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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE RELATIONSHIP OF TIME PERSPECTIVE T0 AGE,

INSTITUTIONALIZATION AND ACTIVITY'

presented bg

Howard Haas Fink

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D . degree in P337011010£y

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Major professor

Date October 29_L

 

 

 

 

 

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THE RELATIONSHIP OF TIME PERSPECTIVE TO AGE,

INSTITUTIONALIZATION AND ACTIVITY

By

Howard Haas Fink

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology

1953

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer wishes to thank Dr. Albert I Rabin

and Dr. Milton Rokeach for their criticism and advice

in the writing of this dissertation. He also wishes

 

to thank Dr. Alfred G. Dietze, Dr. M. Ray Denny and

Dr. Carl F. Frost for their valuable suggestions.
The writer is indebted to his wife, Barbara

Kane Fink for her moral support, encouragement

and editorial assistance.

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . o

0 O O 0 O O O 0 0

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . .
The Nature of Time Concepts. 0 .
The DevelOpment of Time Concepts
Time PerSpective . . . . .

Time PerSpective and Social Factors.
Some Behavioral and Personality Correla

Time PerSpective . . .

Clinical Psychology and Time Perspectiv

O

O

O
O
O
0

The Assessment of Time PerSpective . .

Smamoooeooooooooo

OLD AGE AND INSTITUTIONALIZATION
HYPOTHESES o o

O O O O C O 0 O O O

METHO DOLO (fl' 0 o O I 0 O O O 0 O O 0
The EXperimental Sample. . . .
The institutionalized group

O

The non-institutionalized group

The division of the institutionalized

O

O

institutionalized groups. . . . .

The Instruments Used . .
The time perSpective "scale".
The projective method . . .

The personal data questionnaire

The Eerrimental Procedure . . . .

RESULTS. 0 .

0 O O 0 O o O o o o a

Method of Analysis .

0 O O O

O

O O O O O

co®°€f‘°‘

I
O
O
O
O
0

Results with the Time PerSpective Scale.

Results with the TAT Cards
Results of Activity. .

O 0 O

O 0 O O 0

DISCUSSION .

I O O O O 0 O O O I 0

Implications .

O O O O O 0 O O 0

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

0 O O O O

SELECTED REFERENCES.

0 O O O O O O

APPENDICES o

0 O I 0 O O O O O O O

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Table

10

11

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Mean percentage of past and future responses
of several age groups. (Based on Eson's (1h)
study...000.000.900.000...

Age, years of education and occupational strata
of the institutionalized and non-institution-
alizedgroups.....oo..o.......

Mean weekly hours of activity for the
institutionalized and non-institutionalized

groups.........ooooo.ooo..o

PrOportions of past, present and future
responses to the time perSpective scale for

the institutionalized and non-institution-
alizedgroups...o..........ooo

Intergroup and subgroup differences of
prOportions of past, present and future
responses to the time perspective scale . . . .

Preportions of past, present and future
responses to the TAT cards for the institution-
alized and non-institutionalized groups . . . o

Intergroup and subgroup differences of
prOportions of past, present and future
responses to the TAT Gard-So o o o o o o o o o 0

Correlations between prOportions of reaponse
to the time perspective scale and to the TAT
cards for the combined experimental groups. . .

Correlations between prOportions of past and
future responses given to the time parapective
scale and weekly hours of activity for the
combined experimental groups. . . o . o . . . .
Mean number of past, present and future
reaponses to the time perspective scale for
the institutionalized and non-institution-
aliZSngOUpSoaooooooooo'oooooo

Mean number of past, present and future
reaponses to the TAT cards for the
institutionalized and non-institutionalized

groups.......o...o........o

12

1+7

51

52

SS

56

57

60

81L

85

 

 

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INTRODUCTION

The degree to which an individual relates his overt
and covert behavior to the past, the present and the future
has been a comparatively untapped psychological research
area. In recent years, however, the problem area of "time
perSpective" has been the focus of more attention from
psychologists. Time perspective may be defined as the
psychological past, present and future as they exist for and
influence the individual. The present study is concerned
with an investigation into the nature of the time perspective
of aged males and the relationshio of these time perspectives
to institutionalization, to age, and to activity as measured
by the amount of time per week devoted to work, hobbies
and organizational participation.

The present research has its origins in the author's
experience as a research assistant to the medical staff of
the Ingham County Rehabilitation Center and receives much
of its theoretical background from the writings of Kurt
Lewin and Lawrence K. Frank.

Lewin (35) states,

The behavior of an individual does not depend
entirely upon his present situation. His mood is
deeply affected by his hOpes and wishes and by
his own views of the past. The morale and happi-
ness of an individual seem to depend more on what

he expects of the future than on the pleasantness
or unpleasantness of the present situation. (p. 7 )

 

 

 

Frank (18) in his discussion of time perSpective,
theorizes,

. . . as our feeling about the present and

immediate future changes, so our past changes

its dimensions, assuming a new meaning and value.

Seemingly then, the future determines the

present, the present controls the past but the

past creates the future and so imposes its

values upon the present. (p. 350)

The general thesis of this research is that time
perspective is a personality variable which can be altered
by age, by institutionalization and by activity. It is the
goal of this study to add to our knowledge of time per-
Spective per fig, and to discover some of the relationships

between an individual's environment and his time perspective.

 

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The Nature of Time Concepts

 

An adequate understanding of the nature of time is
fundamental to the understanding of many of the problems
of conscious eXperience. The temporal aSpect is involved
in psychological processes ranging from the most complex
memory and future projectional processes down to the simplest
sensory eXperience. A complete review of all of the various
concepts of time will not be presented in this section.

Instead, some of the more pertinent contributions will be
summarized.

In the eighteenth century and before, time was con-
ceived in a mechanistic sense, as an entity. It was thought
to be a simple, homogeneous medium through which events
floated without being affected. Bergson (7) criticized

this type of temporal conception, saying it was a conception

 

which does nothing. For Bergson, time must account for the
new in experience and must, therefore, be an active, vital
agency which is capable of leaving its mark of things. With
his denial of one homogeneous and impersonal duration, such
as the conventional Newtonian conception of time, he assumes
a multiplicity of durations, each flowing at a different

. rate from one individual to another and at different rates

under different conditions. Weber (Sh) feels that this

 

 

 

J

 

point is of the greatest significance from the psychological
standpoint, for it is in general agreement with the commonly
encountered ideas of our experience of time. Variations
in the rate of flow under different conditions must be
regarded as errors if the old physical conception of a single
homogeneous duration is accepted. But with the Bergsonian
conception we have a basis for regarding the psychological
flow of time as a normal and valid adaptation to fit current
conditions, since it implies that the individual flow of
time and the individual orientation to time is just as real
as physical time.

Another conception of time is the relativistic one.
Here time is seen as a fourth dimension in the structure of
the universe. This view of time is seen in the writings
of Eddington (12) and Bridgeman (8). The emphasis of the
relativist upon the close relationship between Space and
time develOped out of the physical investigations upon the
nature of time when large distances of space Were considered.
When great distances of Space are under consideration, the
error in temporal estimation caused by neglecting the time
factor involved in the movement of light through Space is
so large as to be of great significance. To increase the
accuracy of estimation by allowing for this, events are
plotted in the fourth dimension, time, as well as in the

three spatial dimensions.

 

 

 

 

A third general view of the nature of time, and the
one which has probably had the greatest influence on labora-
tory viewpoints, assumes a definite separation betWeen
objective and subjective time. A loose sort of parallelism
is thought to exist between the two. Under ordinary con-
ditions, events in the objective time scheme give rise to
corresponding representations in the subjective time scheme.
However the latter are not exact duplicates of objective
time patterns, because they are affected by the processes
of perception. In a sense, the events of objective time
are more real than the events of subjective time and serve
as criteria in the accuracy of time judgement. So-called
temporal illusions are simply gross deviations in subjective
time from the objective representations.

Schilder (h?) takes a somewhat different view of the
objective-subjective dichotomy of time. He states:

Time is inside as well as outside of ourselves.

Time is a perception. It is a part of the out-

‘Side world, but it is also a sensation immedi-

ately experiences in ourselves. We organize

and crystallize the perception of time into the

concept of a continuous flow, which we measure

by clocks, and we try to apply the same measure

to the time experience in ourselves, to what we

may call the time sensation. There is no reason

why we should call time the form of inner

experience. Time is an inherent part of the

world of perception, inside and outside of our

bodies. (p. 213)

Van der Horst (24) agrees with Schilder. He feels
that any exposition about time in the psychological sense

must be binary: the arrangement of events by means of

 

 

quantities eXpressable in seconds (transient time) and the

duration of eXperience (immanent time). Transient time

 

is measurable. Immanent time is a quality of one's own
existence. It is a product of experience. When many of
the early phi1030phers were considering time they were
mainly concerned with the problem of how we come to know
time. They dealt with the subjective aspect of time or
as Van der Horst might say it, with immanent time.

Three conceptions of the nature of time have been dis-
cussed: the philosophical, the physical and the psychological.
Early philos0phers viewed time as an entity, but a more
recent view suggests that time has a variable nature depend-
ent upon individual perception. Physicists have conceived
of time as a fourth dimension and Speak of its relationship
to the three Spatial dimensions. Psychologists have been

chiefly concerned with the relationship between the objective

and subjective aspects of time.

The DeveloBment of Time Concepts

 

Most of the phiIOSOphers, many of whom are reviewed
by Heath (23) believed that one's concept of time is exper-
ientially deve10ped. This belief has been questioned by
some biologists. Chief among these biologists is Lecomte
du Nouy (33) who holds that the acquisition of a time
concept is nativistic and is primarily determined by the

biological functioning of the individual. This View,

 

 

 

 

 

 

however, has not met with general agreement, and present-
day psychologists, as exemplified by Babcock (5) and Sturt
(50), agree that the time concept is derived from experience.
Piaget, as mentioned by Gothberg (21), says that the
normal child's eXperience of time begins soon after birth
in a sensory-motor recognition of the waiting period between
feedings. Due to the child's egocentricity, his inability
to establish exact limitations between his own ego and the
external world, no objective concept of time is possible
until after this stage is passed. It is not until the child
is four years of age, Piaget continues, that he verbalizes
his concepts of time, although his concept of time has
developed during this silent period, as noted in his ability

to extend the idea of time into the past and into the future.

