I96, 244) One
writer strongly believes in the need to repulse the "labor drive" and
for the professional associations to remake themselves into organiza-
tions that can unite teachers. (244) The other writer lists the
following as a description of the teacher organization of tomorrow:

I. The organizations will be structured to function
effectively in collective negotiations.

2. The organizations will serve the needs of the teachers.

8|

3. The organizations will include negotiated compulsory
membership provisions.

4. Subject-matter organizations will continue to be
organized on a national basis.

5. Each local organization will have at least one full-
time person whose function will be the negotiating
procedure.

6. After salaries, concern will shift to professional
issues.'7

Four research reports were located for this study that were
comparisons of the teachers who join a union organization and teachers
who join a professional organization. (28, I39, I76, 246) One study
of l200 teachers in Minnesota looked at the differences in the two
groups of teachers in terms of three characteristics: teacher know-
ledge of educational issues, teacher personality characteristics,
and teacher views on the school environment in which they were
employed. (28) The findings indicated that the union organization
members were, on the whole, more knowledgeable about educational
issues and there were marked personality differences between members
of the two groups. On the third issue there was no significant
difference between the two groups.

The second study was aimed at discovering what kind of teacher
joins a union organization or a professional association. (I76)

The researcher found that AFT members were more likely to be male,

junior high school teachers, and members of subject-matter

 

l7Michael M. Moskow, "Teacher Organizations: An Analysis of
the Issues," Readings on Collective Negotiations in Public Education,
edited by Stanley M.‘Elam, Myron LTEberman, and MTChaelTM. Moskow
(Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., I967), pp. 246-247.

82

organizations. They also were more unhappy, rated their morale and
that of their colleagues as low, and would choose some other career.

The third study was designed to determine whether groups of
teachers who were members of the two types of teacher organizations
held significantly different expectations or perceptions of expecta-
tions of school administrators and of society for the teacher role.
(I39) The researcher found disagreement in the roles of the teacher
regarding extracurricular duties, the teacher as a person in his
school and community, and the teacher's role in decision making.

The union organization teachers expressed the lowest degree of teacher
satisfaction with their role.

The fourth study investigated whether a difference in the way
teachers have organized as a professional group influences teacher
role perception and preference for leadership roles. (246) The
researcher found that in school where negotiations for salary and
policy occurred, the teachers more frequently perceived their role

as being less professional.

Active Participation in Professional Organizations

A professional person acts beyond merely joining a professional
organization and paying the requisite dues. It is through active
participation in their organizations that teachers can fulfill their
professional responsibilities. (84, 92, II4, I36, I38, l8I, 242, 247,
270) Active participation begins with attending organization meetings,
reading organization publications, and becoming familiar with the
make-up of the organization. (84, 247, 270) Teachers, as professional

association members, should also participate in organization committee

F'(
,i

’IAi

E‘I"

“A
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( l)
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83

work, at local, state, and national levels and volunteer to do so,

if necessary. (II4, I36, I38, 242, 247) One writer suggested to
teachers that they would be more willing to participate in a leader-
ship position in their organizations as they become more familiar
with the objectives and accomplishments of their organization. (270)
To accomplish their own objectives for their profession, teachers
should make use of the group strength of the organizations. (84,

92, 242) As responsible professional persons, teachers should
actively seek leadership opportunities within the framework of their
professional organizations. (ll4) In this way, they can contribute
to the shaping and formulation of organization policy and objectives.
(92, I36, I38) It is also essential that teachers be willing to
commit themselves to group decisions and support their organizations
and the leaders. (69, I36, I38)

Professional organization leaders have encouraged teachers to
seek greater participation in the working of their organizations to
take a part in shaping their policies. (64, 66, l8l, 255) In I969,
in an effort to increase attendance of members at its annual conven-
tion, the California Association of Teachers of English gave each
convention-goer a recording as a gift for attending. (255) One
president of a professional association found that during her tenure
of office there had been no indication from members that they wanted
opportunities to become actively Involved in their association and
its work, though this was greatly encouraged. (64)

Two studies were located in the professional literature that

have relevance to this issue. The first was a study of professional

84

and community leadership roles as they are assumed by public school
teachers. (I37) The researcher found that teachers tended to give
more emphasis to professional leadership activities than to
community leadership activities, and those who were active as commu-
nity leaders were almost invariably active as professional leaders,
but the reverse was not necessarily true.

In a study of the English teachers in top-rated high schools
throughout the country, the researchers investigated the professional
activities of the teachers. (24I) These teachers, the researchers
expected, would be more active professionally; however, they did not
differ markedly from other teachers in terms of their participation
in professional organizations. More than half (but only one-third
nationally) were members of NCTE, and over eighty-three per cent

read the organization's journals and publications.

Develogment of Professional Standards

 

As a member of the teaching profession, a teacher also has the
responsibility of concern for the standards his profession upholds.
(IS, 43, 87, II7, I69, I98, 277) This concern involves active parti-
cipation and interest in the recruitment of suitable young peOple
into teaching, the retention and certification of qualified teachers,
and the development of effective programs of preparation and con-

tinuing education.

85
Recruitment of Teachers

The NEA I963 position paper lists as "Axioms and Goals" of the
Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards:

An adequate number of able individuals enter and complete

a program of preparation, begin to teach, and remain in

the profession . . .

Prospective teachers compare favorably on all counts,

. . . with college students . . . preparing for careers

in other professions . . .

Teachers in schools and colleges encourage promising

young people to consider teaching as a career and

demonstrate by example the personal and professional

satisfactions in teaching.'8

The United States Office of Education is also concerned with
recruitment of people into teaching. The Education Professions
DeveIOpment Act of I967 is designed to assist educators to increase
the quantity and the quality of educational personnel in schools and
colleges. (72) The Act authorizes the USOE to conduct a substantial
program of recruitment and career information, the purpose being to
"publicize opportunities in education, to encourage qualified peOple
to enter or re-enter educational work, and to encourage people in

other professions or fields to undertake teaching on a temporary or

part-time basis."'9

 

I8National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards, p. 7.

'gDon Davies, "The Education Professions Development Act,"
Teacher Education Issues and Innovations, Twenty-first Yearbook
of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education
(Washington, D.C.: AACTE, l968), p. 44.

 

86

Writers in the professional literature stressed the need for
the profession to impress able students in elementary and secondary
schools and colleges with the challenge of teaching as a desirable
occupational choice. (IS, 26, 43, 87, 96, 99, IOl, II7, 256, 277)
The desirability of teacher participation in the selection of pros-
pective teachers was expressed as long ago as I898. (87) Teaching
has an advantage over other professions in that for twelve to
sixteen years students are exposed to teachers. (I69) Studies
show that the influence of individual teachers is significant in
shaping decisions of students to become teachers. A survey of agri-
cultural education college majors revealed that one-thlrd of the
students had decided to become vocational agriculture teachers while
in high school and one-third had made this decision during their
college freshmen year. The vocational agriculture teacher was
identified as the most influential recruiter for these students.
(99) Another study undertaken in Indiana to identify the sources
from which proSpective industrial arts teachers received information
and encouragement about becoming teachers also showed the secondary
school industrial arts teacher as the most important source. (96)
In addition, a follow-up study of secondary school students who had
an interest in teaching, which was undertaken seven years after,
found, again, that respected classroom teachers were identified as
the best single recruitment force for these students. (277)

Several ways in which teachers can take part in future teacher
recruitment in the public schools and colleges were suggested in the

professional writings. One article described a recruitment program

87

which makes use of first- and second-year teachers as active
recruiters; their superintendent sends those teachers who are
interested in and capable of recruitment back to their own colleges

to seek out and interview prospective teachers for their school
system. (280) Many writers were of the opinion that student clubs
are an effective way for teachers to communicate to students informa-
tion about the teaching profession. On the high school level, writers
suggested that teachers take an active part in such clubs as the
Future Teachers of America and the Student National Education
Association. (43, 87, 96, IOI, I98) Both of these clubs have been

