THE EFFICIENCY OF FOOD EXPENDITURE AMONG
CERTAIN WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES IN COLOMBIA

Thesis for the Degree of :Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
CECI-LIA A. FLORENCIO
19.67

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- This is to certify that the

thesis entitled I I

THE EFFICIENCY OF FOOD EXPENDITURE AMONG
CERTAIN WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES IN COLOMBIA A I

presented by

CECILIA A. FLORENCIO

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Foods and Nutrition

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Major professor

 

 

Date July 25, 1967

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ABSTRACT

THE EFFICIENCY OF FOOD EXPENDITURE
AMONG CERTAIN WORKING-CLASS
FAMILIES IN COLOMBIA

by Cecilia A. Florencio

The study was designed to investigate how effi-
ciently certain working-class families in Colombia bought
their nutrition and how inexpensively they could have
bought their nutrition. Linear programming was used to
solve the problem of finding least-cost diets that would
meet the following levels of nutritional allowances: the
estimated actual level of nutritional intake, the minimum
dietary standard, the more generous Colombian dietary
standard and the additional nutrients necessary to raise
the nutritional content of the actual diet to the level
specified in each of the two dietary standards. Protein
allowances were set at two levels. .One level was appro-
priate for a mixed diet with a biological value of sixty
(and where the source of protein was left unapecified)
while the other was apprOpriate for a mixed diet with a
biological value of eighty (and where one-third of the

Cecilia A. Florencio

total daily protein allowance must be obtained from
animal sources).

The most efficient family is the one that Spends
the smallest fraction of its food peso for "non-nutri-
tional" objectives. In less efficient families, the
cost of the "nonpnutritional" component accounts for
larger fractions of the total expenditure for food. The
average Colombian family in this sample spent 59 percent
for buying nutrients and #1 percent for other objectives.
The most efficient family spent 77 percent of its actual
food expenditure for nutrition while the least efficient
family spent only 37 percent.

The primary difference between the actual diets
and the least-cost diets that would have provided the
same level of nutritional intake was the change in the
percentage cost contribution of milk and meat. The milk
cost contribution increased from 3.73 Percent in the
actual diet to 33.15 percent in the least-cost diet.
while the meat cost contribution decreased from 30.50
percent to 0.15 percent. Among the other changes were
an 8.93 percentage point increase in the expenditure for
cereals and a tenfold increase in the expenditure for
fruits in the least-cost diets.

It was found that the least-cost diets which re-

Cecilia A. Florencia

quired animal protein cost from one to seven centavos
less than the least-cost diets which did not require
animal protein. In general, the major responsibility
of providing for the protein in the diet, instead of being
shared by milk, corn and/or beans (as in the least-cost
diets where the source of protein was not Specified) was
shifted largely (in the least-cost diets which required
animal protein) to whole milk with a decrease in the con-
tribution of corn and legumes.

Using the marginal costs of nutrients obtained as
a routine part of the linear programming solution to the
least-cost diet problem, the marginal efficiency of a
list of commodities. including INCAPABINA. was computed.
A food is 100 percent efficient if the aggregate monetary
value of its nutrients is equal to its market price. The
four foods - milk, corn, vegetable oil and whole orange
which were present in nearly all of the least-cost diets

each had a marginal efficiency of 100 percent.

THE EFFICIENCY OF FOOD EXPENDITURE
AMONG CERTAIN WORKING-CLASS
FAMILIES IN COLOMBIA

BY
1."- I'Ij‘ 0

Cecilia A:”Florencio

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Foods and Nutrition
1967

ACKNOI' ElX‘zEIiENTS

The author wishes to express her most sincere
gratitude to Dr. Victor Smith for two years of challenge,
enlightenment and guidance and to Dr. Dena Cederquist and
Dr. Dorothy Arata for their understanding.

The author is indebted to Miss Fe Sunga for her
help and her encouragement.

The author also wishes to eXpress her gratitude to
Dr. Arnold E. Schaefer, Executive Director of the Inter-
departmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense,
for the use of the original food consumption records of

the Colombian families.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AMOWLWEMENTSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO000......O.

LIST OF TABLESOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

LIST OF FIGURESOOOOOOOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO'COAOOOO

LIST OF APPENDICESOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...O.

INTBOWCTIONOOOOOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOO0......

Chapter
I.
II.
III.
IV.

V.

VI.

THE NUTRITIONAL MODELooooooooooooooooo
DIETARY STANDARDS...oooooooooooooooo'oo
NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OFIACTUAL DIETS.o
COMPARISON OF ACTUAL DIETS AND LEAST-
COST DIETS WHICH WOULD PROVIDE THE

ACTUAL NUTRIENT INTAKE................

LEAST-COST STANDARD AND SUPPLEMENTARY

DIETSOOOO‘OO'OOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOVOOOOOOOOOVOO

MARGINAL COSTS OF NUTRIENTS...........

SIJMMABYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIO.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

“PENDIXOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...

LIST OF REFERENCESoooooooooo‘oo‘o‘ooo‘ooooooooooooooo

111

Page

ii
iv
vi

vii

11
23

82
101
124
136
1A9

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C O O O O O O

I I I I I I I I v I I I I I I I I I o
I I I I I I I I I o I I a I I I I I I
I I I I I I o I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I

I I I I I I a I I I

O I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1a. Daily Minimum Nutrient Allowances
(For 20°C. Area)OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0....00.13

1b. Daily Minimum Nutrient Allowances
(For 30000 Area)00000000000'000000000000015

2. Percent of Families Ingesting Less Than
100 z of the Minimum Nutrient Standard
(Animal Protein Bequired)................27

3. Actual Nutrient Intake as a Percentage
of the Minimum Nutrient Standard
(Animal Protein Required)................30

#. Percentage of Families Ingesting various
Pr0portions of the Colombian Recommended
Allowance (Animal Protein Bequired)......32

5. .Actual Nutrient Intake as a Percentage
of the Colombian Recommended Allowance
(Animal Protein Bequired)................3#

6. Cost of Actual and Least-Cost Diets in
Each of the Eight Cities (Cost in Pesos
per Person per Day)......................45

7. Number of Standard Families which Could
Be Provided with 100% of the msuu») from
the Difference Between.Actual Food Ex-
penditure and the Cost of the Least-
COSt Diet Meeting MS(AP) 000000000000000055

8. The Least Expensive Combinations of Foods
that Would Have Provided the Families
with Their.Actual Nutritional Intake.....58

9. Foods in the Actual and Least-Cost Diets
and Their Frequency of Appearance........60

iv

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Table Page

10.

11.

12.

13.

1h.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Percentage Contributions of the Various
Food Groups to the Total Costs of the
Actual Diets and of the Least-Cost Diets
Providing the Actual Levels of Nutrient

Intake.‘0!.O...OOOOO’OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0063

Percentage Contributions of the various
Food Groups to the Total Calories in
the Actual Diets and in the Least-Cost
Diets Providing the Actual Levels of
NUtrient Intake000000000000‘0000‘0000000000069

Percentage Contributions of the various
Food Groups to the Total Protein in
the Actual Diets and the Least-Cost
Diets Providing the Actual Levels of
Nutrient IntakeIIIIOOIIIIIIIIII:IIIIOIIIIIII7L"

Foods in the Least-Cost Diets: Minimum
and Colombian Standards (Animal Protein
Required)000000OIIOOOIOOOOIOOIIOOOIIIIOIOIBLF

Comparison of Foods in Least-Cost MS and
MS(AP)D1etS IIIIIIIOOIIIIIIIIIIIII'IIIIIIIBB

Least-Cost Supplementary Diets for
Families in B080t800000'000'000000000300000095

Marginal Costs of Nutrients in Least-
Cost MS(AP) Diets of the Standard Family 107

Marginal Costs of Nutrients in Least-
Cost CS(AP) Diets of the Standard Family 110

Marginal Efficiencies and the Stigler Gap
in the ColombianpStandard Diet for the
Standard Family in Bogota.................116

0.0.....0'000.CODCCOOOQIIOCQOCCO.

.00.0.0...OOOIOOOOOOOCCCOOO

Q . O O O ‘ C Q . . O C O D O I I O C C O O I O I O O

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O C O O ‘ O O O . O C O O C O I O I I O Q I O I O O . I O

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U I U 0 O O I D O 6 I O O O I I C

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Actual Nutrient Intake as a Percentage
of the Minimum Nutrient Standard
(Animal PrOteln Required).0.000000000000000029

2. Actual Nutrient Intake as a Percentage
of the Colombian Recommended Allowance
(Animal PIOtein Bequ1red)ooooooooooooooo0.0035

3. Cost of Actual and Least-Cost Diets in
Each of the Eight Cities (Cost in Pesos
Per Person Per DaY)ooooooooooooooooooooooooou7

ha. Percentage Contributions of the Various
Food Groups to the Total Costs of the
Aetual DietSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.00'000000065

4b. Percentage Contributions of the various
Food Groups to the Total Costs of the
Least-Cost Diets that Would Provide the
.Actual Levels of Nutrient Intake............66

5a. Percentage Contributions of the Various
Food Groups to the Total Calories in the
Acm DietSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO'OO0.0.0.00000071

5b. Percentage Contributions of the various
Food Groups to the Total Calories in the
Least-Cost Diets that Would Provide the
Actual Levels of Nutrient Intake.........g..72

6a. Percentage Contributions of the various
Food Groups to the Total Protein in the
Actual metsoo'oooo‘oooooooo‘oo‘oo‘o00000000300075

6b. Percentage Contributions of the Various
Food Groups to the Total Protein in the
Least-Cost Diets that Would Provide the
Acmal Levels Of Nutrient Intakeoooooooooooo76

vi

O U I O C O C O C D 5 O Q I O O O O O

C C O C I O I O O C I O O I I O I O I O C O D I C

O O I O C I O O U I O I U I O C O O O P C O I C O O O O I O

C.IIIOOCQOOOOCOCCCCCCOIOOOOOOI

DOCDOOOOCIOO

III.I.OOQCOOOUCDOCIOCIIIDI‘IIO

 

 

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

1a.

1b.

Colombian Daily Recommended Allowances
(For 2000. Area) coco.0.000000000000000000136

Colombian Daily Recommended Allowances
(For 30°C. Area) 0000000000000000000000000138

Estimation of Family Composition for
Setting up Total Daily Nutrient Allowance
for a Family (An Example) 0.000000000000000139

Results of Biochemical Studies of
Colombian Civilians........................1#0

Percentage Prevalence of Clinical
Findings by Location ooooooooooooooooooooooluz

Percentage of the Total Food EXpenditure
WhiCh was EStlmated 00000000000000.0000.0001M

Cost of Actual and Least-Cost Diets for
Each of the Thirty-Eight Families
(Cost in Pesos per Person per Day) ........145

"Menu Patterns" Characteristic of Standard
Least-Cost Diets Meeting MS(AP) and CS(AP) 1#7

vii

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IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOO

 

INTRODUCTION

Efforts to solve the problem of hunger have been
directed largely towards studying the possibilities of
increasing food production. These efforts, however, may
fall short of the goal of improving the nutrition of the
world unless correSponding improvements are made in the
patterns of food consumption. If an intelligent estimate
of future food needs is to be made, it is important to
understand thoroughly the existing dietary patterns.
There is a need to study which foods, among those variously
consumed, are most efficient in terms of providing for the
nutrient needs of a group of peeple. Perhaps more basic
than asking how much more to produce is the question of
what best to produce. And if significant improvements
can be made in peOples' attitudes towards food selection,
then estimates of how much additional food is needed may
not be as large as are now indicated (1). More food does
not necessarily mean better nutrition. Freedom from
undernutrition and/or malnutrition will come only when
enough of the right kinds of food is consumed.

m Many families Spend enough for food but do not ob-
tain an adequate diet. At any given income level, there

is a wide range in food eXpenditures even among families

of the same size and composition. The quality of the
diet depends on how wisely the food money is invested.
Where food supply is less than adequate to meet food
needs, it is doubly important that peOple attain a cer-
tain degree of efficiency in the purchase of their
nutrition. "Efficiency in the purchase of nutrition" is
used here to mean obtaining nutrients in the least costly
way. A family is efficient to the degree that it chooses
the least expensive combination of foods that will pro-
vide a certain level of nutritional intake.

For a long time, dietitians and others have helped
families plan low-cost food budgets based on rules of
thumb. Since the introduction of the simplex method of
linear programming (2), this method has also been used to
compute least-cost diets for adequate nutrition. However,
there has been no study on how efficiently or how in-
expensively any given family buys its nutrition. There
have been numerous investigations concerning the varied
factors which influence one's expenditure for food. None
of these, however, has quantified the magnitude of the
components of total food eXpenditure.

This pilot study was designed to investigate two
things: "how efficiently did certain working-class fa-
milies in Colombia buy their nutrition" and "how ineXpen-

sively could they have bought their nutrition". It is

also the purpose of this study to look into the
"nutritional" and "nongnutritional" components of ex-
penditures on food. Knowing the most efficient foods
for a particular group of peOple and the least costly
way of meeting their nutritional needs will be useful

in providing a guide for the coordination of agriculture

and nutrition.

CHAPTER I
THE NUTRITIONAL MODEL

The problem of finding least-cost diets that will
meet specified levels of nutritional allowances can be
solved by linear programming. The method involves making
an Optimal selection from a group of foods, each of which
provides nutrients in Specified fixed proportions, and
each of which involves a cost for the optimizing agent
(3). The solution is made subject to restrictions, the
most common of which are minimum requirements for certain
nutrients. Let Z be the total expenditure on foods, pJ
the unit price of food J, x3 the quantity of food J to

be consumed. b1 the allowance for nutrient i and a the

13
amount of nutrient 1 provided by one unit of food 3.

The problem can.be expressed as follows:
. i“i ,9
\' O‘

x-‘ A
Minimize Z = .XprJ ,J=1,2,....n Make Z, the total ex-

J penditure on foods as
small as possible sub-
Ject to the following
restrictions:
subject to:
(1) xJ 5 O No negative quantities

of foods may be pur-
chased.

.....

 

(2)

 

 

:LMv

|V

(2) 1 b1 The total quantity of each
of eight nutrients shall
‘ equal or exceed the required

amount for each.

ain3

(3) 23a9 JxJ - xn+1 = o The total Calories in the

3 ' diet shall equal the Calories
for which certain B-vitamins
must be provided.

(4)
(5)
(6)

a x - = O r The total thiamine (10), ri-
10'3 J xn+2 boflavin (11) and niacin (12)

a x - = 0 shall equal the thiamine, ri-
11’3 J xn+3 boflavin and niacin (reSpect-

a x - = O ively) needed to go with the
12'3 J Xn+u total Calories in the diet.

amdcarqcepa

IV

The total Calories for which
certain B-vitamins must be
provided shall equal or exceed
the minimum caloric allowance.

(7) Xn+1 bn+l

(8) - + +2 - O The quantity , the thia-
kn+2xn+1 xn ’ mine needed tingg with the

(9) -k x + - O Calories in the diet, shall
n+3 n+1 xn+3 be equal to or greater than

(10) -kn+1+xn+1 + Xn+4 3 O a Specified prOportion, kn+2'

of the Calories in the diet.
Similarly for xn+ , riboflavin
and xn+4, niacin.

Although not explicitly stated in the model, palatability

has been considered indirectly since these least-cost diets

are based only on foods commonly consumed by the families

studied.

