l- I' .. ABSTRACT A SEQUENTIAL PROGRAM FOR SUPERVISING COUNSELORS USING THE INTERPERSONAL PROCESS RECALL TECHNIQUE by Alan David Goldberg The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of two different supervisory experiences on the subsequent interview behavior of counselor candidates. One procedure was an adaptation of the Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) technique while the other, a more conventional approach, was one hour of individual counselor supervision conducted immediately after each client contact. The experimental approach was based on two assumptions. The first, that if a subject, client or counselor, were confronted with a videotaped replay of his earlier dyadic interaction with another person, he would be stimulated to recall his moment-by- moment feelings during the initial contact as well as his expectations and perceptions of the other participant, and that this procedure would increase a counselor's sensitivity to interpersonal communication. The second assmmption was that counselors face a series of deve10p- mental tasks during practicum around which supervisory techniques should be deve10ped. Four such tasks were defined. These were: (a) to become aware of the elements of good counseling, (b) to become sensitive to and understand a greater amount of client 0 O O O ' communication, (c) to become aware of and senSitive to one s own feelings during the counseling session, and (d) to become sensitive to the bilateral nature of the counseling interaction. The IPR treatment consisted of four integrated stages designed to meet these developmental needs. In stage one (one session), the supervisor and trainee viewed a videotaped counseling session and, using the videotape as a stimulus, discussed the dimensions of effective counselor/client communication with the dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale serving as a point of reference. During the second stage (two sessions), the counselor held a 30 minute counseling session with a client, then watched as the supervisor conducted a 15~20 minute recall session with his client. After client recall. the supervisor conducted a 45 minute recall session with the trainee. During stage three (two sessions), each trainee in the IPR group served as interrogator, conduCting the recall session with his partner's client. In the final stage (one session). client. counselor. and supervisor viewed the replay of the counseling session together .with the supervisor encouraging the ecunselor and client to directly share with one another feelings experienced during the counseling sessiOn. The initial stage of training was the same for both groups, ensuring a similar orientation for all counselor candidates. For the remainder of their practicum, the traditionally supervised counselors had one hour of individual supervision immediately after each of their six client contacts. The focus of these supervisory sessions was on helping the counselor (a) understand himself and his dynamics, and (b) understand his relationship with the client, rather than on diagnosis or action. Trainees were thirty—six graduate students working for their master's degree in counseling at Michigan State University. Twenty- five trainees had not as yet taken practicum, while eleven had completed practicum and were shortly to complete their degree requirements. Counselors were paired on the basis of judges' ratings of their initial interviews with a high school client and then randomly assigned to one of the two treatment groups. To evaluate the effect- iveness of the two treatments, comparisons were made of the interview behavior of counselors prior to treatment and after treatment within each group. Comparisons were also made between the post-interview behaviors of pairs of counselors across groups. Judges used the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) for rating the criterion interviews. Each counselor's post-treatment client also rated the counselor using the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale (WROS). A E test for paired samples was used to determine whether significant differences existed within groups over time and between groups after treatment. The results of these analyses indicated significant within-group differences in counselor performance on each dimension of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale at the .001 level. Analysis of the post-interview ratings also indicated differences between the IPR supervised counselors and the traditionally supervised counselors at the end of treatment. That is, while both groups of counselors were rated as more affective, understanding, specific, exploratory and effective (.005 level) significantly greater change was observed within the IPR group. Differences in the same direction were observed (.025 level) on client ratings of counselors using the WROS. The analysis of data suggests that a sequential series of supervisory experiences using the Interpersonal Process Recall technique is an effective means of educating counselors during practicum- A SEQUENTIAL PROGRAM FOR SUPERVISING COUNSELORS USING THE INTERPERSONAL PROCESS RECALL TECHNIQUE By Alan David Goldberg A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1967 (1 L+<2L+5é ”3-7'6‘2 DEDICATION To my father, the memory of my mother, and their dream. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study would have been impossible without the continued help, encouragement, and support of Dr. Norman Kagan who has been both advisor and friend throughout my doctoral program. I also wish to express my appreciation to Drs. R. L. Ebel, M. Raines, R. Rank, and N. R. Stewart for their assistance as members of my guidance committee. I am especially grateful to Dr. David R. Krathwohl for his unique insights and encouragement offered throughout the entire study. I am also grateful to the many individuals without whose help this study could not have been completed: Dr. Robert Campbell, Norman Story, and Paul Schauble who, along with Dr. Kagan, spent many hours serving as supervisors; Dr. Joseph Mezzano, Arthur Resnikoff, Russ Whitman, Jack Thoreson, and Glen Chaffee who rated the interview tapes; Lynn Wendzel and Mary.Ann Powell who scheduled clients and counselors and handled the many daily problems that occurred during the course of the investigations; Larry Cox and Rod Stumhofer whose engineering skills and imagination kept the cameras and tape machine operating. Lastly, but really first, to my wife, Dot, whose understanding, love, and inspiration are, in many real ways, the cornerstone of this study. Finally, to my children, Lisa and(lindi, who somehow always understood. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENT . LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF APPENDICES . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . Statement of the Problem Need for the Study . Use of IPR in Counselor Education . Theoretical Framework . Implications . Delineation of the Study Definition of Terms Assumptions . . . . . Hypotheses . Organization of the Study . II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction Stimulated Recall and Self-Confrontation. Techniques of Counselor Education . . Use of Recordings in Counselor Education. Conclusions and Implications of the Literature . . . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Description of the Experimental Procedures. Pre-Training . Video Supervision Traditional Supervision Counseling Suite . Supervisors Clients . Criterion Interview iv Page iii vi viii 26 26 26 30 34 43 47 50 52 54 56 57 57 .58 59 Chapter Sample . Instrumentation . Counselor Verbal Response Scale Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale Judging of the Criterion Tapes Analyses of Data Hypotheses Summary . IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Differences Within Groups After Supervision . . Differences Between Groups After Supervision . Descriptive Analyses Reliability of Judges' Ratings Summary . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY,DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Summary . Discussion Implication for Counselor Education Clinical Observation . . Implications for Supervision . Implications for Further Research LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDICES Page 60 64 64 71 71 72 74 75 77 77 81 85 90 92 93 93 97 103 103 112 116 119 127 LIST OF TABLES Schematic respresentation of the overall experimental design . Summary of the experimental procedures Mean total score on counselor's pre-interviews on the CVRS quarter by quarter Number, sex, and level of experience of students in each treatment group quarter by quarter 0 I O O O I O O O 0 Mean age for each treatment group by quarter. Mean grade point average in guidance courses for each treatment group by quarter . Mean number of professional courses in counseling and guidance for each treatment group by quarter . . . . . . . Overview of three studies designed to deter- mine inter-rater reliability on the CVRS. Average tape and item inter-rater reliability coefficients for each dimension of the CVRS on three separate studies . . Mean scores of six counselors at various levels of training on each dimension of the CVRS O O O O O C O O I C Comparsion of mean scores of Ph.D. and M.A. counselor candidates on the five dimensions 0 f th e CVRS O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Comparison of pre and post treatment means on each dimension of the CVRS for the IPR supervised group . . . . Comparison of pre and post treatment mean on each dimension of the CVRS for the tradi- tionally supervised group vi Page 47 50 62 62 63 63 64 67 68 69 7O 79 80 Table 4.3 4) a) Mean change pre to post on each dimension of the CVRS for the IPR supervised group quarter by quarter . . . . . . . . . . Mean change pre to post on each dimension of the CVRS for the traditionally super- vised group quarter by quarter . . . . . Comparison of post-interview scores on each dimension of the CVRS between pairs of IPR supervised and traditionally supervised counselors . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean post-interview differences between pairs of IPR supervised counselors and the tradi- tionally supervised counselors on each dimension of the CVRS quarter by quarter. Mean client ratings of counselor/client relationship using the WROS . . Mean client ratings of counselor/client relationship using the WROS quarter by quarter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Descriptive comparison of counselors at various levels of training on each dimension of the CVRS Comparison of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors having completed regular university practicum with behaviors of Ph.D. candidates . . . . . . . . Comparison of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors having IPR super- vision but not practicum with behaviors of counselors having completed practicum Comparison of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors having traditional supervision, but not university practicum with behaviors of counselors having com- pleted practicum . Intraclass correlation reliability estimates of individual and average ratings calculated Page 81 83 84 84 85 87 88 88 80 for judges' ratings across tapes and counselors responses on each dimension of the CVRS vii 91 Appendix A. B. LIST OF APPENDICES Description of Interrogator Role . IPR Counselor Verbal Response Scale and Manual for Training Judges in Use of Counselor Verbal Response Scale Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale . Mean Post-Interview Scores by Pairs for the IPR Supervised and Traditional Supervised Groups on Each Dimension of the CVRS . Mean Scores Pre to Post for the IPR Supervised and Traditional Supervised Group on Each Dimension of the CVRS Client Ratings of Counselors on the WROS Total Scores and Ranks of Counselors on the CVRS by Quarter viii Page 127 130 145 147 153 159 161 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Throughout the years, counselor educators have relied on a variety of techniques to assist counselor candidates in gaining professional competency. Case studies, roleplaying, unstructured self-appraisal, group counseling with trainees, direct interview supervision by use of one-way vision mirrors and audiotape have been the generally used approaches to counselor supervision. In the most frequently used supervisory model, the supervisor and supervisee use an audiotape recording of the trainee's actual counseling behavior as a means of recreating the counseling session, with the audiotape serving as a vehicle for helping supervisor and supervisee better understand the nature of the client/counselor interaction and the dynamics of either counselor, client, or both. Heretofore, two problems have plagued the supervisor and trainee during the supervisory process: (1) the inability of re- creating a true and representative sample of the counseling experience, and (2) the difficulty in gaining access to the preconscious and unconscious thoughts and feelings of both counselor and counselee during the interview itself. Kubie (1966) states: so much of our raw data consists of brief impressions of evanescent, fleeting moments of behavior. They are here and gone in a flash, never to recur, never to be re-enacted or relived in exactly the same way . . .. It is this fleeting moment which must be studied. For this purpose it would have to be perceived and recorded and recalled with precision. Yet, we know that during the whole experience the observer himself is emotionally involved . Yet, when we are involved emotionally, we are hardly free to make precise objective observations, to record them accurately, or to recall them without bias . . .. Parents and teachers and psychiatrists have all been dependent for their basic data upon their imperfect and falliable memories of visual and auditory perceptions which are themselves subject to distortion (p. 84). Two new developments hold promise for bridging the gap to which Kubie alludes: (1) the advent of videotape which provides an immediate, accurate, and undistorted recreation of a previously experienced interaction and (2) the adaptation of stimulated recall methodology, designed to activate a person's ability to introspect about his inner experiences, to the process of both therapy and supervision. In recent years, increased use has been made of videotape as a tool for the recreation of the counseling session and the subsequent supervision of trainees in counseling, psychotherapy, and psychiatric education (Hurley, 1966; Suess, 1966). While the advent of audiotape served to help counselor and supervisor recreate the counseling session, the advent of videotape with the addition of the visual component, served to compensate for the unidiminsion- ality of audio recordings. With the use of videotape, it is now possible for the supervisor and trainee to review a more complete recreation of the interview and to focus on more of the nonverbal elements in the interpersonal communication between client and counselor. Both Holmes (1961) and Suess (1966), commenting on the use of videotape in psychiatric education, have indicated that observing one's own videotaped interviews permits an objective self-evaluation second only to individual analysis. 