In existence for a long time, FTA since I937 and Student NEA since
I957, and are growing in size on the high school level. (43, 87)
Membership in high school chapters of FTA multiplied almost five
times from I953 to I963. (43) It is essential that teacher advisers
to such clubs make an effort to keep the content and the activities

of the clubs appealing to boys as well as girls and to emphasize pre-
professional experiences and guidance and information helpful in
making career decisions, all directed and administered by enthusiastic
teachers. (I69, I98) Another way teachers can contribute to the
effectiveness of the clubs is to encourage promising and interested
students to join. Teachers should also be willing to speak at club
meetings, explaining their particular teaching field. (lOl) These
clubs are also effective on the college level, as are junior affiliates
of the subject-matter professional associations. These affiliate
organizations contribute a great deal to helping prospective teachers
find out about the teaching profession and teaching in their fields

before they begin student teaching. (l5)

88

Involving students interested in teaching in the work and
activities of a teacher was also a recommended method for teacher
recruitment. One writer suggested that as early as the high school
sophomore level, interested students should be used as teacher
aides. (II7) Such "behind-the-scenes" responsibilities as laboratory
and teaching assistants; helping with inventories, books, and equip-
ment; involvement in a variety of the processes of teaching; and
assisting with the technical aids teachers have were deemed success-
ful measures for introducing young people to the world of the
teacher. (43, IOI, I69, 256, 277)

Teachers can also work with state staff, college people, and
school counselors to develop promotional literature, programs, and
assemblies; serve as Speakers to student groups; and prepare and
make use of printed materials about teaching in their own fields
to help publicize the roles and reSponsibilities of members of the

teaching profession. (26, 96, 99, IOI, II7, 256)

Retention of Good Teachers

As professional persons, teachers have some responsibility for
what the education profession does to retain good teachers and to
control entry into the profession. (4|, Ill, I63, I80, 200, 208, 2l7,
220) One writer made the following demands of teachers:

. . . must be . . . willing to negotiate a salary schedule

that gives a better break to the beginner, rather than to

the veteran.

. . . must be willing to be uncompromising in weeding out
the incompetents who enter the profession.

. . . must not only accept, but demand meaningful in-
service experiences

89

. . . must accept responsibility, not only for training

and retraining, but for establishing requirements of

his profession . . .2
Another writer indicated that there are seven points along the
"professional time line" that are appropriate places at which the
teaching profession can reach decisions about whether to accept
or reject prospective teachers:

I. admission to college or university work

2. admission to a teacher education program

3. admission to student teaching

4. receipt of an education degree

5. receipt of a teaching certificate

6. admission to a professional position

7. admission to advanced training.2|

Teaching is still plagued with inadequate preparation, despite
the changes that have taken place in education. Education, unfortu-
nately, still remains the only profession which allows those outside
the field to make decisions regarding entry qualifications. (l80)

Several pieces of the professional literature were concerned
with the problem of developing adequate orientation programs to
help beginning teachers overcome some of the problems that cause
them to feel frustrations. One was a study aimed at analyzing the

relationship between attitudes of beginning teachers and an adequate

 

20L. V. Rasmussen, "New Role for the Middleman," The American
School Board Journal, CLV (February, l968), ll.

 

2'Jack R. Frymier, "Teachers: Not Will But Can They Change?",
Journal of Teacher Education, XX (Summer, I969), 236-237.

9O

induction program. The researcher found that superior induction
programs were nonexistent and that school officials who paid attention
to induction programs found men teachers remained in teaching and were
more satisfied with it as a career. (I63) Another writer described
the National Association of Secondary School Principals' three-year
demonstration project on the Induction of Beginning Teachers. The
orientation program was designed to introduce the new teacher to the
community as well as the school. (4|) The third article was directed
at two weaknesses the author saw in American high school English
teaching:

I. feeble programs for orienting new teachers of English

2. the English department chairman's great and largely
unrecognized responsibilities for orienting new staff.22

Two articles pointed out the need for beginning teachers to
have a teacher, a master teacher or a supervisor, who works closely
with the novice to help him through the problems of the first few

months of teaching. (l5l, 202)
Pre- and In-service Programs

Teachers need to be actively involved in the improvement, design,
and evaluation of pre- and in-service programs of preparation.
The essential function of every teacher Is to teach. The

first responsibility of the teacher is to be an excellent
teacher. Excellence . . . requires adequate pro-service

 

22Paul S. Nelson, Jr., "Orientation of New English Teachers:
A Major Job for the Department Chairman," English Journal, LVII
(March, I968), 409.

 

9|

training and also continuous growth in the content

fields being taught, in general cultural background,

and in professional techniques.23

In I964, the finalists in the "Teacher of the Year" contest
sponsored by LOOK magazine were asked their suggestions for improving
teacher education. (248) The respondents spoke of the lack of
emphasis in their preparation on the need for good social relation-
ships with colleagues and on the leadership role teachers should
play in the community.

Two articles in the professional literature referred to the
teacher's responsibilities for the student-teaching program. One
quoted a successful English teacher who described the effective,
valuable experiences she had had during student teaching. Her
cooperating teacher had given her opportunities to teach, to plan
lessons, to learn of enrichment activities and supplementary materials,
to know about professional publications and educational organizations,
to know her responsibilities as a teacher. (248)

The other article stressed the need for teamwork among the
college supervisor of student teaching, the student teacher, and
the cooperating teacher. (l02)

Three articles dealt with the content of preparatory programs
in teacher education. In his chapter entitled "Creating Effective
Teachers," one writer described the prospective teacher's own respon-
sibility in the pre-servlce program. (50) He listed as needed

improvements:

Personal Involvement with ideas
Personal involvement in the program

 

23William H. Conley, "Excellence in Teaching," Catholic School
Journal, LXVll (October, I967), 4.

 

92

Personal involvement with children
Personal involvement with the profession
Personal involvement with fellow students

24

He suggested that prospective teachers spend as much time as possible
with teachers to learn about the questions and issues confronting the
profession, to take part in meetings, etc., so that they can identify
with the teaching profession as early and as completely as possible.

The other two articles listed concepts that should be included
in pre-service programs to familiarize students with all aSpects of
the role of the teacher. (l24, 2l8)

An in-service program is a natural outgrowth of the professional
pre-service education program teachers have participated in. It is
the belief of many of the writers that teachers can improve and have
contributed to the improvement of in-service programs. (20, 46, l24,
l4l, l54, 257) They stressed the need for in-service programs to be
planned with and by the teachers themselves so that they become indi-
vidualized programs of teacher Improvement. (IO, 20, 46, 87, l2l, I24,
l4l, l54, 257) Several writers recommended and some school districts
have developed programs of ln-servlce education which tap the resources
of the classroom teacher as an adviser and instructor in the program.
(79, 80, l24, 2l3) The Portland Public Schools, with the Carnegie
Corporation, developed an in-service program which serves as a proto-
type for other city school systems. Some of its objectives are

To train a large number of outstanding public school
teachers as in-service education instructors

 

24Arthur W. Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., I965), pp. 29-3l.

 

93

To develop in-service courses based on a systematic
consideration of needs of teachers themselves

To design each course so that It would serve as a
model of pedagogy to teachers being instructed25

A I967 NEA study of in-service education programs revealed two trends
significant to this issue: teachers or their representatives are
usually involved in planning the in-service program and greater use

is being made of the professional staff within a school system. (2l3)
Responsibility for Professional Growth

In addition to making efforts to improve pre- and in-service
education programs, the professional teacher must also consider his
own professional growth as an obligation he has to himself, to his
students, and to his profession. On continuing education, the
National Comission on TEPS had this to say in I963:

Continuing education is a career-long process of
professional growth.

The primary responsibility for continuing development
rests with the individual teacher.

Continuing education is planned on an individual basis.

Professional growth is achieved in a variety of ways,
including but not limited to formal study.

Conditions in the school and community encourage rather
than inhibit professional growth.

Careful planning provides continuity between earlier
preparation and continuing education; differences in
purpose and emphasis in pre-service and in-service
programs are clear.

 

25Victor W. Doherty, "The Carnegie Professional Growth Program:
An Experiment in the ln-Service Education of Teachers," Journal of
Teacher Education, XVIII (Fall, I967), 26l.