 

1 .

These nutrients are total protein, animal protein,
fat, calcium, phOSphorus, iron, vitamin A and ascorbic
301d.

leas

 

ance
ofa

nutr:

 

Sources of Information
.

Three kinds of information are needed to obtain
least-cost diets: a statement of the nutritional allow-
ances appropriate for the peOple being studied, a list
of available foods and the price of each food, and the
nutrient composition of each food.

Least-cost diets that will meet each of the follow-
ing nutritional levels were computed:

1. The existing level of nutrient intake

2. A minimum standard
3. The Colombian standard

4. The additions to (1.) required to raise it

to the levels Specified in (2.) or (3.).
These are the least-cost supplementary diets.

Data for the existing or actual nutrient intake
were calculated from the original records of actual foods
consumed by forty working-class families. These records
were obtained by the Interdepartmental Committee on
Nutrition and National Defense (ICNND) in its nutrition
survey of Colombia from May to August of 1960 (4). At
each of the eight cities studied, from three to thirteen
families were selected at random for detailed dietary
study of one or two days duration. The edible portion
of each food consumed was weighed after preparation
waste was discarded, but before the food was cooked.

From these data the actual nutrient intake of each fam-

ily was calculated, using the Tabla de Composicion de

los Alimentos Colombianos published by the Colombian
Institute of Nutrition (5). The difference between the
actual nutrient intake and the recommended nutrient
allowances formed the basis for calculating the least-
cost supplementary diets. Possible errors in recording
the foods actually consumed and inaccuracies in the food
composition data preclude knowing the Egggt nutritional
intake of the families. For convenience and as a means
of differentiating from the least-cost diets obtained
by linear programming, the calculated nutritional intake
based on the food consumption records will be called the
actual or existing level of nutritional intake.

The Minimum and Colombian standards will be dis-
cussed in the next chapter.

?/Prices for some thirty-five of the foods most

commonly consumed by working-class Colombian families
at the time of the survey were provided by the Departe-
mento Administrative Nacional de Estadistica in Colombia

(6).

Comparison of Least-Cost diets Obtained_by
Linear Programmigg and the
Usual Low Cost Diets
Even before the linear programming technique for
computing least-cost diets was developed, dietitians and
others helped families plan low cost food budgets. There

has long been an interest in providing the nutrients for

an adequate diet with the least costly combinations of
food. However. while in linear programming a mathemat-
ical model is first formulated, in the conventional me-
thod used by dietitians, the starting point for the low
cost food plans is the average quantities of foods pur-
chased by low income families, as shown in dietary stud-
ies. These quantities are then checked for nutritional
adequacy and adjusted for greater amounts of what have
been labeled the "cheaper" foods - in the United States
these are thought to be potatoes, dry beans, peas, flour
and cereals.

Since. in the conventional method, the lowacost
dietary plan is deve10ped from an existing dietary
pattern, the low-cost diets provide not only for the cost
of nutrition but also for customary food habits and taste
preferences. Unless nonpnutritional restraints are ex-
plicitly stated, the diets computed by linear programming
fulfill only one criterion, that of nutritional adequacy;
so it is with the least-cost diets in this study.

It is well known that palatability plays a role
in food selection. However, since the magnitude of the
components of total food expenditure has not been meas-
ured, the extent of the influence of palatability is not
known. Comparing least-cost diets based on a purely

nutritional model with the actual diets gives one an

insight into the relative importance of nutritional
and non-nutritional objectives in the purchase of food.
The actual cost to a family of the foods in the
least-cost diets obtained by linear programming depends
upon nutritional needs and market conditions. Diets will
differ as the nutrient needs decrease or increase from
one family to another. They will also differ when the
prices of commodities and/or the list of commonly avail-
able foods changes from one market to the next. The set
of commodities available for use will affect the cost of
the diet and the kinds of foods that will make up the
diet. Since only those foods that were commonly avail-
able in the local market being studied were considered
in the computation of least-cost diets for the Colombian
working-class families, the costs of the diets obtained
might have been still lower if some less common foods

had been included.2 Each of the least-cost diets ob-

 

2For example, in this study, the least-cost diets
(obtained by linear programming) which would provide the
actual level of nutrient intake of two families cost more
than their actual expenditure for food. These families
had exceedingly high intakes of vitamin A resulting from
their consumption of beef liver. The least-cost diets
had to provide as much vitamin A as was consumed. However.
liver, being an uncommon food item, was not included in
the commodity list from which foods in the least-cost diets
were chosen. As a consequence, the unusually large amounts
of vitamin A in the computed least-cost diets had to be
obtained from other foods which turned out to be more ex-
pensive sources of the vitamin than liver.

 

 

ta:

frc

 

10

tained is apprOpriate only for a specific family con-

fronted with a given market situation.

CHAPTER II
DIETARY STANDARDS

The first expression of a dietary standard is
sometimes credited to Dr. Edward Smith, who, in 1862
at the request of the Privy Council of the United
Kingdom, recommended 4300 grams of carbon and 200
grams of nitrOgen daily as the minimum allowance to
maintain health (7). Since that time, other scientists
like Volt (8) and Lusk (9) and scientific groups such
as the Canadian Council on Nutrition (10), the British
Medical Association (11). the National Research Council
of the United States (12) and many others have pro-
posed dietary allowances.

Two sets of dietary standards were used in as-
sessing the nutritional adequacy of the food consump-
tion of working-class families in Colombia. Practical
considerations and economic necessity may rule out
the immediate attainment of the generous allowances
provided by the Colombian Instituto Nacional de Nutrg-
‘gggg. The restricted minimum level, which is appro-
priate for subsistence diets may be a more readily

attainable primary goal.

11

12

The Minimum Allowance

The dietary standard deveIOped by the author is
stated in terms of a minimum allowance (see Tables 1a
and 1b). This is defined as the level of nutrient
intake presumed to be sufficient to meet the normal
physiological needs of healthy individuals representative
of each of the various categories into which a pOpulation
is divided for dietary purposes. These categories take
into account differences in age, sex and physiological
status. The Specific allowances are adequate in the
sense of a maintenance level or a minimum below which
the normal physiological needs of average individuals
can not be sufficiently covered. Since this standard is
set to represent the needs of the average person in the
pOpulation, some individuals will require more than the
minimum allowances and others will require less. A
complex of factors makes it extremely difficult to define
with precision terms like "minimum", "Optimum" or "maximum"
allowance. The concept of an.gg§g£ nutrient allowance,

whether minimum or maximum, is an illusion.

13

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Calories3

The caloric allowances determined by the ICNND in
its 1960 nutrition survey of Colombia were used for all
the categories of individuals except for adults (4). A
comparison of dietary standards from different countries
by Young (13) showed that South Africa has the lowest
caloric allowance for a reference male and a reference
female. For adults, the South African caloric recommen-
dation was adopted, making the necessary corrections for

differences in environmental temperature and body size (14).

Protein

Protein allowances were set at two levels, one
apprOpriate for a mixed diet with a biological value of
sixty and the other apprOpriate for a mixed diet with a
biological value of eighty. In the model that used the
former level, there was no restriction set on the kind of
protein in the diet (except for small amounts of animal
protein to provide for the protein needs of an infant in
a family where there is no lactating woman). In the model

that used the latter level, it was Specified that one-third

W ‘

 

T

3The ICNND selected mean environmental temperatures
of 20°C. and 30°C. to correct for climatic differences
in different areas of Colombia. Two sets of caloric
allowances were formulated, the one for the 30°C. areas
being 2 percent less than that for the 200C. areas.

17

of the total daily protein allowance must be obtained

it}... - ..

from animal sources.

- -
_,..- y \
-—‘.._._.-—-—"‘ ,

s. A ‘

Animal protein was Specified in one of the models ‘

[/x

as a way of insuring a diet of high protein quality. It

is recognized that another way of achieving the same
purpose is with a prOper mixture of vegetable proteins.
EXperience with least-cost diets obtained by linear
programming indicates, however, that the diets may contain
only four or five foods and the chance of having a variety
of vegetable protein sources for prOper supplementation

“WNW P

may be small. It may well turn out that the least-cost
diet will rely heavily on one or two foods in meeting the
protein requirement. If this food happens to be corn,
then one is faced with the problem of poor protein uti-
lization.

Pl 655 has no way of knowing in advance the least
eXpensive way of meeting protein needs, 1.e.. whether it
is less costly to consume all vegetable protein, all

animal protein or a combination of animal and vegetable

Aproteins. BY using the two models one can compare the f

 

“This notation will be used: MS and OS for Minimum
Standard and Colombian Standard with protein source un-
specified. reSpectively, and MS(AP) and CS (AP) for
Minimum Standard and Colombian Standard with animal protein
required, reapectively.

18

costs of diets meeting nutritional needs with or with-
out an allowance for animal protein.

Another way out of this "protein-source" dilemma
is to establish protein allowances in terms of Specific
amino acids. This refinement in methodology was pre-
cluded at the time of this study not only by the paucity
of data regarding the amino acid requirements of man but
also by the fact that the requirements which have been
established are not known with particular accuracy.
Relatively few subjects have been studied and the periods
of observation have been rather short. Then, too, several
groups of workers differ in their interpretation of what
constitutes nitrogen equilibrium.

The allowances indicated for protein were based on
the calculated minimal protein requirements of humans
prOposed by the National Research Council (NRC) in its
Evaluation of Protein Nutrition (15). The approach used
by the NRC is to estimate separately all the components
of protein needs at each age and physiological state
and to eXpress the sum of these estimates in terms of
a provisional protein of a certain biological value.5
This factorial approach in assessing protein needs takes

into account the obligatory nitrogen losses and the in-

 

SBiological value is an index of protein quality.
It eXpresses the prOportion of absorbed nitrogen that is
retained.

 

 

 

tion

Kine:

worlil
of ca:
day (3
adult:

izatic

 

 

V

19

creased protein need for the formation of new tissues
in growing children, for the growth of the fetus, pla -
centa and membranes in pregnant women and for the secre -

tion of milk during lactation.
Minerals

Most apparently healthy peOple throughout the
world develOp and live satisfactorily on a dietary intake
of calcium which lies between 300 mg and over 1000 mg a
day (16). The calcium allowance of 400 mg per day for
adults as recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organ -
ization of the United Nations (FAO) was adOpted for our
use.

Dubach 23 El- (17) estimated that a daily intake
of 5 to 10 mg of iron is adequate for an adult male while
balance studies on young women have established that an
intake of 10 to 12 mg was adequate to cover all losses (18).
The allowance for iron was patterned after that prOposed

by the Canadian Council on Nutrition - 6 mg per day for

an adult male and 10 mg per day for an adult female (10).
Vitamins A and C

Vitamin A needs appear to be related to body weight
(19). This is usually eXpressed as between 25 and 55 In -

ternational Units (I.U.) of vitamin A per kilogram of

20

actual body weight or double that forfl-carotene.
Because a mixed diet is usually eaten, the amount of
vitamin A needed daily is customarily given as a mixture
of vitamin A and carotene. In this standard, the vitamin
A figure was based on an allowance of 60 I.U. per kilo-
gram of body weight per day (assuming that one-third is
present as the preformed vitamin A and the rest as the
vitamin precursors). This allowance approximated that
given for a reference adult male in the South African
standard.

In no other dietary essential has there been greater
disagreement with reSpect to human requirements than in
the case of ascorbic acid. Studies made in the United
Kingdom revealed that 10 mg of vitamin C daily both
prevented the appearance of signs of scurvy in adults and
caused their disappearance when added to a deficient diet
(11). The NRC allowance of 70 mg daily was based on a
maintenance of a level of saturation in the blood (12),
Whether as high a level as this is beneficial remains to
be seen. The British Medical Association's Committee
on Nutrition considered 20 mg an adequate allowance for

an adult. This recommendation was adopted here.
B - Vitamins

Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin function in part

21

as co—enzymes in tissue respiration. The quantitative
allowance for these three nutrients is eXpressed in
relation to caloric expenditure in the following manner:
thiamine = 0.3 m8 Per 1000 Calories, riboflavin = 0.5

mg per 1000 Calories and niacin = 3 mg per 1000 Calories.
These three ratios are those indicated in the Canadian
Standard (10). As with the other nutrients, added allo -
wances for pregnancy and lactation were made in setting

up the allowances for these three vitamins.
Fats and PhOSphorus

Fats and phOSphorus are known to be essential
nutrients. The present state of knowledge does not
permit setting a Specific minimum allowance for either
of them. Nevertheless, both nutrients were included in
formulating the dietary standards because, in finding
least-cost diets by linear programming, the more nutrient
restraints are included, the greater the variety in the
diets obtained and the closer the least-cost diets come
t6 the actual food consumption patterns of the families.,
The fat value suggested was based on the existing
dietary pattern in Colombia, as shown by nutrition surveys
(u,page 89). It was set at 10 percent of the total caloric

allowance.

22

In ordinary diets, the phOSphorus intake by adults
is approximately 1 to 1% times that of calcium (20). The
allowance for phosphorus was set equal to the recommended
allowance for calcium.

Since these allowances for fat and phOSphorus were
not based on clinical and experimental studies, there is
no reason for suggesting that the attainment of the recom-
mended amounts is a desirable goal nor that failure to
include the recommended amounts in the diet will be detri-
mental. Cross-cultural comparison of food consumption
patterns indicates that a wide range of intake of these

nutrients is compatible with good health (21).
The Colombian Recommended Allowance

The second set of dietary standard which was used
to assess the nutritional adequacy of the diets of the
f forty working-class families was established by the
:Institute of Nutrition in Colombia (22). It was for-
. mulated after a careful study and revision of the existing,
dietary standards in different countries. The recommended
amounts include a safety factor above the theoretical
minimum requirements in order to cover individual varia-

tions adequately.6 Unlike the minimum standard, which was

 

6

The theoretical minimum requirement for each of
the nutrients considered was not stated explicitly.

23

designed for the average person in the pepulation, the
Colombian allowances are adequate for the majority in the
population.

The Colombian recommended allowances for iron,
vitamin.A, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin were taken
from the dietary standard formulated by the National
Research Council (NRC) of the United States. This
standard had its beginning when a committee was assigned
to recommend amounts of various nutrients that should be
provided in the diet. A survey was made of all research
reports regarding the requirement for any nutrient. A
tentative set of values was formulated and sent to a
large group of nutrition workers throughout the country
for evaluation. The revised set was adapted in 19#1 (23).
Since then, revisions have been made as new knowledge
became available. The NRC allowances are not minimal
requirements. They provide a margin of safety (also_
called, margin of sufficiency) above the minimum re-

] quirements.

The Colombian recommended set of allowances is re-
produced in.Appendices 1a and 1b with some modifications.
As in the minimum standard, allowances for fat, phos-
phorus, animal protein and for a total protein level suit-
able for a mixed diet with a biological value of 60 were
added so that both standards provide for the same number

24

of nutrients.

Estimation of Nutrient Allowances of a Family

The daily nutritional allowance of a family was
computed as the sum of the individual allowances of the
average number of persons eating per day. Since the meals
were not equal in nutritive value, a relative weight was
assigned to each meal - 0.20 for breakfast, 0.35 for
lunch and 0.45 for dinner. Adjustments were made for
absent members of the family and for visitors at family
meals. See Appendix 2. Where the average number of
persons eating per day exceeded the family size, the
additional person or persons were taken to be a ref-
erence male (unless there was an indication to the con-
trary). Conversely, where the average number of persons
eating was less than the family size, the missing per-
son or persons, when not specified in the food consump-
tion record, was assumed to be a reference male. Where
there were an infant and a lactating mother and where
an allowance for the lactation of the mother was pro-

vided, the infant allowance was omitted.