3 In a study designed to explore the potential of videotape in the supervision of counselors during practicum, Kagan, Krathwohl, and Farquhar (1965) adapted the technique of stimulated recall (Bloom, 1954) to the supervisory process. Their approach, termed Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR), attempted to capitalize on the ability of a videotaped replay of a counseling session to stimulate both client and counselor recall of their feelings during the inter- view. Thus, client recall and counselor self-confrontation became the basic ingredients of supervision. While the initial investigations of Kagan SE: 31. yielded no statistically significant results, there was considerable subjective evidence suggesting that this approach was a potent tool for counselor supervision (Kagan fig, 31., 1963; Kagan 2;, 31,, 1965). The initial IPR study was based on the incorporation of the IPR process within traditional practicum on the assumption that the video techniques by themselves were potent enough to bring about changes in counselor behavior after three experimental sessions. The results seemed to indicate that while the technique was indeed a potentially valuable tool its uncritical use during supervision did not serve to maximize its potential. Therefore, the problem was to find some way to modify an apparently potent tool for use in counselor supervision so that: (l) the technique might be used to its best advantage and (2) it might be compared with traditional supervisory practices. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of two 4 different supervisory experiences on the subsequent interview behavior of counselor candidates. One approach, IPR, is innovative and has been developed at Michigan State University over the past four years; the other approach is intensive, but quite traditional. Two questions constitute the major focus of this study: (1) is the counseling behavior of counselor candidates changed as a result of a traditional practicum and individual supervision, and (2) is stimulated recall via videotape more effective than a traditional supervisory experience in changing counseling behavior? Need for the Study During the past decade, counselor educators have voiced increased concern over the professional preparation of school counsel- ors. Responding to the needs of students growing up in an increasingly complex and impersonal society, continuing Federal legislation promoting counseling services within schools and Federal agencies, and widespread societal acceptance of counseling as an integral part of the educational matrix, those responsible for counselor education have recognized a pressing challenge both to increase the number of school counselors and to raise their level of competency (Stoughton, 1965). As a result of these pressures as well as the reproach of critics that counselors are ill-prepared to meet the challenges of the sixties (Wolfle, 1962), there has been a steady increase in the amount of professional literature devoted to the preparation of school counselors. Although interest initially focused on such topics as 5 counselor role, counselor characteristics, procedures for counselor selection, and changes in attitudes, concept, and perceptions occurring during training there has, of late, been parallel interest shown in the nature of the supervised counseling experience (practicum) offered during training. This recent emphasis reflects the general acceptance of such supervised experience as the core of any program of counselor education. Although statements supporting the need for supervised experience date from Freud (Jones, 1959), there has been little agreement as to the basic method, content, and structure of such an experience (Roeber, 1962). Along with the lack of consensus on the nature of the practicum experience, there has also been a parallel lack of controlled research evaluating the effectiveness of this phase of counselor education (Schmidt and Pepinsky, 1965; Cash and Munger, 1966; Carkhuff, 1966). In view of the consistent stress placed on supervised practice as a necessary condition of training and the continued demand for bigger and better practica (Klopf and Cohen, 1962; Ross, 1963; Munger, Brown, and Needham, 1964; Joslin, 1965; Cash and Munger, 1966), it is important at the present time, to investigate and evaluate both traditional supervisory practices and newer approaches to supervision in an attempt to find effective approaches to practicum training. Use of IPR in Counselor Education Since this current study builds on the investigations of 6 Kagan fig, 31. (1965) into the use of the IPR technique in Counselor Education, it will be discussed in this section rather than being included in the general Review of Literature to be found in Chapter II. Stimulated Recall-4Whi1e stimulated recall was initially used as a means for understanding the thought processes of students in learning situations (Bloom, 1954; Gaier, 1951) and investigating the process of perceptual change through self-confrontation (Nielsen, 1962), the technique has recently been used both as a tool in accelerating client insight and.change during counseling (Kagan g3. £13, 1963; Kagan gg.lgl., 1965; Moore gg,‘gl., 1965; Geertsma and Reivich, 1965; Paul, 1966) and in attempts to understand and facilitate the "learn- ing" of counseling and psychotherapy (Landsman and Lane, 1963; Walz and Johnston, 1963; Kagan gt, £13, 1965; Griffin, 1966; Suess, 1966; Schiff and Reivich, 1964). The basic assumption underlying this approach is that an individual confronted with enough cues from earlier experiences will be "stimulated" to recall not merely his verbal behavior and overt physical movements, but also the covert thought processes and feelings underlying his overt acts. In general, most investigators using stimulated recall and self-confrontation techniques in counselor supervision have either (1) exposed counselors- in-training to a single replay of one of their counseling interviews without supervision (Landsman and Lane, 1963; W312 and Johnston, 1963) or (2) substituted a videotape for an audiotape within the traditional supervisory process (Griffin, 1966; Suess, 1966; Schiff and Reivich, 1964). These investigators have all reported that, as a result of these experiences, counselors have evidenced increased ability to identify and report their subjective experiences, to clarify and crystalize their perceptions of self and others and to present for clarification those feelings which may have been too close or too threatening to face during the initial situations. There is a further suggestion that seeing one's self-image in a previously experienced situation contributes to a gradual stripping away of defensive behaviors leading to a greater degree of "openness", selfvawareness, and realistic self—appraisal (Nielsen, 1963; Kubie, 1966; Holmes, 1964; Kagan, Krathwohl, Miller, 1963; Kagan, Krathwohl, Farquhar, 1965). As already noted, Kagan g£.