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mg CESSATION 0F MEISTERLIEDER : ,
PRODUCTION IN HANS SACHS * ‘

Thesis for the Degreeo‘f PM).  }:
MICHIGAN STATEUNIVERSITY .
LARRY LEROY GEORGE ,_
1971.

 

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LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

This is to certify that the

- thesis entitled
The Cessation of Meisterlieder

Production in Hans Sachs

presented by
Larry LeBoy George

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph 0 d. 0 degree in German

Wm

Major professor

Date WMZ/yg
/

0-169

ABSTRACT

THE CESSATION OF MEISTERLIEDER
PRODUCTION IN HANS SACHS

By
Larry LeRoy George

In his Problems in_German Literary History Archer

 

 

Taylor points out that in 1556 Hans Sachs wrote 158-
Meisterlieder and in 1557 only 25. Some theories have

been advanced suggesting reasons for this apparent sudden
curtailment of productivity. Among them, such theories as
that as the death of his wife, who died in 1560, caused this
sudden change, are not only incorrect but show a definite
lack of research to corroborate such a view.

We should find a solution to the problem for a
number of reasons. Foremost perhaps, is the fact that with
this change not only did Hans Sachs change his direction,
but he also, with his departure from the ranks of the faith-
ful, spelled the death knell for Meistergesang in general.
Secondly, it will give us a better insight into the history
and real significance of Meistergesang as a genre in the .
sixteenth century. Thirdly and as the final point, it will

give us insight into the motivations of Hans Sachs with

Larry LeRoy George

regard to his literary activity in a number of genres and
also point up possible solutions as to why he treated the
same material in a number of different genres.

In order to offer an adequate solution to this
problem, a comprehensive and detailed study of all aspects
of Sachs' life, his literary activities with regard to
7 Meistergesang, Spruchdichtung, and the stage as well as
the effect of his historical surroundings upon him and his
native city Nuremberg had to be made.

Through this detailed treatment of these areas, it
is shown that there was no one isolated cause for Sachs'
sudden shift, but that it was the result of a number of
interrelated events which led to Sachs' change of emphasis.
These factors may be categorized into two areas. First
and foremost, Sachs' curtailment of production of Meister-
lieder was brought about by his inclination to follow the
"Mode seiner Zeit." Secondly, his strong desire to express
more personal feelings and to convey didactic messages to
the more general public caused him to shift to different
media more suited to this type of personal feeling and

didacticism.

THE CESSATION 0F MEISTERLIEDER

PRODUCTION IN HANS SACHS

BY

Larry LeRoy George

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of German and Russian

1971

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express eSpecial thanks to
Professor Stuart A. Gallacher, Department of German and
Russian, Michigan State University, who provided the
initial inspiration for this dissertation and whose help

was essential in rendering this work in its present form.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . .
LIFE. . . . . . . . . . .

MEISTERGESANG. . . . . . .

A Brief History of the Genre's Development

Form. 0 O O O O O O 0
Choice of Subject Matter . .

Sachs' General Attitude and Approa

.Meistergesang. . . . .
Sachs: 1516-1540 . . . .
Sachs: 1540—1561 . . . .
SPRUCHDICHTUNG . . . . . . .
DRAMA . . . . . . . . . .
Importance and Development in
Tragedies and Comedies. . .
HISTORICAL INFLUENCES . . . . .
CONCLUSION. . . . . . . .

FOOTNOTES . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . .

iii

ch

to

Nuremberg
Reasons for Turning to the Theater.

Page

ll
13

15
l6
19
28
32
32
36
40
43
49
54

6O

INTRODUCTION

In his Problems in German Literary History Archer

 

 

Taylor points out that in 1556 Hans Sachs wrote 158
Meisterlieder and in 1557 only 25. Some theories have been
advanced suggesting reasons for this apparent sudden cur-
tailment of productivity. Among them, such statements as
the death of his wife, who died in 1560, caused this sudden
change, are not only incorrect but show a definite lack of
research to corroborate such a view.

We should find a solution to the problem for a num—
ber of reasons. Foremost perhaps, is the fact that with
this change not only did Hans Sachs change his direction,
but he also, with his departure from the ranks of the faith-
ful, Spelled the death knell for Meistergesang in general.
Secondly, it will give us a better insight into the history
and real significance of Meistergesang as a genre in the
sixteenth century. Thirdly and as the final point, it
will give us insight into the motivations of Hans Sachs
with regard to his literary activity in a number of genres
and also point up possible solutions as to why he treated
the Same material in a number of different genres.

In order to offer an adequate solution to this
problem, we need to make a comprehensive study of all

1

aspects of Sachs' life, his literary productivity, and the
effect of his historical surroundings upon him and his
native city, Nuremberg. Through this detailed treatment

of these three areas, it will be shown that there was no
one isolated cause for Sachs' sudden shift, but that it was
the result of a number of interrelated events which lead

to Sachs' change of emphasis.

LIFE

It is of prime importance to look at Hans Sachs'
life, because it illustrates that due to his rank in soci-
ety and his upbringing and education, that regardless of
his natural and developed gifts, he was destined to play
a role, great or small, in the history of Meistergesang in
Nuremberg.

Sachs, the son of a tailor, was born in Nuremberg
on November 5, 1494. As was the custom for a child in his
surroundings, at the age of seven he began to attend one of
the four Latin Schools in Nuremberg (Easter, 1501). Here,
Sachs obtained the rudiments of an education as he attests
in his "Summa all meiner gedicht" in 1567.

Darrin 1ert ich puerila,

Grammatica and Musica

Nach ringem brauch derselben zeit;

Solchs alls ist mir vergessen seit,l
His instructor, a certain Fridel, was also a Meistersinger
and evidently influenced young Sachs in this area, for
Sachs later employed, on several occasions, melodies com?
posed by Fridel.

In 1508 Sachs was apprenticed to a cobbler with
whom he worked for three years. It was during this time
that he was more fully introduced into the art of Meister-

gesang. However, as tradition demanded in 1511 he departed

3

on his "Wanderschaft." His five years of wandering saw him
in Frankfurt, where he passed his qualifying examination in
the art of Meistergesang, as well as in Erfurt, Leipzig,
and for a time at the court of Kaiser Maximilian I serving
as a huntsman.

Upon his return to Nuremberg in 1516, his two chief
concerns were to make his "master piece" and then to marry,
for these were the two primary requirements for becoming a
master. The second condition was fulfilled in 1519 when
he married Kunigunde Kreutzer aus Wendelstein.2 His parents
gave him a house on Ratsgasse, apparently the one he had
been born in, and his wife brought a good dowry'along.3

The early years of marriage put tremendous financial
burdens on Sachs for his wife bore him five children in
eight years, which necessitated his working more and writing
less than he might have desired.

In 1520 Sachs became a "Meister" in the cobbler
guild. He pursued his trade diligently and even traveled
to the Frankfurt Fair with his goods. His providing for
his family consumed a great deal of his time through 1542.
On the fourteenth of June, 1542, he purchased a new house
on the Spitalgfisslein, now called Hans Sachsengasse, from
Hannsen Polzinger for 610 gulden.4 He lived in this house
until his death. The purchase of this new house indicated
that his financial circumstances were improved and that he

was now relatively well off.

Since all of his activities with regard to literary
pursuits were always done in his spare time, this advance-
ment to a better status in his personal financial affairs
would surely have a positive effect upon the amount of
writing which he could produce.

Having remained very active in both the literary
and cobbler spheres, the stress of such a life caused him
as early as 1554 to complain of his health. "Wurt schwach
mein Gedachtnis und auch mein sinnreicher Einfluss wart

machtlos und entwich."5

To be sure as time progressed he
began to complain more and more about the infirmities of
old age. Despite this fact be resolved to continue writing
and still plied his trade at this juncture. This is sub-
stantiated by his comments in his introduction to his first
volume of printed materials which appeared in 1558.

Sollichen schaden zur ffirkhommen, hab ich meins

alters im 63 jar alle meine gedicht, so ich bissher

inn zway unnd vierzig jaren neben meiner handarbeyt

volend hab, in meinen bfichern besichtigt unnd auss

den selben allen die furnembsten erwelet unnd ver-

fertiget in dieses buch zusammen zu trucken, . . .6
However, during 1558 he appears to have given up his cob-
bler activities for in the second set of volumes he had
published, he states, that he is "gewesener Schuhmacher."7
Thus, he must have felt himself too infirmed to continue
to work for a living.

He continued to complain of the problems of old

age in 1559. In his long "KlagesPrach fiber das schwere

Alter" of that year, he lamented the weakness of his limbs,

the partial loss of hearing and other infirmities of old age.

In the end of March, 1560, Sachs lost his wife of
forty years, Kunigunde Kreutzer. At the same time he had
also outlived his seven children. At this juncture, "wurde
er Dichtens und Schreibens verdrossen, weil auch, wie er
sagt, das Alter ihn Schwer gefesselt und fiberladen het."8
However, after the death of his wife, he did remain busy
compiling his works for publication by Georg Miller in
Augsburg, and in 1560 he completed his "Generalregister"
which included 5400 works written as of the time of com-
pilation.

Yet, for only a year and five months did Hans Sachs
withdraw into his house. After the death of his first wife,
he had no real desire to hide behind books, but rather
resolved to marry Barbara Harscherlin, the widow of the
tub-thumber Jacob Endres.9 They were engaged on August
12, 1561 and married September 2 of the same year. Rudolf
Genée comments about the change in Sachs at this time.

Jedermann freute sich, dass der treffliche Mann
wieder unter Menschen kam und dass er ein neues
junges Eheglfick gefunden hatte.lo
This comment implies that Sachs had become a semi-recluse
after Kunigunde's death.

