A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF A COLIEGE READING
PROGRAM UPON GRADE- POINT AVERAGE IN
ODESSA COLLEGE, ODESSA, TEXAS

Thesis For Ihe Degree cf Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Imcgane Johns Freer
I965

THESIS

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LIBRARY

Michigan Stato
University

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled
A STUDY CF THE EFFECT CF A CCLLEGE READING
PROGRAM UPC‘N GRADE-POINT AVERAGE IN
ODESSA COLLEGE, CDESSA, TEXAS

presented by

Imogene Johns Freer

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D degree mm" [1

 

‘- Wprofessor

 

Date AuSuSt 30; 1965

 

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A STUDY CF THE EFFECT CF A COLLEGE READING
PROGRAM UPON GRADE-POINT AVERAGE IN

ODESSA CCLLEGE, CDESSA, TEXAS

BY

Imogene Johns Freer

AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1965

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ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF A COLLEGE READING
PROGRAM UPON GRADE-POINT AVERAGE IN
ODESSA COLLEGE, ODESSA, TEXAS

By Imogene Johns Freer

The problem of this study is to determine the effec-
tiveness of the developmental reading program in Odessa
Junior College, Odessa, Texas by making a comparison of
- the grade-point averages for one academic year, l963-6h,
of forty matched pairs of students. One group of forty
students had reading instruction and is referred to as tne
experimental group. The control group had no reading in-
struction.

The purpose of this study is to formulate conclusions
while answering these basic questions:

1. Do students who take a reading course make bet-
ter grade averages than those who do not have
reading instruction if they have initially the
same ability?

2. Are there any sex differences with reapect to
the number of males or females who take a read-
ing course?

3. Do students who take a reading course show a
substantially higher percentile gain than those

who have not had such a course?

- 2 -

- 3 -
IMO GENE JO HNS FREE.

h. Are the students who take reading able to retain

the gains achieved over a long period of time?

The experimental pepulation was drawn from a total avail-
able freshman pOpulation of five hundred and ninety students
who took college entrance examinations in the fall of 1963.
Out of this pepulation, two hundred and ninety-three students
attended Odessa College for at least two semesters. The forty
pairs, the experimental and control groups, were chosen from
this population.

The forty pairs were matched on five variables: initial
reading score, SCAT score, class load, age, and sex. The
groups appeared to be very similar and were able to be com-
pared.

The students in the eXperimental group enrolled in a
one-semester, one-credit course called English III which em-
phasized the improvement of reading skills as well as the
attainment of self-confidence, through the formation of a
better self-concept. The control group had no reading train-
ing.

The first statistical technique utilized in the study
was the matched pairs "t" test to determine the significance
of the mean difference between the experimental and the con-
trol groups in terms of grade averages. The "t" test was se-
lected because the data could be construed to have met most

of the assumptions associated with a parametric test.

 

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The second statistical method selected was the chi
square to test the hypothesis concerning the number of males
versus females enrolled in a reading course. This method
was chosen because the hypothesis under test concerned a com-
parison of observed frequencies in discrete categories.

As an adjunct to the study twenty—three students who had
taken reading and thirty-six students who had not taken read-
ing were compared in terms of percentile gain scores in com-
prehension, vocabulary, rate, and total score on the Nelson-
Denny Reading Test. This test was given initially in the
fall of 1963 and again in the spring of 1965. The first pur-
pose was to determine whether or not students who tak read-
ing retain their gains over a long period of time. The sec-
ond purpose was to discover whether or not student who do not
take reading improve their skills by virtue of simply attend-
ing school.

The major conclusions found in this study are presented
as follows:

1. The mean difference in grade-point average was sig-

nificantly higher for the experimental group.

2. There was no statistical significance in the number
of males versus females who took the reading course
in preportion to the population.

3. Students who take reading make higher percentile

gain scores on comprehension, vocabulary, rate, and

- 5 ..
IMCGENE JOHNS FRESH

total score as measured by the Nelson-Denny Reading

 

Test.

 

Students who take reading tend to retain most of the
gains made in the reading scores for a period of at

least one year.

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF A COLLEGE READING
PROGRAM UPON GRADE-POINT AVERAGE IN
ODESSA COLLEGE, ODESSA, TEXAS
BY

Imogene Johns Freer

A THES IS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1965

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

 

My grateful appreciation:
To my guidance committee chairman, Dr. Harold J.
Dillon, for his extreme kindness, wise counsel-
ing, encouragement, and also for the enthusias-
tic contribution of his ideas and time.
To the members of the guidance committee, Dr.
Max Smith, Dr. Charles Hoffer, and Dr. George
Meyers for their wise counseling and support.
To the president of Odessa College, Dr. Jack
Rodgers, for his c00peration and wise guidance.
To the Dean of Admissions, Odessa College, Odessa,
Texas for aid in securing data for the study.
To the students of Odessa College who were so will-
ing to contribute their time.
To Lois Jahr, my typist and friend, for invaluable
aid and encouragement.
To my husband, child, and mother who made advanced

graduate study possible.

-11-

CCNTENTS
Page
A CIR“! CE.JLELGE1;1\ELI ’PS 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O i 1
LIST OF TAIjLES O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O V
CHAPTER
I. STATEIVIENT CI? 111-]? PROBLEIVIO e o o o o o o e o l
Del-imitations O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1
Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SCOpe of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . 9
Part I --
Introduction . . . . . . . . . 9
The Relationship of Reading Ability
and Academic Success . . . . . . . . lO
Relation of Ability to Grade- Point
Average 0 O I C O O O O O O O I O I 19
Relation of Ability to Reading . . . . . . 20
Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
summary 0 C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 23
Part II --
Characteristics of College Reading
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Studies of Specific Reading Programs . . . 20
summary 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O “-8
Part III --

Reading Training and Academic Success . . . 51
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 61

III. DES 1G1: CF TdE STUBY O O O O O I O O O C O 0 70

The Null Hypotheses o o o o o o o o o o o 0 7O

- iii -

-1v-

CCNTE NTS (Continued)

 

Page
CHAPTER
The Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Tests and Testing Procedure . . . . . . . 71
Reading Course at Odessa College . . . . . 78
Methods of Statistical Analyses . . . . . Bl

IV. ANALYSIS CF THE FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . 81

+-

Matched Pair "t" Test . . . . . . . . . . 8h

The Chi Square Test . . . . . . . 6b
Interpretation of the Findings . . . . . bb
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . 96

Summary of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . 98
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Educational Implications . . . . . . . . . 103

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 106

 

II.

III.

VI.

VII.

LIST OF TABLES

 

SCAT SCORES, CLASS-
RCR FORTY MATCHED

LOAD, SEX, AND

READING RAW s 0013;
AGE
PAIRS . . . . . .

MEAN AGE AND CLASS LOAD (NUMBER OF
SEMESTER HOURS) OF STUDENTS ENROLLED
AND NOT ENROLLED IN READING . . . . . .

MEAN SCAT AND READING RAW SCORES CF
STUDENTS ENROLLED AND NOT ENROLLED
IN READmG. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

GRADE-POINT AVERAGES AND DIF‘ERENCES
FOR EACH STUDENT IN THE FORTY'MATCHED
PAIIKS. O O O O O O O O O C O O C C C O

OBSERVED AND EXPECTED FREQUENCIES CF
MALES AND FEMALES ENROLLED AND NOT
ENROLLED IN REC-‘ADDJG O O O O O O O O O O

iEAN GRADE-POINT AVERAGE FOR FORTY
MATCHED PAIRS OF MALES AND FEMALES
ENROLLED AND NOT ENROLLED IN READING .

lEAN GAIN SCORES FOR STUDENTS EN-
RCLLED AND NOT ENROLLED IN READING

ON THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST
GIVEN TWO 'EARS AFTER INITIAL TEST . .

 

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72

75

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55

89

89

91

 

The purl
tivaness of ‘
Junior Colle.
grade point a
fcrzy matcne-
dents had a 1
ferred to as
30 reading 1;

The dat;

reading abil

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31:
III. The
at:

ter.

CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of this study was to determine the effec-
tiveness of the Deve10pmental Reading Program in Odessa
Junior College, Odessa, Texas by making a comparison of the
grade point averages for one academic year, 1963-64, of
forty matched pairs of students. One group of forty stu-
dents had a develOpmental reading course and will be re-
ferred to as the experimental group. The control group had
no reading instruction.

The data were available also to show sex differences in
reading ability and reading achievement. As an adjunct to
the study, gains in reading achievement between a group of
students who had reading and those who had not were reported.
Qelimitations

I. This study was confined to forty students who took

a develOpmental reading course and forty who did
not take a reading course.

II. The investigation involved a one-year period be-

ginning in September, 1963 and ending in May, 196A.

III. The p0pulation.was selected from two hundred and

ninety-three entering college freshmen who had at-

tended Odessa College for at least two semesters.

- 1 -

Rationale

Americans in all walks of life are finding it increas-
ingly difficult to do all of the reading required of them in
the normal course of their daily lives. New knowledge is
emerging at a rate never before dreamed of, and published ma-
terials are increasing so rapidly that professional people,
tradespeople, and citizens generally who seek to keep abreast
of current developments are overwhelmed by the volume of read-
ing required of them.

Bracken says the answer to the question "Why teach read-
ingiin college?" may be found in a consideration of the fol-
lowing: (1) the reading burden of college freshmen, (2) the
reading ability of entering freshmen, and (3) the offerings
of college reading courses. (17:52)

Some ten years ago only five or six libraries in America
had over a million volumes. During the past six years many
others have Joined the ranks of libraries with "a million-
plus” volumes.

The students' reading burden is only partially indicated
in a brief glance at the explosion cf knowledge and at sta-
tistics on libraries. Walter J. Pauk says that today's stu-
dents are confronted with a reading task which differs de-
cidedly from that which students faced only a decade ago.
(78zhh) No longer are reading assignments confined to a sin-
gle traditional text. Today, the selected text is only the

beginning. The student must "run" to stay abreast of fast-

- 3 -
develoPing fields and areas by riffling through stacks of
journals, magazines, newspapers, theses, bulletins, and mi-
crofilms which contain the findings of research from vari-
ous parts of the world.

Shaw and Townsend point out that many college texts are
several levels beyond the independent reading level of the
student. (91:30) The texts may also be poorly written and
lacking in typographical aids. The college reader must ad-
just to his new found reading freedom, that is to say, he
suddenly finds himself confronted with problems of selection
and choice as well as problems of organization and assimila-
tion. Even though he has syllabi which should serve as
guides, these aids vary to such an extent that the student
is still very much on his own without immediate direction.
These reading problems are difficult for freshmen to solve
in fields wherein they have some background, but they often
become impossible blocks to learning when the student is in-
volved with subject matter which is completely unfamiliar to
him.

'What are the reading abilities of entering college fresh-
men? Carter has reported at Western.Michigan‘University,
sixty-one per cent of 1,029 students completing their fresh-
men year in college reported that their high school teachers
had provided no opportunity to improve their reading skills.
(20:156) Sixty-eight per cent reported that they had never

been taught how to read a chapter effectively, and seventy

- u -
per cent indicated that they had not been taught to concen-
trate upon a reading activity. Sixty-four per cent had not
been shown how to develOp an awareness of problems, and sev-
enty per cent had not been taught how to critically evaluate
a writer's bias and use of preconceived ideas.

Hadley estimated that ninety-five per cent of college
entrants lack adequate study skills and reported that a rel-
atively small per cent have reading speeds and comprehension
skills adequate for handling all college assignments, while
a great proportion are weak in notetaking. (36:353) Halfter
and Douglass carefully tested and studied their entering
freshmen for eight years. (37:h2) As a result of their stud-
ies they concluded that two-thirds of their entering college
freshmen lack reading skills required for academic success.
In a comprehensive survey of college reading, Shaw pointed
out that reading deficiencies are prevalent among college
freshmen; estimates run from sixty-four to ninety-five per
cent. (90:336-354)

Seashore says that junior college freshmen generally

are not as able in the areas measured by The College Quali-

 

fications Tests as the four-year or senior college freshmen.
(88:7h-80) The following statements are given concerning
this assumption:
1. The median score for junior college freshmen is
near the twenty-fifth percentile for senior col-

lege freshmen.

-5-

2. About twenty-four per cent of junior college women
are above the reapective medians for freshman in
four-year colleges.

3. There is a considerable overlap of scores. These
distributions tell us that there are many junior
college students whose scores would be considered
superior in senior colleges, and many low-scoring
senior college freshmen.would also rate low in jun-
ior colleges.

h. The difference in favor of the four-year student is
slightly greater for women than for men.

The data do not mean that junior colleges should "run
fast" to raise their admissions standards to the level of the
typical senior college. Different colleges have distinctly
different purposes and serve different clientele. Each col-
lege must decide for itself where its average and range of
scores ought to be in relation to its own.well-considered ob-
jectives and reaponsibilities.

Colleges, both junior and senior, have seriously consid-
ered the needs of students and have designed programs for im-
proving reading skills. (17:5h) In 1960, Shaw found that four
hundred out of nineteen hundred colleges in the nation offered
reading programs, whereas, a decade ago, only a few colleges
were affording such services. (90:h9)

There are few investigations reported in the literature

which have challenged the value of college reading instruction.

-6-
Eller stated that one of the most carefully planned experi-
ments was one reported by McDonald who compared groups of
students who had taken the reading course at Cornell Univer-
sity with matched groups who had not taken reading training.
(27:198) McDonald found that students who had taken reading
instruction had a higher grade point average than his control
group and were less likely to drop out of college than were
either the controls or their classmates not involved in the
experiment.

It is obvious that skillful use of reading as a tool is
necessary for academic success in college. Instructors on
the college and adult level have generally depended upon
other teachers to equip their students with all the neces-
sary skills in reading. The eXpectation that students en-
tering freshman science will be able to read that subject
adequately is based upon a false conception of reading. A
person does not learn to read once and for all, however com-
petent and complete the materials. Different levels and dif-
ferent subjects demand varying skills in reading.

Few people read at the rate and on the level of compre-
hension of which they are capable. Yet with competent help
and systematic effort, most people can improve their reading
ability substantially. This is a real challenge for college
and adult education in these times.

Scope of the Study

The influence of reading instruction upon academic suc-

cess in subjects which are designated as "solids" at Odessa

_ 7 -

College was investigated in this study. A "solid" subject
is defined as one which carries three semester hours of
credit or more. For the most part they are required sub-
jects such as English, history, mathematics, chemistry, bi-
ology, languages, etc.; however some are electives. Courses
carrying only one semester hour of credit such as physical
education, choir, develOpmental reading, drama, etc. were
excluded.

The plan of the study was to provide answers to three

basic questions:

1. Do students who take a developmental reading course
make better grade averages than those who do not
take a reading course if they have initially the
same ability?