CHAPTER III
NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OF ACTUAL DIETS

One way of assessing the nutritional status of
a pepulation group is by comparing the nutrients in the
foods actually consumed with some given dietary standard.
However, the fact that the intake of certain nutrients
falls below a given recommended level does not by itself
Justify the conclusion that a group of peOple is suffering
from malnutrition. The possible presence of malnutritionm
may be inferred, but the dietary survey‘pgr‘gg provides

no conclusive evidence of its existence.

Dietary Study

Comparison of Actual Nutrient Intake
with the Minimum Standard

Since the minimum standard against which the
nutritional adequacy of the actual diets was first
assessed was formulated in the sense of a minimum below
which the normal physiological needs of an average person
can not be sufficiently covered, it is desirable that

25

26

100 percent of the minimum recommended amount be consumed.

Table 2 shows that more than one-half of the forty
families had less than 100 percent of the allowance for
calcium (38 families), vitamin A (33), riboflavin (30),
animal protein (26), total protein (23) and Calories (23).
On the other hand, only two to eight families failed to
meet the minimum allowance for iron, thiamine, niacin,
ascorbic acid, fat or phOSphorus. On the average, six of
the twelve nutrients for which minimum allowances were
established were consumed in amounts less than 100 percent
of the standard. These nutrients were calcium, vitamin A,
riboflavin, animal protein and Calories. The other six
nutrients (fat, iron, ascorbic acid, thiamine, niacin and
phosphorus) were present in the diet in amounts which far
exceeded the minima set for them.

The average daily intake, expressed as a percentage
of the minimum standard. was 46 percent for calcium and
59 percent for vitaminA.8 Average intakes of total pro-

tein, riboflavin, animal protein and Calories were 82, 83,

86 and 93 percent of the standard, respectively.

 

7This is not true for fats and phOSphorus, the al-
glowances for which were based on the existing dietary
'patterns and not on clinical and experimental studies.
There is no reason for believing that failure to include
the recommended amounts of these two nutrients in the diet
(will be detrimental.

8The average intake, expressed as a percentage of
the minimum standard, was obtained by using the formula:

Zactual intake of a nutrient b all families
Eminimum allowance for a nutrient for EIl families x 100

 

27

TABLE 2. PERCENT OF FAMILITS INGESTING LIBS THAN
100% C? THE MINIMUM NUTRIENT STANDARD

(AMTMAL pnomglw pqanpED)
ob.I—-A0A n-‘\ A‘ -5. .bv -L

 

 

Families with< 100%

 

Nutrient of standard
Number Percent
Calcium 38 95
Vitamin A ' 33 85
Riboflavin 30 75
Animal protein 26 65
Total protein 23 58
Calories 23 58
Fat 8 20
Iron 5 13
Ascorbic acid 4 10
Thiamine 3 8
NlRCln 2 5
Phosphorus 2 5

 

28

Figure 1 and Table 3 present a more detailed pic-
ture of the nutritional adequacy of the diets. On the
average, the families in each of the eight cities had
inadequate intakes of calcium. Only the families in
Medellin met 100 percent of the allowance for vitamin A
and only those in Villavicencio had sufficient riboflavin.
The caloric intake was more than 100 percent of the min-
imum allowance for those families studied in Cali, Carta-
gena, Ibague and Medellin. The intake of total protein was
more than adequate for the families in Cartagena and Iba-
gué. The families in every one of the cities had an actual
ascorbic acid intake which exceeded the minimum allowance.

Not one of the forty families met 100 percent of
the minimum allowance for all nutrients, including fat
and phOSphorus. .Based on the total number of nutrient
deficiencies in the diets which were evaluated by using
the minimum standard (animal protein required), the fami-

lies can be distributed as follows:

 

 

No. of nutrient deficiencies No, of famdlies
1 1
11 O
10 1

9 2
8 1
7 3
6 9
5 5
4 3
3 9
2 4
1 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Percent ot Mlnltnutn Nutrient Standard (animal protein required)

Calcium Vitamin A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Animal Protein Co lories
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3004 -4 -l
200- -- " —
r-1 1 ”'1 r fir—d
1m —
loo 1-1 _
Alzaese‘re Alzseee're Alzseee‘re
A: Colonels
l. Bogoto’ 3. Cortooeno 5. Monlzoles 7. Popoyo'n
2. Cali 4. loooue' 6. Medellih 8. Villavicencio

Totol Protein

-- H. IT

r1

 

 

 

 

Iron

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Riboflavin

,/ n

J

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

An’zsesere

Thiamine

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A l 2 3 4 9 6 T O

 

 

Ascorbic
. Acid T
1 '7
T"
h—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Al2345678

FIGURE 1.--AC'1'UAL NUTRIENT INTAKE AS A PERCENTAGE

OF THE HINIHUH NUTRIENT STANDARD (ANIMAL PROTEIN RNUIRED)

 

 

 

 

rm

30

 

 

 

 

 

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allOWe

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the 31

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and Dh
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31

The mean and median for the group was five nutrient
deficiencies.
The cities can be arranged as follows, based on

the average number of nutrient deficiencies per family:

 

City No. of nutrients
Least deficient Cartag na 3.75
Medell n 4.00
Ibague 4.20
Villavicencio 4.50
Cali 4. 67
Bogota 5. 08
Manizales 6. 66
Most deficient P0payan 6.75

Compagison of Actual Nutrient Intake
gith the Colombian Standard

The nutritional inadequacy of the Colombian diets
appeared more pronounced when the actual nutrient intake
was evaluated against the higher allowances recommended

by the Institute of Nutrition in-Colombia. Sines thg~

Ira/‘-
9.4 "M—HH— v4.1a; “hwy... .~w._

margin of safety added to the theoretical physiological
requirement is different for each nutrient, the recommended
\allowances are not uniformly related to minimal needs.
Thus, an intake of only 60 percent of the allowance for
calcium or iron has a different implication than do si-
milarly low intakes of protein, vitamin A or Calories.
Table 4 shows that, except for ascorbic acid, fat
and phosphorus, more than one-half (23 to 39) of allthefi

families had less than 100 percent of the Colombian,allou»-

-.______ — 11--._\

 

 

........

32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ances.
which 2
amount;
intake
Only 5
75 per]
percent
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Ta;
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to 92 ;
mine.

ta]- pl‘n

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The
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the mi r.
Categor

as the

 

 

33

ances. 0n the average, nine of the twelve nutrients for
which allowances have been recommended were consumed in
amounts less than 100 percent of the standard. Only the
intake of fat, phosphorus and ascorbic acid was adequate.
Only 5 percent of all the families had calcium intakes of
75 percent or more of the recommended allowance. Ninety
percent of the families consumed 75 percent or more of the
allowance for ascorbic acid.

Table 5 and Figure 2 show the actual nutrient intake
of the families, city by city. The families in every one
of the eight cities had less than sufficient quantities
of calcium, vitamin A, Calories and thiamine. The range
of intake for these nutrients was 19 to 63 percent of the
allowance for calcium, 18 to 55 percent for vitamin A, 54
to 92 percent for Calories and 52 to 98 percent for thia-
mine. Only the families studied in Cartagena met the to-
tal protein and animal protein allowances.

*There was an average of eight nutrient deficiencies
per family. While only one family was deficient in all
twelve nutrients when the diets were assessed against
the minimum standard, there were seven families in this
category when the Colombian set of allowances was used

as the yardstick.

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Percent of Colombian Recommended Allowance (animal protein required)

loo«

Calcium

 

2001

l i

 

Al72345678

Animal Protein

H

 

300.

2004

 

 

 

Al723456778

Fats

!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Al2345678

A 1 Colombia

l. leeote'
a Cell

8. Cartagena
4. lbaeoe’

35

Vitamin A

    

 

Al23456770

Calories

 

 

Al2345670

Phosphorus

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aizaessre

5. htanlxoles
a war.

FIGURE 2.--AC'IVAL NUTBIDIT INTAKE AS A PBRCU‘I‘AGE

Total Protein

 

 

Aizses’ero

Iron

 

 

 

 

A lizaesfere

W N iocin

q

 

 

 

 

A l 2 3 45.7..

7. Popeyo’n
I. Vilavlcencio

Ri boflavin

 

Aliasesere

Thiamine

 

 

._l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Al2345678

T Ascorbic
Acid

-7

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AIZSQSBTO

or m mm W maniacs (mm. norms
morass)

 

dividfi

 

requizl
indies
clusic
assess
clinig
and mi
becaus
plus 1
tempo:
dicate
Althox
they 1
bloch.
tissu.
Varies
StOre:
of as<
the P1
or Vit
sDite

tamin

underr

36
Other Methods of Evaluating Nutritional Status

Wide variations in the nutritional needs of in-
dividuals, uncertainties regarding human nutritional
requirements and inaccuracies in food composition data
indicate that prudence must be used in drawing con-
clusions from dietary findings. Two other methods of
assessing the nutritional status of a pepulation are the
clinical method and the biochemical analysis of blood
and urine. Agreement among these three may be limited
because of the inherent sources of errors in each method
plus the fact that these approaches measure different
temporal aspects of nutriture. The dietary survey inp
dicates the nutrient intakes at the time of the survey.
Although the measured intakes may be satisfactory then,
they may not have been so in the past or zigg.zg£§§. The
biochemical results reflect the nutrient stored in the
tissues in the relatively recent past. This interval
varies for different nutrients. For example, the body
stores of ascorbic acid are small, so that concentrations
of ascorbic acid in the blood reflect the intake during
the preceeding weeks (24). On the other hand, the level
of vitamin A in the tissues may remain satisfactory de-
epite two years or more of restricted intake of this vi-
tamin (25). For the deve10pment of clinical findings of

undernutrition or malnutrition, an even longer period is

 

fort;
and c
repo:
give:
page
by l;

pect:

 

 

37

required to exhaust body stores. In Spite of these
limitations, however, all three methods of assessing
nutritional status are necessary for prOperly and comp
pletely understanding the state of nutrition of a group
of peOple.

In addition to the detailed dietary study of
forty working-class families, the ICNND made biochemical
andWclinical examinations of Colombian civilians. A
report of the ICNND nutrition survey of Colombia (4)
gives the biochemical findings by location (Table 28,
page 122) and the percent prevalence of clinical findings
by location (Tables 49 and 50, pages 174 and 176, res-

peotively).
A. Biochemical Study

The ICNND obtained specimens of blood and urine
from Colombian civilians. There were 647 blood and 448
urine samples. In the absence of a standard guide for the
'interpretation of biochemical findings on pepulation
groups, the "Suggested Guide to Interpretation of Blood
and Urine Data", formulated by the ICNND (26) was used
by this author to evaluate the Colombian findings. This
guide applies toua reference man, namely, a physically
active 35-year-old adult male, 170Hcentimeters in-height,

weighing 65 kilograms, living in a temperate climate and

cons:
blood

or de

plas:

l
and l

ment .
deI 0*
found
some 3
Nutrit
haVe c
Popula
Show 8
(29).

Batory

WOuld

 

38

consuming a varied diet. Levels of nutrients in the
(blood were interpreted as either high, acceptable, low
or deficient.

The biochemical findings indicated high total
plasma protein and ascorbic acid, acceptable vitamin A,
and low red cell riboflavin, serum albumin and hemo-
globin. See Appendix 3.

Current evidence suggests that the simple measure-
ment of total plasma concentration is an unreliable in.
dex of protein nutriture. Keys gt_§l. (27), for example,
found only a slight decrease in the plasma proteins of
some 34 men maintained on a famine diet for six months.
Nutrition surveys of some malnourished pepulation groups
have shown normal values of total plasma protein (28).
Pepulations consuming inadequate protein may actually
show elevated rather than depressed plasma protein levels
(29). In most instances, this is a result of a compen-
satory increase in gamma-globulin with an actual fall in
albumin. Thus, even if the Colombian samples have high
total plasma protein, the low level of serun.albumin
would indicate the probability of a deficient protein

intake.

B. Clinical Study

Clinical examination is an essential part of a

 

39

nutrition survey because it provides visible evidence
reflecting the nutritional status of the pepulation
studied.

A single lesion may be caused by a deficiency in
more than one nutrient. To illustrate this point, glos-
sitis may be seen in niacin, folic acid, and/or vitamin
B deficiency. The occurrence of a syndrome, on the other
hand, may be a more valid evidence of a deficiency. Thus,
the combination of Bitot's Spots with keratotic lesions
has greater diagnostic significance than either sign
alone. The ICNND report only recorded the percentage
prevalence of clinical symptoms of nutritional deficienp
cies by location. The interpretation of these findings
was made by this investigator, using the guide for inter-
preting clinical findings on the association of signs
which was proposed by the World Health Organization (30).
This guide presents a group of signs which together con-
stitute clinical patterns of malnutrition which are fre-
quently seen. See Appendix 4 for the clinical findings.

A total of 4818 individuals, exclusive of the -
group seen by the pediatric team, was examined in 14
areas of Colombia. The pre-school and school age groups
accounted for almost 90 percent of the sample. Pregnant
or lactating women made up 10 percent of the total female

sample. These are groups of Special interest because of

 

thei

velo

In

 

40

their increased nutritional demands for growth and de-

ve10pment.
Calories and Protein

Height-weight data provide a measure of the ade-
quacy of caloric intake. Ideally, standards of desi-
rable height and weight should be constructed from meas-
urements of apparently healthy subjects for the parti-
cular papulation. Unfortunately, Colombia, like most
other countries, has no standard based on locally made
observations. For purposes of comparison, the ICNND .
used a set of height-weight data tables deve10ped for the g
United States pOpulation (31). While not necessarily f
ideal even for the American papulation, and certainly
not necessarily applicable to other pepulations, these
references allow an evaluation and comparison of data rel-
ative to some fixed point. 'Using the U.S. Medico-Ac-
tuarial Tablg§,and the galdwin~Wood Tables, the ICNND
group found 267 persons or 13 percent of the total sample
in the eight cities below 90 percent of the standard
weight for their height. An average of 8 percent of the
sample in the 20°C. areas (Bogota, Ibague, Manizales,
Medellin.and Popayan) were below 90 percent of the stand-
ard weight, while an average of 27 percent of the exam:

Mr

inees in the 30°C. areas (Cali, Cartagena and Villavicen-

-‘_._.,7

 

cio)

stan

 

"bel

111833

unde:

kor,

 

was

dren
grouj
tain
Stat
asso
as b
Plucl
in c]

Curr:

41

cio) were found with body weights 90 percent below the“
standard. (It remains to be seen whether, for Colombians,
4below 90 percent of the U.S. standard weight" is a good“!
measure of the adequacy of their caloric intake.