 

 

94

Salary schedules, recognition, and status encourage

teachers to make the classroom their career.26

Many writers consider teachers' participation in their schools'
in-service programs a professional obligation. (IO, 46, 55, 78, l24,
l28, I4l) Traditionally, in-service programs were usually curriculum
planning groups or programs of supervision of teachers and, as such,
were limited in effectiveness as a means of improving teacher perfor-
mance. (20, I4I, l54) The trend today is toward a broader concept
of professional growth encompassing attitudes, behavior, philosophy
of education, societal and personal relationships, personal goals,
etc., and involving more than fifty different kinds of activities.

(I67)

The Need for Professional Growth

One of the greatest problems confronting education today is that
of keeping persons in the field abreast of new developments to keep
instruction up to date. (77, l56, I94, 249, 256, 279) In I964, the
Commission of the National Interest and Continuing Education of
Teachers of English recommended a massive program of carefully planned
summer and year-round Institutes and workshops for teachers of
English. (5|)

ln-service education has become a continuous necessity as a means
of keeping pace and generating change. Two writers make a distinction

between "in-service education" and "continuing education" or

 

26National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards, pp. l7-I9.

95

"professional growth." (5, l4l) The relevant points made are that
professional growth, the goal of in-service activities, is not some-
thing that can be done 12 teachers without their active interest,
commitment, cooperation, and understanding. Teachers are enjoined
to choose carefully their places of employment and look for a school
system where they can grow professionally. (237) One writer is of
the opinion that only under those circumstances in which teachers
find and identify their own problems and want to do something about
them can effective in-service education programs exist. He speaks
of conditions of mutual responsibility: teachers' awareness of the
need for educational growth and willingness to devote the necessary
time and energy and the support of the school district. (I94)

The responsibility for professional growth rests primarily with
the individual teacher. (74, l28, I94, I98) For programs of profes-
sional growth to be successful teachers must feel a need for them.
Teachers who do not wish to participate or do not participate at
all feel that in-service programs are either not needed for individual
improvement, or are not as important as home and family commitments,
or are just "more of the same," or are not required for effective
teaching. Those who do participate feel the programs are ideal for
acquiring a fresh outlook or the opportunity to keep informed, or
are a method for obtaining group solutions to common problems. (222)
According to the results of a I966 study completed in Oklahoma,
teachers who did participate in in-service activities and other pro-
fessional growth experiences expressed feelings of self-confidence

with respect to their own academic and professional competence. (l85)

96

A study conducted in I968 to determine the extent to which
teachers in the secondary schools of a selected section of the
country wanted a continuing program of professional growth found
that teachers were interested in a program of professional growth

and were able and willing to identify their individual needs. (I79)

Areas of Interest

 

Two studies were located in the professional literature which
focused on determining what areas of study teachers felt they needed
stressed in their programs of professional growth. A study of
elementary school teachers in Connecticut revealed that better under-
standing of children, the improvement of the teaching-learning
situation, and more effective use of instructional materials were
areas of interest and concern to the teachers. (232) A I968 NEA
study found that the teachers polled felt the most need for in-service
education in how to work effectively with teacher aides and how to use
technical aids such as computers, educational television, and other
audiovisual materials and equipment. Teachers also felt some need for
work in teaching methods, psychology of learning, and the subject
fields. (252)

A third study relevant to this issue was a survey of I82 teachers
who taught in schools with some type of supervision of teaching. The
teachers were asked what they wanted help with; their lists included:
teaching techniques and methodology, classroom observations followed
by conferences, and frequent informal conferences with their super-

visors. (2|)

97

One writer recommended four areas of emphasis for in-service
education programs: subject matter, attitudes and perspectives,

teaching methods, and curriculum problems. (I24)

Types of Professional Growth Activities

Several different techniques and types of in-service programs
of professional growth were discussed in the professional literature,
ranging from formal activities such as college—credit courses to
informal activities such as teacher discussion groups. Teachers
can benefit from such activities as: classroom visits, discussions,
department meetings, workshops and institutes, seminars, courses,
demonstration classes, cultural trips and travel, professional
library reading, sabbatical leaves, conferences and conventions,
faculty meetings, internships, etc. (78, 87, l2l, I32, I40, I42,
I9l, I94, 238, 257, 26I)

Most of the articles which told teachers they should keep up
with developments in their fields and in their profession also
suggested methods for doing this. Most frequently teachers were
told they could keep abreast of developments by reading their profes-
sional publications. (30, 38, 84, IO6, l27, I75, I77, I82, I90, I95,
2l6, 227, 228, 239, 275) Along with reading professional journals,
attending professional meetings and discussing educational problems
and developments with colleagues were recommended to teachers as
easy methods for self-improvement. (30, 38, 88, l27, 2l0, 227, 239)
Belonging to and participating in functions of the professional
organizations was also recommended as a means of keeping up with

what is happening in the field. (84, I06, I75, I77, 228)

98

Another highly recommended technique for keeping up with educa-
tional innovation was research, both conducting formal, informal,
and experimental studies and reading and understanding research
reports. (84, 87, l05, l50, I75, I98, 2|6) The National Commission
on Teacher Education and Professional Standards recommends that the
entire teaching profession attribute more importance to educational
studies and research, involving all teachers at all levels. (I98)
Teachers' responsibilities in terms of educational research involve
learning enough about research methods to be able to interpret
implications of research for teaching, to identify problems that
need study, to participate in group or individual research projects,
and to support and encourage research in education. (87, I44, l50,
I75, I77) A study undertaken to determine teacher awareness of the
implications of research and professional writings found that the
classroom instruction was not "in tune" with either research or
professional writings on the subject. Many teachers in the study
were not acquainted with research findings in their fields or with
modern developments in teaching. (75)

Tied closely to a teacher's reSponsibilities to educational
research is the need for teachers to write. (84, 89, l06, l26, 2|6)
Writing articles for publication in the professional journals contri-
butes to professional growth because it helps the teacher become more
thoughtful about his own teaching and keeps him enthusiastic. (2|6)
A teacher who writes professional articles wants to improve his pro-
fession, to submit his ideas and experiences to the consideration of

his fellow teachers. (l26)

99

Three pieces of the professional literature, one a research
study, were concerned with professional journals. One writer quoted
a survey of one academic year's issue of four of the leading national
journals in education which serve classroom teachers. His findings
were that in all four journals there were only twenty-nine mentions
of classroom teachers, either by direct quotations or in feature
articles. (224) The writer asserted that professional journals
demand content that teachers cannot supply. The other article
asserted that professional journals leave much to be desired in
terms of their content, suggesting that teachers help rectify the
situation by contributing worthwhile articles and reports of
research studies. (89) The research study determined the criteria
which are most significant in selecting professional education
periodicals for reading. The study concluded that periodicals
should:

contain authoritatively written articles that are well
documented and analyzed in a standard periodical index

be concerned with a variety of viewpoints

contain more articles that are concerned with practical
problems of education

regularly contain reviews of new books
be convenient to use and to store.27
Also recommended to teachers were the pursuit of advanced degrees

and enrollment in summer workshops, institutes, and other formal,

college-credit courses. (84, l05, I06, 2l4, 228, 275) A NEA I966

 

27Darrel Myron Meinke, "Criteria for the Selection of Professional
Education Periodicals and a Selected List" (unpublished Ed.D. disserta-
tion, University of Nebraska Teachers College, I966).