2. Are there any sex differences with respect to the
number of males or females who take a reading course?

3. Do students who take a reading course show a sub-
stantially higher percentile gain than those who
have not had such a course?

The specific null hypotheses will be given in Chapter

III. A review of the literature is given in Chapter II, the
design of the study is discussed in Chapter III, an analysis
of the findings reported in Chapter IV and, finally, the sum-
mary, conclusions and implications are given in Chapter V.
Definition of Terms ‘

READING ABILITY -- In this study reading ability is used

- 8 -
to describe a person who possesses all of the characteris-
tics which enables him to perform well on standardized read-
ing tests.

READING TRAINING -- Reading training,as employed in this
study, refers to group reading improvement activities offered
within the framework of the course described in Chapter III
of this report.

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT -- Academic achievement refers to
scholastic performance as measured by a commonly used criter-
ion, the grade-point average.

DEVELOPMENTAL READING -- A reading course designed for
improvement of reading skills, regardless of level of ability.

REMEDIAL READING -- A reading course especially designed
for retarded readers.

SOLID ACADEMIC COURSE -- This term is used to designate
a course carrying three semester hours or more which may be

either a required or an elective subject.

CHAPTER II

 

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
PART I

Introduction

 

A considerable number of research studies have been re-
ported through the years concerning Specific reading programs,
participants, and descriptions of the programs in general.

Many of these programs reported obtaining indications
of advantage or gain for those participating in the respec-
tive programs. Procedures used in different programs and
methods of evaluating effectiveness of programs varied con-
siderably. Use of standardized tests was indicated for a
number of programs. In a number of reports the obtained re-
sults of pre- and post-test scores of each of the individuals
in a given program were listed. In some, scores were pre-
sented in terms of quartiles and medians. In other reports,
a detailed discussion of test results was to be found.

The studies selected for inclusion in this review of
literature are primarily research studies dealing with top-
ics pertinent to the relationship of reading instructiOn to
academic achievement. The literature which appeared relevant
to the problem being studied will be presented using the fol-
lowing organization: Reading Ability and Academic Success,
Characteristics of College Reading Programs, and Reading

Training and Academic Success.

- 9 _

_ 10 -
.$E° Relationship of ReadingAbility_and Academic Success

The belief that reading ability is an outstanding fac-
tor in college success has been implicit in the treatment of
college reading problems. However, the absolute necessity
for establishing this relationship on a sound quantitative
basis did not become apparent until such work had been done
on the lower levels. (110:6) Dorris May Lee reported a
study in 1933 concerning the achievement of pupils in grades
four, five, and six. (h8zl-6h) Another study with students
on a ninth grade level was made by Eva Bond in 1938. (15:57)
She concluded that reading abilities, as measured by stan-
dardized tests, are highly related to achievement in liter-
ary areas; and they are not as highly related to achievement
in other subject matter areas.

Witty and Lehman stated in 1927 that they had encoun-
tered many college students who read slowly and comprehended
little. (109zh8) Book also found students to be so defi-
<nent in the ability to read that there was no reason to ex-
pect students to succeed in academic work until the reading
deficiency was made up. (16:2h3) Several years later Parr
noted that many educators believe that mastery of many college
courses depends in large measure upon the ability to read
textbook material adequately. (7hz32u) Anderson and Dear-
born observed that in light of the prominent part that text-

books play in college instruction, it seems obvious that

- 11 -
there should be a close relationship between reading ability
and college achievement. (3:387)

In l9h8, Witty summarized the findings by stating the
following: (1) scholastic success correlates closely with
ability to read; (2) successful students are usually good
readers; (3) poor students often lack real competence in
reading; and (u) frequently, mentally superior students make
surprisingly poor scholastic records because of their inabil-
ity to read. (108:9-10) In this discussion Witty noted that
the reported coefficients of correlation vary widely, but
that a large majority fall between thirty and fifty. The
wide variation was probably due to the unreliability of col-
lege grades as well as by the fact that all reading tests do
not choose to measure the same abilities.

Experimental work in the relationship between reading
and achievement appears to support the views expressed above.
One such study was made by Garrett in an extensive review of
studies seeking to isolate the factors in scholastic achieve-
ment. (31:102-103) Garrett cited ten studies made between
the years 1929 to l9h5 which relate to the problem. Reported
correlations range from .25 to .67, with a median of .38.
Numerous other studies have also reported results falling
essentially within this range.

In a report published in 1941, Anderson and Dearborn
made a study of college freshmen. (3:387) Their report

sought to take into account the factor of intelligence in

- 12 -

arriving at a true relationship between college ability and
college success. They found that both reading ability and
intelligence could affect scholarship, and since intelligence
is considered to be the more general factor, it is possible
that it could be a major influence in both academic achieve-
ment and the ability to read. The question was "Do such dif-
ferences in reading ability as vary independently of intel-

 

ligence affect scholarship?"

In order to find an answer to this problem, Anderson
and Dearborn studied sixty-eight pairs of Harvard freshmen
matched on the basis of intelligence but differing in schol-
arship. They found that there was Still a positive relation-
ship between reading ability and college achievement even
when only such differences as vary independently of intel-
ligence are considered. They noted further that the results
were sufficient to justify attention to reading at the col-
lege level.

Results obtained by Mose in his investigation, involv-
ing college entrance examination and other data and social
studies test scores of approximately four thousand freshmen,
led him to conclude that objective test data were more use-
ful in determining academic success in social studies courses
than were high school social studies grades or numbers and
kinds of social studies courses taken in high school. (65:
2032-2033) Results obtained in Kim's prediction study in-
dicated that study habits among other non-intellectual factors,

- 13 -
as well as academic aptitude played a significant role in
determining college grades. (h6:150)

Ahmann, Smith, and Glock found that Browns-Boltzman
Stggy'Skill Habits and Attitudes scores could be withdrawn
from a regression equation used for predicting first semes-
ter grade-point averages of a sample of Cornell freshmen
without significantly weakening or lessening the prediction
efficiency of the equation. (2:857) They reported finding
the discriminating power (between upper and lower groups) of
most of the items "quite satisfactory." Metzger reported
finding that the COOperative English Test, CZ, scores could
be used to distinguish men most likely to achieve satisfac-
tory first semester grade-point ratios. (63:2020)

Calia used a discriminant analysis technique in a study
to predict membership of Boston University Junior College
freshmen in "failure," "terminal," or "transfer" groups. (19:
18h-190) He inferred, on the basis of his findings, that
students lacking in spelling and grammar skills need not be
hindered in attaining academic success if they possess ver-
bal aptitude for academic learning. However, it appeared
that students who had poor verbal reasoning ability would
be likely to experience some academic failure even if they
possessed verbal mechanical skills. Tiedeman, in a criti-
cism of Calia's study and of the discriminant analysis tech-
nique, maintained that some variables in Calia's study "were
not given a chance to discriminate;" but he felt that a def-

inite relationship of academic performance with scholastic

- 1h -
aptitude and scientific and literary preference was indicated.
(105:190-192)
D'Amico, Bryant, and Prahl found a verbal comprehension

factor in the Multiple Aptitude Tests to contribute signifi—

 

cantly to prediction of academic success of Flint Junior Col-
lege students in biology, psychology, foreign language, Eng-
lish composition, general business and drawing. (25:611-616)

Newton did a case study of ten of the most severely re-
tarded readers in a Bennet College reading program. (69:497-
h99) Indications were found which tend to influence verbal
skill of certain sections of the country. Some of these were
socio-economic family background, limited cultural eXperiences,
small high schools, rural background, and poor and limited
language patterns of adults in the environment.

Stewart found a positive relationship between ”logic
test" scores and reading comprehension and verbal ability
test scores. (98:289-292) In a study of fifteen hundred
teachers evaluated as to "unemployability," fourteen failed
the verbal part of the fundamental skills test, and sixteen
had participated in remedial-writing courses. (30:53-5h)

Cummiskey found the reading ability of college students
to be a significant factor with respect to final test scores
in a general psychology course. (24:281) Hotchkiss found
that vocabulary test scores discriminated significantly
among "job applicants," "poor supervisors," and "better su-

pervisors.” (h0:12h7) A significant tendency toward higher

-15-
scores on vocabulary tests as amount of education of volun-
teer applicants at the Minnesota State Employment Agency in-
creased was also noted. (41:12h7-h8)

Centi investigated differences between highest and low-
est ranking School of Education students of a large urban
university. (21:102-105) He found the highest group to be
significantly superior to the lowest group on all the scores

of the Cooperative English Test (including the various read-

 

ing scores). He also found the highest ranking group to be
significantly superior with reSpect to the various scores
obtained with the California Test of Mental Maturity. Lunn
found that the greater the reading comprehension (among sev-
eral skills) of two hundred and forty-five students in three
sequential professional education courses, the greater the
success in those courses was apt to be. (52:1hO9-lhll) A
similar relationship was found with reapect to scholastic
aptitude. Neville made several comparisons of good and poor
readers who were successful academically and those who were
unsuccessful. (68:3525-3526) Among conclusions he drew was
that reading ability influences reading test scores more
than academic success. He based his conclusion on the find-
ing that a group of average readers who had failed academ-
ically had mean scores consistently higher than a group of
poor readers who had succeeded academically. Results ob-
tained when he compared successful poor readers and failing

poor readers who had participated in a reading clinic program

-16..
indicated that the failing group differed significantly on
most test scores; however, Neville found that prediction of
success or failure among poor readers could be made with only
"limited accuracy."

In a study of four hundred and ten Newark College of En-
gineering students, it was found that sixty-seven students
held back for scholastic reasons or transferred to an evening
division had higher mean reading comprehension scores than
did the entire entering class. (82:38-83) Wesley found that
the high achievers in a group of freshmen enrolled in the
College of Arts and Sciences, when compared with low achiev-
ers, were "able to take examinations with more confidence,"
"study better without problems of concentrating," and "used
their time more advantageously which allowed time for study."
(106:154-155) Ikenberry compared two hundred and fifty stu-
dents who remained for a full academic year at Michigan State
University with three hundred and three students who had en-
tered the same class but who had drOpped out within the year.
(h2:322-329) He found scores on a reading test to be posi-
tively related to all three of the significantly different
functions or areas found between the two groups of students
(the intellective or achievement function being one of those
areas).

Sweeney found no statistically significant relationship
between the amount of high school English and either fall or

Spring semester grades in freshmen or remedial English. (102:

- 17 _
2640-26hl) She found that reading proficiency actually had
more bearing than any other single factor upon success in
English beyond the freshman year and in determining whether
or not a student needed to take remedial English during his
freshman year. Reading proficiency was also found to be the
most closely related, of any single criterion, with success
in college English. She concluded that her findings indi-
cated that much more emphasis on reading in high school was .needed.

Endler and Steinberg found the reading subtest scores
of the STEP to be more highly correlated with grade-point av-
erages than were other aptitude and achievement test scores
involved in their study; but high school averages were found
to be still better predictors of grade-point averages. (28:
6%;699)

McCord concluded tnat reading and test-taking ability
had perhaps more influence on certain group intelligence tests
than was commonly realized. (56:21h-215) He found that ob-
tained I.Q. scores tended to be higher in the case of groups
or subjects who had participated in an adult course in rapid
reading after the course than such scores were at the begin-
ning or before the course. However, Shein, who also inves-
tigated the influence of reading comprehension and time var-
iables on group intelligence tests at the college level, con-
cluded that timed group intelligence tests are not more valid
indicators of ability for superior readers than for retarded

readers. (92:h275-h276) He further concluded that the validity

- 18 -
of group intelligence tests does not decrease more for re-
tarded readers than for superior readers as time decreases,
and that validity of group intelligence tests was not in-
creased by singling out reading comprehension.
In the years from 1955 to 1960, Guertin, Rabin, Frank,
and Ladd made an intense research study concerning the

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. (38:1-26) They noted that

 

the WAIS was an improvement over other intelligence tests,
but there was still a need for a deeper and broader theoret-
ical framework. Goldman studied the contents of the verbal
portion of the WAIS and the items included in the School and
College Ability Tests (SCAT). (33:51-53) It appears that a
striking similarity exists between at least two correSpond-
ing tasks of each instrument. The corrected correlation of
.89 between the verbal halves of the WAIS and the SCAT which
was obtained in this study strongly suggests these two sets
of test items are measuring very nearly the same abilities.
In fact, when the corrected correlation of .92 between the
WAIS Verbal and the SCAT is noted, the similarity between
the two instruments is all the more apparent.

To test the hypothesis that reading skill is related to
grades, product-moment correlations were computed by Robert-
son and Harrison for first semester freshman grade-point av-

erages and each of four Diagnostic Reading Test subtest

 

scores. (83:258-62) Only vocabulary and total comprehension

scores showed substantial correlation with grades. Using

- 19 _
the computed grade-point average, the standard error of es-
timate was corrected for both the vocabulary score and total
comprehension scores. The standard error of estimate was
corrected for both the vocabulary score and total comprehen-
sion scores. The standard error of estimate was .98 for vo-
cabulary and 1.03 for total comprehension.

Kamman found American College Test scores correlating
higher with Diagnostic Reading Tests scores than with Schol-

astic Aptitude Test scores. (an: 77-86) The American College

 

Test scores were found to be negatively related to amount of
gain achieved in a reading program (relative to comprehension

and vocabulary scores on the Diagnostic ReadinggTests.)

 

Diener emphasized that the relationship between reading
and college success is not a simple one. (26:1692) In an in-
vestigation of over- and under-achievers at the college level,
he found a significant but negative relationship between the
two factors involved.

Krippner made a study of the correlates of reading im-
provement in 1962. (h7:29-39) The main purpose of his in-
vestigation was to determine whether such variables as intel-
ligence, social competence, vocabulary, mental health, socio-
economic status, chronological age, grade placement, and
amount of reading retardation were related to the degree of
improvement manifested in a remedial program.

Relation of Abilityto Grade-Point Average
Krippner found that if the purpose of a remedial pro-

gram were to enroll students who could be eXpected to make

_ 20 -

the most progress, those in the upper grades with high WISC
Verbal and Full Scale I.Q.'s, mental health assets, and ex-
tensive listening vocabularies should be selected. Younger
subjects with mental health liabilities, lower WISC I.Q.'s
and smaller listening vocabularies would not show as rapid
improvement.

Such variables as the degree of retardation, social ma-
turity, and the father's occupational level had the least
predictive value.

Although the Performance I.Q. did not appear to be con-
nected with reading progress, the Verbal I.Q. had a high cor-
relation. The study indicated that the absence of emotional
disturbance and the presence of verbal intelligence can be
fairly effective predictors of the progress to be made by
poor readers in an adequately staffed remedial program.