 

Early percepts of time deal simply with order of succession.

During the seventh year this egocentricity is rapidly lost

"'- i...-

and the child begins to reflect, introspect, compare and

—___..

judge. He is now ready to appreciate the inverse relation-
ship between time and speed and to contemplate duration in
relation to other phenomena.

Oakden and Sturt (hO) do not believe that the concept
of time develops as rapidly as Piaget states. They say that
the child has little ability to conceive the continuity and
develOpment of time until he is about eleven, and not until
he is about twelve does the sense of historical time develop.

These authors believe that the adult concept of time does not

 

 

 

mature until the thirteenth or fourteenth year. Gothberg
(21) states that in addition to eXperience other factors
are important to the develOpment of the time concept. Some
of these factors are chronological age, mental age, social

and emotional adjustment and interest.

Bromberg (9) also believes that the time sense develops

late in childhood. He feels that the develOpment of the
time concept does not occur until after the age of ten or
twelve. As with other abstract ideas, the child first
understands time through concrete objects. In Bromberg's
study, the children first understood time as being numbers
on a clock, daily occurrences, etc., finally attaining the
adult notion of time.

Sturt (50) using a questionnaire method, investigated
characteristics of children's thoughts with regard to the
past. She found that unless there has been some very
specific training, historical periods are all grouped
together and given the characteristic of being very remote.
wag/discovered no organization of the past in children.

On the other hand, Pistor (uh), using as subjects a
group of sixth grade children, found that Specific training
does not affect the develOpment of the time concept. He
measured the extent to which the time concept had been
develOped by means of four tests: a time order relation!
ships test, a time absurdities test, a time analogies test,

and a time causal sequence test. He used equated groups and

 

 

 

after three years of differential training found no sig-
nificant differences between the groups.

Ames (3) observed children and also used a question-
naire to determine the develOpment of time concepts in
children. The age range of her subjects was from eighteen
months to eight years. Her findings indicate that between
the ages of eighteen and twenty—four months the child lives
predominately in the present, but develOps during this time
a very small future projectional system. From the ages of
two to three, judging by his verbalizations, the child
deve10ps a concept of a past, present and future time. At
this stage there is greater emphasis upon the future than
on the past. The year from three to four brings with it
an increase of verbalizations about the time divisions,
though there is some confusion of future activities with
the past. The child at this level may say, "I'm going to
take a nap yesterday.“ The fourth year of life also brings
much greater projection into the future, for example the
concept of "next summer". The data which Ames obtained for
the ages of five to eight is not as complete as that for
the earlier years. She found that at five a child can tell
the days of the week. At six he can understand the four
seasons. At seven he has graSped the concept of a month and
at eight can handle the extremes of the time Span well.

Friedman (19) studied the ability of children to graSp

different aspects of time. The age range of his subjects

 

. Jinn-‘14-

10

was nine to eleven. Each child was presented with twelve
events and was asked to label each of these with one of
four names: a long time ago, a short time ago, a short
time to come or a long time to come. Friedman concluded
that there is not so much logic in the child's thinking
about the past.

The child lives in the present and his exper-

iences have occurred in the past. Building up

a perspectiVe about the future requires more

develOpment. The idea of tomorrow appears less

definite than the idea of yesterday.
Friedman also points out that the child has a better under-
standing of those events which are near in time than those
which are remote.

Eson (14) reported in his dissertation that the child
of eight still lives in the present and that his projection
into the future is limited to those few occasions when he
is stimulated to anticipate a future event. His conception
of the past is limited to those experiences which he has
had, but whose consequences are still pending.

Eson also studied the develOpment of temporal emphasis

which he defined as the stress given to the past and to the
future in the thoughts and conversations of his subjects.
He used seven groups of subjects representing five different
age levels. His groups were: 10-year-old males, 10-year-old
females, 16—year-old males; 16-year-old females, 25-year-old
males, 35-year-old males and 65-year-old males. There were

twenty subjects in each group. He asked his subjects to list

\/

 

11

items they had thought about or Spoken about during the
two-week period preceding the interview. Table l repre-
sents a compilation of some of his results. Eson compares
his results to Lewin's representation of the temporal
dimensions of the life Space (35). Lewin states that the
life space of an individual in a temporal dimension is
symmetrical, i.e., the same emphasis should be given to
the past as to the future. As Table 1 indicates, Eson did
not find this to be so. He found that a greater emphasis
was given to the future than to the past by each of his
seven groups.

An individual's concept of time is deve10ped slowly
beginning early in childhood. By‘the time a child is two
or three years old he has deve10ped a notion, however
limited, of a past, a present and a future time, but until
the eighth year the child is primarily concerned with his
immediate present. The time concept, with ever widening
past and future references, continues to deve10p through
the thirteenth or fourteenth year when the adult concept

is evidenced.

Time Perspective

The above mentioned studies of Eson, Amos and Friedman
are concerned with what Frank (18) has termed "time per-
spective". This term has received few but varied definitions.

For Eson (14), time perspective is "the emphasis given to

 

 

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13

the various time dimensions". As stated earlier, Lewin's
(35) definition is, "The totality of an individual's views
of his psychological future and psychological past existing
at a given time. . .". A more recent view of this concept
is given by Merrell (37). He says that, "Time perspective
is the relative degree of extensiveness, Specificity, clar-
ity, and emotional involvement with events (physical and
psychological) occurring differentially in past, present
and future." The definition of time perSpective which best
seems to fit the purposes of the present study is the
psychological past, present and future as they exist for
and influence the individual.

Frank (18) who has done the most theorizing about
time perspective, states that the socialization process is
primarily concerned with altering the time perSpective of
the individual; it is actually a process which transforms
naive behavior into value behavior in the present with
attenuated past and future time perSpectives. The individual
in early infancy reSponds psychologically to the expression
and fulfillment of his needs and desires. In many cultures,
and eSpecially in our own, the child is induced at an early
age to begin to delay direct fulfillment of many needs and
wishes. This subordination of physiological needs to cul-
tural demands involves a process of learning to assign
greater value to the postponement of physiological drives

than to the immediate reduction of these drives. As the

 

 

 

 

 

individual ages he matures and gains more experience. The
time perSpective of the individual becomes changed. Certain
events are viewed in a more remote focus and other events
are viewed in a more immediate focus.

Lewin's (36) use of the term, time perspective, arises
in connection with his studies of morale. He says, "Actions,
emotions, and certainly the morale of an individual at any
instant depend upon his total time perSpective." He cites
Farber's study of imprisonment and time persPective to show
how a long-range time perspective (here Lewin means a time
perSpective which includes a meaningful and inepiring goal

for the future) can reduce suffering. He points out how a

 

long-range time perSpective together with a valued goal can
cause an individual to persist, to attempt to overcome
obstacles which stand between him and his goal.

Several definitions of time perSpective have been cited.
The concept of time perSpective has received attention from
two psychological viSWpoints, social psychology and clinical
psychology. In the following sections of this chapter, time '

\

perSpective will be discussed from these two approaches.
Time Perspective and Social Factors

Several authors have discussed the relationships
between time perSpective and social class, social role and
social milieu. For example, Lewin (36) believes that the

social environment in which an individual lives will affect

 

 

 

 

 

15

his time perspective. He mentions that in an autocratic
group the future is decided and structured by the leader
and that a person in this type of group tends to be oriented
towards the present, being concerned only with immediate
actions to obtain immediate goals. On the other hand, an
individual who is a member of a democratic group, is instru-
mental in structuring the future and tends to exhibit a
future-oriented time perSpective.

Hulett (25) also speculates about the individual's
"time reference" (time perSpective) and the society in
which he lives. He uses as an example the concept of social
role, "the unit of personality which is ordinarily described
as a complex of attitudes and overt conduct oriented toward
some socially desired role". This author suggests that a
consideration of the processes whereby an individual acquires
his roles will indicate a method of approaching the problem
of determining the source of the time perspective of the
individual personality. Such an approach, he feels, might
shed light on some problems of personal and social adjust-
ment that might be attributed to difficulties the individual
may have with the time factor.

At all points during the process of the individual's
develOpment, Hulett (25) maintains, the group attempts to
provide him with associates who are exhibited as models of

behavior, with much practice in meeting future social

_.g.'__ .3. .. -'.~.

 

 

16

situations and, through myths and legends, with some sort

of group-approved phiIOSOphy of the future. While the

individual defines the present situation with reference to

both the present and the future consequences of his behavior,

the behavior tendencies of his role are a resultant of a

multitude of previous first or second hand experiences in

groups, extending from the immediate to the remote past.
When a person shifts to a new group, or when the present

group arrangements shift, he is forced to adjust to a new

interactional configuration. His efforts to adjust reflect

his own and the group's time parapective. The fact that

his socially conditioned responses to the group's myths

and legends and the memories of his own unique eXperiences

constitute his retrOSpective time perSpective is not part

of his working knowledge. He does not regard his prepara-

tions for and anxieties about the near and distant future

as a time perSpective. In his social situation he fills

a role - or in a situation yet to arrive he expects to fill

a particular role, to a large extent by means of behavior

patterns he already knows - overtly and covertly doing

what the role demands: saving for his old age, living a

"good life" in the hOpes of reaping post-mortem rewards,

Operating his business in accordance with “sound business

practices". The above are but a few examples of the effect

of role upon time perspective.

 

. . 'IZ— {.“.

 

 

 

1?

If the events and situations and group alignments do
not occur as the individual expects, he is faced with a
threat to his "ego-esteem", or sense of "ego-security".

With whatever help he can get from his group affiliation
he is required to reconstruct the bulk of his Specific
anticipatory reaponses to COpe with the unexpected develop-
ments.

The tensions produced by his non-adjustive or "faulty"
time perSpectives are reduced by whatever means may be
available. Many people use such responses as nostalgia for
the past social arrangements, general non-adjustive reactions
of the type characterized by cynical attitudes, a "paranoic"
approach to newly emerging arrangements, “nervousness“,
suicide or other means of withdrawing from social situations.