IOO

survey found that regular college courses were the most commonly
accepted way to meet professional growth requirements. (2l4)

In addition, other informal kinds of professional growth activities
were named in the professional literature: travel, sabbatical
leaves, committee work, Special assignments in school problems,
etc. (I32, I43, 2l4)

Several writers emphasized the need for teachers and school
systems to plan jointly teachers' programs of professional growth.
(3|, l2I, I54, l83, 228) Suggested were some imaginative programs
which directed teachers toward solving some problems of the school
district. (l2l, l54) The study of teachers of English in the top-
rated high schools in the country showed that these teachers continued
their education after beginning to teach, but in fields they preferred
rather than in areas that were needed for the improvement of the school
program in English. The authors of this study recommended that the
school systems undertake joint planning of professional growth with
their teachers. (24l)

Four studies were located that were designed to determine how
teachers rated the effectiveness of certain kinds of in-service tech-
niques. One study found that of six techniques suggested, follow-up
after Supervisory classroom visits and providing adequate professional
reading materials rated highest with the teachers. The other tech-
niques, listed in descending order of value to the teachers, were
teacher visitation of classrooms within other schools; staff Sharing
in planning faculty meetings; presentation of topics, demonstrations,

and the like at faculty meetings by staff members; and teacher

IOI

visitation of classrooms within the school. (I9I) In another study,
techniques that ranked high with teachers and school superintendents
were faculty meetings, department meetings, conferences, orientation
programs, a professional library, courses, and student teachers.
Rated low were school-system-wide staff meetings, classroom visits,
visits by college faculty members, and post-school meetings. (238)
The third study found that of the three types of programs conducted
in the experiment, the released-time format was most effective and
the college-campus course was least effective. (269) The fourth
study concerned the in-service techniques preferred by the English
teachers in the top-rated high schools. The department meeting was
rated highest by the teachers and, together with conferences with
teachers and summer courses, accounted for almost sixty per cent of
the responses. Special workshops and attendance at professional
meetings were next on the teachers' lists. (24I)

An additional study compared the way in which educators rated
their professional growth activities to the way in which members of
other professions rated these same activities for teachers. Educators
rated reading professional literature fifth, while other professionals
rated it first. Formal education received fifth ranking from other
professionals, and eighth from educators. Results of this study also
indicated that teachers spend insufficient time performing many of

the activities they deem important for professional growth. (77)

|O2

Time for Professional Growth

An issue in in-service education revealed in the professional
literature was the matter of time, of when teachers are to undertake
additional study and other professional growth activities. One
writer made the statement that teachers should be given not only
encouragement but also time for professional growth by their school
systems. (I59)

In his list of four major areas of concern in in-service programs,
one writer included, "Recognition by community and professional
leaders that the rapid expanse of knowledge both in the professional
and content fields will require full time study."28 Another writer
agreed, stating, "Teachers are likely to learn most effectively when
they can give full time to study for an extended period of time."29

The NEA research study found also that

School systems are providing more released time during
the regular school session for in-service activities.

Compensation is being given for time contributed to in-
service education by the teacher outside regular school
hours.

School systems are extending the period of teacher employ-
ment; the additional time is used for in-service education.30

However, because of the pressures put on them by their school
boards and the monetary incentives involved, teachers are still demand-

ing in-service activities on a part-time basis. (IO, 55)

 

28Jack R. Childress, "In-Service or Continuing Education for
Teachers," Journal of Education, CXLVII (February, I965), 36-37.

29W. Earl Armstrong, "The Further Education of Teachers in
Service," Journal of Teacher Education, XIX (Spring, I968), 36.

30"Professional Growth of Teachers In Service," NEA Research
Bulletin, XLV (March, I967).

(U
(I)
(D

l l

CHAPTER V

SUMMARIES, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

 

To assist teachers in arriving at some answers to questions they
have concerning their out-of-class role as members of a school staff
and members of the profession, a study was made of the current thought
of writers in the field of education and of findings of research
studies relevant to this issue. Notes and excerpts from 283 profes-
sional writings and studies were the data collected for the
investigation.

The information relevant to the out-of—class role of a teacher
as a member of a school staff and a member of the profession was
organized into a synthesis of current thought on the issue, based
as much as possible on the divisions and subdivisions of the California
Teacher Role Definition, though the limitations of this framework were
recognized. The synthesis presented in this report covered the follow-
ing major t0pics of the two areas:

I. Member of a School Staff
. Definition of Over-All Aims of the School
. Development of a School Program

. Responsibility for Over-All School Activities
. Evaluation of the School Program

COED)

l03

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D‘!l\!
JIJH,

"- V

a
,‘I 3"
rrv‘rl4

IO4

II. Member of the Profession

. The Profession and the Professional Teacher

. Contribution to the Professional Organizations
. DeveIOpment of Professional Standards

. Responsibility for Professional Growth

COED)

The list of 283 sources was alphabetized and numbered to simplify
the researcher's giving credit to the authors in the synthesis. This
list appears in Appendix 8, pp. l23-I43. To help users of the synthe-
sis to find quickly the sources dealing with particular aSpects of the
study, the sources were also arranged by topics. This list appears in
Appendix C, pp. l44-l48.

In this chapter, a brief summary of each of the eight major
divisions of the two areas will be presented, along with some conclu-

sions and recommendations regarding the study and its outcomes.
Summaries
Member of a School Staff

The out-of-class role of a teacher as a member of a school staff
concerns involvement in the development of policies, aims, and programs
of the school and working with others to attain and maintain the desired
ends. Of the 283 sources included in the study, a total of II7 differ-
ent pieces of professional literature were pertinent to this aspect,
containing information for teachers about contributing to the definition
of the over-all aims of the school (87 sources), development of a school
program (29 sources), responsibility for over-all school activities

(7 sources), and evaluation of the school program (4 sources).

l05

Definition of Over-All
Aims of the School

 

The eighty-seven professional writings and research reports
included in this section contained information for teachers about
involvement in educational policymaking (44 sources); public relations
responsibilities (I2 sources); and censorship, school aims, and public

relations (3| sources).

Involvement in Educational Policymaking

There is a growing demand for teachers to be more actively
involved in the educational policymaking of their school systems.
Teachers' lack of opportunities to participate in professional
decision making at all levels has resulted in what is commonly
termed "teachers' militancy." Implicit in this issue is the conflict
over control of schools between the community and teacher profession-
alization.

The growth of teacher professionalism and increased bureaucrati-
zation of school organizations are giving additional strength to the
role of the professional teachers' organizations in deveIOping
educational policy and the general aims of the school system. Much
of the difficulties here lie in poor relationships and disagreements
between teachers and their administrators.

Other problems for teachers in fulfilling their responsibilities
in educational policymaking are the lack of time for this work and
teachers' lack of professional attitudes toward involvement in school

problems outside their immediate classrooms.

lO6

The ways in which teachers can and do contribute to development
of their schools' policies were also discussed. Teachers can accom-
plish this work more effectively by working in groups, by becoming
members of committees or faculty councils, by being active members

of their departments.

Public Relations Responsibilities

Because of the emphasis today on professionalism and teacher
power and the public's interest in and concern for the schools,
teachers need to be aware of the importance of public relations and
the image they communicate to the public. Such communication neces-
sitates working closely with and listening to the public. The twelve
writers in the professional literature who wrote about this issue
mentioned such public relations activities for teachers as speakers'
bureaus, publicity releases about school activities, liaison committee
work, conferences, meetings, etc.
Censorship, School Aims,
and Public Relations

A major issue relevant to the point of working with the community
is censorship, a concern to all teachers. In these times of widespread
interest in and criticism of all aspects of public education, teachers
need be aware of how censorship occurs and how it is best handled. The
professional writings and studies located that were relevant to this
issue were all either written by or directed toward English teachers
and/or school librarians.

The writers of the articles included in this section recommended

a concerted effort on the part of teachers, administrators, and

‘i'hra
71¢

91.:

”44
II
n

 

(I)

‘4

|O7

librarians to be prepared for censorship before it happens. There
exists in schools today a great deal of censorship imposed by class-
room teachers, Iibrarians, and administrators who choose only "safe"
books and materials in an effort to avoid trouble with censors. A
highly recommended preventive measure is that of establishing book
selection committees with written policies of book selection, appli-
cable to all teaching materials. Despite all efforts, though, some
incidents of censorship are inevitable. Schools and teachers need
to be concerned with maintaining a formal, fair process whereby
censors can make their objections known. Those involved are advised

to remain calm and to conduct censorship disputes out in the open.

Development of a School Program

The twenty-nine articles, books, and reports pertinent to the
issue of development of a school program contained information for
teachers about curriculum development and the teacher power movement
(l6 sources), the effect of school organizational structure and
climate on teachers' involvement in curriculum development (l2 sources),
and the subject department as it affects teachers' role in developing

the total school program (6 sources).