Stinson and Morrison found the best predictor of grade-
point average for high school seniors was the comprehension
section of the COOperative English Test. (99:108)

Relation of Ability to Reading

Schneyer made a study of the relationship of scholastic
aptitude factors to progress in a college reading course.
(87:261-8) The results indicated that students in the High
Improvement Group (those making the most progress in the read-
ing course) have significantly lower mean SAT verbal scores
than either the Average or Low Improvement Groups. Schneyer

accounted for this by explaining two factors: (1) the High

 

 

 

- 21 -
Improvers achieved the lowest mean total reading test scores
of any of the three groups and (2) both the reading test and
the verbal aptitude test seemed to be measuring similar tasks.

The High Improvers tended to be students who began the
reading course with the lowest mean total reading scores,
therefore, they had the greatest room for improvement. It
was suggested that a develOpmental reading program which re-
sults in real growth in reading skills may also result in in-
creased scores on verbal aptitude tests.

The significance of reading skills for academic achieve-
ment and the relationship of these skills to certain outside
criteria have been explored on numerous occasions and the
plight of the poor reader has been approached from practic-
ally every point of view. Teachers generally concede that
better readers are better students and bear witness to the
old cliche, "Readers are leaders." (89:295)

Sex Differences

 

Another question concerning reading ability and academic
achievement is whether or not there are sex differences. Ac-
cording to Parsley in 1927 Lincoln summarized the findings up
to that time concerning sex differences in achievement and
pointed out such facts as: girls excel consistently in arith-
metic computation; boys are slightly better in arithmetic rea-
soning; girls are somewhat superior in reading rate, spelling,
and handwriting; boys were better in history and geography,
and definitely better in geometry. (76:210-212) Stroud and

_ 22 -

Lindquist, using the Iowa Every Pupil Test of Basic Skills,
showed significant sex differences in achievement favoring
girls in most of the achievement areas studied. (101:657-
667) In 1959, Olson indicated substantial sex differences
in anumber of areas of achievement. (72:257)

Parsley stated that as a result of the findings con-
cerning sex differences, there is an apparent advantage held
by girls. (76:211-212) Studies of school retention indicate
that boys are more often retained in a grade than girls. Yet
educators are also fully aware that there are individual dif-
ferences within the sex groups so that a substantial number
of boys do achieve successfully at expected grade levels.
Whether these differences, if they do exist, are due to the
different maturational rates of the sexes, or to the fact
that teachers seem to favor girls, or to still other factors
is uncertain.

Parsley studied sex_differences between scores in total
I.Qg.Reading Vocabulary, Reading Comprehension, Arithmetic
Reasoning, and Arithmetic Fundamentals. (76:211-212) No sig-
nificant differences between the sexes were found. These re-
sults of most of the earlier studies in which substantial sex
differences in achievement were found to exist.

Gates concluded, in a study of sex differences in read-
ing,that girls' reading ability excelled that of boys. (32:

63) Girls' superiority as a result of earlier maturity seems

- 23 -

unlikely as girls' superiority appears greater in the upper
grades as in the lower grades. The data suggested an envir-
onmental rather than hereditary explanation.

Unfortunately, there seems to be be a lack of research
studies concerning sex differences eSpecially on the higher
levels.

Summary

According to many studies of the relationship of read-
ing ability to academic success in college, there appears
to be a high degree of correlation. Verbal scores seem to
be more highly related to reading ability than non-verbal
scores on tests of ability. In at least one study, verbal
scores on the SCAT seemed to be measuring the same charac-
teristics of intelligence as the Wechsler Intelligence Test.
Therefore, both high verbal scores and intelligence appear
to be good predictors of reading ability.

The comprehension factor in reading appears to be more
highly related to college success than to rate of reading.
Some studies show vocabulary scores to have a rather high
correlation to academic success. These factors appear to
have more influence on curriculums of a humanities type,
with little or no relationship in courses of study heavily
weighted with science and mathematics materials.

There were very few references, eSpecially on the higher
levels, concerning sex differences in achievement. It has

been assumed by most educators that girls usually read better

-21L-
than boys. There appears to be some question about this as-
sumption. More studies should be made before any conclusion
can be reached.

This section has been an attempt to introduce selected
references concerning the relationship between reading abil-
ity and scholastic success. Major findings and authoritative
statements have been presented which are directly relevant

to this study.

-25..
PART II

Characteristics of College ReadinggPrOgrams

There is such a wide diversity of reading services of-
fered throughout the nation that it would be impossible to
describe in specific detail every single pregram now in 0p-
eration. It will be the purpose of this section to list
typical patterns of organization, to describe certain com-
monly employed activities, and to discuss in general terms
the results which have been attributed to reading programs.
In addition, a study of several specific programs was made
and reported.

Organization. Strang, McCullough, and Traxer reported
the results of a survey in 1955 which showed that fifty-
seven thousand students were reported to be taking reading-
improvement courses. (100:55) However, fewer than twenty-
five per cent of these institutions reported an existing
reading program, and only one-third of the total student
population were participating in such a program. The read-
ing-improvement work is offered most frequently in the Eng-
lish department, with education, counseling, and guidance
departments close seconds.

College reading instruction may be given as an intrin-
sic part of the freshman prOgram or on a par with other sub-
jects. Everyone takes it. Classes are sectional according

to the students' initial reading ability. Reading instruction

-26-
may also be offered as a service on a non-credit basis to
any students who want to take advantage of it. Or it may
be required of all students who fall below a certain level
on the reading test given at college entrance.

In content, too, reading instruction in colleges var-
ies widely. In some situations the emphasis is almost ex-
clusively on "speeding your reading;" other programs stress
the deeper interpretation of meaning. There is also a wide
range in comprehensiveness; some programs depend mainly on
the use of several gadgets, while others include instruction
and practice in every aSpect of reading. The multiple-em-
phasis program, which does not concentrate on one reading
skill, such as speed or vocabulary, but helps students to
perform all their diverse reading tasks more efficiently,
is obviously the kind of prOgram that should be widely in-
troduced.

As the result of his study of the origins of reading
improvement programs in American colleges and the develop-
ment of such programs Leedy concluded, in 1959, that read-
ing improvement programs were in a state of flexibility with
regard to methodology, materials, and procedures at present
and that the future missions of reading improvement prOgrams
would be far greater than in the past. (50:2841) Among the
findings obtained by Miller in his extensive questionnaire
survey, with over two hundred schools reSponding, were the

following: that reading courses are offered on a non-credit

- 27 -

basis in over one-half of the schools reSponding; that twenty
to thirty hours of supervised reading practice appeared to be
the general practice; that the most p0pular plan for prOgrams
is basic group practice using workbooks for the whole group,
with such being supplemented by individual practice with me-
chanical aids; that tachistosc0pes and reading accelerators
were the most pOpular mechanical aids; and that the Diagnos-

tic Reading Tests, the Cooperative English Tests, C 2, and

 

the Iowa Silent ReadinggTest were the most frequently used
pre- and post-tests.

Methods and Procedures Used in Reading Programs. Most

 

reading programs, although including a wide variety of pro-
cedures, are logically arranged into three divisions: diag-
nosis, training, and evaluation. (110:25) In many programs
a diagnosis may be attained by use of a battery of tests
which may include oral reading, a vocabulary test, compre-
hension tests (timed and untimed), a visual screening test,
hearing test, study habits inventory, a reading history, and
a personal-information questionnaire. (100:59-60) The re-
sults of these tests are then discussed with each student

in a personal interview. All of these techniques for diag-
nosis may be used or only those selected which apply to the
particular goals of a given program. In an individualized
program obviously a more thorough diagnosis can be made than

in a classroom situation where time is of the essence.

- 28 -

Training activities often include the use of many work-
books and exercises on varying in levels of difficulty. Some
are used to develoP a better reading and speaking vocabulary,
while others are designed to afford practice in reading speed
and comprehension of general material. Exercises and mater-
ials pertaining to the develOpment of structural and phonetic
analyses are also utilized in Specific situations.

Machines or reading devices, as used for materials of
instruction, are found in many college reading programs. In
general, reading films, filmstrips, tachistoscOpes, and read-
ing accelerators are used mainly for motivational purposes.
Most reading authorities agree that these devices should not
be used unless the students have deve10ped sufficient basic
skills and have chiefly a problem of rate.

Studies of Specific ReadingAPrograms

The Reading Program in Kendall College. Frances Oakes,

 

reading consultant at Kendall College, Evanston, Illinois,
says that a developmental reading program should be designed
to increase speed of reading, establish more efficient read-
ing habits, build vocabulary, increase concentration (and
hence comprehension), and develop disciplines relating to
study, note taking, and preparation for examinations. (70:
85—89) At Kendall College, students are introduced to the
reading program during freshman orientation week, during
which time the meaning of their placement scores is explained

and a description of, and introduction to, the reading course

- 29 -
is given. During the first week of classes, the student is
given further tests including an ophthalmographic test which
records on film his Speed of reading, eye span, number and
length of fixations, and regressions. The scores from the
reading portion of the freshman placement test are used for
a vocabulary and comprehension check. A word discrimination
test and an additional Speed test drawn from the student's
regular practice material complete the initial battery.
Through conferences, the student discovers his weaknesses
and discusses any practices which may need Special remedial
attention.

The exercises used in the course are quite simple, con-
sisting for the most part of mimeographedand cross-line ex-
ercises designed to increase Speed and eye-span, to decrease
regressions, to develOp rhythm and phrase reading. Many
courses use machines such as the tachistoscope, the reading
pacer, or the metronoscope to increase reading Speed. These
mechanical devices are interesting to use and provide good
motivation, but they are somewhat remote from the normal read-
ing situation. Although the students who use printed exer-
cises and their own will-power to improve reading may improve
at a slower rate than those subjected to such Speed-up de-

vices as the Harvard Films, there is reason to believe that

 

new reading habits are more easily and permanently retained

when the simpler devices are used.

- 3o -

To be effective, a reading prOgram must be approached
from two points of view -- psychological and linguistic.

Too many reading programs are approached from one or the other
and consequently do not meet the total needs of the student.
The Simple exercises designed to retain reading habits and to
develOp Speed fulfill the psychological need, while attention
to vocabulary development, spelling, and the relationships
between sounds and symbols meets at least some of the lin-
guistic needs.

A final ophthalmographic check at the end of the course
reveals the bad habits that have been overcome and the ones
which still need attention.

On the average, one can expect the student to double his
Speed by the end of the first month and triple it by the end
of the third. By the end of the course, one can eXpect to
Show up to fifteen per cent increase in comprehension as a
result of improved concentration and expansion of vocabulary.
Some students, who show a high level of comprehension at the
beginning, simply maintain that level.

The increased amount of reading which a well-trained
student will be able to do will not only aid him to become
a better student but will give him a better chance at job
success, increased knowledge, and lasting personal pleasure
and satisfaction.

Reading Program at Syracuse University. William D.

Sheldon reports that Syracuse University has had a reading

_ 31 -
program for many years. The classes are now taught by grad-
uate students who are studying for degrees in education and
psychology. (93:hh-h6) These instructors participate in a
seminar in reading on the college level before teaching
the course. The basic purpose of the seminar is to develop
in the instructors as complete an understanding as possible
of the aims and procedures of the remedial course.

The students attending the course are drawn from three
separate segments of the University population. In the first
and largest group are those whose post-entrance examinations
reveal weaknesses in reading and in various content areas.
They are required to enroll in the course by the deans and
directors of the various colleges and schools. They usually
attend the course in the first semester of their freshman
year. The second large group is made up of students who have
been placed on probation because of academic deficiencies.
The third group is composed of volunteers from all four of
the undergraduate classes who want to improve their already
adequate scholastic status.

In addition to attending classes three times a week for
a semester, each student meets with his instructor for indi-
vidual counseling sessions. Each section is organized on the
basis of general and Specific needs of the students enrolled.
A general diagnosis of all students based on the results of
a series of tests precedes most of the activity of the class.

The Ohio State PsycholOgical Examination is used to assess

_ 32 -
the ability of each student, and the results of this examin-
ation, taken on entrance to the University, are available to
the instructor. Scholastic Achievement is also appraised at

entrance through the COOperative Test Battery, which includes

 

tests of mathematics, science, and social studies. Reading

is surveyed by the COCperative Reading Test and the Iowa Si-

 

lent Reading Test. The study skills of the student are as-

 

sessed by the Syracuse University Reading and Study Skills

 

Inventory. From a study of these general diagnostic instru-

 

ments, the student and teacher gain an understanding of the
student's status, his potential ability, and the areas in
which the greatest effort must be made to compensate for or
to eliminate his inadequacies. In many instances, however,
it has been found that these measures fail to reveal areas
of inadequacy which handicap the student. If the instructor
and the student are dissatisfied with the general diagnosis,
a more individual diagnostic program is set up.

In general, the major survey is completed within the
first two weeks of the course. On the basis of its results
the class proceeds to tackle the problems of general and
specific importance. The individual diagnosis, however, of-
ten takes a whole semester. It sometimes leads to individ-
ual tutoring of those drastically handicapped in reading and
study skills, to therapeutic counseling or to vocational
counseling for students who are handicapped in academic or
vocational areas by emotional or personality disturbances.

The therapy needed is often given concomitantly with the

_ 33 -
reading and study-skills course. Sometimes, however, the
course work is suSpended and therapy substituted.

Reading, as a major activity of study and also as a more
or less acceptable approach to the group's problem, receives
first attention. An attempt is made to give each student an
approach to reading in general as well as a view of Specific
areas of difficulty.

Because rate offers dramatic and rapid changes in basic
performance and therefore presents convincing evidence to a
student that something can be done to aid him, exercises and
instruction aimed at the improvement of reading rate precede
other instruction. The flexible rate of a skilled reader is
demonstrated by showing that the rate is adjusted to the
reader's purpose, his method of obtaining data, and the dif-
ficulty of the material.

Many varied techniques are used and some help is given
to the student. None of them has seemed appropriate or suf-
ficient when used alone. The related learning skills of con-
centration, reference, reviewing, time scheduling, taking of
examinations, presentation of written assignments, note-tak-
ing, organization, and memorization are discussed, and cer-
tain useful lessons and exercises in each of these skills aid
in giving the student a greater mastery in a weak area.

Whether the classes are conducted non-directively in a
student-centered manner or in a slightly more traditional

fashion, the emphasis on the Student's needs and individual

- 3g -
differences has definite values for the academic and personal
adjustment of the student.