Barbara Harscherlin, who had been married for eleven
years, had six children, the youngest was only six months
old at the time of her husband's death. She was almost
forty years old. This marriage, however, had an almost

magical effect upon Sachs. Paul Landau remarks in his

Hans Sachs,

 

Der gealterte Dichter fand hier noch einmal ein
volles Eheglfick, ja einen letzten spaten Frfihling,
der in seinem Gemfit und Schaffen reiche Frfichte
trieb.ll
The new family did indeed reawaken Sachs' talent and
having children around the house seemed to have been es-
pecially beneficial for Hans Sachs was a strong family
man.

Only two of his own children survived childhood
and both predeceased him. When his daughter died, her
husband, much to the chagrin of Sachs, left with the chil-
dren. His wife then died and he was alone. However, his
remarriage changed all that and gave him a renewed birth
both physically and poetically.

Jedensfalls [after remarriage] sprudelt jetzt der
"Quell der Poesie" wieder 1ebhaft, und die "des
Schreibens verdrossene Hand" fliegt wieder mit dem
flinken Ginsekiel fiber Papier, reiht Reim an Reim
und ffillt Seite auf Seite.12

Hans Sachs died on the nineteenth of January, 1576, in

Nuremberg.

MEISTE RGESANG

A Brief Historygf the Genre's Development

 

 

A statement of exactly which characteristics exem—
plify the Meistergesang has been attempted by many notable
critics. The essential elements that all agree upon are
as follows. Foremost, the elaborating of the already com-
plicated metrical system of medieval lyric poetry upon
which it is based. Second, the use of source material in
a didactic manner with the expressed intent of moralizing.13
Finally, the employment of these materials by "zunftmassig

verbundenen bfirgerlichen Genossenschaft."l4

Generally
speaking, it signaled a "bfirgerlich" and realistic approach

in literature. A new Weltanschauung and a new appraisal of

 

the life of the late middle ages was displayed.
Meistergesang belongs to a limited historical

15 In its

period, extending roughly from 1300 to 1700.
early phases it is nothing but Minnesang rendered in p0pu-
lar terms. To be sure, during the earliest stages of de-
velopment in the fourteenth century, the "Meister" were

the peOple's troubadours, who employed satires and sermons
more than their predecessors, i.e., prior to 1300.

Meistergesang was a product of special economic

and social conditions. The Meistergesang belongs to the

8

period which saw the greatest flowering of southern Germany
with regard to trade and merchant wealth. At this same
time the German guilds were rising to power, these arti-
sans and tradesfolk took over the leading role in the pro-
duction of Meistergesang.

Unter allen bestehenden Handwerken waren es in erster

Reihe die Schuhmacher und die Weber, bei denen der

Meistergesang besonders beliebt war.16
By limiting the practice of the genre to the guilds,
Meistergesang was cut off from popular energy and becomes
the private art of a few. Likewise, due to this close
affiliation with the guilds, when the decline of the south-
ern German cities and guilds set in, the Meistergesang
likewise suffered reverses.

As the members of the guilds associated in groups,
Meistergesang, which had become soulless and uninteresting
in the hands of the early Meistersingers, was given a new
variety but along definitely described lines. In these
guidelines, everything was provided for except pOetical
inspiration. At this point, however, the gatherings of
the Meistersinger were still relatively free and no "Sing-

schule"17

in the later sense really existed.

However, out of these free gatherings the bodies
of the Singschulen did grow. They were highly regulated
groups, whose members had to adhere to the statutes as

formulated by the school to which they were a member. This

limitation to a selected group and the confining restriction

10

of the school's statutes had a distinct effect as Curt Mey
points out.
Wenn dadurch auch im Anfange eine Verkndcherung
eintrat, welche sich nach der zweimaligen Blfite
wiederholte und schliesslich zum Untergang des
Meistergesanges fiihrte.18
In this period from 1470-1555, which Archer Taylor classi-
fies as the second epoch of Meistergesang, the rules con-
cerning form, content, and structure have become so firmly
established that a revolt arises against the various schools'
dictatorial rules concerning both form and content. To be
sure, this defiance of the accepted standard opened the
way for Meistergesang to achieve its climax in Hans Sachs.

While it is granted that the ill-regulated indivi-
dual originality of the earlier history of the Meistergesang
needed some regulation, the gradual implementation of elab-I
orate rules and subsequent changes provided anything but a
salutary effect in the long run.

The first school of Meistergesang, which definitely
had written statutes, was in Strassburg and was founded in
1492. Others maintain that the school in Augsburg stemming
from 1450 was the first, but its manner of procedure seems
to have been of the more general kind, denoting the first
period of the epoch.

After the curtailment of Luther's activities, the

number of Singschulen began to diminish and they lasted

longest in Protestant areas.

ll

Und thatsfichlich blfihten auch die Schulen in den
Stadten, in welchen die Reformation eingeffihrt wurde,
lénger als in den katholisch bleibenden Orten, in
denen es mit der Meistersingerkunst bald ganz und
gar zuende ging.19
Furthermore, the number of Meisterlieder retained in manu-
script form diminishes from decade to decade until we have
practically nothing from the period after 1550.

Adam Puschmann, who was a pupil of Hans Sachs, la-
ments the decline of the art of Meistergesang even before
Hans Sachs' death. In 1561 Puschmann writes,

. . . die Meistersinger zu Nfirnberg nichts anderes
trieben als Hader und Zank, dass ein jeder sich
ganzlich verstandnislos am liebsten seine eigene
Tabulatur zusammenbauen m6chte, und dass die Schule
aller Gelehrten, zu aller Verstandigen fiberhaupt
zu werden drohe; manche Meister hatten_dazumal
gerade so in der Tabulatur herumgewfihlt, wie die
Schweine in den Riiben.20
These comments by Puschmann are dated within the final and
fading stage of Meistergesang. With the essential cessation
of production by Hans Sachs after 1555, the art severely

declined. Efforts to revive the genre proved futile.

Form

 

Meistergesang, which was not intended for public

singing and was forbidden to be published, is an art form

21

of many rules, essentially "ars technica." Bert Nagel

maintains that
Meistersang ist ein Dichtungstypus von ausgesprochen

regelhaft-rationaler Pragung; ein technischer
K6nnenskunstbegriff, . . .2

12

The rules controlling this art form were first compiled
and codified under the title of "Tabulatur" at the end of
the fifteenth century.

As we can ascertain from the Tabulaturen and
Meisterlieder available, the structure is based upon that
of the Minnesang. Each poem consisted of a number of
stanzas, which in turn each had two Stollen which were
identical in form, in length and number of lines and mel-
ody. The two Stollen were followed by an "Abgesang" of a
different structure and melody. The music was an essential
ingredient in the Meistergesang and perhaps of prime impor-
tance. However, when we find stophes of 66 to 100 lines,
it is obvious that this purity of form was only evident on
paper and not by the listener.

During Meistergesang's second stage of development,
Hans Folz led a revolt against the prescribed standards of
Meistergesang. Feeling that other meters and melodies be-
sides those of the old masters were valid, he suggested to
the Meistersingers in Worms that henceforth only he who com-
posed a new melody would obtain the title of Meister. Re-
buffed in his native city, he traveled to Nuremberg, which
was a more culturally advanced and cosmopolitan city, and
thus more apt to be pursuaded to change.

Hans Folz's suggestions were accepted in Nuremberg
. and helped to lead to the greatest flowering of Meister-

gesang. Yet, the new rule became an equally tyrannous

l3

convention, and finally brought about the decay of the
genre through imposing a desire for new and ever more fan-
tastic inventions. To be sure, the point has been made
that
The acceptance of the rule that a Meistersinger won
recognition only by inventing a new metre and a new
tune complicated the metrical structure of the Meister-
lieder enormously and rendered Meistergesang an in-
genious game rather than a means of poetic utterance.23
The fact that Adam Puschmann almost never used a metrical

pattern twice in his 169 Meisterlieder readily illustrates

how much of a game writing Meisterlieder had become.

Choice 9: Subject Matter

Initially, the true Meistersingers dealt predomi-
nantly with religious material and only to a minor extent
concerned themselves with secular topics. In essence, they
were lay preachers, who gave renditions of the scriptures,
while attaching a moral.

At the instigation of Hans Folz the "Stoffkreis"
was expanded beginning about 1500. At this juncture serious
secular themes were added to the religious and could be

24 The singers still avoided all

used at the "Hauptsingen."
expression of personal feelings or emotion.

Similarly, except for their interest in the Reforma-
tion, the Meistersinger paid almost no attention to the
great social and economic changes which were going on about

them. To be sure, the Meistersingers realized perfectly

well that their choice of subjects did not elicit popular

l4

iapproval and interest, but they did not choose to change
their ways.25
With the advent of Hans Sachs popularity this

changed to some extent. In W. Sommer's Die Metrik des

 

Hans Sachs we read that

 

. . . Sachs ist der erste, welcher neben ahnlichen

religi6sen Stoffen nun auch weltliche zu behandeln

begann.26
This is not quite accurate as Hans F012 and others had ex-
panded the content, but with them the themes remained
serious. Sachs, however, was innovative in that he intro-
duced new material, especially from medieval legend, fables
from Renaissance and contemporary anecdote, which he
handled with humor and narrative skill.27

Yet, Sachs did not make a sudden break with past

tradition, but moved away from the old standard slowly.
This fact, that a gradual change is taking place, is evi-
dent in Sachs' change of subject matter. Indeed,

anfangs seine Thematik: ein Burger sucht die

"Geheimnisse" der Gottheit und des Sakraments zu

ergrfiggen, singt das Lob der heilgen Jungfrau,

Sachs initially treats the standard themes, then follows

the path of F012 and abandons the conventional and narrow-
sighted position of the Singschule. Then in the late 1540's
he brings in experiences from his wanderings and draws upon
the store of antique literature which was appearing in

German translations at this time.