L The pediatric study showed 17 chidren with severe
undernutrition. Four were diagnosed as having kwashior-
"kor, the others marasmus.9 The most persistent finding
was that both the height and weight of Colombian chil-
dren were considerably below those of correSponding age
groups in the United States. Colombian infants main-
tained height and weight very similar to those of United
States infants until six months of age. Physical signs
associated with the syndrome of protein deficiency, such
as bilateral edema, depigmentation, Sparse or "easily
pluckable" hair and skin lesions were commonly observed

in children less than four years of age. Diarrhea, either ‘

Arm-nan. .-.-—-.‘ -

current or recent (within the past month) occurred in

H -—
h“u‘.le

approximately 40 percent of all the cases examined.
According to the ICNND, the prevalence rate of frank
and severe undernutrition in the sample examined was 1.34

percent. The committee suggested that on the basis of

 

9Kwashiorkor is a syndrome produced by severe protein
deficiency, with characteristic changes in pigmentation
of the skin and hair. Marasmus is a form of starvation
that is less Specifically related to a Shortage of protein.

HPhOsJ

 

eIpE
ten'
derr
epis

COME

(

$882
cent

bio

and

 

oien

A de'

the
C010.
Fnde
Vita;
mine

low .

 

 

42

experience in several parts of the world, approximately
ten times this number are suffering from borderline un-
dernutrition which requires only the occurrence of an
episode of diarrhea or other infectious disease to be-

come clinically evident.
Vitamins

Syndromes reflecting vitamin deficiencies were
seen in 3 percent of the sample for vitamin A, 0.8 per-
cent for niacin and 0.2 percent for riboflavin and ascor-
bic acid.

It appears from the clinical data that calorie
and protein undernutrition far outweigh vitamin defif
.ciencies. 0f the latter, only the prevalence of vitamin

A deficiency may be of some importance.

Summary

Biochemical and/or clinical findings supported
the observation from the dietary study that among the
Colombian civilians studied there was a caloric-protein
undernutrition, an inadequate intake of riboflavinfand-
vitamin A and an adequate intake of ascorbic acid, thia-
mine and niacin. The dietary survey also indicated a
low intake of calcium and adequate levels of fat and

M

ph08ph0ru8. There were no biochemical nor clinical tests

w... M- -wM—‘~-..

43

made to measure calcium nor fat or phOSphoruS nutri-
tion.

The dietary study showed an adequate iron intake
but hemoglobin values corrected for altitude were found
to be in the low range. This discrepancy may be ex-
plained by one or a combination of the following: an
inadequate intake of other nutrients, the existence of
infection and parasitism and the biological availability
of iron in foods.

As indicated in the ICNND report (4, page 80),
the nutritional problems summarized above might be ex-
pected to be more prevalent among the Colombians studied
than in the p0pulation as a whole, since the intent of
the ICNND was to study groups in which, because of eco-
nomic, social or other conditions, the nutritional status

might be generally poor.

CHAPTER IV

COMPARISON OF ACTUAL DIETS AND LEAST-COST DIETS WHICH
WOULD PROVIDE THE ACTUAL NUTRIENT INTAKE

Some families are undernourished and/or mal-
nourished not because the quantity of food available is
limited, nor because their purchasing power is small,
but because they do not buy their nutrition efficiently.
In some cases, the problem is not having too little to
Spend but Spending unwisely what one can afford to Spend.

A comparison of actual food expenditures with the
costs of the least-cost diets which meet dietary stand-
ards for an average person in each of the eight cities
is shown in Table 6 and Figure 310. The actual expend-
iture for food was computed by multiplying the as pur-'
chased weight of each of the foods consumed, as reported
in the food composition record of each of the families,
by the price of the food. The cost of the least-cost

diets obtained by linear programming was the product of

a—--.

 

10The actual food expenditure and cost of the least-
cost diet which would meet dietary standards for an.aver-
age person was obtained using the formula:
£.Actual food expenditures (or costs of least-cost diets)
for all families/number of persons eating

4:.

TASTE 6.

45

COST OF ACTUAL AND LEAST—CCST
EIT"T CITIES

(COST IN PESOS PER PERSON PER DAY)

-IETS IN EACH 0? U95

 

 

Cost of least—cost

 

Actual food* Actuol nutrient

NS(AP)b

 

 

 

 

itie: expenditure intake

(1) ‘ 9 (3) ( ) (5)
0 oté 1.30 0.64 0.67 0.64
1.18 0.56 0,:1 0.10
,Tonn 3.11 2.1: 0.05 1.0?
..6 1.80 0.93 0.77 0.76
Noni7files 1.04 0.53 0.71 0.70
Moaejiin 1.-6 0.00 0.83 0.76
Pownyfin 0.90 0.53 0.91 0.75
Vi110Vicencio 1.,6 0.80 0.92 0.79
Average 1.51 0.99 0.74 0.74

 

 

_"
#Minimum Stnndard.

'Minimum Standard (animal protein reouired).
c . ‘
Colombian Stand"rd

'Colombian

n

D

tendurd ("TTWC1 protein required).

0
The most efficient city (ranked 1) Spent the ”reutest part of its

total food expendi+ure for nutrition’l obiectivos.

§At the time of the survey, one Colombian peso ($1.00) was equivalent to

15 cents in the United States.

 

 

 

 

 

46

 

 

 

 

 

 

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3.00 W'nm‘:
2.00. \:c°"00000 J -- IMHO, ‘ Villavicencio
§ .fl ‘s 99
.00 § 2 I ”-
+ S ‘ ‘ \
\ \ \
a % a § \
ABI234 ABI234 Aa|234
macui’n ‘ Cali
‘ —— a
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4 AaI’2’34 ABI2734
2'00 '4 mm A: Coat of actual dict
"Guild“. Papaya’n § 8: Coat of hast-coat am

meeting actual nutrient

- intake

L} Coat at "non-nutritional"
campanam of actual dict

 

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[j I, 2,3,4: Coat of loan-east
dicta muting M3,
”8(0), cs, CS(AP),
respectively

ABI234 aanzaai

FIGURE 3.--COST 01’ AC’NAL AND LEAST-COST DIETS
IN BACK OF THE EIGHT CITIES (COST IN PESOS PER
PERSON PER DAY)

#8

multiplying the quantity of each of the foods in the
Optimal solution times the price of the food. Prices
were obtained primarily from the list of some thirty-
five foods commonly consumed by working-class families
at the time of the survey. This list was provided by
the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Nutricion
(DANE) in Colombia. The prices of foods eaten but which
were not in the DANE list were estimated, using price
information given in the dietary questionnaire completed
by the families. Appendix 5 lists for each city the per-
centage of the total food expenditure which was estimated.
The range of the estimates was from #.05 percent in
Villavicencio to 14.7# percent in Manizales.

F Figure 3 and Table 6 show that in every one of the
eight cities, the actual expenditure for food exceeded
the amount necessary to obtain the actual nutritional
intake. The families studied in Bogota, Cali, Ibague
and Manizales had an.actua1 food expenditure which was
around 100 percent more than the least-cost diets that
would have provided the existing level of nutritional
intake. In Cartagena, Medellin, Papayan.and Villavicenp
010, the families studied spent about forty to seventy
percent more than necessary if nutrition were their only
objective in buying foods. There was an.average per-

centage excess of expenditure of seventy-seven.J

1.9

Except for two. all forty families had an actual
food expenditure which was more than the cost of meeting
their nutritional needs. The range of this excess was
from 30.02 to 168.70 percent. Appendix 6 gives the per
capita costs of the actual and least-cost diets in each
of the thirty-eight families.

For two families. one in.P0payan and another in
Villavicencio, the actual food expenditure was less than
the cost of the least-cost diet obtained by linear pro-
gramming. Both families consumed beef liver in their
actual diets and thus obtained exceedingly high intakes
of vitamin.A. The least-cost diet had to provide as
much vitamin A as was in the actual diet but, since liver
was not a common food in Colombian diets. it was ex-
cluded from the commodity list: as a consequence, vita-
min A in the computed least-cost diet had to be obtained
from other foods. which turned out to be more expensive
sources of the vitamin. This points out the fact that
the set of commodities available for use in linear pro-
gramming will affect the cost of the diet and the kinds
of foods that make up the diet. Since interest was cenp
tered only in those diets containing foods that were
commonly eaten in the particular city being studied, it
'was decided to exclude these two diets in the further

analysis of the data. Average figures for Popayén, Villa-

 

 

50

vicencio or for the whole of Colombia do not include
data from these diets.
Cost of "Nutritional" and "NonpNutritignal" Components
2;;the Tota Expenditure for Food

It is evident from the comparison of dietary costs
that among these Colombian working-class families, the
total expenditure for food exceeded the least cost of a
diet chosen solely for its nutritional content. There
are varied reasons why peOple eat what they eat. Food
has acquired a significance in human society beyond that
of simply providing nourishment for the body. It is
closely associated with feelings of security and pres-
tige. It is linked with religious beliefs, supersti-
tion and prejudices. There are many studies which de-
scribe qualitatively the role of various motives behind
food selection (32.33.34). None. however. has quanti-
fied the magnitude of the components of the total ex-
penditure for food.

Dr. Smith (3) uses the terms ”nutritional" and
"nonpnutritional" or "cultural" to denote the two basic
components of total expenditure for food. The method
used in this study for separating the total food expend-
iture into its component parts is based on Stigler's
work (35). The "nutritional" component is the least

51

cost of achieving the nutritional level actually at-
tained. withno consideration given to palatability or
taste preferences other than limiting the list of foods
to be considered to those commonly eaten in the area.
The “nonpnutritional" component is what remains after
the nutritional component is subtracted from the total
expenditure on food. The cost of this non-nutritional
component can be called the Stigler gap, in honor of
George Stigler. who first suggested that the physio-
logical and cultural components of low-cost diets should
be distinguished (35, page 314). The Stigler gap is the
difference between the least cost of a diet chosen solely
to attain certain levels of nutrition and the cost of a
diet chosen for reasons of culture and food preference
as well (3, page 123).

Computing least-cost diets based on a purely nutri-
tional model enables the investigator to attach a cost to
each of the two fractions and to gain an understanding
of their magnitude. In Figure 3. the "nutritional" frac-
tion is the part of bar B with diagonal hatching while
the "nonpnutritional” fraction is the part of bar B out-
lined with broken lines. These two parts together add up
to the total expenditure indicated by bar A.

Table 6 and Figure 3 show that the families studied
in Bogota, cali, Ibague and manizales Spent about as

52

much for "nonpnutritional" as for "nutritional" pur-
poses. About 30 to #0 percent of the total food expend-
iture was spent for "cultural" reasons among the famia
lies studied in Cartagena. Medellin. Popayan and Villa-
vicencio. The average Colombian family in the sample
spent 59 percent of the food peso for buying nutrients
and 41 percent for other objectives.

"Efficiency in the purchase of nutrition” was ear-
lier defined as the ability to obtain the necessary nu-
trients in the least costly way. A.family or a city is
efficient to the degree that it chooses the least expen-
sive combination of foods that will provide a certain
level of nutritional intake. Using the measure of the
cost of the "nutritional" and "nonpnutritional" compo-
nents of total food expenditure. the most efficient
family is the one that allocates the greatest part of its
total food expenditure to meeting nutritional needs. In
less efficient families. the cost of the "nonpnutritional"
component accounts for larger fractions of the total ex-
penditure for food.

The most efficient family spent 77 percent of its
actual food expenditure for nutrition while the least
efficient family spent only 37 percent. or the ten most
efficient families (average expenditure for nutrition.

0
70 percent). four were from Medellin. three from Villa-

53

vicencio. two from.Cartagena and one from Ibague.
Five of the ten least efficient families (average ex-
penditure for nutrition. #4 percent) came from Bogota.
two from Cali. two from Manizales and one from.Ibague.
There was no relationship between family efficiency in
the purchase of nutrition and variables such as family
size or the amount of the total expenditure for food.
The frequency distribution of nutritional effi-
ciency of the families is as follows:

Percent of nutritional Number of families
efficiency

35 - #0
#1 - 45
46 - 50
- 55
- 6o
61 - 65
66 - 7o

71 - 75
76 - 80

H
NHmmO-{rUtWN

The median.and model class was 56 to 60 percent while the
mean was 59 percent.

The cities arranged from the one where the average
per capita expenditure on food was most efficient to the
one where it was least are: Medellin. Cartagena. Villa-
vicencio. Popayan. Manizales. Bogota. Ibague and call
(see Table 6). Medellin and Cartagena were the two cit-
ies which had the smallest average number of nutrient
deficiencies per family when the actual dietary intake

3
was evaluated against the minimum standard. Popayan. the

xlqi 1 ill Ii '- llllul
l ‘11" III
llllllll'.lle‘lllll I;
.
[Illllllll 1| All‘lllllll
ll '11 II‘I. [III [II

54

fourth most efficient city. however. was the city with
the most nutrient deficiencies.

Not one of the forty families met 100 percent of
the minimum allowance for all nutrients. And yet. given
the actual amounts Spent for food. if the families had
selected the least-cost diets. thirty-two of them could
have obtained adequate nutrition not only at the minimum
but also at the higher Colombian level.

The magnitude of the "non-nutritional" component
of food expenditure or the significance of the "ineffi-
ciency" of the families in obtaining the necessary nu-
trients may be better understood if one employs the con-
cept of a standard familyll. If the families were effi-
cient purchasers of their nutrition. that is. if they
obtained all of their nutrient needs at least cost. the
money they actually spent for food would have been suffi-
cient to provide 100 percent of the minimum allowance for
all nutrients not only for all thirty-eight of the fami-
lies but also for #7.26 hypothetical standard families
(see Table 7). This means that each of the families.
after meeting its own minimum needs. could have provided

adequately for 1.24 standard families. Expressing the

 

11The standard family for Colombia used in this

study is made up of a 30 to 39 year-old male. a pregnant
female 20 to 29 years of age and four children with ages
ranging from one to nine years.

 

 

55

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56

implication of the "cultural" cost of food expenditure
this way provides a tool for making a comparison of
efficiency of food expenditure not only between families
and cities but also across countries. Thus. a country
where an average family has a "nonpnutritional" expend-
iture which is adequate to provide for the minimum needs
of one standard family is more efficient than one where
the "cultural" cost is sufficient to give two standard
families adequate nutrition at the minimum level. The
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
has done an extensive cross-country comparison of levels.
patterns and trends of food consumption. extent of hunger
and malnutrition.and the size of future food needs (36).
However. it has not looked into the relative efficiency
of these countries with reSpect to food expenditure per-
haps because of the absence of a usable yardstick.

Food Selection in Actual and Least-Cost Diets

grovidingExisting_Levels of Nutrient Intake

The ICNND. in its final analysis of the findings of
the Colombian survey concluded that "the problem of nu-
trition. as far as this segment of the papulation is con-
'cerned. is low food intake due mainly to low family in-
comes" (#. page 102). It is evident. however. from the
comparison of dietary costs. that these Colombian working-
class families spent sufficient money to buy adequate

5?

nutrition but failed to obtain the needed nutrients
because a significant fraction of their food peso was
Spent for "nonpnutritional" objectives. It is generally
assumed that poor diets are more prevalent among the
lower income groups than among the higher. However.
merely increasing income may not guarantee that their
diets will be more adequate. Fraper food selection is
important at whatever level of food expenditure one can
afford.

Table 8 shows the least expensive combinations of
foods that would provide the amounts of nutrients present
in the actual diets of the families. Nineteen of the
forty families had food consumption records for two days.
the rest had a record for one day. There was a total of
fifty-seven diets (excluding the two diets with total
food expenditure less than the cost of the least-cost
diets). There were twenty-three foods which appeared in
the Optimal solutions of the least-cost diets. These
foods (and the frequency of their occurrence in both the
least-cost and actual diets) are given in Table 9.