The Reading Program in The University of Chicago. McCaul
has given these objectives for the remedial-training program
in The University of Chicago. (SA-:98-100)

1. To furnish training which will enable certain stu-
dents to read as well as they are mentally capable
of reading, and

2. To offer all students the Opportunity of having
their diagnosed and of receiving suggestions for
improving it.

During Freshman Week in September and periodically during
the school term, the Board of Examinations of the University
administers aptitude and achievement tests to first, second,
and third year students in the College. The battery includes
the American Council on Education Psychological Examination
and test appraising non-verbal intelligence, vocabulary, words
in context, reading comprehension, logical reasoning, writing
skills, and subject-matter achievement. The results are used
for guidance and placement.

After the Board of Examinations has administered and
scored the tests, the percentile ranks which the students
have earned are sent to the remedial-reading teacher who picks
out the names of prOSpective trainees. The following kinds of
students are likely to be chosen:

1. Those whose nonverbal-test scores are forty or more

percentile ranks higher than their verbal-test

scores 0

-35-

2. Students who Score high on the American Council
Psychological Examination and low on reading and
vocabulary tests.

3. Students in the lowest quartile on all tests.

The reading weaknesses run the gamut from slow Speed to
illogical reasoning. Students generally fall into one of
four overlapping categories: superficial readers, those who
cannot organize printed materials nor discriminate between
what is important and what is unimportant, slow readers, and
those with inferior word-recognition skills. These weaknesses
are usually complicated by a meager vocabulary and a chronic
dislike for reading.

Few published workbooks and manuals are used. However,
c0pies are available for supplementary use. Ordinarily, the
materials are the textbooks which the students are studying
in their courses.

The results of the remedial reading program demonstrate
that students on the average gain twenty percentile ranks in
vocabulary, thirty percentile ranks in comprehension, and one
hundred and ten words a minute in speed. Remedial reading
students tend to get higher marks than do students matched
with them by reading deficiencies but who have not asked for
remedial instruction. This superiority could be produced by
a host of uncontrolled influences, and might not be attrib-
uted to remedial reading. It is logical, for example, to

postulate that a student who takes the training is more con-

 

-36-
scientious and industrious than an equally poor reader who
does not choose to avail himself of remedial-reading services.
The data do justify a generalization that any student who is
willing to apply himself diligently to the training can im-
prove his reading.

At the end of every quarter of the school year, the re-
medial teacher sends reports to the advisers of his students.
Each report summarizes a student's reading weaknesses, out-
lines possible causes, enumerates the remedial techniques be-
ing employed, pr0poses ways in which the adviser can COOper-
ate, describes the student's non-reading problems, and pre-
sents the remedial teacher's suggestions for COping with these
problems. These reports bring to the adviser's attention the
common symptoms of reading difficulties and make him more
skillful in identifying students who are in need of remedial
attention.

The success of the program is due to thorough diagnosis,
a painstaking attempt to ferret out the causes of reading dif-
ficulties and to eliminate them, remedial measures focused di-
rectly upon.weaknesses, and carefully planned motivation.

The Cornell University_Reading Improvement Program. Pauk
states that the reading program is a non-credit course and en-
rollment is voluntary. (77:16-22) Each fall the incoming
freshmen are given a battery of tests during Orientation Week.
Included in this batteryare several tests which are used by

the director of the reading program for the purpose of selecting

- 37 -
those students who are eligible to take the reading course.
When the students are thus assembled for testing, a brief
description of the reading course is given by the reading
prOgram personnel. After this talk, the students are asked
to state, in writing, whether they want to take the course.
For the fall reading program, only those freshmen are
considered whose scores on the Speed of comprehension sec-
tion of the COOperative Reading_ComprehenSion Test fall in
in the lowest thirty per cent of the Scores for their school
or college. However, final selection of these students, who
are in the bottom thirty per cent, is made on the basis of a
formula which takes into consideration the scores of the

Scholastic Aptitude Test: (1) scores on the Ohio state Uni-

 

versity ngchological Test and (2) Scores on the Vocabulary

and Speed of Comprehension sections of the COOEQPatlve Eng-

 

lish Testy C2: Reading Comprehension (Higher Level).

The names of the students in the bottom thirty per cent
are made known to the advisers, who talk over the Situation
with the student. Students in the bottom thirty per cent,
who did not make a written request for the course, if they
so desire, after consulting with their advisers.

The Spring prOgram is made up of students from the un-
dergraduate and graduate schools and colleges. This group
is comprised of students who have experienced difficulty with
their college work during the first semester and have come di-

rectly to the reading laboratory for help; and students

-38-
referred by faculty advisers, counselors, and other univer-
sity officials.

It is found that the Optimum results were obtained when
sections were limited to about Sixteen students. These sec-
tions meet for two fifty-minute periods a week for nine weeks.
The balance of the semester is allotted to the holding of con-
ferences with the individual students who feel that they need
further work on some of the aSpectS Of reading during the
class periods.

In the Cornell reading program emphasis is placed on im-
mediate follow-up of a lecture or demonstration with a prac-
tice exercise which gives the student the opportunity to bet-
ter understand a Specific technique or principle by practic-
ing under supervision.

This process of understanding is aided by lively discus-
sions in which the students recognize that their problems are
not unique, but are possessed by many Of the individuals com-
prising the group. It is the contention, further, of the
Cornell group that individual instruction is far more mean-
ingful, efficient, and effective when it is done after the
student has had the reading course.

The instruction of the Cornell program is based on the
broad principles recommended by the National Committee on
Reading:

1. Adjusting reading to achieve the reader's purpose

a. define purpose for reading

_ 39 -
b. select suitable approach for purpose and na-
ture of material
c. adjust Speed to purpose and nature of mater-
ial

2. Grasping literal meanings of reading passage

3. Getting broader meanings

a. defining type of article

b. recognizing tone and intent of selection
c. understanding of organization of article
d. perceiving implied or suggested meanings

A. Synthesis and evaluation

5. Integrating the meanings thus Obtained with one's

previous knowledge and experience.

It is the practice to give the students a comprehensive
overview of the course, covering the above principles, at the
first session. The next several sessions are devoted to the
identification of some of the common poor reading habits; vo-
calization, regression, etc.

It is important to point out that the reading program
places Special emphasis on the development of the student's
functional vocabulary. To meet this need, a unique method
for teaching vocabulary was deve10ped at Cornell. In a con-
trolled study, it was found to be highly successful.

Most of the exercises used in class for practices are
taken from the reading manual deve10ped by Dr. Marvin D. Glock.

This manual contains lectures on the principles of good reading,

-140-

according to the Cornell instructor, also a wide variety of
interesting reading selections, and sets of provocative ques-
tions which challenge student understanding and application
of reading principles.

Some mechanical devices are used in the reading program.
The reading accelerators are used to aid the student in elim-
inating some of the poor reading habits such as regressions
and word-by-word reading, and to practice the techniques and
principles of good reading as set forth in the classroom in-
struction. Speed reading films are shown every other class
meeting. The tachistoscOpe slides are shown for approximately
five minutes during four sessions which are interSpersed over
the course. Finally, devices and materials deve10ped by the
present director are used to demonstrate certain reading tech-
niques.

At the end of nine weeks, the students are tested on an

alternate form of the COOperative Reading Test. This test is

 

used as a source of information of a diagnostic nature. The
personnel of the reading program go over each item on every
test to find some pattern which might indicate a weakness in
reading. This system of identifying Specific areas of read-
ing weaknesses; providing parctice material to correct these
deficiencies, and explaining how to overcome these problems
in daily reading assignments is a powerful motivational de-
vice which frequently provides the momentum for the transfer
of classroom learning to actual situations beyond the class-

POOH).

-l+l-

The Reading PrOgram for a State College, Talequahy Okla-
Qggg. .According to a report by Earnest A. Jones, Central
State College, Edmond, Oklahoma, a study was made in 1952 of
the reading abilities of college freshmen in Oklahoma. (A3:
7-lh) It was found that of the 8,2h9 cases under considera-
tion, 5,168 or 62.6 per cent scored below the fiftieth per-
centile; 1,359 or 16.h7 per centpscored in the Sixth and sev-
enth deciles; and 1,722 or 20.88 per cent scored in the tOp
three deciles. As a result of this study, a reading program
was installed at one of the state colleges participating in
the study. Its enrollment at the time was approximately
1,200 students. This is a description of the procedure used.

During the first semester on campus,_all freshmen were
given a complete reading diagnosis consisting of the Iowa Si-
lent Readinngest, the Michigan Vocabulaperrofile Test, Kay;
stone Visual Survgy Tests, Self Analysis Of Reading Habit, an
Opthalmograph and spelling test. Although the reading clinic
did not administer them, audiometer tests, phonetic inventor-
ies, and voice recordings while reading were also administered
to each freshman. These data were available to the reading
clinic.

Under recommendations to the student, entries were made
on the diagnosis sheet as to whether the student should en-
roll in developmental reading, come to the reading clinic for
conference, or to invite him to take advantage of the ser-

vices to improve his reading, Spelling, or study habits.

-142-

(A letter of transmittal explaining the data was sent to
each student with the consolidated diagnosis report. The
self analysis contained fifty questions designed to reveal
the student's current reading habits and attitudes toward
reading. A pamphlet of fifty corresponding suggestions for
improvement, marked according to the student's self-analysis,
accompanied the report. The student was directed to pay close
attention to the marked items and invited to study all of
them. Although the report was self-explanatory and rather
comprehensive, many students sought conferences in the lab-
oratory. Many, counselled by their advisers, were channeled
into the develOpmental reading courses.

The developmental reading course which was offered car-
ried an English number, met for five fifty-minute periods
per week, and earned three hours of elective credit for the
student.

At the outset it was made clear to the students that
there was no magic in the mechanical equipment or the work-
books, nor cOuld the instructor cause the student to read
more efficiently. It was further explained that all of these
factors would help tremendously, but unless the student had
a sincere desire to improve and was willing to work hard to-
ward that end, it was useless to enroll. Time was taken to
completely interpret the diagnosis and to answer the ques-
tions of students. The attempt was made to assure that each

student understood the full implication of the data. The

-43..
first assignment was to select a full-length, fiction-type
book with the qualifications that it must be easy to read,
and of high interest level to him. He was required to read
at least thirty minutes per day, seven days per week until
the book was completed. When it was completed, another se-
lection was to be made. This procedure was continued through-
out the course. A record form was supplied each student and
kept in his laboratory file. On this form he entered, for
each book read, the title, number of pages, date started and
date completed. No instructions were given as to how the
student was to do this reading at this time. Careful check
was maintained to assure that each student was keeping up
this practice reading.

The class activities described hereafter were set up and
students participated in them as directed by the instructor.
Using the diagram data as a guide, the instructor suggested
whether the student would do each of these exercises, when,
how long, and at what intervals.

The Spelling instruction began with adult approach to
the study of Kottmeyer's film, "Goals in Spelling." This was
for those students whose diagnosis revealed an elementary
grade equivalent in Spelling or any who felt need, regardless

of diagnosis. Spelling Magic, Books I and II, for outside

 

class work was suggested. Text assignments were made in

Learning to Spell by Julia McCorkle and College Handbook of

 

 

-Lm-

Composition by Woolley and Scott. Several mimeographed sheets
on phonic structural analysis were also used. This work cov-
ered a period of two weeks, on the average.

Initial instruction in vocabulary development was started
with Keystone's Minnesota Efficient ReadingATachistoslideS.
These were projected and studied in detail until the students
had learned the fourteen words containing the most frequently
met prefix and stem elements. They were also required to
learn their variant forms and meanings.

This work was concurrent with outside class assignments
in Lewis' Word Power Made Easy. It was also suggested that
The Automatic Vocabulapy Builder by J. L. Stephenson be kept
in the student's pocket and a page a day completed at odd
times. This assignment outlasted the duration of the course.

At the end of three weeks a comprehensive vocabulary test
was given and those who were low were given re-assignments and
asked to continue work in Reading and Vocabulary Development
by Christian 0. Weber.

At the beginning of the Sixth week, exercises were started
in comprehension and concentration. A lecture was given on the
art of concentration through mental control of the sense or-
gans, and on associative memory.

The students were asked to select a book from the shelves
or bring one to class of their own and portions of sessions

were used to practice the following exercises:

-145-
Psychological Conditioning

When you sit down to read, spend a few seconds
or minutes to ask yourself, and answer, such ques-
tions as:

a. Why am I doing this?
b. For whom am I doing this?
c. What good will it do me?
d. Should I do it now?

The purpose of this meditation is to relax ten-
sions of the body and build attitudes that are con-
ducive to success in reading or study.

Concentration

YOu are able to concentrate by controlling
your sense organs. Literally Shut Off outside dis-
tractions, sights, noises, odors, etc. by use of
nerve control. You must acquire the ability to con-
centrate if there is to be comprehension.
Comprehension through Concentration

Begin with psychological conditioning, use con-
centration as mentioned and begin reading. Just as
soon as you are aware that your Operation is entirely
mechanical -- stop reading! Go back, pick up the
sequence of thoughts and never read without concen-
tration and comprehension again.

Listing Distractions

While you are reading, take time to jot down

-ge, -
the distracting thought. Number these items. Note
the number Of items per thirty minutes of reading.
Note the importance of each item. ‘You will prob-
ably find very few of them important. If you find
that they are important, it is probable that you
should put off reading until a more suitable time.
The number of items should diminish with each pass-
ing week.

SRA'S Better Readinngooks by Elizabeth Simpson were

 

used for comprehension as well as A Manual of Reading Exer—

 

cises for Collpge Freshmen by Luella C. Pressey. This was

 

primarily for develoPing phrase reading, rhythm of eye fixa-
tions, recOgnition of relative importance of words, and rec-
ognition of natural phrases.

During this same time the tachistoscOpe was used with
the overhead projection and Keystone Tachistoslides. Init-
ially, digits were used beginning with one digit at 1/100
of a second exposure time. Then phrase and sentence read-
ing was used. As soon as a perceptual Span averaging 3.5
words at 1/100 of a second fixation was developed, this work
was discontinued. The daily tachistoscOpe sessions were of
about ten minute durations.

If and when it was considered apprOpriate, based on each
student's individual progress, the Iowa High School Reading
TraininggFilms with comprehension tests were used. None was

allowed to view the films unless proficiency in all areas

-m-

such as rate, comprehension, perceptual Span, and duration

of fixation had been attained. ‘Unless comprehension was ninety
per cent or better on the test given after each viewing, stu-
dents were not allowed to continue the series. Resumption was
then based on comprehension and student's choice.

Various reading pacers were used, both to increase and
decrease rate. For those whose rate was initially high with-
out adequate comprehension they were used to decrease rate.
Careful check was maintained on a twice weekly rate and com-
prehension test. If comprehension began to drOp, use was dis-
continued.

This procedure continued until the end of the fourteenth
week. At this time students were given instruction in flexi-

bility of speed and study techniques. Several How to Study

 

tests were used. Students were encouraged, now, to bring
their regular college texts to class for use in practice.