15

Sachs' General Attitude and Approach
to Meistergesang

 

 

 

Meistergesang reached its height of development
and began to decay both in the era of Hans Sachs. There
is good reason for both these developments. As Eugen
Geiger notes,

Mit Hans Sachs beginnt der Niedergang des reinen
Meistergesanges, da er nicht mehr Nur-Meistersanger
ist. Im Gegensatz zu frfiheren Meistersangern spielen
bei ihm die weltlichen Stoffe eine grosse Rolle.29
Thus, Sachs was moving away, markedly so in his later
writings, from the original religious materials which con-
stituted the main body of subject matter for the genre.
Indeed, Geiger goes on to say,
Hans Sachs hat, . . ., mehr weltliche als geistliche
Meistergesange gedichtet; nicht weil ihn die Reforma-
tion von den geistlich-biblischen Stoffen wegffihrte:
das Gegenteil ist der Fall.3O
Therefore, except for the Reformation Hans Sachs would
probably have more pronouncedly divorced himself from the
standard content of Meistergesang.

As far as the form is concerned, it has been noted
that essentially the Meistersingers played a game with
form, with syllables as the counters. The form, which be—
came an end in and of itself, often became so complicated
that for the uninitiated, it was necessary that they work
on the forms aseageometrical puzzle in order to gain a
meaningful analysis.31 Exactly this high degree of adher-

ence to the standardization of line length, rime, etc. led

to alteration of subject matter and eSpecially deletions

 

 

16

of certain parts to make a given topic fit within the
metrical confines of the work. Geiger states,
Immer sehen wir, wie die Form den Meister zwang,
seine handgreifliche Alltagsmoral in den Meister-
gesangen zu kiirzen.32
This would be especially confining to Sachs, to whom the
moral and didactic intent of literature was so important.
Hans Sachs wrote thirteen new tunes for Meister-
gesang. Nine of the thirteen date from 1527 or earlier
and the last new tune was composed in 1546. Thus, his
most creative period with regard to Meistergesang lies
well before his most productive.
Two additional points need to be made. First, that
when Sachs returned to Nuremberg after his Wanderschaft,

33 Sachs

the Singschule was in an advanced state of decay.
became the leader of the school, drew up rules of composi-
tion and procedures for meetings, invented new melodies,

and enlarged the subject matter. Secondly, it was by his

indefatigable energy that he returned Nuremberg to its

preeminence in this genre.

Sachs: 1516-1540

 

Hans Sachs states that he wrote over 4400 Meister-
lieder according to the rules of the Tabulatur. This may
well be the case, but his adherence to some of the rules
diminished as time passed. Initially, Sachs, as those be-
fore him had done, adapted a part of the Bible both ver-

bally and metrically into Meistergesang. The adaptations

17

were quite literal and only seldom does one find a free
rendition.34
The period of Sachs creativity in this genre up to

the Reformation is very well summarized in Zur Entwicklung

 

und Bedeutung des dt. Meistergesangs im 15. und 16. Jahr-

 

hunderts.
Bei jenen liegt der Schwerpunkt der Forderung an
den Sanger in der Menge des praktischen und theo-
retischen Wissen; der Dichter soll fiber eine
umfassende Bildung verffigen, er soll fiber theo-
10gische Dinge, fiber die Hierarchie Von Kirche und
Staat, fiber das Leben jedes Standes das Nfitige wissen,
um jedem Publikum genfigen zu kfinnen; und er soll
durch poetische Neuschfipfungen sich die unsterb-
lichkeit zu sichern suchen.35
This point of view, which was followed by Hans Sachs in
his twenties, was changed through Sachs' interest in the
Reformation.

Now, the Meistersinger assumes the role of preacher
and teacher, who endeavors to make the public susceptible
to the moral teachings of Christianity. The Meistersinger
is now to form his songs with content from the Bible or
history and through their rendition illustrates what is to
be considered evil and what is to be considered good.

This change from the first ideal to the second is
characteristic for the develOpment of the content of Meister-
gesang from the fifteenth to the sixteenth century; at the
same time, however, for the development of Hans Sachs him-
self, who with the main body of his productions belongs to

the second ideal.36

18

Yet, at the same time, Sachs' conversion to Protes-
tantism brought abOut other problems. His "Spruchdichtung"
and his dramatic works became more immersed in theology
and thus became a public weapon in the war of theology
that was raging at this time.

A careful study of Hans Sachs' own general register
shows that he had no apparent strong interest in one par-
ticular genre but was active about equally in all that
were popular at the time. Evidently the event which helped
to limit his production for some time to come to Meister-
lieder was the censorship imposed upon him and his fellow
writers by the city council of Nuremberg.

Nachdem ihm die stfidtliche Obrigkeit 1527 die kon-
fessionelle Publizistik verboten hatte, stand sein
Schaffen ganz im Dienst des Meistersangs, der
Erbauung and geselligen Unterhaltung.3
Sachs' great activity in Meistergesang is definitely a case
of applying wisdom over valor under such a censorship.

Therefore, the religious productions maintained an
upper hand until 1536. The time from 1527-1536 has been
called the time of Sachs' "Bibelparaphrase."

Von nun ab war die Sache der Reformation die Sache
des Meistergesang. Auf Jahrzehnte war fast der
ausschliessliche Stoff ihrer Lieder die Luthersche
Bible, die ganz systematisch, Buch ffir Buch, Kapitel
ffir Kapitel, Wort ffir Wort, in die meisterlichen
StrOphe und Reimschemata hineingezwfingt ward und so
mit die weiteste Verbreitung in den bfirgerlichen
Kreisen fand.38

However, after the withdrawal of the censorship the pre-

ponderance of the secular Meisterlieder (1536-1552) begins.

19

During this period the last three of Hans Sachs' new tunes
are produced. The "Spruchweisse" and the "Rosenton" (1541)
‘are both somewhat epic in tone. Again this would be con-

sistent with the movement away from pure Meistergesang.

Sachs: 1540-1561

 

Hans Sachs bought a new house in 1542, which would
seem to indicate that he was doing well at his trade and
was now well enough off to devote more of his time to
Meistergesang.

We now come upon a paradox. Sachs wrote his last

new tune in 1546.39

Whether it be only coincidence or not,
for in Victor Michels' work on the theater of Nuremberg,
we find the following comment.

Am 13. August 1546 findet sich, soweit ich die

Rathsverlasse durchgesehen habe, zum letzten Mal

von zahlreichen frfiherer Jahre die Notiz, dass den

Meistersingern auf Sonntag eine Singschule erlaubt

sei.
This, of course, can mean one of two things. First, that
the public had lost so much interest in Meistergesang that
there was no longer a basis for public performances. The
second is that the mayor considered these performances as
a usual event and no longer bothered to enter them in the
protocol.

As tempting as it is to accept the former, we are

confronted with the fact that Sachs' most productive years

in the production of Meistergesang were 1547 and 1548 with

351 and 417 songs reSpectively.41 The fact must always be

20

_kept in mind that the number of performances open to the
public was at all times restricted.

On the other hand, it would also be convenient to
claim that after 1548 he appeared to have sensed the im-
pending death of Meistergesang and summarily changed genres.
This, however, is not the case. His production did decline
markedly from 1548 to 1549 as in 1549 he produced only 178
Meisterlieder. In the next six years, however, his pro-
ductivity fluctuates from a high of 302 in 1554 to a low
of 158 in 1556. The average for this six year span is

227.42

During these, his most productive years, the Meister-
gesang with secular content played a greater role being
about equal in number to those of religious orientation.
Yet, already in 1554 while Sachs is having his
fourth most productive year of Meisterlieder writing, he
complains of physical weakness. We read that
Es ist sehr auffallend, dass er schon 1554, also da
seine dichterische Kraft und Thatigkeit im hfichsten
Masse sich zu steigen begonnen hatte, fiber seine
zunehmende Schwache klagte, und zwar in einem
Meisterlied.43
Let us then take a look at this Meisterlied. It is en-
titled "Zal und sum meiner gedicht auf dise zeit." Com-
posed in the "hohen tagweis Hans Sachsen," it dates from
December 31, 1554.
A15 ich, Hans Sachs, alt ware
zwei monat sechig jare,
wurt schwach mein gedechtnuss

und auch mein sinnreicher einfluss
wart machtlos und entwickte.

21

VerstOpft wurde die quellen

der artlichen einfellen,

vernunft wurt schwach und blfid,
lust und begir wurt schwach und 6d
zu hfiflichem gedichte:

Da beschloss ich, mein leben

in stille ru zu geben,

forthin zu leben frei, 44

mussig von aller poetrei.