‘gl. (1965) modified stimulated recall methodology to counselor education. In their initial investigations into the use of IPR (Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller, 1963), both participants in a counseling session viewed a videotaped replay in separate rooms, where they were each encouraged by a trained counselor, called the interrogator, to stop the replay at significant points to recall feelings and interpret behavior.1 As noted earlier, these original procedures were later adapted for use in supervising counselors with the investigators using client recall and counselor self-confrontation as the basic ingredients of supervision. FIFor a fuller discussion of interrogator role, see Appendix A. 8 IPR-~1n this latter study, Kagan EL: 31. (1965) compared the effects of video IPR, audio IPR, and conventional practicum super- vision on the interview behavior of counselor candidates. One group of eighteen practicum students (fifteen M.A. candidates and three Ph.D. candidates) were supervised using an adaptation of the basic IPR technique. Immediately following a counseling session, the client and supervisor watched a replay of the counseling session with the supervisor acting as interrogator. During the week, the counselor listened to an audiotape record- ing of the recall session, watched an uninterrupted playback of his counseling interview, and then met with his supervisor for one-half hour of supervision. A second group of trainees received similar supervision except that an audiotape rather than a videotape served as the basis for client recall. The third group of trainees went through the regular practicum. Three of the nine practicum sessions were experimental, and were held in a specially constructed counseling room with each student receiving three and a half hours of supervision per experimental session. Supervisors were balanced across treatment groups and among individuals--each student having a different supervisor for each experimental session. Three professional counselor educators judged "coached two four-minute segments of each student's interview with a client" using a scale developed by the authors. The scale consisted of various items drawn from scales developed by Anderson and Anderson (1962) and Rogers (1962) as well as items created expecially for use with videotape. An attempt was made to develop a scale which would be modeled after no one counseling theory and would be commensurate with the level of training of the counselors. There were no signifi- cant differences in counseling effectiveness among the three treat- ment groups although the subjective evaluations by the investigators and the participating counselors strongly endorsed the IPR procedures. Critigue of the IPR Research--It is obvious that the failure of the investigators to find significant differences must be viewed in the light of a number of theoretical and practical considerations. First, there is ample evidence to indicate that the initial confronta- tion with one's self-image, especially in an emotionally involved situation, can have an impact on the observer boardering on trauma (Walz and Johnston, 1963; Poling, 1965). Commenting on the initial confrontation, Nielsen (l962)observed that: The reaction of the normal dyad-subject to seeing himself followed pretty much the same pattern as the psychotic patient's response to seeing himself. The first and immediate response could be extremely emotional, some- times shocked (p. 140). The confrontation by itself may very well have been more than the self could assimilate--a condition which would be accentuated when coupled with the natural fears and anxieties generated by the practicum situation itself. These already existing fears aroused by the prospect of practicum and supervision may have been further accentuated by sending the counselor home while the supervisor, an expert, interrogated his client. Thus, the already threatened counselor had no idea of what might be occurring in the recall session. 10 Such a situation could pose an added threat to the counselor's already vulnerable ego. Subsequent studies by Kagan fig, 31. (1967) which were initially conducted using a similar format in which the counselor received no immediate feedback about the recall session also resulted in little change in counselor behavior,forcing the investigators to alter the experimental procedures so as to provide counselor partici- pation in the recall sessions. Second, by not having the counselor view the client recall session as it took place, the immediate learning experience of view- ing the interrogation session and the advantage of the immediate replay for the counselor were lost. There is some clinical evidence (Kagan 35, gl,, 1965a) to suggest that the counselor learns from watching the interrogator and the client interact and that the impact of this second confrontation should be both immediate and direct and not mediated by the process of time. Indeed, since one dimension of the interrogator's role is to serve as a model of how to relate, sending the counselor home denied him access to actually viewing the model operate, thus muting at least some of the impact of the interrogation. Third, while there is evidence to suggest that listening to the recall and viewing a replay of one's counseling presents a vast amount of potential stimulus material for the counselor, it is also possible that there was, in fact, more material than the trainees could assimilate that early in their training. Thus, rather than being allowed to gradually get their feet wet, trainees were almost 11 immediately thrown overboard. It is also possible that the effect of this immediate dunking was compounded by the fact that counselor candidates, especially at the M.A. level, neither knew what to look for during the self viewing sessions nor had a sufficiently crystal- ized conception of counseling to make self viewing a valuable experience leading to a consistent pattern of behavior change. Thus, to some extent, the impact of viewing the videotape may have been wasted in terms of generating new counseling behaviors even though the counselors may have perceived it as a valuable learning experience. Fourth, although it may have seemed methodologically desirable to negate possible supervisor differences by assigning each trainee a different supervisor for each experimental session, this approach clearly flies in the face of a growing body of professional literature stressing the necessity of developing a strong, positive relationship between supervisor and.supervisee (Arbuckle, 1963; Patterson, 1964; Boy and Pine, 1966). These supervisory relationships were further confounded since trainees saw another group of supervisors during the non-experimental phase of practicum. Thus, in addition to his other concerns, the trainee had to learn how to relate to at least four different supervisors during