The key to success seemed to be careful supervision to
assure that each student did not use any gadgets or exercises
until he was ready, and to see that they were discontinued
when they had served their purpose.

During this last week of the course, a complete diag-
nosis was administered, using equivalent forms of the same
tests as were used for the original diagnosis. The follow-
ing gives the gains made in terms of median scores of the
ninety-eight students completing the course during three se-

mesters.

-ua-
Iowa Silent Reading Test
Grade Percentile -- from sixteen to thirty-seven.
Comprehension Percentile -- from forty-five to
ninety-six.
Michigan Vocabulary
Total Score Percentile -- from two to thirty-one.
Opthalmograph
Average Duration Fixation -- from .22 sec. to .12
sec.
Average Span of Recognition -- from 1.16 words to
2.38 words.
Spelling

Grade Equivalent -- from 8.5 to 11.1

SRA
Rate -- from 212 to 570.
Comprehension -- from sixty-five per cent to ninety
per cent.
Summary

Strang, McCullough, and Traxler say that, on the whole,
college reading programs have been more adequately appraised
than those on lower educational levels. (100:62) Every pro-
gram seems to get results. Improvement in reading is reported
for programs using machines and for non-machine programs, for
large and small classes, for instruction and for drill pro-

grams, and for group therapy.

-19..

Reading programs differ in organization. Some are ma-
chine or skills oriented; others are broader and stress in-
sights, skills, and counseling; and still others utilize a
clinical approach where psychotherapeutic methods are em-
ployed.

Most reading programs are divided into three divisions:
diagnosis, training, and evaluation. Diagnoses are some-
times made by using test results only. Others add to test
results such diagnostic devices as an eye-movement camera,
tale-binocular for locating visual deficiencies, health re-
ports, history Of difficulties, psychological tests, person-
ality tests, hand-eye coordinator, personal information Ques-
tionnaire, etc. Most reading programs employ some of these
devices, but it would probably be difficult to locate one
program which uses them all.

Reading training varies according to the goals or pur-
poses Of the program. Some programs are designed for help-
ing students achieve academic achievement in certain sub-
jects while others are designed to improve general reading
ability. If the chief aim is to develop self-confidence, and
to develop a more integrated individual, then counseling pro-
cedures would, no doubt, be practical.

There are wideSpread methods used in evaluating results
Of a prOgram. Many programs use percentile gains in compre-
hension, vocabulary, and rate; others measure gains in terms

of higher grade levels; and still others measure gains in

-50-
terms of improved grade-point averages. Very few emphasize
outcomes of training in such intangibles as self-perception,
self-confidence, etc.
This section has described the general characteristics

of reading prOgrams and a few Specific programs.

-51-
PART III

Reading Traininggand Academic Success

Although there will be some overlapping in this section
Of the literature, an attempt has been made to trace experi-
mental studies from about 1930 to the present concerning
reading training and academic success. Some of the earlier
researchers provided the groundwork for experiments being
carried on today. The most significant findings in the area
have derived from studies made during the past fifteen years
which have attempted, with varying degrees of success, to
control the complex and interacting variables which contrib-
ute to scholastic achievement.

In 1930, Pressey and Pressey made a comparison of four
hundred and twenty-two college freshmen who had taken a re-
medial course and four hundred and twenty-two students who
had not taken such a course in terms Of academic work. (79:
203-211) Each student was paired on the basis of intelli-
gence, initial reading score, sex, age, and college. Re-
sults Showed a significant rise in grade averages for the
group who had taken remedial reading. It seemed quite evi-
dent from this investigation that reading training is more
likely than not to transfer to the preparation of lessons
and to general understanding of college work.

Parr administered a reading program at the University
Of Iowa in 1928-29. (7h:32h-336) Twenty low-ranking reading

ability students took a remedial reading course and were

-52-
compared with other low-ranking ability students in terms of
comprehension. When the second-semester grade-point average
was compared, eighty per cent of the twenty students who took
reading made gains. In the two control groups more losses
than gains were made. Forty-five per cent of the experimen-
tal group made grade-point averages during the period of re-
medial instruction which were higher than they had ever
earned before; whereas, only eleven and thirteen per cent,
reSpectively, of the members of the two control groups made
such averages. About four times as many experimental stu-
dents as control students made their highest grade-point
averages during the second semester, when the remedial in-
struction.was given.

In 1930, Thompson found that eighteen per cent of the
Teachers College freshmen at the University of Nebraska had
less reading ability than the average child in the tenth
grade. (103:156-158) Thompson concluded in his study that
college freshmen as a group do not improve in reading abil-
ity after a semester of college work. Remedial reading
classes improved the students' ability to read in a short
time. The evidence further suggested that poor reading is
a potential factor in the failure of freshmen to succeed in
the first year of college work.

According to Robinson, college freshmen scoring in the
lowest tenth in comprehension on the Iowa Silent Reading Ex-

amination were given clinical treatment Of their reading

-53-
difficulties in 1930-31. (85:843-8h6) Afterwards, they showed
a marked improvement in reading ability and school success.
Intelligence and COOperation, two independent factors, de-
termined the amount of gain with training. Robinson suggested
that students who are willing to work should be Selected in
order from those with the highest intelligence downward un-
til the remedial quota is filled. A further conclusion was
that a clinical method is more efficient than a class method
and should be used in remedying specific reading difficulties.

College freshmen in Syracuse University with reading per-
formances below the tenth grade level in the reading section
of the Ohio State Psychological Examination were selected for
a remedial reading program, and were compared with others who
did not take reading. (75:62h-630) These students showed a
gain in reading Skill of three grade levels in the period of
one full semester. Although an evaluation in terms of schol-
arship was not available, earlier investigations of this type
at Syracuse Showed positively the superior scholastic achieve-
ment of students who have had remedial work when compared with
students of similar abilities.

McCallister investigated the effects of reading instruc-
tion on ninety-six poorly prepared college readers in compar-
ison with the same number of poor readers who did not take a
reading course. (53:311-313) Students who attended the read-
ing classes attained higher marks. However, McCallister
pointed out that other influences besides the reading instruc-

tion may have affected the result but the conclusion was

-5LL-
reached that improvement in reading ability was a contribu-
ting influence in the differences attained.

McGann used the Nelson—Denny Reading Test to show gains
in reading skills gained by college freshmen taking a remed-
ial reading course. (61:183-186) The tabulation of scores
showed a definite trend toward rapid improvement in three
months. The class work also showed great improvement because
the students were gaining confidence with added Skill. Fur-
ther conclusions were that remedial reading, when provided
at the beginning of the freshman year, can help to eliminate
failure which results from lack of good reading and study
habits, and aid in the develOpment of better scholarship dur-
ing the years to come.

Freshman engineering students who ranked low in reading
ability were given aid by the reading laboratory at the Car-
negie Institute of Technology during the school years 1939-h0
and l9hO-hl. (96:621-623) ‘When compared with equally low-
ranking studentawho were not given reading instruction, the
group receiving instruction made more improvement in grade-
point averages. It was concluded that, while the improve-
ment was not great in some instances, remedial work can be
of help if carefully organized and supervised.

Kilby studied the effect of a remedial prOgram upon
scholastic improvement in Yale University freshmen in l9h3.
(h5:513-53h) He found that freshmen who received remedial

reading instruction earned significantly higher final grade

-55-
averages than did untrained students of equal predicted grade
status. The combination of procedures used was of value in
improving the abilities needed for study in verbal type
courses. The effect of the remedial instruction upon par-
ticular couses could not be determined.

Preston and Botel found low relationships between col-
lege achievement and each of the following factors: reading

skill as measured by the Iowa Silent Reading Test; college

 

aptitude as measured by the Scholastic Aptitude Test; and ma-
turity as determined by veteran status. (80:363-371) They
agree with Thornton that such things as persistence, emotional
adjustment, attitudes, interest, and level of aSpiration are
perhaps important in prediction of success. (th:266-273)

At Western Michigan College, Dorothy McGinniS made a
study which Showed quite conclusively that students who en-
rolled in the Reading Laboratory not only made a marked and
statistically significant gain in reading as measured by an
Objective test, but also made statistically Significant higher
point-hour-ratios than an equivalent group of students who
did not do corrective work in reading. (62:166-173)

Many researchers who have reported gains in reading
skills or academic achievement feel that students profit more
by volunteering to take a reading course than those who are
forced to enter such a program. One study gave evidence that
the students who were assigned to a probationary status, and

were required to participate in the University of Maryland

-56-
study skills prOgram, were benefited academically. (5:231-23h)
Also, the great majority of these students recognized and
stated the benefits they felt they received despite the Op-
portunity to be abusive. It appears that compulsory train-
ing does help many achieve their immediate goals despite the
stigmatization suffered in varying degrees by students when
first placed on probation.

At Baylor University, Barbe found significant gains were
made in remedial reading at the college level. (h:229-237)

The gains which were made were still Significant six months
after the end of remedial work indicating relative permanency.
The grade-point average indicated a positive significance in
the value of improving students' grades.

A study by Smith and Wood concerned changes in reading
performance, permanence of gains and concomitant changes in
academic status of clients of a university reading service.
(97:151-159) Significant gains in performance (though not
necessarily in skill) result for thoseaspects of reaching
which are emphasized in training. Performance gains are main-
tained and, possibly, increased after a lapse of time (Sixty
weeks) with no formal training when continued practice is en-
couraged. Significant superiority in academic status (in-
creasing with time) is demonstrated by eXperimental subjects
over both control and representative freshmen subjechswhen
study and examination Skills are emphasized during the train-

ing period.

-57-

Forty-eight matched pairs of college freshmen formed the
population for an experiment in reading improvement at New
Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. (107:13h-
135) One group who had remedial reading showed approximately
twice as much change in reading as the control group. Fisher's
student "t" device was utilized and produced a critical ratio
of n.07 which was significant at the .01 per cent level Of
confidence. A difference in first-semester mean grade-point
average was found between the remedial and control groups.
The difference of .hO between grade-point averages produced
a critical ratio of 3.00 which was significant at the .01 per
cent level. If one assumes that grade-point average is a
reputable demonstration of academic ability, a substantial
rgain favored the remedial group.

McDonald's study of students who completed the Cornell
Reading Program showed that they significantly surpassed stu-
dents in the control group in regard to cumulative grade-
point average for the three semesters of study. (58:171-181)
They also made Significantly more grade-point averages above
70 than did students in the control group and there were sig-
nificantly fewer drOpouts for the entire period of the study
than for either the control group or the remainder of the
freshman class.

This investigation suggests that students who completed
the reading program significantly surpassed students in the

control group in academic performance. (60:10h-109) It

-58-
indicates the influence Of the reading program as a whole.
In view of the vital role that vocabulary plays in reading,
it does not seem unreasonable to conclude that the vocabu-
lary develOpment program contributed to this influence, and
so to see in these results confirmation of the findings re-
ported earlier.

In 1950, Robinson stated that current remedial practices
at the college level revealed consistent shortcomings with
respect to validation of techniques. (8h:93-96) Academic
criteria have been generally disregarded in the evaluation
of remedial work, and other methods, facile but less rele-
vant, employed to demonstrate supposed improvement. Moti-
vational factors involved in the student selection of remed-
ial course work have been completely neglected in appraisals
found in the literature.

Results of a combined questionnaire-and-interview sur-
vey Of student attitude toward a non-credit and volunteer
courSe in remedial reading, in Yale University, were reported.
Initial motivation ranged widely. Less than half the group
investigated diSplayed original motivation which was consid-
ered instructionally advantageous; the majority of students
participated either through coercion or as a means of avoid-
ing certain environmental demands. In an evaluation of a
classroom remedial prOgram by means of scholastic perform-
ance, an attempt was made to take into account the initial

motivation Of participating subjects. Following the training

-59..
period the remedial students showed average academic gains
approaching significance over the control group.

At the University of Miami, Mouly took an experimental
group Of one hundred and fifty-five students who took remed-
ial reading for one semester and equated the results by means
of an analysis of covariance with a control group of one hun-
dred and Sixty-four students. (66:h59-h66) The one hundred
and sixty-four students were either excused from the program
for experimental reasons or who, in various ways, avoided
taking the course.

Honor-point ratios for the period of two years for those
still in attendance or for the period of their attendance for
the students who had attended at least one full semester were
calculated for both experimental and control groups and ad-
justed for initial differences in reading and psychological
test scores. Only slight differences were found in the av-
erage honor-point ratio and rate of drOp-out. However, when
only that portion of the experimental group which had suc-
cessfully completed the remedial reading program is compared
with the control group, Significant differences in favor of
the former are found. It was concluded that a remedial read-
ing program can result in an improvement in academic grades
for those students who take the course seriously.

An important unknown factor in the study was the effect
upon academic grades of the differences in personality char-

acteristics, if any, between those students who obliged by

-60-
taking the required remedial reading course as compared with
those in the control group who, although also required to
take the course, intentionally or unintentionally avoided do-
ing so. This would also tend to be a disturbing factor in
institutions where the remedial reading program was on a vol-
untary basis.

Subjects used in an experiment by Reed were eighteen
pairs of hOSpital contract nursing students who were fresh-
men at Wayne University in 1956. (81:257-26h) Reed concluded
that short-term training in reading does not yield material
differences in fundamental comprehension and vocabulary skills
or in grade averages. However, this course was only held for
nine weeks, so Reed stated that it would be rather surprising
if, as the result of so short a reading training course that
substantial differences were made in academic achievement.

He felt that more attention Should be directed to the appro-
priate matching of experimental and control subjects.

In September, 1957, there were four hundred and forty-
three freshmen enrolled in regular reading classes in Morgan
State College. (h9:20-32) In eight weeks there was a ten
point increase between the medians of the first and second
tests. At the end of the semester, there was a median gain
of thirteen points. A study of the three upper-score brack-
ets in the final test shows that seventy-five students out
of seventy-eight reached or exceeded the fiftieth percentile.

Whereas only fifteen or 3.h per cent read at or above the

-61-
fiftieth percentile at the beginning of the course, the num-
ber increased to one hundred and four at mid-semester and to
one hundred and seventy-nine or forty-one per cent at the end
of the semester.