Involvement in Curriculum Development

The issue of teachers' involvement in curriculum development has
been the subject, to some degree, of bargaining efforts undertaken by
the professional organizations. The research studies located pertinent
to this issue investigated to what extent teachers do or should parti-

cipate in curriculum development. The studies found that teachers are

IO8

concerned with their involvement in curriculum development but there

was little evidence of actual participation.

Organizational Structure and Climate

Organizational structure and climate have a great deal to do with
the extent of teachers' participation in curriculum development acti-
vities. Many of the writers who were concerned with this issue
directed their concern toward the effects elaborate hierarchies have
upon individual teachers' opportunities for involvement. Problems of
staff relationships develop, emphasizing the need for strong, coopera-

tive efforts to work with others.

Role of Departments

Much of this cooperative effort in working together in curriculum
development activities takes place within groups such as committees
and/or departments. Teachers need to maintain an active interest in
the function of these comittees and departments, for these meetings
provide excellent opportunities for the individual teacher to contri-
bute to curriculum development and school improvement efforts.
Responsibility for Over-
All School Activities

Only seven pieces of professional literature were located which
contained information for teachers about their responsibilities for
over-all school activities. Two areas were discussed: planning and
guiding student activities (5 sources) and assisting in the adminis-

trative operation of the school (2 sources).

IO9

Planning and Guiding
Student Activities

Taking part in some aspect of the responsibility for student
activities involves a good many hours of a teacher's week. Such
"extra-class" assignments can be expected by teachers, though the
writers caution these assignments must be reasonable and not burden-
some.

Assisting in Administrative
Operation of the School

The two pertinent sources stress the great need for teachers to

be knowledgeable about how a school is administered and how each group

functions to bring about smooth school operation.

Evaluation of the School Prggram

Only four pieces of professional literature were located which
contained information for teachers about their out-of-class reSponsi-
bilities for evaluation of the school program. Both contained
information about teachers participating in the collection of relevant
evidence for program evaluation. They emphasized that teachers need
to be cooperative and efficient in all the processes of recordkeeping
that are necessary in schools and that there is a need for greater
c00peration between teachers and the guidance staff, which is respon-

sible for much of the evaluation procedures in schools..

Member of the Profession

The out-of—class role of the teacher as a member of the profession
concerns involvement with the status and effectiveness of the profession,

Pts members and its organizations. Of the 283 sources Included in the

llO

study, a total of I78 different pieces of professional literature were
pertinent to this aspect, containing information for teachers about
the profession and the professional teacher (63 sources), contribution
to professional organizations (40 sources), development of professional
standards (40 sources), and responsibility for individual professional
growth (73 sources).
The Profession and the
Professional Teacher

The sixty-three professional writings and research reports included
in this section contained information for teachers about the issue of
teaching as a profession and the teacher as a professional person (l9
sources), attitudes of professional teachers toward their profession
(22 sources), and professional teacher behavior, including information

on the code of ethics of the profession (32 sources).

Professionalism of Teachers

Writers expressed concern for the professionalism of teachers
under the present conditions in public education. There is a question
as to whether or not teaching can be considered a profession and its
members professional persons. Some writers believe teachers do not
fully understand the rights and reSponsibilities of professional status

in teaching.

Attitudes of Professional Teachers

Teaching, according to many writers of articles pertinent to this
issue, can only be considered a profession if Its members are profes-
sional in attitudes and actions. Part of being a professional person

arud conducting oneself as a professional involves setting an example

by behavior and by speaking positively for the profession to
preserve and protect its image. Several studies were located
pertinent to this issue which investigated a variety of aspects

of teachers and professionalism

Professional Behavior

The consensus of Opinion expressed in the professional literature
regarding this issue is that a professional teacher has expectations
to live up to. Though in the past teachers were subjected to strin-
gent restrictions on their private and professional lives, today they
are experiencing more freedom. It is advised, however, that teachers
should avoid abusing these privileges and freedoms and set an example
for the youth they Influence.

The National Education Association has developed a "Code of
Ethics of the Education Profession," which assists the profession
to assume adequate responsibility and accountability for the perfor-
mance and behavior of its members and to protect teachers from unjust
treatment.

Contribution to Profes-
sional Organizations

 

The forty pieces of professional literature included in this
section contained information for teachers about membership in
professional organizations (I8 sources), the union-professional
organization rivalry (l6 sources), and being an active member of

professional organizations (l5 sources).

ll2

Membership In Profes-
sional Organizations

It is considered essential that teachers become members of
their professional organizations. A basic problem for teachers in
this area is obtaining information about the various professional
organizations. Membership in more than one type of professional
organization is also recommended by the writers.
The Union-Professional
Association Rivalry

A problem demanding the attention of teachers today is the choice
between the two national teachers' organizations: the National Educa-
tion Association and the American Federation of Teachers. This
division in the profession is seen by the writers as detrimental
to the status of the profession. Teachers are urged to study the
issues and arrive at their own conclusions regarding their membership
in a national organization.
Active Participation in
Professional Organizations

Active participation in professional organizations involves
attending meetings, reading publications and journals, participating
in committee work at all levels, and seeking other leadership oppor-

tunities.

Development of Professional Standards

 

The forty pieces of professional literature included in this
section contained information for teachers about recruitment of
teachers (l4 sources), retention of good teachers (IO sources), and

the improvement of pre- and in-service programs (l7 sources).

l|3

Recruitment of Teachers

Writers in the professional literature stressed the need for the
profession to impress able students in elementary and secondary
schools and colleges with the challenge of teaching as a desirable
occupational choice. Many writers suggested student clubs as effec-
tive means of communicating to students information about the teaching
profession. Other effective measures recommended in the literature
were involving interested students in the work and activities of
teaching and working with state and college personnel in developing

promotional materials and publicizing teaching.

Retention of Good Teachers

As professional persons, teachers have some responsibility for
what the education profession does to retain good teachers and to
control entry into the profession. Several of the writers were
concerned with adequate orientation programs to help beginning

teachers overcome some of the problems of the first year of teaching.

Pre- and ln-Service Programs

Teachers also need to be actively involved in the improvement,
design, and evaluation of pre- and in-service programs of preparation.
In-service programs should be planned with and by the teachers who take
part in them. It was also suggested that the teachers be involved in

the teaching of the in-service courses and workshops.

Responsibility for Professional Growth
The seventy-three pieces of professional literature included in

this section contained information for teachers about teachers' need

|l4

for individual programs of professional growth (27 sources), types
of professional growth activities (45 sources), and time for
professional growth and development (5 sources).

The professional teacher must consider his own professional
growth as an obligation he has to himself, to his students, and to
his profession. Many writers consider teachers' participation in

their schools' in-service programs as a professional obligation.

The Need for Professional Growth

One of the greatest problems confronting education today is that
of keeping persons in the field abreast of new developments. For
programs of professional growth to be effective and successful,
teachers themselves need to feel they are necessary and essential
to improved teaching.
Types of Professional
Growth Activities

The majority of the pieces of professional literature relevant
to this section of responsibility for professional growth were con-
cerned with the different types and techniques of ln-service programs
in existence. These ranged from formal activities such as the pursuit
of advanced degrees to informal activities such as teacher discussion
groups. Most frequently, writers of the articles suggested that
teachers could keep abreast by reading professional journals. Mentioned
also were attending professional association meetings and conferences
and talking about educational developments with colleagues. Partici-
pating in research studies and writing for publication were also

recommended as methods of Individual professional growth.

«1‘

|l5

Important in this issue is the need for the programs of profes-
sional growth to be individually planned, jointly by the school

system and the teachers.

Time for Professional Growth

The issue involved in the five pieces of professional literature
included here concerns when teachers are to undertake additional study
and other professional growth activities. Some writers recommend
full-time study as a requirement for effective professional growth.
However, for many reasons, teachers still demand opportunities for

part-time study.

Conclusions

 

The following conclusions are drawn from the conduct and findings
of the study. These conclusions are pertinent to and limited by the
design of and information located for this study.

