ATTITUDINAL CHANGES TOWARD INDEPENDENT
STUDY USING ALTERNATE METHODS OF TEACHING
AND LEARNING ‘

Thesis for the DegreeDf Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
LEONARD I. ,ESPINOSA
1972

 

“5&5"

 

 

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
ATTITUDINAL CHANGES TOWARD INDEPENDENT STUDY
USING ALTERNATE METHODS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

presented by

Leonard J. Eepinoea

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Migher Ed .

 

 

Date 5-8-72

0-7639

 

 

 

 

 

€33
m M

RI;
{wag

ABSTRACT

ATTITUDINAL CHANGES TOWARD INDEPENDENT
STUDY USING ALTERNATE METHODS OF
TEACHING AND LEARNING

BY

Leonard J. Espinosa

The general purpose of this study was to contri-
bute to the improvement of teaching through an experiment
that attempted a positive change in the attitudes of
teacher candidates toward independent study. More spe-
cifically, it was hoped the investigation would have
direct implications for:

1. Developing a method by which to change the
attitudes of teacher candidates in a positive
direction toward independent study.

2. Changing the attitudes of teacher candidates
in a positive direction toward independent
study.

3. Creating in teacher candidates a motivation
to use independent study teaching methods in
their teaching experiences.

The subjects consisted of teacher candidates

enrolled in the teacher training program at San Jose State

College in San Jose, California.. Curriculum Materials

Leonard J. Espinosa

and Technology, a required course for all subjects, was

used in the experiment. The content of the course was the

same for both groups of subjects; only the method of
instruction for part of the course was changed for the
experimental group. The experimental treatment was inde-
pendent study.

All research hypotheses were stated in null form.

A t-test was used to determine the significance of change

in the subjects' attitudes toward independent study, and

in their attempts to use independent study teaching
methods in their teaching experiences. The .05 level of
confidence was used to determine the attainment of the
hypothesis.

Following are the results of testing the null
hypotheses:

Null Hypothesis 1: There will be no difference in atti-
tude toward the general concept of
independent study between the experi-
mental and control groups as measured

by the California Teacher Development
Project Teacher Attitude Inventory.

 

Result: The difference in the between-group mean scores
on the post-test was significant at the .05 level. Null
Hypothesis 1 was therefore rejected.

Null Hypothesis 2: There will be no difference in the
attitudes of the experimental and con—
trol groups toward the subject content
of the experimental course between the
pre-test and post-test as measured by
the Newer Educational Media Inventory.

 

Leonard J. Espinosa

Result: The difference in the within-group mean scores on
post-test was significant at the .05 level. Null Hypoth-
esis 2 was therefore rejected.

Null Hypothesis 3: There will be no difference in the use
of independent study methods in the
subjects' teaching experience between
the experimental and control groups as
measured by the Use of Independent
Study in Teaching questionnaire.

 

 

 

Result: The difference in the between-group mean scores
on post-test l was significant at the .05 level. Null

Hypothesis 3 was therefore rejected.

ATTITUDINAL CHANGES TOWARD INDEPENDENT
STUDY USING ALTERNATE METHODS OF

TEACHING AND LEARNING

BY

I
.‘\‘ .
Leonard J3 Espinosa

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration
and Higher Education

1972

DEDICATION

To Barbara and Leland

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The successful completion of this dissertation can
be attributed to a number of people. Special assistance
came from the persons who are specifically mentioned here.

Dr. Richard L. Featherstone, my chairman, advisor
and friend for without his understanding, encouragement
and assistance this dissertation would not exist.

Dr. Donald Leu and Dr. Harold Hailer (San Jose
State College) who generously gave me help and encourage-
ment.

Dr. James L. Page whose friendship, encouragement
and guidance have been a tremendous help.

Dr. Vandel C. Johnson and Dr. George R. Myers
whose advise and guidance are appreciated.

Sincere appreciation goes to my parents, Connie
and Jack, and my wife's parents, Angie and Joe, for their
patience and help.

To my son Leland for his patience and understand-
ing goes my heartfelt thanks.

The last and most significant appreciation goes to
my wife, Barbara, whose encouragement and unending confi-

dence gave me the desire to go on.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM. . . . . .

Introduction to the Problem . . . .
Statement of the Problem . . . . .
Statement of Purpose . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . .
Definition of Important Terms . . .
Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . .

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . .
The Significance of Independent Study.
Independent Study as a Method of
Learning . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . .

III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . .
The Course Used in the Study. . . .

Selection of the Subjects. . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental Group. . . . . .

Control Group . . . . . . .
Treatment . . . . . . . . . .

iv

Page
ii
iii
vi
vii

viii

\IONU'InbbJNI-J I—'

oo

16
24

26

26
27
27

29
31
33

Chapter

Measuring Instruments Used in the Study

The DeSign. . . . .
Treatment of the Data . . .

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. . . . .
Introduction . . .

Results of Data Collected for

esis 1.. . . .

Procedures and Analysis .
Results of Data Collected for
esis 2.. . . .
Procedures and Analysis .
Results of Data Collected for
esis 3. . . . .
Procedures and Analysis .
Summary. . . . . . . .

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . .
Implications . . . . . .
Recommendations . . . . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES . O C O O O O O C C O

Page
34
36
38
40
40

43
43

50
50

56
61

63
63
66
67
69
71

78

Table

1.

LIST OF TABLES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Page
Between-group mean scores and t-values on the
California Teacher Development Project Teacher
Attitude Inventory for experimental (ETSand
control (C) subjects . . . . . . . . . 44
Subject responses to attitude inventory items
concerning the California Teacher Development
Project Teacher Attitude Inventory. . . . . 46
Within-group mean scores and t-values on the
Newer Educational Media Inventory for experi-
mental and control groups. . . . . . . . 51
Subject responses to attitude inventory items
concerning the Newer Educational Media
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Between-group mean scores and t-values on the
Use of Independent Study in Teaching question-
naire for experimental (E) and control (C)
subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Subject reSponses to the questionnaire items
concerning the Use of Independent Study in
Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

vi

Figure

1.

LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Independent study method of learning to
operate selected instructional technology
equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Lecture-laboratory method of learning to
operate selected instructional technology
equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Time line for gathering data . . . . . . 43

vii

Appendix

A.

LIST OF APPENDICES

Teaching Methods Flow Chart . . . . .

Course Outline for Education 183E--
Curriculum Materials and Technology. . .

Student Information Card . . . . . .

California Teacher Development Project
Teacher Attitude Inventory. . . . . .

Newer Educational Media Inventory . . ..

Questionnaire--Use of Independent Study in
TeaChing O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Independent Study Laboratory Information .
The Facilities. . . . . . . . . .
Carrel Reservations . . . . . . . .
Laboratory Checksheet . . . . . . .

Cover Letter . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

80

82

88

90

94

98
100
103
106
108
111

CHAPTER I

FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction to the Problem

 

The problem of individual differences among stu-
dents has been expressed by many writers. Coping with the
broad range of differences in background, intelligence,
interests, experiences, and talents that students bring to
school has always been a challenge for the concerned edu-
cator. Improving and upgrading the quality of education
for all is partially dependent upon the teacher's ability
to utilize independent study learning methods to help stu-
dents overcome these individual differences.

In support of the concept that students' individual
differences largely can be overcome through the teacher's
use of independent study learning methods, Carroll defined
aptitude as ". . . the amount of time required by the

1

learner to attain mastery of a learning task." In 1968

Bloom added, "If Carroll is right then learning mastery

 

1Benjamin S. Bloom, "Learning for Mastery," Evalu-
ation Comment, Vol. I, No. 2 (Durham, N.C.: Regional Edu-
cation Laboratory for the Carolinas and Virginia, May,
1968), p. 3, quoting John Carroll, "A Model of School
Learning," Teachers College Record, (1963—64), 723-733.

 

 

is theoretically available to all, if we can find the means
for helping each student."2
Individualized methods of teaching have been and
are being developed, and are intended to help students over-
come individual differences. Beginning teachers should be
aware of the individual differences of their students and
should know how to individualize their instruction to help
overcome these individual differences. The teacher prepara-
tion program is the logical place for such instruction in
methods of individualized teaching.
But how can a college of education positively
change the attitudes of teacher candidates toward inde-
pendent study? And if the attitudes can be changed, will
the teacher candidates actually use independent study
methods in their teaching experiences? The present study

has been undertaken with the intent of answering these

questions.

Statement of the Problem

 

The problem of this study was to determine whether
a significantly more positive change in attitude toward
independent study would be achieved by teacher candidates
who were taught by an independent study method, as com-
pared to teacher candidates who were taught the same

material by a lecture-laboratory method. Both methods of

 

21bid.

teaching were intended to be equally effective in teaching
the subject content of the course, and the attitudes of all
subjects toward the topic content were expected to be
significantly more positive at the end of the course than
at the beginning. As additional evidence of attitudinal
change, the author attempted to determine if those graduate
teacher candidates who had been taught by independent study
methods actually used independent study techniques in their

teaching experiences.

Statement of Purpose

 

The general purpose of this study was to contribute
to the improvement of teaching through an experiment that
attempted a positive change in the attitudes of teacher
candidates toward independent study.

More specifically, it was hoped the investigation
would have direct implications for:

1. Developing a method by which to change the
attitudes of teacher candidates in a positive
direction toward independent study.

2. Changing the attitudes of teacher candidates
in a positive direction toward independent
study.

3. Creating in teacher candidates a motivation to
use independent study teaching methods in their

teaching experiences.

Limitations of the Study

 

The author was primarily concerned with changing
the attitudes of teacher candidates in a positive direction
toward independent study. Therefore, the author was not
concerned with any other aspect of the course used for the
experiment, although as the course instructor he did ensure
that the objectives of the course were achieved by both the
experimental and control groups.

Specific limitations of the study are as follows:

1. The population from which all subjects were
selected consisted of teacher candidates enrolled in the
teacher preparation program at San Jose State College in
San Jose, California. Therefore the results of this study
might not be applicable to another geographical location.

2. There was no control of other independent
study experiences the subjects might have experienced
prior to or during the study.

3. There was no control of the placement of the
subjects in the schools in which they were student teach-
ing.

a. They could have been placed in schools that

did not have facilities for independent study.

b. They could have been placed under the super-

vision of a resident teacher who had a negative

attitude toward independent study methods.

Definition of Important Terms

 

Teacher candidate.--A student who was enrolled in

 

the elementary education program at San Jose State College,
and was enrolled in student teaching one half time while in
this study.

Independent study method.--"Study carried on with a
3

 

minimum or a complete absence of external guidance."
"Independent study programs offer learners varying degrees
of freedom in the self-determination of goals and activi—
ties and in starting, stopping, and pacing individualized
learning programs, which are carried on to the greatest
extent possible at the convenience of the learners."4

Independent study method of learning to operate
selected instructional technology equipment.--This method
included an in-class introductory lecture about each type
of instructional technology equipment the subject would be
required to operate. Each subject was also required to
participate in a laboratory away from the classroom, at a
time determined and reserved by the subject. All equipment
and various independent study techniques were available for
the subjects' use (Appendix A).

Lecture-laboratory method of learning to operate

selected instructional technology equipment.--This method

 

3Dictionary of Education (2d ed.; New York:
McGraw-Hill Publishers, 1959), p. 531.

 

4The Encyclopedia of Education (New York: The
Macmillan Company and The Free Press, 1971), IV, 550.

 

included an introductory lecture about each type of instruc-
tional technology equipment the subject would be required

to operate, as well as laboratory practice in class under
the guidance of the instructor. In addition, the labora-
tory was open for practice during other scheduled times
(Appendix A).

Required instructional technology course--Educa-

 

tion 183E: Curriculum Materials and Technology.--"An

 

activity oriented course applying communications research,
technology advancements, and learning theory to selection,
evaluation, and utilization of curriculum materials; plan-

ning and preparing instructional materials."

Hypotheses

 

Hypothesis 1: There will be a significantly more positive
change in attitude toward the general con-
cept of independent study methods of learn-
ing by those teacher candidates who learned
by the independent study method than by
those teacher candidates who learned by the
lecture-laboratory method.

 

Hypothesis 2: There will be a significantly more positive
attitude by both the experimental and con-
trol groups toward the subject content of
the course used in the experiment, at the
conclusion of the course rather than at the
beginning of the course.

 

Hypothesis 3: There will be a significantly greater number
of attempts to apply independent study
methods of learning in their teaching
experiences by those teacher candidates who

 

 

5San Jose State College Bulletin 1970-72 General
Catalog Undergraduate Study, Vol. LII, No. 3 (California,
Office of State Printing, March 1, 1970), p. 169.

 

 

learned by the independent study method
than by those teacher candidates who learned
by the lecture—laboratory method.

Overview

Chapter I was comprised of a general introduction
to the study, a statement of the problem, the purpose of
the study, limitations of the study, definition of impor-
tant terms, and a presentation of the hypotheses.

Chapter II contains a review of the literature,
which is divided into two major categories: (1) litera-
ture that identifies the significance of independent
study, and (2) literature that supports the use of inde-
pendent study as an effective method of learning.

The planning and conducting of the experiment,
including the selection of the population, the design,
procedure and treatment, measuring instruments used, and
the treatment of data, are described in Chapter III.

An analysis of the data is presented in Chapter
IV, while conclusions and recommendations for further

study are found in Chapter V.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

 

To appreciate fully the significance of whether a
positive change in attitude toward independent study can
be achieved by teaching one group with the lecture-
laboratory method of learning and another with the inde-
pendent study method of learning, it becomes necessary to
understand the significance of independent study as a
method of learning.

Many educators have expressed concern about the
ills of our educational system. Outstanding among the com-
plaints is that the practiced methods of teaching are not
changing rapidly enough to cope with the ever-increasing
accumulation of knowledge, and that current teaching
methods do not always provide equal education for all stu-
dents.

Independent study has been proven to be an effec-
tive method of learning, a method that will equip the stu-
dent for the lifetime of learning that is necessary to
succeed in the rapidly changing society of the future.
Recorded in the literature is a vast amount of research

which has found independent study to be a very effective

method of learning. However, the author has found no re-
search that describes specific methods by which to encourage
teachers to use the independent study method of learning
with their own students.