As part of a larger study,\albrecht (1) studied the
social roles and the "time centered interests“ of people
over sixty-five. She found that those peOple with a past-
centered time perSpective did not enjoy the company of other
people and participated in few, if any, social or recreational
activities. Those subjects who demonstrated present-centered
time perspectives had social roles which were primarily
concerned with their homes or business activities. They
took little part in community or other group activities.
They visited close friends occasionally but derived their
greateSt security in their family group. Those individuals

with a future-centered time perspective were quite active

 

 

 

 

 

and played important roles in social and recreational groups.

They tended to be leaders, met others well, entertained
and often v1s1ted others.

\Davis (ll) and Kinsey (29) have remarked on the differ-
ences in temporal orientation between members of different

social classes. They both point out that members of lower

 

class groups are less likely to postpone present gratifi-
cations in favor of future gain. Davis, while discussing
the socialization process, suggests that the class culture
largely determines the extent and kind of future orientation
for a given adolescent. (Hurphy7139) speaks of differences
in time perspective between Hindus and Moslems. He attributes
these differences to differences in cultural backgrounds.
Frank (18) says, “Whole social classes may be described
by the time perSpectives that dominate their lives."
<L.eshan (34) found that sub-cultural differences in the
rearing of children resulted in differences of temporal
orientation. With the use of a projective method he sub-
stantiated his hypothesis that there are different time
orientations for different social classes.

The above authors have directed attention, either by
philosophical Speculation or by eXperimentation, to the
social psychology of the concept of time perSpective. They
have indicated that an individual‘s time perspective is

affected by his cultural background, his sub-group affili-

ation and his social role.

 

19

Some Behavioral and Personality Correlates of i
Time PersEective

Bertrand Russell, quoted by Arieti (h), says,

The civilized man is distinguished from the
savage mainly by prudence, or to use a slightly
wider term, forethought. He is willing to
endure present pains for the sake of future
pleasures, even if the future pleasures are
rather distant. . . . True forethought only
arises when a man does something towards which
no impulse urges him, because his reason tells
him that he will profit by it at some future
date. (p. LL75).

The effects of an individual's time perspective on his

behavior are dependent upon the differential importance he

 

ascribes to his psychological past, present or future.

Heath (23) believes that the future is most meaningful for
the individual when it is related to, and in some sense
contains, the present. She believes that one tends to
place more importance upon temporally later eXperiences,
1.60, an individual prefers the present over the past and
the future over the present. Heath recognizes that the
problem of the importance of a time division such as the
future is complicated by the existence of memory. In spite
of this, she claims that the person will tend to emphasize
and denote as being more significant those events which will
take place in the future. The latter part of a person's
life, in terms of his goals, anticipations and anxieties,
will have a greater significance to him than the earlier

part of his life which would consist of pleasant and

 

 

‘ ’ , 20
«W
unpleasant memories. Heath further believes that man is
much more aware of the future than he is of the present or
of the past.

As mentioned earlier Eson (14) found, with groups
representing five different age levels, that each group
placed more emphasis upon the future than on the past.

Vischer (55) calls attention to the attitude of the
aging individual to the past, the present and the future.
The hOpeful, expectant attitude toward the future, which
he feels is a characteristic of the young, is gradually,
in the aging personality, replaced with a retrOSpective
view. Only a few aged persons retain that youthful eXpecta-
tion of the future. With the disappearance of the conscious-
ness of the future there appears a feeling of emptiness of
the present, an inner unrest, feelings of depression and
a craving for distraction. The life of the aging individual
is dominated by eXperiences of the present or else the
past is relived. Retrospection in elderly individuals
produces a feeling of vain regret and even of deepair.

Arieti (h) agrees with Vischer that future anticipation
as related to the self decreases in senescence. He believes
that the aging person becomes less and less concerned with
the future, and when senescence arrives his interests are
practically confined to the present time. In his clinical
contacts, Arieti found that old peOple are not chiefly

interested in their past, but in the present. Although

 

 

 

21

they are still thinking of the past to a large extent,
their stream of thought is mostly related to the present
time. In elderly peOple there is a "restriction of the
psychotemporal field". Arieti believes that at times the
capacity of old peOple to worry is decreased to such a low
point that they become slightly euphoric.

Trow (51) has analyzed emotional states into the
trichotomy of prospective, immediate and retrospective.
Under each of these three divisions he lists positive and
negative emotions. Under the rubric of positive prospective
emotional states, Trow classifies determination, confidence
and hope. He suggests that a person facing a future which
is in any way uncertain will generally plan and organize
his activities, while an individual who is confronting a
more certain future may proceed almost as if there were no
directing force behind his behavior. Under the heading of
negative prOSpective emotions, Trow names such states as
anxiety, dread and worry, and says that there exists in
these strong expectations of failure and punishment. Trow
describes feeling states which may occur to the individual
after an event has been eXperienced, in which the person
may feel a positive or negative retrOSpective emotion.
Positive retrOSpective emotions include relief, satisfaction
and joy. Examples of negative emotions in this category are

sorrow, grief, disappointment or regret. Negative immediate

 

 

emotions are fear, terror, shyness and collapse. Positive
immediate emotions are anger, rage, annoyance and excitement.

Since the eXperience of the individual influences his
time perSpective and since his time perSpective can exert
influences upon his perception it might be well to inquire
into the relationship between time perspective and adjust-
ment. Psychoanalysts refer to the.fact that the neurotic
cannot escape his past. Frank (18) says that the neurotic
is not able to fully integrate past traumatic eXperiences
into his present situation even when the past experiences
are not part of his conscious memory. Frank's criterion
for good adjustment seems to be the ability to combine
past eXperience into one's present outlook and to integrate
future outcomes into present behavior so that the future
is neither inaccessible nor governed by the need to renounce
the needs of one's present being.

Lewin (36) directs attention to hepe and says that
this psychological factor is very closely related to pur-
posive, goal-directed activity. If an individual concludes
that the future holds little in store for him he tends to
lose hOpe and his time perSpective shrinks to a present
orientation. Lewin considers goal value and motivational
persistency toward the achievement of a goal to be important
factors affecting morale. He points out that a "positive
future" orientation tends to broaden the felt life-Space

of an individual in a temporal dimension, while a past

 

 

 

 

orientation tends to have narrowing effects. The extent
to which a person will undergo present frustration without
lessening the importance of the goal depends upon his
belief that the future events will fulfill the content of
the goal. Lewin says that the individual is certain to be
future oriented if a highly valued goal is felt to be with-
in his reach.

Lewin (35), in another publication, relates time
perSpective to the individual's adjustment in terms of the
felt life-Space. As the individual matures, he tends to
exhibit extreme forms of time perSpective. At one extreme,
there may be a constriction of the individual's time per-
Spective where the emphasis is on day—to-day goals. At
the other extreme, we see the idealism of the adolescent
where he projects himself into the remote future and tends
to disregard the reality of the present. Lewin conceives
of mature adjustment as involving a time perspective which
lies somewhere between these extremes, in behavior related
to a valued goal whose content can be attained.

Allport (2) states, "Intelligent and perspicacious
planning for the future is always a significant feature of
any mature life." He cites Buhler's study of distinguished
individuals and points out that the lives of these people
were well ordered and steered toward some selected goal.

Israeli (27) mentions that individuals may be classified

according to their attitudes and reactions to the future.

 

 

 

 

2h

He cites Spranger who contrasts individuals of the "short
range or emergency type" with the "long range or foresighted
type", and H. G. Wells, who refers to the "legal type“,
primarily concerned with the past, and the "legislative or
creative type", chiefly interested in the future. Babcock
and Porteus (45) compare "retroverts", backward looking
individuals with "anteverts", forward looking individuals.
It can be seen that in Spite of the difficulty of
defining normal adjustment in terms of time perspective,
several attempts have been made to construct personality
typologies on the basis of attitudes towards aspects of
time. This atomistic type of approach, which is similar to
Trow's (51) temporal trichotomy of emotions, is not as
research oriented as are the approaches of Lewin (35, 36)
and Frank (18) which might be said to be more holistic.
The last two mentioned authors believe that time perSpective
is a product of an individual's experience. They contend
that the individual, as a whole, must be studied if his

time parapective is to be adequately understood.
Clinical Psychology and Time Perspective

There have been several studies describing the type
of responses found in clinical cases with reapect to time
parapective. Israeli (27) comparing a group of superior

adolescents with psychotics found that the normal group

 

25

did not tend to ignore the "uncertainty of the future" as W
did the psychotics. He also investigated the attitudes

toward the future of various psychotic patients and con-

cluded that prognosis may in part be determined by the kind

of future perspective a patient may have. Those patients

with a limited outlook or with a time perSpective containing

but a few future possibilities were found to have the least

number of recoveries and/or took the longest time to recover.

Sands (hB) says that time value is of no apparent signifi-

 

cance to the schiZOphrenic. The depressed patient contin-
ually indulges in self-criticism because of distortion of
time values in the past. The manic patient and the patient
with ideas of grandeur are constantly boasting of what they
will do in the future. Sands suggests that the neurotic '1
patient is bound to his past and hence is unable to meet
realities in the present and despairs of the future.

Fischer (16) supposes "that there is no schiZOphrenic
symptom which cannot be a time—Space disorder". Straus (S2)
assumes time disorders to be basic to various melancholic
delusions and compulsory ideas. For the manic patient, a
feeling of joy may result from anticipation of possibilities
for deve10pment in the future. A depressed reaction may
result from the feeling that there is little chance for
personal develOpment in the future. This feeling inhibits

reactions in the present situation.

 

 

 

 

26

Minkowski (38) also believes space and time disorders
underlie most psychoses. In patients with senile dementia,
Minkowski found the future to be completely subordinated to
the past. Depressed patients felt that their future was
fatally hOpeless. General paralytics looked toward and
even made fantastic plans for the future. For Minkowski,
the extreme distortion of subjective time is the central
symptom of schiZOphrenia.