I. Because of the procedures used and the limitations set for
this study, particularly the adherence to the California definition
in the search for sources and the organization of the synthesis, it
may be concluded that the areas of interest emphasized in the study
reflect the researcher's bias and individual interpretation of the
California teacher role definition of out-of-class reSponsibilities.

2. Adherence to the California definition in the conduct of the
study may also have resulted in a forced or artificial dichotomy of
emphases and information into the two major areas: member of a school

staff and member of the profession. Many of the articles and research

II6

reports included in the study contained relevant information for
teachers about both areas or more than one section of the study.

3. It may be concluded that there exist in the professional
literature much discussion of and interest in these two aspects
of a teacher's out-of-class role.

There are, however, gaps in the information available which
discusses certain topics in the California definition. Two areas
under the member of a school staff section received virtually no
attention in proportion to other areas in the section: responsi—
bility for over-all school activities (7 sources out of II7) and
evaluation of the school program (4 sources out of II7).

4. It may be concluded from the data included in the study
that professional education organizations have played and will
continue to play an important role in teachers' fulfilling their
out-Of-class responsibilities both as members of a school staff
and members of the profession.

5. It may be concluded from the data included in the study that
new developments in education which have some effect on teacher time
will enable teachers to take a greater part in fulfilling their roles
as members of a school staff and the profession.

6. In view of the fact that of the 283 different pieces of
professional literature included In this study only fifteen were
definitely identified as being written by classroom teachers, it
may be concluded that teachers have not expressed to a meaningful
extent their Opinions and experiences regarding these issues in

the professional literature.

II7

Recommendations

 

In view of the findings and conclusions of this study, the
following recommendations are made.

I. Because of the importance of public relations and the
public image to teachers, it is recommended that a study of this
type be conducted with regard to teachers' responsibilities as a
link with the community, the third out-of—class role of the teacher
included in the California definition.

2. For the most part, the information synthesized in this
study was based upon the writings and research studies of persons
in the educational community other than classroom teachers; only
fifteen of the 283 professional writings and reports were actually
written by classroom teachers. There is a need, then, for more
definitive information relevant to the subject of this study, for
information which has as its source teachers themselves.

It is recommended that classroom teachers be urged by publishers
and those involved in the pre- and in-service education of teachers
to contribute to the professional literature their actual concerns,
opinions, and experiences regarding these issues.

3. In addition, it is recommended that efforts be made to obtain
and make available for teachers information about the areas of the out-
of—class role of teachers for which this researcher found gaps in the
available information.

4. It is also recommended that additional studies be conducted

on a nationwide basis and across subject-matter lines to determine

|I8

what actually is taking place in schools regarding teachers and their
responsibilities and duties as members of a school staff and of the
profession. Research of this kind should include studies of usage of
teacher time and the effect of teacher load on teachers' assuming
their professional responsibilities.

5. It is recommended that pre- and in-service programs of
teacher education stress the importance of maintaining a professional
attitude and of being aware of the need for working cooperatively with
others.

The information synthesized in the study revealed that teachers'
attitudes are important to their public images and their professional
behavior. Professional attitudes in teachers are also important in
programs of recruitment and retention of good teachers because of
teachers' influence on their students, prospective teachers, and
their colleagues.

6. It is recommended that pre- and in-service programs of
teacher education also include emphasis on the role and function
of the professional organizations in conjunction with teachers'

out-of-class roles and responsibilities.

APPENDIX A

CALIFORNIA TEACHER ROLE DEFINITION
(OUT-OF-CLASS)

Role 4 Link with the community

4.|

4.2

4.3

Utilizes available education resources of community in classroom
procedures.

4.ll Invites parents and other adults to share hobbies,
talents, and experiences with students.

4.l2 Utilizes field trips to draw on community resources.

4.l3 Interprets community to pupils through his own field
and incidental activities.

4.l4 Reveals to the public the significance of the school
program through pupil activities in classroom, school,
and community projects.

4.l5 Initiates students into community responsibilities
appropriate to their age level.

Secures the cooperation of parents in school activities.

4.2l Knows when and how to Obtain assistance for school or
class affairs.

4.22 Conforms with policies of Parent-Teacher Associations
and other cooperating groups relating to cooperation
with the school.

4.23 Encourages parents to visit regular classes and Special
school events.

4.24 Conducts individual and group parent conferences with
increasing skill.

Assists lay groups in understanding modern education.

4.3I Participates effectively with various socio-economic
groups.

I|9

4.4

Role

5.l

5.2

I20

4.32 Keeps parents and public informed of school activities
through bulletins, class letters, and newspaper articles.

4.33 Initiates opportunities to discuss educational problems
and accomplishments with friends, neighbors, and
community acquaintances.

4.34 Accepts invitations to speak upon educational subjects.

4.35 Communicates effectively with the public as well as
with members of the profession.

Participates in definition and solution of community problems

relating to education.

4.4l Contributes to service in the community.

4.42 Participates as a member of the profession in school
betterment programs, bond issues and legislative

matters.

4.43 Draws upon reliable sources for information and assistance.

5 Member of the Staff
Contributes to the definition of the over-all aims of the school.
5.II Works effectively with the public to define school aims.

5.l2 Interprets the relationship of school program and
activities to the desired aims.

5.l3 Articulates his classroom objectives to those of the
school.

Contributes to the development of a school program to achieve
its objectives.

5.2I Participates effectively in all-school curriculum
developments.

5.2ll Utilizes effective procedures in curriculum
building.

5.2l2 Demonstrates familiarity with current curri-
cular projects and patterns.

5.22 Articulates his classroom program to the school curriculum.

5.3

5.4

Role

6.l

6.2

l2l

Contributes to the effectiveness of over-all school activities.

5.3l Participates in planning and guidance of student
activities.

5.32 Assumes appropriate administrative reSponsibility
for operation of the school as a whole.

Cooperates effectively in the evaluation of the school program.

5.4I Can define school aims in terms suitable for
evaluation.

5.42 Participates in collection of relevant evidence.
5.43 Interprets the evidence to indicate needed revisions
in program and aims.
6 Member of the profession
Demonstrates an appreciation of the social importance of the
profession.

6.II Renders apprOpriate service to society beyond that for
which he has contracted.

6.I2 Contributes to the honor and prestige of the profession
by his personal conduct.

6.I3 Actively seeks to upgrade professional standards
through selective recruitment and retention programs.

6.I4 Interprets to others the goals and practices of the
profession.

Contributes to the development of professional standards.

6.2l Takes part in the development of a functional
code of ethics.

6.22 Adheres to the accepted code of ethics.

6.23 Helps to enforce the code of ethics in upgrading
standards of professional behavior.

6.24 Supports an adequate system of certification and
accreditation.

6.25 Helps improve pre-service and in-service programs of
preparation.

I22

6.3 Contributes to the profession through its organizations.

6.4

6.5

6.3I Becomes a member of the organization.

6.32 Takes active part in the formulation of the organi-
zational policies.

6.33 Supports the policy once formed until It is changed
by the democratic process.

6.34 Seeks and supports legislative programs to improve
the program of education as well as the economic
and social status of the profession.

Takes a personal responsibility for his own professional growth.

6.4l Develops and tests more effective classroom procedures.

6.42 Keeps informed on current trends, tendencies, and
practices in his field by use of professional

literature.

6.43 Participates in conferences, workshops, etc.,
dealing with professional problems.

6.44 Enlarges his horizons through academic and non-
academic experiences.

Acts on a systematic philosophy, critically adopted and con-
sistently applied.

6.5l Expresses a systematic philosophy of education held
with deep personal conviction.

6.52 Identifies and clarifies the phIIOSOphical assump-
tions underlying various and conflicting policies
for his work in the six roles of professional
practice.

6.53 Utilizes explicitly his philosophical views in
making consistent choices of educational policies
and practices.

APPENDIX 8

SOURCE LIST

Academic Freedom in the Secondary_Schools. New York: American

 

Civil Liberties Union, I968.