The review of literature is divided into two major
categories: (1) literature that identifies the signifi—
cance of independent study, and (2) literature that sup-
ports the use of independent study as a method of learning.

The Significance of
Independent Study

 

 

Perhaps the greatest failure of the teacher is his
inability to understand that students have individual dif-
ferences and that those individual differences require a
type of instruction that will help the student to overcome
them. However, the problem is not new, nor is it peculiar
to our society. Poirier wrote:

Nearly four hundred years ago, the Moravian bishop
and educator Comenius was well aware of the neces-
sity of adjusting to individual differences. He
admonished teachers to consider their pupils' ages,
intelligence, and knowledge. He urged teachers to
adjust methods and materialsi and to begin instruc-
tion at the student's level.

Further, Wrightstone, in describing how individual

differences challenge the teacher, stated: "Any group of

30 or more pupils, no matter how alike they may seem,

 

1Gerard A. Poirier, Students as Partners in Team
Learnin (Berkeley, California: Center of Team LearnIng,
1970 , p. 2, quoting Jan Amos Comensky, The Analytical
Didactic of Comenius, translated by V. Jelinek (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 160-164.

 

 

 

10

shows individual differences sufficient to challenge the
ingenuity of the most competent teacher."2
Doll further supported the fact that individual

differences exist among learners:

Interestingly, every learner brings with him indi-
vidualized conditioners of learning. These include
his personality, his personal experiences, his
mental ability, and the effects of the social order.
The nature of the learner himself and of his back-
ground has a marked effect on what he learns and on
his style of learning.

 

 

Bloom emphasized the importance of recognizing the
many ways in which students are different. He wrote: "That
these variations must be reflected in learning standards
and achievement criteria is more a reflection of our poli-
cies and practices rather than the necessities of the
case."4 Further, he felt educators should ". . . find
strategies which will take individual differences into con-
sideration but which will do so in such a way as to promote

the fullest development of the individual."5

 

2Gérard A. Poirier, Students as Partners in Team
Learning (Berkeley, California: Center of Team Learning,
1970), . 7, quoting J. Wayne Wrightstone, "What Research
Says to the Teachers," Class Organization for Instruction,
No. 13 (Washington, D.C.: Department of Classroom Teachers
and American Educational Research Association of the
National Education Association, May, 1957), p. 7.

3Ronald C. Doll, Curriculum Improvement: Decision-
Making and Process (2d ed.; Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.,
1971) I p. 460

 

4Bloom, op. cit., p. 3.

51bid.

11

Consideration must also be given to our rapidly
changing society, with its huge accumulation and rapid
acquisition of new knowledge. The additional information
requires that we teach our students hpw to learn so they
continually can re-educate themselves, and continue to be
active, contributing members of our society. Mead empha-
sized the need for a method of learning that will provide
for continuous learning by saying, "We as people, parents,
teachers, citizens are rearing unknown children for an

6 She suggested that we look at the future,

unknown world."
to the needs, hOpes, and fears of the students ". . . to
provide the conditions of growth for the next generation
who might deal with problems too vast for us, reared in
the punier age, even to think about prOperly."7
A widely accepted theory of learning is that learn-
ing takes place inside the learner. In 1902 Dewey de-
clared: "The case is of child. It is his present powers
which are to assert themselves; his present capacities

which are to be exercised; his present attitudes which are

to be realized."8 Gangé reported that the great majority

 

6Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development Theory and
Practice (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1962),
p. 55, quoting Margaret Mead, "The Impact of Culture on
Personality Development in the United States Today,“ Under-
standing the Child, XX (January, 1951), 7.

7

 

 

Ibid.

8John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1902), p. 40.

 

12

of modern learning theorists ". . . consider learning to be

a change that takes place inside the learner. The change

 

is not in the stimulus, . . . Learning is a change consist-
ing of a rearrangement of internal neural processes."9
Learning may also be related to a student's past
experience. Gangé went on to state that "[Learning] is a
highly idiosyncratic event, and depends very much on the
nature of the learner, particularly on his own past learn-

10 It would seem, then, that cultural differences may

ing.”
be added to the existing differences among students, and
would exist at all levels of learning. However, Sears
reported that learners from different cultures have some
goals in common, ". . . but because each individual's
experience is essentially unique, ultimately the goals held
as well as the learning accomplished are individual."11
The culture in which a student is reared has a marked
effect on how he relates to society. Lee stated that the

culture in which a student is raised ". . . is responsible

for the way he sees his place in the universe, for his

 

9Robert M. Gangé, "Learning Research and Its Im—
plications for Independent Learning," in The Theory and
Nature of Independent Study, ed. by Gerald T. Gleason
(Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company, 1967),
p. 29.

 

 

lOIbid., p. 30.

llPauline S. Sears, "Implications of Motivation
Theory for Independent Learning," in The Theory and Nature
of Indeppndent Study, ed. by Gerald T. Gleason (Scranton,
Penn.: Internatibnal Textbook Company, 1967), p. 35.

 

 

13

feelings at home . . . [toward] others, . . . [and] for the
way he gets evoked or blocked or motivated."12

In the eyes of the educator and compared to the
standards of the school, learners who are being reared in
a culture different from that of the white middle class
could be considered educationally disadvantaged. Therefore,
if the school measures achievement of culturally different
students with instruments developed for students of the
majority culture, then one could assume that the school
should be responsible for providing learning methods that)
can help overcome this cultural gap.

Postman and Weingartner called the conventional
school a hostile place for disadvantaged students. "They
do not learn what the school says it 'teaches,‘ and they
drOp out--or are thrown out--of it as soon as they reach
an age where this is legally possible."13

The educationally disadvantaged are very often the
culturally different, simply because their culture has pro-
vided them with experiences different from those needed to

succeed in the educational system. An excessive amount of

failure by the culturally different in our educational

 

_ 12Dorothy Lee, "A Socio-Anthropological View of
Independent Learning," in The Theory and Nature of Inde-
pendent Study, ed. by Gerald T. Gleason (Scranton, Penn.:
International Textbook Company, 1967), p. 57.

13Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner, Teaching as
A Subversive Activity (New York: Delacorte Press, 1969),
pp. 155-156.

 

 

 

 

14

system can be expected if the attitudes of teachers toward
student achievement remain the same. Bloom reported
teachers begin a new term expecting about one-third of
their students to fail or just pass, one-third to learn

enough but not enough to be good students, and one-third to

learn adequately what they teach.14 If teachers expect one-

third of their students to fail or just pass, it seems we
have an educational system that has built-in failure. He
continued:

This set of expectations, which fixes the aca-
demic goals of teachers and students, is the most
wasteful and destructive aspect of the present edu-
cational system. It reduces the aspirations of both
teachers and students; it reduces motivation for
learning in students; and it systematically destroys
the ego and self—concept of a sizable group of stu-
dents who are legally required to attend school for
10 to 12 years under conditions which are frustrat-
ing and humiliating year after year. The cost of
this system in reducing Opportunities for further
learning and in alienating youth from both school
and society is so great that no society can tolerate
it for long.1

Bloom predicted that over 90 per cent of those failures
could succeed if attitudes of teachers, students, and

administrators were changed, and if teaching strategies
also were revised.16

Postman and Weingartner reported we can no longer

speak lightly about the problems that exist in schools

 

l4Bloom, op. cit., p. l.

lsIbid.

 

16Ibid.

 

15

staffed by teachers with middle-class attitudes; ". . . the

testimony provided by students, both verbally and behavior-

17

ally requires that this criticism be met." Glasser also

recognized the gravity of the situation:

Too much of our present educational system empha-
Sizes failure and too many children who attend
school are failing. Unless we can provide schools
where children, throggh a reasonable use of their
capacities, can succeed, we will dgplittle to solve
the major problems of our country.18

 

 

 

 

The problems of the city schools are common, espec~
ially for the disadvantaged; we must do something to solve
them. Independent study methods of instruction have been
a long—sought, but elusive, goal of concerned educators,
and can provide a solution to the problem of coping with
individual differences among students. Modern technology,
innovative instructional methods, the decreased number of,
students, and the increased number of available qualified
teachers put independent study within the grasp of the
typical school by utilizing currently available instruc-
tional materials and funds. As Postman and Weingartner
stated, "The problems are real, but they are not inevi—

table, because the process which produces them can be

 

modified."19
17 . .
Postman and Weingartner, op. c1t., p. 155.
18

William Glasser, M.D., Schools Without Failure
(New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969), p. 6.

19

 

Postman and Weingartner, op. cip., p. 155.

l6

Independenp Study as a Method of Learning

 

Can independent study methods help educationally
disadvantaged students to bridge the gap caused by their
individual differences? Can independent study help pre-
vent the differences among students from becoming so great
that failure is guaranteed? Can independent study provide
the skills necessary to allow for lifetime learning?

Bruner reported, "Unless certain basic skills are

mastered, later, more elaborate ones become increasingly

20

out of reach." If a student's educational background

for a subject lacks certain basic knowledge, the teacher
should know how to provide access to that knowledge. Inde-
pendent study can be one method through which knowledge

can be obtained. For example, Lembo believed:

Schools must begin with what the student brings to
the class rather than with the goals and activi-
ties that the school has preselected for him.

No goals can be relevant, no processes can be en-
gaged in meaningfully unless they relate to pre-
cisely where the student is in his predispositions
to learn.

The learner will engage in self-directed learning
and demonstrate responsible behavior when heiis
free to choose from availableilearning opportuni—
ties andnwhen he is held accountable for his
choices.41

 

 

 

 

 

0Jerome S. Bruner, Toward a Theory of Education
(Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard Uni?
versity Press, 1966), p. 29.

21John M. Lembo, Why Teachers Fail (Columbus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1971), pp. 45-46.

 

 

l7

Nathaniel Cantor stated that "All genuine learning, in the

final analysis, is self-educational."22
Taba reported: "Students need to acquire a tool

chest of methods of learning which will help them to con—

"23 The student who

tinue their education beyond school.
masters a wide range of learning techniques will be
equipped to continue learning throughout his lifetime. It
would seem, then, that independent study, using various
media and methods, could provide the experiences necessary
for continued learning.

But should all students be exposed to the same
methods of learning? Taba reported that because of their
different backgrounds and abilities, "For all students to
use identical methods of learning, . . . is a highly ques-
tionable procedure from the standpoint of efficiency in
stimulating and using intelligence."24 Bloom suggested
that instructional materials should ". . . serve as a means
of helping individual students at selected points in the
learning process. . . ."25 Students should use materials

as they need them, selecting those that are most useful

at any particular time.

 

_ 22Nathaniel Cantor, Dynamics of Learning (Buffalo,
N.Y.: Foster & Stewart Publishing Corporation, 1946),
p. 47.

 

23Taba, op. cit., p. 307.

24Ibid., p. 308.

25Bloom, op. cit., p. 6.

18

In recommending independent study, Brown stated,
"At a time in which knowledge is expanding and changing at
a phenomenal rate, independent study is the only logical

approach to the problem of absorbing ever—increasing

26

amounts of knowledge." He suggested that the school's

curricula be centered around the following objectives:

. Learning by inquiry.

Learning by doing.

Capturing the imagination.

Stimulating reason.

Learning by discovering, testing, and even
failing and trying again.

014:.me

He continued: "These objectives can be achieved only in
viable independent study situations. The sophistication
of new knowledge calls for an escalation of independent

study programs."28

 

Macdonald divided independent learning into three
concepts: (1) self-pacing, (2) individual programs, and
(3) self-selection. Self-pacing provides independence
from the individual differences of the rest of the class by
allowing the student to work at his own speed. "This form
of activity is best characterized by materials such as the

29

Scienpe Research Associates Reading Laboratories." The

 

 

26B. Frank Brown, Education by Appointment (West
Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Company, 1968), pp. 33-34.

27Ibid., p. 34. 28Ibid.

29

James B. Macdonald, "Independent Learning: The
Theme of the Conference," in The Theory and Nature of Inde-
pendent Study, ed. by Gerald T. Gleason (Scranton, Penn.:
International Textbook Company, 1967), p. 2.

 

19

individual programs concept ". . . often refers to the

creation of multiple answers for achieving similar

30

goals." Students have more than one way to learn, usu-

ally using various media. "The development and use of
resource units, multitext approaches, and multimedia acti-
vities are characteristic of attempts to foster individual
programs."31 Self-selection allows the student to choose
the activity, as well as to select how he does the activ-
ity. "Successful examples of this are found in many so-

called individualized reading programs at the elementary

school level."32

According to Kemp, two primary concerns of educa-
tors are:

That students differ greatly in their ability
to perceive and learn, and in their individual
requirements for learning. Some learn easily and
rapidly from printed or oral presentations, with
a minimum of more "direct" experiences. Others
require experiences that are more concrete, in-
cluding the use of visual media. Most students
require a combination of various avenues to learn-
ing.

That many cultural factors affect learning.
Students need a whole range of experiences involv-
ing real things, visual representations, and
abstract symbols.33

Miller and Smiley supported Kemp's vieWpoint when

discussing effective and appropriate teaching strategy

 

30 31

Ibid. Ibid.

321bid.

33Jerrold E. Kemp, Planning and Producing Audio-
visual Materials (2d ed.; San Francisco: Chandler Pub—
lishing Company, 1968), p. 5.

 

 

20

for the culturally deprived student. They emphasized

three considerations:

(a) the selection of initial learning material
geared to the learner's existing state of readi—
ness; (b) mastery and consolidation of all ongoing
learning tasks before new tasks are introduced,

so as to provide the necessary foundation for
successful sequential learning tasks; and (c) the
use of structured learning materials optimally
organized to facilitate efficient sequential
learning.3

Miller and Smiley concluded:
. . . Of all the available teaching strategies,
programmed instruction, minus the teaching-
machine format, has the greatest potentialities
for meeting the aforementioned three criteria

of an effective and appropriate approach to the
teaching of culturally deprived pupils.3

Concern for individual differences in college stu-
dents was expressed by Postlethwait, Novak, and Murray, who
listed three major ingredients they considered necessary
for college teaching: (1) All media must be considered,
and selection of each medium must be based upon ". . . its
effectiveness and efficiency in working the appropriate

36 (2) The media must be openly accessible to

responses";
the student, allowing him to use at will whatever medium he

needs to make up for his individual differences; and

 

34Harry L. Miller and Marjorie B. Smiley, Educa-
tion in the Metropolis (New York: The Free Press, 1967),
p. 286.