Frank (18) in considering the influence of time per-
spective on neurotic and psychotic behavior, theorizes that
the neurotic is influenced by distorted dimensions he
attributes to remote past experiences. Frank describes
other distorted time perSpectives, such as,

. . . becoming enamored of the past, or so

preoCcupied with the perplexities of the past

that they wholly abandon the future, then the

present, and live whOlly Within their accumu-

lated organic memory. . . . Others live only

in the future, rejecting the present as value-

less because they are focused to a remote or

impossible future for which the can never

find a present approach. (p. 35K)

Obendorf (hl) feels that individuals can be character-
ized by their different attitudes toward time. He suggests
that the person who takes time for granted is likely to be
indifferent and to be considered by others as lazy. He
contrasts these individuals with those who firmly cling to
purpose and who place a high value on time. These are

"servants of a dominant super-ego". These individuals

characterized by Obendorf are similar to the past-centered

 

 

 

 

 

and future-centered individuals described by Frank (18). "
Hartman, in an unpublished study mentioned by Eson
(1h), related some TAT categories to behavior or personality
variables. He found correlations above 0.50 between the
following TAT categories and their behavior variables.
The TAT category "emphasis on past time" correlates above
0.50 with the personality variable "no nervous symptoms".
The category "emphasis on present time" has a similar
correlation with the behavior variable "rejects father",
while "emphasis on future time" correlates with the per-
sonality characteristic "feels superior".
The authors just considered believe that each type
of mental disturbance has its concomitant time distortion.
The depressed patient distorts time values of the past; 'W.
paretics often entertain unrealistic views of the future;
in schiz0phrenia there is an extreme disturbance of the
subjective time scheme. Temporal distortions seem to be

an integral part of neuroses and psychoses.

The Assessment of Time Perspective

 

Various procedures have been used in experimental
approaches to the problem of the measurement of time per-
spective. Israeli (26) used what now appears to be a
rather naive questionnaire. He asked his subjects, "Is
the past more important than the present?", "Is the future

more important than the past?", and so on through the various

 

 

 

 

 

28

combinations of past, present and future. By this method
Israeli attempted to get at the nature of the time perSpectives
of his subjects. Those authors who have been interested in
the develOpment of time perspective, such as Piaget, as
mentioned by Gothberg (21), Ames (3) and Friedman (19)

'have used either an observational or a questionnaire tech-
nique or a combination of the two. Eson (14) studied both

the nature and the deve10pment of time perSpective by an
elaborate, scaled-interview technique.

A somewhat more s0phisticated approach to this problem
is to be found in the work of psychologists who are applying
projective techniques to the study of time perspective.
Stein (h9) discusses the importance of time perSpective ,
in the structure of personality in his manual for the
clinical use of the TAT. The usual instructions for this
test ask the subject to mention the past, the present
.and the future in the deve10pment of his reSponses to the
pictures. After examining the manner in which the subject
complies with these instructions, the psychologist is in
a position to make certain judgements of the subject's time
perSpective. Sometimes the memories and associations may
stimulate too much anxiety and cause the subject to avoid
Speaking of the past, present or future. Stein cautions
that this avoidance is not to be interpreted as a lack of
iMportance of a particular time division to the time per-

Spective of the subject, although the preportion of each

 

 

 

 

"fl

 

29

story devoted to each division of time will usually give
some indication of the period which the subject considers
significant in his life.

Another projective method for the assessment of time
perSpective was deve10ped by LeShan (35). He asked the
children who served as his subjects to "Tell me a story".
The stories were scored in terms of the length of time
covered by the action of the stories. Barndt (6) further
developed LeShan's method for use with older subjects. In
his study, Barndt used adolescent boys as subjects and told
them, ". . .‘About 3:00 o'clock one bright sunny afternoon
in.May, two boys were walking along a street near the edge
of town.‘ Now you start there and finish the story any way
you want to." The stories were scored according to the
length of time covered by the action of the story.

Still another projective method recently deve10ped
for the measurement of time parapective is the Sentence
Completion Test. Stein (hB) reports that a test of this
type was deve10ped for use by the Veterans Administration.
This test consisted of ten parts, one of which was designed
to investigate the subject's time perSpective. Rabin (h6)
has constructed a sentence completion test which deals
exclusively with time perSpective. Eson (14) feels that
although this approach does not lead to clear-cut quanti-
tative results, the value of individual self-eXpression

inherent in a projective technique may be sufficient to

outweigh this weakness.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Those authors who have done experimental work with I

time perspective have found that it can be measured by
questionnaire methods, by interviews and by projective

techniques.

Summary

The nature of time has been conceived of in a philo-
SOphical, a physical and a psychological sense. It is the
psychological connotation which we are herewith concerned.
The individual's own time concept deve10ps slowly from early

childhood and matures at about the thirteenth year. As his

 

concept of time deve10ps, the individual becomes more con-
cerned with the past and with the future. The present
study deals with an investigation of time perspective which 'l.
is defined as the psychological past, present and future
as they exist for and influence the individual. _Time per-
Spective is a personality variable which can be influenced
by the individual's social environment and which is capable
of exerting influences upon behavior. Various methods have
been deve10ped to gain information about an individual's
Vfiime‘perspective.

Several attempts to construct personality typologies
on the basis of attitudes toward time have been made. These
attempts, however, have not been too well received by
psychologists. An approach with greater implications for
research is the investigation of temporal disorganization

in a variety of personality changeso

 

 

 

 

 

OLD AGE AND INSTITUTIONALIZATION

Before proceeding to a discussion of the purposes and
procedures of the investigation reported here, it would be
pertinent to include a discussion of institutionalization
and old age.

K10pfer (31) comparing Rorschach protocols of thirty
peeple over fifty in a home for the aged with twenty proto-
cols to peOple over fifty in the general pOpulation found
no significant personality differences. On the other hand,
Davidson and Kruglov (10) also using the Rorschach found
that elderly peOple in a home for the aged showed personality
characteristics which differentiated them from a group of
people living at home. These characteristics are: marked
constriction, little interest in the outside world, with-
drawal into a kind of fantasy, intellectual deterioration
and intense feelings of inadequacy.

Fox (16), who compared the intelligence test scores
of a group of institutionalized aged with the scores of
persons of the same age, education and occupational back-
ground who were living in the community, found no signifi-
cant differences in intelligence. Fox and Birren (l7)
discovered no relation between vocabulary size and length
0f institutionalization.

Ju-Shu Pan (h2, h3) studied over five hundred women

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

in Protestant homes for the aged and compared this group
with an equally large group of women living at home. He
found that in Spite of the fact that the institutionalized
group had more feelings of permanent security, the non-
institutionalized group had more interest in life, were
happier and better adjusted.

Ruth Albrecht (1) used Specially designed rating scales,
studied the personality characteristics and adjustment
patterns of peOple over sicty-five living at home. Eleven‘
percent of her subjects rated low on the personality scale.
This group was relatively inactive and rated low in adjust-
ment. They were described as "cantankerous, irascible,
self-centered and unable to get along with others". They
wanted their own way and met their problems by childish
means. They lived from day to day or had their interests
centered in the past. They vegetated, did nothing even
though their physical condition did not limit activity.
They were unhappy, did not enjoy peOple or social or
recreational activities. They gave little or no attention
to their appearance.

Fifty-four percent of Albrecht's subjects rated in
the center of the personality scale. This group was family-
centered with few expressions of good will outside of the
family. Members of this group were usually objective in
their approach to problems, but impulsive at times. They

planned ahead for only a short time. Their plans usually

 

 

 

l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

33

concerned their homes or business activities. They had
few hobbies or variations in activity. They felt secure
only in their own group. They were neat and clean but
made little attempt at adornment.

Thirty-five percent of the subjects rated high demon-
strating alertness and youthful personality patterns. They
were altruistic, kind and good to others without Special
stimulation. Their attitudes were judicious and they were
mainly objective about their problems. These subjects had
varied plans and interests, were active and busy and tended
to project their thoughts into the future. They always had
new projects to start, met peOple well, enjoyed social life,
went to parties, entertained and visited others, and took
great pride in their appearance.

Albrecht also found a high correlation (.86) between
"mental stimulation" and time-centered interests. Individ-
uals who had many activities and a "stimulated mind" tended
to have interests in both the present and in the future.
Conversely, persons with few interests frequently lived in
the past, retold stories of their youth or were forgetful.

Kleemier (30) investigated the activities and attitudes
of residents of a fraternal home for the aged. His results
Show that those residents who participated in an active
Work program exhibited better adjustment attitudes than did
non-participants.

In general, the literature points out the fact that

 

 

 

 

those aged peOple who are not living in an institution seem
to have better social adjustments than do their peers
residing in homes for the aged. In old age, according to
Fischer (15) it is a matter of a helathy mind in a not-so-
healthy body. One important sign of a healthy mind is a
"future consciousness" characterized by eXpectation, desire,
hepe and a prOSpective rather than a retrospective orienta-
tion. In other words, good adjustment in old age is
characterized by a time perspective which has a large future

component.

 

 

 

 

 

 

HYPOTHESES

The hypotheses to be investigated in this research are:
I. The time perSpective of an institutionalized group of
aged males will be more past oriented than the time per-
spective of a non-institutionalized group of aged males.
Conversely, the time parapective of the non-institution-
alized group will have greater future components than will
the time perSpective of the inStitutionalized group.

Life in a home for the aged is characterized by a
monotonous routine. What will happen tomorrow is often as
well known as what happened today, yesterday and all the
days before. It seems that since institutional residents
know what they are going to be doing in the days to come,
they should have little interest in the future. It has
been shown by Davidson and Kruglov (10) and by Pan (hB)
that aged residents of institutions have a much more
restricted range of interests than elderly peOple living
at home. Those aged individuals who do not live in an
institution have futures which are far more unpredictable
than the futures of an institutionalized group. One would
eXpect a non-institutionalized group to be more concerned
and interested in their future than an institutionalized
group.

II. With increasing age the temporal emphasis of aged males

 

 

36

will be more upon the past and less upon the future. That
is, the older subjects serving in this experiment will tend

to exhibit time perSpective which are more past-centered

 

than the time perSpective of the younger subjects.

; Aging involves a norrowing-in, a constriction of the
personality. It is felt that this constriction will also
extend to the "psycho-temporal field" and the older a person
becomes the more concerned he will become with past events.
He will tend to be more influenced by his psychological past
than by his psychological future.

III. The more varied the daily life of an elderly person,

 

the more future-centered will be his time perspective and

conversely, the more routine the daily life of an elderly

person tends to be, the more past-centered will be his time

 

perspective.