the course of his ten-week experience. Fifth, it is extremely likely that three experimental sessions were insufficient to bring about the type of global behavioral changes sought by the investigators. In short, they may have over- estimated the potency of the technique especially in light of the 12 considerations already noted about the initial impact of video view- ing and the overabundance of stimulus material. Finally, although the scale developed by the investigators as a criterion instrument was composed of items with high face validity and the judges received intensive training prior to actually rating the criterion tapes, there was little agreement among the judges on any of the dimensions of the rating instrument. Certainly the possibility exists that observations of any of the effects resulting from the different supervisory experiences were muted by the inability of the judges to agree on the behavior they observed. In order to more effectively use videotape and the IPR model, it seems necessary first to examine the basic goals of supervision and then to consider the possibility of "counselor developmental tasks" which may provide a theoretical framework within which to modify the IPR procedures. Theoretical Framework The Supervisory Process--Diagramatically, the supervisory experience may be pictured as a triangle involving the student counselor, the client, and the supervisor-- Co. S. 13 The counselor (Co) has a series of interviews with a client, the number, nature, and setting for these contacts varying with the institution. The goal of these relationships is both to help the client cope with his concerns and to provide a learning experience for the counselor candidate. The crystalization of counselor learn- ing usually takes place in a series of supervisory sessions with his supervisor (S) during which trainee and supervisor discuss the varying dimensions of counselor/client interaction. It is evident that there also exists an indirect relationship between supervisor and client. The implications of this relationship have been dealt with by Ekstein and Wallerstein (1958) and Kell and Mueller (1966). However, the major supervisory concern remains on the nature of the experience between supervisor and counselor and the resultant impact on the client. There seems to be some agreement among counselor educators that supervision during practicum may be conceptualized as training in interpersonal communication which Patterson (1964) describes as: The develOpment of sensitivity in the student, of understanding and the ability to communicate that understanding, of therapeutic attitudes, rather than techniques, specific responses, diagnostic labeling, or even identifying or naming presumed personality dynamics in the client (p. 48). Moore (1963) has presented a concise overview of this communication framework: The student must be instructed on how to communicate with a patient and encourage the patient to communicate with him; what the patient's comments and answers mean per se and in light of his problems; . . . what the facial expressions, tone quality of the voice, and body l4 attitude indicate; how the verbal and nonverbal content of the interview conflict with and support one another. It is absolutely essential for the psychiatrist to develop the ability to communicate and be communicated with, to observe people closely and objectively, and to interpret what he has seen and heard. As a second dimension, the supervisory experience is viewed as a process of self-discovery for the trainee during which he can continually critically evaluate what he is doing and begin not merely to conceptualize but also to internalize the meaning of the counsel- ing relationship. Indeed, both Arbuckle (1963) and Patterson (1964) have suggested that the relationship between supervisor and super- visee is akin to a counseling relationship. Since the counseling practicum occurs either during or follow- ing a considerable amount of didactic course work dealing with the fundamental areas of educational psychology and counseling theory, it is assumed that trainees have already develOped their own view of adolescent development and a well develOped personal counseling theory, even though through experiences these undergo constant revision. In addition, many programs of counselor education now include a program of group counseling for counselor candidates during which the trainee has an opportunity to gain self-insight. Within this general framework it seems possible to distinguish at least four major developmental tasks facing the counselor as he "learns” the process of effective interpersonal communication during practicum. l. The trainee becomes increasingly aware of the elements of 4good counseling. Gottesman (1962) has noted that despite prior 15 courses in theory, trainees often have only minimal awareness of the meaning and timing of interpersonal communication. Although trainees generally pick up covert cues from their supervisors about the general nature of interview behavior, trainees exhibit little agreement on when and how to use their responses. They are often focused on the rather nebulous goals of being a "good" counselor which they try to imitate while often having no accurate "operational definitiod' of counseling. In separate studies involving the use of videotape in the training of teachers, Tintera (1965) and Maccoby 35..31. (1964) both reported on the importance of focusing student teachers on the important aspects of behavior rather than attempting to train for global results. Truax, Carkhuff, and Douds (1964) have suggested that, as an integral part of practicum, trainees be made aware of the relevant dimensions of counseling behavior inherent in meaningful interactions by presenting trainees with a model rated high in therapist-offered conditions. Thus, as one task during practicum, the counselor candidate becomes aware of the elements of effective counseling. In essence, he begins to understand the meaning of theory when translated into action. It should also be noted that this also provides the trainee with a framework within which he can "ratd' his own counseling, thereby providing a motivalional basis for change. Procedure--The question remains, how can this goal he realized during supervision? One approach might be to present counselor candidates with objective definitions of counselor behaviors which l6 characterize effective counseling. Then, with these definitions in mind, they could be presented with a sample of a counseling inter- action and, while observing, could actually describe the interaction in terms of the specified dimensions of counselor behavior. Thus, at the outset of training, trainees would be provided with a frame of reference which would help them bridge the gap between theory and practice. 