In this first section Sachs laments his physical weakness
and feels that further poetic endeavors are too demanding
for him. Therefore, he will cease to write and live his
life free from the demands of poetry. But in the Meister-
gesang the goddess of art appears to him and reminds him
of his duty to Meistergesang. Sachs replies and mentions
all his poetic endeavors and that now he only wishes some
reSpite from all his creative labors.

mein bitt ist, ir gfittin,

das ir mich zehen wolt forthin

quit ledig aller pflichte

Weil ich euch dinet habe

his in mein alter grabe,

das mich nun merklich krenkt 45

all mein kraft mir zu grunde senkt.
Yet, deSpite his request Terpsychore46 replies that the
gods and goddesses will help him and guide his course and
that his fame will increase.

zu hant der traum verschwunde,

darvon ich auferwacht.

das geschah gleich in der jaresnacht,

als man der minderen zelet

vier und funfzig erwelet,

da bis bar machet ich

und das vierzehnte buch warlich
beschloss mit dem gedichte.47

22

Thus, as is readily evident, Sachs is feeling the weakness
of advanced age and wishes to be free of his responsibili-
ties to Meistergesang but feels that he is so involved that
he must continue. It should be noted that a 34.4 percent
decrease in his production of Meisterlieder occurs from
1554 to 1555. Then there is an 18 percent decrease from

48

1555 to 1556. In the midst of this decrease of produc-

tivity, which was to lead to a complete curtailment of
Meisterlieder production, Sachs was elected Merker49 in the
Nuremberg school. While serving in this capacity, the

chief office of the school, he also influenced Adam Puschmann
to devote himself to the cause of Meistergesang. However,
this might not show so curious a contradiction as Archer
Taylor and others think. It was a very time consuming

task to be a Merker and all evidence points to the fact

that the Merker was not allowed to perform at the Haupt-

singen or Festsingen. In Hans Sachs' Das Gemerkbfichlein,

 

which contains the minutes of the Nuremberg Singschule from
1555-1561, he never has his own name written down as a
presenter of a Meistergesang during this whole time span.50
Therefore, it would appear that the Merker was not allowed
to perform, which is a lOgical deduction due to the impor-
tance of his judging the songs being presented. Therefore,
Sachs could now only write his Meisterlieder for his own

satisfaction. He could not present them before his peers

and they could not be published.

23

As the number of his productions decreased, he does
not write generally in fits and starts as might be expected
but rather writes less frequently. Now instead of writing
at least once almost every day, he now writes only every
four, five, six, or seven days. On occasion, he will write
a few days in a row and then not for quite a while, but
this is not his general procedure. Already in November and
December of 1556 this infrequency of production is dis-
cernible. Likewise, this is the case in 1557.

Sachs again complains about the physical infirmities
in the poem introducing his second volume of collected
works. The Spruch which was written on his birthday in
1557, but which did not appear in print until 1558, is
very informative.

Als ffinfzehundert jar
Und acht und funfftizig war
Nach des Herrn geburt
Warhafft gezelet wurt,
Am sechzehenden tag
Februari ich sag,
Ich gentzlich an gebruch
Het gar das erste buch
Meiner gedicht beschlossen,
Da wurd ich gleich vertrossen,
Weil mich das alter gar
Auch uberfallen war
Mit viel geprechligkeit,
Wie solichs bringt die zeit.
Derhalb ich mir zu letzt
Gentzlich und gar ffirsetzt
Fort hin nichts mehr zu dichten,
In ein senfft stille rhu.5l
This is much the same complaint he uttered at the beginning

of the Meisterlieder written in 1554. However, as in 1554,

a goddess asks him not to cease writing.

24

Wir tugend algemein

Bitten dich: 1as nit ab!
Weil du hast Gottcs gab

Und der gottin Muse,

Uns mit gedicht bey-sthe
Wider die schnéden laster, 52
Alles unraths ziechpflaster!

It is very interesting to note, moreover, that when the
goddess suggests he start writing again, Meistergesang is
not one of the genres she suggests employing.

Das lass dich irren nicht!
Fach wider an und dicht
Heilsam zu Gottes glori
Zuchtlehr, warhafft histori,
Lieblich, artlich comedi

Und auch traurig tragedi 53
Und ander Sprfich dergleichen!

Once again Sachs recommits himself to poetic endeavors.

wil ich fort meine tag
Dichten, dieweil ich mag.
Stund auff und mich anricht
Und macht diss new gedicht
Zu eim glficksellig anfang,
Diss buch zu eim eingang,
Darin ich in der still
Mit der zeit zamlen wil
Etlich newe gedicht 54
Gleicher art zu-gericht,

In 1559 he again is complaining about the same
general problems in the Reimrede which introduced his four-
teenth volume of Sprfiche. This work was written three
weeks before his sixty—fifth birthday and he laments again

55

over the "schwach gebrechlich Alter," and also that "je

langer je harter schwachet, so dass der liebliche Springende
Quell der Poesie ganz langsam, trag und unlieblich"56 took

its course.

25

Evidently, he felt that his life or creativity was
drawing to an end of some kind, because on July 12, 1560

57

Sachs began compiling his "Generalregister." In addition,

he wrote "Die suma meiner gedicht als man zelt 1560" on

July 17th of that year.58
With the death of his wife in 1560, Sachs stOpped

writing completely. He was involved at this time compiling

and editing his works for publication but was producing

nothing new. He wrote an average of 1-5/7 Meisterlieder

a year for the years from 1560 until 1566 and none whatso-

ever after 1566.59

To be sure, his creativity was rekindled
in 1562, after he remarried. Nevertheless he stepped down
as Merker in 1561 and apparently having given up his trade
at about the same time, these conditions caused him to cut
himself off from the genre completely.

In essence, a number of factors related to Meister-
gesang and Hans Sachs' role in its development have been
treated in this chapter. First, in the general hiStory of
the genre, it was shown that Meistergesang's development
was dependent upon the flowering of trade and guild life in
southern Germany. Concurrently with the guilds' deve10p-
ment, Singschulen emerged, which were highly regulated
groups, whose members had to adhere to the statutes formu-
lated by the schools. Yet, while the number of Meister-

singers was increasing, fewer and fewer Meisterlieder were

published until after 1550 practically none appeared in

26

print. Second, the form, which was essentially "ars tech-
nica," was regulated by the rules of the Tabulatur.

Folz's new rule, that only he who composed a new melody
would become a master, did bring about a marked change in
melodies used, but this new rule became an equally tyran-
nous convention which eventually rendered Meistergesang

an ingenious game rather than a means of poetic utterance.
Thirdly, subject matter was initially religious but at
Folz's instigation serious secular themes were added.
Sachs went even further by introducing other new materials
and handled them with humor and narrative skill. Geiger
feels that Sachs is here moving markedly away from pure
Meistergesang, because of the non-religious content. How-
ever, Sachs still felt very confined as the strict form
made him greatly shorten his moral endings. Fourth, in
the period 1516-1540 Sachs was active in all genres but
due to the censorship imposed upon him, his choice of
genres was essentially limited to Meistergesang. Fifth,
as early as 1554 in "Zal und sum meiner gedicht auf dise
zeit" Sachs is feeling the weakness of advanced age and
wishes to be free of his responsibilities but feels that
he is so involved in the Singschule that he must continue
to write Meisterlieder. Yet, his number of Meisterlieder
decreased 34 percent from 1554 to 1555 and 18 percent from
1555 to 1556. In 1555 he was elected Merker, which even

more severely limited his possibilities for expression in

27

this genre. Finally, he wrote of his growing weakness
again in 1557 and 1559 and in 1560 drew up his "General-
register" which would seem to indicate that his work was

coming to an end of some kind.

SPRUCHDICHTUNG

"Spruchdichtung" or occasional verse, which existed
side by side with Meistergesang, grew in importance as the
Meistergesang began to decline and eventually overwhelmed
it. This develOpment or change is also readily evident
in the development of Hans Sachs. The reasons for the
change are numerous.
Perhaps of foremost importance was the content.
During his early wanderings Sachs had written several love
poems in the form of Meistergesang. Their content was not
of a suitable nature for that genre, and a few years later
Sachs did not include them in his listings of Meisterlieder.
Spruchdichtung, however, availed him of a vehicle with which
to present his personal feelings and abundant observations.
Consistent with the above, Emil Weller writes
Seiner Natur entsprachen viel mehr Schwank, Fabel
und Fastnachtspiel, Formen, in denen seine lebens-
volle Beobachtung, seine Fahigkeit zur Darstellung
des Realistisch-Genrehaften zur Geltung kamen, und
in deren Behandlung sich das Zurficktreten traditions-
gebundener Volkstumlichkeit zugunsten freier, humor-
voller Gestaltung beobachten léisst.60

The slight bit of irony and/or humor contained herein was

also part of Sachs' general manner and he readily used the

same approach in literature.

28

 

29

Of almost equal importance in Sachs' diSposition
toward writing occasional verse, was his desire to teach.
To be sure, he retained the moralizing conclusions, which
were one of the basic characteristics of the Spruch in the
Middle Ages. In this regard, it was mentioned above that
due to the adherence to form in Meistergesang that the
moral often was compressed into a few lines. The moral,
which was so important to Sachs, did not suffer the same
fate here. 1

Haufiger freilich ist eine ausserliche, nichts

Neues hinzuzuffigen die Verbreitung des Liedes im
Spruche. Das zeigt sich besonders bei den Moralen,
die im Liede kaum je mehr als zwanzig, im Spruch
aber nicht selten sechzig, je hundert Verse ein-
nehmen. Aber auch im Hauptteil setzt der Spruch
haufig an die Stelle der gedrangten Stoffvermittlung
des Liedes gegenstandliche Ausmalung; aus einem
"alten, armen Manne" macht er einen "armen Bettelmann
mit grauen Haar und gebogenem Rficken, der sich auf
Krficken stfitzen muss.61

Weller goes on to list other occasional verses and Meister-

gesange that may be compared.62

Next, a factor of great significance was the rela-
tive importance given to form and to content. It will be
remembered that form was of prime importance in Meister-
gesang and that the content was to be adapted to fit the
selected form. Quite the Opposite was the case in occasional
verse as Rudolph Genée points out.

Bin wesentlicher Unterschied zwischen der Volks-
tfimlichen Poesie des Hans Sachs und seinen Meister-
liedern ist aber darin zu erkennen, dass in den
letzteren der Stoff sich den Versformen anbequemen
musste, dass er nur ffir diese benutzt wurde, wahrend
bei seinen in den altdeutschen Reimpaaren geschriebenen

Dichtungen das stoffliche Interesse der erste Zweck
war.63

30

Thus, content is of prime importance here.