Either milk (raw or pasteurized) or cheese was pre-
sent in all fifty-seven least-cost diets. Some kind of

corn12 was in all diets. vegetable oil in forty-four diets

 

2
1 In the various cities. different kinds of corn

were available to the Colombian families studied.

 

 

 

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61

and whole oranges in forty-three diets. These foods -
milk, corn. vegetable oil and oranges formed what may be
called the "core" group of foods. Although the actual
diets differed from family to family within a city and
from city to city. this “core" group of foods was common
to nearly all of the diets. Among the common supplements
to this "core" group were vegetables (carrots and cab-
bage), legumes (black beans, dry peas and dry lentils)
or beef. Beef was in the cheapest combination of foods
only for Bogota. In some of the least-cost diets, other
cereals (barley and rice). tubers (potatoes, cassava and
arracacha) and plantain were added to corn. the main sta-
ple food in all the cities except Cartagena. There, pota-
toes, rice and plantain formed the bulk of the diet.
Panela (unrefined brown sugar cake) was present in
twenty-two of the least-cost diets. It is a common item
in the actual diets of the Colombians, being consumed
between meals and with meals as agga de panela (panela
dissolved in water) or panela in milk (used widely as a

 

Yellow corn was either the Bogota or Caldas variety; the
latter has ten times as much vitamin A as the former.
Because of problems in transportation and distribution,
yellow corn from Bogota may have been available only in
Bogota and yellow corn from Caldas, in the rest of the
cities. Corn, both yellow and white. were consumed either
as whole corn, degermed corn or as corn flour. The de-
germed corn called "maiz trillado", has less iron, thia-
mine. riboflavin.and niacin than either whole corn or corn
flour.

62

food for infants).

There were a total of 101 different food items in
the actual diets of the families. Of these, however,
twenty-seven appeared no more than once in any of the
diets and thirty-six in only two to nine of the diets.
Sixty-three of the 101 food items in the actual diets then
were not generally consumed by these working-class fami-
lies. Beef was in thirty-seven actual diets but was in-
cluded in only six of the least-cost diets. Thirty fami-
lies had milk (or cheese) in their actual diets. Vegeta-
ble oil was in forty-six of the actual diets and in forty-
four of the least-cost diets.

Table 10 and Figures 0a and #b give a comparison of
the percentage contributions of the various food groups
to the total costs of the actual diets and of the least-
cost diets that would provide for each family the nu-
trients it actually consumed. The total cost of the
actual diet of an average Colombian working-class family
was divided among the different food groups as follows:
30.50 percent from meat, 26.12 from cereals, 19.73 from
tubers and plantain, 9.23 from fats, 5.01 from legumes,
3.73 from milk, 3.14 from miscellaneous foods, 2.27 from
vegetables and 0.27 from fruits. On the other hand, the
total cost of the least-cost diets that would have pro-

vided the same nutrients as the actual diet was apportioned

 

63

 

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VARIOUS FOOD GROUPS TO THE TOTAL COSTS OF THE ACTUAL

DIETS

66

 

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FIGURE 4b.--PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
VARIOUS FOOD GROUPS TO THE TOTAL COSTS OF THE LEAST-
COST DIETS THAT NOULD PROVIDE THE ACTUAL LEVELS OF
NUTRIENT INTAKE

3Because the contribution of meats. legumes and

miscellaneous food groups is very small, the percentage
values have been added and represented as -.

67

thus: 35.05 percent from cereals, 33.15 from milk,
17.05 from tubers and plantain, 7.39 from fats, 2.74
from fruits, 2.59 from vegetables. 1.55 from legumes,
0.33 from miscellaneous foods and 0.15 from meat. Ce-
reals, tubers and plantain together account for the
major part of the total food expenditure in both diets.
Meat had the biggest percentage contribution to the to-
tal food expenditure in the actual diet but the smallest
in the least-cost diet.

The primary difference between the two types of']
diets is the change in the percentage contribution of
milk and meat. Together the two account for about 33 to
34 percent of the total expenditure for food in both the
actual and least-cost diets. However, for the country as
a whole, the milk cost contribution increased from 3.73
percent in the actual diet to 33.15 percent in the least-
cost diet, while the meat cost contribution decreased

,r—.

from 30.50 percent to 0.15 percent In none of the least-

cost diets was money allocated for the purchase of meat
except in the city of Bogota. Among the other changes
from the actual diets to the least-cost diets were an
8.93 percentage point increase in cereals accompanied by
a 2.68 percentage point decrease in tubers and plantain

and a tenfold increase in the eXpenditure for fruits.
Since the model for finding least-cost diets did not ex-

68

plicitly consider palatability and taste preferences,
the eXpenditure for miscellaneous items in these diets
was only 0.33 Percent as against 3.1# percent in the
actual diet. The "miscellaneous" item in the least-
cost diet is unrefined brown sugar.

Tables 11 and Figures 5a and 5b indicate the per-
centage contributions of the various food groups to the
total Calories in the actual diets and in the least-cost
diets that would provide the actual nutrient intake.
Cereals were the major source of Calories in both diets,
39 percent of the total caloric intake in the actual
diets and 61 percent in the least-cost diets. Compared
with the actual diets, there was a decrease in the least-
cost diets of the percentage contribution to total Ca1-
ories of four food groups: tubers and plantain - from
35.37 to 19.7? Percent, fats - from 10.71 to 7.76 percent,
meats - from 6.96 to 0.02 percent and miscellaneous foods-
from 1.63 to 0.03 percent. However, the caloric contri-
bution of milk rose from 1.61 to 10.10 percent.

The cereal foods in the least-cost diets were corn
(present in 60 diets), barley (16) and rice (5). The
actual diets had rice (#7), corn (#2) and barley (3)
and in addition, bread (32), noodles (15). wheat (2) and

oats (1).

 

69

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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72

 

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FIGURE 5b.--PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
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LEVELS OF NUTRIENT INTAKE

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legumes. fruits and miscellaneous foods is very small.
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added and represented as [Z] .

73

The main tuber in the least-cost diet was arra-
cacha (which was present in 28 diets); other tubers were
potatoes (11) and cassava (3). The tubers in the actual
diets were potato (40), cassava (20), and arracacha (6).
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diets. Other tubers in the actual but not in the least-
cost diets were yam (3) and sweet potato (1).

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contributions of the various food groups to the total
protein in the actual diet and the least-cost diets which
would provide the actual nutrient intake of an average
family. In both diets, cereals were the major source of
protein. They accounted for 44.44 percent of the total
protein in the actual diet and 62.08 percent in the
least-cost diets. Meat and milk together account for about
28 percent of the total protein in both the actual and
least-cost diets. Meat decreased in importance as a
protein source in the least-cost diets, making up only
0.04 percent of the total protein (but providing 23.02
percent in the actual diet). The change from actual to
least-cost diets was also characterized by an increase
in the protein derived from milk (4.95 to 28.62 percent).
a decrease in protein from legumes (11.78 to 2.89 percent)
and a decrease in tubers and plantain as sources of pro-

tein (12.40 to 4.87 percent).

74'

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ACTUAL DIETS

76

 

 

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FIGURE 6b.--PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE

VARIOUS FOOD GROUPS TO THE TOTAL PROTEIN IN THE
LEAST-COST DIETS THAT WOULD PROVIDE THE ACTUAL
LEVELS OF NUTRIENT INTAKE

3Because the contribution of meats, legumes
and tubers and plantain is very small, the percentage
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bThe contributions of meats and others have
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77

Although food habits are far from unchangeable, a
Specific change may be more easily brought about if the
existing dietary patterns of the peeple are not changed
substantially. Since all the foods in the least-cost
diets were in the list of those commonly consumed by
Colombian working-class families, those who may choose
these diets would not be faced with making major changes
in their patterns of food consumption. The change in!
volved is not one of accepting a new food but of changing
the relative prOportions of the different foods to be
eaten. This would mean allocating the food peso among
the different foods differently. Among the Colombian
families studied, this would mean spending less for meat,
tubers and plantain and more for milk and cereals and
doing away with essentially all miscellaneous food items
(except unrefined brown sugar).

The least-cost diets based on a purely nutritional
model will not be acceptable to all the pe0ple involved.
This does not mean, however, that they are of little
practical use. Knowing the most efficient foods for a
particular group of pe0ple will be useful in providing a
guide for agricultural policies and for indicating where
the emphasis must be placed with regard to nutrition edu-
cation. Minimum cost subsistence diets provide a measure

of the capacity of a country to feed itself. A useful

 

 

 

78

measure of the extent of the food problem in any country
would be the ratio of the production actually available

to the production that would be required to provide every-
one a least-cost subsistence diet (3, page 6).

One of the criticisms against least-cost diets ob-
tained by linear programming and based on a purely nutri-
tional model is the lack of variety or monotony. Elma
once remarked that "a computer can live cheaper than a
human being because it has no taste buds" (37). Some
individuals and families willingly sacrifice nutrition
and economy for the sake of palatability. variety in meals
is one of the guidelines for dietitians when planning menus.
They look at it as one way of insuring an.adequate intake
of certain nutrients known to be essential to the body,
but for which levels of recommended intake are not known
as yet. And yet, in Spite of all the importance attached
to variety in meals, there really is no measure of mono-
tony or its absence when describing diets. When is a
diet monotonous and when is it not? How many food items
must there be in a diet before it can be considered a
"varied diet"? It is meaningful at this point to ask the
' question raised by D. Lee at a symposium on Nutrition and
Behaviour (38). "Is eating monotony peculiar to the eco-
nomy of plenty?" Is the desire for a whole array of foods

in the diet a particular expression of an affluent socie-

79

ty's broader tendency to seek, sooner or later, varia-
tions in an activity? One can readily find instances of
ethnic groups subsisting upon essentially repetitive or
"monotonous" diets. These are societies where what may
be valued is sameness, not variety; where monotony is
good and sought. Does it matter as much that a diet
contains only four to eight foods (as is true with the
least-cost diets obtained in this study) as the fact that
the diet, in Spite of the limited foods it contains, pro-
vides the necessary nutrients? Dr. Porter13 calls the
emphasis on "variety in foods" among most Westerners a
"fetish"; the investigator regards it as a luxury few I
can afford. Most peOple in Asia are lucky and content
if they can have something to eat.

It may be a little pessimistic but certainly not
out of line to think that some day man cannot choose
his foods as he is now able to do. He will only be conp
cerned with getting whatever available food he needs in
order to survive, not with what he prefers to eat. Least-
cost diets based on a purely nutritional model provide
one with a list of the least expensive and most efficient

combinations of foods for meeting nutrient needs. These

 

13Personal communication with Dr. Thelma Porter,
former Dean of the College of Home Economics at Michigan
State University in East Lansing, Michigan.

80

are the apprOpriate foods that must be made available at
a time when free choice of food is no more any man's

: privilege. That these combinations of foods will be

‘ accepted in the long-run is not impossible. The gen-
eral acceptance in England of potato as a food (where
for some two hundred years it was regarded with sus-
picion and reputed to be poisonous) is convincing proof
that the prejudices of a nation, however deeply rooted,
are by no means unconquerable. Mckenzie, in discussing
the dynamics of accomplished change (39), suggests that
the more likely explanations for this can be found in:
(a) a growing need for staples with a high yield as the
result of a rapidly growing population and, at the same
time, a declining prOportion of the population working
on the land; (b) the favorable soil and climate in areas
of growing population; (c) a crap which was easy to store.
Thus the gradual operation of economic and social incen-
tives within the community may have persuaded the farmer
to change his crOps and the consumer to change his choice
of foods. Incentives within the community rather than
abrupt pressure from outside for change may have brought
about the desired effect. What was it in history that made
other food changes internally and externally consistent
with the beliefs of peOple and what conditioning brought

about the agreement to change?

81

Of course, it is an oversimplification of the
problem to think that all will be well once peOple are
made aware of the relative value of the different foods.
One only has to refer to recent attempts to st0p peOple
from smoking to realize the complexity of the problem.
This is not to say that education will not modify atti-
tudes but merely to emphasize the need for considerable
research to see under what circumstances nutrition edu-
cation can become successful and which teaching tech-

niques are the most effective.

(N1 gram—1n v

J- A“ .LA—ng ‘1

IJT“L ‘ “1T1 COS 'jmh 1‘ "\A UD AEYD MTPDIJH h- *7me ‘1D “Tl-Fm?

A—O‘L VJ.- V-£‘L. A4“ Vs ‘ A d....‘ «A 4..-“; Q

This study used linear programming to compute

-icted minimum level and at th e more generous Colombian
level. As with the least-cost diets which provided the
existing level of nutriti o11al intalfe for the Color bians
studied, the diets for these stand.1rds were based on a
purely nutritional model. The foods in the least-cost
diets that would provide each family with the Specified
nutritiona needs are presented in Appendix 7. There was
much less variation in dietary patterns among these least-
cost diets than among the least-cost diets which would

have provided the actual nutrients consumed by the families
studied. There were nineteen different combinations of
foods in the least-cos t minimum- standard diets (seventeen
for the least-cost Colombian-stan ard diets) an d fifty-

six in the least-cost diets providing the actual nutrient
intakes (see Table 8). In Bogota, for example, all of

the twenty- five least-cost diets IJhiCh provided the Colom-

bian nutrient allowances were composed of the same five

82

83

foods — whole milk, oranges, carrots, corn and barley.

The twenty-five least-cost diets which provided the level
of nutrients in the actual diets exhibited twenty differ-
ent combinations of some ten foods, almost one pattern for
each of the daily diets. This wide variation in dietary
pattern reflected the considerable differences in actual
nutrient intake between families.

The foods and the frequency of their appearance in
both the least—cost minimum—standard and Colombian-stand-
rd diets are presented in Table 13. The same foods ap-
peared in both sets of diets except for the addition of

rice and barley in the Colombian-standard diets. The
foods in the "core" group are milk, corn and oranges,
These foods appeared in most of the least~cost diets
despite differences in family composition and differences
in prices of commodities between cities. In some diets,
both milk and cheese were present. In others, too, more
than one kind of corn appeared in the diets. Supple—
ments to the "core" group included the addition of veg—
etables (carrots and cabbage), legumes (dry lentils and
black beans), tubers (arracacha, potato and cassava) and
green plantain, vegetable oil or unrefined brown sugar.
Table 6 (page #5) and Figure 3 (page 47) give the

daily per capita cost of the least-cost minimum and stand-

8#'

' 1"",‘1‘1':‘ 0
‘LAJL J o

EIZLMUM Ada COLCKEIAN STANDARDS
(SNIMAL PROTEIN susuzzss)
U

”3.177113 7"" 1? 0017.3 If“? T713 LE-".IS'Z‘-Ci 5‘73

1

 

 

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85

ard diets. In each of the cities, the per person cost

of the least-cost diets was less than the cost of the
actual diets consumed. For Colombia as a whole, the
average actual food expenditure per person per day was
$1.51, seventy-seven centavos more than the average cost
of the least-cost minimum-standard diet (with an allowance
for animal protein).and forty-six centavos more than the
average cost of the least-cost Colombian-standard diet
(animal protein required).