Ackerman, Margaret 8. "Arguments Against Censorship: Milton
and Mill," Arizona Egglish Bulletin, XI (February, I969),
23-27 0

 

Adams, Raymond 5. "Teachers and their Social Relationships."
Paper read before the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, California,
February 5-8, I969.

Ahrens, Nyla Herber. "Censorship and the Teacher of English:
A Questionnaire Survey of a Selected Sample of Secondary
School Teachers of English." Unpublished Ed.D. disser-
tation, Columbia University, I965.

Alam, Dale V. "Opportunities for Growth," Educational Leader-
shie, XXV (November, I967), l53-l57.

 

Allen, James E., Jr. "Guidelines for Staff Relationships,"
New York State Education, LIll (February, l966), 7-8.

 

Amidon, Edmund, and Blumberg, Arthur. "Principal and Teacher
Perceptions of School Faculty Meetings," Administrator's
Notebook, XV (November, l966), l-6.

 

Anderson, Robert Edward. "The Attitudes of Two Groups of
Teachers Rated to be Most Professional and Least Profes-
sional by their School Administrators." Unpublished
Ed.D. dissertation, University of Nebraska, I963.

Arbuckle, Dugald S. "What Course for the Teacher? Professional
or Technician," The Clearing House, XLII (September, I967),
3-8.

Armstrong, W. Earl. "The Further Education of Teachers in
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Blumberg, Arthur, and Amidon, Edmund. "A Comparison of Teacher
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Brinkmeier, Oria A., Ubben, Gerald C., and Williams, Richard C.
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Brodbelt, Samuel. "Teacher Professionalization: Its Determina-
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Brown, George W., and Krater, Joan M. "Teachers Decide How
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Conference on High School English Departments. High School
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Cuban, Larry. "Teacher and Community," Harvard Educational
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Cunha, Harry J. "Teacher Responsibility Includes Attendance at
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"Current Reading: A Scholarly and Pedagogical Bibliography of
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Danielson, Robert W. "The English Department Chairman and
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Davies, Don. "The Education Professions Development Act,"
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De Vries, Ted D. "An Analysis of Selected English Teaching
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Dickson, George E., and Creighton, Samuel L. “Who Is This
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Dillman, Beryl R. "Teacher Activities and Professional Growth
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98. Eye, Glen 6., et al. "Relationship Between Instructional Change
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l02. Filburn, Eleanor. "Student Teaching: Whose Responsibility?",
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lil

 

 

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Hartz, Frederic R. "Combating Library and Textbook Censorship
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Hazard, William R. "The ln-Service Sabbatical," Phi Delta
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Heyerdahl, Lawrence, Jr. "Teachers' Perceptions of Expectations
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Hippie, Theodore W. "Toward Improved English Department Meetings,"
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Kaul, Donald. "Trouble With a Capital T," Arizona Engjish
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Kives, David. "Planning for Change in English Education," The
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Koontz, Elizabeth D. "Why Teachers are Militant," New York
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Kushel, Gerald. Discord in Teacher-Counselor RelatiOns.
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Landers, Thomas J. "Professional Growth-A Continuing Project,"
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Landis, Charles Andrew. "Professional Orientation and Pupil
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Lapp, Charles E. "Those Little Unrememberables: A Year-End
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205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

2I0.

2II.

2l2.

2I3.

2I4.

2I5.

2|6.

2|7.

2|8.

2I9.

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APPENDIX C

SOURCES LISTED BY TOPICS

Member of a School Staff

 

(II7 sources)

A. Definition of Over-All Aims of the School (87 sources)
I. Involvement in Educational Policymaking (26 sources)
25, 40, 42, 43, 44, 63, 76, 9|, 92, 98,*
IIO, II8, Il9, I45, I64, I78, I86, 223, 226, 229,

242, 245, 250, 253, 264, 282

a. Role of Professional Associations (IO sources)

49, 60, 63, II8, 223, 226, 229, 233, 245, 272

b. Relationship with Administrators (l2 sources)
6, 25, 94, 95, 98, I04,

I78, 2I9, 226, 229, 245, 253

c. Problems of Participation (I4 sources)
39, 43, 63, I09, I35, I48, I57,

I78, 2I5, 226, 253, 268, 27I, 282

d. Methods of Participation (6 sources)

43, 87, 94, II9, I48, 233

*Numbers refer to sources listed in Source List, Appendix B,
pp. I23-I43.

I44

I45

lI. Public Relations Responsibilities (l2 sources)
II, 32, 59, 68, 85, 97,

I24, I48, I49, I89, I93, I99

III. Censorship, School Aims, and Public Relations (24 sources)
4, I3, I9, 24, 35, 36, 54, 65,
70, 82, 83, I08, I20, I30, I3I, I59,

I6l, I66, 207, 235, 236, 282, 273, 283

a. Anticipating Censorship (l6 sources)
I3, I9, 24, 36, 54, 82, 83, I08,

I3I, I47, I59, I62, 207, 236, 273, 283

b. Handling Censorship Incidents (I9 sources)
2, 4, I3, 24, 36, 54, 65, BI,
82, 83, 86, I20, I58, I6l, I62, I88,

235, 273, 283

B. Development of a School Program (29 sources)

I, 40, 43, 56, 88, II9, I29, I72, I88, 204, 240

I. Involvement in Curriculum Development (9 sources)

40, 63, 94, 98, II8, II9, I29, 288, 278

ll. Organizational Structure and Climate (l2 sources)
22, 33, 40, 43, 45, 67,

78, l03, II9, I60, I7I, 230

Ill. Role of Departments (6 sources)

58, 7|, 78, I03, I42, 23I

 

 

 

 

 

I46

C. Responsibility for Over-All School Activities (7 sources)
I. Planning and Guiding Student Activities (5 sources)
II6, I35, I74, 203, 243
II. Assisting in Administrative Operation of the School
(2 sources)

7, I33

D. Evaluation of the School Program (4 sources)

l2, I34, I65, 278

Member of the Profession

(I78 sources)

A. The Profession and the Professional Teacher (63 sources)
9, 6|, 62, 87, 90, II2, I25, I50, l53,

I73, l80, l84, I98, 22I, 229, 234, 244

I. Professionalism of Teachers (8 sources)

9, 29, 90, I25, I50, I53, I73, 258

II. Attitudes of Professional Teachers (22 sources)
3, 8, I7, 23, 37, 43, 6|, 62,
73, 92, Il5, I52, I63, I68, I77, I84,

I92, 206, 2II, 22I, 280, 263

III. Professional Behavior (24 sources)
I6, l8, 27, 43, 76, 87, 90, 93,
I00, I07, II3, I22, I23, I44, I70, I92,
20l, 206, 225, 25I, 254, 256, 259, 28I

 

I47

a. Code of Ethics (IO sources)

43, 48, 52, 53, 87, I55, 205, 258, 285, 274

B. Contribution to Professional Organizations (40 sources)
I. Membership in Professional Organizations (I8 sources)
I4, 34, 43, 47, 69, I25, I36, I44, I77,

I8I, 20l, 209, 2I2, 227, 237, 245, 247, 270

II. Union-Professional Organization Rivalry (I6 sources)
28, 43, 58, 87, I39, I44, I76, l8l,
I96, I97, 208, 234, 237, 244, 246, 267
III. Active Participation in Professional Organizations
(I5 sources)
64, 66, 69, 84, 92, II4, I36, I37,

I38, I8I, 24I, 242, 247, 255, 270

C. Development of Professional Standards (40 sources)
I. Recruitment of Teachers (I4 sources)
I5, 26, 43, 72, 87, 96, 99,

IOI, II7, I69, I98, 256, 277, 280

II. Retention of Good Teachers (IO sources)
4|, III, I5I, I63, I80,

200, 202, 208, 2I7, 220

III. Pre- and In-Service Programs (I7 sources)
IO, 20, 46, 50, 57, 79, 80, 87, I02,

I2I, I24, I4I, I54, 2|3, 2I8, 248, 257

 

 

 

I48

D. Responsibility for Professional Growth (73 sources)
IO, 20, 46, 55, 78, l24,

I28, I4I, I54, I67, I98

I. Need for Professional Growth (20 sources)
5, 2|, 5|, 74, 77, I24, I28, I4I, I56, I79,

l85, I94, I98, 222, 232, 237, 249, 252, 256, 279

II. Types of Professional Growth Activities (45 sources)
30, 3|, 38, 75, 77, 78, 84, 87, 88,
89, I05, I06, I2l, I26, l27, I32, I40, I42,
I43, I44, I50, l54, I75, I77, I82, I83, I87,
I90, I9I, I94, I95, I98, 2IO, 2l4, 2I6, 224,

227, 228, 238, 239, 24I, 257, 26l, 289, 275

III. Time for Professional Growth (5 sources)

IO, 48, 55, I59, 2I3

 

 

 

 

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to Prevent It," The Growing Edges of Secondary English. Edited
by Charles Suhor, John Sawyer Mayher, and Frank J. DTAngeIo.
Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English, I968.
pp. 20I-2I6.