An additional point which must be made is that

 

Hans Sachs did not stumble upon Spruchdichtung only later
in his life. Eberhardt Lammert points out that Nuremberg
was an important center of Spruchdichtung in the fifteenth
century.64 Sachs found that through Spruchdichtung he
could reach a greater audience than through Meisterlieder

which was only presented occasionally before limited groups

and was not published.

The freeing of content as with regard to subject
matter treated and the permissibility to employ strong
personal emotions were also motivating factors in Sachs'
writing of Spruchdichtung. For example, when in 1523 he
wished to be polemical, he employed the Spruch as the form
for the "Wittenbergische Nachtigal." The content was of
prime importance and he wanted to reach as many people as
possible. A second excellent example is found in the Spring
of 1560 when, after the death of his first wife, he writes
a Spruch relating her great importance for him and during
it she appears to him in a dream. Here, strong personal
emotions are expressed, which are not a proper content for
Meistergesang.

The Schwank, which belongs in the Spruchdichtung
group, also enjoyed great popularity at this time. Pauli's

collection appeared in 1522 and Rollwagenbfichlein in 1555.

 

Especially after 1550 the number of Schwank collections

31

increased greatly which shows an increased public interest
at this juncture.

Sachs enjoyed writing these little tales in his
strict Knittelverse and the moral here was once again very
important. Sachs started writing Schwfinke in 1527 and con-
tinued to produce them in a fairly erratic pattern up until
1555. Then in 1555, he wrote 15 Schwanke, the most he had
ever produced in one year. His productivity in this genre

took a slight dip in 1556 to 10, but then he followed with

 

18 in 1557. In 1558 and 1559 he wrote 42 and 41 Schwanke
respectively. Due to the death of his wife, he only wrote
one in 1560 and one in 1561. However, once his creativity
was rekindled we find a total of 102 Schwanke listed from
the years 1562 and 1563. During the span from 1564 until
1569 he writes a few Schwanke each year, about the same
volume as before 1555.65
Thus, Sachs was more strongly attracted to Spruch-
dichtung for a number of reasons. Primarily, the more open
content availed him of a vehicle with which to present his
personal feelings and abundant observations and, to be sure,
the content and not the form was of prime importance. Di-
rectly involved herein is also the permissibility to employ
strong personal emotions. Secondarily, the didactic message
was clearer here, as the moral was greatly expanded. Fi-

nally, Sachs felt that he could reach a much greater audience

through Spruchdichtung than through Meistergesang.

DRAMA

Importance and Development in Nuremberg

 

 

 

The importance of the stage and its possible role
in the cessation of Meisterlieder production was noted
long ago. Archer Taylor noted that

It_has often been suggested that the success of the
Meistersinger in writing and presenting plays turned
their attention from the composition of Meister-
lieder. . . . the first public dramatic performance
in Nuremberg is said to have occurred before 1550,
and this date falls just before the waning of Meister-
gesang.66
To see if this point has any validity with regard to Hans
Sachs, we must look at the history of development and role
played by the stage in Nuremberg from 1500 on.
The stage enjoyed a great popularity in Nuremberg

at the turn of the sixteenth century. This fact is at-

tested to again and again. For example, in The Origin 9f

 

the German Carnival Comedy we read of this period that

 

Nuremberg through wealth the most flourishing, through
industry and art the most cultured town of the Germany
of the period, situated in the heart of the country
was the cradle of the comic drama.67
Yet, despite this popularity the records show that early
in the 1500's that a decrease of interest was shown with

regard to theatrical performances.

32

 

33

Theodor Hampe in Die Entwicklung des Theaterwesens

 

in Nfirnberg suggests two major reasons for this gap. First
and of prime importance is the role that censorship played
at this time. All evidence would indicate that "Spiel-
verbote" had been imposed by the city council. Second
that there was no dramatic genius present at the turn of
the sixteenth century with the ability to transform the
stage into a new,a more meaningful form.68
Sachs, himself, was also directly affected by the

censorship imposed by the council.

Auch Hans Sachs hatte sich Ratsverweise und Mahnungen

zugezogen, als er 1527 in Verbindung mit Osiander

seine "Auslegung der wunderlichen Weissagung von dem

Bapstumb" herausbrachte. . . . Es ist also sehr

wahrscheinlich, dass die strenge Handhabung der

Zensur ihn auch bewogen hatte, vom biblisch-polemischen

Drama Abstand zu nehmen.69
Sachs did not stop writing plays due to the censorship im-
posed upon him, but the plays that he did write from 1530
through 1554 were not for performance. This, however, was
also the general situation, for while we do find the list-
ings of Puppet plays in the city records, we find very,
very few listings of dramatic performances during the same
time span.

The first sign of a revival of the stage's pOpu—

larity in Nuremberg did not arise through the efforts of
Hans Sachs or other Meistersingers, but as a result of the

school system. Humanism had been and was still filtering

up from Italy and the better educated sought to elevate

 

 

34

the level of theater in Germany by use of classical stan-
dards. Leonard Kulmann, the rector of a Latin School in
Nuremberg in the 1540's, made just such an attempt. His
performances, which escaped censorship, motivated Sachs
to start work in this area again himself about 1545.

iIn the area of Fastnachtspiel,70 what Sachs put
before his public in the late 1540's and 1550's was essen-
tially the fifteenth century Shrovetide play. He did make
scenic simplifications, however, and also eliminated to a
great extent the baudy vocabulary.

Initially Sachs had a hard time freeing himself
from the traditional form. Yet, as his talents developed,
he proved to be not only a great master of the genre but
an important innovator as well. Eckehard Catholy agrees

with this as stated in Fastnachtspiel.

 

Fast samtliche Arbeiten betonen, dass das Fnsp.
durch Hans Sachs von seiner ursprfinglichen
Obszfinitat befreit und in den Dienst moralischer
Unterweisung gestellt worden sei.7l
This agrees in essence with the point that van Abbé makes.
Sachs, on the other hand, sterilized everything he
touched. The old themes remained--even the old full—
blooded language remained--but the almost sacramental
obscenity had departed.72
The strong moral or didactic element so strongly evident
in these little farces was, without doubt, one of the basic
reasons that the form appealed to Hans Sachs.
In his "Generalregister" Hans Sachs designated 85

of the 200 plays he had written as Fastnachtspiele. The

 

qua-an

35

 

coming shift to the Fastnachtspiel was evident in a circular

letter "Gesprach mit der Fassnacht," which he wrote in 1540.

In this letter Sachs pleaded for a clean Fastnachtspiel,

and wishing to set a good example, applied his own talents

to the genre.73
Hampe had divided Sachs' Fastnachtspiele into three

groups. Group one, which consists of 14 plays, is charac-

terized by the fact that they open and close with a short

informal address to the spectators. Eleven of this group

 

were written before 1546 and the last in 1551. Group two,
which is by far the largest of all the groups, Opens and
closes with a soliloquy or a dialogue. This group, which
numbers 48 in all, were markedly different in dramatic
technique from group one. These plays were not so spon-
taneous as those of group one and also did not create an
illusion. Rather the setting of the plays and the place of
performance are distinctly separated. Here, the actor
tries to create a theatrical illusion. The plays in group
two date from 1550 through 1559. The smallest group, group
three, which consists of only three Fastnachtspiele, is
characterized by the formal dialogue which opens the play
and the formal epilogue which closes it. These three

plays are of minor importance for our consideration. One
was written in 1552 and two in 1557.74

The division by groups not only has a structural

importance, but also has relevance to subject matter treated.

36

Before 1550 Sachs' Fastnachtspiele were more abstract and

 

subjective. The little plays were being strongly influ-
enced by the allegorical poetry which still prevailed in
the early part of the sixteenth century. However, after
1550, and to be sure, it was the case from 1550 to 1560
which marked the climax in Hans Sachs' activity as a writer
of Fastnachtspiel, he becomes more concrete and realistic
in the treatment of his subject matter. He now treated
particular types of characters or groups of characters and

points out their weaknesses or foibles.

Reasons for Turning E9 the Theater

 

 

A prime basis for the renewed interest in the
theater was the fact that the interest in public perfor-
mances of Meistergesang was decreasing. However, instead
of speaking about general developments of Meistergesang and
the theater, the advice of Constantin Kooznetzoff will be
adhered to.

Alle bedeutenden Singschulen ausser Iglau haben im

Laufe ihrer Geschichte Theateraufffihrungen veran-

staltet. Auf die Frage aber, ob das Komfidienspielen

eine offizielle Tatigkeit der Meistersinger war,

lasst sich keine allgemeingfiltige Antwort geben.

Die Frage muss nicht nur ffir jede Schule einzeln

gestellt und beantwortet werden, sondern auch ffir

jede Epoche in der Geschichte der betreffenden

Schule.75

Thus, let us take a look at the theater life in Nuremberg.

Most researchers agree that in the 1550's a very

active theater life was going on in Nuremberg. This the—

atrical activity was carried on by the artisans and the

37

soul of the group was Hans Sachs. After agreeing on this
point, the scholars fall into disputes as to whether or
not a Meistersinger stage existed. Witkowski maintains
rather than the production of the plays being a corporate
activity, that it was the concern of individuals. Hampe,
on the other hand, thinks that a stage under the direction
of the Singschule did exist. A clarification of this point
is not necessary here. The point is that the theater was
enjoying a great resurgence in Nuremberg.

A question which should be studied is whether or
not the Singschule as a group endeavored to produce Fast-
nachtspiele. Theodor Hampe thinks not.