2. The counselor candidate becomes sensitive to and under- stands a greater amount of client communication. There has been increased attention in recent years to the multidimensional nature of interpersonal communication. Both clinical experience and experimental investigations into kinesics and linguistics have led to the recognition that more occurs during a counseling session than an interpersonal interchange based solely on the lexical meaning of verbal communication. Although it is obvious that the counselor must be aware of the cognitive aspects of the client's problems he must also be cognizant of the connotive implications and affective themes permeating such client behaviors as body movements, posture, hand gestures, eye movements, tone of voice, and rate of speech. In essence, the counselor must be trained to hear with a third ear. Indeed, all the counselor's training in human behavior and dynamics goes for naught if he lacks such critical perceptive ability. One educational psychologist, Hamlin (1966), has suggested that students may, in fact, live out some fantasy of what they are in the world through the medium of gestures and posture. If this is so, the necessity of counselor awareness of all dimensions of client 17 communication becomes a critical ingredient of training. Procedure--In practice, exposure to client recall becomes a unique vehicle for increasing a counselor's awareness of the varying dimensions of client communication. While watching the recall session, the counselor can become aware of and sensitive to subtle meanings underlying the client's verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Thus, the use of recall techniques during training provide one means of increasing counselor awareness of client behavior. 3. The counselor candidate becomes aware of and sensitive to his own feelings during the counselinggsession. Appel has noted that: The most significant resource a counselor brings to a helping relationship is himself. It is difficult to understand how a counselor unaware of his own emotional needs, of his expectations of himself as well as of others, of his rights and privileges in relationships, can be sensitive enough to such factors in his counselee. There is widespread agreement that increasing counselor self- awareness is a critical dimension of an effective program of counselor training (Brammer and Shostrom, 1961; Wyatt, 1948; Bugental, 1964; Kell and Mueller, 1966; Patterson, 1964). The implications of such self-awareness become clear within the practicum situation. Here, face-to-face with a client the counselor must be aware of how his own dynamics, e.g.,his need to be liked, to be potent, etc., inter- fered with implementing "good' counseling behaviors. Kell and Mueller (1966) have suggested that a major source of supervisory material calculated to enhance counselor self-aware- ness eminates from a focus on those events within the counseling 18 session that activate the counselor's anxieties and defenses and that precipitate impasses. This view is supported by comments of counselors during recall sessions. Frequently, counselors would convey an accurate understanding of the client, yet be inhibited from using their perceptions because of their own unrecognized needs. Procedure--Just as client recall provides insight into client dynamics, counselor recall provides a means of heightening the counselor's awareness of his own fears, attitudes, and feelings during counseling and sensitizing him to those blind spots which are often projections of his own unrecognized and nonunderstood problems and anxieties, thus freeing him to use himself as an effective therapeutic instrument. In addition, by actively engaging in the recall process itself, serving as an interrogator, the counselor "learns" to act on his clinical hunches and to rely on his perceptions. In short, he practices a new mode of behavior in which he must rely on his own feelings in helping the client during recall. 4. The counselor candidate becomes sensitive to the bilateral nature of the counseling interaction. There has been increasing emphasis of late, on the dynamic nature of the counseling interaction and the ways in which the dynamics of both counselor and counselee may serve to expedite or inhibit the relationship. Kell and Mueller (1966) regard client behavior as a probable response to counselor behavior. Viewed in the light of reciprocal interaction, client behavior within the interview ”reflects the unfolding and revealing of the client's basic problem as an interpersonal process." Thus, 19 the counseling session itself may serve as a primary source of information for the counselor--for it is within this session that the counselee replays, in microscopic terms, his innermost concerns within an interpersonal framework. Jones (1966) has restated this microscopic theory by suggesting that: Human beings when confronted by a novel and challenging situation begin to master themselves in relation to that situation by recapitulating a telescoped version of their own life history in respect to it. Before learn- ing to trust themselves in it . . . they may first become untrustworthy, in order to see what happens. They may then become too trusting, like children; then too big for their britches; then doubtful, then secure the parameters and the rhythm of the process vary with the unit of observation. But the same recapitu- lative principle seems to guide human adaptation whether we take the epigenetic unit of the life cycle or the microgenetic unit of split-second perception. Within this contex, then, it becomes necessary for the trainee to be aware of his impact and influence and to understand the mean- ing of his interaction with this client. Perhaps even more important, however, the trainee needs practice at examining his relationship with the client using the counseling session itself and the client/ counselor interaction as both subject and object of the counseling process. Procedure--In order to facilitate the maximum client/counselor interaction and communication within the counseling relationship, both client and counselor could be involved in mutual recall. While they view the replay of the counseling session together with the supervisor, they are encouraged to recall their feelings during the counseling session and to share these feelings with one another. 20 Kagan E£-.2l- (1966) adapted a similar procedure in a study designed to accelerate the progress of therapy and noted that it led to improved communication between counselor and client. Summary--Viewed in context of the above tasks, the major goals of supervision are to assist the trainee to see himself as he really is and how he looks to his counselees, to help him understand him- self and to be aware of his own feelings throughout the counseling session, to enable the trainee to I'check out" his personal perceptions of his client and to appropriately communicate these feelings to the client, and to open the trainee to the channels of communication both verbal and nonverbal, existing between himself and his client. Implications Obviously, further research into the effectiveness of IPR as a means of supervising counselor candidates during practicum must be built on the integration of knowledge gained from earlier work into the impact of videotape and stimulated recall with a theoretical framework for understanding the developmental tasks of counselors during training. A number of possibilities present themselves as a result of such an integrated View. Perhaps the most critical need is for the develOpment of a sequential pattern of experiences which will allow the trainee to derive maximum benefit from the several dimensions of IPR. Such an approach would give the counselor candidate an opportunity