 

Articles and Periodicals

Allen, James E., Jr. "Guidelines for Staff Relationships," New York
State Education, LIIl (February, I966), 7-8.

 

Armstrong, W. Earl. "The Further Education of Teachers in Service,"
Journal of Teacher Education, XIX (Spring, I968), 33-38.

 

Bach, Harry. "Censorship of Library Books and Textbooks in American
Schools," Journal of Secondarnyducation, XL (January, I965),
3"5.

Belok, Michael V. "Career Orientations-a Teacher Typology,"
Education, LXXXVI (October, I965), IOZ-IO5.

Booth, Wayne C. "Censorship and the Values of Fiction," English
Journal, LIII (March, I964), I55-I64.

Brodbelt, Samuel. "Teach Professionalization: Its Determination
and Achievement," School and Society, XCVII (March, I969),
I5I-I52.

 

Burress, Lee A., Jr. "Censorship and the Public Schools," American
Library Association Bulletin, LIX (June, I965), 49I-499.

 

Childress, Jack R. "In-Service or Continuing Education for Teachers,"
Journal of Education, CXLVII (February, I965), 36-45.

 

Conley, William H. "Excellence In Teaching," Catholic School
Journal, LXVII (October, I967), 4.

 

Dickson, George E., and Creighton, Samuel L. "Who is this Person We
Call Teacher?", Educational Leadership, XXVI (February, I969),
455-458.

 

Doherty, Victor W. "The Carnegie Professional Growth Program: An
Experiment in the In-Service Education of Teachers," Journal
of Teacher Education, XVIII (Fall, I967), 26I-268.

Donelson, Kenneth L. "Challenging the Censor: Some Responsibilities
of the English Department," English Journal, LVIII (September,
I969), 87I-874.

 

. "Playing the Game in English Teaching," The Clearipg_
House, XLIII (April, I969), 479-482.

 

 

I52

Edelfelt, Roy A. "The Teacher and His Staff," New York State
Education, LV (October, I967), I6-I9.

 

Education Policies Commission of the Minnesota Education Associa-
tion. "The Professional Teacher," Minnesota Journal of
Education, XLV (October, I964), I5.

 

Egner, Joan R005, and Lane, Kenneth. "Collective Bargaining and
Administrative Prerogatives," Peabody Journal of Education,
XLVI (November, I968), I42-I49.

 

Fishburn, Clarence E. "Learning the Role of the Teacher," Journal
of Teacher Education, XVII (Fall, I966), 329-33I.

 

Freedman, Philip, and Kravetz, Nathan. "The Case of the Disadvan-
taged Teacher," School and Society, XCVI (March 30, I968),
204-205.

 

Frymier, Jack R. "Teachers: Not Will but Can They Change?",
Journal of Teacher Education, XX (Summer, I969), 236-237.

 

Geer, Blanche. "Occupational Commitment and the Teaching Profes-
sion," The School Review, LXXXV (Spring, I966), 3I-47.

 

Grieder, Calvin. "ACLU Takes a Narrow View of Professional
Responsibilities," Nation's Schools, LXXXIII (March, I969), IO.

 

Heath, Brian R. G. "Letters . . . and Comments," Personnel and
Guidance Journal, XLVI (January, I968), 505.

 

 

"How to Keep Teachers on the Ball," School Management, X (March,
I966), 94-98+.

 

Laux, Dean M. "A New Role for Teachers?", Phi Delta Kappan, XLVI
(February, I965), 265-268.

 

Lemeshow, Seymour. "The Organization of Problems Teachers Face,"
Journal of Secondary Education, XLIII (April, I968), I50-I55.

 

Medlyn, William H. "First Swallow Hard: 'Bilateral' Management
is What Teachers are After," American School Board Journal,
CLVI (April, l969), I2-I3.

 

Nelson, Paul 5., Jr. "Orientation of New English Teachers: A
Major Job for the Department Chairman," English Journal,
LVII (March, I968), 409-4l5+.

 

Oliver, Clark. "We are a Profession," Michlgan Education Journal,
XLIV (May I, I967), 38.

"Professional Growth of Teachers in Service," National Education
Association Research Bulletin, XLV (March, I967), 25-27.

 

I53

Rasmussen, L. V. "New Role for the Middleman," American School
Board Journal, CLV (February, I968), IO-II.

 

 

Salz, Arthur E. "Formula for Inevitable Conflict: Local Control
vs. Professionalism," Phi Delta Kappan, L (February, I969),
332-334.

 

Sterner, William S. "Extracurricular Duties and the Law,"
School Activities, XXXVIII (September, I966), I9-20.

 

"Teacher Involvement In School Policies and Procedures," Today's
Education, LVIII (April, I969), 6+.

Tyler, Louise L. "A Code of Ethics for Education," The Clearing
House, XL (January, I966), 263-266.

 

Webb, Gerald. "What do Teachers Think of Teaching?", Illinois
Education, LIV (March, I966), 3|3.

White, Harold C., and Lee, John W. "What Boards Sometimes Forget
about Teacher Loyalty," American School Board Journal, CLV
(June, I968), 24-25.

 

Williams, Richard C. "An Academic Alternative to Collective
Negotiations," Phi Delta Kgppan, XLIX (June, I968), 57I-574.

 

Unpublished Material

 

Anderson, Ruth I. "An Analysis and Classification of Research in
Shorthand and Transcription." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Indiana University, I946.

Austin, Ronald L. "Selection of Sales Personnel: A Review of
Research." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana Univer-
sity, I954.

Beckwith, Gladys May. "A Study of the English Teacher Role in the
Secondary School as Perceived by Student Teachers and Super-
visory Teachers of English." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Michigan State University, I968.

Corwin, Ronald G. "Staff Conflicts in the Public Schools."
Columbus: The Ohio State University, I966.

Edgemon, Albert W. "The Contributions of Selected Publications
to the Informational Needs of Curriculum Coordination
Specialists." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia
University, I964.

 

I54

Felix, Joseph Carl. "An Analysis of Selected Factors Descriptive
of the Professional Teacher." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation,
Brigham Young University, I964.

Godfrey, Margaret Prendergast. "Staff Participation in Decision-
Making Procedures in Elementary Schools." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Connecticut, I968.

Herring, J. Virgil. "A Synthesis and Classification of Research
in the Teaching of Bookkeeping and Accounting." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, I950.

Hogancamp, Thomas B. "A Comprehensive Analysis and Synthesis of
Research Findings and Thought on Business Teacher Education."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, I957.

Meinke, Darrel Myron. "Criteria for the Selection of Professional
Education Periodicals and a Selected List." Unpublished Ed.D.
dissertation, University of Nebraska Teachers College, I966.

Miller, Gertrude Mary. "A Synthesis of Research Findings and
Thought Pertaining to Office Practice Instruction."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, I96I.

Rahe, Harves C. "An Analysis and Classification of Research
Studies in Typewriting." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Indiana University, I950.

Shafer, Robert. "Concepts of Role in PrOSpective Teachers of
English: A Type C Project." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Teachers College, Columbia University, I958.

Wagoner, Roderic Lee. "Perceptions of Teacher Roles in Arizona
Secondary Schools and Their Relation to the Secondary Teacher
Education Program at the University of Arizona." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona, I965.

   

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