bVIESI.) RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRAfiJEs remove this checkout from -_ your record. FINES win be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. A PAIEOENVIROM'IENI'AL RECDNS'I'RIJCI‘ION AND ANALYSIS OF FAUNAL UTILIZATION AT THE SAUER RESORT SITE, WINNEBAGO COUNTY, WISCONSIN By Philip Joseph Franz A THESIS Suhnitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Anthropology 1981+ Copyright by Philip Joseph Franz 1984 TOMYWIFEDEBI iii Although a single name is appended to this thesis, without the con- tributions of numerous individuals this research would not have been pos- sible. I would like to thank Mr. James Clark Jr. for informing the Depart- ment of Sociology/Anthropology of the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh of the impending destruction of the Sauer Resort site and encouraging us to come out and survey the site in the fall of 1977. Mr. and Mrs. James Sauer, the landowners, graciously changed their plans for construction of a parking lot so important to their business interests and allowed a full-scale excavation of the site in the spring of 1978. Dr. Alaric Faulkner of the University of Maine-Drone, while a faculty member of the University of Wisconsin-Ostkosh, ably directed the excavation of the site. His interest and support of my career through the years has been greatly appreciated. It became apparent in the faunal analysis that members of the 1978 field school took great care in the excavation of the site and produced well docunented records and maps. I would like to thank Mrs. Joan Raney a student at the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh and Mr. Daniel Seurer of the University of Wisconsin-Madison for providing me with the ceramic type information necessary for my analysis. A special note of thanks must be extended to Dr. Victoria Dirst of the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh in making the faunal assemblage and records from the 1978 excavation available for analysis. My thesis committee, Dr. William Lovis, Chairman and Dr. Moreau Maxwell gave willingly of their time to help He formulate the problem iv orientation of this thesis. Appreciating that additional prodding is some- times needed, Dr. William Lovis kept in touch with my progress and en- couraged me to keep forging ahead with my analysis and writing. His con- cern for the completion of this thesis is greatly appreciated. I would like to thank Dr. Charles Cleland who read earlier drafts of this thesis and provided numerous helpful comments. In addition, Drs. Rollin Baker and C. Kurt Dewhurst, past and present Directors of the Michigan State University Museum made necessary space and supplies available while my analysis was in progress. During the analysis and interpretation stages of this research, mo fellow graduate students provided a great deal of help and encouragement. Both experiences zooarchaeologists, Mr. Terrance Martin and Ms . Beverly Smith took time from their own busy schedules to help me. Terry Martin's instruction in the nuances of faunal analysis was invaluable in producing a viable data base. My many conversations with Bev Smith and the copious constructive comments she gave me concerning the interpretation of the data are greatly appreciated. A note of thanks is also extended to Mr. Thomas La Duke who identified the snake ranains in the assemblage. My many colleagues at the Michigan State University Museum gave freely of their time to aid in this endeavor. Listening, spelling, editing and typing, Ms. Julie Durkin, Ms. KileEBride, Mr. Michael Hambacher, Dr. Vergil Noble and Dr. Margaret Holman all helped greatly. Their support was most valuable. Finally, to my wife Debi, who financially and auction- ally supported me during the many months it took me to complete this thesis, I dedicate this thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LISTOFTABLES. . . .................. . . .. viii LISTOFFIGURES ........ ...... x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ..... . . . ........... CHAPTER II. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PREHIS'IORIC ENVIRON/[EDIT Ecological l‘bdels ................. 14 Glacial Geomorphology .............. . 18 Physiographic Provinces. . ......... . . 25 Historic Hydrological Changes in the Fox-Wolf Drainage ..................... 26 Historic Utilization of the Fox-Wolf Drainage . 28 Drainage Reconstruction ........ . . 33 Reconstructing Prehistoric Vegetation Patterns . . 35 Swamp/ Open Water Group ............. 49 Grass and Sedge Group ............. 51 MarshandConiferGroup............ 52 Prairie Group ................. 53 Oak Group. . ......... . . . 55 Hardwood and Cm1ifer Group. . . . ...... . 56 Agricultural Carmmity ............. 57 CHAPTER III. FAUNAL EXPIOITATION ................ 60 Procedures for Identification and Inter- pretation ................... 62 CLASS MNMIA- Mammals .............. 66 Behavioral and Habitat Characteristics of the Represented Mammal Species .......... 66 Archaeological Significance of the Class Mammalia ................... 75 Mammalian Fauna - Ecological Orientation and Seasonal Indications ............. 88 CLASS PISCES- Fish ................ 90 Behavioral and Habitat Characteristics of the Represented Fish Species . . . ..... 95 Archaeological Significance of the Class Pisces . . ............... . 98 Fish Fauna Seasonal Indications and Areas of Exploitation ................. ll6 CHAPTER IV. APPENDIX A. APPENDIX B . APPENDIX C. CLASS AVES- Birds ............ . . . . Behavioral and Habitat Characteristics of the Represented Bird Species ........... Archaeological Significance of the Class Aves ..................... Bird Fauna -Evidence of Ecological Orientation and Seasonality ............... CLASSES REPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA- Turtles, Snakes, Frogs, and Toads ................. Behavioral Characteristics of the Represented Reptile and Amphibian Species ........ Archaeological Significance of the Classes Reptilia-Amphibia ............. Reptilian and Amphibian Fauna - Evidence of Ecological Orientation and Seasonality. . . . CLASS PEIECYPODA- Fresh Water Mussels Summary Statement of the Overall Subsistence Practices of the Sauer Resort Site ....... INTERSITE C(NPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS . ..... THE CULTURAL AFFILIATION OF THE SAUER RESORT SITE ....................... Stratigraphic and Cultural Relationships. . . . . Description of the Ceramic Assemblage ...... Cultural Relationships .......... . . . PREHISTORIC ANIMAL SPECIES OF THE FOX-RULE DRAINAGE ................... Birds ..................... Amphibians and Reptiles ............ Freshwater Mussels .............. Fish ..................... IDENTIFIED ANIMAL SPECIES (BY ANATOVIICAL EIFMENT) OF THE SAUER RESORT SITE ............. BIBLI(X;RAPHY ......................... Page 118 124 126 141 142 146 147 152 152 156 166 174 178 187 190 193 194 194 195 195 195 231 254 Tab 1e 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES A Quantitative Assessment of the Microenvirorment surrounding the Sauer Resort Site ........... Identified Mammalia1 Species of the Sauer Resort Site ......................... Mammalian Fauna of the Sauer Resort site 47/WN/ 207 (Hierarchially Ranked According to Projected le-zat Yield) ........................ Hierarchial Ranking of Exploited Mammalian Species (Subsistence Related) Based Upon Total MNI ...... Identified Fish Species of the Sauer Resort Site . . Fish (Osteichthyes) Fauna of the Sauer Resort Site 47/WN/ 207 ....................... Hierarchial Ranking of Exploited Fish Species (Grouped by Family) Based Upon Total MNI ......... Identified Avian Species of the Sauer Rewrt Site. . . Avian Fauna of the Sauer Resort Site 47/WN/ 207 (Grouped by Family/Subfanily) ................. Hierarchial Ranking of Exploited Aviai Species (Grouped by Family/Subfamily) Based Upon Total MNI-Subsistence Related ........................ Identified Reptilian and Amphibian Species of the Sauer Resort Site ................... Reptilian aid Amphibian Fauna of the Sauer Resort Site ......................... Hierarchial Ranking of Exploited Reptile Species (Sub- sistence Related) Based Upon Total MNI ........ Sample of Freshwater Mussels (Pelecypoda) from the Sauer Resort Site 47/WN/ 207 ,,,,,,,,,, . . viii Page 67 77 80 92 102 106 119 127 133 144 148 150 154 Table Page 15. Hierarchial Ranking of Exploited Species Based Upon Projected.Meat Yield. . ............... 157 16. Summemy'of Quantified Data by Class ...... . . . 161 17. Hierarchial Ranking of Ten Most Exploited Animal Groups at Four Oneota Sites ...... . . . 169 A1. Frequency of Ceramic Types fromnthe Sauer Resort Site ......................... 189 A2. Features and Associated Ceramics of the Sauer Resort Site By Count . . . . . . . . ......... . . . 191 B1. Mammal Species of the Fox-Wolf Drainage ..... . . 196 B2. Bird species fOund within the Fox9W61f Drainage (Archaeologically Significant) ............ 205 B3. .Amphibian and Reptilian Species of the Fox4w01f Drainage .......... . . . ......... . 215 B4. Freshwater Mollusca of the Lake Poygan/Wblf River Study Area (Including the Fox.River Drainage) . . . . 219 B5. Distribution of Fish Species in the wolf/Fox Drainage. ...... . . . . . . ...... . . . . 225 C1. Identified Mammalian Elements from the Sauer Resort Site ......... . . . . . . ...... . . . . 233 C2. Identified.Avian Elements from the Sauer Resort Site ....................... . . 240 C3. Identified.Amphibian/Reptilian Elements from the Sauer Resort Site ..... . . . . . . . . . . . 244 C1}. Identified Fish (Osteichthyes) Elements from the Sauer Resort Site . . . ............... . . 248 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. LIST OF FIGURES The Five Oneota Phases of Wisconsin ........... Glacial Mbvements in Eastern Wisconsin ...... Profile of Glacial Stratigraphy'west of Lake Poygan. . . Formation of Sumerged Delta at the Pbuth of the Wolf River ..................... . Major Physigraphic Provinces of the FOXAWblf Drainage. . ‘Wblf River Boom.Cut and Downriver Damming. . ...... Historic water Level Changes in the Wblf River and Lake Poygan ...................... . . . The Biotic Provinces of Wisconsin (Dice 1943). . The Floristic Provinces of Wisconsin (Curtis 1959) . Biotic Provinces of the Great Lakes (After Cleland 1966 6) ......................... Nficroenvironments of the Sauer Resort Site . . . . Projected Seasons of Exploitation of Selected Mammal Species ......................... Projected Seasons of Exploitation of Selected Fish Species ....................... Projected Seasons of Exploitation of Selected.Avian Species ..... . .................... Projected Seasons of Exploitation of Selected Reptile Species ......................... Distribution of Exploited.Anima1 Species by Habitat Zone ...................... . . Projected Seasons of Exploitation of Selected Animal Species ......... . ............. Page 20 22 24 27 30 36 38 41 43 47 91 117 143 153 160 164 Figure Location of the Sauer Resort Site ...... P1an.View of the 1978 Excavation of the Sauer Resort Site ........ . . . ............... west wall Profile of Southern Sequence of the Sauer Resort Site. . . . . . . . . ......... . . west wall Profile of NOrthern Sequence of the Sauer Resort Site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 175 177 181 183 ABSTRACT A PAIEOENVIROM’IENTAL RECONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF FAUNAL UTILIZATION AT THE SAUER RESORT SITE, WINNEBAGO COUNTY, WISCDNSIN By Philip Joseph Franz This study examines the subsistence practices of peoples inhabiting the Sauer Resort site, a Lake Winnebago phase Oneota site in Wisconsin. Two synthetic models of Oneota subsistence practices in Wisconsin are evaluated as they relate to the analysis of the Sauer Resort site faunal as samblage. Paleoenvirormental reconstruction of the surrounding area is accomplished using geomorphological, historical aid biological information to determine potential resource zones available for exploitation by the prehistoric populations inhabiting the site. Analysis of faunal remains reveals that a variety of animal species were exploited from spring through the fall. Based upon the faunal findings and ethnohistorical accomts, it is argued that animals at the Sauer Resort site are best viewed as a supplement to maize horticulture. The analysis ultimately leads to re- finement of the original models proposed for the subsistence practices of Oneota populations in Wisconsin. CHAPTERI INTRODUCTION In the past 80 years, archaeologists working in Wisconsin and else- where have described the subsistence and settlement systems of the Oneota phases of the Upper Great Lakes (Figure 1) (Lawson 1902, McKern 1945, Cleland 1966, 1976, Peske 1966, 1971, Gibbon 1969, 1972, Overstreet 1978, 1981). Utilizing ethnographic and archaeological evidence, Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1978, 1981) have presented drastically different, synthetic models of the subsistence and settlement systems of these late prehistoric populations. A third model has been proposed by Gibbon (1969, 1972) which despite differences with Overstreet's model, is largely an amplification of the principles suggested by Cleland (1966). The synthe- tic models described by Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1978, 1982) pro- vide the problem orientation of this thesis. In 1966, Cleland, relying upon zooarchaeological and ethnographic data, proposed a model of the subsistence and settlement practices of the five Oneota phases of Wisconsin. Using faunal data from.Lasley's Point (Peske 1966), Carcajou Point (Hall 1962), Nero (Mason 1966), and Cahokia (Adams n.d.) as well as ethnographic information from historical groups such as the Ojibwa and Ottawa, Cleland (1966:97) proposed an adaptive system.based on the ecological disshmilarity and economic orientation of these five cultural phases. According to Cleland (1966:97), differing ecological conditions (different microenvironments) and the degree of utilization of these environments are found in the various J 4 Figure l The Five (hecta Phases of Wisconsin Oneota phases apparent during the late prehistoric period in Wisconsin. Clelaid, following the ecological principles of Odum (1953), de- scribed various ecotones found in association with these phases, which are suitable for prehistoric exploitation. Ecotones, according to Cleland (1966) and Odum (1953), are areas where two or more mricroenvironments converge, thus allowing plaits aid animals to be found in a transitional area between these two zones. These tension zones, Cleland argues, are areas of higher plant and aiimal densities, which provide preferential areas for prehistoric exploitation. Based on these principles, Cleland (1966:87) described the microenviroments and ecotones particular to the various Oneota phases. Cleland's (1966) analysis of the paleoecology and ethnozoology of the Upper Great lakes is not based solely on Upper Mississippian populations, but is much farther reaching. Analysis of various temporal and cultural periods has led him to propose two types of economic orientations for prehistoric populations of the Upper Great Lakes. Within this seminal work (Cleland 1966), he described the difference between fig and g- __fu_s_e_ economies. These ideas were further elaborated in a later paper (Cleland 1976) . It is valuable to reiterate the characteristics which derete tkese different economic orientations . Certain assumptions, according to Clelaid (1976), must be understood when discussing the Focal-Diffuse concept. He states, "Although we must be concerned with the specific resources and exploitative techniques employed by this group , the long- term cycle of repetitive choices in energy expenditure through a total subsistence round determines the adaptive pattern. The faE—EEat the total subsistence round is the minimal unit of consideration is vital to the focal-diffuse concept" (Cleland 1976:60) . The second assumption, "is, under a specific set of environmental conditions and with the implementation of a particular technology, regular, 4 consistent, and predictable patterns of resource exploitation will develop" (Clelaid 1976:60). The last assumption is that economic or adaptive systems are evolutionary. According to Clelaid (1976), these systems must not be viewed as static entities, but it must be realized that the search for "ecommic security" ultimately leads to changes in the adaptive system. The focal adaptation, according to Cleland (1976) , is centered economically on the intensive exploitation of one or two species of plants or animals. By exploiting a limited number of resources, a degree of economic security in a particular resource is essential. This system is characterized by static, traditional labor groups utilizing a limited number of tool forms (Cleland 1976:62). Residency of a group in a par- ticular area is dependent upon resource availability. Exarples of this type of adaptation include exclusive hunting societies and groups culti- vating domestic plants such as maize (Cleland 1976). Although focal economics are centered on particular plant and animal species, secondary resources are utilized to various degrees. Citing exarples from Cahokia, Aztalan, Carcajou Point, Lasley's Point and Bell sites, Cleland (1966:83) argues that horticultimral groups exploited large cervids such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to supplerent their agricultural diet. Cleland (1966) , hypothesizes that as more time was spent on horticultural pursuits , hunting became more selective and specialized. Because hunting would be limited, prehistoric hunters would be attracted to large packages such as the cervids. Cleland (1966) argues that a large preponderance of deer bone found at archaeological sites indicates that agriculture is important in the subsistence system. Mississippian research confirms that hmting is more selective (see Smith 1975), but whether or not this is the case in Oneota must be examined. 5 Diaretrically opposed to a focal adaptation is the diffuse adapta- tion (Clelaid 1966)° As the term diffuse implies, this adaptation centers on the exploitation of a variety of resources, during various times in the annual cycle. This expolitive pattern, according to Cleland (1976) , demands that tool assemblage and variety be expanded to extract a broader variety of resources. Whereas the focal adaptation is rather inflexible in its scheduling round because of its erphasis on one particular re- source, the diffuse adaptation allows a greater number of choices to be made. This is not to say that a diffuse economy may not be very rigidly scheduled. The focal adaptation usually leads to sites that show indi- cations of a particular resource being intensively utilized, while the diffuse adaptation is characterized by evidence of extensive utilization of resources (Cleland 1976:64). It must also be stressed that storage ability is difficult for a diffuse economy. A major disadvantage of the diffuse adaptation, according to Cleland, is that "since peoples with diffuse economies for the most part are bounded by the natural availability of food of low quality, they cannot profit for my length of time by windfall surplus. The system requires that normal scheduling is main- tained" (Cleland 1976:65). As mentioned previously, the focal-diffuse adaptive continuum cal be viewed as evolutionary. Cleland (1976) describes diffuse econamies as being "pre-adapted" to focal pursuits since peoples extracting a broad resource spectrum can experiment with a variety of plant and alimal re- sources. However, the evolution of the focal economy to a diffuse adaptation causes a major change in the socio-technological structure. Ebcpanding the economic base, according to Cleland (1976) , calls for "new techniques of exploitation, adjusted social and political patterns , aid new ideology" (Cleland 1976:66) . The curre1t of economic transformation 6 and change from a focal to diffuse adaptation is central to the analysis of Oneota subsistence and settlerent practices. Based on his reconstruction of the biotic provinces and more spe- cifically the microenvironments found within these provinces, as well as the Focal-Diffuse concept, Cleland (1966) summarizes the subsistence and settlement practices of the five Oneota phases. "The lake Winnebago focus (phase) is restricted to an area of ecological transition between the grasslands of the Central Plains province and the woodlands of the Eastern Ridge and lowlaid province" (Cleland 1966:87). Citing the faunal analysis of Lasley's Point, it is argued that people largely exploited plats and animals from aquatic habitats, and that the lake Winnebago phase may be characterized as an economy utilizing maise agriculture with a secondary emphasis on deer and aquatic plants and animals. Using Carcajou Point (Hall 1962), of the Koshkonong phase, Cleland argues that the microenvironments and climate of this more southerly phase would provide a more viable context for utilization of maize than a northern phase. A large arount of deer bone was identified from Carcajou Point, potentially indicating a1 adaptation based primarily on maize horticulture supplerented by cervids (Cleland 1966). As in the case of Lasley's Point, aquatic resources were also important. The Grand River focus, according to Cleland, "is confined to the rolling hills of the eastern part of the central Plains province. This area was one of ecological transition between grasslands aid woodlands and could perhaps be characterized as open woodlan " (Cleland 1966:87) . At the time Cleland (1966) described this phase, no faunal assemblage had been aialyzed for a Graid River phase site. However, Cleland hypo- thesizes that large cervids such as bison and elk may have been exploited, as well as maize horticulture. 7 In 1966, little was also known about the Green Bay phase, which was restricted to the wooded regions of the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. Based on its location in relation to lake Michigan Cleland (1966) main- tains that microenviroments different from those in the other phases would be found. The adaptation of these people would be restricted to these zones and would be particular to this cultural phase. The last phase Cleland describes is the Orr phase, first described by McKern (1945). The location of this phase is far removed locationally from tfe four more eastern phases, and is found on the "terraces and flood- plains of the lower stream valleys of the Western Upland province" (Cleland 1966:87). According to Cleland (1966), the faunal remains from the Midway site, indicate that the "Orr focus (phase) has an economic pattern based upon hunting large and small woodland mammals, aid catching some of the larger fish typical of the Mississippi River Drainage (Clelaid 1966:88) . Although all five Oneota phases may be considered primarily focal (dependent upon maize horticulture) in their economic orientation, Cleland (1966, 1976) stresses that the focal-diffuse concept must be considered as a1 evolutionary continuum. Based on his analysis of the potential for growing maize, Cleland (1976) describes the position relationship along this continuum for Middle Mississippian and Upper Mississippian sub- sistence systems. Cleland (1976) argues that Middle Mississippian represents a focal adaptation, because of the ability of these populations to stagger two maize crops in their 190 plus day growing season. He maintains that at Middle Mississippian sites, two crops of maize would hedge against failure of their food resource. Next in position to these Middle Mississippian sites, t‘re Oneota culture (3) would be also primarily agricultural, but having a broader economic base than their Middle Mississippian counterparts. Clelaid (1966, 1976) stresses that because the Oneota phases are found much further north in both the transitional zone of the Canadian/Carolinian biotic provinces and the Illinoian biotic province, two crops of maize would not be possible. The response of these groups would be to develop a broader economic base, based upon maize and secondary resources available locally. Stated succinctly, the broader based economies represented by various Oneota phases are differing adaptations to micro-environments having differing limitations to maize horticulture. Although these plases are culturally somewl'at similar, Cleland (1966) maintains that ecological and economic differences based on site location have allowed for dif- ferent cultural manifestations apparent in the archaeological record. Whereas Cleland (1966, 1976) illustrated ecological, subsistence aid cultural dissimilarity among the five Oneota phases, Overstreet's model (1976, 1978, 1981) described uniformity of subsistence and cultural practices through the Oneota cultural continuum. Working from a larger, more diverse data base, Overstreet (1976, 1978, 1981) cites evidence frcm his 1970's excavations at the Pipe site, as well as the Lasley's Point (Peske 1966, Clelaid 1966) , Walker-Hooper (Gibbon 1969, 1973) and Carcajou Point (Hall 1962) sites. Importantly, the data from the Walker- Hooper and Pipe sites were not available to Clelaid (1966) when his model was proposed. Overstreet's (1981) uniformity model is based largely on the writings of Peske (1966, 1971) ad the exploitive model of Middle Mississippiam described by Smith (1974). According to Overstreet, "The results of this approach lend strong support to the primary hypothesis of this research, that is, Eastern Wisconsin meOta culture is characterized by a high degree of homegeneity and integrity of adaptive pattern in spite of posited differences in ceramics and environmeital settings between components" (Over- street 1981:463). 9 Importantly, it must be stressed here than Overstreet's model is based solely upon the four eastern most Oneota plases (Koshkorong, Grand River, Green Bay and lake Winnebago) aid excludes the western Orr phase. Ac- cording to Overstreet (1978) the Orr phase represents an aberrant cul— tural manifestation, not directly associated with the eastern four phases. Beginning with his doctoral dissertation (1976) and continuing with two subsequent articles (1978, 1981), Overstreet maintains that the Eastern Ridge and lowland province represents a ratler unique environmental situation. He argues that unlike Cleland's (1966) and Gibbon's (1969, 1973) interpretations of this enviromental area, the diverse micro- environments or environs fomd within the location of these phases are equally represeited throughout the entire eastern half of Wisconsin. flat is to say, although there is a diversity of environments found surrounding a particular site aid between sites, for exarple eight vegetation zones in association with the Pipe site (Overstreet 1981:372), the four eastern Qieota phases exploited similar microenvironments . Utilizing historical vegetative records, faunal and floral aialyses, Overstreet (1981) re- constructs tl’e environments of the lasley's Point, Carcajou Point, Walker- Hooper sites, ad more specifically the Pipe site. Patterns of exploita- tion, according to Overstreet (1981) , begin to ererge. Generally speaking, these enviromental zones are as follows: "1) forest zone, 2) prairie zone, 3) oak openings or savanna zone, 4) riverine-lacustrine zone, 5) marsh and/ or swamp zone, and 6) horticultural zone" (Overstreet 1981:494). These zones, he maintains , were exploited to different degrees by the different Oneota populations. The exploitation of these resources fol- lowed a general "broad spectrum" economy. Overstreet' 3 model (1981) argues against two important considerations of Cleland's model. Overstreet (1981) maintains that based upon his 10 aalysis of the flora and fauna represented in the four eastern phases, the adaptation was one of a diffuse orientation, rather than focal, as described by Clelaid. While recognizing the basic problems of famal analysis, for example calculation of pounds of usable meat, minimum number of individuals, Overstreet (1981) maintains that this data lends itself more to general interpretation (Smith 1974), than the more specific (Cleland 1966). Arguing against Clelaid's (1966, 1976) discussion of the selectivity of cervids by agriculturally—oriented populations, Overstreet (1981) stresses that based on minimum number of individuals and pounds of usable meat, a preponderance of white-tailed deer is not recognized. According to Overstreet (1981) , at Walker-Hooper aid Pipe, based on MNI and pounds of usable meat, deciduous forest and forest edge species were just as important as aquatic species. Because of this, Overstreet (1981) argues that peoples of the Grand River and Koshkonong phases were not primarily agricultural (focal) as Cleland (1966) describes. A similar comparison is made with Carcajou Point and lasley's Point. This overall, diffuse orientation through the entire Oneota continuum (800 years , according to Overstreet, 1981) is characteristic of the adaptive pattern. Although maize horticulture is apparent, it rerained only one of many resources exploited in the diffuse economy. He does l'owever, argue that an intensification of maize horticulture occurred in the lake Winrebago phase, but the economic focalization Cleland (1966) suggests did not occur (Overstreet 1981 :494) . As a further consideration of his analysis, Overstreet (1981:479) maintains that the intensive utilization of these diffuse resources, as well as viable storage techniques, allowed these Oneota sites to be inlabited throughout the entire year. He claims that these environs produced foods throughout the entire year, allowing (hecta peoples to ll utilize a full range of resources without dispersing to other areas. Although Overstreet (1981) maintains that Clelaid's description of a "diffuse" economy fits closely with his model for Eastern Oneota adapta- tion, it does differ slightly. As stated previously in the description of diffuse economies (page 5) these economies follow an extensive, rather than intensive use of environments and resources. According to Cleland (1966), diffuse economies can not readily utilize an abundance of my one resource in any particular season. The economic and cultural differences noted between the four eastern Oneota phases represent terporal aid cultural changes, according to Over- street (1981). Citing Hall (1962) and the radiocarbon chronology of Eastern Wisconsin, he described four stages of Oneota development (Over- street 1978, 1981). Although difficult to define archaeologically the Ehergent Horizon, A.D. , 800-1000, is described by various authors (Griffin 1960, Gibbon 1969, Hurley 1975) as the incipient development of the (hecta lifeway. The Developmental Horizon, A.D. 1000-1300, includes the early Koshkonong phase, the Grand River phase, aid pertaps elerents of tie Green Bay phase. The Classic Horizon, A.D. 1300—1650, is defined by the lake Winnebago plase. Overstreet (1981) argues that the late Koshkonong pl'ase may be traisitional between the Development and Classic Horizons. Based upon the cited evidence (Overstreet 1981) this is difficult to state un- equivocally. The Historic Horizon, Post A.D. 1650, reflects the pos- sibility that the Classic meota are represented by the Historic Win- nebago. This Iowever, must only be considered tentative (Overstreet 1981:511). A complete description of these cultural stages may be found in Overstreet (1978, 1981) and Hall (1962). These stages, according to Overstreet (1981) suggest that cultural and economic assemblages vary because these phases were not temporally 