III a. Those elderly peOple who are employed will show

time perSpectives which are more future-centered than the ,r
time perSpectives of their peers who are not employed.

; III b. Those elderly peOple who have a hobby or a particular
leisure time activity will show a more future-centered time
perspective than elderly peOple who do not engage in such
activity.

III e. The more organizational activity an elderly person
engages in, the more future-centered will be his time per-
Spective and conversely, the less organizational activity

an aged person engages, the more past-centered will be his

time parapective.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hypotheses III, IIla, IIIb, and IIIc stem from the
work of Kleemier (30), Albrecht (l), and Pan (42). These
investigators found activity to be a correlate of better
social adjustment. Other studies mentioned earlier have
demonstrated the relationship between social adjustment
and time perSpective. It is therefore expected that time
perSpective and activity will be related.

IV. Time perSpective may be measured by a projective method.

Time perspective is a personality variable and like
other such variables it may be assessed by a variety of
methods. It is expected that the time perSpoctive data
obtained with the use of the TAT cards will be similar
to the data obtained with the use of the time perspective

scale.

 

 

 

 

METHODOLOGY
The Experimental Sample

Since it was hypothesized that the time perspective
of an institutionalized group of aged individuals would
differ from the time perspective of a non-institutionalized
group of aged persons, subjects were accordingly selected
from two such pOpulations. The individuals who served as
subjects for this research possessed adequate vision and
hearing since these attributes were considered necessary
for the successful completion of the experimental procedures.
As it was further hypothesized that the amount of activity
in which an individual engaged would affect his time per-
Spective, only those individuals who were free from incapac-
itating physical disabilities were selected as subjects. A 75
It has been noted earlier in this study that several I;
authors believe socio—economic status to be an important
determinant of the type of time parapective that an individ-
ual exhibits. In an attempt to control this variable the
subjects of the non-institutionalized group were individ-
ually matched to the subjects of the institutionalized
group on the basis of socio—economic status. Socio-economic
status was determined by a combination of two measures,

years of education and occupational strata ratings.

 

 

 

 

 

Occupational strata ratings were based on the classifi-
cations determined by Warner, Meeker and Belle (56). A

list of the ratings may be seen in Appendix A. In addition
to the abovejcontrol subjects were also individually matched
for age. To control for possible sex differences in time

perspective, only male subjects were used.

The Institutionalized Group
Subjects of this group were selected from two county
infirmaries in the State of Michigan, the Ingham County
Infirmary and the Saginaw County Infirmary. The physical
environment, inmate routine and facilities and management
policies of both institutions were essentially similar.
The criterion for commitment to the two infirmaries was
also the same: inability of the men to provide their own
financial support.
. The chief basis for the selection of subjects within
the institution was age, since we hypothesized that in-
creasing age would have an effect upon an individual's time
perspective. One-half of the institutionalized subjects
were within the age range of fifty to sixty years and the
second half in the range of sicty-one to seventy-six years.
All the subjects in this group were tested at their
respeetive institutions and all testing was on an individual

basis.

 

 

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The Non-ingtitutionalizedAggggp

Subjects of this group were individually matched to
the members of the institutionalized group on the basis of
age, years of education and occupational strata. Subjects
of the non-institutionalized group were obtained from the
membership list of the Michigan Fifty-Plus Club, employees
of the Maintenance Department of Michigan State College and
other residents of the Lansing area. Members of this group
were tested in their homes or at their jobs. Those who were
tested at their place of work were given time off by their
employers to participate in the‘experiment.

Members of the non-institutionalized group were sub—
jected to the identical testing procedures that were used

with the institutionalized group.

The Division of the Institutionalized and Non-institution-
alized Groups

For the purposes of the eXperiment the two groups used
were each divided into two subgroups of fifteen members.
The four subgroups so obtained were:

Institutionalized Group A - age range fifty to sixty
years

Institutionalized Group B - age range sixty-one to
seventy-six years

Non-institutionalized Group A - age range fifty to
sixty years

Non-institutionalized Group B - age range sixty-one
to seventy-six years

The normative data for the groups may be seen in Table 2.

 

 

 

 

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It is to be noted that in this table and in subsequent
tables the results are presented for each subgroup
separately, for the combined institutionalized group,

and for the combined non-institutionalized group.
The Instruments Used

To determine the time perspective of the subjects,
two eXperimental procedures were utilized: a modified scale

technique and a projective method.

The Time Perspective "Scale"*

This instrument was deve10ped by Eson (1h) and modified
for the purposes of the present research. The subjects were
asked to tell the examiner "items which will give a clear
picture of the things you have thought about and talked
about in the past week or two". They were urged to mention
at least twenty-five items and their reaponses were recorded
verbatim. Upon completion of this task the subjects were
asked to rate each item according to its importance to them
at the time the thought or conversation occurred. To do
this they were offered a three-point rating scale: very
important, important, not important. The subjects were
then instructed to think back to the occurrence of each
thought or conversation and to determine its temporal focus.
They were asked to rate each item in terms of past, present

or future.

 

"A protoCol of the time perspective scale may be seen
in Appendix B.

 

 

 

MB

No specific hypotheses were made concerning the import-
ance of the items to the subjects, and the data on the
importance of the items will not be reported here. This
task served to introduce a "rating set" and, to an extent,
served to cloak the purposes of the eXperiment. This was
considered necessary since the experimenter Spent several
weeks at the infirmaries and was the tepic of considerable
conversation among the residents. It was felt that if the
purposes of the research were known, the men might try to
"please" or "diSplease" the experimenter by slanting their
remarks in a particular direction.

We realize that the above described method is not a
scale in the true meaning of the term. We feel, however,
that it sufficiently resembles a scale to be called, for
the purposes of this eXperiment, the time perspective scale.

As indicated above the time perSpective scale was
self-scored. That is, the subjects stated with which

division of time each of their reSponses was concerned.

The Projective Method*

 

This particular methodology stems from the work of
LeShan (3k). As mentioned earlier, this researcher measured
the "time orientation" of children by asking them to tell a
Story. In the present research each subject was presented

with five TAT cards. The usual instructions for the

 

 

"A protocol of the TAT cards may be seen in Appendix C.

 

. II I :1. |.i..|.|..|.u

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

administration of the TAT, which demand that the subject
attempt to include the three periods of time - past, present
and future - in his stories, were not given. Instead, each
subject was asked to "Tell a story about this picture."

Four of the five cards used represented interpersonal
situations - two women and a man (card 2), a man and a

woman (card A), two men (card 7 BM), four men (card 9 BM) -
and the fifth depicted an outdoor scene devoid of peOple
(card 12 BG).

The TAT cards were scored as follows: the responses
given to each card were examined for temporal reference. '
Was the reSponse stated in terms of past, present or future?
The number of responses of the various time divisions
mentioned by the subject were calculated for each card and
then average numbers of past, present and future reSponses

were determined for the five cards.

The Personal Data Questionnaire"

Each subject was given a questionnaire from which the
following information was obtained: age, years of education,
present occupational status, previous occupations, the

nature of and time devoted to hobbies, the nature of and

 

time given over to leisure-time activities, church member-
ship, the number and kind of organizations the subject
belonged to and the amount of time devoted to organizational

activity.

 

*A protocol of the personal data questionnaire may be
seen in Appendix D.

 

 

 

 

 

 

0x

 

 

 

The Experimental Procedure

The subjects were told that they were participants
in a survey of mature men being conducted by the Psychology
Department of Michigan State College. They were further
told that since the older prOportion of our pOpulation is
growing in number and importance, we were interested in
studying some of the psychological characteristics of such
an older group.

Each person was tested individually and was subjected

to the following procedures in order: (1) the personal data

questionnaire; (2) the time perSpective "scale"; and (3)

the TAT cards. During the testing of the subjects of the
non-institutionalized group the variables of age, years

of education and occupational strata were checked immedi-
ately after the administration of the personal data
questionnaire. If matching with some member of the
institutionalized group was found the eXperimental procedure
was continued. If matching was not found, the subject was
told that all the necessary information had been obtained
and he was thanked for his 000peration.

 

 

 

 

 

RESULTS

Method of Analysis

The following data were obtained for each individual
who served as a subject in this experiment: time perspective
as determined with the time perSpective scale, time per-
spective as measured with the use of the TAT cards, and the
weekly number of hours of activity.

The numbers of hours of activity per week were computed 5'
from the number of weekly hours devoted to work, the number
of hours per week given over to hobbies or to some par-
ticular leisure-time activity, and the number of hours per
week Spent in some form of organizational participation. Jl
The hours devoted to each of these forms of activity were
analyzed separately and also as a total number of weekly
hours of activity. Group means of activity were calculated
and Pearsonian product—moment correlations between the
measures of activity and time perSpective were determined.
Table 3 shows the mean number of hours of activity for the
experimental sample.

The time perspective data were analyzed as follows:
the preportion of past, present and future responses given
to the time perSpective scale and to the TAT cards was

calculated for each subject. The mean prOportion of past,

 

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present and future responses as determined by each measuring

instrument was then calculated for each subgroup, for the

total institutionalized group and for the total non-insti-

tutionalized group. Using Fisher's to formula (13), inter-

group and subgroup comparisons were made on the basis of

six variables.

1.

2.

3.

h.

5.

Differences of mean prOportion of past reSponses to
the time perspective scale.

Differences of mean prOportion of present responses to
the time perSpective scale.

Differences of mean proportion of future reSponses to
the time parapective scale.

Differences of mean prOportion of past reaponses to
the TAT cards.

Differences of mean prOportion of present responses

to the TAT cards.

.Differences of mean prOportion of future responses to

the TAT cards.
Intergroup comparisons.
a. Institutionalized groups A and B vs. non-institution-

alized groups A and B.

b. Institutionalized group A vs. non-institutionalized
group A.
c. Institutionalized group B vs. non-institutionalized

group B.

d. Institutionalized group A vs. non-institutionalized

group B.

 

 

 

1+9 !

II. Subgroup comparisons.

a. Institutionalized group A - age range fifty to sixty
years - vs. institutionalized group B - age range
sixty-one to seventy-six years.
Non-institutionalized group A - age range fifty to
sixty years - vs. non-institutionalized group B -
age range sixty-one to seventy-six years.