to incorpo- rate his insights into new patterns of behavior which could then be tried out and evaluated in terms of the impact on clients. In this 21 way the "learnings" that take place during training could be reinforced by a patterning of experiences giving an opportunity for try out and client approval via recall. Thus, for example, as the counselor views the client recall and becomes increasingly aware of the meaning of client communication and client reactions, he needs an immediate supervisory experience to help integrate these new insights and to balance the often debilitating impact of viewing the interrogation. In a counselor recall session, the trainee can explore with his supervisor those feelings which may have been too close or too threatening to face during the initial interview or which may have been brought to the surface while viewing the client recall session. The following modifications of the IPR procedure seem to be suggested by the previous research: 1) The desirability of initially providing trainees with a conceptual framework of effective counseling which will serve to focus them on essential components of counselor/client communication. 2) The use of both client and counselor recall thereby (a) providing the counselor candidate with an opportunity to perceive the client in a new light, (b) providing an Opportunity for the counselor to explore attitudes within himself which affect his counsel- ing behavior, (c) tending to compensate for the traumatic effect of video confrontation which seems so prevalent in other studies, and (d) maximizing the learning process by providing immediate feedback for the counselor. 22 3) Increasing the length of the eXperimental treatment, thereby permitting the develOpment of a sequential program of experience and adequate opportunity for integrating new learnings. 4) Having counselors serve as "interrogators” thereby giving them an opportunity to serve in a role in which the focus is on direct implementation of client/counselor communication. 5) Facilitating the development of an adequate supervisory relationship by providing contact between the trainee and a single supervisor during training. Delineation of the Study Four factors serve to limit the generalizations which can be drawn from the results of the study. This first factor stems from the nature of the sample population. Since all participating counselors were volunteers, the possibility exists that they differed significantly from the general population of counselor candidates. Second, because of the nature of the supervisory skills required for the IPR procedures, all supervisors knew the research hypotheses being tested and were aware of the groups to which trainees had been assigned. However, it seemed more desirable to equate supervisors by using them across groups and to rely on their professional attitudes rather than to attempt to somehow match supervisors. Finally, the study is limited by the nature and duration of the supervisory experiences offered, the particular setting in which the study was conducted, and the involvement of both subjects and supervisors. All of these factors will be more fully developed in subsequent sections. 23 Definition of Terms The following terms are defined for purposes of this study: 1. Traditional Practicum: A series of contacts between a counselor candidate and a client, followed by some form of supervision. In recent years, at Michigan State University, practicum has also included considerable group interaction in addition to individual supervision. In this study, while there was no group interaction, super- vision was immediate, focusing on client/counselor inter- action and client/counselor dynamics. Supervision: The interaction between a trained counselor and a counselor candidate for the purpose of improving the candidate's counseling behavior. Counselor Interview Behavior: That part of the communication between counselor and client which can be reduced to quantifiable terms. Recall: A reviewing of a counseling interview by either counselor or client during which the focus is on the viewer's recreating his thoughts and feelings during the initial interview. During the recall session, the viewer is encouraged to stOp the replay at any time to comment on covert feelings or thoughts during the session. IPR Supervision: As used in this study, IPR supervision refers to a sequential series of experiences using a are: 24 variety of stimulated recall techniques via videotape to change a counselor candidate's interview behavior. Assumptions A number of basic assumptions undergird this research: 1. The H1 A counselor's within-interview behavior can be measured and changes in interview behavior determined. Counselor behavior can be adequately judged from viewing only videotaped samples of a total interview. The rating of twenty consecutive counselor responses, taken from the middle segments of an initial interview will be a representative sample of counselor performance throughout the interview. Hypotheses two basic hypotheses under investigation in this study The interview behavior of counselor candidates will change as both a result of traditional individual supervision and IPR supervision. Supervision employing a sequential application of stimulated recall via videotape will be more effective than traditional supervision in bringing about changes in a counselor's interview behavior. Organization of the Study A review of the literature relating to stimulated recall 25 methodology and its application to counselor education will be presented in Chapter II along with a general overview of various approaches to counselor education. Chapter III contains a detailed description of the research design, the experimental treatments, and the methodology used in collecting and analyzing data. An analysis of the data is presented in Chapter IV. A summary of the study including a discussion of the results and implications for further research is found in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction The technique of Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) and its application to counselor supervision during practicum has been discussed in Chapter I. This review will not retrace those studies, but will focus on two closely related areas: (1) the antecedents of IPR, namely stimulated recall and self-confrontation and (2) techniques of counselor supervision with specific reference to investigations involving the use of either audiotape or videotape as part of the supervisory experience. Stimulated Recall and Self-Confrontation The term "stimulated recall" was first used by Bloom (1954) to describe a technique designed to uncover the conscious thoughts of an individual involved in a learning situation. One of Bloom's students, Gaier (1951), used this technique to investigate the relationship between selected personality variables and the learning process. In an attempt to gain an accurate understanding of a student's covert behaviors and private experiences during a learning situation, Gaier audiotaped classroom discussions, replaying the tapes for each of eleven subjects within fourty-eight hours of the class recording. During the replay, the audiotape was stOpped at pre-determined critical points and the subjects asked to recall their