12 coeval. He concludes that cultural aid economic changes occurred which influenced the artifact assemblages represented at the various Oreota sites. From an economic standpoint, therefore, a diffuse economic orien- tation prevades the entire Oneota continuum with intensification of maize horticulture in the Classic Horizon. The models proposed by Cleland (1966) aid Overstreet (1978, 1981) provide important questions for further research in eastern Wisconsin. The research described in this thesis directly addresses the dichotomy between these models. Although not addressed specifically, the settlerent and subsistence practices described by Gibbon (1969, 1972, 1973) also have bearing upon this research. The question of ecological and environmental exploitation aid economic orientation is pararount to the interpretations described in these models and the research of this thesis is directed toward how these factore re— late to Oneota subsistence practices. Initially (Chapter II), this research begins with an in depth paleoeiviromental reconstruction of the area surrounding the Sauer Resort site. This reconstruction, based upon detailed geomorphological and historical data, describes the vegetation aid faunal commmities possibly exploited by peoples inhabiting the Sauer Resort site. Thus, corparisons can be made between the environments surrounding the Pipe (Overstreet 1976, 1978, 1981), Walker-Hooper (Gibbon 1969, 1973), lasley's Point (Peske 1966, Cleland 1966), aid Carcajou Point (Hall 1962) sites. Although this reconstruction and analysis dif- fers in degree, it follows a similar research trajectory as Cleland's (1966) and Overstreet's (1976, 1978, 1981) research designs. This ul- timately allows comparisons to be made between the environments exploited at the Sauer Resort site and other Oneota sites. In Chapter III, the faunal analysis of the materials excavated during 13 the 1978 season at the Sauer Resort site presents a significant body of new subsistence data. One of the problems Overstreet (1978) cites with Clelaid's (1966) analysis is that he bases his conclusions on what Over- street considers "incorplete and varied samples of faunal relains" (Overstreet 1978:28) . Because of the extensive nature aid excellent pre- servation of the excavated materials, the faunal analysis of the Sauer Resort site will present a "corplete" sample. Importantly, the analysis of the species and environs exploited, scheduling and site seasonality will provide valuable data comensurate with the data described by Clelaid (1966) and Overstreet (1978, 1981). In the concluding chapter (IV) , the significance of tle Sauer Resort site data (Chapters I-IV) will be compared to the models proposed by Clelaid (1966) and Overstreet (1981). Also, in keeping with a regional perspective as described by these models, the information gained by the historical and environmental reconstruction aid faunal analyses is compared with the data from other Oneota sites. These corparisons may ultimately lead to the refinement and elaboration of these models. CHAPTER II RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PREHISTORIC ENVIRONVIENl‘ Ecological Madels In the past 10 to 20 years, arcl'aeologists have written a pletfora of articles erpl'asizing the interrelationship of prehistoric human popu- lations aid their natural environment (see King and Graham 1981) . In atterpting to place human populations in their natural environment, archaeologists erploying ecological or environmental approaches have taken on a1 interdisciplinary orientation. Combining fields such as ecology, geology, geororphology, botany and palynology, authors have added much to the understanding of human interaction with the environment. However, this new orientation is not without its inherent difficulties and limitations. The difficulties and limitations as well as the useful- ness of the ecological approach have been reviewed by Butzer (1976), Rhoades (1978) and King aid Graham (1981). The primary criticism directed towards archaeologists using ecological models is that oftentimes simplistic models have been eIployed which may or may not actually exist in the real world. Because of this criticism, archaeologists have been forced to be more introspective of their approach to ecological models. In discussing the ecological aid envirormental orientation of this thesis, it is valuable to briefly describe the status of ecological theory and how it relates to archaeological analysis. Ac- knowledging the fact that limitations as well as precautions must be taken in an ecological analysis, this discussion is directed towards l4 15 many of tle problems encomtered by past aalyses. Many ecological models and concepts (such as ecotones) employed by archaeologists are based upon the notion of the ecological community. Communities are characterized by a group of plant species occupying a particular 1mit of space. Definition of such communities presents a problem to ecologists and archaeologists alike. Originally, communities were described as plant cormunities alone, with aiimals being incorporated in the definition much later (King and Graham 1981:129). Since p1a1t and animal communities do not always coincide and the interaction of the various species are difficult to ascertain, two schools of thought con- cerning these phenomena have developed. Ecologists concerned with "biomes", or the group of related biotic coxmunities, have atterpted to understand low these cormunities are organized aid how they operate (King and Graham 1981:129). The earliest explanation for this phenomena (late 1940's), known as the "organismic" school contends that communities, like organisms; have function and structure (definable boundries) (Odum 1953). The op- posing sctool, or "individualistic" viewpoint eIphasizes that species form communities , and that since "ecological requirements of the indi- vidual species differ, sharp boundaries between 'cormunities' do rot exist" (King and Graham 1981:129). These concepts are particularly valuable to archaeologists in closing an ecological model. If comnmities do not have definable bomdaries it is impossible to infer relationships between them. Therefore, as in the case of the ecotone, discussion of the eivironment in this manner becomes meaningless. Inferring function of a site based upon its location to plant aid aiimal cormunities also becomes difficult. Altlough many archaeologists have been criticized by their peers (Butzer 1975, Rhoades 1978, King and Graham 1981) and ecologists for 16 following the "organismic" scl'ool, calling it self-serving aid overly simplistic, it remains the most widely held View. A variety of factors are responsible for this viewpoint. Primarily, archaeologists are not erpirically oriented field ecologists. Because of the orientation of their research design and their limited backgromd in allied disciplines, archaeologists do not concentrate their efforts in this direction. Secondly, ecologists working with modern data find it difficult to quanti- fy and describe the interrelationships of plants aid aiimals communities; therefore, this problem is further amplified whei attempts are made to reconstruct past ecological situations. Thirdly, modern environmental conditions do not always reflect the prehistoric condition aid arclraeolo- gists must rely upon historic documentation to reconstruct the prehistoric environment. This historic docurentation was often compiled by naturalists using an "organismic" approach. Finally, archaeologists studying patterns of human behavior often assume that the environment in which hurans live is patterned as well. In the construction of models, archaeologists are forced to make concessions. Every model, no matter how detailed, has its limitations. Realizing these limitations is most important. Appreciating the problems inherent in the "organismic" approach, this orientation retains the most plausible for this description. Because Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1976, 1981) describe environmental com- munities in this manner and because of the problem orientation of this research, the palaeoenvirormental reconstruction of the area surrounding the Sauer Resort Site is directed in this manner, although particular attention has been paid to problems encomtered by other archaeologists utilizing this approach (Rhoades 1978, King and Graham 1981). It is valuable here to briefly describe these problems and their possible solutions . 17 One comon approach to paleoenvironmental reconstruction is the use of faunal analysis based upon archaeological materials to infer past envirormental conditions. Archaeologists, such as Michlovic (1980) have atterpted to correlate known species of animals with the environments in which they live. Reconstructing environments based upon known faLma often cause these analyses to be considered tenuous (Grayson 1981) . Faunal analysts have long appreciated that archaeological assemblages are not representative of the total number of species found within a particular region (Cleland 1966) and have argued that environmental reconstruction based on recovered fauna presents a biased perspective (Grayson 1981) . In order to hedge against this apparent bias, this analysis incorporates not only a coIplete faunal analysis, but data on modern geological, geo- morpl'ological and botanical evidence, as well as historical documentation. Historical documentation, invaluable in paleo-environmental recon- struction does have its limitations. The historical material compiled for the area surrounding the Sauer Resort site was collected from an organismic perspective. In using these materials, it becomes apparent that a bias has occurred. Naturalists often interested in the economic productivity of a particular region described dominant plant species which were economically profitable. Hence, dominant caiopy species are often described, while Imderstory species are ignored. Understory species, however, must be considered an integral part of the cormunities described. Information not apparent in tte historic record must be derived from modern sources. Throughout this discussion an atterpt has been made to integrate historical and modern data in order to present a more holistic perspective. Critics of the "organismic" approach (Rhoades 1978) have argued phenomena such as "ecotones" and "edge effect" have been treated as l8 ecological givens. These phenomena, not always apparent must be de- scribed aid evaluated. Testing the model of edge-effect, modern wildlife management experts have created an edge-effect by cutting and slashing in climax forests. Because examples of this phenorena have been created synthetically, it becomes essential to evaluate where and when they occur in a natural situation (Rhoades 1978:611). A consideration often ignored by archaeologists is the fact that human intervention occurred during habitation of a site which altered the vegetation and animal cormunities surrormding the site. Intentional burning, gardening activities and human habitation of a particular area impact and alter these commmities. These activities produce an ever changing environmental situation. These changes make it important to perceive these commmities as dynamic, rather than static entities. Glacial Geomorphology Determining and understanding the impact of glacial processes upon the lad surfaces surrounding an archaeological site provides valuable information for the reconstruction of the past environment. Since slope, drainage, water availability, soil type, as well as overall topography at the Sauer Resort site directly result from glacial activity, the de- scription of these factors and their relationship to human habitation must be considered. Appreciating the relationship between geologic and geomorphic features and human utilization of these resources, early geologists such as Chamberlin (1873-1877) published a four volume, comprehensive description entitled Ea; Geology of Wisconsin. Although archaic in terminology, many of the processes described by Chamberlin (1877) for the eastern half of Wisconsin are still accepted as accurate. Modern researchers such as McKee (1971) and McKee aid Iaudon (1972) have further described the glacial processes first illustrated by Chanberlin 19 (1877). In particular, the research of WKee aid Laidon (1972) centers on the glacial processes that produced tie Fox-Wolf drainage. Combining these data provides a diachronic perspective on the geological research of this area. Altlough affected by previous glacial episodes, the eastern half of Wisconsin has been most recently altered by the Valders Advance, dated to approximately 15,000 B.P. This large ice mass was derived from the northeast, and spread to the southwest across what is currently the State of Wisconsin. Using the remnants of glacial striations on bedrock and evidence of terminal morraines, Chamberlin (1877) illustrates the extent of this glacial episode (Figure 2). As Figure 2 shows, the retreating ice mass produced a variety of topographic features aid drainage patterns. Mast importartly, the results of this glaciation produced the Fox-Wolf drainage. In atterpting to reconstruct the glacial action that produced the Fox-Wolf drainage, McKee (1971) ad McKee and laudon (1972) used a variety of methods. By inspecting glacial remants (i.e. beach formations, flood plains, till banks) and cores from the bottom of the drainage itself, two formative episodes have been documeited. Initially, a large glacial lake, known as Glacial lake Oshkosh, was formed by the retreating of tie Valders ice sheet (McKee 1971). This broad, shallow lake occupied a basin produced by down cutting of the bedrock formation known as the Potsdam Sandstone (Chamberlin 1877). This lake drained into the Mis- sissippi River to tie southwest while drainage was restricted to the northeast by the retreating ice sheet. McKee and laudon (1972) maintain that the exact size of this lake is not known because later drainage processes obliterated the evidence, but a conservative estimate would be at least 416 square kilcneters. Core sarples taken down river from lake 21 Poygan indicate that this first Glacial lake Oshkosh was a shallow, oligotrophic lake. As is characteristic of an oligotrophic stage, the lake supported a fine, sandy bottom with a well-developed, rooted plalt community. For Lmknown reasons, this lake suddenly deepened. McKee (1971) speculates that a drainage obstruction or an increase flow of water into the lake may have been responsible for the increased depth. Since this lake was large, deep, clear and cold it has been nared later Glacial lake Oshkosh. Fine, seasonally banded red clays accqulated in the deeper sections of the Later Glacial lake Oshkosh aid are preserved beeath the floor of the present drainage system (McKee aid laudon 1972). According to McKee (1971), it is impossible to determine the total thickness of these clays because when the lake becare sl'allow aid drainage was restored to the northeast, much of these clays were washed downriver. It is ap- parent, however, that they were deposited in am oligotrophic stage be- cause as overlying sediments are examined, receit orgaiic sediments (evi- dence of eutrophication) are found (McKee 1971). Figure 3, adapted from a block profile drawn by Chamberlin (1877) illustrates the alternate banding of clays, sand and till. As is apparent from this figure, lake Poygan rests upon tle clay bottom sediments of the later Glacial Lake Oshkosh. Because the bedrock formation of Potsdam sandstone represents an easily eroded basement, glacial lake stages have scopped or scorned out a relatively deep basin. Lake Poygai, lake Winneconne, lake Butte des Pbrts and lake Winnebago are the remnant water bodies of this glacial lake stage and are found in the deepest sections of the basin inundated during aid after the Valders advance. The alternating clay and said strata correspond to the cultural strata described in Appendix A. The geological matrix found in the cultural stratigraphy of the Sauer Resort 22 cmwzom mama mo ummz andmuwaumuum HmaomHo mo oaawoum m ouowam 23 site is largely derived from bottom (clay) and beach formations (said) from the later Glacial lake Oshkosh. These beach and lake bottom formations of the later Glacial lake Oshkosh provide interesting data for the archaeologist working within the Fox-Wolf watershed. The beach formations of the later Glacial lake Oshkosh provide excellent habitation sites for prehistoric populations. The permeability of these formations aid the accessability to various re- sources, make these excellent sites. Faulkner (1972) surveyed the entire Middle Fox and Wolf drainages aid documented that these beach formations were areas preferred by prehistoric populations. With later prehistoric populations, the availability of clay for ceramic production becomes im- portant. The finely sorted, horogeneous clays found beneath these beach formations provide excellent ceramic clays. It is apparent that these clays were exploited by prehistoric potters (Seurer, personal communication). As Lake Poygan, lake Winneconne, lake Butte des Marts and lake Win- nebago shallowed, the Fox and Wolf rivers added a large volume of sediment into them. McKee aid laudon (1972) maintain that the sediment load carried by these rivers was much greater during the immediate postglacial period ttan is carried presently. These fine, orgaric sediments, pro- duced at the mouth of the Wolf aid Fox rivers, formed a large underwater delta. In Figure 4, the extent of this delta is described for lake Poygan. Although it is impossible to determine the extent of this deltaic build- up, it may have extended to the southern shore of lake Poygar. The mid- dle of the lake, where sediments would have been redeposited by current action, may well have been devoid of these sediments. Linde (1974) also argues that this delta was dynamic since it would be constantly reworked by both increases in sediment load and seasonal increases in water levels. On this said, silt plain, erergeit aid sulrmergent vegetation soon moved 24 Hoe/am v.33 och MO 5882 on... no game oowuflunnm mo :oHumEHom a oHDwE J J .5. _ ' 6 p O I 2 I ./ 2.65.3 25 out from the shoreline (McKee 1971) while concurrently a semi-fluid organic ooze was spread over the sterile said. The extend of the vege- tation was limited by the extert of the deltaic sediments. Therefore, at the height of the erergent-sul'mergent proliferation only a channel in the middle of lake Poygai was evident. Presently tle Fox and Wolf rivers drain approximately 15,678 kmz, referred to as the Winnebago Pool , and composed of four lakes (Poygan, Winneconne, Butte des Morts, Winnebago) with lake Winnebago (759 kmz) being the largest. These lakes were formed by a till dam, which restricts the outflow of the Fox River at Neenah and Menash (Figure AI) . According to Linde (1974) the maximum pool inflow at flood peak is 40,000 cfs, but the greatest outflow possible is only 15,000 cfs. It is obvious that the Winnebago Pool serves as a large reservoir. Glacio-fluvial processes which produced the Fox-Wolf drainage are also responsible for soil types surrounding the perimeters of these lakes and rivers. Soil surveys, such as those conducted by the U. S. Department of Agricultmre and the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey (Anderson e_t a1. 1927) describe the characteristics of these soil types. The important soil types surrounding the Sauer Resort site will be de- scribed in depth in the section of this chapter dealing with the various vegetation cormunities. Physiggraphic Provinces Based upon glacial features and mderlying bedrock formations, physical geographers such as Martin (1965) have described various physio- graphic provinces. Archaeologists working within the State of Wisconsin have used trese descriptions in order to locate various archaeological sites. Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1976, 1978, 1981) have used these provinces to describe the location of the five Oneota phases (Chapter I). 26 Figure 5 illustrates the physiographic provinces of the Fox-Wolf drainage. As stated previously, the lake Winnebago phase is confined to the border region of the Central Plains province aid the Eastern Ridge and lowlands. It must be stressed here than these provinces have been described based upon bedrock formations aid glacial features and do not describe climate or vegetation conditions. The importance of these quali- fications will be made clearer in succeeding chapters. Historic Hydrological Changes in the Fox—Wolf Drainage River systems, like other natural entities may be altered by human agencies. Changes in the Fox-Wolf drainage in the past 150 years have greatly affected the pristine, post-glacial envirornent described by McKee and laudon (1972). As described in the initial section of this chapter, ecologists and archaeologists reconstructing past environmental conditions must assess changes based upon historical documentation and modern ecologi- cal impact studies. The historical docurents pertaining to the Fox-Wolf drainage were written by officers from the Arme Corps of Engineers who were affecting calculated changes on the river systems. These alterations, however, have disrupted the ecosystems of these two rivers. Modern ecologists, fresh water biologists and geologists, in an attempt to de- termine the impact of these changes and to make suggestions for the re- vitalization of the ecosystem, have described the conditions necessary to return these river drainages to their prehistoric condition. Using the historic record of changes as well as these modern scieitific surveys, archaeologists working in this drainage can better reconstruct the pre- historic ecosystem. In order to appreciate the extent of these changes, the initial discussion, following a chronological orientation, outlines the impact of historical utilization of the Fox-Wolf drainage. The suc- ceeding discussion describes the biological and geological processes 27 owgmua macewuxom moo mo moose/cum ofimomhwoamxfim Memo: m madman «“25 O at t t 81:52.3... ~65 o.. q 2.. five H 22.... .2523 «k . so » 2.1224 ngupao.‘ woe: 25.55 0 1 m ”=3 w #38: 224.. 4<¢bzm0 28 that caused these clanges and illustrates the drainage reconstruction based upon historical aid modern information. Historic Utilization 9f Q3 Fox-Wolf Drainage Initial changes in the Fox-Wolf drainage began in the 1830's, when 43 terporary dams were constructed on the Upper Wolf River (Whitbeck 1915) . These dams were privately owned and their effect on the vegetation aid environent are difficult to ascertain. However, because of their size and construction trey probably had little effect or the drainage pattern. According to Pierpont (1878) , the first large scale lumbering activities began in 1835 when rafts of logs were floated down river to a government mill in Neenah. This activity signaled the beginning of major alterations of the Fox-Wolf drainage system. Early in the 1840's, tle U. S. War Department, in the form of the Army Corps of Engineers, began a survey of the Fox-Wolf drainage. There were three motives for this survey. Initially, engineers were sent to determine if a canal could be built between the Wisconsin aid Fox rivers, thus making it possible for steamboats from the Mississippi River to pass through the Fox River aid ultimately to the Great lakes. Since tl'e For was a shallow river (approximately 3 ft. or .9 m), major dredging activities would also have to be instigated (Pierpont 1878). Secondly, more ef- fective control of water levels would allow logs to be easily transported to mills downstream. Lastly, it was deemed imperative that water power would be needed to cut lumber downriver , and therefore this resource should be developed to its fiillest capacity. However, because the Suprere Court had rot decided who had control of the waterway, private companies such as tie Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company and the Wolf River Boom Oorpary as well as the Army Corps of Engineers began improvelents on the waterway (Thomas 1882) . For 30 years, private and government 29 groups affected changes on the Fox-Wolf drainage. In 1846, in an atterpt to improve steamboat navigation, a canal be- tween the Wisconsin and Fox rivers was constructed (Hinaran 1879). Ac- cording to Hinaman (1879), this canal allowed cheaper transportation of heavy, bulky products. Since a large influx of people were moving into the area to exploit the burgeoning lumber business, a large volume of goods would be necessary to supply towns downriver. In 1847, a brush wing dam was constructed at Neenah by a private corpany. According to the charter for this dam, water levels up river were not to be effected. However, according to Overton (1931) , this charter was often violated. In order to control and enforce the charter on the Neerah dam, the Army Corp of Engineers constructed a dam in Menasha in 1850 (Linde 1974). Together, these two dams controlled the water levels in the entire Winnebago Pool. Between 1848 and 1862, the exact date Lmknown, the Wolf River Boom Corpany constructed a cut-off channel between the Wolf River and Boom Bay (Pierpont 1878). This cut-off allowed logs to be rafted in large quantities in the protection of Boom Bay. However, this cut-off had great impact on the lower Wolf River. large rafts of logs denuded areas of vegetation at the mouth of the river aid in Boom Bay, causing the mouth to begin migrating to the east. This area is in very close proximity to the Sauer Resort site. Figure 6 illustrates the dams constructed in Neenah (1847) and Menasha (1850), as well as the boom cut-off at the mouth of the Wolf River. Assessing the vegetation changes up Lmtil 1862, Linde (1974) believes that only minor changes had occurred. In the late 1860's and early 1870's, major steamboat shipping began on the Fox-Wolf waterway (Whitbeck 1915). At this time, the Army Corp of Engineers constructed a government shipping caial in Menasha. 8¢oum owuoam OH onowwm osteo‘ o e ‘ 32:62.. 0 25239.3 21 .O(Z8a 2t. .39.! 44 represents an ecotypic orientation. As described in the opening section of this cfapter, the natural community found between two biotic pro- vinces has been referred to as an ecotone, edge or transitional zone. These comunities may be gradual and difficult to define, or may be sharp and distinct, as in the case of the transition zone between tl'e Canadian and Carolinian provinces (Cleland 1966z7). Since these communities vary in size, the archaeologist working in a particular area cannot assure that a site is located within an ecotone or tension zone. Because tie Sauer Resort site and the Fox-Wolf drainage lie within the tension zone described by Cleland (1966) and Curtis (1959), it becomes incumbent upon the archaeologists working in this area to test the assumptions concerning floristic and biotic provinces. If in fact the Sauer Resort site is located in a transitional zone, the individual cormunities surrounding the site will be represented by plant and animal species (based upon his- torical and faunal analyses) from the Carolinian and Canadian biotic provinces. In the following discussion, these factors will be considered in depth for the individual plant coImunities surrounding the Sauer Resort site. Based upon tl’e information described in this section, the ecological orientation of this site may be corpared with the ecological orientation of otler Oneota sites. The plant communities surrounding the Sauer Resort site exhibit a great deal of diversity in both type and number of plant species. It is the purpose of this description to illustrate these individual plant com- munities and to quantitatively reconstruct a regional vegetation pattern. Ehphasis is placed on canopy, as well as understory species, with con- sideration of their relative number and importance to animal and human communities. This approach is chosen for two reasons. Primarily, the historical documentation for vegetation in Wisconsin was compiled by spe [12' CO? .‘7 45 geologists and naturalists enploying a quantitative approach. These early surveyors were interested in the relative number of dominant plant species, especially ones which could be economically utilized. Since this information provides the best data available for prehistoric re- construction, it becores necessary to adopt this approach. Secondly, this plant community approach based on tie kind and relative mrmber of plant species allows for a more localized description, which permits testing of tie regional ecological assumptions described by Dice (1943), Curtis (1959) and Cleland (1966). While erploying a quantitative approach, it is necessary to enphasize that historical records allow for the recon- struction of vegetation at a particular time (1840-1870 A.D.) and may not exactly represent the prehistoric condition. Vegetation changes by lumber activities had already altered a portion of the Fox-Wolf drainage at the time of these surveys, and day must be considered within a reconstruction. Within the following plant comunity description a variety of his- torical and modern sources are used. Beginning with early floristic ac- counts of the State of Wisconsin, authors such as lapham (1852, 1853) and Hale and lapham (1860, 1861) document flora surveys for the entire State of Wisconsin. For the purpose of a site specific description, the works of Chamberlin (1877) and Curtis (1959) are related in depth. In the case of the aquatic community, additional historical and modern information is needed. Since tl'ese communities have been greatly affected by historic alteration and were of little concern to tie early surveyors (i.e. Chamberlin 1877) , other historical documentation such as, (Kelly and Northwood 1853 and Thwaites 1959) and modern impact studies (Belonger 1969 and Linde 1974) are vital. By describing the plant communities surrounding the Sauer Resort site, it is possible to infer which animals would be found in these plant communities. The habitat preferences of the 46 various animal species found near the Sauer Resort site are described in Appendix B. The earliest record of flora and vegetation in the State of Wisconsin began with a list of native flora by lapham (1852, 1853) with additional surveys by Hale and lapham (1860, 1861). In 1861, Hale and lapham publisled a map of the State of Wisconsin illustrating the gereral geology, climatology and distribution of timber. As shown by this map, tie northern section of the state was mostly pine, with a gradation of pines and hard- woods to oak openings and prairie. These vegetation bands roighly cor- respond to the microclimate differences found within the state. Although interesting from a general perspective, tl'ese early floral lists and map provide little information about localized plant commities. In order to evaluate the plant commrnities surrounding the Sauer Resort site, sore measure is needed to delineate the potentially ex- ploitable areas of the site. For tie purpose of this discussion, a circle is used. A circle represents a boundary which is equidistant from the site locus, thereby mitigating against an artificial bias of treating one microenvironment over another based upon the geoIetric configuration of the boundary. Two arbitrary concentric rings , one with a radius of five kilometers and the other with a radius of ten kiloreters is drawn surrounding the Sauer Resort site. Microenvironments illustrated in- clude tl'e Swamp/Open Water group, Grass and Sedge group, Marsh and Conifer group, Prairie group, Oak group and Hardwood and Conifer group (Figure 11). These designations are derived from Chamberlin (1877), with modern designations by Curtis (1959) also described. Table 1 presents a quantitative assessment of the environs surrounding the site. Also described in this discussion is an agricultural community. This human-altered community is confined to tie oak group lere illustrated. ......' .. toutmo veet'rmon wtmo vacuum: 9 (CMRLIN ION) (CMKRLII IO") IILMTERS an. mum nun now . '1' "g!” a." m on an: m on no» can «mam worm comm (can ' " m” (onus In.) W MIT!!! a me "‘3'; not u m m .0 on IIOIC M mucus mu "1 .... D m unclu- -ou M an» ”um" "‘ Figure 11 Microenviroments of the Sauer Resort Site NE meme u 82 adobe. NE 3% n 8a.. 38.... was as: ammo a8 0.8 ~28 98o 8380 Ea 896% 3: man has 88355 95a 3: are 98c madam as... $80 2 3.2 98o 3350 as... name: N . a mm.m 980 Shane «.3 3.? acne and Ham 8.8 has 88880 983m I: a: 98c Ream as... $80 .3 mam 98c amuse Em 888m: manna oHUCmocou bans—E60 can? 8a. SS. mo .