An investigation was made concerning the relationship
of the prOportion of past, present and future responses to
the time perspective scale and the prOportion of past,
present and future responses to the TAT cards. The statis-
tical technique used to determine the relationship between
these two measures of time perSpective was Pearsonian

product-moment correlation.
Results with the Time Perspective Scale

. An individual's time perSpective as measured by this
scale is the relative preportion of emphasis given to the
three temporal divisions - past, present or future.

The hypotheses concerning time perSpective as measured
by the time perspective scale were:

(a) that the institutionalized group would place more
emphasis upon the past than the non-institutionalized group

i (b) that the non-institutionalized group would place

. more emphasis upon the future than the institutionalized
‘ group

 

L.

 

 

 

 

50

(c) that the older members of each group would place I
more emphasis upon the past than the younger members of
each group

(d) that the younger members of each group would place
greater emphasis upon the future than the older members of
each group. . _

The data in Tables h and 5 pertain to these hypotheses.

The institutionalized group gave significantly more
past reSponses than the non-institutionalized group. The
non-institutionalized group gave significantly more future
responses than the institutionalized group.

The younger members of the non-institutionalized group
gave significantly more future reSponses than did the older
members of this group. The older members of the non-insti-
tutionalized group gave significantly more past reaponses
than did the younger members of this group.

The younger members of the institutionalized group
placed less emphasis upon the past and more emphasis upon

the future than the older members of the institutionalized

 

group. These differences, however, were not statistically
significant.

One finding which was not predicted was that the older
members of the non-institutionalized group gave significantly
more future responses and significantly less past reaponses

than did the younger members of the institutionalized group.

   

 

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The fact that we found significant differences between

the temporal emphasis of the older and younger segments of
the non-insitutionalized group and that we did not find
these significant differences between the older and younger
subgroups of the institutionalized group seems to indicate
that institutionalization exerts a leveling effect upon the
time perSpectives of male institutional residents. In
general, the effects of institutionalization upon time
perspective are to channelize the perspective in the
direction of the past. Residents of the institutions sur-
veyed in this eXperiment had little interest in the future.
In their thoughts and conversations they tended to dwell

upon their past eXperiences.
Results with the TAT Cards

The TAT cards were scored according to the prOportion
0f past, present and future responses given to them.

The hypotheses concerning time perSpective as measured
with the use of the TAT cards were:

(a) that the stories of the institutionalized group
would be more past-centered than the stories told by the
non-institutionalized group

(b) that the stories told by the non-institutionalized
group would be more future-centered than the stories of the

institutionalized group

 

 

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(c)
group No
the youn

(d)
each gro
told by

(6)
with the
data obt

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a, b, an
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future r
the non-

Fro
groups 3
0We th
of the y
seems to
betWeen
Ellized g
PSSPOHSG
“110%

placed 0

 

 

 

51L

(0) that the stories told by the older members of each
group would be more past-centered than the stories told by
the younger members of each group

(d) that the stories told by the younger members of
each group would be more future-centered than the stories
told by the older members of each group

(e) that the data concerning time perspective obtained
with the use of the TAT cards would be consistent with the
data obtained with the time perspective scale.

The data in Tables 6, 7, and 8 substantiate hypotheses
a, b, and e. Hypotheses c and d regarding the relationship
between the age of the subjects and the proportion of temporal
emphasis were not borne out.

The institutionalized subjects gave significantly fewer
future reSponses and significantly more past reSponses than
the non-institutionalized subjects.

From Tables 6 and 7 we see that the institutionalized
groups gave shgflficantly more present responses to the TAT
cards than did the non-institutionalized groups. The emphasis
of the younger subgroup of the institutionalized sample
seems to have given rise to this significant difference
between the institutionalized group and the non-institution-
alized group. The difference of mean preportion of present
responses between the older subgroups was not significant,
although the older members of the institutionalized group

placed over twice as much emphasis on the present as did

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that this 11131
used quantitai
alized group g
the TAT than ‘
members of th.
and more futu
older members
differences h
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“Out a name
subjects in t
the past and
0f the storie
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a °°n01usion
tended to b SE
or in the pm
When eon
frorn the TAT
time perspeet
the group 6m]
cards it Blew

spective Sea:

 

 

 

58

the older members of the non-institutionalized group.

That we found no significant age differential of
temporal reaponse to the TAT cards may be due to the fact
that this instrument loses some of its sensitivity when
used quantitatively. The older members of the institution-
alized group gave more past and less future responses to
the TAT than the younger members of this group. The younger
members of the non-institutionalized gave more past reaponses
and more future reSponses to the TAT cards than did the
older members of the non-institutionalized group. These
differences however were not statistically significant.

We see again that institutionalization seems to bring
about a narrowing of time perspective. The institutional
subjects in telling stories about the TAT cards dwelt upon.
the past and the present. They seldom projected the action
of the stories into the future. In contrast to the non-
institutionalized group who often brought their stories to“
a conclusion in the future, the institutional residents
tended to begin and end their stories either in the past
or in the present.

When comparing information gained about time perspective
from the TAT cards with the information obtained from the
time perSpective scale the data in Table 8 indicate that if
the group emphasized the future in its stories to the TAT
cards it also exhibited a future emphasis on the time per-

Spective scale. If the group emphasized the past in its

;‘

 

 

 

s- .. ;- stories to th
- ._ emphasis on t
.-- seen between

_ _ _ ,-. ; responses to

-- Activity
jeot Spent at
zational acti

7: The hypo
(a) thos

time perspeo

past-centers
who are not 6

I ' _ (b) thos

' ' leisure time

which is less

the time pers

 

in such activ

.; ‘ I (o) thos
. . . ' - . - - I organizations
I ' i is more cones
.1 _ : -' = the past the:
' I I ' do not engage
The date

' . ' h " were sub start!

 

 

 

59

stories to the TAT cards it tended to show the same temporal
emphasis on the scale. There was, however, no relationship
seen between present reSponses to the TAT cards and present

reaponses to the time perSpective scale.
Results of Activity

Activity was determined by the number of hours a sub-
ject Spent at work, at a hobby or in some form of organi—
zational activity.

The hypotheses concerning the activity variable were:

(a) those individuals who are employed will have a
time parapective which is more future-centered and less
past-centered than the time perspective of those individuals
who are not employed

(b) those individuals who have a hobby or a particular
leisure time activity will demonstrate a time perspective
which is less past-centered and more future-centered than
the time perspective of those individuals who do not engage
in such activity

(0) those individuals who participate in some form of
organizational activity will show a time perSpective which
is more concerned with the future and less concerned with
the past than the time perSpective of those individuals who
do not engage in organizational activity.

The data in Tdale 9 indicate that hypotheses a and b

were substantiated while hypothesis 0 was not borne out.

 

. Av-kr'K'I

 

 

 

 

CORREATI
RESPONSE

 

Weekly hours

Weekly hours
to hobbies

Weekly hours
Organi zati on

Total weekly
activity

“Cox-re?
1688.

1There 1
point-biseri:
test of the 1
t test of th:

ZData dn

 

 

60

TABLE 9

CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PROPORTIONS OF PAST AND FUTURE
RESPONSES GIVEN TO THE TIME PERSPECTIVE SCALE AND
WEEKLY HOURS OF ACTIVITY FOR THE
COMBINED EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

 

 

 

PrOportion of PrOportion of
past responses future reSponses
Weekly hours of work r -.82** r .70**
SoEo I." COM-2 80E. r 9065
_ 6 eat- 6 ea:-
Weekly hours devoted rpbi . M1 Ppbi . h
to hobbies t 7.15 t 6.89
Weekly hours of r .06 r -.lh
organizational activity2 phi .283 pbi .962
Total weekly hours of r -.86** r .8hfi*
activity S.E. r .033 S.E. r .039

 

“*Correlations significant at the one percent level or
less.

1There has been no standard error formula deve10ped for
point-biserial correlations. Guilford (22) suggests that a
test of the hypothesis of zero correlation can be made by a
t test of the difference of the means of the two variables.

2Data derived from the non-institutional groups only.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

— — p. .- , - i

We see that 1
between hour
activity and
There are si
above mentio
perSpective

We do I
devoted to <
emphasis. I
devoted to
fraction of
very few of
were leader
to be passi
zations. r]
importent <
hObbies.

It ap-
coPI‘elate
interest a

his motive

 

 

61

We see that there are significant positive correlations
between hours of work, hours of hobby and total hours of
activity and future emphasis to the time perspective scale.
There are significant negative correlations between the
above mentioned variables and past emphasis on the time
perspective scale.

We do not find significant correlations between hours
devoted to organizational activity and either past or future
emphasis. This may be due to (i) the number of hours
devoted to organization work constituted only a small
fraction of the number hours of weekly activity and (ii)
very few of the individuals who belonged to organizations
were leaders of their groups. Most of the subjects seemed
to be passive rather than active members of their organi-
zations. Their organizational work may not have been as
important or as interesting to them as their work or their
hobbies.

It appears that it is not activity alone which is a
correlate of time perSpective. Also important is the
interest an individual has in a particular activity and

his motivation for participation in this activity.

 

 

 

 

 

The expe

have showrx th
tend to bring
ponents of an
that this emp
part of the i

Gitelson
of aged perso
tion consists
in an organis
it for succes
ment. We agr
who says that
tically and e
to reorganize
his new eXper

Conserve
adaptation to
there is incrl

The sharpenim

due to organi

be seen as an

 

 

 

DISCUSSION

The eXperimental procedures utilized in this study

~have shown that institutionalization and increasing age

tend to bring about a greater emphasis upon the past com-

ponents of an individual's time perspective. We believe

that this emphasis upon the past is an adaptation on the

part of the individual to his current psychological situation.
Gitelson (20) has said that the emotional problems

of aged persons are chiefly problems of adaptation. Adapta—

tion consists of the modifications or changes which occur

 

in an organism in the general direction of better fitting

 

it for successful existence under conditions of its environ- 2d
ment. We agree with Gitelson and also with Frank (18) {{
who says that in order for a person to meet life realis-
tically and effectively as he grows older, he must be able
to reorganize his time perSpective and to include in it
his new eXperiences.