35

 

Ibid., p. 287.

36S. N. Postlethwait, J. Novak, and H. Murray, Ap
Integrated Experience Approach to Learning (Minneapolis,
Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1967), p. 2.

21

(3) ". . . Personal contact with teaching personnel must
be made available to provide motivation and interest."37
Expanded interest in continuous education affirms

the need for independent study. Johnstone reported:

. . . 8 percent of adult learners were engaged in

independent study in 1962. With programmed learn-

ing, television and radio and improved correspond-

ence study programs integrated into other learning

activities, this area may greatly expand in the

future.38
Hayakawa, in attempting to determine future needs of the
college student, predicted that "There will be much indi-
vidual study with books and tapes, supplemented by generous
counseling in widely scattered 'learning centers.”39
Likewise, Toffler advocated training students to use inde-
pendent study techniques: "Tomorrow's schools must there-
fore teach not merely data, but ways to manipulate it.
Students must learn how to discard old ideas, how and when
to replace them. They must, in short, learn how to learn."40

A study conducted by Gruber and Weitman at the

University of Colorado in 1960, supported the effectiveness

of independent study:

 

37Ibid., pp. 2—3.

38Robert M. Smith, George F. Aker, and J. R. Kidd,
eds., Handbook of Adult Education (New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1970), p. 208.

398. I. Hayakawa, "A Quartet of Brash Challenges for
for the Seventies," The Saturday Evening Post, Summer,
1971, p. 109.

40Alvin Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Bantam
Books, Inc., 1970), p. 414.

 

 

 

22

In a course in freshman English in which the group
met about 90 per cent of the regularly scheduled
hours and had little formal training in grammar,
the self-directed study group was significantly
superior to control groups on the test of grammar.
In a course in physical Optics, groups of students
who attended class independently of the instructor
but were free to consult him learned fewer facts
and simple applications but were superior to stu-
dents in conventional classes in difficult appli-
cations and learning new material. Moreover, the
latter difference was maintained in a retest three
months later while the difference in factual knowl-
edge disappeared.41

Facilities, softwear, and hardware for implementing
independent study programs are available in a number of
today's schools. Trump and Baynham described many exist—
ing schools in their prediction of schools of tomorrow:
"The organization of instruction in tomorrow's schools will
provide many more opportunities for individual students'

independent study, . . ."42 Independent study will provide

 

for the individual differences and interests of the stu-
dent, as well as produce greater creativity and a sense of
inquiry.

. . . Students will undertake Special projects,

which they have selected themselves, or which

teachers have suggested.

 

41W. J. McKeachie, "Research on Teaching at the
College and University Level," Research on the Characteris-
tics of Effective College Training, Cooperative Research
Project No. 0 E 850 (Ann Arbor, MiChigan: The University
of Michigan, 1964), pp. 1146-1147.

42J. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, "The Schools
of Tomorrow," in The Teacher and the Taught, ed. by Ronald
Gross (New York: Dell Pfiblishing Co., Inc., 1963), p. 289.

 

 

23

Independent study will involve many types of
activities: reading, viewing, listening, writing,
working on automated learning devices, and doing a
variety of things under supervision in different
kinds of laboratories. Individual differences among
students will be recognized in these activities in
ways that are impossible in today's schools. Indi—
vidual students, their teachers, and their counse-
lors will determine the amount of time and the
nature of the different activities. . . .

The reading, listening, and viewing rooms, the
cubicles, and the laboratories will provide the set-
ting for independent study. Both teachers and stu-
dents will adopt new approaches to students studying
in the school of tomorrow. Teachers will suggest
and guide rather than merely assign. Students will
gradually increase their reSponsibility for reach-
ing individual goals. They will learn to select
and carry through projects and to show initiative
in seeking study materials and aids. They will
experience satisfaction in an environment that
stimulates creative efforts. Tomorrow's program
will spotlight development of students' independent
study skills, recognizing individual differences
in their ability to think and solve problems on
their own, but always striving to raise the stand-
ards of accomplishment for all of them. Teachers
will become increasingly expert in getting stu- 3
dents to use these facilities to the best degree.

From Trump and Baynham's research and others dis-
cussed, it is apparent that independent study is a learning
method that can help overcome the differences that exist
among students and provide for continued learning. But if
independent study is such an effective method of learning,
why isn't it more widely used? Kemp stated that many
teachers

. . . feel that unless they were in front of the
class talking, doing, or showing, no learning is

taking place. Others react to the use of pictures
in one form or another as being a "low level" of

 

43Ibid., pp. 289-290.

24

teaching; academic respectability as they see it

can be maintained only through verbal communication

and reading. This attitude was easily understood

since "we teach as we were taught" and most

teachers experienced little but verbal classroom

instruction during their own education.44
Glasser suggested it would be easier to institute educa-
tional change in our schools if teachers could experience
such an education themselves. "If they are subjected
throughout their school and college years to fact-memory,
graded education requiring little thinking and containing
little relevance, they are willy-nilly trained to use the
same methods with their students."45

Therefore, as Kemp and Glasser indicated, to

instruct students in the effective use of independent study

techniques, teachers themselves must be trained through the

new methods of instruction.

Summary

Educators long have been aware of the differences
that exist among students. Research indicates that:
1. All new learning is dependent upon prior knowl-
edge.
2. Learning is an individual process.
3. The culture in which the student is reared has

a marked effect on how he learns.

 

44Kemp, op. cit., p. 3.

45Glasser, 0p. cit., p. 110.

25

4. Teachers must consider the individual differ-
ences of their students when planning instruc-
tion which will help students overcome these
differences.

5. Teachers tend to use the same method of
instruction as that by which they were taught.

6. The field of knowledge is expanding so rapidly
that students must learn pew to learn, using
all media, if they are to continue to re-
educate themselves to meet the challenges of
the future.

There is ample evidence that independent study as

a method of learning can help overcome the differences that
exist among students. Also, educators believe the knowl—
edge of independent study skills, utilizing all media, will
provide a foundation for continuous learning ability. How—
ever, research which details how to encourage teachers to
use independent study methods has not yet beem compiled.

The present study was undertaken to determine

whether a successful independent study experience during
one's teacher training career would change his attitudes

in a positive direction toward independent study.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction

 

The goal of this study was to determine if a posi—
tive attitude toward the general concept of independent
study could be established as a result of a positive,
personal, and independent study experience in the experi-
mental subject's college experience. Also, the author
attempted to determine if the independent study experience
would be reflected in the everyday teaching methods of the
teacher candidate. The problem was examined through an
experimental design that included an attempt to determine
whether a significant change in attitude toward the general
concept of independent study had been achieved, by compar-
ing the attitudes of teacher candidates who had learned to
operate selected instructional technology equipment by the
lecture-laboratory method with those of teacher candidates
who had learned to operate the same equipment by inde—
pendent study methods. As additional evidence of atti-
tudinal change, an attempt was made to determine if those
teacher candidates who had learned to use the selected

instructional technology equipment by the independent

26

27

study method actually used independent study methods in

their teaching experiences.

The Course Used in the Study

 

All subjects in the study were enrolled in Educa—
tion 183-E: Curriculum Materials and Technoloqy, a re—
quired on-campus instructional technology course for
teacher candidates at San Jose State College. The content
of the course (Appendix B) was the same for both control
and experimental groups; only the method of learning to
operate certain instructional technology equipment dif-
fered between the two groups. Normally, students taking
Curriculum Materials and Technology learn to operate the
instructional technology equipment through the lecture-
laboratory method. For the purpose of this study, an inde-
pendent study program was developed for teaching the
experimental groups. Space and facilities were provided
by the Instructional Technology Department. Independent
study learning materials either were available, were

developed, or were purchased.

Selection of the Subjects

 

Four classes of Curriculum Materials and Technology
were used for the experiment. Subjects signed up for the
course, not knowing that an experiment would be conducted.
No differential selection was used in determining the

groups to be used for the experiment. Two classes were

28

designated as the experimental group, and two classes were
designated as the control group.

To ensure that the subjects selected met the cri-
teria of the experiment, all students in each of the four
classes in the experiment were asked to fill out an inform-
ation card (Appendix C). Criteria for selection were that
the subject must be: (1) a first semester student teacher,
(2) an elementary school student teacher, and (3) a student
who would continue the second semester of student teaching
during the semester following the one in which he was
enrolled in Curriculum Materials and Technology. On the
basis of these criteria, not all students were qualified
to be subjects in the experiment. Those students who were
rejected did not know who they were; all students received

the same treatment throughout the experiment.

Procedure

 

The overall experiment lasted thirty—two weeks
(i.e., two semesters of sixteen weeks each, or one school
year). During the first semester of the experiment, the
subjects were enrolled in Curriculum Materials and Tech-
nology, and were in their first semester of student teach-
ing. During the second semester the subjects were enrolled
in their second semester of student teaching, but not in

Curriculum Materials and Technology.

29

Experimental Group

 

Thirty-two students from the two classes designated
as the experimental group met the selection criteria of
the experiment and were used as experimental subjects.
They were required to learn to operate selected instruc-
tional technology equipment through independent study
methods (see Figure 1, page 30). An explanatory handout
that detailed the subject's responsibilities was given to
each experimental subject (Appendix G). Each subject in
the experimental group was encouraged to work by himself.

The instructional technology equipment selected
for the experiment included: (1) a 35mm slide-filmstrip
projector, (2) two types of 16mm movie projectors, (3) an
opaque projector, and (4) an overhead projector. The
equipment was available to the subjects in an open labor-
atory workroom, in which the atmosphere was relaxed and
nonthreatening (Appendix H). The laboratory was available
Monday through Friday from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M., and
Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday evenings from 7:00 P.M. to
9:45 P.M. A complete set of all materials and equipment
necessary for the experiment was available in each of the
three carrels (with the exception of the overhead projector
and opaque projector; one of each was available in the
laboratory). The subjects could sign up for laboratory
time and reserve a carrel for the time they desired

(Appendix I).

3O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INSTRUCTOR STUDENT
I Start Start I
Watch

 

[Demonstrate l“' J

 

 

n]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Demonstratio
_ Watch 1
Student "’ Practice
Practice 1
Coach and .__.. Observe
Correct Correction
_ " ‘1
Watch
Student ---’[ Practice
Practice , ' l
I Self—Test
Watch Perform
Student '4} Entire
Perform Task
Approve ‘ A Watch
or I.- - -[ and
Correct ‘ Listen
Completion_l Completion I

 

 

 

 

Figure l.--Independent study method of learning

to operate selected instructional

technology equipment.

31

The laboratory in which the three independent study
carrels were made available was open to any other students
who desired to use it. However, the three carrels and
associated materials and equipment used for the study were
available only to the subjects in the study. Other stu-
dents were requested not to use them by a sign which was

posted at each carrel.

Control Group

 

Twenty-seven students from the two classes desig-
nated as the control group met the selection criteria of
the experiment and were used as control subjects. They
were required to learn to operate selected instructional
technology equipment through the lecture—laboratory
method (see Figure 2, page 32).

The equipment used by the control group was the
same as that used for the experimental group. It was
available to the subjects during class time, as well as
during various laboratory hours when the classroom was
open for additional practice. The subjects could work in
groups, by themselves, or with the aid of the instructor.
The instructor was in attendance during class time, and
made an effort to help the subjects understand the opera-

tion of the various equipment.

32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INSTRUCTOR STUDENT
[ Start Start ]
I y 1
D0 t t. ‘_ __ Watch
@8. ra e Demonstration
8mm Loop Films
Step-by—Step
Written.Instructions
Practice Step-by-Step
Independently Pictures
Diagrams
'K\\\.Text
Class Notes
_ , Lab _
Confused 0 Assistant
Unsure Helps
A t ,
I Self-Test 7]
‘fi ,
Watch Perform ‘
Stuoent ‘-- Entire
Perifrm Tas
Ap rove Watch
por +"'I and 1
Correct Listen
Completion Completion

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2.--Lecture-1aboratory method of learning
to operate selected instructional technology equipment.

33

Treatment

 

The independent study and lecture-laboratory por-
tions of the experiment concluded after the seventh week
of the first semester. The remainder of the semester was
the same for both experimental and control groups. By the
seventh week, all subjects were required to demonstrate
proficiency in operating a 35mm slide-filmstrip projector
and a 16mm movie projector of the instructor's choice.
(Criteria for proficiency are described on page 188 of

AV Instructional Materials Manual--Appendix J).l

 

Treatment was undertaken in the following manner:
1. During the first week of the experiment, all

subjects were given (pre-test) the California Teacher

 

Development Project Teacher Attitude Inventory (Appendix D)

and the Newer Educational Media InventOpy (Appendix E).

 

2. During the last week of the first semester of
the experiment, all subjects were given (post-test) the

Newer Educational Media Inventopy (Appendix E).

 

3. During the last week of the first semester of
the experiment, all subjects were given (post-test l) the

Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire

 

(Appendix F).

 

1James W. Brown, Richard B. Lewis, and others,
AV Instructional Materials Manual: A Self-Instructional
Guide to AV Laboratory Experiences (3d ed.; New York:
McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1969), p. 188.

 

34

4. During the last week of the second semester of
the experiment, all subjects were given (post-test) the

California Teacher Development Project Teacher Attitude

 

Inventory (Appendix D).

 

5. During the last week of the second semester
of the experiment, all subjects were given (post-test 2)

the Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire

 

(Appendix F).

Measuring Instruments Used in the Study

 

The three instruments used in the study were:

(1) the California Teacher Development Project Teacher

 

Attitude Inventory, (2) the Newer Educational Media Inven-

 

 

tory, and (3) the Use of Independent Study in Teaching

 

questionnaire.