\. mo £3 8.2. Bug Sunflower ésST‘IPE’H UPI OI atST‘TPL’H “D1 9 Sam uHOmmm HoDmm moo 3:58po mono—Ecuysoouoaz moo mo ucgmomma. o>Humuauqmoo < H p.33. 49 Importantly however, the areas described within these concentric rings are r_1_gt_:_ intended to infer that these are the limits of the areas ex- ploited at the Sauer Resort site, but rather allow comparisons to be be- tween the microenvironmental zones described here and the known habitats of the animals exploited at this site (Chapter III). Where possible, in the succeeding chapter inferences to distance of a particular resource is discussed. For the purpose of clarity and the interrelationship of individual carmunities, lowland plant commmities are discussed first, with upland plant ccmnunities to follow. Since individual commmities grade into each other, this approach seems to most accurately describe the natural situation. Swamp/Open Water Grog) The Swamp group or Aquatic Community (Curtis 1959) may be defined as a plant community where the water table is above the soil layer for more than half the year. Open water areas are also found, but are re- stricted to the innemost portions of the mouth of the Wolf River and the current channel of Lake Poygan (Figure 4). Both of these aquatic con- ditions are potentially valuable to inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site. To varying degrees depending upon season, marsh-type areas are found throughout this ccmmnity. Generally speaking , Lake Poygan in prehistoric times was a marsh with an open, herbaceous grouping dominated by cattails (BRIE sp.), reeds (Scripus sp.) and other grass-like plants (Linde 1974) . TWO major determinants affect the type of emergent and submergent plant species which grow in a particular lake or stream. The Wolf River, throughout its drainage leaches silicates from dolomite bedrock formations which causes tl'e water of lake Poygan to become relatively hard (high 50 ppm of Cam3) . Plant species that have a tolerance for relatively hard water flourish in this lake, while plants which are sensitive to hard water do not. Lake Poygan, in this regard is very similar to the majority of lakes in southern Wisconsin. The other important determiant is water level. Both emergent and sutmergent plant species have sensitivity to various levels of wtaer which control where they will be found. Because of the disruption and destruction of the aquatic coummity during the 19th century and the lack of treatment in early surveys (Chamberlin 1877), it is difficult to docunent all the aquatic species found prehistorically. Reconstruction of this cormunity is paramount however, since the aquatic community provides an important habitat for nesting water fowl and small mammals. Reconstruction of the aquatic com- munity of lake Poygan must largely be based upon modern envirom‘ental impact statements by Belonger (1969) and Linde (1974), with casual ob- servations by Kelly and Northwood (1853) and Thwaites (1959) . Linde (1974) conducted a field survey of the suhnergents and emer- gents of Lake Poygan in the surmer of 1973. Using Linde's (1974) findings and a 22 lake survey conducted by Belonger (1969), it is possible to describe 6 species of submergents and 7 species of emergents found in lake Poygan. Since water hardness is constant factor within a lake such as Poygan, water levels beccme the only variable. Both emergent and suhnergent plant species , therefore , correspond to the documented water levels for Lake Poygan prior to historic damming. Refering again to Figure 7, the following plant species are found between the .2 m and 1.2 m depths: submergents, including, wild celery (Valliseria americanus), flat- stenmed pond-weed (Potanngeton zosterifolius); emergents , giant reed grass (Phragites australis) , duck potato (Sagittaria latifolia) and cattails (mm latifolia). Between the 1.2 and 2.0 m level, the 51 following species are found: sulmergents, coontail (Ceratophyllun darersum) , bass weed (Potanggeton zosterifolius) , sago pondweed (g. Rectinatus), stoneworts (Chara sp.); emergents, wild rice (Zizaiia aquatica), rush (Scigpus acutus), bulrush (S. americanus) aid pickerel weed (Potderia cordata) . As is apparent from this placement, both emergents and submergents grade outward from the shoreline. As to be expected, all species (both emergent and submergent) begin in shallow water situations and move outward. It must be stressed here than many of the ecologically delicate species would have long been disturbed when these surveys (Belonger 1969) (Linde 1974) occurred. Many species of submergents such as those belonging to the genus Potarogeton (pond weeds) and chp' us (bulrushes) and arergents such as 13.112; sp. (duckweed) and Mar sp. (water lilies) would most probably have been found. How- ever, it is impossible to state this with a great deal of certainty be- cause of the general destruction of the aquatic community of lake Poygai. Grass aid Sedge Group The Grass and Sedge group or Sedge Meadow (Curtis 1959) for the nest part are located in areas immediately adjacent to the emergent vegeta- tion of the aquatic camunities. Sedge meadows are found in areas where a good deal of water is available, but do not favor soils that are sub- merged for most of the growing season. In the central aid southern sections of Wisconsin this plant community is also found in extinct glacial lake beds where areas are poorly drained (Curtis 1959) . Both of these locational situations are evident surrounding the Sauer Resort site. As the mare of this group indicates, these meadows are largely carposed of grasses (Granineae) , sedges (Cyperaceae) aid importantly the family Cmpositae. Chamberlin (1877) identified the Granineae and 52 gyperaceae families, but did not include the Compositae in his original description. Modem surveys, such as those conducted by Curtis (1959) aid his colleagues show that in the southern section of Wisconsin, Compositae represent 20.370, Q’Peraceae 8.1‘7° aid Granineae 7.6%, with numerous other families representing a small percentage. SurrOLmding the Sauer Resort site, these plant species are restricted to a soil type known as Houghton Muck (Anderson et al. 1929). This soil type is char-— acteristic of wet, poorly drained areas with an extremely high organic content. The large scale disintegration of the grasses and sedge combined with an aneorbic state, produces a layer of at least 18 inches (45.7 cm) of this soil in the Wolf River area. As described previously, sedge meadows were created and maintained by the continual presence of fire. Fires intentionally set or accidentally produced would help to maintain this plant community in a retrogressive stage of development. It is possible that prehistorically when fires were more frequent, sedge meadows would have been much more visible than when Chamberlin (1877) conducted his survey. Marsh and Conifer Group The Marsh and Conifer m or Lowland Northern Forest (Curtis 1959) is found in close proximity to aquatic carmunities and sedge meadows. Chamberlin (1877) reserved this designation for a group of three tree species, tanarack (larix laricina) , black spruce (Picea mariana) a1d white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) . Actually, the lowland northern forest is carposed of two segments of a compositional gradient, the wet aid the wet-mesic carmunities (Curtis 1959). These communities are composed of a water/slope continuum which includes the tanarack-black spruce bog forests, the white cedar-balsam fir conifer swamps, and the black ash- yellow birch-hemlock hardwood forests (Curtis 1959:221). Chamberlin 53 (1877) prefers to split these groups into the Marsh and (bnifer group (tamarack, black spruce aid white cedar) and the Hardwood and Conifer grow (balsam fir, black ash, yellow birch and hemlock). The Hardnood and Conifer grow will be discussed separately in a succeeding section. The tamarack-white cedar-black spruce forests described by Chamberlin (1877) are located on the glacial lake bed and the adjacent flood plain. These areas are inundated by a mineral-rich silt on a seasonal basis. Consequently, these tree species enjoy a rapid growth and a predominant place in this plant carmunity. According to Curtis (1959), in most cases tl'ese trees form a close caiopy, which does not allow for the growth of many understory species. Since a very specialized environment is needed for these forests, they are restricted to small discrete bodies that rarely cover a great deal of area (Curtis 1959:222). Surrounding the Sauer Resort site, this plant camunity is restricted to small strips of land between the Grass and Sedge grow and the Hardwood and Conifer grow as well as between the Oak grow and Hardwood and Conifer grow. The soil type of the Marsh and Conifer grow results from the glacial lake bottom aid high orgmic content and has been referred to as Poygan silty clay loan and Houghton Muck (Anderson 35 5.1.1. 1929) . With a continuous in- fluence of fire, these species may be stunted producing a shrub-like community. Prairie Grow The Prairie Grow defined by Chamberlin (1877) is the most dif- ficult to describe using modern nomenclature. Although many early tra- velers, such as the Jesuits in tre 1670's (Thwaites 1959) , spoke of the majestic qualities of this plat carmunity, little systematic study was undertaken until the 1950's. Because of this, the prairie grow (Chamber- lin 1877) may be divided into wet, wet-mesic, mesic, dry-mesic aid dry 54 prairie species. Each of these sub plant communities have differing percentages of plant species. The small area of prairie located 10 km due west of the Sauer Resort site was most probably a wet-wet-mesic prairie. These prairies include big blue stem (Andropogon gerardi) , blue joint grass (Calamagrostis canadensis), sloughgrass (Spartina Ectinata) , wild rye (Elymus canadensis) and prairie muhly (Muhlenbergia racemosa) (Curtis 1959:285). These prairies are restricted to areas where water is found on the soil surface during brief times of the year. The prairie associated with the SaLer Resort site is located adjacent to an area of sedge meadow. Oftentimes, the prairie species merge with the sedge meadows, making discrimination of each plant cammmity difficult at the border be- tween them. Since water conditions aid slope are important to tl‘e de- velopment of these prairies, the soil type is largely described as Poygan silty clay loam (Anderson et al_ 1929). For the most part, the prairies surrounding the Sauer Resort site represent the furthest northern ex- tension of this plat ccmmunity. The prairies of Wisconsin owe their creation and maintenance to periodic burn-over. The continued burning released nutrients back into the soils, thus allowing a large variety and density of herbaceous plait species to survive. Importantly, fire in the plat community constantly maintained it in a regressive stage. According to Curtis (1959), if the prairie regions of Southern Wisconsin had not been affected by fire, the deciduous forest species would have invaded the area occwied by the prairie species. As stressed earlier, it is impossible to discuss what natural plait commmmities in Wisconsin would have been if prehistoric humans had not interceeded. The specific effects of these actions however, cannot be fully known. Fri .1 :23 51a: 55 99k. G. .rgmz The Oak group or oak barrens-oak openings and Southern Xeric Forest (Curtis 1959) is by far the largest single plant community surrounding the Sauer Resort site. The Oak grow designation, according to Chamberlin (1877); includes closed deciduous forests (Soutlern Xeric Forests), as well as oak orchards or "openings". Closely associated with these oak openings are herbaceous plant species, with the resulting community re- ferred to as oak savanna (Curtis 1959). It is important here to first describe the plant species found in the closed forest community and then to describe the oak savanna. The predominate tree species of the Southern Xeric Forest include the bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) , the white oak (g. alba) , the red oak (Q. rubra) and pin oak (Q. palustris). Important associates of these oaks are the common poplar (Populus tramiloides), shell-bark hickory (Carya glabra), the crab apple (Pyrus coronaria), the wild black cherry (Prunus serotina) , the choke cherry (P. virginiala) and the wild plum (Rhus typhina). Although the canopy species predominate in this com- munity, significant understory species are also prevelant. These species include the hazelnut (Corylus americana) , the panicled cornel (Cornus paniculata) , the wild red raspberries (Rubus strigosus) , the black rasp- berries (R. occidentalis) and high-bush blackberries (R. villosus) . It must be stressed that the hazelnut and panicled cornel are the most canton, with tte berry species prefering other deciduous forest grows. The soil type of this calmunity is predominately Poygan sandy loam (Anderson et a_l. 1929). This soil is thick (.92 m), well drained and fully developed. The parent material of this soil type is largely the blacio-fluvial beach sand of Glacial lake Oshkosh. Grading into the closed oak forest is a unique plant community 56 known as the oak savanna. Oak savannas are often found as intermediate communities between the closed canopy forest and the herbaceous open prairie. According to Curtis (1959), many early enqnlorers (i.e. Charle- voix 1761) spoke of this grow as incorporating both large trees 3m:- rounded by grasslands. Two types of these oak orchards exist in the State of Wisconsin. The black oak openings are confined to the sandy regions, with the bur oak openings being found in more developed (heavy) soil areas (Curtis 1959:329). The openings surrounding the Sauer Resort site are more characteristic of the bur oak distinction. With the bur oaks, mesic prairie species such as Amphicgpa bracteata, Enwhorbia corollata, Amogpha canescens, Galium boreale, Monarda fistulosa, Rosa sp. , Cornus racemosa, Corylus americana, Apocynum androsaemifolium, and Andropogon gerandi are found. As is the case with other plant communities, the oak opening is created by fire. According to Curtis (1959) the bur oak and black oak are resistant to damage by fire. Because of this resistance, these species become the most predomninant. Increased fire activity would have allowed this ccmmunity to remain in this form. It is possible that the closed oak forest that Chamberlin (1877) docurented surrounding the Sauer Resort site might have been much more open in prehistoric time. With the advent of farming in the early 1800's, fires were controlled and the successional development of the canmmnity may have begun. Since the surveys discussed by Chamberlin (1877) did not cover many years, it is impossible to state unequivocally that this occured. Hardwood and Conifer Grow The Hardwood and Conifer grow or Northern Mesic and Xeric Forests (Cm‘tis 1959) is a transitional community between the northern and southern floristic provinces. This grow includes hardwoods such as, the sugar 57 maple (Acer saccharinum) , the linden (Tilia anericana) , the white elm Ulmus anericana), the ironwood (Ostrya virginica) , hickory (EEK alba) and the beech (Fagus ferruginea) (Chamberlin 1877) . Hardwood under- story species include the witch hazel (Hamamelis virginica) and the mountain mnaple (Acer spicatum). The first conifers to be introduced are the white pine (Pinus strobus), the norway pine (1:. resinosa), the hemlock (Abies canadensis) and the balsam fir (A. balsarea) (Chamnberlin 1877:180). This plant community represents an interesting transition from mesic to xeric conditions. Species such as the mnaples (Agar; sp.) , iromoood and linden are found in wetter, more developed soils, with the pines ultimately being found in hilly, sandy soils to the north. The white pine, char- acteristic of this grow, is found in large stands near the head waters of the Wolf and was exploited to a large degree in the 1800's. The soil type of this grow is Superior silt loan and Swerior clay loam (Anderson _e£ a_1. 1979). These soils are derived from glacio-fluvial and modern river processes. The; Agricultural Community As observed at other Oneota sites in Wisconsin (i.e. Pipe site, Overstreet 1981), prehistoric inhabitants produced large agricultural fields in order to plant mnaize and other garden crops. This synthetic or human-made carmunity is restricted to the wland oak savanna area. Adjacent to the Sauer Resort site are garden beds located 1.75 kmn west of the site (SWau N514” Section 31, Town of Winchester). These garden beds are identical to the ridge and furrow type as fowd at lasley's Point (Peske 1966). Agricultural activity at all three of these sites seems to be restricted to the soil type, Poygan sand loan. This sandy loam could produce a good crop because of its development and drainage. 58 Importantly, the synthetic community created by these prehistoric inhabitants would greatly alter the natural plant community. According to Curtis (1959), prehistoric pOpulations girdled trees with fire in order to clear the land for planting. These clearing activities produced not only field-like situations, but caused a regressive peripheral environ- ment. In climax oak forests or oak savannas, this activity allowed as- sociated species to become more prominent. Species such as the popular (Populus sp.) encroached won the cultivated fields. This is particularily significant because it produces the phenomenon known as "edge effect". Browsing animals such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) would be attracted to this area. The importance of this community and the con- cept of "edge effect" will be dealt with in greater depth in the suc- ceeding chapter (Chapter III). Based won tl’e previous discussion, it is possible to argue that the Sauer Resort site is located in a transitional zone between the major floristic and biotic provinces of Wisconsin. This fact is demonstrated by the intersection and interaction of the southern plant canmmnities such as the Mesic/Xeric Prairie, Southern Xeric Forest, Oak Forest and Openings, with nortl'ern plant canmunities such as the Northern Lowland Forest and Northern Mesic/Xeric Forests (Curtis 1959). Importantly, as suggested in tre preceeding discussion of the individual plant com- munities, a gradient exists between individual communities producing a mosaic vegetation pattern. The multiplicity of these canmunities provide a variety of resources for the prehistoric inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site. The transitional zone between the Canadian and Carolinian biotic provinces is only one of the considerations pertinent to the ecological orientation of the Sauer Resort site. Although it may be argued that 59 the ”ecotone" effect of this transition would produce an area with a greater density of resources than the individual biotic provinces them- selves, equally critical to this discussion is the relationship between the wland forest-prairies and tie lowland forest-aquatic (including vegetated and open water) areas. For exarple, within a five kilometer radius of the Sauer Resort site, aquatic habitats make w 48.27.. of the total area, while within the ten kilometer radius this habitat comprises 33.37.. of the total area. Since it is enmectable that this site was located in a position to exploit both wland and aquatic areas, it is possible to argue that the fauna represented at this site should represent both an wland and aquatic adaptation. The strength of this assumption is tested in tlre succeeding chapter (III) which deals with the faunal analysis of the site. CHAPTER III FAUNAL DCPIDITATION The identification and analysis of faunal remnains Lmncovered fromn archaeological sites has long been recognized as a valuable indicator of subsistence practices and cultural affiliations. In the case of the Lake Wirmnebago phase Oneota, early writers such as Iawson (1902) referred to large mussel shell middens as characteristic of this cultural mnanifestation. Appreciating the significance and relationship between the exploitation of freshwater mussels and these people, Lawson (1902) entitled his article, "Clam Eaters and their Shell Heaps in Wirmnebago County". In the sane sense, modern faunal analyses use the known habitats and behavioral characteristics of animal populations and predictable patterns of ex— ploitation of these species to infer human subsistence practices. Faurnal analysis although limited at various levels within the analysis, remains with palaeobotanical studies, the best analytical tool available for the reconstruction of past subsistence practices. The 1978 excavation of the Sauer Resort site yielded a great quantity of well-preserved bone material. In total, 24,580 bone fragments were Lmncovered from 27.6 cubic meters of soil, with 5,942 specimens (24.2%) identified to the family, germs, or species level. All animal classes represented in this analysis are a complete sample, except for freshwater mussels (Pelecypoda) of which only a random sanple was retained. A density of 891 fragments per cubic meter, coupled with an identification rate of 24.27.. of the recovered bone fragments illustrates the favorable 60 61 preservation conditions. As discussed previously (Chapter II), the soil matrix of the Sauer Resort site is of glacial origin, moderately acidic, allowing for rapid water percolation and leaching of organic materials. These agencies working in concert should have produced poor, rather than favorable preservation conditions. Apparently, lnowever, this did not occur. By an accident of deposition, a large deposit of fresh- water mussel shells formed a compact lens which capped most of the slnell mnidden. The shell cap slowly released calcium carbonate (Cam3) through the soil matrix, mitigating the acidic effect of the downward percolation. In areas where the midden was not capped (Unit A), the preservation of the bone material is poor. Using the extensive, well-preserved faurnal assemblage of the 1978 excavation of the Sauer Resort site as a data base, the following chapter addresses the posited interpretive differences between Cleland's (1966) and Overstreet's (1978, 1981) models for Oneota subsistence practices, as they apply to the Sauer Resort site data. The question of ecological/ erwironmental exploitation and economic orientation is stressed in the analysis of the Sauer Resort site because these factors are critical to evaluate these models. Because every faunal analysis must be constructed particular to that data base and the problems in question, and since no two fanmnal as- semblages are identical, the initial segment of this chapter describes tl'e procedures used in the identification and interpretation of the animal species represented in the Sauer Resort site assennblage. In this segment, the methods of identification and the types of information gained by a faunal analysis are described. Critical to the problem orientation of this thesis, the determination of minimum number of individuals (MNI) and projected meat are also described. From a general interpretive 62 perspective, a discussion of non-quantitative innformnation, such as habi- tat reconstruction, seasonal availability, artifactual evidence, and ethnohistorical information are described. The second segnent of this chapter presents a class by class discussion of the animal species re- presented at the site. Within these discussions, the initial section presents habitat reconstructions of animal species, particular to the environs surromnding the Sauer Resort site. Also valuable for determining exploitation potential, behavioral characteristics such as mating, molt, and availability (season) are also discussed. The second section of the class discussion illustrates the archaeological significance of the species represented in the assemblage. This analysis, particular to each animal class, discusses the importance of various species, season of exploitation, and the environs exploited durirng the amnual rowd. T'he final segment of this chapter summarizes the interpretations of the animal species represented in the assemblage and determines the significance of the animal classes relative to the entire subsistence system. Combining species identifications and quantification with inferences based on habi- tat preferences, site seasonality, and ethnohistorical accournts re- garding subsistence practices in eastern Wisconsin by historic grows, a probable statenent of the subsistence practices of the inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site is defined. Procedures for Identification and Interpretation The identification of individual anatomical elerents from the Sauer Resort site was greatly facilitated by the extensive zoological col- lections of the Michigan State University Museum (Appendix C) . This large, canprehensive collection houses a great number of Great lakes mammals and birds. The fish collections, although limited in comparison to the mnanmnals and birds represented, proved adequate for the identification 63 of the great quantity of fish elenents found in the assemblage. All identifications were mnade, fortunately, using available animal skeletons. For each identification, a variety of informnation was determined. The taxonomic level (family, genus, species, provenience, identification numnber, elenent, side, portion, age (juvenile to adult), means for determining age, natural as well as cultnm‘al modification, were all re- corded where applicable. This information ccmpiled for 5,942 identifica- tions provides an extensive data base (Appendix C) from which to draw con- clusions. Faunal remains provide important information regarding site seasonality, procurenent strategies, and subsistence practices based won the information collected. The information documented in this analysis is commensurate with faurnal analysis described by Chaplin (1971), Smith (1975), and Styles (1981). The quantification of the known data, based won identification of various elements is particularly important to the overall problem orien- tation of this thesis. The determination of minimum number of individuals (hereafter referred to as MNI) and the projected meat yield (pounds of usable meat) for each species is critical to the comparison of the data from tie Sauer Resort site and other Oneota sites. The MNI for each species was determnined using the "single-most— frequent-elerent" approach (Grayson 1978). For example, if left radii are the most frequent elennent found for the badger, the nunnber of in- dividual elements represented would determine the MNI. This method has certain limitations. As the term implies, the MNI for each species re- presents a_t_ _l£_a_s_t a certain number of individuals , but may represent many more. Osteometric analysis on archaeological and modern populations of white-tailed deer indicates that MNI determined by a single—most-frequent- element approach are often conservative (Martin 1983). 64 In some cases, the side of the individual cannot be determined. Therefore, the identified specimen may not be used to determine the MNI. Consequently, MNT's are often low in comparison to the total number of specimens identified (Overstreet 1981). Acknnowledging these limitations, this technique was chosen because other authors such as Cleland (1966), Gibbon (1969) and Overstreet (1978, 1981) enploy this approach and therefore, for the sake of canparison, this method was used here. The calculation of projected meat yield provides a complex problem for the quantification of the exploited species. Since factors such as season of procurenent, habitat, and sex, affect the size (live weight) of each individual, it is difficult to determine unequivocally the pro— jected meat yield of each species. Where possible this author looked to published information (Cleland 1966; Smith 1975; Styles 1981) to determine the projected meat yield per individual far various species. When this was not possible, a formula similar to the ores erployed by these authors, was used. Initially the live weights of each species was determined. In cases where sexual dimorphisnm produces greatly varied weights, tie live weight of each species was translated into projected meat yield. This was ac- complished by using a scaling factor of .5 (507.) for large mammals, .7 (707°) for birds, .2 (207.) for turtles, and .8 (807°) for fish. These factors are consistent with the calculations made by Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1981). This scaling will facilitate the comparison of data from various sites in the following chapter. Quantification of exploited resources presents only a part of the information needed to reconstruct past subsistence practices. In order to evaluate the importance of individual animnal species represented in the archaeological assemblage, it is valuable to place these species 65 into the environmental contexts from which they were extracted. Habitat reconstructions, based won the enviromental data outlined in Clnapter II, combined with archaeological identifications, presents a more illustra- tive description of which environs are being exploited at the Sauer Resort site. Including behavioral characteristics such as species densities, season of availability (ie. hibernation and migration), mating, molt, and spawning erns where applicable, these reconstructions may also be viewed as scenerios of potential exploitation. This allows comparisons to be made between what resources are available and what resources are exploited, based won the archaeological evidence. Artifactual evidence in the form of procurerent devices are also valuable indicators of resource utilization. Given the overall preserva- tion of mnaterials at the Sauer Resort site, various artifacts such as antler tine points, pelecypod fishing lures, and maize hoes, were un- covered. Although important from a procurenent perspective, the arti- facts also dennonstrate that animals represented at this site were not only used for food, but as raw mnaterials for tools and otter implements. The significance of trese artifacts is integrated into the faurnal analysis where applicable. Because of the tenporal position of the lake Winnebago phase Oneota in tl'e prehistoric continuum, ethnohistorical docunnentation becomes an important source of information. Subsistence practices of historic grows, such as the Menominee, Fox, and Winnebago, as described by French Jesuits in the Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (Thwaites 1959) be- comes a valuable comparative tool. Throughout this analysis, historical procurenent strategies and subsistence practices are discussed, relative to the archaeologically derived data. The ethnographic literature is also used as a model to help to 66 explain aspects of the reconstructed diet. Radin's 1923 study The Winnebago Tribe was conducted among Winnebago people some of when lived in villages in the immediate area of the Sauer Resort site in historic times. CLASS MAMMALIA Mammals Peoples of tie Sauer Resort site mnade extensive use of the abundant mammalian fauna surrounding the site. A total of 5,660 well-preserved mammal fragments were identified, with 653 specimens being identified to family, genus, or species, representing at least 23 species. Tie fol- lowing discussion of animal habitats particular to the Sauer Resort site incorporates the environmental information discussed in Chapter II with the identified mnammal species. Table 2 illustrates the identified mammal species, grouped according to their general habitat preferences. The genus Canis sp. and the species Bison bison are not included in this discussion. The reason for this omission is explained in tl'e succeeding section which deals with the archaeological significance of the marmal species represented in the assemblage. The following discussion considers each mammal species identified at tl'e site (except Canis sp. and Bison bison) in terms of their preferred habitat in order to understand general ecological regions exploited by tl'e Sauer Resort site inhabitants. Within each ecological grow, species are described in an order that corresponds to the number of specimens identified (Table 2) . Behavioral and Habitat Characteristics 9f the Represented Mammal Species The habitat and behavioral characteristics of the white-tailed deer populations of the Great lakes region have been extensively studied by modern ecologists and manmalogists (Baker 1983). 