Conservation of outlook and action is the older man‘s ‘
adaptation to a decreasing tolerance for change. With age
there is increasing anxiety before the new and untried.
The sharpening of the remembrance of things past may not be
due to organic changes alone. Psychologically this may be ~v

be seen as an actual turning away from the painfulness of

 

 

the present

present is l
hood and the
the mature y
teinty. The
of life live
vived. Thou
of greatest
person's me
to find the
the future w
is no incons
those elderl
upon accordi:
they had at ‘
someone had
aids memory.
the memory 0
It may
spective of
be an adapts
the two vari
appears to e
than the £01
It app:
(10) and Pas

 

 

 

63

the present and the uncertainty of the future. The
present is lacking both in the dependent security of child-
hood and the independent powers for maintaining security of
the mature years. The future holds for many, only uncer-
tainty. The past carries forever and undeniably the record
of life lived successfully, problems solved, disaster sur-
vived. Thoughts and conversations turn backward to periods
of greatest security and greatest capacity as the aged
person's means of saving his self-esteem and as an attempt
to find the comfort that the threats of the present and of
the future will be as transient as those of the past. It
is no inconsistency that this occurs even in the case of
those elderly peOple who may not have much to look back
upon according to objective standards. The fact is that
they had at least survived previous threats to life, that
someone had at least once cared for them. And confabulation
aids memory. Never were such great feats performed as in
the memory of an old man‘s youth.

It may be seen, then, that the past—centered time per-
Spective of aged men and of institutionalized men seems to
be an adaptation to their age and to their situation. of
the two variables, age and institutionalization, the latter
appears to exert greater influences upon time perSpective
than the former.

It appears, and here we agree with Davidson and Kruglov

(10) and Pan (42), that institutionalization brings about

 

 

 

 

 

certain perso

that institut
of interests,
pacple who do
that these pe
fact that the
monotonous wh
in which the
comitment.
this theory 0
For although
did study a s
perspective .
characteristi‘
tutionalized
tutionalized
less concerne
tionalized an
01’ the younge
Perspective 0
time perspect
the time pars
men we found
institution to

interested in

 

 

61L

certain personality changes. These authors have found

that institutional residents have a more restricted range

of interests, are less happy and less well—adjusted than
peOple who do not live in an institution. They believe

that these personality differences are due in part to the
fact that the institutional situation is often dull and
monotonous when compared to the active, unpredictable world
in which the institutional residents lived prior to their
commitment. The present study gives evidence to support
this theory of personality change due to institutionalization.
For although we did not investigate personality, 233 fig, we
did study a specific personality variable, namely, time
perSpective. And we found with respect to this personality
characteristic very significant differences between insti-
tutionalized and non-institutionalized males. The insti—
tutionalized subjects were more concerned with the past and
less concerned with the future than were the non-institu-
tionalized subjects. When we contrasted the time perspective
of the younger institutionalized subjects with the time
perSpective of the younger non-institutionalized and the
time perspective of the older institutionalized men with
the time perspective of the older non—institutionalized
men we found that in each case those men residing in the
institution were more interested in the past and less

interested in the future than their non-institutionalized

 

 

 

 

peers. To add

alization affe
men living at
the future and

aoteristic uhi
Increasi

The younger me

more future

members of th

were not near]
non- inst ituti <
perspective a:
group than in
earlier the e
the effects 0
great influen
seems to smear
change of tin
As dism
Vischer (S3)

become less I

 

 

peers. To add support to our contention that institution-
alization affects time perspective we found that the older
men living at home showed significantly more interest in
the future and significantly less interest in the past
than the younger men in the home for the aged.

We conclude that adaptation to the institutional
situation brings about a change in the personality char-
acteristic which we call time perSpective.

Increasing age also seems to affect time perspective.
The younger members of the non-institutionalized group were
more future and less past—oriented than were the.older
members of this group. In the institutionalized group
we found similar differences between the time perSpectives
of the younger and older members, although these differences
were not nearly as great as the differences found in the
non-institutionalized group. The effects of age on time
perspective are more marked in the non—institutionalized
group than.in the institutionalized group. As stated
earlier the effects of institutionalization seem to mask
the effects of age on time perSpective. While age has a
great influence upon time perspective)institutionalization
seems to exert greater influences in bringing about a
change of time perSpective.

As discussed before in this study Arieti (h) and
Vischer (53) both believe that as a person ages he will

become less and less concerned with the future and will

 

 

 

tend to conf
believes the
Spective. I
find much di
younger and

of sixty-fiv
perspectives
year-old fem
each of the

upon the fut
0f the prese
Arieti, Fran
in general w
in the futur
group. Furt
tO'SiXtY-yea
the future a
we used a me
PePSpective,
attributable
our I‘esearch
pational Str
subjects had
higher Occup

twenty age d .

 

 

66

tend to confine to the past and present. Frank (18) also I
believes that aging will bring about a change in time per-
spective. In contrast to these studies, Eson (1h) did not
find much difference between the time perSpectives of his
younger and older groups. The time perspective of his group
of sixty-five-year-old males was quite similar to the time
perSpectives of his groups of ten-year-old females, sixteen-
year-old females and thirty-five—year-old males. In fact,
each of the groups studied by Eson placed far more emphasis
upon the future than they placed upon the past. The results

of the present study show agreement with the observations of

 

Arieti, Frank and Vischer. We found that older subjects,

in general were more interested in the past and less interested
in the future than were the younger subjects of the same .1
group. Furthermore, even our non-institutionalized fifty-
to-sixty-year-old group did not show as much interest in

the future as the Eson's sixty-five-year-old group. Since

we used a method quite similar to Eson's to determine time
perspective, it appears that the differences might be

attributable to differences in the samples studied. In

our research the subjects came primarily from lower occu-

pational strata. In Eson‘s study about half of his older

subjects had occupations which would place them in much

higher occupational strata. Also, Eson sampled only

twenty aged males while we studied three times that number.

 

 

Our finc
perSpective e
Albrecht (l)e
activity and

It is (1:
this relatio:
amount of ac
a reflection

a personal it

Institt
to the insti
monotonous 1
Situation.
Situation, ‘
the social 1
d°es not as
alterations
Oharises be
residents?
individufly
This may be
and through
tution. Th

innate S are

 

6?

Our findings regarding the relationship between time
parapective and activity are in general agreement with
Albrecht (1). She too discovered high correlations between
activity and interest in the future.

It is difficult to distinguish cause from effect in
this relationship. We believe, however, that the type and
amount of activity in which a person chooses to engage is
a reflection of his personality, and time perSpective being

a personality characteristic would influence this choice.

Implications

Institutionalization (and here reference is made only
to the institutions surveyed in this study) with its dreary,
monotonous routine and its social stigmata is not a pleasant
situation. If it were possible to change the institutional
situation, desirable changes in the time perspective and in
the social adjustment of the inmates might be effected. It
does not seem practical, however, to bring about gross
alterations in the institutional setting. How then may
changes be caused in the personalities of the institutional
residents? In order to bring about these changes the
individual's perception of his situation must be altered.
This may be done through counseling and/or psychotherapy
and through the initiation of a work program in the insti-
tution. This last should not be a program whereby the

inmates are merely kept busy. It should, rather, be a

 

 

 

 

 

program thro
encouraged :1
them both no
useful membe
work program
to the worke
engage in a
satisfaction

Motivat
and can brir
Future resee
directed to
between movt

The efi
sonality are
in 0111' know]
be carried (
during inst:

The on:
increasing 1
Studies, H‘
It is impor'
“”11 the tn

The 1:0:

Structure 1

 

f ,

68

program through which the institutional residents are
encouraged and allowed to do useful work which would give
them both monetary return and a feeling of still being
useful members of society. In any sort of an institutional
work program it is not the labor itself which is beneficial
to the workers. The participants should be motivated to
engage in a particular activity, if they are to derive
satisfaction from their work.

Motivation may serve to tie the present to the future
and can bring about a better understanding of the present.
Future research in the area of time perspective should be
directed to an eXploration of the inter-relationships

between movtivation and time perspective.

 

The effects of institutionalization on the total per-
sonality are not as yet known. In order to fill this gap
in our knowledge a series of longitudinal studies ought to
be carried out. Individuals could be tested prior to and %
during institutionalization.

The only research concerned.with the effects of
increasing age on time perspective have been cross-sectional
studies. Here again a longitudinal approach is indicated.

It is important to determine the effects of increasing age
upon the time perspective of the individual.

The role of time perspective in the total personality

structure is a comparatively uneXplored psychological research

 

 

Littl

area.

perSpective

seems that r

is

rel ationsh

 

 

 

 

69

area. Little is known regarding the interaction of time
perspective with other personality characteristics. It
seems that research should be devised to investigate these

relationships.

 

 

 

 

 

Time pe
thirty males
a group of t
to the insti
and occupati
age subgroup

Two in:
tive of the
cards. The
in which th.
conversatio:
Subjects we
past, press
Sation was

The TA
asked to "t
“Counted w
Mine the te

A per:
each sub 39‘
tainted;

ag<
previous 01

 

f E

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Time perSpective data were obtained for a group of
thirty males residing in county homes for the aged and for
a group of thirty non—institutionalized men who were matched
to the institutionalized group on the basis of age, education
and occupational strata. Each group was divided into two
age subgroups of fifteen members. .
Two instruments Were used to asses the time perspec-
tive of the subjects: a time parapective scale and five TAT
cards. The time perspective scale mm an interview method
in which the subjects were asked to list the thoughts and
conversations they had had during the past two weeks. The ;U
subjects were then asked to name the division of time -

past, present or future — with which the thought or conver-

 

sation was concerned.

The TAT cards were used as follows: the subjects were
asked to "tell a story about this picture". The stories
recounted were recorded verbatim and were examined to deter-
mine the temporal content of the responses.

A personal data questionnaire was also administered to
each subject from which the following information was ob-
tained: age, years of education, present occupational status,

previous occupations, the nature of hobbies and time devoted

 

 

 

 

 

to them, the
given over ti
and kind of
amount of ti‘
Results
ized group (1
concerned wi
time perSpec
the older me
past and lee
members of 6
financial re
were relate<
While Organ:
time perspe.
personality
by an inter
The (13
°f personal
the theory
In gen
tionalizati
congaPn Wit
nature Shop
tutionalizg

Should Stur

 

 

71

to them, the nature of leisure time activities and time
given over to these activities, church membership, and number
and kind of organizations the subject belonged to and the
amount of time Spent in organizational activities.