The California Teacher DevelOpment Project Teacher

 

Attitude Inventory was used as a pre-test, administered to

 

experimental and control groups during the first week of

the experiment in September, 1970; and as a post-test,
administered thirty-two weeks later, during the last week

of the experiment, in June, 1971. The inventory was
developed by EPIC Diversified Systems Corporation of

Tuscon, Arizona, for use in the "California Teacher DevelOp-

ment Project for Systems of Individualized Instruction,"

35

an E.S.E.A. Title III Project.2 The inventory is designed
to measure change in teacher attitude toward the concept
of individualized instruction.

The Newer Educational Media Inventory was used as

 

a pre—test, administered to experimental and control groups
during the first week of the first semester of the experi-
ment in September, 1970; and as a post-test, administered
sixteen weeks later, during the last week of the first
semester, in January, 1971. Developed to assess attitudes
toward newer educational media, this inventory has been
tested extensively at San Jose State College, and has been
used in other research studies, in which it was found to
measure effectively what it was designed to measure. The
majority of the twenty-three items in the inventory were
adapted from the thirty-nine item media attitude measure-
ment device, A Research Prpject for the Development of a
Measure to Assess Attitudes Regarding the Use of Newer

Educational Media, develOped by Curtis Ramsey for the

 

United States Office of Education.3

The Use of Independent Study in Teaching question-

 

naire was administered as post-test l to experimental and

 

2William J. Bolt, Superintendent of Schools, Eval-
uation of ESEA Title III, Reading and Mathematics Program
iFremont, Calif.: Fremont Unified School District, 1971).

 

3Curtis Paul Ramsey, A Research Project for the
Development of a Measure to Assess Attitudes Regarding the
Uses of Newer Educational Media, Title VII, Project Number
492, N.D.E.A., December, 1961 Treprint; Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, Inc., 1966).

 

 

 

36

control groups during the last week of the first semester
of the experiment in January, 1971; and as post-test 2,
administered sixteen weeks later, during the last week of
the second semester of the experiment, in June, 1971. The
questionnaire was designed by the author, with the guidance
of the Instructional Technology staff at San Jose State
College, San Jose, California. The questionnaire was
reviewed and approved by the head of the San Jose State

College Instructional Technology Department.

The Desigp

 

The author was unable to provide full experimental
control through randomized selection of subjects. There-
fore, the design for this study is the "Nonrandomized
Control-Group Pretest-Posttest Design," as defined by Van
Dalen and Meyer.4 T and T represent pre-test and post-

1E 2E

test measures for the experimental group; T1 and T2
C C

represent pre-test and post-test measures for the control
group. X represents a treatment. R is omitted to indi-
cate the absence of random assignment to the groups. The

design is presented visually in the following way:

 

4Deobold B. Van Dalen and William J. Meyer, Under-
standing_Educational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1966), pp. 275-276.

 

37

 

 

Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experimental Group Tl X T2
E E
Control Group T1 T2
C C

 

Van Dalen and Meyer explained:

If similar groups are selected and their similar-
ity is confirmed by the T1 mean scores and standard
deviations, this design controls several potential
sources of internal invalidity. The presence of a
control group enables the E to assume that the main
effects of history, pretesting, maturation, and
instrumentation will not be mistaken for the effect
of X, for both the experimental and control groups
will experience these effects. . . . The T1 and T2
data that are provided by this design make it pos-
sible to check whether the two groups differed in
mortality.5

Supporting this design were Campbell and Stanley,
who called the design "The Non—Equivalent Control Group
Design." They described the design in the following manner:

One of the most widespread experimental designs in
educational research involves an experimental and
control group both given a pre-test and post—test
but in which the control group and the experimental
group do not have a pre—experimental sampling equiv-
alence. Rather, the groups constitute naturally
assembled collectives such as classrooms, as similar
as availability permits but yet not so similar that
one can diSpense with the pre-test. The assignment
of X to one group or the other is assumed to be
random and under the experimenter's control.

 

5Ibid., p. 276.

6Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Ex eri-
mental and Quasi-Experimental Design for Research (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1966), p. 47.

38

Campbell and Stanley explained this design is well worth
using in many instances where randomization is impossible,

as in the present study.

Treatment of the Data

 

The attitude data collected by the two inventories
were used to determine change in attitude toward inde-
pendent study and toward the subject content of Curriculum
Materials and Technology, the course in which the experi-
ment was conducted. In addition, data elicited by the
questionnaire were used to determine if the subjects used
independent study teaching methods in their own teaching.
Inasmuch as the experimental and control groups were
naturally pre-assembled groups, the "Nonrandomized Control-
Group Pretest-Posttest Design," as defined by Van Dalen and
Meyer, was selected to determine: (1) whether there was a
positive change in attitude toward independent study by
the experimental group, (2) whether both experimental and
control groups had a more positive attitude toward the
subject content of the course at the end of the course than
at the beginning of the course, and (3) whether the experi-
mental group did use more independent study methods in their
teaching experiences than did the control group. The design

was applied to the following null hypotheses:

39

Null Hyppthesis 1: There will be no difference in attitude
toward the general concept of inde-
pendent study between the experimental
and control groups as measured by the
California Teacher Development Project
Teacher Attitude Inventogy.

 

 

Null Hypothesis 2: There will be no difference in the atti-
tudes of the experimental and control
groups toward the subject content of
the experimental course between the
pre-test and post-test as measured by
the Newer Educational Media Inventory.

 

 

Null Hypothesis 3: There will be no difference in the use
of independent study methods in the
subject's teaching experience between
the experimental and control groups as
measured by the Use of Independent
Study in Teaching questionnaire.

 

 

 

A t-test was used to determine the significance of
change in the subjects' attitudes and use of independent
study teaching methods. The .05 level of confidence was
used to determine the attainment of each hypothesis.

Subject responses to the attitude inventories and
questionnaires were recorded by the subject on computer
cards or ditto response forms, depending upon the inventory
or questionnaire to which the subject was responding. In
preparation for analysis by IBM computer, all information
from the computer cards or ditto response forms was trans-
ferred to IBM computer cards. The available computer
facility at San Jose State College was used for analysis.
All attitude inventories and questionnaires were analyzed,
using the available Likert program. The results of the

analysis are found in Chapter IV.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The analysis of the data presented in this chapter
is divided into five sections: (1) an introduction, which
includes the problem of the study, a statement of the
hypotheses, and an explanation of the procedures employed;
(2) the results of the data collected for Hypothesis 1,
concerned with the subjects' change in attitude toward
the general concept of independent study methods of
learning; (3) the results of the data collected for
Hypothesis 2, concerned with the subjects' change in
attitude toward the subject content of the experimental
course; (4) the results of the data collected for
Hypothesis 3, concerned with the subjects' use of inde-
pendent study methods in their teaching; and (5) a summary

of Chapter IV.

Introduction

 

The problem of this study was to determine whether
a significantly more positive change in attitude toward
independent study would be achieved by teacher candidates
who were taught by an independent study method, as compared

to teacher candidates who were taught the same material by

40

41

the lecture-laboratory method. Both methods of teaching
were intended to be equally effective in teaching the sub-
ject content of the course, and the attitudes of all sub-
jects toward the experimental course content were expected
to be significantly more positive at the end of the course
than at the beginning. As additional evidence of atti-
tudinal change, the author attempted to determine if those
teacher candidates who had been taught by independent study
methods actually used independent study techniques more
extensively in their teaching experiences.

Three hypotheses were advanced in the study:

 

Hypothesis 1: There will be a significantly more positive
- change in attitude toward the general con-
cept of independent study methods of
learning by those teacher candidates who
learned by the independent study method
than by those teacher candidates who
learned by the lecture-laboratory method.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a significantly more positive
attitude by both the experimental and con-
trol groups toward the subject content of
the course used in the experiment, at the
conclusion of the course rather than at

the beginning of the course.

 

Hypothesis 3: There will be a significantly greater number
of attempts to apply independent study
methods of learning in their teaching
experiences by those teacher candidates

who learned by the independent study

method than by those teacher candidates

who learned by the lecture-laboratory
method.

 

A t-test was used to determine the significance
of change in the subjects' attitudes toward independent

study, their attitudes toward the subject content of the

42

course used in the experiment, and in the degree to which
they attempted to use independent study methods in their
teaching experiences. The .05 level of confidence was used
to determine the attainment of the hypotheses.

The procedure employed was to: (l) pre-test the
experimental and control groups during the first week of
the experiment, using the California Teacher Development

Project Teacher Attitude Inventory and the Newer Educa-

 

 

tional Media Inventory, (2) post-test during the last week

 

of the first semester of the experiment, using the Newer

Educational Media Inventory, and post-test 1 using the

 

Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire, and

 

(3) post-test during the last week of the second semester

of the experiment, using the California Teacher Develop-

 

ment Project Teacher Attitude Inventopy and the Use of

 

Independent Study in Teachipg questionnaire.

 

A time line used for gathering data is presented
in Figure 3. The total number of weeks in the experiment
is indicated across the bottom of the time line. The
number of weeks between the pre-test and post-test of
both attitude inventories and the questionnaire is
indicated. The Use of Independent Study in Teaching post-
test 1 was given at the conclusion of the experimental
course (16th week) rather than at the beginning of the
experiment, because the subjects had not yet had teaching

experience when the course began.

43

POST-TEST 1 POST-TEST 2

){- Use of Independent Study - - x
in Teaching Questionnaire

 

 

 

 

PRE-TEST POST-TEST
x - - Newer Educational Media - - x
Inventory
PRE-TEST POST-TEST
x - - California Teacher Develppment Project Teacher Attitude - - x
Inventory
first semester second semester

 

l 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 20 32

Number of Weeks

Figure 3.-—Time line for gathering data.

Results of Data Collected for Hypothesis 1

 

The purpose of Hypothesis 1 was to determine the
subjects' change in attitude toward the general concept of
independent study.

Null Hypothesis 1: There will be no difference in attitude
toward the general concept of inde-
pendent study between the experimental
and control groups as measured by the
California Teacher Development Prgject
Teacher Attitude Inventory.

 

 

 

Procedures and Analysis

 

The experimental and control groups were pre-tested
during the first week of the experiment and post-tested,
using the same instrument, thirty-two weeks later at the
end of the experiment. A t-test was used to determine

the significance of the change in the subjects' attitudes.

44

The .05 level of confidence was used to determine the
attainment of the hypothesis. The minimum possible score
on the instrument was twenty-nine, which represents the
highest possible positive response by the subject on each
item of the inventory, using a l,2,3,4-point scale in
which: Strongly Agree = 1, Agree = 2, Disagree = 3, and
Strongly Disagree = 4. Twenty-nine items were used in
scoring the inventory; item twenty-seven was omitted
because of its ambiguous wording. Table 1 shows the
analysis of the between—group mean scores. The sample
size of the experimental group differs from pre—test to
post-test because three members of the experimental group
dropped out of school between administrations of the

instrument.

TABLE l.--Between-group mean scores and t-values on the
California Teacher Development Project Teacher Attitude
Inventory for experimental (E) and control (C) subjects.

 

 

 

Sample Size

 

Test (n) Means Difference t-ratio Total DF
E C E C
. b
Pre 32 27 55.12 57.55 2.43 -l.25 57
Post 29 27 49.68 53.62 3.94 —2.02C 54

 

a I I I I I
A more negative score indicates a more pos1t1ve
attitude.

bSignificant at the .3 level.

cSignificant at the .05 level.

45

Table 1 shows that the difference in the mean
scores of experimental and control group subjects on the

post-test administration of the California Teacher

 

DevelOpment Project Teacher Attitude Inventory was signifi-

 

cant at the .05 level. Therefore, Null Hypothesis 1 was
rejected. It was concluded that the attitude of the
experimental group toward the general concept of inde-
pendent study methods as compared to that of the control
group, did become significantly more positive from pre-
to post-testing.

Individual items of the California Teacher Develppe

 

ment Project Teacher Attitude Inventory are detailed in

 

Table 2, in which the pre-test and post-test average
responses for each response category are indicated and

the differences calculated. For each item of the inventory,
weighted values were assigned to subject responses;

values were ordered chronologically from positive to
negative, with: Strongly Agree = 1, Agree = 2, Disagree =
3, and Strongly Disagree = 4. Answers were tabulated and
an MC value assigned for each item in the experimental and

control group inventory.

_ Ex
Mc — DJ

MC = Mean weighted value score of the item.
2x = Sum of total weighted value scores.
N = Number of subject responses.