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GNVTdfl $3193.13 ouvnbv @8538 N 3an 69 studies and inferences concerning prehistoric animal populations have been discussed by Brown and Cleland (1968), Smith (1975) , and Styles (1981). In the vicinity of the Sauer Resort site, the habitats of the white-tailed deer would range with the seasons, ranaining a year-round resident. In the spring, white-tailed deer would be found in the large sedge meadows and wet, wet-mesic prairies (Curtis 1959). Since these areas green more quickly than do the deciduous forests, sedge meadows and prairies would provide a much needed food supply after the long Wisconsin winter. Beginning in the early surmer and continuing until late winter, the preferential habitat for the white-tailed deer would be the oak-hickory forests and the critical periphery or edge areas. In these areas, white-tailed deer browse on young aspen and yellow birch saplings. With the advent of fall, acorn mast becomes the predominent food resource until the winter snows bury them too deep for the animals to reach them (Jackson 1961, Smith 1975; Baker 1983). At the Sauer Resort site, the ripening of maize in garden beds sur- rounding the site would provide a valuable suppleuent to the white-tailed deer diet. This is a time of extensive feeding because of the need to accumulate fat for the winter. Food resources, so plentiful in the late fall, become scarce in winter. For most of the winter (Decenber to March), tle staple food for the resident white-tailed deer population would be saplings (aspen and birch) and various types of tree bark. De- pending upon the severity of the winter, many white-tailed deer are lost dm‘ing this season. Jackson (1961) maintains that prehistoric white- tailed deer densities in Wisconsin varied depending upon the natural biome. He estimates that white-tailed deer populations in central and northern Wisconsin (Canadian Biotic Province) to be approximately 10 to 15 white- tailed deer per square mile, or 4 to 6 animals per square kilareter. 70 However, in the oak-maple forest (Carolinian Biotic Province) of central and southern Wisconsin, white-tailed deer densities may reach 20 to 50 animals per square mile, or 8 to 9 individuals per square kilometer (Jackson 1961:416). Because of the proximity of the Sauer Resort site to both of these biotic provinces and given the nature of the ecotone ef- fect (both natural and synthetic), density estimates for white-tailed deer populations would most probably be closer to the density estimates of the Carolinian Biotic Province, than those of the Canadian Biotic Province. Two other behavioral episodes are valuable to the exploitation of the white-tailed deer. The fall rut or mating season (October and Novem- ber) signals a change in residency patterns of this species. Whereas mature does, their yearling female offspring, and fawns are found to- gether in the spring and summer, they are joined by small groups (up to four individuals) of bucks during the mating period. 'I'tey continue as a group until early spring (Baker 1983). Therefore, since fall is a time of greater density of animals per unit of area, and each individual would reach its maximum weight because of the abundant food supply, this period represents the time of greatest exploitation potential. As the year progresses , the potential for exploitation gradually decreases , with both does and bucks reaching their lowest annual body weight in early spring. This is also the time at which there is a change in residency pattern. The habitat and behavior of the American elk or wapiti must be re- constructed because this species is extirpated from its prehistoric range (Jackson 1961; Baker 1983). Elk, like white-tailed deer, would have been found in sedge meadows, stabilized openings and aspen-hardwood cover dm'ing the spring and summer moving to lowland and upland hardwood conifer forest, and aspen-rich areas in the fall and winter (Baker 1983). 71 According to Baker (1983) , open areas are rever abandoned completely during any season of the year. These habitats were all available sur- rounding the Sauer Resort site. The behavior of the elk is much different than the white-tailed deer. Whereas the white-tailed deer is quite solitary, the elk is highly sociable and is found in large herds (Jackson 1961; Baker 1983) . Although main- taining an aggregation throughout the entire year, the number and compo— sition varies with season. Elk, like white-tailed deer, ruts in the fall. Because elk populations would reach their greatest annual body weight and their largest aggregation in the fall, this season must be considered the most preferential for exploitation. Meadow voles are confined to areas of wet-mesic prairie, sedge, rush, and grass areas (Jackson 1961). This species is quite niche sensitive and its presence in the assemblage suggests that these environmental char— acteristics were located near the site. The eastern chipmunk, according to Dice (1943) is restricted almost entirely to the Carolinian Biotic Province. Surrounding the Sauer Re- sort site, this small rodent would be found in dense hardwood forest areas. The woodchuck, like other upland species identified in the assenblage, would favor the oak openings of the Southern Xeric forest, which surround the Sauer Resort site. This species would also be found in close proximity to horticultural sites where synthetic edge areas would create secondary growth. Jackson (1961) notes a statewide density of 4 to 5 individuals per square mile, or 4 to 5 individuals per 2.6 square kilometers. The woodchuck is available during the spring, sumer, and fall, going into hibernation in the winter (Burt 1957). The thirteen-lined ground squirrel is a small squirrel that inhabits 72 open grassland areas of the Southern Xeric forests. According to Burt (1957) and Baker (1983), these small rodents are very nidhe sensitive and are never found in dense, climax forest areas. In close proximity to tie site, these animals would be found in oak openings and prairies (wet, wet-mesic prairie). The badger is found in open grassland and prairie openings. Sur- rounding the Sauer Resort site, badgers would be found in upland prairie conditions in.close proximity to areas of easy burrowing, such as the elevated beach formations found near the site. In favorable habitats as those described for this area, a density of one individual per 2-3 square miles or one individual per 5 to 7.8 square kilometers may be reached. The badger does not hibernate, remaining active through the entire year. The marten is now extirpated from the dense spruce and pire forests of Wisconsin, therefore, their habitat must be reconstructed. The "pine" marten represents one of the few mammal species identified from the Sauer Resort site that prefers coniferous fOrest habitats over grasslands or deciduous forest. Because trey prefer dry upland pine forests, the habitat surrounding the Sauer Resort site would not be favorable for this species. Reaching a density of only one individual per square mile, this species would represent an uncommon occurrence at the Sauer Resort site. The prairie vole is confined to open herbaceous habitats, such.as the true prairies of soutlern Wisconsin, preferring dryer more upland con- ditions than the meadow vole. The identification of the genus Sciurus (squirrels) and the family Soricidae (shrews) are also noted. Because these identifications could only be taken to the genus and family levels respectively, their habitat sensitivity cannot be determined. 73 Omnivorous species such as the raccoon would find.many preferential habitats surrounding the Sauer Resort site. Preferring oak and conifer forests for dermning and food supply, the prehistoric upland forests circling Lake Poygon would provide desirable habitat for the raccoon. According to Steuwer's (1943) studies of raccoons in Michigan, upland forests in close proximity to water supplies are most suited to this species (Baker 1983:445). Feeding on large amounts of freshwater mussels, amphibians, and fish, raccoons depend upon aquatic resormces as well. Rac- coons would also be drawn to human refuse areas as a feeding station and the Sauer Resort site was probably no exception. Excluding human-made environments such as mniddens, densities of animals would be approximately 40 to 50 animals per square mile, or 15 to 20 individuals per square kilometer in environs such as those surrounding the Sauer Resort site. Jackson (1961) claims that as many as one hundred individuals per square mile is not uncommon. Reaching their maximum annual weight and best pelt quality in November and December, this may be considered the period mast favorable for utilization; however, raccoons unlike some other mammals do not hibernate and would be available through the year. The striped skunk is a commonly occm'ring carnivore in Wisconsin. Exploiting a variety of habitats and food resources, skunks reach a density of one hundred or more individuals per square mile (2.6 square kilometers), with their lowest density of sixty individuals per square mnile being reached in tl'e winter. Skunks, like raccoons, are also at- tracted to human refuse areas. The Southern Xeric forest, a favorable habitat for the black bear, would be found near the Sauer Resort site. Marsh and sedge areas as- sociated with these hardwood forests, as well as garbage middens, would also have been attractive to a lesser degree. According to Baker, the 74 combination of forested uplands and marsh/ swamp areas provide suf- ficient food and cover for these animals (Baker 1983:433). The pre- ferential season of exploitation would range from late surmer to late fall because of factors such as body weight and availability. The muskrat, a large microtine, would enjoy a favorable l'abitat in the Fox-Wolf drainage. As described in Chapter II, the average depth of lake Poygon is between four and nine feet with a slow-moving current. This is critical because the current prevents the lake from freezing to the bottom, allowing winter movement to take place. Of the favorite foods described by Baker (1983:327), cattails (M), bullrush (Sci_r_'p}1_§), arrowhead (Saggitaria latifolia) , and reed grass (Phrafltes commmnis) were all found in large concentrations in lake Poygan. Because of this great quantity of food, muskrats would be found in high density in this lake. Accustomed to crowding, the density of these animals could reach up to 35 individuals per acre, or 87 per hectare (Jackson 1961). These factors produce a rich local resource. The most favorable season for exploitation would be fall, when young are born, and movements of animals are restricted. This is also a time when pelt quality would reach its best condition. The beaver, exploited by prehistoric papulations in the upper Great lakes, are restricted to slow-moving rivers or streams and inland lakes where large stands of soft woods are available. Near the Sauer Resort site, numerous feeder streams such as the Rat River would provide ex- cellent habitat for the beaver. The Rat River is located approximately two miles (3.2 kilometers) north of the Sauer Resort site. According to the environmental reconstruction of this area, large stands of aspen, birch, and willow would have dotted the banks of this small, slow- moving stream. Because beavers are in need of extensive feeding 75 territories, their density is rather small in comparison to other man- mals. The mnost preferential season of exploitation would be in late fall when this species reaches its greatest body weight and pelt quality (Cleland, personal ccmmnunication). The mnink, like other aquatic species, favors sulmergent and emergent rich marsh areas. This mustelid, krnown for its rich pelt, enjoys an ex- trenely favorable habitat in the Fox-Wolf drainage. Mink live in close association with other aquatic species, such as the muskrat. Searching for fish, ducks, and the smaller mnuskrat alorng stream banks, the mink is an excellent swimmer (Jackson 1961) . The mink is attractive in all seasons, with restrictive movements in very cold weather. The season best suited for exploitation is late fall, when the pelt would reach ' its best quality. The otter, like the mink, is a species which enjoys both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Otters prefer deep water environments in selected areas with prolific emergent growth. Therefore, the species would likely have lived near the Wolf River. Not impeded by snow or cold weather, the otter remains active throughout the year. Archaeological Significance of the Class Mamalia The manual assemblage at the Sauer Resort site indicates the impor- tance of this animal class. The recovery of 5,660 manual fragments (23% of the total assemblage) provides a large data base from which to draw inferences concerning the exploitation of this class. Providing the greatest arrnunts of meat of any animal class represented, mammals were also valuable for such by-products as hides, bone, and antler which were necessary to the overall subsistence. Although the preservation of bone is excellent, butchering and processing techniques , such as the making of bone grease and marrow extraction, result in a mnanmalian 76 assemblage which may be characterized as fragmentary with many small bone fragments less tl'an five centimeters in length. Due to the frag- mentary nature of the assemblage, only 653 specimens (12.17.) could be identified to the family, genus, or species level, with at least 23 species represented. Table 3 illustrates the identified mannalian species of the Sauer Resort site, hierarchically ranked according to meat yield. The following discussions of the archaeological significance of the mammal species follows this hierarchical ranking in an attempt to illustrate the importance of each species relative to the entire class. As a further evaluation of the frequency at which various mammals are re— presented at the site, Table 4 ranks the mammal species according to the minimum number of individuals represented. The exploitation of white-tailed deer at the Sauer Resort site, as in the case of most prehistoric populations in eastern North America, oc- cupies a predominent and critical position in the amnual subsistence round. At this site, a total of 414 specimens (64"o of identified mammal specimens) were identified as white-tailed deer; 50 different anatomnical elements are represented (Appendix C). At least 14 different individuals are represented in the assemblage, with a projected meat yield of 1,190.0 pounds. The extensive number of different anatomical elenents identified for the white-tailed deer fram the Sauer Resort site assemblage provides potentially valuable information for the reconstruction of seasonal ex- ploitation patterns. Within this assemblage a total of 25 mandibles were identified as white-tailed deer. The deer mandible is a particularily informative elerent. Using an aging teclnnique which examnines the eruption and wear characteristics of the teeth, it is possible to determine within six mnonths to a year the age of the individual animal. Based upon this 77 Humane o. m.MH magma ummH H N moons $84.”wa - s a... was as Seance mg 0.8 H: ”as: N 2 gm memo .. m MouoH comooum .mo coooomm 2 mam have an: m us .83 8.68m pox/mom no :2 w newt m NN mumfiesao 888 u H 30338 map: .mo Hume e@me me 9on demmeumm ummH H H mamoHumEm many: I m mamcwumomo ughmo .mo LUHamz no Nam 5mm one 3398.5 new: N mm mHmcmumcmo 25.30 Home noHHmunmuHafi Won o.omHH mHnHufimE ummH «H in mafigwufir mDmHHooono mmso am Ame/50m 25 Hz: a; Ham: snug bum: Egg 8. 8.155393 H309 mo N Ragga cum: E .02 EH2 szfiummm mmHommm GHQ; ummz nmuom hope 8 wfinuoooa. Homage zHHmEonuma 83233 3am ”vacuum 33mm on”. mo gm 53% m mHan .11 I‘IIIIINn‘OnI'iI\ N. 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N N Hmuwmfihfioo menace: 39,. 38mm: .. 3anqu Eu? 0 mH msoH§>H>1mand wagon; mmfio am $968 75 Hz: new; 9% am; Baez magn— DH. mHHQzH 58. .mo N garage cum: 5 .02 E? mszHommm mmHomEm 8238 m use. 80 Table 4 Hierarchial Ranking of Exploited Mammalian Species (Subsistence Related) Based Upon Total MNI SPECIES MINIMIM NUMBER 0F ‘7. OF TOTAL NLMBER 0F INDIVIDUALS MANMAL MNI White-tailed deer 14 34.15 Beaver 5 12.20 Muskrat 4 9.76 Raccoon 3 7.32 Dog/Wolf 2 4.88 Elk or Wapiti 2 4.88 Mink 2 4.88 Woodchuck 2 4.88 Marten 2 4.88 Black bear 1 2.44 Squirrels l 2.44 Badger 1 2.44 Otter l 2.44 Striped skunk l 2.44 Total Nunber of Individuals 41 100.0 81 technique, 12 of tie 25 specimens were aged. Eleven specimens were between 1.5 and 4.5 years of age at death. A single specimen represents a six month old individual at the time of death. The remaining 13 mandibles lacked teeth and the aging metlnod could not be used. However, based upon the size and thicknness of the bone cortex, all appear to represent mature adults. The sample of primarily adult individuals with only a single immature individual represents an interesting collection of data. The identification of predomninently adult individuals may provide evidence for season of exploitation. Whether exploited by collective means such as surrounds, or individual practices such as stalking, the apparent selection for adult individuals may indicate a fall hunting practice. Rutting activities during the fall would cause an aggregation of mature individuals. White-tailed deer also reach their highest body weight at this time, with the pelt quality being best as well. Not only providing the greatest amount of meat at this time, hides may also have been a consideration. According to Gramley (1977) , hides were sought after by historic groups such as the Iroquois because of their need for clothing. Mature animals obviously would lnave the largest hides available from which to make clothing. It is apparent from the archaeological as- semblage that bore from mature individuals were fabricated into scapula toes, projectile points, and hide beaners (Victoria Dirst, personal com- munication). The identification of a six month old immatnme individual also supports the claim that fall hunting practices took place at this site. Born in early spring, this individual would be approximately six months old in fall. The ratio of 414 identified specimens to only 14 represented in- dividuals given an indication of the type of processing that occurred at the site. The identification of fifty different anatomnical elenents 82 suggests that white-tailed deer were processed in close proximity to the Sauer Resort site. There is no indication that these animals were dis- articulated at the kill site and portions brought back to the habitation site. Elenents which would not be found in field cuts are prevalent in tle assemblage. Phalanges, carpals, and vertebrae, all representing portions of little food value are found in great frequency at the site (Appendix C). The appearance of an assemblage that suggests field pro- cessing would not be expected. It has been argued that the habitat surrounding the Sauer Resort site, both synthetic and natural, would have supported dense deer populations and there would be little need to process kills away from the site. The identification of elk or wapiti in the assemblage indicates that these large bodied cervids were exploited at the Sauer Resort site. A total of 23 specimens are identified as elk; five additional tentative identifications are also made. At least two elk individuals are repre- sented. 0f the identified specimens, only three individual elements gave any clue to the age of the animal at death. Two elenents (scapula hoes) are identified as adult based on size. A single phalanx (secunda) of a small (immature?) individual was also identified. Given this data, it is not possible to state that elk were taken in any particular season. However, these animals, like the white-tailed deer, may lave been taken in the fall because they form larger aggregations during the rut, reaching their largest body weight and best hide quality at this time. Providing an estimated 650 pounds of meat (2 individuals), this species must be considered an important resource. In addition, elk scapulae appear to have been used as corn hoes and hide scraping implements (Victoria Dirst, personal ccmmnmication). Many of the specimens identified as elk-wapiti, including an astragalus 83 and numerous mandibles, show deep butchering marks . In addition, numerous metapodial fragments, carpals, and phalanges identified in the assemblage do not represent meat-yielding parts of the animal. Like the white-tailed deer, this may indicate the processing of these animals took place at the site. In the Sauer Resort site assemblage, a single specimen (1 individual) was identified as belonging to black bear. Black bear, not only supplies a great anount meat in a single package, but could have provided a valuable hide. Radin, in his ethnographic study, describes bear hunting among the Wirmnebago as a late sunmer activity (Radin 1923:111). He describes the taking of numerous individuals during a single lnunt. Given that only a single individual is represented in the assennblage, one mnight argue that the taking of this animal represents an individualistic or op- portunisitc hunting at any time of the year. A total of 22 specimens in the assemblage were identified as beaver, with at least five individuals represented. The estimated contribution of meat by these individuals is 157.5 pounds. Because the beaver is an excellent swimmer and would be difficult to take in the water, they were most probably taken on land or in their lodges. Tl'e Winnebago, according to Radin, made use of this exploitive technnique (Radin 1923:110). Atuned to the habitats and behavioral characteristics of the beaver and otter, Winnebago hunters would dig traps and cover them with grass along winding creeks where tie animals cross overland. Crossing between water areas , the beaver and otter would fall into the traps and were unable to get out. Not only contributing a good deal of meat, fine beaver pelts may also lave been a valued resource. Since these animals reach their greatest body weight and pelt quality in late fall, it is possible that they were exploited at this time (Cleland, personal communication). 84 In the assemblage, 47 specimens were identified as belonging to raccoon, with at least three individuals represented. Three tentative identifications were also made. Smith's (1975) extensive comparisons between modern wildlife accounts and the presence of raccoon in Middle Mississippian sites in Missouri suggests that raccoons would have been killed near water during daylight hours. He maintains that the exploita- tion of raccoons during horns of darkness would have required the use of dogs. Using ethnohistoric accounts, Smith argues that late prehistoric populations did not use domestic dogs for hunting (Smith 1975:45). Based upon the large numbers of individuals found in the assemblages he aalysed, Smith (1975) maintains that raccoon were hunted in late fall and winter when they reach their maximum amnual weight and best pelt quality. The identification of only three individrals in the Sauer Re- sort site assemblage may indicate that these animals were taken on a op- portunistic basis. It is possible that these opportunistic kills may have taken place near the site mnidden. Ethmnohistorical accounts by Jesuits visiting the Fox-Wolf drainage also describe the opportunistic taking of raccoons by historic inhabitants (Thwaites 1959, vol. 54, 56). Because raccoons are available throughout the year, it is impossible with any degree of certainty to argue for a particular season of exploitation. The presence of domestic dog or wolf (_Ca_1_n1_'§ sp.) is common in late prehistoric sites of the Great lakes region. Identifications by Cleland (1966) and Lippold (1971) illustrate that these species are found at various Oneota and Woodland sites. The similarity of osteological char- acteristics anong the various species of the genus Gangs, and the snnall sample size (19 specimens, 2 individuals), negates the possibility of a species identification. Based upon the archaeological evidence, it is possible to argue 85 that Cami sp. was used as a food source. 0f the 19 specimens identified, 4 specimens indicate definite cut or butchering marks. Cut marks on a mandible, ulna, tibia, and fibula indicate that the animal was purposefully disarticulated after death. Cashes running perpendicular to the ulnar shaft, also suggest carnivore activity. The ethnohistorical record docu- ments the keepinng of danestic dogs as pets and for food in mnany Great Lakes Indian groups and it is not unlikely that the identified _Can__is_ specimens do belong to domestic dogs (Thwaites 1959: 56:18, 62:75). This assumption must only be considered tentative, considering species iden- tification could not be made. It is known that the historic Winnnebago trapped wolves, but also kept and ate danestic dogs at feasts (Radin 1923:110, 329). Based on size, it is considered likely that the specimens identified as _Ca_n_n__is sp. are domestic dogs; therefore, no habitat recon- struction was proposed because it may be misleading to assume a particular habitat was being utilized to secure this resource. The identification of two specimens (one individual) representing the badger illustrates the minor role it plays as a food resource. Be- cause they spend their time in close association with their extensive bur- row network, they are difficult to exploit. Given their rather low population density in comparison to other terrestrial mnamnals, this animal most probably represents an opportunistic kill by hunters at the Sauer Resort site. The presence of a single otter (one specimen identified) illustrates the minor role of this species. Known for traversing over land for great distances and given the capture technique described for procu'enent of the beaver, it is possible that this individual could have been taken in the sane manner. Within the Sauer Resort site assennblage, nine specimens were 86 identified as woodchnuck, and at least two individuals are represented. These two individuals would provide a snmall annount of meat (11.2 pounds). A third individual, nearly complete (40 identified specimens), was found at the base of a burrow during the excavation, and is considered intrusive. The large krotovina found in the west wall profile may have resulted from the burrowing activity of this animal (Appendix A). The woodchuck is available from spring thm‘ough fall and it goes into true hibernation in the winter. Exploitation was probably opportunistic in nature. In the assemblage, a total of 53 specimens, representinng four in- dividuals were identified as muskrat. Although a minor resource in terms of meat yield, muskrat pelts could also be used. It is surprising given the excellent habitat and the expected high density of these animals in the Fox-Wolf drainage in prehistoric times, that only three individuals are represented in the assemblage. The most preferential season for ex- ploitation of this species is early fall because of body size, aggrega- tion, and pelt quality. Although a tentative assunption, it is possible that other, more preferential resources would have been exploited during this season, with muskrat being taken when opportunity presented itself. The identification of a single specimen (one individual) representing the striped skunk in the assemblage illustrates the minor role of this resource. Easily taken because of its slow-moving gait, the skunk, like the raccoon, would be attracted to human refuse areas. The identification of a single individual may indicate that the skunk was not a desirable food item, because of its malodorous scent characteristics. In fact, Radin states that skunk were not eaten anong the historic Winnebago (1923:110). The marten, represented by the identification of two specimens (two individuals) indicates a minor subsistence role for this species. It 87 is possible that these individuals were not taken as a food resource, but only for their pelts. Given the extrenely low density of this species (one individral per square mile) and the unfavorable habitat con- ditions in close proximity to the Sauer Resort site, these animals could be taken when the opportunity arose. The identification of five specimens (two individuals) representing the mnink indicates that this species was an insignificant meat resource, and may have been taken for their pelts. The exploitation of this species may have taken place in late snmner and early fall, in order to take advantage of the fine pelt as well as meat. These animals were most probably taken near the water's edge. It is interesting to note that the historic Wimnebago considered the flesh of the mnink, marten, and otter inedible and Radin records that these species were taboo (Radin 1923:115). This identification of numerous small sciurids and microtines although not considered a food resource may give indications of past ecological conditions. Niche sensitivity of species such as the meadow and prairie vole, the thirteen-lined ground squirrel , and to a lesser extent the eastern chipmunk, may provide information on the vegetation communities surrounding the Beer Resort site. Due to the bu‘rowing activities of these species, and their likely intrusive context, one must be careful in assuming that these animal remains are temporally coeval with the oc- cupation of the Sauer Resort site. The presence of the prairie vole, which is restricted to upland prairie conditions, however, does denom- strate that prairie conditions were found near the Sauer Resort site inn the past. Since most of the prairie in this area of Wisconsin was destroyed in the past 100 years due to agricultural activities, it is possible to tentatively assure that the presence of this animal in the 88 assemblage may indicate at least an historic context. The presence of bison in the assemblage is based upon the identifi- cation of four specimens. Three bison elenents are scapulae which are modified into garden hoes. These hoes show a great deal of polish and modification, and were discarded in the midden. The only non-modified specimen is a single lumbar vertebra. Some authors, such as Overstreet (1981) have suggested that the preponderance of a particular element in- dicates trade with other contiguous groups (ie. Woodland peoples) for a particular portion of the animal. This hypothesismay explain the oc— currence of bison scapulae as the predomninate element in the bison as- semblage and may indicate that peoples of the Sauer Resort site were trading for bison scapulae to be used as garden hoes. Also, given the ex- cellent preservation at the Sauer Resort site and the thickness of the bone cortex of bison remains, it is expectable that many other anatomnical ele- ments would be found if these animals were being used as food. The lack of diverse bison elenents may be contrasted to the large and diverse as- sennblage that represents white-tailed deer and elk. Because it is tenta- tively concluded that bison may not have been used as a food resource at the Sauer Resort site, the habitat for this animal was not reconstructed. Mammalian Fauna - Ecological Orientation and Seasonal Indications It is possible based upon the represented mammalian fauna fromn the Sauer Resort site, to make general statenents concerning the environmental areas exploited in pursuit of particular mamalian resources. Based on projected meat yield for the species identified, terrestrial Lpland species contribute 2,168.9 (94.27.) pounds of meat, while aquatic species con- tribued 179.5 (7.6°.) pounds of meat. More specifically, cervids such as white-tailed deer and elk account for 1,840 (78.47.) pounds of the upland meat and beaver accounts for 157.5 (87.77.) pounds of the aquatic meat yield. 