Figure 3 also shows that for the least-cost stand-
ard diets, whether minimum or Colombian, the least cost
of providing for the nutritional needs is less when
animal protein is required in the diet than when the
source of protein is left unspecified. It was pointed
out earlier that since there was no way of knowing in
advance whether it would be less expensive to meet pro-
tein needs by consuming all vegetable protein, all animal
protein or a combination of both, protein allowances were
set at two levels. One level was appropriate for a
mixed diet with a biological value of sixty and the
other was apprOpriate for a mixed diet with a biological
value of eighty. In the model that used the former level,
there was no restriction set on the kind of protein in
the diet (except for small amounts of animal protein to

provide for the protein needs of an infant in a family

86

were used for the minimum and Colombian standards, with
protein source unsnecified, and KS(A.) and CS(AP) for

minimum and Colombian standards with animal protein re-

‘40

quire‘. laole 6 indicates that for each of the c ties

(except Cartagena), the least-cost KS AP) diets cost from
one to seven centavos less than the leas t- cost MS diets
while the costs of the CS(AP) diets were either equal to
or less than the costs of the C3 diets by two to seven

centavos. On the averat capita cost of the

L1
(D

.
V
b
I
(3
'1

CS(AP) diet was two centavos less than the NS diets while

the per capita cost of the CS(AP) diets was three cen-
tavos less than the CS diets. In forty-four of the

fifty-seven least-cost minimum-stc.ndard diets, the

IS(AP) diets cost less than the IS diets. Although the

s that might accrue from consuming foods in the
KS(AP) diets ins tea d of those in the KS diets may be
small, the cost comparison made between the two types of
diets pointed out the fallacy in believing that diets
which require animal sources of protein are more eXpensive

th an those which do not.

 

 

87

Table 14 lists the foods (and their amounts) in
the least-cost minimum-standard diets, with and without
an allowance for animal protein for the families stud-
ied. Analysis of the data for Bogota reveals the dif-
ference between the MS and MS(AP) diets. Both types of
diets had whole milk, oranges, carrots and yellow corn
from Bogota. However, the MS(AP) diets (which were less
expensive than the KS diets for ten families) contained
whole milk (an average increase per family of 480 grams),
more yellow corn (an average increase per family of 230
grams), and no dry beans.

The same kind of analysis of basic changes from
the MS to the MS(AP) diets in other cities reveals the
following:

a) In Cali, there was an increase in milk,
and a decrease in yellow corn from Caldas.

1
b) In Ibague, there was an increase in milk
and a decrease in crushed yellow corn
and yellow corn flour.

0) In Manizales, the amount of milk in the.
diet was increased.

- !
d) In hedellin, there was an increase in
cheese and a decrease in crushed white
corn and yellow corn flour.

I
e) In Pepayan, milk was increased while dry
lentils and crushed yellow corn decreased.

f) In Villavicencio, there was more milk and
less yellow corn flour.

 

88

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91

In general, the major responsibility of providing
for the protein in the diet, im stead of be ng shared by
milk, corn and/or be aIn s(as in the lea: t—cost minimum-
standard diets I.'hcre the source of protein ?IaS not Speci-
fied) wI-s shifted largely to whole milk pith a decrea
in the contribution of corn a nd le Q‘umes in the least-

ost minimum standard diets which required animal pro-
tein. U-hile it is not possible to generalize for the
IIhole country from the peculiarities observed in certain
sections of that country, it would seem, at least for
the sample 8 Midied, that milk should have been an im-
portant food in the diets of the families studied - in
both the nutritional and economic we se. This obser-
ation suggests that although all of the efforts to
improve the quality of mixtures low in protein content
are very useful, present interest in vegetable protein
sources should not detract from the recognition that
milk is a good and less eh pensive source of protein than
is commonly believed and that its production must be
considered of prime importance.1

It has usually been assumed that protein from
animal sources is more e} :pensive than vegetable proteinS.
Certainly, in this study eggs, meat or meat products
were not in any of the least-cost standard diets. How-

ever, as seen from the comparison of the MS and MS(AP)

92

diets, and con rary to pOpular Opinion, milk in the
right combination with other foods was a less expensive
source of protein than legumes. This reminds us again
of the importance of relating the nutritional worth of a
food to its market price. The present concept of
"costliness" of foods has been more or less arbitrarily
based. The next chapter considers an apprOpriate basis
for comparing the monetary and nutritional values of

foodstuffs.
Least-Cost Supplementary Diets

Once the nutritional adequacy or inadequacy of
actual diets has been established, the nex step is to
determine the most efficient way of overcoming their
inadequacy. Linear programming was used, not only to
obtain least-cost diets t.at would provide the actual
level of nutrient intake of the amilies and least-cost
diets that would meet the recommended allowances, but
also to determine the least expersive way of supplementing
the actual diets so that their nutrient content would be
at least equal to the level set by the dietary standards.
The nutrients in the supplementary diets then were those
needed to close the gap be ween the actual nutrient in-
take and the recommended allowance. As with the other
'types of least-cost diets, a purely nutritional model was

11sed.

quate nutrition is supplementation of the actual diets.
The question is not how inexpensively these families

could have provided their existin3 level of nutritional
intake nor how inexpe ns ively they could obtain the set

of recommended nutrient allowances but rather, given the

actual diet, how they could supplement it in the least
cost y way. Vhat one measures then is the esse atial

minimum in creas e in e: penditure 1e ee:_ed to ma lze Up the
nutritional shorta3e by addin3 foods to an existin3 die
which remains otherwise unchan3 ed.

Table 15 slows the least—cost lonerulry die ts
for the families in 3o3ota. It 3ives the least expensive
combination of foods that would provide enou3h nutrients
to make the actual diet nutritionally adequate accord-
ing to the minimum standard (animal protein required).
For the whole group of families, the daily per capita
cost of the supplementary diets is 25 centavos in order
to meet the MS(AP) needs (this is 18 percent of the per
capita total expenditure for food) and 39 centavos in
order to reach the level set by the CS(AP) standard

(this is 30 percent of the actual per capita expenditure

Ifor food, $1.30). The families differed widely in the

 

 

 

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96

 

 

(1) (2) (3) (4) Nutrient oeficicncies
I p
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C"lcium 01h.0
Riboflavin 0.8
Total yrotein 31.0
10 3 6.82 52.94 h? Vitfini" A ?oo82.o
C"lorie€ 70(7.6
Animel brotein 76.1
Cilcivm 2055.0
Riboflrvin 2.3
Totfil nrotein 1h6.6
Fat 211.9
11 5.12 1.90 35 Viffiflin A 11538.5
Calories 1H70.0
Anibal “rot-in 40.h
Cnlcium l7h1.5
Riboflavin 2.0
Totel “rotein 109.5
FPt 23.8
Ascorbic ocii 5.5
12 2.70 2.27 84 Vitfimin A 13h87.0
Calorie: 3903.8
Afiimal nrotein 66.1
Celcium 1630.2
Riboflavin 2.5
Total frotein 1h7.9
Tat 33.1
Ascorbic acid U9.5
Iron 9.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

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'The units used for the nutrients ere:

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International Writs for vitfimin A.

1';
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98

adequacy of their actual diets and, therefore, in the
kind of supplementary diets they needed. The number of
nutrient deficiencies for the Bogota families ranges from
one for Family 1 to nine for Family 12. Three foods

ap‘eared in most of the diets - whole milk, yellow corn

3

('u

.nd carrots. In addition, one or two families Lad brown

,
“CBS or cry peas.

C’)
5:
L3

ar, oran
The least costly W3" for Family 1 to eliminate its
33 percent deficiency in vitamin A would be to Spend an
extra ten centavos, 1 percent of its actual food expend-
iture, for 0.09 kg of milk and 0.05 kg of carrots. am-
ily 2, which was deficient in vitamin A by 57 percent and
in Calories by 16 percent rust spend an extra sixty-
seven centavos adding four percent to the total family
expenditure for food) to procure 0.58 kg of yellow corn,
0.16 kg of carrots and 0.13 kg of brown sugar. Families
3, 4 and 5 were deficient in the same nutrients (although
in different degrees) but differed in the foods needed to
eliminate the d ficiencies rest efficiently. Family 4
needed only silk; Family 5 needed milk and carrots, while
Family 3 needed milk, carrots and yellow corn. Family 12,

t
he most deficient among the Bogota families, could have

('1'

an adequate diet if it added 2.07 k; of whole milk, 1.02

ks of yellow corn, 0.17 k” of carrots ard 0.06 k; of whole

“Q 4%:

CL

-ing n

:9

orange to its actual diet; this would mean Spen

99

This study presents two alternative ways of pro-
viding for adesua te nutrition anon: the families studied.
One way is to alter the existir: dietary patterns by im-
posinj Upon the families th e least-co: t diet: which wou,d
provide either the minimum or Colombian set of nutrient
allowances. The other way is to retain the actial diets
and make up for the deficit in nutritional intake by
supplementing the actual Ciets in the least costly ray.
The followin: presents the economics involved in these
two approaches, usinr data from the families in Bogota.

. Supplementation of actual diets
A. Average actual daily per capita eXpenditure H
on food - Q1.30

Average daily per capita cost of supplementir:
the actizal diet to meet the LS(eP) allO'.Jances a0.

E. Average actual daily per capitae expenditur
on food - 01.30

Average daily per capita cost of supplementing
the actual diet to meet the CS(AP) allowances

 

II. Least-cost minimum and Colombian-standard diets

A. Avera;c daily per card -ta cost of L.‘3(.»A D) diet - 90.64
3. Average daily pei capita cost of CS( 9) diet - 90.85
Th; average total cost involved in not chan ing the ex-
isting dietary patterhs and making up the nutrient short-

3~m by supplementation is fi1.5@ if the objective is to

meet the minimum set of allowances (Q1.o9, using the

100

Colombian set of allowances). The alternative way is to
spend $0.64 for the foods in the least-cost diets that
will provide the nutrients as Specified in L3(AP) or

88 for those in CS(AP). This latter ep-roach reans
Spending $0.90 less (IA - IIA) or $0.84 less (IB- IIB).
It als means an extra expenditure to educate families
to accept a new combination of common foods. Whether,

in the long run, one method is less expensive and more

efficient than the other remains to be proven. This study

provides n lic cy make rs with a means of evaluating the
two approaches . A quantitative measure of the relative

(D

merits of one or th other is important to those who are
involved in food pro odu uction and nutrition education

programs.

CHAPTER VI
HARGINAL COSTS OF NUTRIENTS

People usually think in terms of money when they
buy food. There are different ways of relating the nutri-
tional worth of a food with its market price. One way is
to consider the food that gives the greatest amount of a
single nutrient A for every peso Spent on the food as the
most economical source of nutrient A. Thus it is said
that milk is an economical source of calcium, carrots of
vitamin A, oranges of ascorbic acid and so on. Iowever,
knowing the least expensive source of one nutrient does
not necessarily mean knowing the least expensive food.

If sugar, for example, costs five centavos per 1000
Calories and tomatoes, one dollar and fifty centavos,

are tomatoes then thirty times as expensive as sugar?

The method is unfair because foods usually contain more
than just one nutrient and in addition, while one food
may be an inexpensive source of one nutrient, it may not
be of all the others. To determine whether one food is
more economical than another with reSpect to all nutrients
requires that weights be assigned to each nutrient so that
one can compute some average measure of the efficiency of

spending a peso on any food. Sherman and Gilette were the

101

102

first to attempt to give a weight to the various nu-
trients (40). They assigned to a list of common foods

a composite value obtained by scoring five nutritional
elements - Calories, protein, calcium, phoSphorus and
iron. The values used were forty for Calories and fif-
teen for each of the other four elements. The weights
were chosen arbitrarily. and there is no way at present

of evaluating them. According to their calculations,
based on the 1915 price level. meat and fish. fatty foods
and fruits were the eXpensive foods, whereas milk. cereal.
sweets and vegetables were relatively low in price. Al-
though better than the method in which only one nutrient
is taken into consideration. this second method is still
unsatisfactory because the weights ascribed were arbitrary
and may not have been at all in line with the real need
for the nutrients. There is a need to determine weights
for the nutrients which would actually represent man's
need for each of them. Only when there is a solution to
this problem will an analysis of food expenditure and food
economy have a real meaning.

Until the develoPment of linear programming, there
has been no satisfactory method of determining what part
of the price of a certain food is to be regarded as the
cost of each of the nutrients contained in the food. It

is interesting that as a routine part of the linear pro-

103

gramming solution to the least-cost diet problem, one
obtains the least cost of adding one unit of a par-
ticular nutrient to a diet with a specific set of nu—
tritional objectives. This cost will be called the net
marginal cost of a nutrient. The addition is made in
such a way that the diet continues to satisfy all the
other restrictions in the diet model. For example, the
marginal cost of protein in a least-cost diet that pro-
vides 1000 Calories, 70 gm of protein and #00 mg of cal-
cium is the cost of adding one more unit of protein to
the diet (if one unit of protein is equal to 1 gm, the
total protein content of the diet is then increased to 71
gm), without changing the levels of Calories and calcium.
This is done by buying a little more of some commodities
and a little less of the others with the quantity of
foods being so chosen so as not to cnange the level of
the nutrient allowances which were exactly fulfilled,
except for that one nutrient which is to be increased by
one unit. The marginal costs reflect the extra expend-
witure needed to obtain a small increase in the quantity of
a Specific nutrient in the diet. They are the costs of
obtaining nutrients through the market and are therefore
sensitive to changes in the market prices of foods that
are in the least-cost diets. They are also the costs of

providing for a Specified set of nutritional allowances

101}

and as such reflect the particular dietary standard and
may change when the standard changes. hey are appro-
priate to use in finding an index for choosing the least
eXpensive foods and the most economical diets.

The marginal costs of nutrients take into account
the fact that although all the nutrients for which allow—
ances have been formulated in the dietary standard are
equally important, not all of them are equally costly.
Some nutrients are diffi ult to obtain from foods com-
monly sold in the market while others are relatively
abundant in foods,selling at low prices. The marginal
cost values measure the difficulty of obtaining each
nutrient through the market. Nutrients that are hard
to come by and for which the dietary allowances are met
only at the minimum level are called the "scarce" nu-
trients. Some nutrients may be costless in the sense
that one need not add to the cost of the least-cost diet
in order to obtain them in adequate amounts. For example,
in the course of providing the recommended amounts of
calcium, riboflavin and Calories, the least-cost minimum-
standard diet may incidentally provide more than the rec-
ommended amounts of carbohydrate, iron, phOSphorus and
fat. The first three nutrients are the "scarce" nutrients

while the last four are "costless". The cost of the least-

105

cost diet will not be decreased by reducing the allow-
ances for the costless nutrients nor will it be increased
if the allowances for them were increased by less than the
amount of the excess. Suppose a least-cost diet obtained
by linear programming provided exactly the minimum allow-
ances for Calories, calcium and riboflavin. Suppose also
that in the course of providing these "scarce" nutrients
the diet also provided 5 mg more than the minimum allow-
ance for iron and 10 mg more than the minimum allowance
for niacin. If the cost of this least-cost diet were
fifty centavos, increasing the minimum allowance for iron
by adding less than 5 mg or for niacin, by adding less
than 10 mg would not increase the cost of the diet.

The net marginal cost of nutrients is expressed in
Table 16 as the cost in pesos of providing ten percent
of the minimum standard allowance for each nutrient.1LP
The marginal costs were obtained from the Optimal solu-
tions of the least-cost minimum-standard diets for the
standard family in each of the eight cities. The concept
of a standard family was used to facilitate the descrip-

tion and comparison of diets between cities. The hypo-

 

14
There are two marginal cost values for Calories,

one is the cost of adding Calories only and the other is
the cost of adding Calories and the B-vitamins associated
with it, according to the ratios Specified in the model.
The B-vitamins are thiamine, riboflavin and niacin.