46

.uxmu
ween may mm: mmmao m aw mucmpsum ecu

 

mm.| Hm.a mm.a Hmucmeflummxm mo Ham c633 momam mcfixmu mcficumma
mN.T mm.a om.a Houucou nmuumn can once on pasogm mumze .m

ve.n mn.a mm.m Hmucmawummxm .mmusuowa m.um£ommu on» on cmumfla
hm.u mH.N om.~ Houucov pasocm mmmao may cw mucmpsum Ham .n

mo.+ mm.H vm.a Hmucmeflummxm .pcmucoo seem may m>m£
mo.+ HH.N mo.~ Houucoo pasonm mucmpsum Ham .mmusoo Sam CH .0

.umm umnuocm

can» muoE ucmpsum m ummumucw mmE

mo.u VH.H 0H.H Hmucmeummxm maceumumfi Hmcofluosuumcw mo pom wco
mH.I mH.H mm.H Houucoo .mecm mg» ma ucmucoo mnu nmsocu cm>m .m

.mmaspmnom mmmao pmxwm

an canoe on uoc pasonm mucmpsum

mm.+ mn.a nv.H Hmucmeflummxm .ufl pom: Swap muwn3 mmwum ca mafia
mo.l mm.H vo.m Houucoo muoa pcmmm cmo menu umnu Hmpuo :H .v

mo.- os.H Hm.H Hmucmseummxm .mseu meow map pm
NH.+ mm.H o>.H Houucou mmusoo m pumum canonm mucmcsum Ham .m

.mmmHo

vo.| HN.H mm.a Hmucmawmmmxm mnu ca mucmpsum on» now xoonuxmu
oo. mm.H mm.H Homecou ummn mco poem mzmzam coo umzommu « .m

mo.| mo.H mb.a Hmucmsflummxm .umsummou xuos mucmpsum Ham we mafia mmmao
om.u mo.H mm.a Houucou mo mm: Hmuumn mxma cmo Honommu one .H

wocmumwmea oummunumom oummuumum macho soflummsa

 

 

 

waxwoucm>cH mpsueuua genomes uomnoum

ucmsmoam>mo Hmsomme macHOMAHmU mnu guacamocoo mEmuw wuoucw>CM mpspfluum on mmmcomwmu pomnnsmnn.m mqmde

47

.xuo3 Hams» muwameoo

 

 

HO.+ OH.H mO.H HmquEHmexm OU mHOSuO cmflu wEHu OHOE GODS
no.+ NN.H mH.H Houucou mucmpsum meow .pnmc mcwxuo3 c653 cm>m .oa

ma.n mv.a ow.a Hmucmefiummxm .xuoz cmo ma nofi£3 pumzou mm>wuommno
mo.+ mm.a ve.a Houucou :30 we: m>mn pasonm pcmpoum numm .mH

.mpwm: Hmsuo

co comma mamfiumumfi HMGOADUSMMmcw

sues Ems» mpfl>oum o» mummmmomc

mm.l HN.H om.H Hepcmsflnwmxm Do: we we .mucmpsum one ou wHQmHHm>m
HH.I mH.H om.H Houucoo mum mxoonuxmu mo cofluomamm poom m NH .va

00.: mm.H mH.N Hmucmeflummxm .ufl How mommy we
mm.| on.a mm.m Houucou on cmnz ummu m mxmu pasoam ucmpsum a .ma

.mummumu2H

mm.l mo.a Hm.H Hmucmeflummxm cam mpmmc cso men memos ummn noflnz
om.u ea.H qo.m acupeoo pcmucou page spsum pHsonm muewpsum .NH

.Eoum

vm.n «H.H mm.a HmucmEHummxm uomamm ou mamflumums Hmcofluosuumcw
vm.l HH.H mv.a Homecov mo >umeup> m m>ms paoonm mucwpsum .HH

Hm.| mo.a oo.m Hmpcoawummxm .momm :30 Mamba
mm.l mn.H oo.m Houucou up pmmooum mmmzam pasosm mucmpsum .OH

om.| mm.a ma.m Hmucmeflummxm .mmmao msu “ow mm>fluomnno

ve.- no.e HH.~ Hopscoo strafing an» new pesonm genome» are .m
mocmummmwo oummulumom cummulmum macaw cowummsa

 

.pmscaucoouu.m mqm<e

48

 

ma.| mm.H oo.m Hmucmefluwmxm .mmmao mHOLB map you mcumpcmum
mm.l mm.a mo.m Houucoo ESEHCAE amwanmumm pasosm Honommu one .vm

.ucmpsum on» muflsm ummn gofl£3

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mm.u Hv.H o>.H Houucoo mamflumums mo coflumufiamspfi>AUCA one .mm

.womm :30

mv.u GA.H mH.m Hmucmseummxm sewn» up Amos on pmsoflam mum are» we
00. om.a om.H Houucou mama mEoomQ ou camp Haw3 mucmpsum .mm

.mm>fluommno meow mnu pumzou

mo.+ mo.a mw.H Hmucmfifinmmxm mcflxMOB on pasonm mucmpsum Ham .ucmE
om.+ wo.m mm.H Houucou Iw>mflnom mmuoeoum coeuflummfioo mmsmomm .Hm

.mmpmum any mummEoo coo

vm.| mv.H mw.H Hmucmfiflummxm Honommu esp Mega om mummy msmm mnu
HH.I mm.a oo.m Homecoo mxmu pasonm mmmao m ca mucmcsum Had .om

.mmumu

:30 Macaw um mswxno3 mum mucmpsum

mo.+ om.a ww.H HmucmEHummxm on» m0 Ham mumg3 mmmao m sufl3 xuo3
no.+ mH.m mo.m Homecou ou pmuommxm on nos pasonm ucmcsum d .mH

.mpcmpsum zoaawm

we: mo mocmshowumm mgu on pmummfioo

NH.I mm.H om.H Hmucmsflummxm on pasonm cosmEHOMHmm m.u:m©5um norm
mH.T mm.a ve.a Houucoo .cocmEuomumm mo mafiamsw mcwsumump OB .mH

mm.u mm.a mh.H Hmucmaflnmmxm .mummu mafiNflHmscfl>Hccfl we mamflumume
mm.l vb.H mm.H Houucou mcHNflHmnpfl>fipcfl mo uumm ucmuuome cc .na

mocmummmwo cummulumom oummuumnm macaw coaummso

 

. UOSCMUCOUII . N MQM<B

49

. tuneso
p p

.mmmcommmu Edna mmmum>¢o

.pmuoom mmum>mu macaw mmumoflchn

.mpsuwuum m>wuflmom mace m mmumoflpcfl muoom m>wpmmmc muOS «m

 

 

.uomflnsm

mo.l m¢.m nv.m Hmuccswummxm m cfl moflmcn ecu m>flmomu mucopsum
oo. Hv.m av.m Homecou Ham umnu menu on pasosm Honommu 6:9 .0m

om.| mm.a mn.a Hmucmeflummxm .mameumuma mEmm may mafimo Dec:
ma.l mo.a mm.H Houucou m paw cam pumum casocm mucmpsum Ham n.mm

HN.I ©S.H hm.a Hmucmeflummxm .mmm mamm mnu on mmmao M GA mucmpsum
vv.u no.a Ha.m Houucou opp mo Ham umnu mumwmmomc no: me DH .mm

.usmucoo may mafimpsum on pasonm

oo. oo. oo. Hmucmswuwmxm mmmHo cm>Hm M GA mucmpsum any mo Ham
oo. oo. oo. Houucou .cofluosuumcfl cmuflamspfl>flpcfl cw cm>m p.nm

He.- mN.H mo.H Hmuemseummxm .mpmmc m.amspe>epce men
00. mm.a mm.a Homecou an pmcflfiuoump on canonm mamflumumz .om

.mucmpsum on» How apsum mo

om.u mm.H NS.H Hmucmsfiummxm mouse amen map mum umn3 Bocx mascomm»
no.+ mm.H mm.a Houucou .mcecflmuu mmmaaoo Mecca mo mmsmomm Q.mm

cocoMmMMHo oummpnumom oummunmum moono cowpmmsa

 

. Umdflwucooll . N mqmdfi

50

Results of Data Collected for Hypothesis 2

 

The purpose of Hypothesis 2 was to determine the
change in attitude of all subjects toward the subject con-
tent of the course used in the experiment.

Null Hypothesis 2: There will be no difference in the
attitudes of the experimental and
control groups toward the subject
content of the experimental course
between the pre-test and post-test
as measured by the Newer Educational
Media Inventory.

 

 

 

Procedures and Analysis

 

The experimental and control groups were pre-tested
during the first week of the experiment and post-tested,
using the same instrument, sixteen weeks later at the end
of the first semester of the experiment. A t-test was
used to determine the significance of change in all sub-
jects' attitudes toward the subject content of the experi-
mental course. The .05 level of confidence was used to
determine the attainment of the hypothesis. The minimum
possible score on the instrument was twenty-three, which
represents the highest possible positive response by the
subject on each item of the inventory, using a l,2,3,4,5,6-
point scale in which: Strongly Agree = l, Moderately
Agree = 2, Slightly Agree = 3, Slightly Disagree = 4,
Moderately Disagree = S, and Strongly Disagree = 6. All

twenty-three items were used in scoring the inventory.

51

Table 3 shows the analysis of the within-group

mean scores .

TABLE 3.-—Within-group mean scores and t-values on the
Newer Educational Media Inventory for experimental and
control groups.a

 

 

Mean

 

Group Pre-Mean Post-Mean Difference t
Experimental 59.60 50.00 9.6 -3.55b
Control 59.88 53.03 6.85 -3.8oc

 

a I O O O I
A more negat1ve score 1nd1cates a more p051t1ve
attitude.

bSignificant at the .05 level for 29 df.

CSignificant at the .05 level for 26 df.

Table 3 shows that the difference in the mean
scores for the experimental and control groups on the post—
test administration of the inventory was significant at
the .05 level. Null Hypothesis 2 was therefore rejected.
It was concluded that the attitudes of the experimental
and control groups toward the subject content of the experi-
mental course did change in a positive direction from pre-
to post—testing.

Individual items of the Newer Educational Media

 

Inventory are detailed in Table 4, in which the pre-test

 

and post-test average responses for each response category

52

.conpaflno mo
mpoo: mcflcuooa one cw moocouommep

 

 

mm.| Hm.a vm.a Hmucosfluomxm Hospfl>wccfl you mcwpw>oum ca ooco>po
mH.T ve.a mm.H Houucou u0nme o mousuflumcoo zmz on» mo om: .e

.ocflnomE m an pnmsmu we pawno

Hm..T oo.m mo.m Houcoafluomxm onu conB ucoenmflameooom Hoc0muom mo
00. mm.m mm.m Homecoo coHDMUAMfluon onu omoa muonomou umoz .o

.cofluoospo

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vv.n mm.m om.m Homecou mo Sanfloe zmz one oow oucocsum umoz .m

mH.+ oo.m Hm.H HmpcoEwHomxm .muompom 3o: noon .zmz onu ca
HH.+ om.a mm.H Houucou muoflucoum apnoeuoosco on one ouone .v

mo.| Hm.H oo.m Hmucoefluomxm .ucopsum o>flpoono onu oumHsEHum
mo.| mo.a oe.a Houucou zmz onu mo moousomou opfls one .m

.ommms onu mcwuoouflc acmuom on»

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mv.u mo.H mo.~ Honucou one zmz one mo mow: oanfimoom one .m

.30: DH scan o3 mm coeuoouumcfl

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oocouommeo oumouuumom oumouuoum macaw :oflumosa
.NIIIII
o Houco>cH

 

capo: Hocofiuooopm uo3oz onu mnficuoocoo mEoufl Suouco>cfi opsufiuuo ou oomcommon uoomn3m11.v mnmne

53

.mucopsum umofi mo
anon on» no oocoumooom HMOflufluocs

 

ma.| av.m mm.m HoucoEwuomxm no oonpoum on pnou ZmZ on» we umofi
mo.u mm.m mm.m Honucoo mo onoflumucomoum :o>fluoufiuonuso: one .MH

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onu ms mcfluuom .mEoou mnfinoxuop

mH.n mm.m ev.~ Hounoswuomxm .pw too: 50% con3 unoemflsvo pno
om.- om.m om.m Houucoo werepmums manuumm «0 meoanoum one .ma

.zmz one an uoquumponuws

Eooummofio Hon0fluno>noo en unmsmu

no.| mm.a oo.a Hounoefluomxm nonz Sago coflpmospo coco o no
em.: no.a vo.m Houucou ooao> oemmn onu nuooa coo coupaflnu .HH

.comono on oaoonm uouuoa on»

.unoamflsvo zmz once now no mxoon

Hm.u av.m mm.m Hounoswuomxm wuoucoanmmom mom Sago unomm on
oe.| mo.m mn.m Houunou pasoo nown3 umflxo monsm msHmusm MH .oa

.mcfinuooa o>wuoommo woos

mm.| mm.m me.m Houcoaflnomxm onu ou o>Hospcoo no: we open zmz
om.u mm.m ma.m Houucoo Sn onenuooa mo moonwsoflumofl> one .m

mm.- eq.H mo.m HancmEAAmmxm .pmpmmc

mm.- om.H mm.e Houpcoo we zmz one no momma Horns nos: .m
oocoHoMMHa oumousumom oumouloum macho cowumosa

 

.oosnwunootl.v mqmne

54

.mcowuospwm Ho mucofiouflavou mcflnooou

 

om.| em.H mm.~ Hmucofifluomxm ucouommeo 0» hufiawnoumopo oauuflfl o>on
mH.+ oo.m mm.H Houueoo 0» mm cementum om our mameumume zmz .om

.m20fiuosuflm mnwcuooa umoe ca

OH.+ mm.v me.¢ Hounoswuomxm Howucommo me unopoum one Honooou
vo.l oo.m vo.m Houunoo coozuon mfianOMuoHou HocOmuom one .mH

.nonpaflno mo moonouom

me.| ev.H mH.N Hounoefluomxm Imep Ho50w>wpcw on» you opw>onm
mm.u oe.H mm.m Houucoo on Specsuuommo meuuea m>em zmz one .ma

.osao> Hmcofluoospo

em.l mm.m mm.m HounoEwHomxm Meonu on n0wuuomoum Ham mo uso
mm.| om.m om.m Honusoo we zmz one mo umoe mo oncomxo one .eH

.Eooummoao onu

ww.n me.m om.v HounoEwuomxm ca co©fl>onm on moonofluomxo mcflcuooa
«v.1 mH.v mo.v Houunoo mooHHoow> coo ZMZ on» nmsounu Sago .oa

.mnwcuooa mo mponuoe

Honofluco>noo en mo zmz on» an Hao3 mm

00.: mm.m mm.m Hopcosfluomxm pomoHo>op no: out onenuooa o>fluoommo
mm.- pm.~ mm.m Houucoo poo mopspeuum “seesaw Homonm one .ma

.onflnuooa

mm.l vm.m me.m Hmucofiwnomxm o>Huoommo woos one on o>flospnoo no: we
om.| mm.m mH.m Houunou zmz Sn mcfinuooa mo Suwaoso o>wmmom one .va

oononommea oumouuoum ouoouloum moouw cowumoso

 

.posnfluGOUIl.v mamme

55

.momnommon Eopw omouo>¢o

.UwHOOm mmhw>mH mgwufl WGUMUMUCHQ

.opsuwuuo o>wuflmom ouoE o moumoflpnw ouoom o>flummoc once no

 

.munopsum uounmfiun no ouocumoa 30am

 

om.l ev.a mo.m HmucoEwuomxm wonpflo mo mpoon Hofloomm on» How
mv.| mm.H mo.~ Houucou opfl>oum Sanouw5m won or zmz one n.mm

.pououfiafloom one pomcusooco

om.l vv.H vm.a Hounoefluomxm on canonm pens Hoonom muo>o cw
mm.- em.H mm.e Houucoo memento zmz no ucmemoam>mp one .NN

.mxmou o>wuouumecfl5po

oamsflm nonuo one .mnflpoum

.ocflnouooum .xuos Hmofluoao on

mH.+ mH.m oo.m Houcoefluomxm pocoumnBOp on hoe oaou mcwnooou on»
HH.| mm.H on.a Houucou .zmz on» m0 omom: commouocfi nufl3 n.Hm

oocouommwa oumouuumom oumouuoum msouw cowumosa

 

.poscwucouun.v mamme

56

are indicated and the differences calculated. For each
item of the inventory, weighted values were assigned to
subject responses; values were ordered chronologically
from positive to negative, with: Strongly Agree = 1,
Moderately Agree = 2, Slightly Agree = 3, Slightly
Disagree = 4, Moderately Disagree = 5, and Strongly
Disagree = 6. Answers were tabulated and an MC value was
assigned for each item in the experimental and control

group inventory.