89 It is evident from these calculations that the Lpland areas are more widely exploited as a food resource than aquatic areas, in the mammalian assemblage. Upland/near aquatic mnanmals such as the black bear, raccoon, and skunk which exploit mnarsh and lacustrine habitats, as well as upland environments modify the perspective. If meat yield for these near aquatic species are added to the meat yield of the aquatic species, a figure of 414.6 pounds of meat is indicated. Compared to the total projected mamnalian meat yield of 2,348.4 pounds, the aquatic and rear aquatic species comprise 197. of the total projected mammalian meat yield. By considering both the near aquatic and aqLatic species together, a better indication of the importance of the aquatic environment may be observed. In the analysis of the mammalian fauna fronm the Sauer Resort site, particular attention was paid to epiphyseal closure and tooth eruption as indications of the age of individual animals at the time of death. If age can be determined, it may be compared with the known breeding season of the various mnamnal species, in an atterpt to determine the season of exploitation. This inference to season of exploitation based upon these criteria may only be used in cases when the identified animal is not skeletally mature. Unfortunately, the only immature individual identified in the mnammalian assennblage was a single six month old white-tailed deer. This individual, and the further identification of mostly adult indi- viduals may indicate a fall exploitation. Excluding the white-tailed deer represented, the preponderance of mature mammalian individuals in the assemblage, makes the determination of season of exploitation difficult because many mammal species are available throughout the year. It is possible in some cases, based Lpon behavioral characteristics of marmal species (ie. body weight, mating, and pelt/hide quality) and 90 ethnohistorical accounts of exploitation practices to project the likely season of exploitation. These projected seasons of exploitation should be considered more tentative than the determinations based upon the archaeo- logical assemblage. Using the before-mentioned criteria, Figure 12 il- lustrates the projected season of exploitation of various mnanmal species in the assemblage. CLASS PISCES Fish The recovery of numerous fish specimens from the 1978 excavation of the Sauer Resort site indicates the importance of this class to the over- all subsistence practice at the site. A total of 16,063 specimens (657. of the total specimens uncovered) were identified as fish, with 3,851 (247.) of the specimens identified to the family, genus, or species level. The re- maining 767., of 12,211 specimens were unidentifiable cranial, vertebra, and other post-cranial elenents. The identification of the large fish assemblage resulted inn a total of nine genera and fourteen species (Table 5). The identified fish specimens are ranked in Table 5 by famnily with species ranked within each fannily fased Lpon the number of identified specimens. Family designations are valuable because they combine species of simnilar morphology and habitat characteristics. In considering be- havioral characteristics and the archaeological significance of the fish species represented, the family level is used in most cases. Where geeralizations carmnot be made at the fannily level , a lower zoological taxa is discussed. 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H B mgussom Hmuoundm cmmnammim E Hmumsfimmum «0 . H n mama $85633. $353an «0 . H m $.ng Hmuounsm 5% «o . H w m>Hmo mg 332% Hm . m m H mmvghmm Hanoundm 933 3.33 Hm . m mH mmomflmso mduoom mmvfiqmuhmm Hz: mm; mo ammzzz H498. mo o\o Hz: 359% ”H.H—am @8528 N 3an 109 00.00H Rd Hz: Lmfim H309 mm .c H 8338on kuounsm mxmcmHVHou no 96:92 2.0 H .% 88H: mmBucoHuoE Hz: 53 mo Ems—Hz 1298. mo N Hz: mMHomnHm ”HEAR Bsfiucoo m 3an llO identified fish specimens) with at least 85 individuals recognized is an indication of the value of these species. Although it is morphologically impossible to separate walleye (Stizostedion vitreLm) from sauger (Stizostedion canadense) using osteological evidence, based on modern oc- currence of both these species in Wisconsin rivers, the majority of the individuals represented in the assemblage is II‘DSt probably walleye. This may be considered a rather moot point because both species share similar habitats and behavioral practices and would most probably be treated in the same way by the inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site. The yellow perch, a percid like the walleye and sauger, is repre- sented by 98 identified specimens with at least 23 individuals represented. Considerably smaller than the walleye, yellow perch account for only 9.2 pounds of meat. The exploitation of the walleye, sauger, and yellow perch at the Sauer Resort site was rmst probably a spring activity. These species represent early spring spawning species, which would begin to run in the Wolf River in March or early April. The most likely means of capture would be seine nets or the use of a fish weir. Given the rather large number of individuals in comparison to other species, it seems likely that a collective technique such as netting or the use of a weir would be used, rather than a more individualistic technique. Osteometric deter- minations of size based upon selective elements may also give indication of how these resources were exploited. In the fish assemblage, a total of 1384 specimens, representing 145 individuals were identified to the family Ictaluridae. A total of 5 species were identified, ranging in size from the large channel catfish to the small yellow and brown bullheads. Together these species contribute 167.5 pounds of meat and rank second to the family Percidae. 111 The exploitation of catfish and bullheads could take a variety of forms. Not concentrating in large groups as is the case with the percids, small ictalurids such as the northern black, brown and yellow bullheads, as well as small channel catfish, could be taken using seine nets or hook and line. Exploitation of large species such as the channel catfish would most probably have been harpooned. Identification of extremely large individuals based upon dentaries and articulars indicates that channel catfish as large as 30 pounds were exploited at the Sauer Resort site. Unfortunately, the exact weight of these large channel catfish in— dividuals from the Sauer Resort site could not be calculated with pre- cision, because no modern specimen even approaching this size is available for camparison. Based on the projected size of these individuals, it is quite possible that these individuals would be taken using a harpoon. large channel catfish searching shallow water (4-6 feet) to spawn in late spring and early summer could be taken in this manner. The most likely season of exploitation of ictalurid species would be during the summer months. Preferring warmer waters than other families, surmer would be the best season for their procurement. Exploitation of these species could take place in both the Wolf River and lake Poygan, with preferential habitats being fmmd in both areas. The presence of the family Esocidae in the assemblage is based upon the identification of 190 specimens to the genus _E_3_s_c3_<_, with at least 19 individuals represented (77.0 pounds of meat). The species belonging to this germs, the northern pike and chain pickeral, are found in large numbers in the lakes and rivers of the Great Lakes region. Often dif- ficult to separate these species based upon osteological differences, it is possible based upon the size disparity between these species to argue that northern pike represent the largest number of the specimens identified. 112 Importantly also, these species enjoy similar habitats and were nest probably treated in a similar manner by the occupants of the Sauer Resort site. Spawning in both lakes and streams in late April, these species could have been taken with collective techniques such as netting, and may have been taken in concert with other spring spawning species. The northern pike and pickeral are also known to take a hook from spring through late summer (Trippensee 1953). Attracted to artificial bait, pelecypod fishing lures may have been used to attract and harpoon these species. The nest probable season of exploitation of this species would be between early spring and late surmer, although pike could have been caught in nets in the fall. The identification of three genera and a single species belonging to the family Centrarchidae indicates that a variety of centrarchid species were exploited at the Sauer Resort site. A total of 597 specimens were identified in this family, with 380 specimens (63.7%) representing small panfish species such as bluegill, sunfish, northern rock bass and crappie. Sharing similar habitats, these species may have been treated as a single resource. A variety of exploitive techniques may be used to procure these species. Using hook and line, these species could be taken in the greatest number during their spawning season (early sumer) . Although densities are the greatest during the summer months, all of these species will take a hook throughout the year. One possible exploitation for the rather large number of individuals (61 individuals) may be that these species were exploited using seine nets near the shores of Lake Poygan. Because of their small size, these panfish species ccmprise only 26.0 pounds of meat. 113 The identification of the genus Micropterus presents a problem in interpretation. A total of 217 specimens, representing 21 individuals, are identified to this genus. Two species, Micrgpterus dolomieii (smallmouth bass) and Micropterus salmoides (largenouth bass), although indistinguishable based upon skeletal morphology, are found in different habitats. It may be possible, using habitat preference, to suggest the probable species composition of this genus in the assemblage. Smallmouth bass, preferring clear, cold water habitats, would find less favorable habitat than tle largenouth bass, which enjoys more fertile, muddy lakes and streams. The reconstruction of the aquatic ecology of the Fox-Wolf drainage during the time the Sauer Resort site was occupied suggests that largenouth bass would most probably be found in the greatest number in the assemblage. The most likely season of procurerent for these two species would be in spring. It is quite possible that netting activities or the use of weirs would trap these species along with otter spring spawning species, such as walleye. The importance of the fresh water sturgeon (family Acipenseridae) to prehistoric populations in the Great lakes has often been described (Cleland 1966, 1982). This extrerely large (often greater than 100 ponmnds) fish has been campared with large terrestrial species, such as the white- tailed deer, in terms of species yielding large amounts of meat. Iden- tification and quantification of this species is often difficult be- cause the skeleton is largely cartilaginous and, therefore, does not pre- serve well. As in tle case of the specimens (66) represented in the Sauer Resort site assemblage, tie dermal plates of the cranium are all that is preserved, and tlrerefore the identification of a single individual may represent a conservative estimate. Often broken because of their 114 brittleness, tle plates do not serve as adequate elements for the deter- mination of minimum number of individuals. Spawning in shallow waters in spring, the sturgeon was most probably taken with a harpoon, with a single individual representing a large amount of meat (projected meat yield 36 pomnds) . The presence of the freshwater drum, or sheephead, is noted in the assemblage. A large freshwater species, they may obtain a weight of nearly 100 pounds (Hubbs and Lagler 1969). This species is well-known by tle characteristic otolith, or inner ear bone, and triangular pharyngeal teeth. A total of seven individuals (52 specimens) were identified from the assemblage. Spawning in spring, freshwater dren, like the ictalurids, do not con- centrate in large numbers as previously described for other species and are available through the ice-free season. A variety of methods could be used to procure this species. Taking a hook well, this species could easily be procured in this manner. Overstreet (1981) argues that in lake Winnebago this species could be taken using gill rets in deep water, be- cause hooks and harpoons are absent fren the Pipe site. Cleland's (1982) descriptions of gill nets indicate that gill nets are selective based upon tl'e mesh size (Cleland 1982:776). In order to evaluate Overstreet's (1981) claim, additional information is needed. Weight and size of freshwater drum may be determined from otolith measurenents, and if the size of the individuals were relatively similar, additional credence could be given to his claim (Cleland, personal communication). At tl'e Sauer Resort site, the presence of seven individuals does not present a sample large enough to test tfese assumptions. It may only be inferred here that a variety of methods may have been used to procure the fresh- water drum, with exploitation taking place during the ice-free season. 115 Various species of the family Catostemidae are represented by 39 individuals (224 specimens) in the assemblage. This family is particu- larly homogeneous with regard to species morphology, habitat and repro— ductive characteristics. In the assemblage, catostomids are represented by the genera bbrostama and Ictiobus, with species identifications being flypentalium nigricans and Catastcmus camersonii. It is quite possible that these species were exploited together, with inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site making little differentiation as to one species over another. The representation of any species in the assemblage, may be the result of the availability of particular species in any given year. Buffalo, redhorse and suckers, like walleye and yellow perch, spawn in cold (50°F) spring waters. A variety of techniques, such as rets (in concert with other species taken) and harpoons, may lnave been used. Most active at twilight, catostomids could be easily taken using in- dividualistic techniques, such as harpooning. Contributing only 19.6 pounds of neat, this is a minor resource in camparison to other spring species. The bowfin, or dogfish, is a large, robust fish; its usual skeletal morphology makes it an easy species to identify. Because of its unusual skeletal morphology, zooarchaeologists such as Parmelee (in Winters 1969) argue that the importance of the bowfin may be overstated in the analysis of faunal remains frem archaeological sites. This is entirely possible. The historic Winnebago considered the dogfish to be inedible (Radin 1923:115). In the assemblage, a total of 165 specimens were identified as bow- fin, with seven individuals represented. The projected meat yield of the seven individuals is 14.0 pounds. A warm water spawrer (77°F) ,the bowfin could be taken with a hook and line or in seines with other fish 116 such as the ictalurids. The white bass, a spring spawning species, is represented by 75 specimens (15 individuals) in the assemblage. The total projected meat yield of the species is 6.0 pounds. The exploitation of the species was most probably in spring, in association with other spring spawning species. The longnose gar is identified in the assemblage by the characteristic dentaries of this species . The identification of 4 specimens (3 indivi- duals) indicates that it was a minor fish resource. Based upon the size of the dentaries in the assemblage, these individuals were large (greater than 4 feet) and were most likely harpooned during their spring spawning activities. The identification of a single dentary of the mooneye, or goldeneye (_Hi_o__dg_n_ sp.) represents an uncommon species in the Great lakes region. The individual represented in the assemblage is quite small and most probably taken in seines with other spring spamming species. Fish Fauna - Seasonal Indications and Areas of Exploitation The exploitation of various fish species at tle Sauer Resort site provides valuable information concerning site seasonality. As described through the previous discussion, the majority of fish species in the assemblage are spring spawning species , probably indicating that the site was occupied during that time of year in order to exploit this important resource. Figure 13 illustrates granhically the projected seasons of exploitation of selected fish species. As is apparent from this illustration, fishing is particularly a spring procurement activity, with various species being exploited throughout the summer. It is this spring fishing that makes this class (P_i_§_g_e_s_) a particularly critical resource. Mammals, at their lowest body weight after the long winter, could not provide a sufficient resource base. Cleland (1982) stresses 117 mmHooam 3mg HomeowHom mo GOHomuHoHeoam mo mcommom umuommoum MH @9me 8: 52:32 I eons-minaii % ' 2220\_..92022.Sm :2 to...» | 3.5.35.2:5 «0.8 800.0 4 8.... I 3139.22.00: ha :0: “O.— l 3.3 323 118 that this is a vulnerable time for late prehistoric populations in the Upper Great lakes. He also notes that generalized fishing (nets and weirs) would allow inhabitants of sites, such as the Sauer Resort site, to make it through this critical time. Based upon the suggested evidence, it is quite likely that these exploitive techniques were used at the Sauer Re- sort site. The exploitation of large amounts of fish at the site further indicates the importance of the aquatic environment to the subsistence practices of tl'ese people. The erphasis upon different aquatic areas also changes with tie seasons. Spring fishing activities were most probably centered upon the Wolf River. Moving approximnately three miles (4.6 km) from the habitation area to the mouth of the Wolf River, inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site would make use of the river spawning species. It appears that, based upon the multitude of specimens identified for each species, the fish were brought back to the habitation site for processing. Sumner fishing activities may also have included tle Wolf River as a fishing area, but warm water spavning species such as the centrachids and ictalurids would also have been found in lake Poygan. Using a variety of exploitive techniques, both collective and individualistic in nature, these resources could be exploited in closer proximity to the habitation area. CLASS AVES Birds A varied and abundant avian fauna is represented at the Sauer Resort site. The avian assemblage provides further evidence of the exploitation of aquatic areas of the Fox-Wolf drainage, as well as upland prairies and forests. A total of 2331 avian specimens are identified in the as- senblage, with 922 specimens (39.67.) identified to order or lower zoological taxa. Table 8 illustrates these identifications. 119 mm .o m 35% Honounsm e3 55 mmd m megoHSEH 95.05 933?on e; 3 mafia? Hmuoundm Home mm mmd m gong m < ewes eemmceca mmd m mHHmHHoo mEoNHH emoCmmHow c9500 3.0 q mHHHmeHo mHmsmmoHHm 38m Monmouo mad q mama was“? vmmnmmeému 3.0 w mwngmHHmtz mhg Eamon ~3qu omH NH meat... meg on . m mm . em mwzmwai mania. maze Noam mt vitae Honounom 8% E em x89 wage 32H SHSHOON g mo emcee 8. g .288ng QEEQH ngommm MESH mo mmmmo 8. 23¢ H58 no N page wzmzHummm no lie mmHommm ngmmDm Madam Ba 98QO “Sam at no 88QO 8H3. BEUBE w «Home. 120 2.8 5 Age RamoHSN :3 9359 oqé ma £920 3va H2 Hmuounam 0+: 3 mgumé Hmuounsm .53ch Z .0 a madam mg #050 0003 .2 .0 H 38% E somwwfis 53.8.5 mm .0 N gong momHmz Hmmu wwwfiBucmmuo no 03b 3.0 q moomno MO 988% mg 0.8sz «m0 0 mfiofiafifimam mg mmfiumé mm .m a $38 wfifio a. Hmuounsm S .0 H mgwumz H3396 Hmmqwuwpg 88:00 3 .0 H Hmmawmufimfi gm: wmfiwumz $35 1238008 E mo mmamo DH. 32H ASSQHOON 03.39753 mznéfiommm mmzs mo amaze 09 233» 45.8 mo N EHMEZMQH mzmzHom—mm mo * mmHomEm wgmmbm .ng 0963900 0 magma. 121 €3an 56.3% no 8MB Em? 3580-qu mm .0 N mDmQHmeucmH guom no xmhooflomc xmpooHuQHz 3.3me m0 .0 w mmHuHHHmm H3343 muom HH.0 H gHoumo Q8300 uoou £843.54 050 N «.8342 moHHdm mmHUHHHmm 8.0 m mmBumfifiuom Hmuounsm 38m 3%.me mm .0 0 mflmoHUom mdQFAHHHuonH mflufluwfiuflvom ombm mww Hgmumumz HH< Hmuougm mm .0 0 $5389» Hmuoundm mmoow 30cm HH.0 H mcwommHammo 8:0 mmoow g on .0 m mHmmemcmo 35km magmas/w mmvHug <54. 458308 MESH mo mmnmo DH. 4Hz<_4<.4443 @9635 m 0H NEH. 130 m.w o.H o.H m.o m.N mm.m mm. mm. ¢.H ¢.H 0.0 o.N «c4: 44m4 mahmszz uwma msmum40444u umm4 gmHmungmHmu unwflu 0H AmomHm nz<4msv 4agogm=m Ammuuov mmEHOMfiummmmm m¢aHon AdHoPmDm HQxUflHm adsaoo msumnsm mmumwaoo mmvwowm m¢aHmZDAOO q¢mb9m3m commas umwcwmwmm mSHHOumanE.mmumeouum mmvwgasaoo m¢aHMHHmHUQ< A<_mO mm; 38 “Ho o\o Hz: mmHommm wqgmmbm yuan vmncHucoo oH mHan 135 m4 . m 4 «44.444894m 4444 43842.4 mm .4 4 4844443 43843 44.43an 4.484.483. HO 8.494 44mm: 4444580 -4844 3.4 4 §w§w4484 £58.84 HO 48.400393 48.400345 94.3 $4.444 2.4 N mmugmfiogom 43848 89.4w BEWBE 2 . N 4 $84.24 3454454 48443404844 04 . m 4 94444434 438445 whom mm . H H mcHHoumu mamwuom uooo goHug 8 .4 4 9484495. 8442.4 484444.44 44.44 44 438.4843 444. 48843 mo .4 m 484584 48848. 422 24434 .40 444442 444.94. .40 4.. 42: maummm 4444:4448 44442.4 HUQEHuCOo OH mHamH. 136 c.OOH 3 Hz: amH>< HH< H4309 04.x o mmu4m 4:444: 444 H3953 mm.H H mmvHon Hmuoundm uwonHm 448—80 mmH H msumnsm wmummHoo $.3on o5N N mmanEBHou Hmuoundm comea Hmwamwmmm ON .N N 94.4.4044..qu mmumHmouom mmenchou no.4 m mmc4uu4a4uu< Hmuounsm mm .H H .% g #343 meHmuuwmm mmH H mHmaonfifl 035m an H .mm 033m mmvHHuHmHouxw Hz: 2334. mo mmmrflz HS mo N Hz: mmHommm wgmmbm .SHZE vmsc4usoo O4 44444 137 in the faunal assanblage, and therefore could indicate that avian species were not considered a stable resource. The large number of specimens and low number of individuals can further indicate that the projected meat yield contributed by avian species is a reliable prediction of the impor- tance of these species in the total subsistence strategy. This has di- rect ramifications on discussions of procurement technology and site seasonality. There is no evidence to suggest that any particular technology was practiced to exploit any particular species. The archaeological signifi- cance of the avian fama is therefore discussed at a super-species level. The behavioral and habitat characteristics that most closely group the species identified to allow meaningful archaeological interpretation is the family and subfamily. The individual species are not considered signifi- cant because there is no apparent selection for any one species over another. Rather, it is argued that selection occurs for groups within which several species share similar behaviors and habitats. The duck species present in the assemblage may be divided into two groups based upon habitat and behavioral characteristics. The diving ducks include the subfamilies Aythyinae, Marginae, and Oxyurinae. A total of 91 specimens were identified within these subfamilies, with at least 29 individuals represented. These individuals account for 33.5 pounds of meat, or 37.97. of the total avian meat yield. The puddle ducks, represented by a single subfamily Anatinae, are identified based upon 13 specimens , with five individuals represented. The five puddle duck individuals account for 4.9 pounds of meat, or 5.670 of the total avian meat yield. Given the disparity between the number of diving ducks represented relative to the number of puddle ducks, it is possible to hypothesize 138 that the means of capture may be responsible for the greater number of diving ducks represented in the assemblage. Etrmohistorical accounts describing the capture of ducks may be useful. Andre, writing in 1672, describes the taking of fish and ducks together at the mouth of the Fox River, near Green Bay (Thwaites 1959;56:121) . As described previously, the fish assanblage indicates that netting technology was most probably used to procure the large nurbers of fish noted in the assemblage. It is quite possible that the ducks represented in the assemblage were incidental captm'es that occurred while people were pursuing the various fish species represented. Andre describes this process as follows: The bay commonly called des Puams receives a river, in which wild fowl and fish are caught both together. Of this practice the savages are the inventors; for, perceiving that Ducks, Teal, and other birds of that kind dive into the water in quest of the grains of wild rice to be found there toward the Autumn season, without counting the fish, they sometimes catch in one night as many as a hundred Wildfowl. This fishing is equally pleasant and profitable; for it is a pleasure to see in a net, when it is drawn out of the water, a Duck caught side by side with a pike, a Carp entangled in the same meshes with Teal (Thwaites 1959:121) . Although Andre may have observed this netting technology in the fall, it is quite likely that this technique was used in spring as well. Because of the small size of diving ducks and their habit of diving deep into the water in search of fish, it is quite possible that diving ducks and small puddle ducks such as teal would be mere often taken in this manner than the large-bodied puddle ducks (ie. mallard). Both diving ducks and puddle ducks are found in the Fox-Wolf drainage in the spring and fall, and may have fallen prey to the fishing nets. Given the vast majority of spring spawning fish species at the Sauer Resort site, it is likely that net fishing was used dm‘ing this season, with spring migrating bird species taken at the same time. It is also possible that nets were set 139 in the fall to capture fish such as the northern pike, with ducks also taken during this season as well in the same manner. It is interesting to note that puddle ducks, such as the mallard, blue and green-winged teals, and wood duck, unlike the diving duck species, nest in the Fox- Wolf drainage in late sumrer. Nesting in this area, these species would experience a post-breeding molt which would render them flightless for a short period of time (Trippensee 1953). It is possible that the puddle ducks may have been taken during this period of flightlessness, when they are unable to escape capture. The family Anatidae, including the Canada goose and snow goose, are noted in the assemblage. This family is identified by 8 specimens, re- presenting three individuals. These three individuals account for a pro- jected meat yield of 15.2 pounds, or 17.2". of the total avian meat yield. Although it is not possible to speculate on the means of capture of the geese, these species migrate through central Wisconsin in the spring and fall, and were most probably taken during these seasons. Waterfowl, all duck and geese species together, represent 61 in- dividuals, which is 80.3% of the total number of avian individuals pre- sent in the assemblage. These individuals account for 73.45 pounds of meat, which is 83.5". of the total avian meat yield. It is apparent from these calculations that avian species favoring aquatic habitats were exploited to a much greater extent than upland species. It is quite possible that the ease of capture of the waterfowl species allowed these species to be mere readily taken than the upland species. The family Accipitridae includes the genera 13111332 and Accipiter, and the species red—tailed hawk. This family is identified by seven specimens, representing three individuals. The projected meat yield is 6.0 pounds. These individuals may have been used as a food resource, 140 but may also have been taken for their feathers. The family Columbidae, including the species passenger pigeon is identified by 2 specimens, representing 2 individuals. These two in- dividuals would account for only 1.4 pounds of meat. It is surprising that there are only two individuals representing the passenger pigeon. Historical records (Radin 1923:113) indicate that nesting passenger pigeons were taken by the Winnebago in large numbers during the "chief's feast". For some unlmown reason, the passenger pigeon was not widely exploited at the Sauer Resort site. It is possible that different social organ- ization was present at the Sauer Resort site. The common flicker, representing the family Picidae, is identified by two specimens, with only a single individual present. The presence of this individual in the assemblage is incidental, and would contribute little as a food resource. Upland bird species at the Sauer Resort site are identified by a total of 16 specimens with 8 individuals present. The meat yield is only 7.75 pounds, or 8.97., of the total meat yield. As a whole, upland species would provide a small percentage of the total projected avian meat yield. The family Ardeidae, which includes the black-crowned night heron and the American bittern, is identified in the assemblage. Two anatomical elements were identified to this family, however, it was not possible to determine whether the elements represented the black-crowned night heron or the American bittern. Based upon osteological evidence, these two species are difficult to separate. Both of these birds are of similar size, and both share similar behaviors and environments. Both of these species are known to nest in the Fox-Wolf drainage presently (Gromme 1974) , and it is quite likely that the individual represented in the assemblage may have been taken during the nesting period. 