In den beiden Hauptberichten, den Schriften

Puschmanns und Wagenseils, steht kein Wort davon,

und grundsatzlich dem Denken beider nur eine

lyrisch-musikalische Kunstfibung innerhalb der Schule -

der Meistersinger erlaubt. 76
However, Hans Sachs' Meisterlied dated December 3, 1550
and entitled "Das neu jar" would appear to indicate quite
the opposite. In this Meistergesang he describes the
varying genres in which the Meistersingers are active. In

the third strophe we read,

Auch wfillen wir ein andre jar
Da ein Comedj halten.77

Determining whether or not this was a performance sanc-
tioned by the Singschule, however, is not so simple.
From Sachs' own writings we know that he was an

actor as well as a dramatist. Furthermore, in The Origin

 

g; the German Carnival Comedy by Maximilian Rudwin we read

that:

38

he organized a theatrical company for the production

of his own plays, and by personal participation in

the performance of his pieces advanced the stage of

his day to some extent.78
Yet, there were three troupes operating from 1550-1561 and
each had as its leader a Meistersinger. These three troupes
were directed by Hans Sachs, Jorg Frolich and Ambrosius
Osterreicher.79

The answer to the problem stated above is easily

solved by studying the city council's protocol and the

Meistersinger protocol for the years involved. The perti-

nent dates from the two protocols follow.

1556: Erste Singschule: "auf suntag nach obersten"
(12. Januar).
Zweite Singschule: "auf den gulden suntag in

der fasten" (1. Marz).
Spielzeit: vom 18. Januar bis zum 17. Februar.

1557: Erste Singschule: "auf suntag nach obersten"
(10. Januar).
Zweite Singschule: "auf den guelden suntag in

der fasten" (l4. Marz).
Spielzeit: vom 26. Januar bis zum 7. Marz.

1558: Erste Singschule: "auf obersten" (6. Januar).
Zweite Singschule: "auf suntag vor lichtmes"
(30. Januar).
Dritte Singschule: "auf suntag oculi" (l3. Marz).

Spielzeit: vom 2. bis zum 27. Februar.

1559: Erste Singschule: "auf suntag oculi" (26.
Februar).
Spielzeit: vom "neuen jar an bis uf den weissen
sonntag" (12. Februar).

1560: Erste Singschule: "auf obersten" (6. Januar).
Zweite Singschule: "auf den gulden suntag in der
fasten" (10. Marz). 80
Spielzeit: vom 2. Februar bis zum 2. Marz.

39

Initially in the Meisterlied "Das neu jar" we saw that the
stage was an accepted form of expression for the Meister-
singer. In the information quoted above, it is shown that
from 1556 through 1560 the Singschule did not convene during
the "Spielzeit." Obviously, the school was not convened so
that members could pursue their activities with regard to
Fastnachtspiele presentations. Yet, whether or not these
were performances sanctioned by the Singschule remains an
open question.

Constantin.Kooznetzoff does an admirable job in
clearing up this problem. Reading the city council's reso—
lutions for the year 1561, he noticed that only the troupe
of Jorg Frolich performed that year and the performances
were to run from January 23 through February 23. Yet, the
second meeting of the Singschule was to be held on the
second of February, that is to say in the middle of the
"Spielzeit." From this and the dates above concerning the
performance times of Sachs' troupe, he concluded that the
troupe of Hans Sachs was the official theater troupe of the
Nuremberg Meistersingerschule. Unfortunately, it is im—
possible to make his case more solid, because the records
for the years 1562 through 1575 have been lost.

Thus, we have arrived at the point of being able
to state that theatrical presentations were performed as an
official activity of the Nuremberg Singschule and that

there was only one official troupe, that being Hans Sachs'.

4O

Sachs stepped down as the leader of the troupe in 1561 and
a certain weaver Veit Fesselmann took over for him. Fast-
nachtSpiel without the magnetic personality and driving

force of Hans Sachs soon started to decay once again.

Tragedies and Comedies

 

Hans Sachs was the first writer of Fastnachtspiel
who also wrote tragedies and comedies. With regard to
dramatic worth, these works are not so important as his
Fastnachtspiele but do help to illustrate his great interest
in the theater from 1545 through 1560.

As Opposed to his Fastnachtspiel, these works are
more serious in tone and more formal in structure. Subject
matter also sets the tragedies and comedies apart. For
example, frOm 1547 on he wrote at least one play each year
based upon the Bible and from 1550 through 1558, when his
dramatic productions were at their height, this number in-
creased. To be sure,

Er verfasste etwa 50 biblische Dramen; sie ent-

standen alle erst, nachdem Luthers Bibelfibersetzung
erchienen war, mit der er sich eifrig beschaftigte.

82
Yet simultaneously with the biblical productions, Sachs was
producing plays based on material from the literature of
the Middle Ages and other sources.

The major significance here, however, is that this
shows his general activity in the realm of the theater,

which commenced about 1545, reached its height in the early

1550's and faded out at the end of the same decade.

41

To be sure, in the forward to his third volume of
works he takes leave of the theater. After relating the
reasons for his printing of his plays, he concluded as
follows:

I Guthertziger leser, nimb also an mit
gutem geneigten hertzen diss mein letztes

buch, darmit ich mein 66 jar und alter
mit Gottes gnaden nun zu rhu setzen wil!

Anno Salutis 1561, am 16 tag Augusti.83
In summary, the stage enjoyed great success in
Nuremberg at the turn of the fifteenth century but began
to decline due to the lack of dramatic genius and a rigid
censorship imposed by the city council. Stage activity
was revived about 1540 in the school system. Here, Humanism
was active and sought to elevate the level of theater in
Germany by use of classical standards. Their success
prompted Sachs to again write Fastnachtspiele for public
performance. The strong didactic element in the Fastnacht-
spiel appealed to Sachs and he improved his models by
scenic simplification and by eliminating to a great extent
the baudy vocabulary. His impending shift to Fastnachtspiel
is already evident in his circular letter "Gesprach mit der
Fassnacht," which he wrote in 1540. Next, he was further
motivated in this direction by the decreasing interest in
the public performance of Meistergesang. Two additional
points were made. First, it was shown above that theatrical
presentations were performed as an official activity of

the Nuremberg Singschule and that there was only one

42

official troupe, that being Hans Sachs'. Finally, the fact
that Hans Sachs was the first writer of Fastnachtspiele who
also wrote tragedies and comedies helps to illustrate his
great and consuming interest in the theater and his waning

interest in Meistergesang from 1545 to 1560.

HISTORICAL INFLUENCES

The history of Meistergesang in Nuremberg runs al-
most parallel with the development, flowering and decline
of the city and with the role of the artisan classes.
Therefore, it is useful and informative to briefly survey
the history of the city and the clues that may be found
herein indicating why Hans Sachs stopped writing Meister-
lieder.

During the fifteenth century Nuremberg, which was
one of the cities on the great overland trade routes, was
a center of arts and crafts rather than of large scale
industry and finance. It was a "free city," which meant
that it made its own laws, sent representatives to the pro-
vincial and Imperial diets, and acknowledged no political
obedience except to the emperor, who was too indebted to
them for financial or military aid to attack their liber-
ties.84

With the beginning of the sixteenth century, a
general economic decline beset Germany. The main reason
for this development was that the commerce of south Germany
and the Rhineland was in decay, both because of the shift
of trade to the Atlantic and because the Dutch controlled

the mouth of the Rhine to their own interests. Additionally,

43

44

of extreme importance for the Meistergesang, also at this
time throughout Europe the town-and-guild framework was
being attacked by the new capitalists. Weaving, weavers
being one of the bulwarks of the Singschulen, was one of
the first crafts affected.

Yet, deSpite this overall decline, Nuremberg re-
mained in a relatively stable condition until the middle
of the sixteenth century. Luther commented upon the city,
writing:

Nfirnberg leuchtet wahrlich wie eine Sonne, Mond
und Sterne, und gar kraftiglich andre Stadte beweget,
was daselbst im Schwange geht.85

Another called Nuremberg

Auge und 0hr Deutschlands, da man alles sieht und
hOrt, das wo anders nicht hindringen kann.86

As mentioned above, Nuremberg stood foremost in
the artistic and poetical activity of the time. Due to
its centralized location, it became a center between
streams of progress from west to east, and north to south:
the line of movement crossed here. These events reacted
powerfully upon the minds of the citizenry and the city
was very spiritual.

The development of Meistergesang was also directly
linked to the development, flowering, and decline of the
guilds. The development and flowering of the guilds closely
paralleled that of Nuremberg itself, for when the guilds
began to decline, such a decline was also readily evident

of Nuremberg itself.

45

In the period of development the industrial classes
formed closed societies, almost guilds for poets and verse-
craft became one of the Incorporated Trades. In these
societies, which were formed in Nuremberg as early as 1493,
the poets had to compose according to prescribed rules.

The art of poetry was treated in the same way as weaving
and bootmaking. Due to the artificial emphasis on form,

a prize was given for the work with the fewest mistakes in
technique, passion and true personal feeling were gradu-
ally eliminated from their poetry. Each year these soci-
eties had to obtain permission from the city council to
maintain their singing schools. While this permission was
usually granted, it was sometimes refused, on the ground
that the Masters' songs were too lascivious or polemical.87

The singing societies usually held meetings once
a month after the afternoon services on Sunday in the
Church of St. Catherine. Public performances, which took
place three times a year, were held at Christmas, Easter
and Pentecost.

Nuremberg's and perhaps the whole of Germany's
history took a turn for the worse when Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian died in 1519. To be sure, Maximilian, who was
a patron of both literature and art, was partly responsible
for the good works of this period.

Charles V, his successor, was not the great patron

of the arts that his predecessor had been and did not add

 

46

to but helped to destroy the degree of peace and prOSperity
that existed within the empire. Since Charles was having
troubles with the Pope, the free cities and other self-
governing bodies within the empire initially were rather
susceptible to Luther's ideas. However, in 1529 he settled
his quarrel with the Pope and renewed his loyalty to Rome.
Thus, now there was increased tension between the Protestant
and Catholic factions. During this period of strife
Nuremberg tried to remain neutral, and as mentioned above,
used censorship as one of its weapons in following a middle
path. The judiciousness of this decision with regard to

the Meistergesang in particular, is seen in the fact that

". . . in Mainz gar von ca. 1536-1562 ein Singeverbot . . ."88
was in effect.