_ 2x
Mc'— N
MC = Mean weighted value score of the item.
2x = Sum of total weighted value scores.
N = Number of subject responses.

Results of Data Collected for Hypothesis 3

 

The purpose of Hypothesis 3 was to determine if
the experimental subjects who had been exposed to inde-
pendent study methods of learning would use more inde-
pendent study methods in their teaching than those subjects
who had been taught by the lecture-laboratory method.
Post-test l was given at the end of the first sixteen-
week semester of the study, because the subjects had been
exposed to the experimental treatment during the first
seven weeks of the first semester and they had student

taught during the last eight weeks of that semester.

57

Ihost-test 2 was given at the end of the second sixteen-
week semester of the study to determine if the experi-
rmantal treatment continued to have an effect on the
subjects' teaching practices after a period of time had

elapsed.

Null Hypothesis 3: There will be no difference in the use
of independent study methods in the
subject's teaching experience between
the experimental and control groups
as measured by the Use of Independent
Study in Teaching questionnaire.

Procedures and Analysis

The experimental and control groups were given
post—test 1 during the last week of the first semester of
the experiment, and post-test 2 at the end of the second
semester of the experiment. A t-test was used to deter-
mine the significance of the difference between experi-
mental and control groups in the number of attempts to
apply independent study methods in their teaching experi-
ences. The .05 level of confidence was used to determine
the attainment of the hypothesis. The maximum possible
score on the instrument was fifty, which represents the
highest possible positive response by the subject on each
item of the questionnaire, using a l,2,3,4,S-point scale
in which: Not At All = 1, Very Little = 2, Somewhat = 3,
Much = 4, and Very Much = 5. All ten items were used in

scoring the questionnaire.

58

Table 5 shows the analysis of the between-group
mean scores. The responses of one subject in the experi-
mental group and one subject in the control group were
. eliminated because both subjects (in writing) said they
had responded to the questionnaire as they would like to
use independent study methods in their teaching, not as

they actually did use them.

TABLE 5.--Between-group mean scores and t-values on the
Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire for
experimental (E) and control (C) subjects.

 

 

Sample Size Mean
Test (n) Means Difference t-ratio Total DF
E C E C
Post- a
test 1 28 26 23.32 20.00 3.22 2.25 52
Post- b
test 2 28 26 31.14 24.26 6.88 3.87 52'

 

aSignificant at the .05 level.

bSignificant at the .05 level.

Table 5 shows that the difference in the between-
group mean scores on the post-test l administration of the
Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire was
significant at the .05 level. This difference indicates
that the experimental treatment did have a significant

effect on the experimental group. In addition, post-test

59

2 of the Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire

 

was significant at the .05 level, which indicates that the
experimental treatment continued to have an effect on the
experimental group after a period of time had elapsed.
Null Hypothesis 3 was therefore rejected. It was concluded
that the increase in the use of independent study methods
of teaching by the experimental group, as compared to the
control group, was a result of the experimental treatment
and was significant at the .05 level of confidence.
Individual items of the Use of Independent Study in
Teaching questionnaire are detailed in Table 6, where post-
test 1 and post-test 2 average responses for each response
category are indicated and the differences calculated.
For each item on the questionnaire, weighted values were
assigned to subject responses; values were ordered
chronologically from negative to positive, with: Not At
All = 1, Very Little = 2, Somewhat = 3, Much = 4, and Very
Much = 5. Answers were tabulated and average item response
values assigned for each item in the experimental and

control group questionnaire.

MC = Mean weighted value score of the item.
Xx = Sum of total weighted value scores.
N = Number of subject responses.

60

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61

Summary

Within the basic framework of this study, certain
hypotheses were posed for the purpose of lending insight
into the problem of how to change the attitudes of student
teachers in a positive direction toward the general concept
of independent study.

Three instruments were used to collect the data:

the Newer Educational Media Inventory, the California

 

 

Teacher Development Project Teacher Attitude Inventopy, and

 

the Use of Independent Study in Teaching questionnaire.

 

Objective analyses were applied to the data collected
for the purpose of determining whether significant changes
had taken place in the attitudes of subjects involved in
the experiment. On the basis of these analyses, it was
found that:

l. The change in attitude of the subjects in the
experimental group toward the general concept of independent
study, as compared to that of the control group, was sig-
nificantly more positive, at the .05 level of confidence.

2. The increase in positive attitudes of both the
experimental and control groups toward the subject content
of the experimental course, at the conclusion of the course
as compared to the beginning of the course, was significant

at the .05 level.

62

3. Those subjects in the experimental group, as
compared to subjects in the control group, made signifi-
cantly more attempts to apply independent study methods
of learning in their teaching eXperiences.

This concludes the analysis of the data collected
during the study. Chapter V contains a summary and
conclusions of the study, implications of the findings,

and recommendations for further research.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

In this study the author has been concerned with
determining whether a significant change in attitude toward
the general concept of independent study could be achieved
by using independent study methods as an alternative to
the traditional lecture-laboratory method of teaching and
learning. A review of the literature illustrated that
independent study is a method of learning that may help
to overcome the individual differences that exist among
students. The literature also indicated that independent
study is becoming more practical, as a result of the
recent development of various technological devices and
media. Also the literature may be interpreted to mean
there is an ever-increasing demand by the public that
schools should be more relevant to the learner, and that
they should provide for individual differences among the

learners.

63

64

The major hypotheses of this study were:

Hypothesis 1: There will be a significantly more positive
change in attitude toward the general con-
cept of independent study methods of
learning by those teacher candidates who
learned by the independent study method
than by those teacher candidates who
learned by the lecture-laboratory method.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a significantly more positive
attitude by both the experimental and con-
trol groups toward the subject content of
the course used in the experiment, at the
conclusion of the course rather than at ,
the beginning of the course.

 

Hypothesis 3: There will be a significantly greater
number of attempts to apply independent
study methods of learning in their
teaching experiences by those teacher
candidates who learned by the independent
study method than by those teacher candi-
dates who learned by the lecture-
laboratory method.

 

Experimental and control groups of teacher candi-
dates were used as subjects for the study. Curriculum
Materials and Technology, a required course for all
subjects, was used in the experiment. The content of
the course was the same for both groups of subjects; only
the method of instruction for part of the course was
changed for the experimental group. The experimental
treatment was independent study. Every effort was made to
provide a successful independent study experience for the
experimental group. The control group was taught the same
subject content by the traditional lecture-laboratory

approach.

65

All research hypotheses were restated in null form.

A t-test was used to determine the significance of change

in the subjects' attitudes toward independent study, and

in their attempts to use independent study teaching methods

in their teaching experiences. The .05 level of confidence

was used to determine the attainment of the hypotheses.

Following are the results of testing the null

hypotheses:

Null Hypothesis 1:

 

There will be no difference in attitude
toward the general concept of inde-
pendent study between the experimental
and control groups as measured by the
California Teacher Development Project
Teacher Attitude Inventory.

 

Result: The difference in the between-group mean scores

on the post-test was significant at the .05 level. Null

Hypothesis 1 was therefore rejected.

Null Hypothesis 2:

 

There will be no difference in the
attitudes of the experimental and
control groups toward the subject
content of the experimental course
between the pre-test and post-test
as measured by the Newer Educational
Media Inventory.

 

 

Result: The difference in the within-group mean scores

on the post-test was significant at the .05 level. Null

Hypothesis 2 was therefore rejected.

Null Hypothesis 3:

 

There will be no difference in the use
of independent study methods in the
subject's teaching experience between
the experimental and control groups

as measured by the Use of Independent
Study in Teaching questionnaire.

 

66

Result: The difference in the between-group mean scores on
post-test l was significant at the .05 level. Null
Hypothesis 3 was therefore rejected.

Intrinsic motivation was evident in both cognitive
and affective domains. Comments from subjects and other
members of the Instructional Technology staff, as well as
evaluation feedback about the course, support the claim
that subjects who received the experimental treatment
became more positively motivated toward independent study.
In addition, subjects who received the experimental treat-
ment seemed to enjoy their teaching experiences more than

those who received the control treatment.

Conclusions

 

l. The results of the study indicate that the
attitudes of teacher candidates can be changed in a
positive direction toward the general concept of independent
study.

2. The results of the study indicate that the
attitudes of teacher candidates can be changed in a posi-
tive direction toward independent study by teaching them how
to operate selected instructional technology equipment
using the independent study methods used in the study.

3. The results of the study indicate that teacher
candidates who have a successful independent study experi-
ence use more independent study methods of teaching in

their teaching experiences.

67

4. The results of the study indicate that a success-
ful independent study experience in a teacher's professional
training will transfer to the teacher's own method of
teaching.

5. The results of the study indicate that the
course used in this study, Curriculum Materials and Tech-
nology, can provide a successful independent study teaching/
learning experience.

6. Although not evidenced by statistical data,
there is an indication that the subjects who received the
experimental treatment (independent study) enjoyed their
teaching and learning experiences more than the subjects
who received control treatment (lecture-laboratory method).
This conclusion is based upon the author's observations,
comments from subjects in the experimental group and from
other members of the Instructional Technology staff who
also taught in the area in which the experiment was con-

ducted, and evaluation feedback about the course.

Implications

 

To provide an equal education for all students
would require methods of teaching that, to the knowledge
of the author, are not yet developed. However, the
knowledge of individual differences among students should
be recognized as a problem significant enough to be
included in the curriculum of teacher training institu-

tions. Teachers should realize that students are all

68

Lnuique, and that a method of teaching that works for one
student might not work for another student.

A few years ago the teacher shortage and oversupply
of students might have provided an excuse for using teach-
ing methods that did not work as well as could be expected.
However, the present oversupply of teachers, the decreasing
number of students, the development of inexpensive learning
devices and materials, and the push for accountability in
public education provide, for the first time, a chance and
a need for the teacher to develop teaching methods that
will provide maximum possible learning.

Consideration should also be given to the recent
develOpments in school accounting methods. Such methods as
"Planning-Programming-Budgeting Systems" will require that
the teacher spell out the objectives of the course and be
held accountable for students meeting these objectives.

If students are to meet the objectives of the
course, the teacher should understand and know how to pro-
vide learning experiences that will give all students an
equal chance to meet the objectives. For these reasons,
it is the responsibility of the teacher training institu-
tion to provide a method by which prospective teachers
can develop a knowledge of individual differences and a
positive attitude toward independent study teaching
methods. The results of this study indicate one way to

provide knowledge of the efficacy of independent study

69

methods is to provide a successful independent study
experience in the teacher candidate's teacher training

experience.

Recommendations

 

Upon completion of the investigation and a review
of the findings, conclusions, and implications, the follow-
ing general recommendations for further research are
preposed:

l. The findings and conclusions of this study point
to the need to replicate the study. Statistical signifi-
cance has been found to the degree that further investi-
gation should be undertaken to ascertain whether the dif-
ferences were coincidental. In such a replication, con-
ditions should be controlled to check whether the differ-
ences observed in this study will recur. Such factors as
placement of student teachers in teaching situations in
which the attitude of the supervising teacher toward inde-
pendent study is known, and where the facilities and media
for independent study are available, should be considered.
Special attention should also be given to placing the
student teachers in teaching situations in which there are
students with a high degree of individual differences. A
further study into the background of the student teachers

in the study could also be significant.

70

2. It is recommended that this study be replicated,
using secondary teacher candidates for subjects.

3. It is recommended that a study be designed to
change the attitudes of in-service teachers in a positive
direction toward independent study.

4. As indicated in this study, the experimental
subjects' use of independent study methods in their teaching
experiences increased from post-test l to post-test 2.
Further study would be desirable, to investigate whether
the use of independent study in the subjects' teaching
would continue to increase as more time elapsed, and how
much it would increase.

5. Comments from subjects and other members of the
Instructional Technology staff, evaluation feedback about
the experimental course, and observations by the author
indicate that those teacher candidates who experienced the
independent study experiment enjoyed their teaching experi-
ence more than those in the control group. Therefore,
investigation to determine if teachers who use independent
study methods in their teaching enjoy teaching more than
teachers who do not use independent study methods in their
teaching would be worthwhile.

6. Finally, it is recommended that the need for
independent study as part of a teacher training program be
investigated, since independent study methods might
further aid teachers in helping their students overcome

individual differences.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

71

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bonthius, Robert H.; Davis, F. James; and Drushal, J.
Garber. The Independent Study Program in the
United States. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1957.

 

 

Brown, B. Frank. Education by Appointment. West Nyack,
New York: Parker Publishing Company, 1968.

 

Brown, James W.; Lewis, Richard B.; and Harcleroad, Fred F.
A-V Instruction: Materials and Methods. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.

 

Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. New York:
Vintage Books, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. and Random
House, Inc., 1960.

 

. Toward a Theory of Education. Cambridge,
Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press, 1966.

 

Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental
and Quasi-Experimental Design for Research.
Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966.

 

 

Cantor, Nathaniel. Dynamics of Learning. Buffalo:
Foster and Stewart Publishing Corporation, 1950.

 

Dewey, John. The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1902.

 

Dictionary of Education. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill
Publishers, 1959.

 

Doll, Ronald C. Curriculum Improvement: Decision—Making
and Process. 2d ed.. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
Inc., 1971.