Results obtained indicated that (a) the institutional-
ized group demonstrated time perSpectives which were more
concerned with the past and less with the future than the
time perSpectives of the non-institutionalized group, (b)
the older members of each group were more interested in the
past and less interested in the future, then the younger
members of each group, (0) activities such as work for
financial return (occupation) or work for pleasure (hobby)
were related to time perSpectives which were future-oriented,
while organization activity had no relation to the type of
time perspective an individual maintained, and (d) the
personality variable, time perspective, can be measured
by an interview technique and by a projective method.

The data were interpreted in accordance with the theory
of personality change due to institutionalization and with
the theory of personality change due to increasing age.

In general it may be said that the effects of institu-
tionalization and increasing age bring about an increased
concern with the past. Further studies of a longitudinal
nature should be attempted to eXplore the effects of insti-
tutionalization upon the total personality structure, as

should studies involving the change in temporal emphasis

With age 0

perspective

future psyc

 

r—___

72

with age. Furthermore, the problem of the place of time
perspective in current personality theory is deserving of

future psychological research.

 

 

 

 

 

1. Albrecht
senili

2. Allport,
pretat

3. Ames, Lo
the yo

i. Arieti,
2- e2

5. Babcock,
Art, 1

6. Barndt,
publis
1953.

79 Bergson,
millat

80 Bridgem;
York:

9. Bromberg
em

10. DaVldSOI
acter

Psych

119 Davis,
Natio
Yearb
fies:

12. Eddingt
York:

13° Edwards
am

Co.,

l-‘
I

2

3.

h.

5

6.

O

'7

9

10.

ll.

12.

13.

 

 

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V.,

_. _. _.

 

 

 

APPENDICES

Strata

1 L av

 

 

\u

8.86
Warner, M<

 

Strata

as
APPENDIX A‘

Occupational Strata Ratings*

Occupations

Lawyers, doctors, dentists, engineers, veterin-
arians, judges, ministers, architects, prOprietors
of businesses valued at $75,000 and over, regional
and divisional managers of large industrial
enterprises, certified public accountants,
gentleman farmers.

 

High school teachers, trained nurses, chirOpodists,
chirOpractors, undertakers, neWSpaper editors,
prOprietors of businesses valued at $20,000 to
$75,000, assistant managers and office and depart-
ment managers of large businesses, accountants,
real estate and insurance salesmen, postmasters,
farm owners.

 

Social workers, grade-school teachers, Optometrists,
preprietors of businesses valued at $5,000 to
$20,000, all minor officials of business, auto
salesmen, bank clerks and cashiers, postal clerks,
secretaries to executives, supervisors of railroad,
telephone, etc., justices of the peace, contractors.

 

 

PrOprietors of businesses valued at $2,000 to

$5,000, stenographers, bookkeepers, rural mail
clerks, railroad ticket agents, sales peOple in

dry goods stores, factory foremen, watchmakers,

dry cleaners, butchers, sheriffs, railroad engineers,
railroad conductors. Also electricians, plumbers
and carpenters who own their own businesses.

 

 

 

Proprietors of businesses valued at $500 to $2,000,
dime store clerks, hardware salesmen, beauty
Operators, telephone Operators, timekeepers,
linemen, radio repairman, medium skill workers,
barbers, firemen, practical nurses, policemen,
seamstresses, cooks in restaurants and bartenders.
Also apprentice carpenters, plumbers, electricians

and butchers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

*Based on the "Revised Scale for Rating Occupatio
Warner, Meeker and Eells (56).

 

 

 

Strata
6

 

.
1
_
W
1

 

 

_---..

- H; __~—-

 

 

Strata

6

99

APPENDIX A Continued

Occupations

PrOprietors of businesses valued at less than
$500, moulders, semi-skilled workers, assistants
to carpenter, baggage men, night policemen and
watchmen, taxi and truck drivers, gas station
attendants, waitresses in restaurants, small
tenant farmers.

 

Heavy labor, odd-job men, miners, janitors,
scrubwomen, newsboys, migrant farm workers.

 

 

 

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1?.

 

19.
20°
21.

22,
23.

 

A Protocol c

subject: 14$

Re:

My work
Looking
My old a
Planning
Getting
Going f:
The car
I may b‘
My vaca
Saving:
Working
Visitin
My folk
My heal
Just ge
Listeni
Going u
MY land
My apar
Wonderi
What is
When
Using t

My atte

r1

 

 

APPENDIX B

A Protocol of the Time PerSpective Scale

Subject: 14A

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
e.
7.
8.
.9"
10.
11.
12.
13.
14
1:5.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

22.
23.

Age: 60 years

was.
My work here (in park).
Looking at peOple.
My old age.
Planning for the future.
Getting another job.
Going fishing last year.
The car I used to drive.
I may buy a car.
My vacation this winter.
Saving money for when I get laid off.
Working to keep off welfare.
Visiting my friends next month.
My folks.
My health.
Just getting along.
Listening to the radio.
Going up north in the summer.
My landlady.
My apartment in a basement.
Wondering if my plants will live.
What is going to happen to the park
when school is out.
Using the new power mower.

My attempts at light housekeeping.

Division of Time

 

present
present
future
future
future
past
past
future
future
future
present
future
past
present
present
present
past
present
present
future

future

future

present

 

 

Re

2);. How I c:
25. My old :
260 Hunting

27 0 My fina

' 28. My frie

 

81h

APPENDIX B Continued

 

Heeponse Division of Time
2h. How I can't eat in restaurants. present
25. My old farm. past
26. Hunting deer. past
27. My finances. present

present

28. My friends here in the park.

-- ‘1' 2p- Jam - -

.3.-

..—_.-v— .-
4.4L

 

”Lin—l .1.” 4M

A“ 1 - -. .,-.- _

 

 

Subject: le

gg£§_§. iMar
up in the hi
what the we:
prayers. T1
come in he *
some. They

work on a f

card )io LC

married. I

.Qard 78M.
him good a
Looks like

Card 98M.
Spree. Bc
in the pa}
DPObably 1
drunk aga:

eveo

W
runhing t
will Come
D0n1t 10c
the took:
at Lake (

 

82
APPENDIX C

TAT Protocol

Subject: lhA Age: 60 years

Card 2. Manager of a farm with his wife and daughter. . .
up in the hills. Looks homelike. He is wondering about
what the weather is going to be. His wife is saying her
prayers. The girl is reading the Bible. When the cr0ps
come in he will harvest them. They will sell some and keep
some. They will have enough food for the winter. I used to

work on a farm like that during the depression.

Card . Looks like they're in love. Looks like they will get

married. Looks like they will be happy in marriage.

Card 7BM. The son is disappointed. The father is giving
him good advice. Looks like he got in wrong doing something.

Looks like he will come out o.k. if he takes his dad's advice.

Card 9BM. Sleeping for the night. All were drunk, out on a

Spree. Boy, I've seen a lot of that since I've been working

in the park. They will be sick when they get up. They will

probably throw up a few times. But I guess that will get

drunk again sometime. Reminds me of a fellow I saw Christmas

9V6.

Card 12BG. Looks like a boat. Looks like a little creek

running through a marsh. Looks like land up north. Somebody

will come along and try to go fishing in that little creek.

Don't look like the boat will hold up. Looks like it's on

the tocks now. Reminds me of last summer at the boat races

at Lake City.

, "I“... .. l E A_ 44

Laura-r- - -

13:13:35.2.“ .r A?“ -

.dl— mfg.

 

I'
4;.

in;

 

mooo°°'....

motion ,
No 30110011113

Grades 1 Z 3
gigh School 1
College 1 2 2
Other 9 0 '

:e you. presently emplo;
Ho . . . .
Yes, full ti
Yes, part ti

“at is your occupatior

Eat occupations have 3
My .8110]

O O 9 O O

-..l_. .0000

do much free time do
All day
A half day
. ~~ A few hou:
Almost n01

bat do you do in you

O O O O O

byou have a favorit
If yes. v
how much t

bet is your religio
it: often do you att

2o how many ciganize
ow belong? .0138.

—‘ __ ”—W ‘0')1131', kinds Of or

quei @

O Q . .

3..
u many organizat

__.a‘l

83

 

APPENDIX D

PERSONAL DATA PUESTIOEEAIRE

Meoolk4voooooooooooocen Ag06ooqou-oq
Jducation
No Schooling . . . .
Grades1231+5678
High School 1 2 ”"
College1234
Other. . . . .

Are you presently employed?
14.0 D O D 0
Yes. full time . 2‘
Yes, part time . .

Bark. maintenance . . . . . . . . .

What is your occupation? .

you work at them?
J'Ops nap oyealzs‘ o 0 Q

What occupations have you had .and how long did
Bqdy shop reemlrakilled.opere

I O I O O o a u o o o l l .0 O o a

c c o I v u u

D O I C
C O O O O D O O O I O O
a o O I I o O o It

How much free time do you have?
All day . . . .
Ahalf day. . . . .
Afew hours . . . .
Almost none . . . .

ur free time? .Juat.wal.k.around.town. . . . . . . . . . w."

 

mat do you do in yo

0 O O O I

O o O O o O o v o O l O o O t D c o o o O 0

DO you have a favorite hobby or pastime? .Np. . . . . . . . . . . . .
If yes, would you describe it and tell approximately

how much time per week you spend at it. . . . . . .. .

 

a -: <-

0 l I O o O I o O o a o t a v c l o I a o o o I . n a 1‘ e o u v Q a .J

What is your religion? .Cfi‘ttthj-C. . . . . . . . Are you a church member X35. .
How often do you attend religious services? £9113? .timfis. 6:1 Week
To how many oiganizations, such as clubs, unions, lodges and the like do you
now belong? . .0139. . . . . . \
To ‘svhat kinds of organizations do you now belong?

qu.S-t‘ PhOe I cbur qh . C I O O D O D C I D I

o o O O C o 0 o o O 0

do you usually attend each month? None , . .

 

ll How many organizational meetings
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