141 The American coot and sore, representing the family Rallidae, are identified by 8 specimens with at least 4 individuals present. These four individuals account for only 2.6 pounds of meat. These two species are known to nest in the Fox-Wolf drainage, and may have been taken on a opportunistic basis during the summer or fall. The family Podicipedidae, including the species pied-billed grebe, is identified by seven specimens, representing two individuals. Like the other shorebirds, the pied-billed grebe would provide a small amount of meat, and were probably taken when opportunity presented itself during the sumrer nesting period. Shorebirds, identified by 19 specimens, representing 7 individuals, would have provided only a smell amount of meat (7.0 pounds) and are considered a minor resource. Bird FaLmna - Evidence _o_f Ecoloiical Orientation _an_d Seasonality The identification of predominantly aquatic bird species in the as- semblage is a further indication of the importance of the aquatic environ- ment to the inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site. If waterfowl and shorebird species are included together, 68 individuals are represented. At least two factors may be responsible for the large number of aquatic species found in the assemblage. It may be hypothesized that the high biomass of bird species residing in the aquatic environment, coupled with the ease with which they may be captured, may point toward possible reasons for the high percentage of aquatic species in the assemblage. The exception to this would be the potential for the expolitation of a great number of passenger pigeon, but they were not widely exploited. There is a danger in any faunal analysis of assuming that resources that are the most frequently found and most easily exploited should be re- presented in the highest numbers in the archaeological assemblage. 142 Cognitive cultural factors, not preserved in the archaeological record, are most certainly influential in specific resource selection. It is possible that such cultural considerations are responsible for the lack of such a potentially useful resource as the passenger pigeon. As a whole, avian species are effective indicators of site seasonality. Because many migrating species are only available in the Fox-Wolf drainage at certain times of the year, the evidence of their exploitation points to the occupation of the site during particular seasons to procure these resources. Figure 14 illustrates the projected primary seasons of exploitation of the various avian grows discussed. As is evident frcm the illustration, the majority of avian species were taken in the spring through the fall. Importantly, no exclusively winter bird species were identified in the assemblage, and, therefore, there is no evidence based on the avian assemblage, that the site was occwied in winter. CIASSES REP'I‘ILIA AND AMPHIBIA Turtles, Snakes, Frogs, and Toads The marsh-like conditions of the Fox-Wolf drainage would provide ex- cellent habitat for reptilian and amphibian fauna. The reptiles and amphibians found in the Sauer Resort site assemblage is a further in- dication of the use of the aquatic habitat as a resource base. A total of 526 reptile and amphibian specimens are identified in the assemblage, with 466 specimens (88.6%) identified to order or lower zoological taxa. Table 11 summarizes this data. For the purpose of describing the behavioral and habitat character- istics of reptiles and amphibians, each class is described separately. Within the class Reptilia, all turtle species are described as a single grow; the snake species comprise a second grow for description. For the amphibian class, only a general discussion is possible because 143 mmeomem C33» 853% mo 440334ng mo mcommmm omuom none 4H ~484me I '1 3:0 8.00 3.02. 0:33 8.0% “.30 I If 3.8.. Mould“! 3.8.. 225.. 2:3 0:. 3 II 0230.05” 144 oHuHDu HHonmumom magma cuoummm N~.o 4 umm4a4aw xsco4ya mxmsmmHuumu mmomwmmmm2ficuoummm mq.o N moumcwumo msusuumwm oHuuou an: om.H N moanemwwoow,mmamummuo om.k 4m .aam omsm\mcmm mmmoa 04.4 44 .am 04:4 4444:“ w.wc4aam4m 44.m 44 4wa4ecw44 mme4oeaa mwoum oo.HH 4m .em mane mHuusu woweemcm om.mH mo mCHuomeuom mHoMHmnu oHuuuu ouonm mn.NN ooH muoH w m nu om.4~ 444 .aam «444:4 exew neuHquoom_mmzca.mo.mmnmo 0H QMHmHHzmQH mzmzHummm quemmm neuHuonoom mega; mo mmnmo mz< 2344ng 4452. no N 8. age mzmaommm mo *4 mmHomnHm 444m “peace umsmm was no mm4umam cw4n4eae<.ucm a4444uamm 44444ucme4 44 m4an 145 00.00H NN.o NN.o NN.o more mm44uamm ea 8.4444595 480.4. 34.446 @003 334485 mNHEEHo .wo oxmcm xom 8444445 88444 Mamba xom mawHoumo magwhoe 32H. ASHBHOQN MESH mo mmnmo DH. g3 mszHUmmm g Qz< zfimng g mo N .423. gHaHOON g mo mmnmo DH. EH25 mzmzHommm mo in» mmHUmnHm 4408448 44 £444. 146 identifications of the amphibians represented could only be determined to the genus level. Behavioral and Habitat Characteristics _o_f the Represented Reptile and Amphibian Species A total of six turtle species were identified in the Sauer Resort site assemblage. These species include the painted, snapping, spiny soft-shelled, Blending's, box, and map turtles. There is also the ten- tative identification of a wood turtle. The painted, snapping, Blanding's, and map turtles all enjoy marsh and lake habitats (Vogt 1981). Spending the vast majority of their time in water, these species eat a variety of foods, including snails, crayfish, insects, fish, algae, and cattails (Vogt 1981). The painted and mnap turtles congregate in large numbers to bask in the sun. The eastern spiny softshell turtle, unlike the other aquatic species, does not prefer marsh areas, and is most often found in clear rurnning streams (Vogt 1977) . Two species, the box and wood turtles, are predominantly terrestrial species. These terrestrial species feed won a variety of plant vegetation including berries and grasses, and various insects (Vogt 1981) . A11 represented turtle species would find excellent habitat surrounding the Sauer Resort site. The active seasons of the turtle species would vary only slightly. Species such as the painted, snapping, Blending's, eastern spiny soft- shell, and wood turtles would be found in this area between April and October (Vogt 1981) . These species would experience a period of brune- tion between November and late March. The box and map turtles brunate longer (November to late May) than the other represented species, and would only be found from early summer to fall (late May to late October). Two snake species, including the eastern Massassauga rattlesnake and the fox snake are represented in the assemblage. The Massassauga rattlesnake is found in mesic prairie and lowland areas, along rivers 147 and lakes in Wisconsin (Vogt 1981). The fox snake is found in a variety of habitats including the oak savannas, soutl'enn lowland forests , and dry wland areas (Vogt 1981). Both of these snakes are active from late April through October (Vogt 1981) , and would find favorable habitat sur- rounding the Sauer Resort site. It is difficult to reconstruct the specific habitats of the repre- sented amphibian species in the assemblage becaise identification could only be mnade to the genus level, and amphibians are niche sensitive species. Generally speaking, the frogs (genus Rani) are predominantly aquatic species, while the toads (genus Egg) are more terrestrial species. Archaeological Significance of the Classes Reptilia and Amphibia The significance of the reptiles and amphibians represented in the faunal assemblage may be illustrated in two ways. Table 12 hierarchically ranks the identified reptile and amphibian species based won meat yield. It is apparent from this table that turtles represent a very small anonmnt of meat, and must be considered an incidental resource in comparison to the other animal classes. Amphibians and snakes are not considered in meat calculations . Table 13 hierarchically ranks the identified species (subsistence related) by the minimum number of individuals pre- sent. The importance of turtles in the reptilian assemblage is described by dividing the species into two grows , based won general habitat and behavioral characteristics. Aquatic species such as the painted, Blanding's, eastern spiny softshell, map, and snapping turtles are iden- tified based on 221 specimens with at least 13 individuals represented. All of the aquatic turtles, with the exception of the snapping turtle, are small to medium-sized animals. These turtle species were most 148 444444 4443 u H 33440944 99458 .mo 4.44.4444 48m N.H m. a H H gHOHmo 98944.48. 4444444 304444404“ HHonmuMOm beam Eoummm 4.4 4.4 45 444444 4 4 444444444 44484.44 n N moflmawoww 99434540 . mo owned em: N .o m .H HH 14: H m moEemuwoow magnum 34.43 443444444 Ne w .H $5 c A5H 4444on mfinmmg - 4 4444444444 444444.45 .44 444444 4.44444444 4.44 4.4 .444 m 44 4444444444 4444445 .. N 44:44ch44.4 444444344440 .wo 443.445 wfieemcm 4.44 0.44 4444444 4.444 N 44 4444444444 444.4446 mmmmfio games/w mz< 2444444444 44244448 4875044 244 422 man. .40 QB; a; 8% ”.42ng 04. 345443324 Ham: .258. no N 94.40544 name .256 .02 ESE: mzmefiommm mmHommm 842344 4444 4.8444 44:44 444 4o 484.4 44444484. 44:4 44444444444 44 44444. 149 4444444444 444 4.444 4.44 mm 444 44444444 44444 44m dam 84444344444 mmmom. _444444 44444 4 4m .44 4444 mwoum 444.495: 4443.4 HH an .444 4484.4 Amounfimoe 05 4,144.44 48.44 444443.494 H H «Heads onmmem oxmcmoHuumu 9044444044 05 «womwmmmmz 44.444qu.44 44.53.49,. H N msumcoumo 445.444.4446 444 .444 444444 mmmmSU 7453:4424. oz< 244444444 44444444 4442444 444 Hz: man. .40 9.4me new; ESE ”4sz4.8 OH. 38355 Baez 44498. .40 44. 94.40.4494 mam: g .02 2:524: mzmvfiommm mMHommm 444444444 44 44444 150 Table 13 Hierarchical Ranking of Exploited Reptile Species (Sub- sistence Related) based upon total MNI SPECIES MNI ‘70 OF IUI‘AL REPTILE MNI Painted turtle 6 42.86 Blanding's turtle 3 21.43 Snapping turtle 2 14.29 Map turtle l 7.14 Box turtle l 7.14 Eastern spiny softshell turtle 1 7.17 TOTAL 14 100 . OO 151 probably exploited as opportunistic captures, or may have become en- tangled in fish nets. The small number of individuals does not in- dicate that these species were purposefully exploited as a staple resource. The snapping turtle, unlike the small and medium-sized aquatic thrtles, warrents additional consideration. The snapping tm‘tle elarents identified in the assemblage indicate that very large individuals were taken. These individuals may have weighed up to 20 pounds each. Snapping turtles were most probably taken using an individualistic technique in the spring or sunmer. They were probably not caught in fish nets be- cause they could easily bite their way out of such a predicament. The identification of a single specimen of the box turtle, and the tentative identification of the wood turtle indicates that terrestrial turtles were rarely captured. These turtles were most probably taken when opportunity presented itself. The largest amount of meat (15 pounds) is produced by the snapping tm’tle with the other aquatic and terrestrial turtles providing an additional 9.3 pounds of meat. The inportance of turtles as a food re- source can only be considered minimal. The identification of two snake species, the Massassauga rattlesnake (one specimen) and the fox snake (one specimen) is noted in the as- semblage. These snakes are not considered a food resource. These species provide further evidence that marsh-like conditions were found near the Sauer Resort site. The class Amphibia is defined by two genera, R_a_na; (frogs) and §_u._f_o_ (toads). A total of 54 specimens, representing 11 individuals, are identified to the genus 1%: and 36 specimens, representing 6 individuals, are identified to the genus _E_L_1_f_g. It is possible that the inhabitants of the Sauer Resort site used frogs and toads as food. However, it is 152 considered more likely that frogs and toads are intrusive in the midden refuse of the site. Reptilian and Amphibian Fauna - Evidence of Ecological Orientation and Seasonality The presence of various reptile and amphibian.species in.the Sauer Resort site assemblage is further indication that aquatic habitats were being exploited. Although these classes do not represent a significant amount of food, they do however, indicate that the aquatic environment surrounding the Sauer Resort site was exploited for a variety of animal resources. The presence of turtles considered as food items in the as- semblage also indicate that the Sauer Resort site was occupied during the spring through fall, when turtles are available for exploitation. Figure 15 illustrates the projected season of exploitation of selected reptile species. CLASS PELECYPODA Freshwater Mussels A.large and varied pelecypod fauna is found in.the Fox4wolf drainage and is represented by 11 species in a sample taken from the Sauer Resort site assemblage. Only a sample of the freshwater mussels was collected at this site. Therefore, no quantification of usable meat (projected ‘meat yield) may be determined. .Although it is impossible to determine a percentage for the importance of this resource based upon the number of shells uncovered during the excavation, freshwater mussels may have been a valuable supplementary resource. Identification of 11 species from.the sample (two 10 cm levels) taken during excavation is illustrated in Table 14. These identifi- cations and percentages, not useful for quantification purposes with regard to the subsistence pattern, provide data for the reconstruction of the prehistoric aquatic environment. Since pelecypod species are 153 4444444 4444444 44444444 44 4444444444444 .45 4444444 44444 .4444 44 444444 :5... IN 0:5. .7333... c. 2:3 Josue-.0 2:3 giicm 0:5. 03...... 02:... x00 0:5. an! 154 Table 14 Sample of Freshwater Mussels (Pelecypoda) from the Sauer Resort site 47/WN/ 207 SPECIES IDENTIFIED MNI ‘74 OF SAMPIE SHELLS Elliptic dilatatus 144 73 37.2 Spike Amblema Elicata 138 70 35.7 I‘nree ridge Iaupsilis radiate silquoidea 63 39 19.9 Fat muclc44m3 Aum>mon unocxmv mamaema.oeumcw< 445844 mamapm:_pcwaed.a:Hpmz .4ch 44045 44m pomp 44444441444443 wmx 4:44 444444: .44 4444444 444494. 4444444444. .44 44443444444 44 44844.4 120 160 D I, C (I) N '- S'IVI'IOIMONI $0 UBMDN IOUININ 3< OD Emllcopocios B A W E M S [1?"th ma u E 3 M W] 013M 1'3" OilOSI‘OHd 161 4.444 444 4.444 4444 4.444 4.4444 44449 4.4 44 4.4 444 4.4 4.44 44444444\42444444z< 4.44 44 4.44 444 4.4 4.44 44444 4.44 444 4.44 4444 4.44 4.444 4444 4.44 44 4.44 444 4.44 4.4444 4442242 422 424244444 .44 425444444 44444» 4494844 4.4444 44444.4 4224 4.44444 4 44 4.44449 44444.4444444 44444444444444 44444 44 4444 4444444444 44 4444444 44 44444 162 Adthough a large amount of individual specimens are noted here, re- latively few individuals are present. For example, the mammal class is represented by 66 individuals, however only 41 of these individuals con- tribute to the subsistence of the site's occupants. Of these 41 indi- viduals, 24 individuals are medium-sized manuals each contributing 30 pounds of meat or less. In the case of the fish assemblage, although 427 individuals are present, many of these individuals are small species such as the ictalurids and centrarchids. A similar situation is true of the avian and reptilian classes. Differential preservation may be an important influence on the mini- mum number of individuals represented in a famal assemblage. This however, is clearly not the case at the Sauer Resort site. A close in- spection of the identical anatomical elements from Sauer Resort site (Appendix C) reveals that numerous different anatomical elements are present. Confidence in the minimm number of individuals calculations in the Sauer Resort site may be seen by examining the similarity between the number of left and right elements represented. For example, in the calculation of the number of individual white-tailed deer present in the assemblage either the left or the right mandibles could have been used. This tendancy is even mre clearly seen in the fish assemblage. The species walleye/ sauger is represented by 85 left dentaries and 85 right dentaries. The MNI calculation for Pbxostoma sp. could have used either 13 left maxialla or the 13 right maxilla, and so forth. It is concluded that the MNI calculation may be considered quite reliable since indi- viduals are represented in the assemblage by many different anatomical elements and there is a high correlation between the sided elements for many individuals present in the assemblage. It is possible based upon the represented fauna to infer the seasonal l63 occupation of the Sauer Resort site. Based upon the identified fauna in this assenblage, occupation between early spring (March) and late fall may be denonstrated. Importantly, no exclusively winter exploited species are identified (ie. white-tailed deer antler shed). The animal species which provide the best evidence for site seasonality are il- lustrated in Figure 17. Using the information summarized here, it is possible to produce a probable statenent of the importance of faunal resources at the Sauer Resort site. It is apparent from the faLmal assemblage that a great variety of faunal resources from a variety of ecological zones are ex- ploited at the Sauer Resort site during different seasons of the year. Although a large variety of resources are exploited, relatively few in- dividuals are represented. Seasonal information indicates that the Sauer Resort site was probably inhabited between early spring and late fall. However, seasonality predictions are often based on negative evidence and are not the best data for determining the relative value of faunal resources as opposed to floral resources. It is argued here that the range of species present and their Quantity is the best indication of the relative effort devoted to a fauna based subsistmce. Based upon the quantity of individuals presmt, the nature of faunal exploitation at the Sauer Resort site might be understood as a supplenentary resource in a subsistence strategy that depends to a large extent on resources like wild rice or maize. It is difficult to infer the importance of other resources based upon the faunal assemblage, but the represented animal fauna would not have supported many people for very long. Evidence from the artifactual assemblage in the form of discarded hoes, and the proximity to existing garden beds probably indicates that horticultural activities were practiced at the Sauer Resort site. 164 34.8QO 444454444 emuomamm mo 44044444444043 mo mcowmmm 4438 noun 5 44.44%: 0.. tab. .0 now? 0:03 an... 4.0-.0 .1984... 2445.244 i 4.2.5.. 22:5 :0. 55 i‘ i 54:50 uoxoamuotosuox | l 8.26 2.3.0 3.02. 9:20 I‘ 'H| 30.0 03.0 H II 3.2% 2254 3.9% 325.. | 8.... 52:42 165 In order to present a possible model for the subsistence practices of the Sauer Resort site, ethnohistorical sources may be examined. Frelch Jesuits such as Allouez visiting the Fox4Wblf drainage in the 16703 describe the subsistence practices of the historic Fox.Indians. This description of their subsistence practices is as follows: They live by hunting during the winter, returning to their cabins towards its close, and living there on Indian corn that they had hidden away the previous Autumn; they season it'with.fish4 In the midst of their clearings they have a Fort, where their cabins of heavy bark are situated, fer resisting all sorts of attadk (Thwaites 1959;54:223). Allouez's description of this Fox village on the Wblf River provides a model fOr the subsistence activities at the Sauer Resort site. In speaking of the planting of corn, he states that the black soil found in this area produced an abundance of corn, which was cached in the late fall and used in the spring, when people return to the village after the winter hunt (Thwaites 1954;54:223). A tentative model of the subsistence practices of the Sauer Resort site inhabitants would be very similar to.Allouez's description of the historic Fox. Based upon the faunal analysis described in.this chapter, it is argued that the Sauer Resort site was occupied from early spring through late fall, when people exploited a variety of faunal resources, as well as planted and harvested maize. Animals provided an important supplementary source of food and contributed other important products, especially hides and furs. Fauna was actively pursued and exploited in a variety of different environmental zones by the prehistoric peoples of the Sauer Resort site. CHAPTER IV INTERSI'IE C(NPARISONS AND CDNCLUSIONS The opening chapter of this study presented two markedly different synthetic models of Oneota subsistence; those of Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1978, 1981) . Both models have contributed substantially to the problem orientation and direction of the Sauer Resort site analysis, and it is therefore possible to critique and evaluate these models based on their application. This is augmented by intersite ccmparisons. Be- cause previous discussions have extensively described both the environment and the faunal assemblage of the Sauer Resort site, these data will be invoked where applicable to model evaluation. Cleland's (1966:97) model proposes an explanation of the five phases of Oneota in Wisconsin based upon differing ecological conditions (dif— ferent microenvironments) and the degree of utilization of these environ- ments. Relying upon the reconstruction of climate (frost-free days), physiography and ecological zones, Cleland (1966:87) describes the ecological pecularities manifested in these differeit phases. Ml.1Ch of his interpretation hinges on the lasley's Point and Carcajou Point as- semblages where he argues that the selection of cervids indicates a primarily agricultural economy, with large cervids serving as a sup- plemental resources. Employing his well krovm Focal-Diffuse model, Cleland (1966:82) argues that the Oneota phases of Wisconsin could be considered primarily focal viewed on an evolutionary continuum. Not being as reliant upon 166 167 maize horticulture as Middle Mississippian populations to the south, Oneota populations exploited a broader resource base with eiphasis on a single crop of maize. Importantly, Cleland's (1966) model does not imply Oneota sedentism. Noting the reliance upon maize horticulture, Gibbon (1969), like Cleland (1966) suggests that at the Walker-Hooper site, aquatic resources rather than cervids may have provided a valuable sup- plement. Overstreet (1976, 1978, 1981) posits a considerably different in- terpretation; one based upon uniformity of subsistence and cultural practices through the Oneota cultural contimmm. He eilarges the data base with faLmal assemblages frcm the Pipe and Walker-Hooper sites. Basing his model on Peske (1966, 1971) and finith (1974), Overstreet (1981:485) argues that the Eastern Ridge and lowland provinces represent a unique environmental situation. He argues that despite intersite en- vironmental differences, the inhabitants of various Oneota sites exploit similar environs or microenvironments. The pattern of exploitation re- volves about six zOnes exploited to different degrees by the various Oneota populations, producing a "broad spectrum" economy. Using Cleland's (1966) Focal-Diffuse continuum, it is argued that Oneota subsistence data suggest a diffuse rather than a focal economic orientation. Although Overstreet (1981:1178) maintains that Cleland's (1966244) description of a diffuse economy fits closely with his own model for eastern Oneota, it does differ slightly. In particular it is suggested (Overstreet 1981:479) that viable storage of a wide range of intensively exploited resources would potentially allow Oneota sites to be inhabited throughout the year. This assurption that Cheota sites were occupied throughout the year is an important differeme between the two authors. In summary, Cleland (1966:46) attributes differeices between (heota 168 phases to economics, while Overstreet (1981:485) view these cultural differences as being temporal. According to Overstreet (1981:494) , dif- fuse economics are present throughout the eight hundred years of Oneota prehistory, with an increased reliance upon maize horticulture in the classic horizon (Lake Winnebago phase). Beginning with these different perspectives, the analysis of the Sauer Resort site began with an indepth paleoenvironmental reconstruction (Chapter II). In a further attempt to assess the selectivity of animal species by the peoples inhabiting the Sauer Resort site , animal species lists were constructed for the site area based upon historical docuIBnta- tion and the paleoenvirormental reconstruction (Appendix B). The end result of these endeavors was a reconstruction of the floral and faunal communities surrounding the Sauer Resort site, indicating a prolific aquatic/upland habitat where a variety and abundance of resom'ces could be exploited. It has been illustrated in the faunal analysis of the Sauer Resort site that both aquatic and upland habitats are exploited at this site. The importance of the various species within these habitats have been examined based upon the likely season of procurement, the umber of individuals represented, and meat yield. Based upon the data described in this analysis it may be argued that the Sauer Resort site represents a specific aquatic/upland adaptation. When the faunal data is ccmpared with other sites, such as the Pipe, Walker-Hooper, and Iasley' 5 Point sites, similar exploitative patterns are observed (Table 17). Table 17 was constructed by hierarchically ranking the 10 most frequently exploited animal species at these four sites based upon projected meat yield. Since calculation of projected meat yield per individual varied in each faunal analysis, the meat yield 169 0.02 0.00% #03 ~05? 0.02 038 ~02 0.003 038 oflmdmuu 0. 0.00 3.80 «.088 0; 0.02 \Emmamemdfim 3 0.0.0 33.80 a: 0.2 885 0. 0:3 :38: 0; 0.5 put/80 2 :0 ooze, 04 0.00. 32:8 0. 0.x 96:3 0.0 0: BB x88 .2 042 0238 ON 0.: 9:0 Emits. 3 0.00s c883 0.0 0.0% use; To 003 58$ «.0 N00 03:8 H856 0.0 0.000 39300 2 :3 9:0 N3 0.0a Samba 0.0 :2 :58 0.0 0.0% “980 2 0.05 08530 n...“ 0.08 #580 2 0.0: 5.3 620 03 0.000 c8330 mg 0.08 Eamiim N0 0.0: 5% someway... 0.3 0.00s 962% 0.2 0.002 $3 630 mg: 0.002 82 630 0.3 0.20 33330 SN 0.03 33%;: 0.00 0.0000 Swansea #00 0.00: .58 ~3ng 0.00 0.003 .83 x88 nooo .88 Moon. .58 NS 0.00: 823.82: #00 0.0.:0 825-323 0.2 0.00: 838.82., ~00 0:: 828-32; N owwwwmwmwn mowomdm N owwwwmwoopd m3 ooam .x. owwwwowfi mowomdm .\o omwwowm mofiuoam 03m 95QO umsmm used waging hoaooznuoxamz 03m 8:0 588 so... a. waned Eaa 8:23 ”.8: 8.0 co wag—mm RENEE: Z See 170 per individual calculations used in the Sauer Resort site analysis were also used for the Pipe, Walker-Hooper, and Lasley's Point sites. These sites were chosen because they represent large faunal assemblages, giving a better indication of the importance of various resources. The Carcajou Point assemblage was not considered because of its small size. In ex- amining Table 17 it appears that both upland and aquatic resources were exploited at these four sites. How well, them, does the SaLer Resort site data fit the models pro- posed by Cleland (1966) and Overstreet (1978, 1981)? It is possible based on the paleoenvironmental reconstruction and faunal analysis of the Sauer Resort site to accept portions of both of these models. It is argued here that both models present valuable hypotheses which explain the subsistence practices of Oneota populations in eastern Wisconsin. The Sauer Resort site assemblage indicates that a diversity of animal species were exploited. Commensurate with Cleland's (1966) pro- posal of cervids-as-supplerents, in the case of the Sauer Resort site, white-tailed deer and elk are exploited. However, aquatic species are also critical to the subsistence practices at the site. It has been shown in the faunal analysis that the procurement of aquatic species such as spring spawning fish and migratory waterfowl occurs at a critical time (early spring) wheu few other resources are available. Overstreet (1981) in his model acknowledges tle value of the species diversity preseit in the various assemblages, but it appears that he may l'ave overestimated the importance of the meat contribution to the total sub- sistence strategy. It is this over emphasis on faunal resources that makes other hypotheses presmted in his model difficult to accept. It is the conteition of this author that the diversity of the Sauer Resort site assemblage may be better explained from a different perspective 171 than Overstreet's. The faunal analysis of the Sauer Resort site illustrates tlat a multitude of upland and aquatic species were exploited. It has been shown that the greatest diversity of species within these two l'abitats is found in the aquatic envirorment (Figure 17). It is hypothesized that the diversity in the aquatic animal species present is a two fold pro- duct involving both variability found within this environment and the collective procurerent using seine nets to exploit these resources. This results in an extensive exploitation. Because of a lack of niche sensitivity among exploited upland species at the Sauer Resort site, it is not possible to argue that one micro- environment was exploited for a particular resource. Also, from the number of individuals represented from these habitats it has been argued that individualistic rather than collective techniques were most probably used. The faunal resources represented at the Sauer Resort site are best viewed as a supplementary resource, based on the number of individuals and total meat yield. It is therefore hypothesized that maize horti- culture would most likely be the single most important food resource at the site. The procurement of the faunal resources at this site would take place during periods of the year which would not conflict with the cultivation of maize and other crops. Based on this information, it appears that the Sauer Resort site economy would be primarily focal as Cleland (1966:82) argues for the Lake Winnebago phase Oneota. In his model, Overstreet (1981) maintains that Oneota sites, such as the Pipe site were occupied throughout the year. Citing the richness of the resource base surrounding the Pipe site, he argues that is Quid (emphasis mine) have been occupied through the winter. An alternative 172 explaration to the situation at the Pipe site is suggested ethno- graphically among the Fox and other related groups (Thwaites 1959:54: 205, 223). As stated previously, the Fox would cache corn and other cultigens in the fall, disperse to hunt in the winter, returning to use the caches the following spring. The faunal assemblage from the Sauer Resort site appears to lend support to this alternative exploitation be- cause it represents a spring through fall enqnloitation. It is the contention of this author, given the ecological data present in this analysis, that the six zone adaptive scenerio that Over- street (1981:494) describes is too general. It is possible that terporal differences based on the radiocarbon chronology for the eastern Wisconsin Oneota may be responsible for differences in cultural inventories (ie. ceramic stylization) between phases as Overstreet (1981) claims. How- ever, not enough ecological information is available to support Over- street's (1981) adaptive model. For example, the inclusion of all forest zones together in Overstreet's (1981) model is too general to describe the conditions at the Sauer Resort site. At least four different forest communities ranging fram Northern lowland forest to the Southern Xeric forests are present in the immediate vicinity of the site. Each of trese forest cormnmnities s‘rare differences in floral and faunal species found within them. By lumping all of these vegetative communities together the relationships between plant and animal communities are not clearly seen. Another illustrative example is the riverine-lacustrine zone. At the Sauer Resort site proximity to the mouth of the Wolf River and Lake Poygan is a considerably different aquatic environment than the lake Winnebago shores of the Pipe site. Additional research is needed to gain a greater appreciation of the ecological differences between the various Oneota phases. Paleoenvironmental and biomass 173 reconstructions of the Pipe, Walker-Hooper, Lasley's Point and Carcajou Point sites end a bianass reconstruction of the Sauer Resort site may give a better indication of the interaction between humans and their environment. Although this hypothesis must be considered tentative, it is quite possible that environmental factors, such as those suggested by Cleland (1966) may also be responsible for differences in the cultural inventories of the various eastern Wisconsin Oneota sites. APPENDIX A APPENDIX A THE CULTURAL AFFILIATION OF THE SAUER RESORT SITE The Sauer Resort site (47/WN/ 207) is located in the SE quarter of the NE quarter of section 36, township 20 north, range 14 east, Winnebago County, Wisconsin. The site is located on a remnant, elevated beach formation of the later Glacial Lake Oshkosh, which is at the present confluence of the Fox and Wolf rivers (Figure Al) . Prior to 1977 the site was occupied by a small homestead comprised of a frame house, barn, and three small outbuildings. The destruction of the barn and subsequent renoval of the barn bridge in 1977 led to the discovery of the archaeo- logical site by Jares Clark, a local amateur archaeologist. Archaeological reconnaissance of the site began when Clark contacted the Department of Sociology/Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin- Oshkosh in the fall of 1977. Since the archaeologist at UW-Oshkosh, Dr. Alaric Faulkner, was on academic leave in the fall of 1977, the anthor and Daniel Seurer, then archaeological laboratory assistants at 174 175 7! 