 

 

Frazier, Alexander, ed. The New Elementary School.
Washington, D.C.: Association for SuperviSion
and Curriculum Development, NBA, 1968.

 

72

73

Gangé, Robert M. "Learning Research and Its Implications
for Independent Learning." The Theory and Nature
of Independent Study. Edited by Gerald T. Gleason.
Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company,
1967.

 

 

Glasser, William. Schools Without Failure. New York:
Harper and Row, Publishers, 1969.

 

Gleason, Gerald T., ed. The Theory and Nature of Inde-
pendent Learning. Scranton, Penn.: International
Textbook Company, 1967.

 

 

Gross, Ronald, ed. The Teacher and the Taught. New York:
Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1963.

 

Howes, Virgil M. Individualization of Instruction. New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1970.

Kemp, Jerrold E. Planning and Producing Audiovisual
Materials. 2d ed. San Francisco: Chandler
Publishing Company, 1968.

 

Kohl, Herbert. 36 Children. New York: The New American
Library, Inc., 1968.

 

Lee, Dorothy. "A Socio-Anthropological View of Independent
Learning." The Theory and Nature of Independent
Learning. Edited by Gerald T. Gleason. Scranton,
Penn.: International Textbook Company, 1967.

Lembo, John M. Why Teachers Fail. Columbus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merrill PubliShing Company, 1971.

 

Macdonald, James B. "Independent Learning: The Theme of
the Conference." The Theory and Nature of Inde-
pendent Learning. Edited by Gerald T. Gleason.
Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company,
1967.

 

 

Miller, Harry L., and Smiley, Marjorie B. Education in
the Metropolis. _New York: The Free Press, 1967.

 

 

Poirier, Gerald A. Students As Partners in Team Learning.
Berkeley, Calif.: Center of Team Leaning, 1970.

 

Postlethwait, S. N.; Novak, J.; and Murray, H. An Inte-
grated Experience Approach to Learning. Minneapolis,
Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1967.

74

Postman, Neil, and Weingartner, Charles. Teaching as a
Subversive Activity. New York: Delacorte Press,
1969.

 

Ramsey, Robert D.; Henson, Owen M.; and Hula, Harold L.
The Schools-Within-A-School Program. West Nyack,
New York: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1967.

 

Sears, Pauline S. "Implications of Motivation Theory for
Independent Learning." The Theory and Nature of
Independent Study. Edited by Gerald T. Gleason. T-
Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company, 49
1967. .‘.

 

Smith, Robert M., ed.; Aker, George F.; and Kidd, J. R.
Handbook of Adult Education. New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1970.

 

 

. . . git
Taba, H1lda. Curr1culum Development Theory and Practice. 5

New York and Burlingame: Harcourt, Brace and

World, Inc., 1962.

Thomas, George I., and Crescimbeni, Joseph. Individualiz-
ing Instruction in the Elementary School. New
York: Random House, Inc., 1967.

 

 

Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Bantam Books,
Inc., 1970.

 

Trump, J. Lloyd, and Baynham, Dorsey. "The Schools of

 

Tomorrow." The Teacher and the Taught. Edited by
Ronald Gross. New York: Dell Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1963.

Van Dalen, Deobold B., and Meyer, Willaim J. Understanding
Educational Research. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1966.

 

 

Articles and Periodicals

 

Aquino, Charles C. "Teacher Attitudes Toward Audiovisual
Instruction As They are Influenced by Selected
Factors Within Teaching Environments." AV Com-
munication Review (Summer, 1970), 187-195.

 

Bloom, Benjamin S. "Learning for Mastery." Evaluation
Comment (May, 1968).

75

Curl, David H. "Western Michigan University Audio-
Tutorial." Audiovisual Instruction (May, 1967),
480.

 

Edling, Jack V. "Individualized Instruction--The Way it
is--l970." Audiovisual Instruction (February,
1970), 13-16.

 

Hayakawa, S. I. "A Quartet of Brash Challenges for the
Seventies." The Saturday Evening Post, Summer,
1971, pp. 8-9, 109.

Hess, T. "Students Teach Themselves." Audiovisual Instruc-
tion (January, 1969), 70-71.

Linck, Norman. "Educational Media and Independent Study."
Audiovisual Instruction (February, 1970), 36-37.

 

Morton, John. "Contract Learning in Texarkana." Educa-
tional Screen and Audiovisual Guide (February,
1970i, 12—13.

 

 

Pula, Fred John. "Teacher Education and Media: We're
Winning the Battle?" Audiovisual Instruction
(January, 1969), 72-73.

Rothenberg, Sidney. "Self-Instruction at Syracuse."
Audiovisual Instruction (May, 1967), 481-482.

 

Watson, Guy A. "Training for Cross-Cultural Teaching."
Audiovisual Instruction (January, 1969), 50-54.

Other Sources

 

Alexander, William M., and Hines, Vynce A. Independent
Study in Secondary Schools. USOE C00perative
Research Project No. 2969. Gainesville, Florida:
University of Florida, 1966.

 

Bolt, William J” Superintendent of Schools. Evaluation of
ESEA Title III, Reading and Mathematics Program.
Fremont, Calif.: Fremont Unified School District,
1971.

 

Brown, James W.; Lewis, Richard B.; and others. HZ
Instructional Materials Manual: A Self-
instructional Guide to AV Laboratory Experiences.
3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969.

 

76

Cole, James Henry. "Effects of an Audiovisual Course on
Prospective Teachers' Attitudes Toward the Use of
Audiovisual Materials and Toward Teaching."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University,
1964. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms.

Davis, Harold 8. Independent Study--An Annotated Bibligg-
raph . Staff Utilization Project, ERC. Cleveland,
Oth: Educational Research Council of Greater
CleVeland, 1966.

Encyclopedia of Education. Vol. 4. New York: The
Macmillan Company and The Free Press, 1971.

 

Frazier, Alexander, ed. Freeing Capacity to Learn. Papers
and Reports from The Fourth ASCD Research Institute.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, NBA, 1960.

 

Hatch, Winslow R., and Richards, Alice L. (compiled by).
Approach to Independent Study. Bureau of Educa-
tional Research and Development. United States
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
1965.

 

Hatch, Winslow R., and Bennet, Ann. Independent Study.
United States Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1960.

McKeachie, W. J. "Research on Teaching at the College and
University Level." Research on the Characteristics
of Effective College TrEining, Cooperative Research
Project No. 0 E 850. Ann Arbor: The University
of Michigan, 1964.

 

 

Ramsey, Curtis Paul. A Research Project for the Development

 

 

of a Measure to Assess Attitudes Regarding the Uses
of New Educational Media, Title VII, Project Number
492, N.D.E.A., December, 1961. Ann Arbor: Uni-
versity Microfilms, Inc., 1966.

 

 

Salley, Homer E.; Appeddu, Joanne N.; Jones, Morley D.;
Kennedy, Roger G.; and Shallcross, Margaret.
Equipment Operational Manual. Dubuque, Iowa:
Wm. C. Brown Book Company, 1968.

 

77

San Jose State College Bulletin 1970-72 General Catalog
Undergraduate Study. California Office of State
Printing, March 1, 1970.

 

 

Smith, B. Othanel; Cohen, Saul B.; and Pearl, Arthur.
Teachers for the Real World. Task Force of the
NDEA National Institute for Advanced Study in
Teaching Disadvantaged Youth. Washington, D.C.:
The American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education, 1969.

 

 

‘15:; -

APPENDICES

78

APPENDIX A

TEACHING METHODS FLOW CHART

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APPENDIX B

COURSE OUTLINE FOR EDUCATION 183E--

CURRICULUM MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

81

SAN JOSE STATE COLLEGE 1213
School of Education

Greensheet
Education 183: Curriculum Materials and-Technology

Application of communications research, technological advancements, and
learning theory to the selection, evaluation, and utilization of instructional
materials. 2 units (Class meets three hours per week, one hour of which is de-
voted to work on materials preparation, equipment operation, and individual pro-
jects).

General Purposes:
Students successfully completing this course will: 3;

1. Know and be able to apply learning and communication theory as related to the a
use of instructional materials in teaching and learning. a i

A.)

Know sources of commercially prepared instructional materials; be able to
select and evaluate these materials; and, be able to use them effectively.

 

‘40
I

. ,|
Know when and how to prepare instructional.materials meeting local needs and i,
have gained some skill in the preparation of such materials.

L. Know how advances in technOIOgy are influencing instruction; become aware of
research; and, be able to consider instructional implications.

5. Be able to operate, with proficiency, the various equipment required in pro-
duction and utilization of instructional materials.

Reouired Text: AV Instructional Materials Manual, Edited by Brown and Lewis,
Third Edition, McGraw-Hill.

Required: Materials Production Packet, available in ED. Rm. h31

Recommended - For additional reading .
Brown, Lewis, Harcelroad, A.V. Instruction: Media and Methods, Third Edition,
McGraw—Hill.
Dale, Edgar, Audio—Visual Methods in Teaching, Third Edition, Holt/Dryden.
Wittich and Schuller, Audio Visual Materials, Fourth Edition, Harper.

UNIT I: Instructional Materials and Technology: Role in Learning and Communication

A. What are instructional materials? How are they being used?

B. How are learner and teacher roles being influenced by the instructional
materials and technology?

C. What is good classroom communication? How do materials and technology
affect communication?

D. To what extent does application of learning theory affect use of instruc-
tional materials?

References: Manual - Exercises 1, 2, 3, 4 - Required
B, L, H - Ch. 1, 2
Dale - Ch. 1, 2, 3, A Read selectively to answer
W & S - Ch. I, 2 above questions.

82

83
° 1218-2

UNIT II: Selecting and Using ReadyeMade Materials

A. What services and resources are available from media centers?

B. What equipment and materials are available in the classroom?*

C. How does the classroom teacher go about locating, selecting, and evaluating
materials?

D. How are materials used most effectively in the classroom?

References: Manual - Exercises 23, 2A, 25, 27 - Required
B, L, H - Ch. 3
W & S - Ch. 15 Read selectively.
Dale - Ch. 5, 6, 7

* You may want to consider display materials also.
Manual Ex. 7, 9, 11

After a general consideration of the above questions, make specific applica-
tions to:

1. Free and inexpensive materials
Manual - Exercise 26 — Required
B, L, H - Ch. 6
Dale - Ch. 6
2. Filmstrips
Manual - Ex. 34 - Required
B, L, H — Ch. 8
W & S — Ch. 12 Read selectively
Dale - Ch. 15
3. Slides, transparencies
B, L, H - Ch. 8, 9
W & S - Ch. 12 Read selectively
Dale — Ch. 15
4. Films
Manual - Exercise 33 - Required
B, L, H - Ch. 10
W & S - Ch. 13 Read selectively
Dale - Ch. IA
5. Audio materials
Manual - Exercise 32 - Required
B, L, H — Ch. 12
W & S - Ch. 10,11 Read selectively
Dale - Ch. 16

Read selectively.

UNIT III: Local Resources and Materials

When commercially prepared curricular materials for instruction are not
adequate, teachers should consider the possibility of producing their own.materials
to meet specific instructional requirements.

What community resources are available for teaching?

What instructional materials can be prepared by teachers and students?
What techniques are used in planning and preparing these materials?
How are these materials used effectively in the classroom?

UOCD3>

84 1218-3

This unit explores the following areas:

1. Community resources - Manual - Exercise 31
2. Teacher-produced materials (see manual, part 2) Instructor will
assign specific exercises.

graphic materials
displays
transparencies
photographic
audio

Refer to the 8mm single concept films available in the labs and to the
tables of contents in the various texts for additional information.

UNIT IV: Emerging Technology

The frame of reference for technology as the term is used in this unit means
much more than a collection of hardware and of machines. The teacher, in con-
sidering the impact of technology on the instructional process, should remember
that technology includes processes, systems, management and control mechanisms,
both human and non-human, and an attitude of willingness to consider the feasi-
bility of new solutions to educational problems. This unit deals with the
following questions:

A. What are the newer media and what is their availability?

B. What changes in teacher role and function are necessary for successful
adaptations of a learning technology?

C. What changes in learner roles are indicated for optimum application of
technology?

D. What are the research findings regarding application of these media and
what are the implications for teacher-student relationships? '

B. What will new media require in content organization, pupil-teacher-media
configurations, local production, and space utilization?

1. Television - Radio
Manual Exercises 37, 38 — Required
B, L, H - Ch. 11
W & S - Ch. In Read selectively
Dale — Ch. l3, l6
2. Programed Materials
Manual Exercise 35 - Required
B, L, H - Ch. 5
W & S - Ch. 16 Read selectively
Dale - Ch. 21
3. Electronic learning Centers
B, L, H - “h. 12
W & S - pp. 331 Read selectively
Dale - p. L99
4. The Systems Approach
B, L, H - Ch. 19
W & S - Ch. 15 Read selectively
Dale - Ch. 20

8.5 1218-1.

5. Learning Environment for Effective Use of the New Technology
3’12, H ' 9:“ %? Read selectively
a « c . L3

EQUIPMENT OPERATION

Classroom teachers, in order to use effectively the wealth of materials .
becoming available, must be able to operate, with proficiency, a variety of audio-
visual equipment both in the preparation for teaching and in teaching in the
classroom. -

Opportunities will be provided throughout the course for students to develop
this proficiency.

Reference - Manual, section 4 - Required

COURSE REQUIREMENTS:

 

1. See outline for description of course content. All topics will be treated
with emphasis directed towards needs of students. Complete manual exerCises
as assigned. Read selectively on recommended texts.

2. Location and evaluation of commercially prepared and available materials.
Each student will explore commercially available materials as outlined in
Unit II. Due Date

 

a. Use standard references to locate commercially produced materials.
Select one unit of work in your major or minor field and limit your
search to this unit. In the search include films, filmstrips, tapes,
recordings, etc. Define unit. List materials and sources.

b. Prepare a rating or evaluation form. Then use this form to evaluate a
representative sampling of the listed materials.