Of special importance for Nuremberg and its Meister-
singers was the Schmalkalden League and its demise. This
league, named for a town in Hesse, was formed in 1531 by
a number of Protestant princes and delegates. While founded
as a defense league, it came to Spearhead the opposition
to the imperial regime. The league grew in strength up to
1546, when Charles began his campaigns against it. Upon
defeating the league, Charles was at the height of his
power. He was now anxious to seize supremacy both in poli-
tical and religious matters. In line with this, in 1548
he appointed a commission which published the "Interim."

This document established a half and half religion for all

47

not of the Roman Catholic faith. In effect, the Papacy was
thereby partially reintroduced and some of Luther's work
thereby undone. While this move engendered much ill feel-
ing in Nuremberg, the Council nonetheless accepted the
"Interim."

However, despite Charles' victory in this limited
area, the Holy Roman Empire remained a disintegrating mass
as a civil struggle continued between the Catholic and
Protestant states, the latter aided by France. This strug-
gle was ended by the Peace of Augsburg 1555. The Peace
of Augsburg was a great victory for Protestantism, in that
it sealed the right of the secular authorities to decide
the religious Observance of their subjects (cujus regio
ejus religio). Thus, after initial success, Charles failed
to preserve religious unity in Germany and abdicated his
many crowns and retired to a monastery in 1556.

Nuremberg had other direct problems during the
early 1550's. Albert Alcibiades, Markgraf of Brandenburg,
continually attacked and harassed the city until defeated
in 1557. Therefore, in certain sections of Germany,
battles had been raging on and off for almost twenty years
at the time of the Peace of Augsburg.

With regard to Nuremberg's overall stance, during
Hans Sachs' critical period in Meistersang, we read the

following in Nuremberg in the Sixteenth Century.

 

48

By the 1550's, to be sure, Nuremberg had seen her

best days as a leading manufacturing and mercantile

city. Though she was able to maintain her eminence

for another century or so and her political inde-

pendence until 1806, the later sixteenth century saw

the beginning of her gradual demise as a center of

power and influence.8

Generally speaking, therefore, at the beginning

of the sixteenth century, the overland trade routes were
declining in importance and concurrently with this deve10p~
ment the town-and-guild framework was being attacked by
the new capitalists. This was very important Since the
development, flowering, and decline of the guilds was
closely paralleled by the development, flowering, and
decline of Meistergesang. During the 1550's art and liter-
ature suffered general setbacks first with the death of
Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian (died 1519) who was a patron
of both art and literature and by the naming of Charles V
as his successor who was not only not a great patron of the
arts but also helped to destroy the degree of peace and
prosperity that existed within the empire. To be sure, it
has been Shown that the restrictive censorship, which was
one of the city council's policies in Nuremberg, grew out

of a desire to steer a middle course between Charles and

the Protestant activists.

CONCLUSION

Generally, Hans Sachs to a great extent follows
the literary fashions of his.time, while also being in-
fluenced by his personal life and the historical circum-
stances. As noted above, Sachs was introduced into the art
of Meistergesang by a certain Fridel (see page 3), an in-
structor in the Latin School which Sachs attended. In 1508
Sachs was apprenticed to a cobbler. Since Meistergesang
had years before become an incorporated trade, mainly
practiced by cobblers and weavers, it would have been an
oddity for Sachs' contact with the genre not to have in-
creased at this time.

During his Wanderschaft, which follows his early
apprenticeship, Sachs was still not encumbered by the rules
of the Singschule and wrote love songs and songs about his
experiences which he later excluded from his list of Meister-
gesang. Upon his return to Nuremberg Sachs set out to be-
come a Meister in his trade and also renewed his activity
in the local Singschule.

After marrying Kunigunde Kreutzer in 1519, the
couple had five children in eight years, which caused
Sachs to write less and work more than he might have de—

sired. During the next two and a half decades a number of

49

50

of changes are discernible. As Sachs' financial circum-
stances slowly improved he devoted more time to his literary
pursuits. After his Wanderschaft Sachs wrote Meisterlieder
in the conventional manner, both with regard to form and
content. Then, however, he followed Folz's lead and also
employed serious secular topics. At the same time, Sachs
was busy writing polemical Sprfiche in defense of Protes-
tantism. This fact along with his equally polemical plays
caused Sachs to run afoul of the city council and his pro-
ductions were censored. The policy of censorship was em-
ployed from 1527 up to 1545 by the Nuremberg city council
as it tried to tread a middle ground between the activist
Protestants and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. This censor-
ship had a marked effect upon the development of Sachs'
Sprfiche and upon his composition of Fastnachtspiele. It
also, as was mentioned above (see page 33), had a decided
effect upon the whole theatrical life in Nuremberg.

With all other current genres being in disfavor
because of the nature of their content, Sachs turned more
strongly than ever before to Meistergesang. He now ex-
panded even further by adding topics from classical liter—
ature and his own experiences and wanderings. As far as
form is concerned, however, the genre still remained "ars
technica." Because of his strong activity in the Meister-
gesang at this time, Sachs was able to significantly revive
the Singschule in Nuremberg which had been in a state of

decay in 1516 upon his return from his Wanderschaft.

51

Sachs' emphasis within Meistergesang seemed to
have been steadily Shifting.- At first he treated standard
materials and was more innovative with form, having com-
posed nine Of his thirteen new tunes before 1527. Then in
1527 he Shifted to treating Luther's Bible and to be sure
through 1536 was essentially concerned with paraphrasing
what was in the new edition of the Bible. However, from
1536 to 1552 the preponderance of his Meisterlieder were
secular in content. Thus, from 1536 on he was moving
further and further away from true Meistergesang.

Already in 1540 Sachs wrote his circular letter
"Gesprfich mit der Fassnacht" in which he pleaded for a
clean Fastnachtspiel.’ This Shows a continuing interest in
the theater and when the opportunity presented itself, his
interest Shifted strongly to this area.

Two forces were causing a two-pronged change of
interest to deve10p as we approach the mid-point in the
sixteenth century. On the one hand, interest in public
performances of Meistergesang is decreasing. This slacking
of interest is reflected in the fact that the number of
Meistergesfinge retained in manuscript form diminishes from
decade to decade in the Sixteenth century until we have
practically nothing from the period after 1550. The second
is the curtailment of a restrictive censorship in Nuremberg,
which had a terrible effect upon the theater life in that
city. Theatrical activities now increased and Sachs was

caught up with the new desire for theatrical performances.

52

On December 31, 1554, in "Zal und sum meiner gedicht
auf dise zeit" Sachs already is complaining about the weak-
ness of advanced age and wishes to be free of his respon-
sibilities to Meistergesang, but feels that he is so in-
volved that he must continue. Despite his resolve his pro—
duction of Meisterlieder decreased 34 percent from 1554 to
1555 and 18 percent from 1555 to 1556. A great part of
this decrease is associated with the fact that Sachs be-
came Merker in the Nuremberg Singschule in 1555. This,
the most important of positions within the school, was a
very time consuming task and all evidence points to the
fact that the Merker was not allowed to perform at the
Hauptsingen or the Festsingen. Thus, Sachs could now only
write his Meisterlieder for his own satisfaction as he
could neither publish nor present them.

Restricted in this way in this channel of his pro-
ductive activities meant simply that other avenues of ex—
pression would have to be cultivated. This happened for,
concurrently with the decline of Meisterlieder production,
a Sharp increase took place in his writing of Sprfiche,
Fastnachtspiele and Schwanke. Two additional reasons must
be reckoned with in this upsurge of the above genres.
Foremost is the fact that in these genres content is of
prime importance. Sachs was tired of having to sacrifice
content to form and wanted to be a teacher for the greater
masses and not just for a select few. Secondly, as Meister-

lieder were decreasing in popularity these three genres

 

 

53

were all increasing in public interest. A definite reason
for this increased interest was their essentially polemical
content. As mentioned above, after 1550 the number of
Schwfinke collections increased greatly, which shows an
increased public interest. Sachs' most productive years

for Schwfinke were from 1550 to 1560 and 1562 and 1563, the
very years in which his number of Meisterlieder was markedly
decreasing.

Similarly, the Span from 1545 to 1560 shows Sachs'
steady turn to the theater. His years of greatest emphasis
here are from 1550 to 1560 and especially the Span from
1552 to 1558 when he was also active in the production and
the performance of his theatrical writings.

Finally, Sachs did not relinquish his position as
Merker until December, 1561. The reason behind this late
move may be that he felt indebted and reSponsible to the
school and the genre as has been indicated in quotes from
a Meisterlied and two Sprfiche on pages 20 through 24. When
he did relinquish this position, that act marked his final
break with the genre.

In sum, Sachs' curtailment of production Of Meister-
lieder is brought about first and foremost by his inclina-
tion to follow the "Mode seiner Zeit." Secondly, his strong
desire to express more personal emotions and to convey a
didactic message to the more general public caused him to
shift to different media more suited to this type of per-

sonal expression and didacticism.

FOOTNOTES

“ l Hans Sachs, Meistergesange-Fastnachtspiele-
Schwanke, Hrsg. Eugen Geiger (Stuttgart, 1967), p. 3.

2 Gero von Wilpert, Deutsche Dichterlexikon
(Stuttgart, 1963), p. 499.

3

 

 

 

Paul Landau, Hans Sachs (Berlin, 1924), p. 19.