The students were divided into four groups for instruc-
tion. Group I were students who began the course reading at
a level expected of college freshmen. The course helped
these able readers to improve themselves, as the group gained
from percentile fifty-nine to percentile seventy. Group II
were freshmen whose initial performances were low, but who
had the ability to improve themselves quite rapidly. Begin-
ning at the fourteenth percentile their median score increased
to the equivalent of the sixty-second percentile in eight
weeks. Group III were the "high" students in the three-level
program. They were not severely handicapped in reading to
begin with as their median score initially was equivalent to
the thirty-Second percentile. However, it increased to the
fifty-ninth percentile at the end. The median of Group IV,
the "intermediate" level, began at a relatively low level,
the nineteenth percentile, but increased to the forty-eighth
percentile. This group achieved a level only slightly below
that of freshmen. Group V was the problem group. Its num-
ber, two hundred and thirty-one, was larger than any of the
other groups. Although, it increased its median score from
the twelfth to the twenty-fourth percentiles its final level

of achievement was unsatisfactory. A study of individual

-52-
scores revealed, however, that fifty-two out of two hundred
and thirty-one attained the fiftieth percentile or better.
Nevertheless, the majority must still be considered to be
"retarded" readers and "problem" students, in all likelihood.
Bloomer reported an experiment in which two groups of
students composed of forty students each were put into an ex-
perimental and a control group. (1h:1lO-118) Each was given

the Diagnostic Survey Reading Test before the twelve-week ex-

 

periment began. Grade-point ratios for the first semester of
work for the students in both groups were determined. These
were correlated with initial test scores, which represented
gains in reading ability. By means of a multiple regression
equation, the predicted college average for the group was
calculated from high school grades in academic courses and
scores in the American Council of Education Psychological Ex-
amination. An "academic gains score," representing over- or
under-academic achievement was determined from the difference
between the predicted college average and the actual grade-
point ratio. This was also correlated with the initial test
scores and gains in reading ability.

The results of the initial administration of the 2125:
nostic Reading Survey Test, to the experimental and control
groups, indicated no significant difference between the groups
at the onset of the experiment.

‘When gains between the pre- and post-tests were consid-

ered, the experimental group showed significant gains over

-63-
the control group in number of words per minute and in com-
prehension. On the other hand, the control group gained in
vocabulary scores at a greater rate than the experimental
group.

NO differences appeared between the groups in achieved
grade-point average at the end of the semester. However,
when the achieved grade-point average was corrected for the
predicted college average, the resulting "academic gain scores"
indicated a highly Significant difference in favor of the ex-
perimental group. In addition, at the end of the first se-
mester, three Of the experimental group left School, whereas
six of the control group departed. Further, while thirteen
of the experimental group were reported on probation at the
end of the first semester, twenty of the control group were
on probation. A significant chi square of 5.76 indicated
that a greater prOportion of the experimental class was re-
tained and not on probation.

Pallone made a study in which twenty students partici-
pated in a pilot develOpmental reading program in 1959. (73:
65h-657) Students were tested at the beginning and termin-

ation of the course on parallel forms of the ETS Cooperative

 

Reading Test. Approximately ten days after the completion
of the course, they underwent the August SAT-Verbal, and
these scores were compared with scores obtained in March,
1959. In each case, significant gains appeared. It was sur-

mised that these gains were attributable to real and measurable

-m-
improvement in reading skills as an effect of the develop-
mental program.

The long-term develOpmental program ran from September,
1959, to March, 1960. At the end of the course, significant
gains were Shown by (a) those who had participated in the
long-term program and (b) by those who had taken both pro-
grams. Normal expectations in gains during the final Sec-
ondary year are about thirty-five points in SAT-V, while the
two groups gained 109 and 121.9 respectively, considerably
higher than predictions of College Board Officials would have
one expect.

Students initially toward the upper end of the scale
tended to Show considerably less improvement in scores than
those below the national median.

The results Of this study indicated a high relation be-
tween reading skills and SAT-V scores. There was also evi-
dence that some students reach a saturation level fairly
early, possibly within an initial period in which they, typ-
ically, graSp new methods quickly, then remain somewhat stable.

Feinberg, Long, and Rosenheck initiated a non-credit
Freshman Study Methods course in 1960 at The City College's
Bernard M. Baruch School of Business and Public Administra-
tion. (29:95-100) Resistance deve10ped because of the man-
datory requirement of the course. An informal attitude sur-
vey highlighted the students' resiStance of a course they

were forced to take without credit. The retesting met strong

-65-

opposition. It was concluded that the Study Course did not
produce any statistically significant changes, due perhaps
to the hostility and lack Of cOOperation. It was further
concluded that best results Of a reading course are secured
when students recognize their own need for training.

Students in a pre-college course in developmental read-
ing at the University of Colorado were given before and after

testing with the California Analogles and Reasoning Test.

 

(56:5h9) Section I of the student-readers received Form A
of the.test at the beginning of the course, and Form B at
the ending. Section II of the readers received the tests in
reverse order.

The mean gain for students taking test Form A at the be-
ginning of the course and Form B at the ending was eight per-
centile rankings based on thirteenth graders. The mean gain
for those taking the tests in the Opposite order was four-
teenth percentile rankings based on thirteenth graders.

Thus, the mean gain for all persons participating in
the investigation was eleventh percentile rankings. There
seemed to be a likely relationship between a person's abil-
ity to read and how well he performs on a certain test de-
signed to evaluate college aptitude. This conclusion per-
haps becomes more Significant when it is realized that most
of the persons participating in the study were not consid-

ered problem readers.

.. 66 _

At the onset of a study by Olson and Others at the Uni-
versity of Maine, the control group (no reading instruction)
was superior to the experimental group on all sub-tests of
the Nelson-Denny Reading Test as well as the Otis I.Q. (71:
75-82)

The mean scores on the Nelson-Denny Readinngest indi-

 

 

cated that the experimental group attained parity with the
control group in comprehension and reading rate. The control
group retained its superiority in both vocabulary and total
score.

The analysis of covariance indicated that the experi-
mental group made significantly greater gains than the con-
trol group on all sub-tests on the Nelson-Denny Reading Test,
except the vocabulary test.

The University of Kentucky initiated a study which in-
dicated improvement in both Speed and comprehension for the
majority of students. (86:126-129) The findings of an over-
all improvement of nine per cent in words per minute and
twenty-Six per cent in comprehension have convinced the staff
of the Counseling Service of the value of the time Spent by
both teachers and students.

Cranney reported seven studies of college reading pro-
grams operating in 1961-62. (23:77-88) The Reading Dynamics
Program was reviewed using student data collected before and

after training by instructors of the Institute. Various

-67-

magazines and newSpaper reports had reported students read-
ing at ten thousand words per minute and upwards. Utiliz-
ing camera and comprehension checks, the researcher found
that students show a small average rate gain of twenty to
twenty-five per cent; in the test selections the average rate
was between four hundred to six hundred words per minute, with
the fastest at nine hundred words per minute. In skimming
exercises various groups covered eighteen hundred to twenty-
four hundred words per minute; gains in comprehension were
less than five per cent -- averaging about seventy per cent;
and comprehension in skimming was weak -- averaging about
fifty per cent after training. Contrary to some reports, the
researcher, using eye movement records, found the students
generally making one fixation per line while skimming and not
reading large portions of the page at a single fixation.

Little also studied this program and found significant
gains on both fictional and non-fictional materials. (51:
13-15) No Significant gains were achieved in comprehension
and, in the case Of fictional materials, a significant nega-
tive difference was reported by the experimental group. Re-
liabilities of the experimenter-constructed tests ranged from
.h6 to .69.

A five-year project financed by a Carnegie grant and
Sponsored jointly by the Brooklyn Public Library and Brooklyn
College was described by Siegal. (9hz258-262) Significant

- 68 -
gains in both Speed and comprehension were reported for most
groups and were retained after a six-month interval. The
greatest gains in reading achievement appeared to be associ-
ated with level of intelligence and age, the brighter and
younger students making the greater gains.

Summary and Conclusions

 

There have been a great many studies concerning the re-
lationship of reading training and academic success. Nearly
all of these report positive statistical correlation even
though the studies have attempted to deal with different var-
iables.

The first part of the review of the literature dealt
with reading ability and scholastic success.f The findings
in this area vary according to the size of correlation. Read-
ing ability appears to be related to college success to a de-
gree.

The second part of the literature described reading pro-
grams in general, and described a few typical programs in de-
tail. Most programs have three major functions: diagnosis,
training, and evaluation. Many reading devices are used and
a wide array of materials are employed to achieve particular
purposes.

The following are some general conclusions resulting
from this study:

1. Many investigators found reading ability related

to reading performance.

-69-

2. Some studies of reading ability and performance sug-

gest that verbal sextions of test results correlate

more highly with reading scores than non-verbal

scores.

3. The effects of reading training were found to be of

postive Significance in many studies; others revealed

no significance or a negative significance.

h. There was no study which showed an unequivocal re-

lationship between reading and intelligence.

5. Many authorities believe personality factors, such

as persistence, emotional adjustment, attitudes, in-

terest, and level of aspiration play a Significant

role in results obtained. However, no conclusive

evidence has been reported to date.

Adams has concluded, along with many others, that no mat-

ter what kind of reading prOgram exists, it will fail without

trained, interested, and creative teachers. (1:396-h01) The

need to change the student's
tant in providing impetus to
Screening through diagnostic
admitting a student into the

to such a course some status

self-concept is extremely impor-
whatever methods are applied.

testing and interviewing before
reading program gives admission

and removes the "dumping ground"

attitude toward Reading Skills classes.

CHAPTER III

 

DESIGN CF THE STUDY

 

This chapter includes a statement of the null hypotheses,
a description Of the pOpulation used in the study, the tests
and testing procedures, the reading course at Odessa College,
and a description of the methods of statistical analyses used
to test the hypotheses.

The Null Hypotheses

 

I. There is no significant difference in grade-point
averages made by college students who take a devel-
opmental reading course and those who do not take a
reading course in Odessa College, Odessa, Tesas.

The alternative hypothesis is that students
who take a course in develOpmental reading make bet-
ter grade-point averages than those who do not take
such a course.

II. There is no Significant difference in the number of
males who take develOpmental reading than in the
number of females who take developmental reading at
Odessa College, Odessa, Texas.

The alternative hypothesis is that there are
more males than females who take developmental read-
ing at Odessa College, Odessa, Texas.

The Population

 

The forty pairs of students used in this study were chosen

-70-

- 71 -
from two hundred and ninety-three freshmen who entered Odessa
Junior College, Odessa, Texas in the fall of 1963 and who at—
tended Odessa College for at least two semesters.

Students who completed a course in develOpmental reading
(the experimental group) were matched with those who did not
take reading (the control group) on five variables: Nelson-

Denny Reading Test score, verbal SCAT score, class load, sex,

 

and age. The data are given in Table I.

Since most students with a high level Of reading ability
do not take a course in reading improvement, very few of these
were used in the study. On the other hand, few students be-
low the eighth grade reading level were selected Since most
of these students do take the reading course. Therefore, the
population used in the study, in general, represents average
and below average students in terms of initial scores on col-
lege entrance examinations.

The mean reading score, SCAT score, class load, and age
are given for males and females for both the experimental and
control grOups in Table III. InSpection of this table will
show that the groups appeared to be evenly matched.

Tests and Testing Procedures

 

Before the beginning of each academic year all students
planning to enter Odessa College are given a battery of tests.

The Nelson-Denny Reading Test is used to survey reading rate,

 

vocabulary, and comprehension Skills. According to the auth-
ors this test serves predictive, screening and broadly diag-

nostic purposes. (67:3) For screening and for prediction of

- 72 -

TABLE I. READING RAW SCORES, SCAT SCORES, CLASS LOAD,
SEX, AND AGE OF FORTY MATCHED PAIRS

 

fi-_ __

 

 

 

USDA ReadingpScore
Raw Grade Verbal Class

Pairs Score Level S.C.A.T. Load Sex Age
1. A * 89 lh.0+ 290 19 M 19
B 93 1h + 293 18 M 19
2. A 118 1h + 302 2h F 19
B 122 1h + 309 26 F 19
3. A w 90 111 4- 303 32 PI 23
B 90 1h + 299 31 M 19
h. A a 78 13.3 293 36 M 19
B 78 13.3 293 25 M 19
5. A t 76 13.1 293 22 F 20
B ~ 75 13.1 291 2h F 20
6. A w 75 13.1 286 29 M 20
B 75 13.1 303 28 M 20
7. A * 7h 13.0 303 21 M 20
B 74 13.0 293 29 M 19
8. A w 72 12.8 292 31 F 19
B 73 12.9 291 4 26 F 20
9. A a 73 12.9 28h 27 F 19
B 73 12.9 290 31 F 20
10. A w 72 12.8 292 15 M 20
11. A a 71 12.7 280 27 M 19
B 71 12.7 291 32 M 18
12. A a 67 12.h 288 30 F 19
B 69 - 12.6 290 26 F 20
13. A a 69 12.6 287 23 F 25
B 67 l2.h 298 16 F 2h
1h. A w 69 12.6 29h 25 M 20
B 67 12.h 296 2h M 19

y

* Had Reading Course

- 73 -

 

 

 

TABLE I. (Continued)
ReadingfiScore
Raw Grade Verbal Class
_Pairs Score Level S.C.A.T. Load Sex Age
15. A * 6h 12.1 271 18 M 20
B 62 11.9 293 18 M 20
16. A r 62 11.9 277 21 F 21
B 63 12.0 280 18 F 20
17. A w 61 11.7 295 23 F 19
B 60 11.6 302 2h F 19
18. A ea- 60 11.6 293 32 F 20
s to 11.6 28A 26 F 23
19. A a 59 ll.h 28h 23 M 19
B 60 11.6 287 20 M 20
20. A * 58 11.3 292 31 M 19
B 59 11.4 302 26 M 19
21. A w 56 11.0 292 30 F 20
B 58 11.3 287 26 F 19
22. A % 57 11.1 ' 277 23 F 19
B 56 11.0 267 18 F 19
23. A n 57 11.1 283 21 F 19
B 60 11.6 287 16 F 19
2h. A w 4 56 11.0 292 25 M 20
B 56 11.0 28h 22 M 19
25. A a 56 11.0 300 20 F 25
B 57 11.1 306 23 F 25
26. A s 56 11.0 288 22 M 20
B 56 11.0 283 23 M 21
27. A a 55 10.9 263 21 F 19
B 55 10.9 267 2h F 19
28. A s 5h 10.7 28h 23 M 20
B SA 10.? 273 2h M 20
29. A * 5h 10.7 290 23 F 19
B . ,Sh 10.7 28h 27 F 19

 

-7ng-

 

 

 

TABLE I. (Continued)
Reading Score
Raw Grade Verbal Class
Pairs Score Level S.C.A.T. Load Sex Age
30. A a 52 10.4 281 32 M 19
B 55 10.9 293 32 M 19
31. A w 55 10.9 269 24 F 19
B 59 11.4 273 27 F 19
32..A * 50 10.2 283 26 F 20
B 55 10.9 281 25 F 20
33. A a 51 10.3 289 20 F 19
B 54 10.7 281 19 .F 19
34. A w 51 10.3 284 24 M 19
B 51 10.3 292 25 M 19
35. A * 48 9.9 288 18 M 19
B 48 9.9 290 21 M 22
36. A * 47 9.8 279 22 M 20
B 47 9.8 271 24 M 21
37. A w A? 9.8 292 18 M 21
B A? 9. 8 287 22 M 23
38. A g 38 8.8 269 18 F 21
B 38 8.8 260 21 F 20
39. A s 37 8.6 257 26 M 19
B 37 8.6 279 29 M 19
40. A h 33 8.2 279 27 M 22
B 33 8.2 267 24 M 20

 

 

- 75 -

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE II. MEAN AGE AND CLASS LOAD (NUMBER OF SEMESTER
HOURS) OF STUDENTS ENROLLED AND NOT ENROLLED
IN READING
Enrolled ’Not’EfirolIed‘
Male Female Male Female
(N=21) _p(N=19) (N=21) gn=19)
Mean.Age 20.76 19.05 20.62 19.68
Mean Class
Load 24.43 24.16 24.52 23.32
s.hrs. s.hrs. s.hrs. s.hrs.
TOTAL Enrolled (N=40) Not Enrolled (N=40)
Mean Age 19.91 20.15
Mean Class
Load 24.29 3. hrs. 23.92 3. hrs.
TABLE III. MEAN SCAT AND READING RAW (SCORES OF STUDENTS

ENROLLED AND NOT ENROLLED IN READING

 

 

 

 

Male Female Male Female
(N=21) (N=l9) (N=21) (N=l9)
Mean Reading 60.952 62.474 61.143 63.58
Mean SCAT 286.24 264.53 288.33 285.74
TOTAL Enrolled_(N=40) Not Enrolled (N=40)
Mean Reading 61.675 62.05

;Mean SCAT

*1

 

275.39 287.04,

 

 

 

 

-76-

academic success, the total Score is most useful. For diag-
nosing individual problems, strengths, and weaknesses, the
subtest scores in vocabulary, comprehension and rate are most
useful. Students who rank below the eleventh grade level on
the total score are not compelled to take developmental read-
ing, but are strongly urged to do so by the academic counsel-
ors or the dean. Some students volunteer to take the reading
course even though they already have a high level of reading
ability.