106

thetical family was composed of a 31 to 39 year old male,
a pregnant female 20 to 29 years of age and four chidren
with ages ranging from one to nine years. The minimum

and Colombian standard allowances per day for the stand-

ard family are:

Nutrient MS(AP) allowance CS(AP) allowance
Calories 9740 12000
Total protein 237 gm 293 gm
Animal protein 78 gm 97 gm
Fat 108 gm 132 gm
Calcium 2800 mg 4400 mg
PhOSphorus 2800 mg 4400 mg
Iron 39 mg 70 mg
Vitamin A 13100 IU 22500 IU
Ascorbic acid 130 mg 275 mg
Thiamine 3 mg 6.1 mg
Riboflavin 5.1 mg 7.2 mg
Niacin 30 mg 79.9 mg

Since the composition of the standard family stays

constant in all cities, the difference in the marginal

cost of the same nutrient from one city to another reflects
the differences in market conditions in these cities, 1.8.,
the foods commonly available and the prices of these

foods.

AS shown in Table 16 there was a marginal cost for
Calories and animal protein in all cities. Calories were
the most expensive of the nutrient elements to obtain from
the market except in Manizales and Popayan. The nutrients
with the highest marginal cost for these two cities were

riboflavin and total protein, reSpectively. Animal protein

107'

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108

was usually the second most costly nutrient in the diet.

0n the average, in the eight cities the cost of adding

ten percent of the minimum standard allowance for Calories
(97@ Calories) and animal protein (7.8 gm) was 15 centa-
vos for the former and 11 centavos for the latter.

In the course of providing the minimum allowances
for Calories, animal protein, vitamin A and ascorbic acid,
the foods in the least-cost diet for the standard family
in Bogota incidentally provided more than the recommended
amounts of total protein, fat, calcium, phOSphorus, iron,
thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. In this particular case,
eight of the twelve nutrients were costless at the margin.
This means that the cost of the least-cost diet would
not be increased if the allowances for these nutrients
were increased by less than the amount of the excess. In
general, about five to Six out of the twelve nutrients
(nine for Medellin and seven for POpayan) had a marginal
cost and were, therefore, the nutrients which were hard
to obtain from the foods commonly bought in the market.

These nutrients differed for the same standard family

in different cities. In all eight cities, thiamine and“ I

I

/
phOSphorus were costless. 4

Since the marginal costs reflect a Specific set of

nutritional objective, they will differ as the dietary

109

standard used differs. For example, on the average,
1000 Calories cost 16 centavos in the standard family's
MS(AP) diet and 10 centavos in the CS(AP) diet. Table 17
shows the marginal costs of nutrients in the least-cost
Colombianpstandard diet for the standard family in the
different cities.15 Calories and calcium were the most
expensive nutrient in 3 cities. niacin in 1 city and iron
in another. The standard family in every city faced a
marginal cost for Calories, niacin and vitamin A. On the
average. in the eight cities. the marginal costs of pro-
viding ten percent of the allowance for Calories (1200
Calories), niacin (8 mg) and vitamin A (2250 IU) were 13.
9 and 4 centavos. reSpectively. PhOSphorus was costless
in every city. Depending upon which level of nutritional
allowances was imposed, there was a difference in the set
of nutritional elements which had marginal costs and/or
the cost of providing ten percent of the allowance for
the expensive nutrients. These comparisons between
cities and between dietary standards point out the fact
that the marginal costs reflect both changes in the price
of commodities and in the set of nutritional allowances
used. They also indicate that the same nutritional needs"

are more costly to satisfy in some places than in others.

\

 

15As in Table 16, there are two marginal cost values
for Calories, one for Calories only and another for Cal-
ories with the associated B-vitamins.

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111

The marginal cost figures computed from a purely
nutritional model provide a consistent allocation of the
total expenditure for food among the several nutritional
objectives. Thus, in the least-cost minimum-standard
diet for the standard family in Bogota. the 9700 Calories
required. at 22 centavos per thousand Calories. repre-
sented a total cost of $2.10. The next most costly allow-
ance to fulfill was the one for animal protein. At 15
centavos for every ten gm, the 78 gm required had a total
cost of $1.20. Vitamin A was the third most expensive
nutrient. with a total cost of $0.20 for 13100 IU. at
one centavo per one thousand IU of the vitamin. The
cost of 130 mg of ascorbic acid was $0.10 at $0.008 per
10 mg. Where the objective is purely nutritional, as
in this study. the total cost of the least-cost diet is
equal to the sum of the costs of the individual nutri-
ents. For example. the cost to the standard family in
' Bogota of obtaining 100 percent of all the recommended
! minimum nutrient allowances was $3.60 - this was the sum
of the costs allocated to the different expensive nu-
trients, $2.10 for Calories. $1.20 for animal protein.
$0.20 for vitamin.A and $0.10 for ascorbic acid. These
allocations of total nutrient costs are the appropriate
M indications of the relative difficulty of providing the

112

different nutrients through the purchase of ordinary
foods. They are more meaningful than expressing mar-
ginal cost per unit of nutrient, for the units in which

nutrients are ordinarily measured are arbitrary.

The Marginal Efficiency of Foods

 

The marginal costs of nutrients are the prOper
measures to use in valuing each of the nutrients con-
tained in a food. When the quantity of each nutrient
is multiplied by the marginal cost of that nutrient, the
sum of these products gives the aggregate monetary value
of the nutrients obtained. Dr. Smith (3, page 122)
defines the marginal efficiency of any food as the result
of dividing its market price into the aggregate monetary
value of its nutrients.

The least-cost diet which would provide the stand-
ard family in Bogota with all of the recommended Colom-
bian-standard nutrient allowances was made up of 3.36 kg
of whole cow's milk, 0.35 kg of whole orange, 0.26 kg
of carrots, 0.15 kg of barley and 2.88 kg of yellow corn
from Bogota. This least-cost diet gave a marginal cost
for Calories, calcium, vitamin A, ascorbic acid and nia-
cin. The other nutrients were adequately provided in the
course of providing the five "scarce" nutrients. An

example of the computation made to measure the marginal

 

u» ——-
I

 

 

113

efficiency of whole cow's milk is as follows:

Nutrient Composition of harginal Aggregate value
cow's milk cost of nutrients
(per ks)
Calories 600 Calories $0.104/1000 $0.062
Calcium 1200 ms 0.047/100 mg 0.564
Ascorbic acid 20 mg 0.006/10 mg 0.012
Vitamin A 1500 IU 0.001/100 IU 0.015

Niacin 1 mg 0.015/mg 0.013
9390 0

The marginal efficiency of milk is 100 percent. This
was obtained by dividing the aggregate monetary value
of the nutrients in a kilogram of milk ($0.67) by its
market price ($0.67 per kg) and multiplying the quotient
by 100.
Since milk was also present in the Optimal solution

I to the least-cost diet problem which would provide the
standard family with the MS(AP) allowances, one can also
use the marginal costs of nutrients obtained in this diet
to Show that milk has a percentage efficiency of 100.
The computation is Shown below.

Nutrient Composition of M rginal Aggregate value

cow's milk cost of nutrients
(per kg

Calories 600 Calories $0.217/1000 $0.130
Animal protein 30 gm 0.149/10 gm 0.507
Vitamin A 1500 IU 0.001/100 IU 0.015
Ascorbic acid 20 mg 0.008/10 mg 0.016
$0.

Dividing the aggregate monetary value of the nutrients

in one kg of milk ($0.67) by its market price ($0.67 per

11“

kg) and multiplyirg the quotient by 100 gives a marginal

efficiency of 100 percent for milk.

#-

Both the least-cost MS(AP) and CS(AP) diets gave
positive Marginal costs for Calories, vitamin A and
ascorbic acid. The major contributor to the aggregate
monetary value of the nutrients in milk, based on the
marginal costs obtained in the KS(AP) diet was animal
protein and calcium, based on the marginal costs ob-
tained in the CS(AP) diet. The high marginal efficiency
of milk in the MS(AP) diet can be emplained by the large
monetary value of animal protein, while the large monetary
worth of calcium explains the high marginal efficiency
of milk in the CS(AP) diet.

The marginal efficiency of a food assigns a high
value to nutrients that are difficult to obtain through
the market (the "scarce" nutrients) and zero value to
nutrients (the "costless" nutrients) which are provided
in the course of providing the scarce nutrients. In a
diet model that has purely nutritional objectives, the
aggregate monetary value of the nutrients in each food
in the least-cost diet equals the price of the food,
giving each one a marginal efficiency of 100 percent. 1
If a food is not sufficiently economical to be included
in the diet, the sum of the value of its nutrients is

less than its price. It is characteristic of an Optimal

115

solution to a linear programming model that all the foods
in the least-cost diet have an efficiency of 100 percent.
Every food that does not belong in the least-cost diet

has a lower percentage efficiency than every other food
that does belong. The marginal efficiencies of foods

form a useful index of the relative desirability of foods
vas economical sources of nutrients.

* Those foods that are not in the Optimal solution

of the least-cost diets have marginal efficiencies less
than 100 percent. This means that the eXpenditure for one

\\ ~____-,_ ..- .. _
of these commodities is greater than the monetary value

’3

Of the nutrients it contains. The difference between the
price of the commodity and the value of the nutrients in
the food is called the Stigler gap by Dr. Smith (3, page
123). It measures a non-nutritional objective; it is the
price paid to satisfy taste preferences and other "cule
tural" factors. The marginal efficiency of a food and
'theStigler gap measure the contribution of the nutrié
tional and non-nutritional components of the expenditure
for a food. The Stigler gap is expressed in centavos per
kg and marginal efficiency is expressed as a percentage
of the money Spent on a food.

Table 18 lists the marginal efficiency and the
Stigler gap for each of the foods in the commodity list

used in computing the solution to the least-cost Colombian

116

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A
Price e‘"ffi'.ci.e"tr:" "“‘n’
romeo (é “a- v~> 1 or price) (? +A« r~>
- ...... - _ -- .. - ...-.- -- --W-.—_
"NH." "‘1“ wgqjm ram 0 £7 lam ___
we.) '] r11 ' Dex ~n“: (\nwen ‘q.r*~1‘ TIFF) __._
Dfimjm" j.§q 190 ___
Carrots 0.“? loo -——
Thole arenas 0.LQ 100 ———
Arraescha \ .Qi 0* 0 0:

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0.“l

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£5 n_]4
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so ?.9fi
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7 to 0.éh
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Drv beans

Thhdhd .60 20 0.P9
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Pod beans , 7 70

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Coffee 2.71 ea L.29
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117

standard diet problem for the standard family in Bogota.
Five foods each had a marginal efficiency of 100 percent.
These were whole cow's milk. yellow Bogota corn, barley,
carrots and whole orange. The zero Stigler gap for these
foods meant that every centavo Spent on each of the five
foods was exchanged for nutrients of equal monetary value.
The food with the next highest marginal efficiency was
arracacha (94 percent). Among the foods with a marginal
efficiency between 50 and 80 percent were: yellow corn
flour. 78 percent; brown sugar. 78 percent; potato, 70
percent; cassava. 69 percent; rice. 66 percent; green
plantain. 66 percent; cheese, 58 percent (an average for
the two kinds of cheese) and white sugar. 51 percent.
One-half of all the foods in the list each had a marginal
efficiency Of less than 50 percent. Among the foods with
the lowest marginal efficiencies were coffee. chocolate.
butter. beef and whole egg.

That milk is an efficient food and should have been
included in the diets of each of the families studied was
adequately shown in this study. However. as has been
pointed out. the marginal efficiency Of any food will
vary as the price of the food varies. It becomes meaning-
ful then to ask up to what point milk will remain an effi-
cient food. How much could its price rise before it

leaves the solution to the problem in favor of another

118

commodity? There are two ways of finding an answer to
this question. One is by linear programming and another
is by the simple, though less accurate method described
below.

The "scarce" nutrients in milk, using the marginal
cost figures from the least-cost Colombian-standard diet
for the standard family in Bogota, are Calories, calcium,
vitamin A, ascorbic acid and niacin. The computation of
the marginal efficiency of milk, shown on page 113,1ndi-
cates that of the "scarce" nutrients, calcium is the major
contributor to the aggregate monetary value of the nu-
trients in milk. The monetary worth of calcium ($0.564)
constitutes 84 percent of the total price of milk per kg.
This means that the food that is most likely to replace
milk in the least-cost diet is the one which contains a
significantly large amount of calcium. Scanning down the

L)“

list of commodities given in Table 18, an educated first

J

euess as to what this food may be is cheese. Cheese

(

enters the least-cost diet in place of milk when the ratio
of the monetary value of the nutrients in milk to the
monetary value of the nutrients in cheese changes. This
ratio is $0.67/33.95. At $6.56 per kg, cheese, which has
a nutritional value of $3.95. has a marginal efficiency

of only 60 percent. Cheese will replace milk if the price

Of cheese were reduced by #0 percent or by the amount of

119

the Stigler gap which is $2.61. At a market price of

$3.95 per kg ($6.56 - $2.61), Cheese becomes 100 percent
efficient. Conversely, milk leaves the least-cost diet,
in favor of cheese, if the price of milk were increased

by two-thirds of its present price of $0.67 per kg. It

1' ceases to be an efficient food the moment its price is

increased by 40 centavos or more; at $1.07 per kg, milk
becomes only 60 percent efficient ($0.67/fi1.07 x 100).

It is interesting to note that milk remains an efficient
food even for a relatively wide range of price increase.

1 6 V3.8 CO‘H-

The marginal efficiency of Incaparina
puted using the marginal costs of nutrients obtained
from the least-cost minimum and Colombian-standard diets
for the standard family in each of the eight cities (refer
to Tables 16 and 17 for the marginal costs). Based on the
MS(AP) set of nutritional objectives, Incaparina was an

efficient food for the standard family in four of eight

cities and in all but one city when the CS(AP) set of

 

16Incaparina is a high protein food deve10ped by
the Institute of Nutrition for Central America and Panama
and is produced by Quaker Oats in Cali, Colombia. The
principal ingredients of this product are corn flour, soya
flour and cotton seed flour, as well as calcium carbonate
and a vitamin mixture. In April, 1965, its price was $1.75
for 500 gm. The nutrient composition of 100 gm of Inca-
parina is as follows: 370 Calories, 27.5 gm protein, 4.2
gmfats, 53.8 gm carbohydrate, 4500 IU vitamin A. 2.3 mg
thiamine. 1.2 mg riboflavin, 7.8 mg niacin, 898 mg phos-
phorus, 8.4 mg iron and 656 mg calcium.

. _~—_—‘.-..__-—- —_..