8(0u22.’ 3. b '22wa <2w<2w8 ouwm uuowmm Hosmm use mo ooflomooq H< onswwm {IN mtm blag ¢m=H ou raccoon 5086 ”23.50. boar .smmefido ~36me pmuamoemomu Euooumeea. .Byflom ugoou paw mdowmohuca gang .muoou wfiufimuooo find: 39/ 8 one; 6333 .mxofim Sago om“ vino ou 50.5 £3203 xumo enigma .oflommHe >3:me .zxoflumuso: ”name 803 umHoE 56.5 £3208 as $93 .6333 Dogma? .zxoflmnoo: 68mm omen: ozone £325.." £906 39% .HHH on Egon >>m3 Deana 39/ .wfizouhsn t3 oomowo mamfluoome HHH now 5 mo manna: m wauomumena. 68mm and amumuw aunt .Cg 395m noes mzobdfi ucooou 3mm m pom oqmm mom 083 non nmfisoflmh Sam 5H3 coina— msouhoo powwow 9895c wcecemocoo .oflmmae Euzwfim .zxoaumncoo moomm mfim c395 flamenco.“ Qéwm met/305a no 30% ocooom Sue/Dom ozone NE omasomno Egon 630.53 ”Epoch one muwmoeoo swoon: Hmcowmmooo wchkucoo .owummaa maonwfim .mxoaumncoo ”pawn mfiw bme View 30> $953 .33 omdwwu manammoev amped: boomm ozone nmimuw xumo my“; NERVE .QH .uomopfioo 3 ooomooau doped: own—mam“ paw monUm swam .mcoo. nmflmfimnm .oflummae >3:me .mxoaumncoc 688 mfim 0030.5 nmflonw ammo DAMS $953 on 33:58. 563 Dada? o3 mcouxm WHEN—coo .HH 8 gang €685 €380 .m3ouHoo ucooou mdoumfiso wfifimucoo 39o cog “033$ .oflommae Enema? .zxoflumncoc 69mm 83 303 x83 :wam on E03 £3203 meo dam .5 on Diapason nuooEm Samsomuo .mzonfiaoo phonon new 305m 333 85m goose .6333 33me Sxoflmncg 688 odd $03 95.5 5?me view hug SEC.” on ozone £3203 meo QEm axe/H <>H HHH UH: mHHH SHH HUH OH mH {A E 2. «Hana 181 muwm uhOmmm umswm msu mo mocmavmm cumsunom mo mawmoum Hamz umwz m< muswflm -- EmEEEE: SEES .5: nlaJlIrr.\r.- uuuuuu\1nlur\)I//hw\xll . : nu 182 .3 8 800805 5080 0850 80> 50850 50503 0008000008 38080000 .3858 00008 0G0 0080808 0008.025 .0008 $800000 .0805 80> 00 080: 65003 $05050 “>050 008 v8.0 00 030.5 58008 0800 ou¢\gm.m .HHH 8 8000505 0903 080.0 80> 0830.855 5 000500 308000.: H: 000 a .50 0500.0: 0 30000003 .0900 030.3 504.50% 0800 08> .02 08 .33 $083 0808 300 m 30 0:8 mad 388 80 £06200 05% 50.. 00:00 030805 8008 0:80:50 98.380250 05003 ~30st0 $3050-80 “0000 08m 0305 58008 Em .HHH 00 8000005 00080 0850 80> 0080.808 008 000 03085 00008 93.800000 080003-000 $3800-83“ “0000 08m 030.5 03:030me .8 8 8000505 5080 H3080 030.83 00008 005800000 .80 00:3 05080 53me 300% 535-8: 6%...” 20 803 383 :05 8 E53 £003 88 Q05 .3 00 800805 50080 30:00.5 03885 00008 080 S050 0353 0500 9800500 05003 35%? #0580059“ ”0000 08m 0000a 0305 50.08% 3.8.0 80> figs 00 0305 500008 0:00 flan .S 008 880808 8052 05003.08. 53050.08 ”0000 08m 0000a 0305 800 figmfl E HHH sHH HH mm «0 030E 183 0 .4 0.5me 5000M H090m 050 m0 0000:00m E05052 000 m0 035.5 :03 u 03 0 00am 184 lake bottom of the same episode of Glacial Lake Oshkosh which produced the beach sand matrix. A complete description of the glacial geology of the Fox-Wolf drainage may be found in Chapter II. In order to interpret the stratigraphic context represented at the Sauer Resort site many factors must be considered. As is the case in most Oneota sites (Overstreet 1976, 1981), areas of this site have been altered by various agents. In discussing the degree of disturbance and/ or alteration of the cultural zones, three factors must be considered; 1) Disturbances or alterations at the time of deposition (by hunans), 2) Post-depositional disturbances (by agencies other than humans), and 3) Historic and modern alterations of the land smrface. At the time of deposition, various factors influence the cultural materials found in archaeological sites. The amount of people in— habiting an area, their cultural identity, and the length and season of occupation all effect the archaeological record. Factors such as demo- graphics and cultural affiliation are many times difficult to ascertain given the archaeological record. However, using the ceramic and faunal assemblages frcm the 1978 excavation, this thesis addresses these im— portant issues. The west wall profile of the south-north transect (Figm'es A3 and A4) illustrates a large number of rodent runs or krotovina. In the northern sequence, these krotovina are restricted to the second, third and fourth zones (IB, II, III), while they are fomd throughout the southern sequence. These post-depositional disturbances have greatly altered the cultural stratigraphy of both sequences. The unconsolidated midden deposits allows rodents easy tunneling. This phenomena differs spatially, and is more apparent in the southern sequence , which represents an area of more intensive deposition. In the northern sequence , the 185 sand and clay matrix is much more consolidated, thus making burrowing activities of these animals more difficult. Without a doubt the most stratigraphically disruptive agency is the intervention of humans using modern earth moving equipment. In Figure A4, a 20 to 25 cm. zone produced by the bulldozing of the barn hill and other grading activities is evident. The upper levels (9, 10, 11 and 12) in units C, G, F, B, E and A have been altered in this manner. It became apparent dm‘ing excavation of these units that when the barn and barn hill were removed in 1976, the area was graded level for the proposed parking lot. Although the upper levels of units D and H represent primary deposits, materials from this portion of the middei have been redeposited further north. Various factors indicate that this zone (IA) represents fill material from the southern section, units D and H, of the midden. Importantly, this discussion demonstrates that although this deposit is secondary all prehistoric materials must be considered temporally coeval with the primary deposits in units D and H. Excavation of this upper zone uncovered historic artifacts such as can pop-tops, nails and other miscellaneous scraps of metal. These historic materials resulted fram the destruction of the barn and other buildings and became intermixed with the prehistoric materials. Many of these metal artifacts showed little or no evidence of rust illustra- ting that they had been buried recently. Organic materials such as twigs and leaves in an undecomposed state were also uncovered in this fill zone. Although the upper zone contains a variety of historic artifacts, a great deal of prehistoric materials were also found. Ceramics of Woodland and Oneota manufacture, identical to materials excavated in the southern sequence were uncovered. Of particular importance to this thesis are the faunal remains mcovered from this zone. Based upon the faunal 186 analysis (see Chapter IV), it is possible to state unequivocally that the animal remains found in this zone are of a prehistoric origin. Although one bone fragment represents a domestic animal species (pig, Sus scrofa) , all other species identified were represented in the area prehistorically. If in fact this zone was composed of historic refuse, a variety of pig teeth, chicken bones, and saw cut mammal bone w'cJuld have been uncovered. None of these materials however , were found in this assemblage. Importantly, one species, the elk (Cervus canadensis) found prehistorically in this region, was not present when the area was first farmed (Jackson 1961) . A variety of elk elenents have been found in this zone. Mussel shells recovered from this zone also illustrate that tlney are redeposited from the southern sequence, where a definite shell lens was uncovered. In the northern fill zone, the mussels are found in no apparent stratigraphic position. Based upon this description, the pri- mary and secondary materials excavated from this site must be viewed to- gether as one assemblage. The density of artifacts uncovered also demnstrates the relationship between the two stratigraphic sequences. As alluded to previously, artifacts in low frequency in the northern sequence are extremely numerous in the southern sequence. Excluding the fill zone (IA), very few artifacts were recovered fran the northern sequence. In addition, no features were uncovered in the northern sequence . Although disruption of the upper zone may have destroyed existing features , the artifact density of the lower zone indicates that the northern area of the site was not extensively utilized as the southern area. Whereas no features were uncovered in the northern sequence, seven features as well as primary deposits were noted in units D, H, C, and F. Identification of features in these units was particularly difficult due to rodent activity 187 in the upper zones. However, four isolated, intact features were re- cognized in unit D, the unit with the highest artifact density. These features appear to be basin-shaped refuse pits characteristic of Oneota occupations. Three other features, (two in Unit C, one in unit H) were also uncovered; however the upper sections of these features have been altered by rodent activity. Description 9_f_ the Ceramic Assemblage It is apparent from the stratigraphic record of the Sauer Resort site that natural factors, such as carnivore and rodent activities, as well as modern earth moving have resulted in post—depositional altera- tion of the archaeological context. However, cultural activities at the time of deposition are also responsible for the archaeological context of the Sauer Resort site. Various artifact types and styles (i.e. Oneota and Woodland ceramics) have been uncovered at the Sauer Resort site, Pipe site (Overstreet 1976, 1981), Walker-Hooper site (Gibbon 1969, 1972) and Carcajou Point site (Hall 1962). Each of these authors has given different explanations for the stratigraphic or lack of stra- tigraphic relationships of late Woodland and Oneota ceramics. Because stratigraphic mixing occurs at these sites, it is difficult to separate artifacts temporally and/or culturally. For example, Overstreet (1981) suggests that the same potters may be producing Oneota and Woodland ceramics at the same site, at the same time. The following discussion addresses the stratigraphic and cultural relationships apparent in the ceramic assemblage from the 1978 excavation. The ceramic inventory of the Sauer Resort site is extensive. A total of 7919 sherds were recovered from 27.6 cubic meters of excavated matrix. These ceramic materials were counted, weighed and typed by Joan Raney (1979) with the assistance of Daniel Seurer. Raney's (1979) 188 report, although largely descriptive, provides an excellent data base for the discussion of the cultural affiliation of the Sauer Resort site. Using Raney's (1979) data, an attempt was made to stratigraphically separate the Oneota and Woodland ceramics. The undecorated slnerds were separated by the aplastic tempering agent (shell or grit) by count and weight for each arbitrary level. This differentiation of ceramics (and cultures) based on temper is similar to the analyses conducted by Hall (1962), Mason (1966), Gibbon (1969, 1972) and Overstreet (1976, 1981). Using count alone, 6761 sherds were shell-tempered (857°) and 1158 sherds (15%) were grit-tempered. It must be argued however, that a portion of these grit-tempered sherds may have been produced by Oneota peoples (Gibbon 1969, Overstreet 1981). This relationship between shell (Oneota) and grit (Woodland) has been noted at other Oneota sites. According to Gibbon (1969) and Over- street (1981), it is difficult to separate shell and grit-tempered sherds, because usually the Woodland sherds are very small with no de— coration. This phenomena is also apparent at the Sauer Resort site. At Walker-Hooper, Gibbon (1972a:188), notes 24,921 total sherds comprised of 24,111 shell-tempered sherds (977°) and 810 grit-tempered sherds (370). At the Pipe site (Overstreet 1976, 1981) , 10,633 sherds were recovered, 9527 (9070) of which were shell-tempered and 1106 (1070) of which were grit-tempered. In comparison with the Walker-Hooper site, the Pipe and Sauer Resort sites have a much greater percentage of grit-tempered ceramics. In order to further evaluate the proportion of shell and grit- tempered ceramics, the frequency of ceramic types is described. Table A1 shows the frequency relations between the shell and grit-tempered ceramic types found at the Sauer Resort site. As indicated, 8070 of 189 0.00 00 00000 0.0 0 00000 00000: 06 m 0000000H 00009 0.0 0 0000000 00008 000.0 00000 m0 00 00.00300 0.3000m 00.00000 0.0 N 00.0 00000.0 80000: 0 .0 n 00000 080002 W: om 00000.55 0.000 0000002 0.00 ~00 00000 0 . o H 0005000 0>000m0z 00000 0 100.0000 0.0 0 00000 00>00 00000 0.0 0 0000000 000050000 0.0 0 0000000>000 00000000 0.00 00 0000 0000000000 0.00 000 0000000 000000003.0000 000000 000000800 00 308 000.52 0000.0. mo 0000000 000000 0000000000 00 000052 005. 0000 0.00080 080m 000 80.5 0090.0. 0000.000 .00 0000000000000 2 030.0. 190 the 266 typed sherds are shell-tamered, while 20% are grit-tempered. These percentages are similar to the percentages based upon count (85% shell, 15‘7o grit) of undecorated body sherds. In examining the features with associated ceramics from Sauer Resort, a proportion of shell and grit-tempered sherds is observed (Table A2) . Features 10, 12, and 17 are comprised of all (100%) shell-tampered ceramics. In a further atterpt to separate the shell and grit-tapered sherds stratigraphically, a percentage frequency diagram based upon comt and weight of the shell and grit-tempered sherds was constructed for each unit excavated. Unfortunately, these diagrams illustrate that the shell and grit-tapered ceramics could not be divided stratigraphically. This lack of stratigraphic separation was also noted at the Pipe site (Overstreet 1981) . As described in the discussion of the stratigraphic sequences found at the Suaer Resort site, a great deal of mixing of materials has occured at this site. Cultural Relationships Based upon the ceramic analyses of Hall (1962) , Gibbon (1969, 1972a) and Overstreet (1976, 1981), the preponderance of shell-tempered ceramics and associated ceramic types indicate that the Sauer Resort site is primarily an Oneota occupation. Since it is impossible to separ- ate the Oneota and Woodland ceramics stratigraphically, it must be argued that although the site is primarily Oneota, associated Woodland affil- iations are also apparent. Unfortunately, the complex relationship between Woodland and Oneota cultural systems can not be ascertained based upon the cultural and stratigraphic relationships of the Sauer Resort site. Within the Oneota continuLm (Hall 1962, Overstreet 1976, 1981), the large proportion of lake Winnebago Trailed ceramics (61.1%) indicates that the Sauer Resort site is a lake Winnebago phase manifestation. AUFE—Cru :K\ QLer 1111:.1: 1" I y. l . nu CrCr r\ . J . \UU< mug mmuuuqhuwww r. NAN @Nflfi. 1%. 191 mHDummm muomco uumucHum 8.8.300 mBHHmm ufiom H 38 magma; H 8339 $2983 93 m o .3 3H fl 8339 ommfisn: 93 H NH mm 2 NH wwdmfi. $8953 93 H m 8 2 ON mcpmsm 393 o: 0 02 HH Sh.” "86% H699 o: o SH 2 NE. 52m 33R 330 H m 3 HN HH 30m @85ng m Banana. owfimsnz 83 N 0 8H 8 SH, mvumnm mvumfim mung? vmhmmfimubwuw vmummeunfimnm muggm v33. mo mwmufiwohmm mo mwmucwoumm mo .8952 mHHummm 3:500 he BuHm unemmm umsmm 93 mo moHEwuwo @3308me ES wmafimmm N< 3an 192 This ceramic type usually represents the highest proportion of any type in Lake Winnebago phase occupations. According to Hall (1962) and Overstreet (1976, 1981) , the Lake Winnebago phase represents the Classic horizon in the Oneota continuum, illustrated by increased stylization and uniformity of pattern in ceramic decoration. Overstreet (1981) maintains that the lake Winnebago phase represents the zenith of Upper Mississippian cultural development. Inportantly, the type known as Koshkonong Bold represents the second greatest percentage frequency. Overstreet (1978, 1981) argues that Koshkonong Bold ceramics may be a transitional type between the Developmental and Classic horizons. Koshkonong Bold ceramics are found in a relatively even distribution throughout the Sauer Resort site. Based upon count or shell and grit-tempered sherds , the Pipe site, a Grand River phase-Developmental horizon occupation, has a similar proportion of grit and shell-tempered sherds to the Sauer Resort site assanblage. Ci ting the similarity of these two assembalges and the preponderance of Koshkonong Bold ceramics, it may be argued that the Sauer Resort site represents an early lake Winnebago phase site. APPENDIX B APPENDIX B PREHIS'IORIC ANIMAL SPECIES OF THE Fox-wow DRAINAGE The following animal species lists were deve10ped for two reasons. Initially, descriptions aid in reconstructing the prehistoric environment of the Fox-Wolf drainage and are useful in the identification of famal materials from the Sauer Resort site. Secondly, these lists will provide summary information for other zooarchaeologists working in this area of Wisconsin. It must be stressed here that animal communities do not always coincide with plant carmunities. For instance, animals such as the white- tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are not confined to any particular plant community and range between Northern Michigan and the Gulf Coast. Other animals however, such as the muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) are re- stricted to marsh or marsh edge commmities. Factors, such as these, are considered in each description. 193 194 Mammals The mammal species (Table B1) was compiled utilizing a variety of historic and modern animal surveys. Beginning in 1852, I. A. lapham produced the first list of Wisconsin fauna with an updated list published by Moses Strong in 1883. These surveys provide important data in a general sense. Because these lists did not incorporate aiimal aid plait community relationships, they provide little information on regional differences found among mammal groups. The first definitive work concentrating on the interaction of plant aid mammal communities was published by Hartley J. T. Jackson (1961). Jackson's surveys began in the early 1900's and concluded with his publication in 1961. Because this survey covers approximately 60 years it provides information about community changes not documented in short term surveys. In concern with William Burt's Mammals o_f_ E _G_1;e_a_t LakiS. Jackson's work provides a reasonable data base from which to draw inferences. As is apparent in Table Bl, plant communities not associated with the Sauer Resort site have also been included. This has been done to illustrate the range of these mammal species. If conclusions about these species were based solely upon the plant communities represented at the Sauer Resort site, it would present a heavily biased interpretation. Be- cause of this, all the major plant communities as described by Curtis (1959) have been included. _B_i_._rgs_ The following bird species list (Table B2) was campiled using a re- cent publication entitled Birds of Wisconsin, by Owen J. Gromme (1974). Since birds, unlike most mammals are traisiant through this area, docu- mented evidence of availability is more important than habitat location. Vegetation affiliation for this species list has been confined to "Aquatic", Marsh/Aquatic" and "Upland" designations. This list 195 incorporates only bird species that are archaeologically significant. Small song birds, such as the zoological order Passiformes, are rarely found in archaeological assemblages and when they do occur are not con- sidered to be importait from a subsistence staidpoint. Armhibians and Reptiles The Amphibian and Reptile species list was developed using a1 excellent recent publication entitled Natural History of Amphibiais aid Reptiles _i_n_ Wisconsin, by Richard C. Vogt (1981) (Table B3). This survey docments each species and its corresponding habitat. It is particularily valuable because Vogt (1981) utilizes the plant community classifications described by Curtis (1959) . Amphibian aid reptiles are often overlooked by zoo- archaeologists, but are exceptionally good indicators of climate and environ- ment because of their ecological sensitivity. Freshwater Ibllusca The following list of freshwater mollusca species is derived from The Freshwater Mollusca of Wisconsin by Frank Baker (1928) (Table B4). Baker' 5 surveys concentrated primarily upon the Fox River aid lake Winne- bago, with only a passing mention of the Wolf River drainage. Because the Wolf aid Fox Rivers are similar in flowage patterns, it is possible to assume that species found in the Fox would be represented in the Wolf for the most part. Where this ca1 not be stated mequivocally, special note is made (*). Fish The fish species list is based on a survey conducted by C. Willard Greene (1935) entitled, The Distribution _o_f Wisconsin Fishes, with veri— fication by Hubbs and Lagler (1967) (Table B5). As in the case of the freshwater mollusca (Baker 1928), Greene's (1935) survey pays particular attention to the Fox drainage and little attention to the Wolf. Where Mammal Species of the Fox-Wolf Drainage Table Bl s3rnrunmm03 armenbv 1193 qn1qs pue maxorq; 13p1v BIJIEJd DTSGH-KJQ pue £10 GIJTEId orsau 3111915 orsax-man pue 33M 353105 0153m-K1q u13q3nos pue £10 u13q3nos 353103 0153K u13q3nos 353105 DTSBH-JBM u13q3nos pue 13m u13q3nog mopeaw aspas HABITATS sSuruado x90 pus su311eg neo 5353103 aura 3s31og poonp1ea u13q310N 0193“ £10 pue £10 353103 poonp1eH u13q310N arsan (13;;uoo dmans) 353105 u13q310n puatnoq 383103 1231og Name 196 X >< >< >< >< x x x X >< X X >< >< >< >< x >< x >< >< >< 3 to Q) '0 :3 HM Ed) :3 ML: 3.: w Hm H0 (6 «4 :1 0m '0 c m w tho 3 H a): w I :53 m 3 410 L40 cam u so; —¢u ova vlh .a 0 u u ~00 > > H m m '0 0:0 0:0 a a can u . C 0m am .00 El ~4w Lou u .a 0:) U HE -O we 0 cm H .DIE ~42! 00 «I: 00 £:m 0H4 0:6 muzs $44 w 0 ~H L’Q czc H0 Kc: :00 ass.- «a QC. m-v-a or: 00.1: L1H ‘OO MU MH HUD!» mo *4 o O 0 d D m tn to m _ kirtlandi Lakes state mole Blarina b. shrew Scalopus aquaticus machrinus rair e mole lucifu us 1. Little brown M otis Continued Table Bl 197 53:3;unmm03 ornenbv x x 1123 qnlqs pue 33531ql 13p1v x 3111915 orsan—K1q pue K10 x 3111915 orsan x 3111315 3153K-33n pue 33M 353105 Dzsan-A1q u13q3nos x x pue K1Q u13q3nos 353105 x x x 3153” u13q3nos ' 353105 aisan-nan x x u13q3n03 pue 39M u13q3nos U3 s~l :1 Z nopeau 38p35 >< x (I : 58u1uado 590 x x pue 5u311eg 590 5353105 aura x x >< 353105 p00np1eg u13q310N >< >< >< 0153“ £10 pue 81a 353105 poonp1eH u13q310n 31533,; x >< x x (zagxuoo dmans) 353105 x x u13q31ou puetnoq 353105 {93109 x U) c m 8 s m z 'u > m a.) «u :3 00 u u m t: w c mcu 0.0 m a to -H H«w 0 m -H 0 Hi m >5 Fau an: 0‘4 .A c *1 a u moo o L)m m -a '0 ‘p c m c;: min mro m o u c oau co > goo nap-a :1 H a; o-a-a Um Char—4 hm ME 0 cu tampon ~43!!! Uta «1: ram ohm §::m1: pile mug: U! 030 U .0 Hum ”00 JCM UL: DH 0)! m OCIH ECU) «)0 >10 the a m. a >. ;»m 0 wcao muu c> ~43 PM MM 0.: Q3: domu o—c cow 3H :3“: mE-«u mm: 0 ummm Hm mm was ~40 3:qu cm 312—1 5 0:0an com um w: m: mu "'3 CL. % m 0. m m 0 0 z x a :3 .1 H: 4 A Continued Table 81 53131unmm03 3:3enbv 2229 qnlqs pue namoIQL JaPIv 3111515 0153N-51Q pue £13 3111515 ozsam 3111515 3153K'33M pue 39M 353105 orsan-K1a u13q3nos pue £10 u13q3nos 353105 3153” u13u3nos 353105 DISBH-33M u13q3nos pue 33m u13q3nos nopeau 38pas HABITAIS sfluruado 550 pue 5u311eg aeo 5389.105 BUId 353105 poonp1eH u13q310N 3153“ £10 pue 51a 353105 p00np1eH u1aq310N 3183K (13;;uoa dmens) 353105 u13q31oN puetnoq 353105 123109 Name 198 floridanus CottontaiI r3551t Sylvilagus _ monax Sout ern woodchuck Harmota m. X X tufescens Ru escent woo c uck Marmota m. Citellus t. X Striped ground*5quirre1 triaecefilineatus Citellus franklinii Franklinrs ground 3< >< >< >< >< >< X X X X 3< >< >< X x .1 or-lC‘. C: OE to (DD. :3 Ant-'4 0 0.: m :50 0'4 mi u 358 m a: ecu u: own—c NE E H6. at: .—4 find EH 0 an: m H mo (of: H :00 w-a m>~ ~40 3 m m E m U‘ wit-a (TI-'4 U) EC “'5’- m :J 1-5 b2 Scriurus carolinensis Gray squirrel Continued Table 81 199 53131unmm03 313enbv x 1123 qnzus Pue namvxul 13PIV 3111515 orsau-fi1q pue £10 3111515 3153“ 3111515 9153K-33n pue 33M 353105 ‘ orsau-K1q u13q3nos >< x .< x pue A10 u13q3n05 353105 0153” u13q3nos 353105 Olsen-nan x u13q3nos pue 33M u1aq3nos mopean 38p35 :< x HABITATS sBuruado 550 pue 5u311eg 550 X 5353105 3u15 x x x 353105 poonp1ea u13q310N >< x 3153“ £10 pue A10 353105 p00np1eu u13q31oN 31533 (13;;u03 dmens) 353105 u13q310n puetnoq 353105 153105 H 0 M "3 La v-l : w-c a) “ C m m m a "'4 O c In H o 9 W m M) 3 an m La 3 E U' “U HE C C H m U m s 0.4 .« W4 mcn> ~4 H H .C.‘ H >>~ H >5 {Sn-4w I: 0 9 x 0 v4 .0 —a 0:00) a m wxao to u Nu m 33 'U can 5 1: *‘0 ::m H >| m m m 5“ H‘JH 6rd mt: c 5:: m C1: :30: mum cob-4h mac-,3 :3 mOJH viWCT ¢»u >me L’mcm U ==>0 tamcn E u E 0 wdH m Slum NC 03:3 00%- OUU E 0 r‘3 0 *MH 0 :30 0' :3m 0 Lhfiwd o suh” 7550’. own web: me: p o m —‘ —4 m m z W F' :3 u L) m Continued Table 81 53131unmm03 3:3enbv 1193 qnzus pue 33531q1 13p1v 3111915 orsan-fi1q pue £10 3111515 3153K 3111515 0153K-33n pue 33“ 353105 orsau-fi1q u13q3nos pue A10 u13q3nos 353105 orsau u13q3nos 353105 0153H-33m u1aq3nos pue 39M u13u3nos mopeam afipas HABITATS sSuruado 550 pue su311eg 550 5353105 aura 353105 poonp1eu u13q31oN 0153“ £10 pue A10 353105 poonp1eH u1aq310N OISBR (13;;u00 dmens) 353105 u13q310N puetnoq 353105 153105 Name 200 bairdii Peromyscus maniculatus Prairie deer mouse Peromyscus leucqpus Northern white-footed mouse coo eri c. Lemming mouse S natom 5 a eri g. red—bac e Capperrs vole Clethrionomys Hicrotus p. pennsylvanicus Hea ow vole ‘7 l\ ochro aster Prairie-v0 e Microtus o. zibethicus rat ComfiBn-mus Ondatra z. Continued Table 81 53131unmm03 0135nbv 1153 qn1us pue namvlui Japtv 3111515 0153H-A10 pue 510 3111515 0153“ 3111515 3153K-33n pue 39M 353105 3153m-K10 u13q3nos pue K10 u13q3nos 353105 DTSBN u1aq3nos 353105 3153u-3am u13q3nos pue 33m u13q3nos mopean 38p35 HABITATS 58u1u3d0 550 pue 5u31150 550 5353105 3u15 353105 poomp1ea u13q310N 0153” £10 pue £10 353105 poonp1ea u13u310N 0153“ (1331u00 dmens) 353105 u13q31on pu51n01 353105 153100 Name hudsonius Hu sonian meadow jumping mouse 23 us h. 201 X dorsatum Canada parcupine Erethizon d. Canis latrans thamnos NortHEastern coyote l¥caon fulva Eastern wo Canis lupus red EOX Eastefn Vul as f. Urocyon cinereoargenteus n gray fox Euarctos americanus f americanus B ear 8C Bl Continued Table 53131unmm03 o135nbv 1153 qn1qs pu5 33531ql 13p15 3111515 0153N-A10 pu5 £10 3111515 3153“ 3111515 3153K-33n pu5 33M 353105 0153w-K10 u13q3nos pu5 A10 u13q3nos 353105 0153” u13q3nos 353105 3153u-3am u13q3nos pu5 39M u13q3nos mop53w 38p35 mums 58u1u3d0 550 pu5 5u31150 550 5353105 3u15 353105 p00mp1en u13q31ou 0153“ A10 pu5 £10 353105 poonp15H u13q310N 9153K (1311u00 dmens) 353105 u13q31ou puetnoq 353105 153100 Name Progyon lotor hirtus 202 Upper Mississippi valley raccoon _ americana American marten Martes a. ennanti er Martes 2. F15 Mustela erminea bangsi rmine E Mustela rixosa ' is Alleghenylleast weasel gheniens alle Mustela frenata ~T oracensxs New York long-tailed weasel DOVEb Continued Table Bl 53131unmm03 3135nbv 1193 Quins pu5 33HDIH1 IBPIV 3111515 3153H-£10 pu5 £10 3111515 0153“ 3111515 0153K-3an pu5 33M 353105 0153u-£10 u13q3n05 pu5 £10 u13q3nos 353105 DISBR u13q3nos 353105 Disan-nam u13q3nog pu5 33m u1aq3nos nop53n afipas HABITATS 58u1u3d0 550 pu5 5u31150 550 5353105 3u15 353105 poonp155 u13q31oN 0153“ £10 pu5 £10 353105 p00np155 u13q310N 0153a (1351u03 dmens) 353105 u13q310N pu51n01 353105 153100 Name 203 era etl Upper Mississippi Mustela vison valley mink Gulo luscus luscus Wolverine acksoni Jac son's 5a ger Taxidea taxus Northern plains skunk Mephitis mephitis Hudsonica canadensis Canada otter Lutra c. WisconSin puma Felis concolor schorgeri _ canadensis Canada lynx L nx c. Continued Table Bl 53131unmm03 0135nbv 1153 qn1qs pue 3813151 laPIv 3111515 3153H-£10 pu5 £10 3111515 3153“ 3111515 3153K-33M pu5 33M 353105 0153u-£10 u1aq3nos pue £10 u1aq3nos 353105 0153N u13q3nos 353105 3153H-33M u13q3nos pus 3am u13q3nos nopean 38p35 HABITATS 58u1u3do 550 pu5 5u31150 550 5353105 3u15 353105 poomp15H u13q310N 0153“ £10 pu5 £10 353105 poomp1eH u13q31oN 0153x (1331u00 dmens) 353105 u13q31on pu51n01 3 83.103 198103 Name 204- superior Bobcat L nx rufus superiorensis canadensis AmeriEan elk Cervus c. Odocoileus virginianus 1.8 ‘7— Northern white-tailed boreal deer Alces alces andersoni Northwestern moose Bison bison P ains Buffalo 205 5050: 000050 05w55 5053050n30~H0> 0505 \5050 0000000> 00005000mz 050505050 Aw550m050 505500 005w0 00050 5055005: 505500 \50504 055H0 03500505000 5050: Aw5500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 050050 mummc p053050um00~m 0505 505500 505500 505500 505500 \5050 x0500500N5 x0500500Nz 050055¢ Aw550m050 \000500 0505 00 050505050 050505050 050505050 550050000n 050505500 p000050-0wn:05 5055005: 5055005: 50550055 5055005: p05305o 0505550 5050005000055 Aw550m05v 05005505 00 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0m05m m0H H 505500 0505 505500 505500 505500 505500 505500 505500 0000av¢ 0 00050 055 00005 0505 050505050 050505050 050505050 0m05w m0mu05u >500 0505 0505 0505 0500505 050 0055 050505050 050505050 050505050 505500 505500 505500 0nw5w 00550: 0505 505505 0505 5H550u 505500 0500555 0505550 0m005505 Aw550m050 505500 050505050 050505050 050505050 500H 505500 0505 555500 505500 505500 505500 0500504, 50550 05>0o M555mw 500553 0005 50555m w555mm 500553 0005 50555m 000550: 0502 05005005 0500505> A05005055m5m >~H005w0000050550> >50> \50505 05055505 005050 050505050 050505050 0500500 00000 NW050mmu00503 0505 0505 \50505 050555050 5005< 050505050 0505 050505050 505500 0500500 00000 30mm m50> 50550055 555505 \50505 050000555000 5050 505500 505500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 00000 000500 150550055 505500 50550055 505500 505500 505500 505500 \50505 0505000500 005050 050505050 0500500 5030 055500503 505500 \50505 05505055500 5050 505500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 5500550 5005505< 0505 505500 505500 505500 505500 \50505 050055050505 05550000 50550005v r0 505500 0500500 55000Hm 00005 mm 555505 550505 0555x0 0550050055 0500500 00500 03050 0505 50505 05550 