0. Select one of the above materials and prepare a plan for its use in
a teaching-learning situation.

3. Experience with local production or preparation of materials. Unit III.

a. Purchase production packet and prepare materials as indicated.
Due date

 

b. Complete a project designed to assist in the teaching of some phase
of your major or minor field course content. This may be:
. A bulletin board
. A set of 2 x 2 slides, transparencies, or mounted pictures
. A set of materials for the felt board, hook-and-loop board, or
the magnetic chalkboard
. A set of templates or other chalkboard aids
. Teaching tapes
. A model or mock-up
. Or other project approved by the instructor
Due date

 

86
1218-5

leading QR Research Report - DO ONE!

a. A paper of approximately five pages reporting on one of the techno-
logical areas of most recent development and impact. Report trends,
research findings, and implications for your teaching area.

Due date

 

b. A series of abstracts of professional magazine or journal articles.
Exact form of abstract will be provided by instructor. Number

required Due dates

 

 

 

Students will demonstrate proficiency in equipment operation . . . so ED
as to be able to use the equipment in classroom teaching or in the pre- '
paration for teaching. ‘
This equipment includes: . 16mm sound projector
. 2.x 2 and 35mm combination filmstrip-slide
projector and Eastman Carousel L'
. opaque projector F

large overhead transparency projector
tape recorder

record player

various duplicating devices

Examinations will be a combination of objective and essay and will include
unit exams and a comprehensive final.

Course grade will reflect:

Examinations
Papers and projects

CDQOO‘QJ

On—time completion of assignments
Class attendance and participation

Participation and effectiveness in lab

APPENDIX C

STUDENT INFORMATION CARD

87

*mri.‘fi=€.—.m!1;
K

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY DEPARMENT
STUDENT INFORMATION CARD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Last Name First Middle Mr.__ Mrs.___Miss__

Course Title Section

Semester: Fall Spring Day Time

Local Address 1
Street Number City Tel. No. ‘

Home Address
Street Number ‘City Tel. No.

Major Minor E

College graduated from

 

Year graduated from College Years it took you to
graduate from college

Post Graduate Degree
Have__ In process__ Interested in___ Not interested__

 

Department Advisor's Name

 

Student Teaching Supervisor's Name

 

Student Teaching
Assignment School Room Time at school

 

Resident Teacher's Name

 

Have you ever been involved in a structured program that
stressed independent study? Yes No

If you answered yes, what was the name of the program,
class, workshOp, etc.?

 

Date

 

 

Did you feel the experience was successful? Yes No

Special Interests

 

 

88

APPENDIX D

CALIFORNIA TEACHER DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

TEACHER ATTITUDE INVENTORY

89

 

E‘

Directions:

TEACHER ATTITUDE INVENTORY

California Teacher Development Project

question.

m
>
I

Strongly Agree

A - Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

m
DU
II

The teacher can make better use of
class time if all students work
together.

A teacher can always find one best
textbook for the students in the class.

All students should start a course at
the same time.

In order that they can spend more
time in areas where they need it,
students should not be bound by
fixed class schedules.

Even though the content is the same,
one set of instructional materials
may interest a student more than
another set.

In any course, all students should
have the same content.

All students in the class should
listen to the teacher's lectures.

There should be more and better
learning taking place when all of
the students in a class use the
same text.

The teacher should set the primary
objectives for the class.

90

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

Circle the response in the right hand column
that best reflects your attitude on each

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

91

Students should always proceed at
their own pace.

Students should have a variety of
instructional materials to select
from.

Students should study that content
which best meets his own needs and
interests.

A student should take a test when
he is ready for it.

If a good selection of textbooks
are available to the students, it
is not necessary to provide them
with instructional materials based
on other media.

Each student should have his own
objectives toward which he can
work.

Even when working hard, some students
need more time than others to com-
plete their work.

An important part of individualizing
materials is individualizing tests.

To determine quality of performance,
each student's performance should be
compared to the performance of his
fellow students.

A student should not be expected to
work with a class where all of the
students are working at their own
rates.

All students in a class should take
the same tests so that the teacher
can compare the grades.

Because competition promotes achieve—
ment, all students should be working
toward the same objectives.

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

92

Students will tend to become lazy
if they are allowed to work at
their own pace.

The individualization of materials
should include selecting the media
which best suits the student.

The teacher should establish minimum
standards for the whole class.

Because of their college training,
teachers know what are the best
rates of study for the students.

Materials should be determined by
the individual's needs.

Even in individualized instruction,
all of the students in a given
class should be studying the
content.

It is not necessary that all of the
students in a class be the same age.

All students should start and end
a unit using the same materials.

The teacher should be sure that all
students receive the basics in a
subject.

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

 

PIS-mt . n.-. _.. . .
._...

‘h

APPENDIX E

NEWER EDUCATIONAL MEDIA INVENTORY

93

NEWER EDUCATIONAL MEDIA

During the past twenty years or so, many new teaching aids
have been developed. Some of these are sufficiently
elaborate to change, or even to replace temporarily, the
classroom communication processes which were formerly
pretty much limited to students and teachers. Radio,
television, motion pictures, slides and filmstrips, the
phonograph and tape recorders, certain types of teaching
machines and programed learning methods--all are examples
of what might be termed the "Newer Educational Media"
(NEM).

In American education today, there is some controversy
concerning these NEM. The following statements represent
various points of View on this question.

Please indicate the extent of your agreement or disagree-
ment with each statement. Please don't make efforts to
be consistent or to select the "right answer"--there are
none. Simply enter the proper number in the space before
each sentence according to the following code:

1. Agree strongly

2. Agree moderately

3. Agree slightly

4. Disagree slightly
5. Disagree moderately
6. Disagree strongly

l. The widespread use of the NEM will revolutionize
the process of instruction as we know it now.

2. The possible uses of the NEM are limited only by
the imagination of the person directing the
usage. '

3. The wide resources of the NEM stimulate the
creative student.

4. There are no educational frontiers in the NEM--
just new gadgets.

5. Most students see the NEM mainly as entertain-
ment, rather than as education.

6. Most teachers lose the gratification of personal
accomplishment when the child is taught by a
machine.

94

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

95

Use of the NEM constitutes a major advance in
providing for individual differences in the
learning needs of children.

Much wider usage of the NEM is needed.

The vicariousness of learning by NEM aids is
not conducive to the most effective learning.

'If surplus funds exist which could be spent

only for supplementary books or for more NEM
equipment, the latter should be chosen.

Children can learn the basic value of a good
education only when taught by conventional
classroom methods--not by the NEM.

The problems of getting materials and equipment
when you need it, darkening rooms, setting up

the equipment, and otherwise disrupting classes
tend to counteract the value of most of the NEM.

The "authoritative" presentations of most of
the NEM tend to produce an uncritical accept-
ance on the part of most students.

The passive quality of learning by NEM is not
conducive to the most effective learning.

The prOper student attitudes for effective
learning are not developed as well by the NEM
as by conventional methods of teaching.

Only through the NEM can vicarious learning
experiences be provided in the classroom.

The expense of most of the NEM is out of all
proportion to their educational value.

The NEM give little opportunity to provide for
the individual differences of children.

The personal relationship between teacher and
student is essential in most learning situa-
tions.

NEM materials are so Specific as to have little
adaptability to different teaching requirements
or situations.

21.

22.

23.

96

with increased usage of the NEM, the teaching

role may be downgraded to clerical work, proc-
toring, grading, and other simple administra—

tive tasks.

The development of NEM centers in every school
unit should be encouraged and facilitated.

The NEM do not suitably provide for the

'special needs of either slow learners or

brighter students.

 

 

APPENDIX F

QUESTIONNAIRE--USE OF INDEPENDENT

STUDY IN TEACHING

97

SAN JOSE STATE COLLEGE
San Jose, California
Mr. Espinosa

(5)

USE OF INDEPENDENT STUDY IN TEACHING

Please indicate how often you used each of the

following instructional activities in your 1970 fall
semester student teaching experience. Respond on the
IBM card.

(1)
(5)

l.

10.

Not at all (2) Very little (3) Somewhat (4) Much

Very much

Used programmed instruction

Used classroom learning centers

Used contract teaching

Assigned homework

Assigned library research

Used listening posts

Provided learning experiences away from the school
during school time

Taught students about the different media for learn-
ing and how to select it

Let students learn by themselves through trial and
error

Allowed for small group discussion among independent
study students

98

APPENDIX G

INDEPENDENT STUDY LABORATORY INFORMATION

99

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY D-E '70
Independent Study Laboratory
Room 431 Education Building

Fall Semester 1970 Hours: Daily 8 - 5 pm
Mon. & Tues. 7-9:4S pm
Thurs. 7 - 9:45 pm

TO: Students enrolled in Ed. 183E section 21031 and 21034
RE: Your required participation in the audio-visual
equipment operation independent study program

The Program Includes Operation Of:

 

l. The 35mm slide—filmstrip projector
2. The 16mm movie projector

3. Opaque projector

4. Overhead projector

Appointments and Schedule:

 

All students are asked to sign-up for laboratory
time. Sign-up in the independent study laboratory. You
should make an appointment for one hour or more per
visit.

Carrels:

Independent study carrels designed to handle multi-
media materials will be provided. Students will be pro-
vided with all materials necessary; such as films, charts,
flipbooks, etc. The work is done individually. No group
reservations are made. _—

Records:

A record of the time spent by each student in the
laboratory and on each machine will be kept by the student.
Make-Ups:

If, because of unavoidable circumstances, you will
miss your scheduled time please reschedule so that the
laboratory can be used by someone else and a new time
can be reserved for you.

Equipment Operation Check-Outs:

 

There will be two check-outs: Viewlex 2 x 2 and
filmstrip projector during the third week of the semester
and the 16mm projector during the seventh week. Exact
dates and times will be announced.

You will be required to operate the equipment for
your instructor. Your instructor will evaluate you using
the check-out sheet on page 188 of your manual. Practice
on the equipment and test yourself. See page 185 of your
manual for practice check-outs.

100

101
D-E '70
INDEPENDENT STUDY TIME SHEET

 

. , Last Name, First Name

PRINT >

Time your 183E class meets

 

 

 

SCHEDULED APPOINTMENTS TIME IN TIME OUT
DAY DATE TIME

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mummbwwr—I
O

 

fl?

TIME SPENT ON

E UIPMENT NAME
ewlex 2 x 2 - Filmstrip

 

APPENDIX H

THE FACILITIES

102

 

 

 

 

 

THREE CARRELS USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

ARE AGAINST THE WALL

 

ONE CARREL WITH EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

103

104

 

 

SUBJECT USING VARIOUS MATERIALS TO LEARN

 

 

PARTIAL VIEW OF THE LABORATORY IN

WHICH THE EXPERIMENT TOOK PLACE

APPENDIX I

CARREL RESERVATIONS

105

CARREL RESERVATIONS

D-E '70

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sign your name across from DAY
time and under carrel you want. DATE
TIME CARREL 1 CARREL 2 CARREL 3
7:30 8:00 a.m.
8:00 8:30
8:30 9:00
9:00 9:30
9:30 10:00
10:00 10:30
10:30 11:00
11:00 11:30
11:30 12:00
12:00 12:30
12:30 1:00
1:00 1:30
1:30 2:00
2:00 2:30
2:30 3:00
3:00 3:30
3:30 4:00
4:00 4:45
7:00 7:3049.m.
7:30 8:00
8:00 8:30
8:30 9:00
9:00 9:45

 

 

 

 

106

APPENDIX J

LABORATORY CHECKSHEET

107

INSTRUCTOR'S COPY (continued)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2- BY 2—INCH AND FILMSTRIP PROJECTOR 16mm PROJECTOR
Done Time Rating Done Time Rating
Setting up Setting up
Placing and assembling ....... ( ) ' Opening equipment .......... ( )
Centering light on screen ...... ( ) Assembling ----------------- ( )
F , j. . Amplifier on ................ ( )
ocusmg light beam .......... ( ) .
Cleaning gate ............... ( )
- Centering on screen.
0
peratmg focusing .................. ( )
Handling filmsmCPS ----------- ( ) Checking rotation ............ ( )
Inserting filmstrips ........... ( ) Threading film .............. ( )
Correcting focus ............. ( ) __ i_ __ Checking threading - ' ' - ----- ( )
Projecting filmstnps .......... ( ) Operating
Skipper frames .............. ( ) .
Backing up .................. ( ) Prpsztctmg volume and ( )
. . o .....................
Closmg showmg """"""" ( ) Motor on, then lamp .......... ( )
Rewinding filmstrips ---------- ( ) Focusing .............. . . . .( )
Changing to 2- by 2-inch slide Adjusting volume ............ ( )
carrier ................... ( ) Adjusting tone --------------- ( )
Projecting for screen Framing . . I ................ ( )
Closmg showmg
coverage """""""""" ‘ ) Sound down ............... ( )
Focusmg ................... ( ) Lamp, then motor, ofl ....... ( )
Projecting slides (4) ........... ( ) Rewinding film .............. ( )
Handling slides .............. ( )
Putting away
Putting away Disassembly ................ ( )
Disassembly as appropriate . . . .( ) SIOWing parts and cords ....... ( )
Stowing cord ................ ( ) Locking hds """""""" ( )
Stowmg accessories .......... ( ) Maintenance
Latching lid ................. ( ) __ __
Handling film ............... ( ) _-__ ._ __
Maintenance Changing projection lamp ..... ( )
.. .. . Changing exciter lamp ........ ( )
( leaning lens """""""" ( ) Cleaning lens ................ ( )
Changing lamp .............. ( )
Additional checks (if desired)
Still projection .............. ( )
Reverse projection ........... ( )
Total time—.— Rating Total time Rating
Checkout date____..__ Machine Checkout date_____ Machine
( ‘ommcms: Comments:

188
108

APPENDIX K

COVER LETTER

109

 

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
Department of Instructional Technology

May 13, 1971

Name
Address
City, State

Dear _:
As the spring semester draws to a close, it is again
time to ask you for your help.

Enclosed are the last questionnaires I will ask you to
answer. I realize that you are busy, but I urgently need
this information. Please take the time to answer them now.
A self-addressed envelope is enclosed for your convenience.

Thank you again for the help and consideration you have
given me during this past year. Good luck in your future
endeavors.

Sincerely,

Leonard J. Espinosa
Assistant Professor
of Education

Enclosures

llO

31293 03056 4375