The COOperative School and College Ability Test is also

 

part of the battery of tests given to each freshman. It is

used extensively by colleges and.universities in order to
measure capacity for academic ability. Satisfactorily reli-
able part and total scores are provided to yield a verbal

score, a quantitative Score, and a total score. (18:645)

Goldman found the contents of the verbal portion of the ngpglgg

Agult Intelligence Scale and the items included in the COOper-

 

gtive School and College Ability Tests (SCAT) to have a strik-

 

ing similarity. The corrected correlation of .89 between the
verbal halves of the WAIS and the SCAT which was obtained in
this study strongly suggests these two sets of test items are
measuring very nearly the same abilities.

The verbal score of the SCAT was used in this study as

well as the total score of the Nelson-Degpy test in matching

 

Pairs. There appeared to be, in most cases, a high degree of

_ 77 -
correlation between verbal ability and reading score. This
relationship was discussed in the previous chapter.

In addition to the initial Nelson-Denny Reading Test,

 

which was administered to all entering freshmen, the students
who enrolled in develOpmental reading were given an alternate

form of the Nelson-Denny test at the end of the semester.

 

The other group did not have such a test.
As an adjunct to this study, twenty-three of the stu-
dents who took reading and thirty-six who did not take read-

ing were given an alternate form of the Nelson-Denny Test in

 

the Spring of 1965. This was almost two years after the first
test was given. The purpose was to determine if the gains
made by the group who had taken reading were Significantly
higher than those who did not take reading.

The academic success of the student was measured by the
academic grade in each course. The grades ranged from A,
which was given a value of three honor points, to D and F,
which were given values of zero honor points. Although grades
cannot be considered to be absolutely reliable they are con—
stantly used in awarding prizes or in determining probation-
ary status, for determining admission to another college or
to a graduate school, and even in estimating acceptability
for employment. (22:428-430) Clark concluded in his study
that the ratio of the weighted standard deviation of student
averages to the standard deviation of all grades, using the
credit hour as the unit, can be taken as an indication of the

reliability of individual grade-point averages.

-78-
Readinngourse at Odessa College

The Developmental Reading Course at Odessa College is
very similar to those reported in the literature. The gen—
eral objectives are to help the student develOp basic skills
and to provide practice in various kinds of reading material.
If the student can achieve a better reading background he
will also gain self-confidence and become a better adjusted
individual personally as well as academically.

There are twelve sections of Developmental Reading. The
classes meet for one hundred and forty minutes per week for
eighteen weeks or one Semester. The course is entitled "Eng-
lish III" and carries one hour of credit. Usually this is
non-transferable to a senior college but may, in some instances,
be counted as an elective credit.

The enrollment is limited to sixteen students per Section
SO that individual help may be given to each student and so
that the teacher may become well acquainted with each stu-
dent's problems.

At the beginning of the semester a series of tests are
further administered for diagnostic purposes. In addition

to the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, one form of the Diagnostic

 

Reading Test is given which yields a rate score, two types of
comprehension Scores, vocabulary, and total score. One form

of the Word Clues Test is also given in order to determine

 

the placement level for assigning materials in vocabulary

building. A diagnosis is also made concerning structural and

V‘———— ._'

_ 79 -

phonetic analyses skills which enables the teacher to pin-
point the student's lack of understanding in basic skills.
With all of these test data, the teacher can diagnose any
difficulty a student may be having in skills. At the end

of the course, alternate forms of all of these tests are

given to see how much gain the student has made. The test

. .2 try-fi—
i

scores are used at the beginning to assign various graded
materials to each student.

Before the students actually begin working, discussions
are held concerning ways in which all peOple read and habits
which many poor readers have established over a long period
of time. Sometimes bad reading habits disappear simply by
becoming aware that they are bad habits. Suggestions are
also given for ways of approaching various textbook mater-
ials such as biolOgy, sociology, etc. Methods of organiz-
ing materials for study, and finding main ideas in paragraphs
and other reading selections are discussed. Other suggestions
are given concerning the development of power of retention
and concentration. It is necessary, at the beginning, to mo-
tivate and challenge the student so that he will be enthusi-
astic about the Opportunity being presented to him.

The reading center is equipped with various reading work-
books, library books, mechanical devices, and other materials
designed to help any individual improve his reading Skill re-
gardless of reading ability level. The student is assigned

the proper materials for increasing his skill in all needed

_ 80 -
areas. Most of the time students work individually, but small
group work and work involving the class as a whole are used
also.

The mechanical devices, the pacer, and the Controlled
Reader filmstrip machine, are used to motivate the student to
read faster and more correctly. The pacer forces the student
to read one line ahead of a moving metal plate which comes
down over a page of print. The student may adjust the machine
to any speed, but he must be understanding adequately what he
is reading. The Controlled Reader is a filmstrip which is
shown to students at a fixed rate set by the instructor. The
students are forced to follow a bead of light from left to
right in order to read the material. After reading, a com-
prehension test is given. Immediately after using one of the
visual devices, the student reads without the aid of a device
and tries to follow the same pattern as when using the device.
Reading at a slightly faster rate of speed will often improve
comprehension and develop better habits of concentration. The
student is not allowed to day-dream while reading since he is
being timed and must comprehend at the same time.

Vbcabulary is taught by means of assigning the prOper
level of programmed learning vocabulary workbooks. The stu-
dents are reSponsible for learning to pronounce each word,
Spell the word, and know its meaning. Small group discus-
sions are held each week so that the instructor may check on
pronounciation, etc.

Mimeographed forms are given to each student enabling

_ 81 -
him to keep his own scores for the mechanical devices and
work materials.

At the end of each of the three six-week periods, the
student and instructor make an evaluation of each pupil's
progress. Conferences are held which give the students an
opportunity to discuss problems, viewpoints, criticisms, etc.
that may be hampering progress. Each student is required to
have a given amount of work done. All work materials are
thoroughly checked and suggestions for improvement are made.

At the end of the course alternate forms of the tests
used at the beginning are given. An evaluation is made of
the student's progress in terms of gains made on the tests
as well as classroom performance, improved attitudes, in-
creased interest, and other tangible and intangible indica-
tions of prOgress made.

More progress is made in the area of rate of reading
than any other. This is desirable if proper gains in com-
prehension have been made also. The students gain, on an
average, about two scholastic years' growth in sixteen weeks.

Methods of Statistical Analyses

 

The first statistical technique utilized in the study
was the matched pairs "t" test to determine the significance
of the mean difference between the experimental group and the
control<group.w

The "t" test was selected because the data could be con-

strued to have met most of the assumptions associated with a

- 52 -
parametric test. The conditions which must be satisfied to
make the "t" test the most powerful one are given as follow
by Siegal:

l. The observations must be independent. That is, the

selection of any one case from the population for F
inclusion in the sample must not bias the chances !
of any other case for inclusion, and the score which i
is assigned to any case must not bias the score i

which is assigned to any other case.

2. The observations must be drawn from normally dis-
tributed pOpulations.

3. These populations must have the same variance (or,
in Special cases, they must have a known ratio of
variances).

h. The variables involved must have been measured in
at least an interval scale, so that it is possible
to use the Operations of arithmetic on the scores.
(91+:26—3l)

All of the above conditions (except No. A, which states
the measurement required) are elements of the parametric sta-
tistical model. ‘With the possible exception of the assump-
tion of equal variances, these conditions are ordinarily not
tested in the course of the performance of a statistical an-
alysis. Rather, they are presumptions which are accepted,
and their truth or falsity determines the meaningfulness of

the probability statement arrived at by the parametric test.

-83-
Since these conditions were met, there was reason to believe
that the parametric "t" test was the most logical choice for
the data under analysis.

The second statistical method selected was the chi square

to test the null hypothesis that there are no more males than F
females who take reading. This method was chosen because the !
hypothesis under test concerned a comparison of observed and i
expected frequencies in discrete categories. According to ;

Siegal, research is frequently undertaken when the researcher
is interested in the number of subjects, objects, or re-
sponses which fall in various categories. (9S:h3) The chi-
square test is suitable for data like these. The number of
categories may be two or more. The technique is of the good-
ness-of—fit type in that it may be used to test whether a
significant difference exists between an observed number of
objects or responses falling in each category and an expected
number based on the null hypothesis.

An assumption made in the chi-square test is that the
individual observations which make up the frequency in any
one cell are independent of one another. (55:99-100) A fur-
ther limitation on the application of the chi-square test is
that no more than twenty per cent of the expected frequencies
may have values of less than five. It appeared that the chi-
square test would be the most logical one to use in this

study.

CHAPTER IV

 

ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS

 

Through the application of the treatment discussed in
the previous chapter certain results relevant to the prob-
lem were obtained. It is the purpose of this chapter to de-
scribe the findings.

The first null hypothesis which was formulated stated
that there was no difference in grade—point averages of those
students who had taken a reading course and those who had not.
The matched pairs "t" test is reported for testing this hy-
pothesis.

Matched Pair ”t" Test

The grade-point average for each student in the forty
pairs was calculated. The results are shown in Table IV.

The mean difference for the matched pairs was then calcu-
lated and utilized in the following formula for a matched
pairs "t" test given by Hays. (39:333-335)

TABLE IV GRADE-POINT AVERAGES AND DIFFERENCES FOR
EACH STUDENT IN THE FORTY MATCHED PAIRS.

W

 

Matched Pairs Grade-Point Average Difference
1. A 'n' 103 I
B . .7 + .6
2. A 3.0
B 1.5 +1.5

 

* A - Students who participated in the reading program.

-5u-

‘ _‘ O ”‘E

-55-

(Continued)

IV.

TABLE

 

Difference

Grade-Point Average

Matched Pairs

 

Fall... Ila Ill... 6- 5r

/O 3 7. 2 3 .1. 0/ l .5 n0
0 O O O O O O O

O
+ + _ + . + + . + .
0/3 29 18 20 ll 25 7/0 0/ 89 38 19
O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
ll 21 ll 11 11 ll 11 O 21 11

AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB

23
21

AB

11*.

57 83

AB AB

15.

16.

-l.l)-

2/0

12

AB

170

 

-86-

(Continued)

TABLE IV.

 

Difference

Grade-Point Average

Matched Pairs

 

02
21

m .. 1 ll..- .4._

7/0 31 20 62 ID

21 ll 11

.Anb .Anb Ann

6 O

l

+ .

15 88

l l

nnB AAB
.u. 5
2 2

78

A25

A25

27.

00
11

AB

28.

96

AB

29.

21
ll

30.

00/0

310

32.

+1.h

 

 

- 87 -

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE IV. (Continued)
Matched Pairs Grade-Point Average Difference
.33. A 1.2
B 1.3 .1
3A. A .9
. B .9
35. A .3
B 01+ .1-
36. A .5
B 0 .5
37' A 1.0
B .7 .3
38. A .2
B .l .l
39. A .S
B .9 a“.
no. A 1.2
B 1.2
_ D
MD -é
2 _ 2 2
s — f D - MD
N
est. MD = SD
V N - l
T = MD - E (MD)
851:. YFID

 

- 88 -

The obtained value of the statistic (t 8.938, df = 39)

was statistically significant beyond thecff .001 level.

The Chi-Square Test

 

The second null hypothesis stated that there are no more
males than females who take the develOpmental reading course.
The chi-square method of treatment was used to test this hy-
pothesis. The observed and expected frequencies for females
enrolled and not enrolled in reading are presented in Table V.

The chi-square was determined by the use of the following

formula: (95:h3)

x2 i (0 - E)2
E

df (r - l) (k - l)

r = no. of rows
k = no. of columns

.'. df = 1

1.157 (df = ) which was not

It was found that X2
statistically significant. Therefore, in this study, the
null hypothesis that sex is independent of taking or not tak-
ing a reading course could not be rejected.

Interpretatign of the Findings

rTable VI shows the mean grade-point averages for the
males and females in the forty matched pairs and is further
sub-divided into those who did and did not take reading. It
can be seen that the difference for the males between those

in the experimental group and those in the control group was

89-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE V- OBSERVED AND EXPECTED FREQUENCIES 0F MALES
AND FEMALES ENROLLED AND NOT ENROLLED IN
READING.
R NR
0 = 53 0 = 131
M ______________ L ______________ 18a-
0 = 38 0 = 71
F _____________________________ 109
E = 33.9 E = 75.1
TABLE VI. I~1EAN GRADE-PO INT AVERAGE FOR FCRTY l-iATCI-IED
PAIRS OF MALES AND FEIvLALES ENROLLED AND NOT
ENROLLED DI READING.
E NE D
M 1.11A .866 .2u8
F 1.258 1.205 .053
D 011.11.). 0339 0195

 

- 90 -
appreciably greater than the same comparison for females.
This would suggest that males improve more than females with
the aid of a develOpmental reading course. However, a sta-
tistical analysis of this was not made because it would tend
to be misleading. This is because the males in the experi-
mental group were appreciably lower than the females in that
group. Therefore, the differences between the reading and
non-reading groups for males and females appeared not to be
comparable. The fact that the differences between reading
and non-reading for the males were greater than the differ-
ences for the females may be due simply to the fact that the
male non-readers had a substantially lower grade-point aver-
age.