0000500 0500500 5050;\055010500H5 0505 \50505 00555000 0055050 505500050 0500500 50505150050 505500 \50505 05005500 000550050 0555mw 500553 5500 505550 lwc55mm 500553 5500 505550 000550: 0502 05005000 0500505> 505005055050 555005005000505 555500 555500 555500 555500 \00505 0050 0 x5< 505500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 5500500 0505 5055005: 505500 505500 505500 \00505 00500 005< 0505 505500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 5000 000553-0550 550> 505500 05005500 05005500 05005500 \00505 0500050 005< 050505050 050505050 050505050 505500050 505500 505500 505500 0500500 5000 000553-50050 0505 5055005: 555500 555500 555500 500505 000050 005< 050505050 050505050 050505050 505500 505500 505500 0500500 5503000 71 555500 555500 555500 \00505 05000500 005< nu 04 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 500053 5005505< 505500 505500 505500 \00505 050055050 00050: 050505050 0500500 500053 50000550 0505 \00505 00050500 00050: 505500 505500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 0505502 555500 505500 05005500 05005500 05005500 05005500 \00505 00005505N005m 005< 505500050 505500 505500 505500 505500 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 050 0050 555500 555500 555500 555500 505500 505500 505500 505500 500505 00055055 0050 M55550 500553 5500 505550 \\w:55wm 500553 5505 505550 000500: 0502 05005000 0500505> 505005055050 555005005000005<0 00055050 0503ux00 000 550053 05500 0050000 0550 00 05005 208 550003 050505050 050505050 050505050 50500 505500050 505500 505500 505500 0500500 05 5 5 0505 50550055 555500 555500 555500 \00505 0505005050“ 055 50 550003 50500 Aw550005v 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 05050 0w 50550 505500 5055005; 505500 505500 505500 \00505 055 5050 0500m005m 505500 505500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 55000 50000 055500 0505 505500 505500 505500 505500 \00505 0555000 0N000< 5w5500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 005m‘005005nwc5m 0505 50550055 505500 505500 505500 \00505 05505500 05005< 0500505> 5w5500050 505500 0500500 m00 0 0505 50550055 055500 \00505 050055050 0m000< 050505050 050505050 505500 505500 0500500 0000 00>50o 50550055 0505 555500 055500 \00505 0550550550> 05005< 050505050 050505050 505500 505500 0500500 55000 5000050 055500 055500 \00505 055505 00000< 050505050 050505050 Aw5500050 505500 505500 505500 0500500 5050>0m0 550m0502 0505 50550055 555500 055500 055500 \00505 0000 50 005< 0555mw 500553 5505 50555m lw555mw 500553 5500 505550 000500: 0502 05005001 0500505> 505005055050 555005w05000005 500055 5055005; 50550055 50550055 50550055 \00505 0550 000500000 Aw5500050 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 50050w505 505500 505500 50550055 505500 505500 505500 505500 0500500 50050w505 0mw50: 050505050 050505050 050505050 050505050 505500050 505500 505500 505500 505500 50050w505 000000504000 50550055 505500 555500 555500 555500 555500 0500500 50005500 05w50z 050505050 050505050 050505050 505500050 505500 505500 505500 500500505 00000: 0505 50550055 555500 0505 555500 555500 0500500 0500555050 00050000m5 055500 500553 5500 505550 1w555mm 500553 5500 505550 000500: 0502 05005000 0500505> 505005055050 555005w05000005 505500050 555500 555500 555500 \50505 05005555 055500 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 050m 505500 505500 505500 505500 \50505 05550500 0500505 505500050 0500550 505 055m 505500 \50505 050 050 055500 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 05050 5550050m 505500050 0505 50550055 50550055 50550055 \50505 0505000500 0550 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 05050 055500m3 50550055 50550055 50550055 50505 050055050 0550 505500050 505500 050505050 050505050 050505050 0500500 50500 0550 00wmm 0505 555500 505500 505500 505500 \50505 05500505 0005< 505500050 50 50 050505505 505500 050555 0>0005500 055 0050: 050505505 000550505 5050 505500 555505 505500050 050555 550500 550505 050505505 505500 555505 005m3m00 505500050 050555 0550555055> 0555500 505500050 0555055 0555055 500005 0:005:00 05005500 05005500 05005500, 050555 005050 055055005NM 055550 500553 5505 505550 055550 500553 5505 505550 000550: 0502 05005000 0500505> 505005055050 555005005000505 505005555550 555005wo5000505.l coEEou coEEoo coEEou coEEoL coEEou ccEEoo coEEco COEEoo ccmHn: msumusm mmu mHoo chfiumwcv .cmEpmn .cmEumn .cmEuma .cmEuog Cu Cu Cu ou :oEEou :oEEou cosEou COEEou umxowamooz mm“ m u marl xgummu xfiuwmw zgpfimu Afiufimy vcmfia: manafioumu mo hocmawz chfiummcv .cmEuma .cmEpoa .cmEpmm .cmEuw umxumawoo3tmmmwmmnvom coEEou cosEoocs coesou COEEOA coEEcu COEEoo coEEoU COEEoo ocmfia: muscmwuousuhho ammuwcwamz chfiummcv souu coEEoo ucmcmEuma ucmvcsnm vcmaa: masochcuhcumup m=>poo chfiummcv H30 mw:uom ammuu ucwcmEpma COEEou acmaa: mscmficflwufi> onsm Amcfiummcv ucmcmELwa H30 mwuumm :oEEou xfiufimw ncmaa: wwpm> xwuum Amcfiummcv ucmwmccuu ucmfimcmuu ucmwmcmuu m>ov mamcuso: :oEEcocs coEEou coEEou :cEEou coEEou vcmfin: musouomE musvwmch comwma umwcmmmmw ucmcmEuma ucmccanm chHummcv vcmau: mDHHOummwfiE wwummeuom chwuwwcv ucmsczsc ucowmcmpu acmwmchu ucmwmcmhu ofiumavm cumu xuch cu coE50u :eEEou coEEou :oEEou \Lmqu umwwc mmwcovwfizu wCMMQw paucw3 d~mm uoEESm wcwumm poucMB Hku umEEDm umuflnm: osz ucwcfimmm acmuMmfl> Aucmuwwwcwwm xfifimumwoficmwzu» wmvonHm Awaummcv coEEou ucowmcmuu acmwucmuu acowmcmuu mumu xfiuwmu COEEOU :oEEcu coEEou camaas mswum> meoflmmpmcmm chfiummcv .anpma .cmEpoa .CmEpma .cmEuog uwxumawoo3 xczoa coEEou coEEou :oEEou :oEEou wcmfia: mcmummnsm mmvfiouwm wcfiumm paucwz Adam LoEEDm lwcfiumm poucH3 fidmu umEEDm umuwpmz oEmz ucmvwmmz ucmuwmw> Auchwuwcmwm xfiflmuMwoficmmzuu< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< >< Q) «2.x on: to ac ca 3 x ~4m m 0 m u U 4: ~40 —* 9:: m a Law F4: 9 up! u :1 >10) mm H cu D co HOE 5 vim : c «a: C u u :3 q-a H00 00 m t: Ono > 0 H mm :1." H H was a c c was cu HEAL! 0:: 1: m 1: m 'OL: h m OI H 0 00 '0“ U 00 ocuux MU CO ‘H O> 'UBum mm 00 0 EH an 0:: an LE m a #40 m mu: m a I O Elaphe vulpina _Western fox snake sa i BuEIsnake Pituophis melanohucus Continued Table 83 218 93131unmm03 013enbv 1133 qn1qs pue naxoqu lava 3111313 DISBH-KJQ pue E10 3111e13 3153K 3111313 3159K-33M pue 33m 393103 ozsan-K1Q u13q3n05 pue K10 u13q3nos 393103 oxsam u13q3nos 393103 orsau-33m u13q3n05 pue 39M u13q3n05 mopeaw 38p35 HABITATS sSuxuado xeo pue 9u311eg neg 9393103 3u13 393103 p00mp1eH u13q310N 0193“ A10 pue A10 393103 poonp1eH u13q110N 0193a (13;;u00 dmens) 393103 u13q310N puetn01 333105 193103 If rian U Eastern paIins garter snake Eastern garter snake um Eastern milk snake t Thamnophis sirtalis Thamnoghis radix Lamprggeltis Name Storeria dekayi Brown snake Storeria occipitomaculata Northern red:BETlied snake Sistrurus catenatus Eastern massasauga rattlesnake 219 09.2 08m 0w0w§3 0000.0 $00250 xom 00.002 000 0003\0w000gw3 0x3 0038 xom 002.50 xom 002.8 xom 002mm xom 00002 000 000nm .U\.00>flm xom .0033 08m 0w000§§ 0x3 .00 $000053 .0038 xom 0800003980002; 000039000 000mg #050 00000.3 0000000 gwfifis oxHQm m.0xumum AmHLmnouave Hqumum 0:0000000 00000000 00300 0000.33 000000.300 050000.30 000305 ED030000 0:008:05 figs? @3380», 00000000> 0d00w0000m. 103.30% 000,0 000000m 000.3095 0.3.003 0ww00u000fi. 0000000 Swag 000-000 00095 0H0coomdm 8er £33 30289.9" 03m 0203 000600005 000 awHQ £00003 023m 00000000an 0500 80083 0502 39050.5 0030 980 05 09.6380 8:. swam .552 000390098 0000 90 ms 88:02 0803 030.0 E 0300. 220 009.000 08m 00>0m 08m 00>0m 00.0 002.8 xom 0030003 81330092 80 80:0 9000 0w0q000a 000m 0w0c000c xom 00>0m 0003\000/3 08m 00>0m 00.0 002E xom 090% 08.00 00>0m 00m 00300 xom 000 -008 00000500 00000500. 000000: 000000000 0000000000000. 020-000.0000 0000>000 0000>0no 000013003 000.090.0005 000.000 0000:0030 000000w0n09003 msmowa 0500:00000m 0500900 0500me 0500500003 00000000 03000000 000000800? 050000000 000030002 H00E000 000000 00000000000 0000030000: 00000Hm Hw0£mn0000m 00000 005 00000050 000080901 000882. 00003.0 0000000000 000E00m 000000090. 000000.00 009.00% 00.00093 00900.0 0000003 9052 0250008 10 0300 221 00>0m 000 0030003 003 00>0m 000 0080003 900 00>0m 000 00>0m 000 0030803 900 00>00 000 8.82 0% 8000 3080803 900 00002 000 0000m\0w0000003.0x00 00>0m 000\0w0000003.0x00 00>0m 000 0w0000003_0x00 000000000 00500000 00000000000003.000000000> 000000000 00000000 000000000> 000000500 0006000 080800000 0000005 09% 000 800800000 000000900 0000m.mm00 00000 000000000 00000 00E0w00 00000 00E0w00 HH0m0 00000000 0>00 00000000000 000000w00_00000 00000000 080000-002 000.0 00000 00000000 00000 00000 000000000 0000w000 000000000 00000 00000 000w000 30000.0 88003 000000000 00000000 000000009 00000 00000000 002 0020080 .00 030.0 222 00.80 000 30:0 900 00002 000 00000 0000 00.8: 000 8020 900 3.80 000 80:0 900 00002 000 00000 0000.0 309.0 80 80:0 93 was: 000 .8000 900 00000903 900 000/000 x00 00200 000 0030003 90.0 00>0m 000 $0005.03 0000 00000803 900 0080902 800 $000000: 0000.0 060.000? 000000 0005000 050000002 000000000 050000002 0000000. 05000000: ggmfimfi 05H 30mg 0500000090 00000000000 00500000000 0000080 5.5000 050000040 0000000 00000000 050000000 0000000000000 0500000000 05000050m 0050000009000 0500000000 0500000000 0500000000 050000000 0080 00900 5000200 050000000 05000000w 00000w0000003 050000000 500000000 0000000 05000000 050000£Wm 05000000 000.000 :5000000w 00500 80088 0.002 000000000 00 0000.0. 223 002853 900 00.8: 000 00000 003 00.82 000 000:0 900 000/000 080 0000: 80 000:0 900 00.8: 08 000:0 900 00.82 000 00050 003 00>0m 080 00.002 000 00050 0000 00.002 0000 00050 9000 00.002 0000 00050 0000 00.002 0000 00050 0000 00.002 0000 00050 020.0 ow00000003 0000.0 008900: 900 00200 x00 00002 0000 00050 00000 00000 030308000 05000000 05.00000 0500000 05000000 000.0000 0w00000 050000000 05000050 05000000 000000 009:3 05000000 050000000 05000000500 05000000 05000000500 050000000 000000000025 050000000 0000000 008w000 050000000 00800 503000 553000 E03000 0505005008 050000000 misfiug 0503000 0000000 050000050 050000000 000000.00 05000000 0550000000000 0500009000 050000000 0500005008 0500009000 05000000 00500 00000000 9.0.52 880008 .0 030.0 224 55.2 xom $3852 83 owmfighz 93 owmnmccflz mxmd owmnmccwz mg 3.8: m8 3qu 9:3 $8353 93 owwnmgz «23 owmamfifiz 9H5 Eumum gaummfia EDHB ma 533% 533mg 533mm 55.6me 8:539: :28me Ehmum 98.1639, 55%me gamma .53me gmmgu EHUHmHnH SHE 233mm “Sign ~530ma ”5.....ng ES 8383 “HZ BEES E 3nt 225 xom ummm: xom Moan: qmwwom mxmq ammom 934 $8953 §3\§w»£ 93 $8833 93 HQfim xom $33 mafia xom mcofimooH 83.830meng 0x3 Suwxom 9A3 owmnmEHB 9H3 mmufiummu mhmnuuoz fifiSadeonomE .E muoumoxoz mange mwumd mmswmunsh 95598: umxusm Hmuuoam $838“ gag: umvfinmunmfio 9H3 339:me muumodm gum umwmudm 8580 fiduomumnnou wgumoumu xomflfiso magma? mmwowmbwu oammmdmrfisgufimum mango $5033 oammwm mmfinoauwuam mflmfi 0 $5033 mxmcooz mam wwuwu :83: Hmw vmmOCuchH mammmo 838393 gmwhfim 9W4 mcmomgasm Egg 950m c3 ”:83 E mwmfifio xofifio: 9t E 83QO :35 m5 835$nt 3 flame 226 xom .895 xom Han: fimwmom 0x3 owmnmacwz 9E4 owmnmgz 0x3 \Swwkmom 0x3 owmamEHB 9H5 \cmwmom 9H3 omeEE 93 83.x xom 83m xom xom Hg xom 8%: $33.83 30gb mammumvm Hogan gummwofim @3383 “Sam 53% E88? mbhSm magmHOmhuo macomfiauoz 33% 85:00 Emfiuoz mfimucoum mascuoo wwdoboz H055 9me mmBofiumsum mflmouuoz .3qu meOHoouHmmum fimfiuoz mamumofimm 33933 3&0an umcEm wwdmunuoam cumummE—upoz H533 mag? mflmouuoz umfihm H923 magmas $8.302 $3383 “mamam mmmocuwsmyn 95mg mHmoHuoz Hmfim :8quon “guano? mammou 38.302 b33388 aim @fik msumadomfivhum .m. msduofiwm A3 0.3 30 m mama—SH .m 9.8%? 950m coHumooQ 982 8:538 mm 2an 227 chafing ~33 >838 xom .839“ xom H953 $3253 mxécmwxom x03 um>Hm xom H93: “HQ/Hm xom 05953 mxfliga xom 33.x xom “83¢ xom owmnmcfiz mxmq \nmwzom 0x3 $82.8 xom owmamgz 9H4 tax/Hm xom owmnmgz mxmu Egg xom mmwMHHUH vqumn 88mg 955: «5%? 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ES 8383 maz 8:588 mm 2an 228 .838 303 owmnmfiamz gawzom 9H3 owmnméwz 3H3 \Hmfim xom owmnmgz 9H3 humid xom owmnmccwz mxfl owmnmng 9H3 \cmwzom 9H3 owmamficwz 9E4 owmnmgflz 384 >522 xom owmnmacflz mxmq Ems/Hm xom owmnmcfiz mxmq \Gmwxom mxfl $8953 93 smflémummnwsoa Emfiuoz mmummuawm 333%!“ 38093 :.%%E mquoqu: .5 mam. ma mmwm wmzmsgamwufl mmwwnflmm .m mamumohfioflz mmmn Ugwaguwafifi HSUHFSHov 6 mamumouofiz Sugbmfls .5 333m mBmHomcfl mflumflmamam mBocouqu €qu wear 885.82 mumauwmmfinwm wmvonmmo gamma EBBSe H35 w%8fi§q¥ gamsmmooxofld mamumoém: Hmwsmm omcmvmqmo cogmumowwum mafia wmmmnflmz 2593.3 cogmumofium soumm 305mm. mamommzwaw 85m mmwfi 3.23 mnemgo mfiooom 950m H8383 ma_va Umaflucoo mm game 229 gamma SEBmBmES $3 owmnmgz 9H4 33m xom owwnmgg 0x3 \Gmwxom SEA owmnmncwz wxfl \qmwzom 93 owmnmccflz 9H3 \cmwxom mxmq owmnmcfiz 9E4 \cmw%om 9H3 cuflkom m>Hmo mg Amemnopav xumpmemflum gooummlx mfimumcoufi mfimosm 3338an fimfiam cumfiuozx. Hfififlmn ““8ka 9300 g Hmumz #mmpm Ho wmmzmamosm mama 58339» mango ummqm mamasomsouwfla meQuom Immmd, xoom 338mm .H mmufimofiza wwmfié $609wa 3&5me 950m £0383 952 82588 mm 033 230 comparisons between these two rivers can not be stated unequivocally, it is so noted (*). APPENDIX C APPENDIX C IDENTIFIED ANIMAL SPECIES (BY ANATCMICAL EIfl’IENT) OF 'lHE SAUER RESORT SITE The following appendix has been compiled to allow for a more detailed inspection by archaeologists interested in the peculiarities of the Sauer Resort site assemblage. Examination of these species lists allows the reader a better appreciation of the magnitude and completeness of the faunal species represented. Also, by examining the kinds of elements identified here, zooarchaeologists working on assemblages of similar age, cultural affiliation and preservation, will develop a greater awareness of what elements may be identified from their particular assenblages. The following descriptions are intended to be straightforward, with elements and positions being identified. In cases where elenents were identified to a particular taxonomic level, but the position (left/ right, or anatomical position, i.e. first molar) could not be ascertained, the term "indeterminate" follows the mmber of elements represented. 231 232 Two instances within the appeidix are in need of further clarifica- tion. Because of the large number of turtle carapace fragments eicomtered in this assemblage, a workable method of positioning identified elements was needed in order to determine minimxm number of individuals for each species represeited. The initial step was to reassemble turtle carapaces of the species known to inhabit the waters surrounding the Sauer Resort site (see Appendix.B). Upon completion of this, individual elements were illustrated in the following manner. Beginning with a dorsal perspective and using the neurals (nucal, suprapygal and pygal included) as a midline, the marginals and costals were numbered in succession with the side also being noted. For exarple, ML3 would be the third marginal in the suc- cession and on the left side of the neural midline; likewise CR4 would be the fourth costal on the right side of the neural midline. 'Ihe neurals were also numbered in a similar fashion, with the first neural (N1) being directly behind (posterior to) the nucal with each neural numbered in succession up to the suprapygal. By positioning each carapace elemeit in this manner, it was possible to determine minimum number of individuals on carapace elenents, without relying totally upon elements such as long bones, crania, vertebra and so forth. The second instance worthy of fm‘ther explanation is the ideitification of freshwater drum otoliths or inner ear bones. Because an articulated drum skeleton was not available at the time of identification, it was not possible to determine left and right positions. However, through inspection it was possible to determine differeices between elements, with categories "A" and "B" being designated for quantitative purposes . Table Cl Ideitified Mammalian Elements from the Sauer Resort Site OdocoileuS‘virginianus Mandible Astragalus Scapula Calcaneus Patella Tibia lnnominate Premaxillary Metacarpal Ribs Ulna Femur Radius Humerus Maxilla Antler vertebra (Atlas) Vertebra (Axis} Vertebra (Cervical) Vertebra (Thorasic) Vertebra (Lumbar) Phalanx (Prime) Phalanx (Secunda) Phalanx (Cloven bone) Carpal (Naviculocuboid) Carpal (Sesarroid) Carpal magnum) Carpal (Cunneiform) Carpal (Lateral‘malleolus) (Pisiform) Carpal (Scaphoid) 233 H H f—‘I—‘l—‘i—‘Nt—‘NO‘ DJU'IGL‘ H \JU'IU'ID-‘l—‘gU'l NNU) WNNI—‘NN left, 11 right left, 6 right left, 2 right left, 3 right 1 right left, 3 right left, 6 right left, left, 1 right left, 2 right left, 2 right left, 2 right left, 6 right left, 6 right 1 right fragments left, 3 right left, 4 right left, 2 right 1 right 1 right 1 right left 1 right 234 Table Cl Continued Carpals 1 left (Uhciform) Tarsal 1 right (III) First premolar 2 right (Lower) First premolar 1 right (Upper) Second premolar 1 right (Upper) Second premolar (Lower) Fourth premolar (Lower) First‘molar (Upper) First molar (Lower) Thirdrmolar (Lower) lflolars (No position) TEmporal 2 right (Petrous portion) TEmporal 1 right (Zygomatic process) TEmporal 1 right (Bulla) Squamosal 2 right (Zygomatic arch) Basioccipital l Cranium. 13 fragments Misc. Elements 79 indeterminate left left left left, 2 right left \ll—‘wl—‘l—‘H Cervus canadensis Mandible 2 right Astragalus 2 right Scapula 1 right Humerus 1 right Innominate left Vertebra (Atlas) Vertebra (Cervical) Phalanx (Prima) Phalanx (Secunda) Carpal (Sesamoid) Carpal (Scaphoid) left l—‘t—‘J—‘l—‘P—‘l—‘H indeterminate Table C1 Continued Carpal (Pisifonm) Third incisor (Lower) Third.premolar (Upper) First molar (Lower) Second‘molar (Upper) Molar (Root) cf. Cervus canadensis Maxillary Scapula Carpal (Pisifbruv Molar Bison bison Scapula vertebra (Lumbar) cf. Bison bison Scapula Ursus americanus .Astragalus cf. ursus americanus IMandible Canis sp. Nhndible Innominate Temporal (Bulla) Tibia Calcaneus Ulna Squamosal Metapodial Second incisor (Upper) 235 H r-‘I-‘H i—‘N 1 right 1 right left, 1 right left 1 right indeterminate indeterminate left, 1 right indeterminate indeterminate left, 1 right left left 1 right 1 right 1 right 1 right left, 1 right 1 right 1 right left indeterminate left, 1 right Table Cl 236 Continued Third incisor Fourth premolar (Lower) Secondxmolar (Lower) Canine (Upper) Canine (Lower) cf. Canis ps. Fibula Metapodial vertebrate (Thorasic) Vertebra (Lumbar) Canine (Lower) Procyon lotor ZMandible Maxillary Calcaneus Radius Ulna Femur Fibula Humerus Astragalus Tibia Third incisor (Lower) Second premolar (Upper) Third premolar (Upper) Second'molar (Lower ) Cranium cf. Procyon lotor Canine (Upper) Canine (Lower) Second'molar (Lower) Nt—‘I—‘I—‘H N DONUJNi-‘l—‘N left left left, 1 right 1 right 1 right left indeterminate left 1 right left left left left, 1 right left, 1 right left, 1 right left, 1 right 1 right left 1 right 1 right left left, 1 right fragments left left 1 right 237 Table Cl Continued Castor canadeisis Cranium 1 left, 1 right (Zygomatic arch) Humerus 1 left, 1 right Clavicle 1 left Calcaneos 1 left Scapula 1 right Ulna 1 left Astragalus 1 right Patella 1 left Incisor 5 right (Lower) lncisor 6 indeterminate First molar 1 right (Upper) Marmota monax Mandible 1 left Tibia 1 left Scapula 1 right Calcaneos 1 left Astragalus 1 left Femur 1 left, 2 right Intrusive 50 elements ideitified (Individual) Citellus tridecemlineatus Femur 2 left, 1 right cf. Citel lus tridecemlineatus Imminate 1 right Femrr 2 left , 1 right Ulna 1 left Tamias striatus Mandible 3 left, 2 right Cranium l Innominate l indeterminate Humerus 1 left, 1 right Ulna 1 left, 1 right Sciurus sp. Mandible 1 left Table Cl Continued Ondatra zibethicus ‘Microtus Mandible Cranium_ Maxillary Innominate Astragalus Scapula Tibia Radius Ulna Calcaneus Femur Humerus Metapodial vertebra Incisor (Lower) First molar (Upper) Molar (indetermined) pennsylvanicus IMicrotus IMandible IMaxillary/cranium ochrogaster Nficrotus Mandible sp. Mandible Cranium Soricidae IMandible Taxidea taxus Innominate Radius IMustela'vison IMandible Maxillary Radius 238 N I-‘ HNI—‘NL‘NNE—‘NHI—‘J—‘WH-D left, 1 right left left left left left, 3 right left, 1 right left, 2 right left, 1 right left, 2 right left, 2 right left indeterminate indeterminate left, 1 right fragments left, 6 right 2 right left, 5 right 1 right 1 right left left, 2 right 1 right left 239 Table Cl Continued cf. Mbstela vison Canine (Lower) Nbites americana Tibia Lutra canadensis Ulna MephitiS‘mephitis Radius Sus scrofa Humerus Homo sapien Mandible Maxillary Mastoid process/ Auditory meatus Premolar (indetermined) Second.molar (Upper) Mblar (indetermined) 1 left 1 left 1 left, 1 left 1 right 2 right I right 1 right 1 right 1 right 240 Table C2 Identified Avain Elements from the Aythya‘marila Coracoid 3 Aythya valisineria Sternum Cranium Humerus Coracoid HHD—‘w Aythya affinis Sternum. l Femur Coracoid 5 cf. Aythya affinis Sternum. 1 Coracoid Aythya collaris Sternum 1 Coracoid .Aythya americana Sternum l Coracoid l Aythya sp. Sternum1 21 Coracoid l4 Tibiotarsus Humerus l Anas platyrhynchos Sternum. l cranium. l Humerus Coracoid Femur Anas acuta Sternum 1 Sauer Resort Site left, 1 right left left, 2 right 1 right left, 3 right 1 right 2 right left, 1 right left, 12 right 1 right left, 4 right 1 right 1 right 1 right Table C2 Continued Anas discors or crecca Cranium Coracoid Famur Anas sp. Sternum Coracoid Aix sponsa Coracoid MerguS‘merganser Sternum iMareca americana Cranium cf. Mareca americana Humerus Oxyura jamaicensis Coracoid Bucephala clangula Coracoid cf. Bucephala clangula Sternum Coracoid Duck spp. Cranium Pelvis Famur Radius Scapula Humerus Carpometacarpus Coracoid Ulna First phalanx 241 kJPJFJ left, left left left left, left left left, left, left, left, left, left, left, left, left, 1 right 1 right 1 right 10 right 1 right 34 right 25 right 15 right 58 right 22 right 32 right 8 right Table C2 Continued Sternum Tibiotarsus Tarsometatarsus Trachea Furculum Misc. Element Branta canadensis Cranium1 Humerus Tarsometatarsus First phalanx Chen caerulescens Furculum Fulica americana Humerus Scapula Coracoid Porzana carolina carpometacarpus Podilymbus podiceps Coracoid Scapula Ulna Femur cf. Podilymbus podiceps Cranium Carpometacarpus Eycticorax nycticorax or Botaurus lentiginosus Tibiotarsus Tarsometatarsus EctopisteS'migratorius Tibiotarsus 242 49 17 ll 4 42 left, left, 21 right 8 right 198 indeterminate 2 left 1 left, t-H—‘r—‘N left, left left left, left left, left left left left 1 right 2 right 1 right 3 right 1 right 1 right 1 right Table C2 Continued Buteo jamaicensis Coracoid Buteo sp. Scapula Phalanges (Distal) Tarsometatarsus Accipiter sp . Tarsometatarsus Colaptes auratus Humerus Ulna Passeriformes Humerus Ulna Tibiotarsus 243 1 left, 1 left, 1 left 1 left, 2 left 1 right 1 right 1 right 1 right 1 right 1 right 1 right 244 Table C3 Ideitified Amphibian/Reptilian Elements from the Sauer Resort Site Chgsemys picta Femur 1 left Illium 1 left, 1 right Radius 1 right Xiphip las tron 1 right Entoplastron l indeterminate Hyoplastron 1 left Hypoplastron 2 left Epiplastron 1 left, 1 right Carapace Includes: Marginals MR4 IML9 ML18 MR8 MR7 ML3 IMR2 IflRll MR3 'MLl MR6 Costals CR7 \l DJBJF‘P‘PJBJBJO\F‘FJUJFJF‘UJPJPJEDD)FJUJfi‘PJF‘h‘UJhJPJP‘P‘ Neurals Nucal 4 Misc. elements 21 indeterminate Chelydra serpentina Vertebra 3 (indeterminate) Illiun 1 right Scapula 2 left 245 Table C3 Continued Tibia 1 left, 1 right Carapace Includes: Marginals MRZ l ML7 l MLlO 2 MRlO 2 MRll 2 MR4 l Costals CR8 1 CR7 1 CL6 1 CR6 1 Neurals Nucal l Pygal 1 Misc. carpace 38 indeterminate Fragments cf. Chelydra serpentina Fibula 1 right Carapace Includes : Neurals N8 1 medoidea blandirggi Vertebra 1 (indetermined) Femur 1 left Epiplastron, Entoplastron, Hyoplastron l (Articulated) Carapace Includes: Marginals MLS 1 ML3 l MRlO l MLlO l MR3 l MR2 1 MRS 2 MLll l MRb l MRl l MR9 1 MRS l Cos tals CL4 1 CR7 1 C16 1 CR1 1 CR6 2 CR5 1 246 Table C3 Continued Neurals N8 N5 N1 cf. Brydoidea blandingi Carapace Includes : Marginals Costals CR1 Terrapene carolina Carapace Includes : Marginal CL3 Trioggc spinifer Carapace Includes : Costal cf. Clemys insculpta Carapace Includes : Marginal MLll Graptegys geogrghica Vertebra (Indeterminate) Carapace Includes : Marginals MLll MRll Costals CLl CR7 cf. Graptemys geographica Carapace Includes: Marginals ML3 Neurals N4 Turtle spp. Misc. Elements Sistrurus cateiatus Vertebra (indeterminate) indeterminate l—‘N l indeterminate l—‘I—‘D-‘H 116 indeterminate 247 Table C3 Continued Elaphe'vulpina vertebra (indeterminate) Humerus Illium vertebra (indeterminate) Tibiofibula Radioulna Misc . Eleneits (indetenminate) Bufo sp. Astragalus Calcaneus Femur Illium Humerus Podials and Carpals Tarsal (Proximal) Rana/Bufo spp. Misc . Eleneits (indeterminate) PJPJU1 left, 11 right left, 1 right 1 right left, 2 right left 1 right left left, 6 right left, 1 right indeterminate 1 right Table C4 Identified Fish (Osteichthyes) Elements from.the Sauer Resort Site Stizostedion sp. Dentary Premaxillary Palatine Quadrate Preoperculum Supramaxillary iMaxillary Post-temporal Interoperculum Frontal Articular Suboperculumi Cervatahyal Epihyal Cleithrum Supracleithrum Hyomandibular Parasphenois VCmer ‘Misc. Elements Perca flavescens Lacrunal Frontal Preoperculum: Urohyal Endopterygoid Suboperculum Cleithrum Maxillary Operculum Hyomandibular Dentary Quadrate .Moxostoma sp. Maxillary Hyomandibular Operculum weberian.process SUboperculum. Cleithrum Pharygneal Dent ary Parasphenoid Basipterygium. Misc. elements 248 85 left, 36 left, 27 left, 45 left, 37 left, 6 left, 47 left, 5 left, 9 left, 12 left, 13 left, 6 left, 54 left, 13 left, 16 left, 31 left, 33 3 85 right 38 right 25 right 42 right 32 right 3 right 57 right 6 right 9 right 8 right 35 right 5 right 68 right 21 right 20 right 2 right 27 right 24 indeterminate left, H left, left, left, left, left, left, N t-‘N (pr-‘NH HN I-' left left, 13 left, 34 left, 18 left, 1 4 left, 23 left, 14 left, 14 3 left, 3 right 1 right 12 right 1 right 1 right 1 right 9 right 1 right 18 right 1 right lfigt 13 right 17 right 8 right 5 right 26 right 10 right 1 right 3fl@t 3 indeterminate 249 Table C4 Continued Hypentalium niggicans Quadrate Ceratahyal Ictiobus sp. Pharygneal Maxillary Parasphenoid Catastomus commersonii kafillary Basipterygium. Catostomidae Operculum Pharygneal lepisteus osseus Endopterygoid Dentary Accipenser fulvescens Dermal plates Aplodinotus grunniens Preoperculum Premaxillary Otolith (Inner ear) Pharygneal (Upper) Pharygneal (Lower) Operculum Quadrate Epihyal Ceratahyal Maxillary Dentary Articular Ictalurus melas Coracoid Operculum Hyomandibular Supraethmoid Dentary 1 right 1 indeterminate 1 right 1 right 3 1 right 1 left 1 left 2 left, 2 right 1 left 3 left 66 fragments 1 left 4 left, 7 right 6 "A”, 4 ”B” 2 right 2 left, 4 right 7 left, 4 right 1 right 1 right 2 right 1 left, 2 right 1 left, 2 right 1 right 3 left , 8 right 2 left, 7 right 1 left, 1 right 1 1 left 250 Table C4 Continued Ictalurus natalis or nebulosus Coracoid 4 left, 9 right Post-temporal 1 left Hyomandibular 4 left, 7 right Supraethmoid 6 Operculum. 14 left, 5 right Ictalurus punctatus Dentary 17 left, 9 right Premaxillary 6 left Operculum. 31 left, 30 right Quadrate 16 left, 10 right Epihyal 1 left, 2 right Ceratahyal 4 left, 4 right Articular 6 left, 10 right Palatine 5 left, 4 right Pectoral spines 9 left, 8 right Coracoid 9 left, 6 right Cleithrum 7 left, 5 right 'Maxillary 1 left, 4 right Post-temporal 2 left, 1 right Frontal 6 left, 1 right Supraethmoid 8 Parasphenoid 3 Hyomandibular 15 left, 10 right Pylodictis olivaris Ceratahyal Ictalurus sp. 1 right Dentary 113 left, 113 right Premaxillary 7 left, 1 right Quadrate 5 left, 17 right Epihyal 4 left, 1 right Articular 1 right Operculum. 2 left Ceratahyal 7 left, 13 right Misc. Elements 1 indeterminate Ictalurus sp. Tiemexillary 1 right Ceratahyal 2 left Articular 1 right Dentary 3 left, 2 right Ictalurus sp. Dentary Premaxillary 5 left, 9 right 2 left, 3 right Table C4 Continued Quadrate Operculum Pectoral spine Articular Epihyal Ceratahyal Palatine Cleithrum Coracoid Hyomandibular Post-temporal Preoperculuml Urohyal Supraethmoid Frontal Parasphenoie WEberian.process Misc. Elements Ambloplites rgpestris Supracleithrum Micrgpterus sp. Pharygneal Quadrate Epihyal Articular Suboperculum Supracleithrum Dentary Premaxillary Operculum Scapula Famillary Frontal Cleithrum Parasphenoid Interoperculum Suboperculum Palatine Preoperculum Hyomandibular Post-temporal Misc . Elements Esox lucius Dentary Ikemexillary Quadrate Ceratahyal Supramaxillary 251 H '—l U‘IbmeWF-‘O‘NHMHHJ-‘OH bowl—‘N H PJPJGDU1 left, 9 right left, 8 right left, 95 right left, 36 right left, 9 right left, 4 right left, 1 right left, 109 right left, 24 right left, 24 right left, 7 right left, 2 right indeterminate 1 right indeterminate left left, 1 right left, 9 right left, 4 right left, 7 right 1 right left, 3 right left, 21 right left, 7 right left, 6 right left left, 2 right left, 2 right left, 14 right left left, 2 right left, 1 right left, 9 right left, 4 right left, 5 right indeterminate left, 6 right left, 6 right left, 1 right left, 3 right 2 right 252 Table C4 Continued Esox sp. Articular Hyomandibular Parasphenoid Cleithrum Frontal Misc. Elements Operculum Quadrate Ceratahyal Den Premaxillary Supramaxillary Parasphenoid Hyomandibular Cleithrum Misc. Elements Roccus chrysqps Dentary Quadrate Maxillary Premaxillary Ceratahyal Articular Cleithrum Hyomandibular Parasphenoid Preoperculum Pomoxis sp. Ceratahyal Quadrate Hyomandibular Pest-temporal Dentary Preoperculum iMaxillary Cleithrum Suboperculum Operculum: Misc. Elements wep- Urohyal Supracleithrum Parasphenoid Dentary Premaxillary lO 5...: HHHOD mHm NNWGWU‘IWHl—‘HO 16 left, 16 right left, 2 right left, 1 right 2 right indeterminate left left, 10 right left, 2 right left, 7 right left, 5 right left, 3 right left, 8 right left, 13 right indeterminate left, 6 right left, 10 right left left, 2 right 1 right left, 5 right left, 3 right left left, 4 right left, 8 right left, 1 right left, 4 right left left, 1 right left, 5 right left, 5 right left, 17 right left, 2 right left, 2 right indeterminate indeterminate 3 right 16 right left 253 Table C4 Continued Quadrate 1 left Operculum 26 left, 19 right Ceratahyal 2 left Hyomandibular 5 left , 1 right Interoperculum 4 left, 5 right Pharygneal 1 right (Upper) Pharygneal 1 right (Lower) Articular 1 left Preoperculum 43 left , 33 right Cleithrum 17 left, 22 right Centrarchidae Qaudrate 1 left , 1 right Operculum 3 left, 5 right Articular 1 left, 4 right Interoperculum 2 left , 2 right Post-temporal l indeterminate Suboperculum l indeterminate Preoperculum 1 right Parasphenoid l Basipterygium 1 left Misc. Elements 23 indeterminate Amia calva Ceratahyal 1 right Operculum 7 left , 3 right Fotopterygoid 5 left, 2 right Prevomer 2 left , 1 right Premaxillary 1 left, 1 right Frontal 3 left, 1 right Articular 1 left Maxillary 1 right Dentary 7 left, 4 right Brachiostegal 1 right Palatine 1 left Supracleithrum 1 left, 1 right Post-temporal 4 left, 4 right Hyomandibular 1 left, 2 right Cleithrum 1 left, 6 right Oular 6 left Suboperculum 4 left, 2 right Paraspheioid 2 Misc. Eleneits 92 indeterminate Hiodon sp. Deitary 1 left BIBLICERAPHY BIBLImRAPHY Anderson, A. C. e_t_. a_1_ 1927 Soil survey of Winnebago Co. , Wisconsin. United States De— partment of Agriculture Series 1927, Number 31. Baker , Frank C. 1928 The freshwater mollusca of Wisconsin. Part II Pelecypoda. The University of Wisconsin Press. Baker, Rollin H. 1983 Michigan mammals. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing, Michigan. Belonger, B. J. 1969 Aquatic plant survey of the major lakes in the Fox River (Illinois) watershed. 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