120

dietary allowances was used. These results indicate that
the use of Incaparina could have been recommended for the
standard family in some cities but not in others. They
also suggest that the efficiency of a food is not abso-
lute but that it reflects both the market situation and
the nutritional objectives. It would be unjustifiable
to recommend an "efficient" food or foods for the country
as a whole. Such a generalization is unfounded because
every section of the country has its own peculiarities
relating to the nutritional needs of its peOple and the
prices of the commodities available in the local market.
City Karginal efficiency of Incaparina using

the marginal costs of nutrients
in the least-cost diets

' MS(AP) CS(AP)
Bogota 36 percent 140 percent
Cali 52 131
Cartasena 117 243
Ibague 76 77
Ma-izales 180 206
Medellin 117 100
POpayan 130 217
Villavicencio 8° 180

It is by no means the investigator's purpose to
suggest the imposition of the comsumption of the foods
in the least-cost diets here obtained. It is not for her
to insist that peOple give up the pleasures of eating.
Surely, for some families, the combinations of foods in
these diets are unusual and unacceptable. Nevertheless,

it is important to know, even from a purely theoretical

121

. point of view, which foods are the most efficient in
terms of providing the nutritional needs of a group of
peOple and the savings that could accrue to the consumer
i who is willing to select foods on the basis of their
,nutritional worth.

I ssume that the standard family in Bogota con-
5sumes the foods provided in the least-cost Colombian-
standard diet obtained by linear programming. Suppose
that at one time or another this family chooses to alter
the diet by introducing one unit of a food other than
the ones in the diet. Jhat expenditure is involved in
making this change?

Also as a part of the linear programming solution
to the least-cost diet problem, one obtains what Dr.
Smith calls the marginal cost of substitution (3, page 127).
This is defined as the cost of introducing one unit of
a new food into the diet without changing the levels of
the nutrients that are exactly fulfilled in the diet.

It is the change in the cost of the least-cost diet that
would occur if the restraint that there be one unit of a
new food were added to the model without changing the
other restraints Specified.

Suppose that the linear programming solution to
finding the least-cost diet that will provide 1000 Cal-
ories, 70 gm of protein and 40 gm of fat is to Spend $0.50

for 500 gm of whole milk, 250 gm of yellow corn and 50 gm

122

of vegetable oil. Suppose also that one wishes to in-
troduce into the diet 100 gm of plantain. a food that
is not in the least-cost diet and which therefore has
a marginal efficiency of less than 100 percent. The
cost of adding this less efficient food to the diet with-
out changing the level of any of the three nutrients re-
quired is the marginal cost of substitution of plantain.
The marginal cost of substitution is usually less
than the market price of the commodity because the new
food brings with it some nutrients and therefore some
of the foods already in the diet can be reduced in quan-
tity or replaced. The foods already in the diet provide
IWflthe greatest nutrient value obtainable for the money
spent under the restrictions imposed in the model. Any
“EEBééIEQEIQinnvoivés replacing some of these foods by
another that provides the nutrients required at somewhat
higher prices. In a purely nutritional model such as the
one used in this study. the net marginal cost of substi-
tution is also the Stigler gap. Thus. in Table 18 the
cgst of the Stigler gap for each of the commodities is
alsowthe marginal cost of substitution.
” As indicated earlier. the least-cost Colombian-
standard diet for the standard family in Bogota was made
up of whole orange. yellow Bogota corn. whole milk. barley
and carrots. Table 18 shows what additional exPenditure

123

would be incurred by the family if it chooses to add one
kg of a new food into the diet. The size of the marginal
cost of substitution ranges from five centavos for a kg
of arracacha to $9.92 for a kg of butter.

Linear programming of least-cost diets provides a
tool not only for preperly valuing the nutrients con-
tained in a food but also for measuring the marginal
efficiency of a food and the marginal cost of substitu-

i... ......—

tion. At once. one recognizes the usefulness of these

a.“ a

measures to a student concerned with adequate nutrition

and economy in food eXpenditure.

124

SUMMARY

The purpose of this study was to investigate how
efficiently certain working-class families in Colombia
bought their nutrition and how inexpensively they could
have bought their nutrition. Knowing the most efficient
foods and the least costly way of meeting nutritional
needs becomes doubly important at a time when food re-
sources are less than adequate to meet food needs.

Linear programming was used to solve the problem
of finding least-cost diets that would meet specified
levels of nutritional allowances. The objective was to
make the total expenditure on foods as small as possible.
subject to the restriction that the minimum allowances
for certain nutrients were met. The mathematical model
formulated was purely nutritional. although. by limiting.
the list of foods to only those commonly eaten in the
eities studied. palatability and taste preferences have
been indirectly considered.

‘ . Least-cost diets were computed to provide for the
actual level of nutritional intake. the minimum nutri-
tional allowances. the more generous Colombian allowances
and the additional nutrients necessary to raise the nu-

tritional content of the actual diet to the level speci-

125

fied in each of the two dietary standards. Since there
was no way of knowing in advance the least expensive

way of meeting protein needs, protein allowances were

set at two levels in both the minimum and Colombian
dietary standards. One level was appr0priate for a mixed
Idiet with a biological value of sixty and another was
apprOpriate for a mixed diet with a biological value of
eighty. In the model that used the former level. there
was no restriction set on the kind of protein in the
diet. In the model that used the latter level. it was
specified that one-third of the total daily protein
allowance must be obtained from animal sources. The no-
tations MS and CS were used for the minimum and Colombian
standards, with protein source unSpecified, and MS(AP)
and CS(AP) for minimum and Colombian standards with ani-
mal protein required.

Data for estimating the actual nutritional intake
of the families studied were taken from the original
food consumption records obtained by the Interdepart-
mental Committee on Nutrition andNational Defense in
its nutrition survey of Colombia in 1960. On the ave-
rage, the families consumed less than 100 percent of the
minimum allowances for calcium, vitamin A. riboflavin,
animal protein and Calories. The average intake of the

other six nutrients (fat. iron. ascorbic acid. thiamine.

126

niacin and phOSphorus) far exceeded the minima set for
them. i

There have been numerous investigations concern-
ing the various factors which influence one's expend-
iture for food. Unlike the present study, however, none
has quantified the magnitude of the "nutritional" and
"non-nutritional" components of total food expenditure.
The total expenditure on food can be divided into two
parts. The "nutritional" component is the least cost
of achieving the nutritional level actually attained.
with no explicit consideration given to palatability and
taste preference. The "nonpnutritional" or "cultural"
component of expenditure is what remains after the nu-
tritional component is subtracted from the total expend-
iture on food. Using this measure of the cost of the
"nutritional" and "cultural" components of total food ex-
penditure, the most efficient family is the one that Spends
the smallest fraction of its food peso for "nonenutri-
tional" objectives. In less efficient families, the cost
of the "nonpnutritional" component accounts for larger
fractions of the total expenditure for food.

One-half of the families studied Spent about as
much for the "nonpnutritional" as for the "nutritional"

component of food expenditure. In the rest of the fam-

 

127

ilies, about 30 to #0 percent of the total food expend-
iture was spent for "cultural" reasons. The most effi-
cient family Spent 77 percent of its actual food expend-
iture for nutrition while the least efficient family
Spent only 37 percent. The average Colombian family in
this sample spent 59 percent of the food peso for buying
nutrients and 41 percent for other objectives.

Not one of the forty families met 100 percent of
the minimum allowance for all nutrients. And yet, given
the actual amounts Spent for food, if the families had
selected the least-cost diets, 32 of them could have ob-
tained adequate nutrition not only at the minimum but
also at the higher Colombian level. The 41 percent of
the total food expenditure which was Spent for "none
nutritional" objectives would have been sufficient to
provide 100 percent of the minimum allowance for all nu-
trients, not only for the families studied but also for I
47.26 hypothetical standard families. It is evident
that the working-class families spent sufficient money
to buy adequate nutrition but failed to obtain the nec-
essary nutrients because a significant fraction of their
food peso was Spent for "nonpnutritional" objectives.
Now that there is a yardstick to use, it would be in-
teresting to make an inter-country comparison of the

efficiency of food expenditure and to relate this meas-

128

ure of efficiency with measures of the nutritional
adequacy of the diets consumed.

The primary difference between the actual diets
and the least-cost diets that would have provided the
same level of nutritional intake was the change in the
percentage cost contribution of milk and meat. These
two foods together accounted for about 33 to 34 percent
of the total expenditure for food in both types of diets.
However, the milk cost contribution increased from 3.73
percent in the actual diet to 33.15 percent in the least-
cost diet, while the meat cost contribution decreased
from.30.50 percent to 0.15 percent. Among the other
changes from the actual diets to the least-cost diets
were an 8.93 percentage point increase in the expend-
iture for cereals accompanied by a 2.68 percentage point
decrease in the cost contribution of tubers and plan-
tain and a tenfold increase in the expenditure for fruits.
Cereals were the major source of Calories in both diets,
39 percent of the total caloric intake in the actual diets
and 61 percent in the least-cost diets. In both diets,
cereals were also the major source of protein. They ac-
counted for 44.#4 percent of the total protein in the
actual diet and 62.08 percent in the least-cost diets.
Meat decreased in importance as a protein source in the

least-cost diets making up only 0.0h percent of the total

129

protein (but providing 23.02 percent in the actual diet).
The protein derived from milk increased from 4.95 percent
in the actual diets to 28.62 percent in the least-cost
diets. The protein contribution of legumes decreased
from 11.78 percent in the actual diets to 2.89 percent in
the least-cost diets.

For each of the cities (except Cartagena), the least-
cost MS(AP) diets cost from one to seven centavos less
than the least-cost MS diets while the costs of the CS(AP)
diets were either equal to or less than the costs of the
CS diets by two to seven centavos. Although the savings
that might accrue from consuming foods in the MS(AP) or
CS(AP) diets instead of those in the MS or CS diets may
be small, the cost comparison made between the two types
of diets pointed out the fallacy in believing that diets
which require animal sources of protein are more expen-
sive than those which do not. In general, the major
responsibility of providing for the protein in the diet.
instead of being shared by milk, corn and/or beans (as
in the least-cost diets where the source of protein was
not Specified) was shifted largely (in the least-cost
diets which required animal protein) to whole milk with
a decrease in the contribution of corn and legumes.

It has usually been assumed that protein from.an1-

mal sources is more expensive than vegetable proteins.

130

Certainly, in this study eggs, meat or meat products

were not in any of the least-cost standard diets. How-
ever. as seen from the comparison of the MS or CS and the
MS(AP) or CS(AP) diets, and contrary to pOpular Opinion,
milk in the right combination with other foods was a less
expensive source of protein than legumes. This reminds
one again of the importance of relating the nutritional
worth of a food to its market price. The present con-
cept of "costliness" of foods has been more or less ar-
bitrarily based.

It is easy to determine the most economical source
of one nutrient. However, knowing the least expensive
source of one nutrient does not necessarily mean knowing
the least expensive food.. To determine whether one food
is more economical than another with reSpect to all nu-I
trients requires that weights be assigned to each nutrient
so that one can compute some average measure of the effi-
xciency of spending a peso on any food.

It is interesting that as a routine part of the
linear programming solution to the least-cost diet prob-
lem, one obtains the least cost of adding one unit of a
particular nutrient to a diet with a specific set of nu-
tritional objectives. This cost is called the net mar-
~ginal cost of a nutrient. It is the cost of obtaining

nutrients through the market and is therefore sensitive

131

to changes in the market prices of foods that are in the
least-cost diets. It is also the cost of providing for
a Specified set of nutritional allowances and as such
reflects the particular dietary standard and may change
when the standard changes.

- The marginal costs of nutrients take into account
the fact that although all the nutrients for which allow-
ances have been formulated in the dietary standard are
equally important, not all of them are equally costly.
Some nutrients are difficult to obtain from foods com.
monly sold in the market while others are relatively
abundant in foods selling at low prices. Nutrients that
are hard to come by and for which the dietary allowances
are met only at the minimum level are called "scarce"
nutrients. Nutrients which are present in the diet in
excess of the dietary allowance and which are provided
in the course of providing the "scarce" nutrients are
called "costless" nutrients. Based on the least-cost
MS(AP) diet, for the standard family in all of the eight
cities calories and animal protein were the "scarce" nu-
trients while thiamine and phOSphorus were "costless".
Except for two cities. calories were the most expensive
nutrient element to obtain from the market. Animal pro-

tein was usually the second most costly nutrient in the

132

diet. 0n the average, in the eight cities the cost of
adding ten percent of the minimum standard allowance
for Calories (974 Calories) and animal protein (7.8 gm)
was 15 centavos for the former and 11 centavos for the
latter.

The marginal costs of nutrients are the prOper
measures to use in valuing each of the nutrients con-
tained in a food. When the quantity of each nutrient
is multiplied by the marginal cost of that nutrient, the
sum of these products gives the aggregate monetary value
of the nutrients obtained. By dividing the market price
_of a food into the aggregate monetary value of its nu-
trients one obtains the marginal efficiency of a food.
The marginal efficiency assigns a high value to nutrients
that are "scarce" and zero value to nutrients which are
Ecostless". It is characteristic of an Optimal solution
to a linear programming model that all the foods in the
least cost solution have an efficiency of 100 percent.
Thus, the four foods - milk, corn, vegetable oil and
whole orange which were present in nearly all of the
least-cost diets each had a marginal efficiency of 100
percent. If a food is not sufficiently economical to
be included in the least-cost diet. the sum of the value

of its nutrients is less than its price.

133

One of the consistent findings of this study is
the high marginal efficiency of milk. While it is not
possible to generalize for the whole country from the
peculiarities observed in certain sections of that coun-
try, it would seem, at least for the sample studied, that
milk should have been an important food in the diets of
the Colombian families. This observation suggests that
although all of the efforts to improve the quality of
mixtures low in protein content are very useful, present
interest in vegetable protein sources should not detract
from the recognition that milk is a good and less ex-
pensive source of protein than is commonly believed and
that its production must be considered of prime impor-
tance.

Since only those foods which are commonly con-
sumed were considered, the families who may choose the
least-cost diets obtained will not be faced with the
problem of learning to like a whole new set of foods.
The adjustment to be made is one of changing the allo-
cation of the food peso among the different foods. For
the families studied, this means Spending less for meat,
tubers and plantain and more for milk and cereals.

It is by no means the investigator's purpose to
suggest the imposition of the least-cost diets obtained.

Certainly for some of the Colombian families, least-cost

[Ill'l'lll'li’lllll‘i‘ll

134

diets based on a purely nutritional model would not be
acceptable. Still, knowing the most efficient foods

for a particular group of people can be useful in pro-
viding a guide for agricultural policies and for indi-
cating where the emphasis must be placed with regard to
nutrition education. The efficient foods are the appro-
priate ones that must be made available if and when the
time comes when man can not choose his foods as freely as
he is now able to do. That the combinations of foods
obtained by linear programming may be accepted in the
long-run is not impossible. One needs only to refer back
to instances in the past when certain food changes, ini-
tially met with resistance, eventually became consistent
with the beliefs and food habits of the peOple.

One of the criticisms against least-cost diets
obtained by linear programming and based on a purely
nutritional model is the lack of variety or monotony.
The investigator raised the point that in Spite of all
the importance attached to variety in meals, there is
at present, really no quantitative measure of monotony
or its absence when describing diets. It was pointed
out that perhaps in some societies what is valued is
sameness, not variety.

Nutrition and economics go hand in hand. Students
interested in both these allied fields have long asked

 

 

135

questions for which the answers given were more or less
arbitrary. This study does not pretend to have given
answers to all the questions. It has, however, tried to
look into the questions more intensively and extensively
than has been done before. The study is limited by the
small sample size. Nevertheless, it provides some ins
teresting clues to the solution of prdblems commonly

faced by those involved in food production and nutrition

 

education programs.

 

136

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