As an adjunct to this study, twenty-three students who
had the reading course and thirty-six students who had not

were given an equated form of the Nelson-Dennngeading Test

 

in the Spring of 1965. This was almost two years after they
took the first Nelson-Denny Test in the fall of 1963. This

 

study was made for three reasons. The first was to discover
whether or not the students who took the reading course im-
proved and secondly, whether or not they retained the gains
made at the end of the reading course. The third reason was
to investigate whether or not the group who had not taken
reading improved reading skills simply by virtue of being in
school. Results of the mean gain scores are given in Table

VII.

- 91 -

TABLE VII. MEAN GAIN SCORES FOR STUDENTS ENROLLED AND
NOT ENROLLED IN READING ON THE NELSON-DENNY
READING TEST GIVEN TWO YEARS AFTER INITIAL

 

 

 

 

 

 

EST.
EnroIIed Not Enrolled A
Males Females Males Females
(N=16) (N = 7L— (N = 22) (N = 11+)
Vocabulary 14.06 10.29 -2.u5 .063
Comprehension 11.69 10.h3 - .09 1.0
Rate 36.88 29.71 -2.lh 15.h3
Total Gain 13.25 8.1h A -1.05 2.32
Enrolled (N = 23) Not Enrolled (N=36)
Vocabulary 12.18 - .0h7
Comprehension 11.06 .083
Rate 33.69 6.6L5
Total Gain 10.69 - .065

 

 

It can be seen that the students who had reading showed
much more gain in all four areas than the students who did
not have reading. A statistical analysis of the difference
between the gain scores on each variable would obviously be
significant, but such an analysis would be misleading. Most
of the students who did not take reading were already very
good students and had reached the upper limits of the stan-
dardized test. The ones who did take reading were below av-
erage students and had much more room to show a large gain
in all areas.

Integpretation of the Findings

 

The first null hypothesis was that students who take de-

velOpmental reading do not make a higher grade-point average

_ 92 -
than those who do not. This hypothesis was rejected. The
research hypothesis was supported by finding that those en-
rolled in developmental reading did make higher grade-point
averages.

The grade-point average for those enrolled in reading
was 1.186 while the grade-point average for the other group
was 1.035. The results indicate that improvement of read-
ing skills does substantially influence level of academic
achievement. While the mean reading and SCAT scores were
somewhat higher for those not enrolled in reading, the other
group surpassed them in grade-point average. The average
class load for those enrolled in reading was 24.29 semester
hours while the other group took 23.92 semester hours of
credit. If either group had any initial advantage, it was
the group who was not enrolled in reading. Therefore, any
statement as to the statistical significance would tend to
be conservative assuming these variants to be relevant.

There appeared to be a relationship between the reading
scores and the grade-point averages. The males had an in-
itially lower mean reading score and also a lower grade-point
average than the females. This may be interpreted that read-
ing scores do influence academic achievement.

One would anticipate, according to other studies that
have been made, that the verbal scores on the SCAT would be
lower also for the males. However, this was not true and

the SCAT scores appeared not to be as significant as the

- 93 -
initial reading scores for predicting academic success.

Students, however, who had both a high initial reading
score and high verbal SCAT score appeared to have substan-
tially higher grade-point averages than those with low scores
on both tests. This would indicate again that these two var-
iables are important in relation to academic achievement.

The high achievers also took a greater number of semes-
ter hours credit, in most cases, than low achievers. Good
basic reading skills apparently determine the number of cred-
its a student can successfully carry during a semester.

The second null hypothesis given was that there are no
more males than females who take developmental reading. The
various claims to sex differences would lead one to expect
that a greater number of males would take reading than fe-
males. There was no statistical difference found in this
study. The ratio between the number of males taking reading
was nearly equal to that of the females. This is not to say,
however, that among those who did take reading that the fe-
males did not perform better than the males. There are some
indications that this, in fact, may be the case. (See Table
VI.)

In addition to working with the forty matched pairs,
the decision was made to collect other data in order to sup-
port the study of grade-point averages discussed previously.
Twenty-three students who had taken reading in the fall of

1963 and thirty-six students who had not taken reading were

-9u-

given another form of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test in the

 

spring of 1965. Many of these students were the same ones
used in the matched pairs study. It was impossible to use
exactly the same pOpulation since many of the students were
attending school elsewhere or had dropped out of school com-
pletely.

This test was given in order to substantiate the fact
that students enrolled in reading do make important gains
in the areas of vocabulary, comprehension, and rate. Fresh-
man norms were used in determining the percentile for the
first test given in 1963. In 1965, sophomore norms were
compared with the earlier percentile scores. These determ-

ined the gains made on the Nelson-Dengy Test as shown earlier

 

in Table VII.

An inspection of this table will show that on the aver-
age those who took reading improved their scores on each of
the variables, vocabulary, comprehension, rate, and total
score much more than those who did not take reading. How-
ever, as mentioned before, while a statistical analysis of
the data would undoubtedly be significant, the results would
be misleading due to the fact that the group who had reading
had more room to improve. The students in the group who did
not take reading, for the most part, already had a high
level of reading ability and could not improve much more be-

cause they had reached the upper limits of the test.

_ 95 -

The largest gain made in each group was in rate of read-
ing. Since there is so much more assigned reading in college
than in high school, the students may have found that they
were forced to read faster to cover the assigned materials.
The group who took reading had a mean gain score in reading
rate of 33.8 while the other group only gained 1.97.

In vocabulary the mean gain score for the group inrolled
in reading was 12.91 while the other group regressed -.Oh7
per cent. It was difficult to understand this regression.
Perhaps the students were motivated on the first test to per-
form well because the test was part of a battery of college
entrance examinations. -They took the second test largely as
a favor to the instructor and realized that this score would
not affect their status in any way.

The group who was enrolled in reading increased 11.06
per cent in comprehension, while the other group increased
.083 per cent. Comprehension is probably the best indica-
tor on the test of scholastic performance. These figures in-
dicate that, as a result of receiving help in comprehension
skills, the group who took reading made substantially higher
gains than did the other group.

The results obtained in the entire study support the hy-
pothesis that students with average, below average, and even
low reading ability can improve their basic reading skills in

a carefully planned program of improvement.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of the Study

 

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects
of a one-semester, one-credit reading improvement course upon
academic achievement. The reading course is usually taken by
freshmen who score below the eleventh grade level as measured
by the Nelson-Dengy Reading Test. Academic achievement is
measured by grade-point average in required or "solid" sub-
jects.

The experimental population was drawn from a total avail-
able freshman pOpulation of five hundred and ninety students
who took the college entrance examinations in the fall of
1963. Out of this p0pulation, two hundred and ninety-three
students attended Odessa College for at least two semesters.
The forty pairs, the experimental and control groups, were
chosen from this population.

The students in the experimental group enrolled in a
freshman English course emphasizing the improvement of read-
ing skill. Control students were not enrolled in the course.
Classes met either two eighty-minute periods or three fifty—
minute periods for eighteen weeks. The training was given
to the experimental group in six different sections taught

by one instructor in the fall of 1963. Besides the improve-

-95-

- 97 -

ment of reading skill, the experimental training was also de-
signed to improve study skills, to attain a better attitude
toward reading, and to develOp self-confidence through the
formation of a better self-concept.

The forty pairs were matched on five variables: initial
reading score, SCAT score, class load, age, and sex. The
groups appeared to be evenly matched. If either group had
an initial advantage the control group did since the mean
reading score and SCAT score were higher.

Grade-point averages for both groups were calculated and
a mean difference found. A "t" test was used to examine the
hypothesis and a significant difference was found in favor of
the experimental group. Therefore, it seems quite likely
that the reading course does have some effect upon grade-
point average.

Another part of the study concerned sex differences in
reading ability. It was hypothesized that more males would
take the reading course than females. A chi-square analysis
was used which showed no statistical differences between the
number of males taking reading and females taking reading.

As an adjunct to the study, twenty-three students who
had taken reading and thirty-Six students who had not taken
reading were compared in terms of gain scores on the Nelson-

Denny Reading Test given initially in the fall of 1963 and

 

again in the Spring of 1965. The scores were expressed in

terms of percentile gains on comprehension, vocabulary, rate,

_ 98 -

and total score on the Nelson:Denny_Rcading Test. Some of

 

these students were the same as those in the forty pairs.
It was impossible to use exactly the same population since
some of the students had either dropped out of school com-
pletely or were attending school elsewhere.

The twenty-three students who had taken the reading
course made much higher gains than those who did not take
reading and apparently, had retained the skills they had
been taught. However, the group who did not take reading
was on a much higher level of ability and did not have as
much room to improve. Most of the students had already reached
the upper limits of the test. For this reason, no statistical
test was computed since it would probably be misleading.

Limitations of the Study

 

Conclusions drawn from the findings of this study should
be considered with strict regard for the following limitations:

1. The findings refer to the specific population stud-
ied: forty pairs of students selected from a popu-
lation of two hundred and ninety-three students en-
tering Odessa Junior College in the fall of 1963
and remaining for at least two semesters. Conclu-
sions which may be drawn are applicable only to
this population or to Similar populations.

2. Conclusions resulting from the statistical analy-
sis of mean scores can be supported only to the ex-
tent that the tests from which the scores were se-

cured were valid and reliable measuring instruments.

- 99 _

No method of random sampling was employed in the
study as such a procedure was impossible for prac-
tical reasons. The forty students chosen for the
study who did take reading were the only ones avail-
able for matching with the forty students who did
not take reading.

The purpose of the study was to determine the in-
fluence of the reading course in terms of grade-
point average. No study was made of such factors
as level of aspiration, initiative, personality
traits and psychological functions.

The students who did not take reading and were on

a low ability level either could not take the read-
ing course because of conflicts or simply did not
desire to improve their reading skills. This

might suggest that these students were not highly
motivated to succeed in college and perhaps were
only in school because of pressure from home.

It was suggested in the literature that the stu-
dents who take reading are given a great deal of
individual attention and consideration. This may
account for part of the significance because an at-
tempt was made to motivate the students, to encour-
age them, to help them solve personal problems, and
to help them with any academic difficulty. Reading

classes were kept small, sixteen per class, so that

10.

ll.

- 100 -
the instructor could know every student very well.
No attention was given to the control group except
in a general orientation course where one hundred
or more students were enrolled.
It was impossible to secure an intelligence quo-
tient for each student. However, some studies
reported in the literature gave evidence that the
verbal subtest on the SCAT seemed to be measuring
identical factors found in the Wechsler Intelli-
gence Test.
The number participating in the study was quite
small. The results would not be applicable to
the high level ability students since there were
not enough of these students in the experimental
group to match with those in the control group.
The results would not be applicable to the ex-
tremely low ability group since there were no stu-
dents in the control group available for matching.
Although every effort was exerted to match students
on five variables, it is possible that some may not
have been matched properly or closely enough. The
data gathered from the administrative offices of
the college were assumed to be correct.
There is no absolute way of knowing how reliable
grade-point averages are. Only subjects which car-

ried three semester hours of credit or more were

- 101 -
chosen for determining grade-point averages. No
consideration was given to the type of curriculum
in which the student was enrolled. It is possible
that some students were taking subjects much harder

than others.

12. No study was made of the number of drOpouts in
either group. This perhaps suggests the need for
further study.

Conclusions

 

In the light of the apparent limitations outlined pre-

viously, the following conclusions can be drawn from the

findings of this study.

1.

There is a significant difference in mean grade-
point average between students enrolled in a read-
ing class and students not enrolled in a reading
class at the .001 level in favor of the experimen-
tal group. This finding would suggest that gains
in reading are quickly reflected in the students'
academic life.

The difference between mean grade-point averages
for the males in the experimental group and those
in the control group was appreciably greater than
the same comparison for females. This would sug-
gest that males improve more than females with the
aid of a develOpmental reading course. However,

this might be misleading because the males were

- 102 -
appreciably lower than the females in the experi-
mental group.
There was no Significant difference in the number
of males not taking reading versus males taking
reading in prOportion to the population. This is
contrary to a number of studies which suggest that
more males need reading than females due to matur-
ation or other factors.
There was evidence to Show that students who do
take reading make higher gain scores as measured

by the Nelson-Denny Readinngest on rate, compre-

 

hension, vocabulary, and total score. AS suggested
in the limitations of the study, students in the
experimental group have more gains to make than

most students who do not take~reading.

Since the students who had reading did better on
gains in reading as well as on grade-point average,
it is reasonable to assume that the materials and
procedures used in the reading program are of value.
This may be due in part to the nature of materials
and methods used. The course has been directed pri-
marily toward the accomplishment of academic achieve-
ment and not merely to an increase in reading rate.
There is reason to assume that mechanical instru-
ments and devices are useful adjuncts to the de-

velopment of skill in reading, but cannot be

- 103 -
regarded as taking the place of a teacher or di-
rected teaching procedures.
Students who did take the reading course retained
their gains for a period of almost two years.
This suggests that if Skills are practiced, they

will be retained over a relatively long period of
time.

Educational Implications

1.

There were indications that time and money Spent
on a college improvement reading program is worth-
while.

The program seems to benefit the below-average
reader. However, no study was made concerning

the mediocre reader or the above average reader.
Some students observed in this study were on a
high level of reading ability, but made very poor
grade averages. Perhaps these students need train-
ing in other aspects of comprehension such as or-
ganizing materials, searching for main ideas, draw-
ing conclusions, etc.

Even if the below-average students do make high
percentile gains on standardized tests, often the
gains are not sufficient to bring them up to grade
level. They are still unable to compete with those

who are very efficient readers.

_ 10g _
A study should be made of the number of drOpouts
in the reading program to determine the role it
plays in keeping students from withdrawing.
Parallel studies could be made of other programs
for the purpose of comparing the effects of dif-
ferent combinations of activities and types of in-
structional treatment.
A further study should be made of personality fac-
tors and attitudes as they effect reading improve-
ment.
The factor of motivation appears to be important
and should be investigated.
Further investigation should be given to factors
which inhibit the response of some students to
training given in reading. ‘
Possibly the most important implication is that
reading instructors will have to accept the task
of dealing with the whole phenomenal field of the
individual to bring about needed changes in achieve-

ment, attitudes, and environment.

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10.

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