4 Ernst Karl Julius Lfitzelberger, Hans Sachs: Sein
Leben und seine Dichtung, Zweite Aufgabe (Nurnberg, 1876),
p. 15.

 

 

 

5 Ibid., p. 19.

6 Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vereins in Stuttgart,
102, Hrsg. Adelbert von KeIIer (Tfibingen, I870), p. 3.

7

Edmund Goetze, "Sachs, Hans," Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie, 30 (Leipzig, 1890), p. 120.

 

8 Ibid., p. 151.

9 Landau, p. 84.

10 Hans Sachs und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1894), p. 369.

 

 

ll Landau, p. 84.
12 Ibid., p. 85.
13

Archer Taylor, The Literary History 9:.Meister-
gesang (Menasha, 1937), p. 7.

14

 

Bert Nagel, Meistersang (Stuttgart, 1962), p. l.

 

15 Taylor, p. 12.

16 Genée, p. 255.

17 A "Singschule" was an association of singers
which was usually founded on a religious basis. The schools
developed elaborate rules based on the techniques of the
masters, and soon came to consider any infringement of these
rules to be morally wrong. The typical school held meetings
in a church. In the future the word "Singschule" will be
used without quotation marks.

54

55

18 Der Meistergesang ig_Geschichte und Kunst
(Leipzig, I901), p. 81.

19

 

 

 

Ibid., p. 21.

20 Ibid.

21 Nagel, p. 17.

22 "Das Brauchleben der Meistersinger," Archiv ffir
Kulturgeschichte, 25 (1934), p. 60.

23

 

Taylor, p. 27.

24 The "Hauptsingen" was the most formal of the sing-
ing contests which the Meistersingers held. The "Haupt-
singen" was very solemn and religious, learned or serious
secular themes were used. Held in church after the service,
the Merker watched for any infringement of the rules. As
M. O'C. Walsche states on page 273 in Medieval German Liter-
ature, "the singer whose performance showed the fewest
faults was awarded a chain adorned with medals or a silken
chaplet, while those whose faults were many were liable to
be fined or might even be expelled."

25 Taylor, p. 115.

26 Halle, 1882, p. 95.

27 Roy Pascal, German Literature in the Sixteenth
and Seventeenth Centur1es (London, 1968), p. 48.

28

 

 

Geiger, p. 195.

 

 

29 Der Meistergesang des Hans Sachs (Bern, 1956),
p. 196.

3° Ibid.

31

Clair Hayden Bell, "A Glance into the Workshop of
Meistergesang," Publications of the Modern Language Asso-
ciation, LXVIII (1953), p. 6307

 

 

 

 

32 Geiger, p. 198.

33 Goetze, p. 115.

34 R. Weber, Zur Entwicklung und Bedeutun des 93'
Meistergesangsgim_1§. und 16. 1., diss. (BerI1n, 192T),
p. 47.

35

Ibid., p. 45.

56

35 Ibid.

37 Bert Nagel, "Der deutsche Meistergesang,"
Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift, XXII (1934), p. 323.

38 Weber, p. 113.

39 Landau, p. 73.

40 "Zur Geschichte des Nfirnberger Theaters im 16.
Jahrhundert," Vierteljahrschrift ffir Litteraturgeschichte,
3 (1890), p. 29.

 

 

41 Geiger, pp. 96-97.
42 Ibid.
43 Genée, p. 362.
44 “

Lutzelberger, p. 91.
45 Ibid.
46

In Gero von Wilpert's Sachwfirterbuch der Literatur
(pp. 707-08), we read that Terpsichore is “Muse Hes Tanzes,
der Kitharamusik und spfiter der (Chor-) Lyrik."

47

 

Lfitzelberger, p. 91.

48 Geiger, pp. 96-97.

49 The "Merker" stood at the top of the ladder in
the Singschule's hierarchy. There were usually three and
they were elected officials. They were responsible for
calling the Singers together and for the procedure at the
sing in general. When a singer performed, the three Merkers
were enclosed in a judging booth, the three Merkers were
to check the performance of the singers. One of these
Merkers should be well informed in grammar and Lutheran
German to make sure that no mistakes were made in this re-
gard. Another checked the strOphic structure or tonal pat-
tern of the song, in particular the rims scheme, while a
third counted the syllables of the line and checked the per-
formance for metrical or grammatical offences against the
rules of the "Tabulatur."

In addition to their responsibilities during the
Hauptsingen, it was the custom for the Merkers to indicate
to the Singers in advance, the length of stanza to be em—
ployed at the next program, whether Short, long, etc.
Moreover, it was also the practice in many a school for
the Singer to announce in advance to the Merkers the melody
and the Biblical text that he would employ. In this way,

57

the Merker, knowing the program in advance, could prepare
himself for the analysis of the various songs to be per-
formed before hand. Finally, the supremacy of the Merkers
is to be noted in this quote from Bert Nagel.

Uber allen aber thronen allmfichtig die Merker, denen
die gesamte kfinstlerische Wertung und Zensur untersteht-
Ihr Urteil ist unwiderruflich.

50 DaS Gemerkbfichlein des Hans Sachs (1555-1561)
nebst einem Anhange: Die’Nfirfiberger MeiStersinger-
Protocolle. Hrsg. KarIiDreSEher (Halle a. S., 1898).

 

 

 

51 Bibliothek des Litterarishen Vereins in Stuttgart,
110, p. 2. '

52 Ibid., p. 24.

53 Ibid.

54

Ibid. I pp. 25-260

55 Genée, p. 364.

56 Ibid., pp. 364-65.

57 Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vereins in Stuttgart,
225, p. 565.

58

 

Ibid.

59 Geiger, pp. 96-97.

60 Der Volksdichter Hans Sachs und Seine Dichtung
(Nfirnberg, I868), p. 28.

61 Ibid., p. 51.

62 Ibid., z.b. Schw. III 8 (Lied:II 222 (Spruch)
(2 Verse MoraI gegen 46.) III 16: II 241 (14 Verse Moral
gegen 26); III 19: I 90 (20:30) III 41: II 244 (13:62);
III 65: I 46 (14:41); III 68: I 6 (20:102); III 71: II 224
(5:22); usw.

63 Genée, p. 275.

64 Eckehard Catholy, Fastnachtspiel (Stuttgart, 1966),

 

65 Geiger, pp. 96-97.

66 Meistergesang, pp. 30-31.

 

58

67 Maximilian Rudwin, The Origin of the German
Carnival Comedy (New York, 1920), pp. 54:55—

68 pp. 41-43.

69 Constantin Kooznetzoff, Das Theaters ielen der
Meistersinger in Der Deutsche MeisEergesang, BerE NageI,
Hrsg. (DarmSEadt, I967), p. 454.

70 van Abbé describes Shrovetide Plays (Fastnacht—
Spiele) as "Short comedies played out by a small number of
actors made merry at the expense of the everyday life of
the common people. The themes are the eternal ones:
married discontent, conflicts of temperament, the usual
vices, harmless deceit, and the eternal triumph of the
quickwitted over the gullible." Drama in Renaissance
Germany and Switzerland (Australie, I96I7p P. 5.

71

 

 

 

 

p. 51.

72 van Abbé, p. 9.

73 Rudwin, p. 57.

74 Hampe, pp. 528-29.
75 pp. 495-96.
76

Hampe, p. 252.

77 Victor Michels, p. 33.

78 p. 59.

79 Kooznetzoff, p. 457.

8° Ibid., pp. 460-61.

81 Ibid., p. 457.

82 Hugo Holstein, Die Reformation im Spiegelbild
der Dramatischen Litteratur des 16. Ja hrhunderts (NieEROOp/b.
DeGraaf, 1967), p. 70.

83 A. v. Keller and E. Goetze, HrSg. Hans Sachs.
Bd. 10 in Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vere1ns in Stuttgart.
Bd. 131 (Tfib1ngen, 1902), pp. 6- 8.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

84 Will Durant, The Stor gf Civilization. Part VI.
The Reformation (New YorE, , p. 297.
85

Landau, p. 39.

59

86 Ibid.

 

87 Cecil Headlam, The Story 2; Nuremberg(London,
1927), p. 222. .

.88 R. Weber, p. 32.

89 Gerald Strauss, p. 147.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

60

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Baberadt, K. Fr. Hans Sachs im_Andenken der Nachwelt.
Halle a. do So, I966.

 

Barack, K; A. "Zur Geschichte der Meistersanger in
Nurnberg," Zeitschrift ffir Kulturgeschichte, IV
(1859), 376:90.

 

Beare, Mary. "The later dialogue of Hans Sachs," The
Modern Language Review, 53 (1958), 197-210.

Bell, Clair Hayden. "A Glance into the Workshop of Meister-
gesang," Publications of the Modern Language Asso-

ciation , va—I"'—T9'5§II ( I ,‘6'36'-3' 7 . "

Boeckh, Joachim, Gfinther Albrecht, Kurt Bfittcher, Klaus
Gysi and Paul Krohn. Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur von 1480 his I600. BerIin, 1961.

 

 

 

Burger, Heinz Otto, Hrsg. Annalen der Deutschen Literatur.
Stuttgart, 1951.

Catholy, Eckehard. Fastnachtspiel. Stuttgart, 1966.

Catholy, Eckehard. DaS Fastnachtspiel des Spfitmittelalters.
Tfibingen, 198I. I

 

Cattanés, Héléne. "Les 'Fastnachtspiele' de Hans Sachs,"
Smith College Studies in_Modern Languages, IV,
January-April, I923.

 

Devrient, Eduard. Geschichte der deutschen SchauSpielkunst.
Berlin, 1905.

 

Devrient, Eduard. Geschichte der deutschen §ghauSpie1kunst.
Neu bearbeitet von‘WilIy StuhIfeId. Berlin, 1929.

 

 

Durant, Will. The Story 2: Civilization. Vol. VI. New
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