conscious thoughts (thoseaavailable to awareness) experienced 26 27 at the moment of the original experience. The underlying assumption was that the audio recording would provide the participants with enough cues from the original stimulus situation to activate their recall and their ability to report their inner thought processes and individual, unexpressed experiences. Gaier noted the potential of this technique for inquiry in the social sciences and also indicated the extention that could be made to the recall process by the intro- duction of a visual element. In an extension of this technique, Nielsen (1962; 1964) confronted thirty-two subjects with a sound film recording of their interaction with another person (a member of the research staff) in a structured situation. In the experimental dyad, each subject was involved in an intense interaction with an interviewer who critically attacked his philosophy, creating an intense emotional involvement on the part of the subject in which an important segment of his personality became involved. Thus, even though the film was replayed a week after the initial interaction, the impact of the experience had not totally dissipated. This approach differed from that of Bloom and Gaier in a number of important respects. First, while Bloom and Gaier were concerned with understanding the thought process of students involved in a teacher/student interaction, Nielsen was interested in the individual's perceptions of himself as he became intensely involved with another person, with the inner aspects of an event and with the subject's introspective and retrospective reports of his subjective 28 experiences, stated feelings and intentions. Second, the introduction of the visual media via film permitted the subject to view the totality of his verbal and nonverbal behavior. Thus, the subject saw his own bodily actions as well as listening to his voice while he viewed himself involved in an intensely emotional experience tinged with failure. Third, the subject viewed himself in inter- action--viewing himself not merely as others saw him, but actually reflected in the attitude of the other toward him. Finally, Nielsen capitalized on directed self-involvement by having the experimenter present during the replay of the interview. In commenting upon the presence of the third party, Nielsen suggested that "the presence of the experimenter in the self-confrontation interview no doubt made the subjects respond more intensely than they might have done had they been alone with the self-image." As a result of these investigations, Nielsen concluded that: Self-confrontation was a valuable method for attaining information about the person's thoughts and feelings at the time the film was taken . . . Moreover, the con- frontation created a unique responsiveness in the subjects in regard to their self-image, a willingness to give associations about it, and a particular interest in understanding themselves (Nielsen, 1964, p. 125). In addition, however, he also reported that none of the participants were left neutral or untouched by the confrontation, many of them evidencing extreme fright and pain at the intensity of self-awareness. This would suggest that during the initial self- confrontation encounters it is necessary to provide an adequate level of support if the subject is to integrate insights about himself, 29 later translating these insights into new behaviors. In an exploratory study of the impact of stimulated recall in therapy, Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller (1963) added several new dimensions to the work of Nielsen. First, the investigators used the natural stress generated by the counseling session itself as the stimulus for recall. Second, they capitalized on the immediate playback potential of videotape to bring the participants even closer to the original event. Third, they introduced a skilled counselor, called the interrogator, into the recall sessions. The interrogator used his clinical skills as well as the stimulus value of the media to stimulate the subject's recall. Fourth, by use of a subject-controlled stOp-start switch, control of the replay was shifted to the subject rather than being stopped at pre-determined times decided on by the experimenter. Finally, since they used counseling situations in which two people, counselor and client, were actually involved in a dyadic interaction they confronted both parties with immediate replays of the event thereby stimulating the recall of both participants, thus adding to the understanding of the reciporcal relationship." In their procedure, termed Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR), a regular counseling session was conducted in a specially constructed counseling suite. Using unmanned, pre-set television cameras, the counseling session was recorded on videotape which was available for replay immediately after the interview. Both client and counselor viewed the replay, although in separate rooms, in the presence of a 30 trained counselor called the interrogator. Either counselor, client or interrogator could stOp the tape at any time during the replay. The interrOgator encouraged the participants to describe their feelings, to "get behind" their overt verbal and physical behavior, and to elaborate on meanings. The role of the interrogator was to main- tain the focus of the recall session on the stimulus material and to"prObé' and "push" the client for greater clarity in describing and understanding not only his feelings and emotions, but also his feelings toward the "other” and those thoughts and feelings he believed the other had of him. Kagan gt, 21, suggested that this procedure might be useful not merely to the theoretician as a way of understanding covert thought process and underlying feelings, but also to the practitioner actively involved in the practice of therapy and the training of therapists. Techniques of Counselorggducation Overview--Throughout the years, counselor educators have used a variety of didactic and experiential approaches designed to provide the counselor candidate with the professional and personal skills necessary for effective counseling. One of the early techniques which has received considerable attention in the counseling literature as a means of helping students grow in their ability to solve and analyze problems, has been that of role-playing (Sperle, 1933). Since then many counselor educators have advocated the use of role- playing in teaching interviewing procedures and skills,in helping to develop attitudes and feelings for the counseling relationship, 31 (Hoppock, 1949; Wrenn, 1962; Rogers, 1951), in introducing students to the counseling experience and as a stimulant to discussion (Bridgewater and Crookston, 1952), and as a means of teaching such specific skills as increased awareness of the non-verbal elements in a counseling interaction (Thompson and Bradway, 1950). However, while role-playing is recognized as a useful approach to training and continues to play an integral role in most programs of counselor education, it has typically been used for introductory and illustrative purposes. In recent years, counselor educators have given increased attention to group counseling for trainees as an adjunct to the practicum experience. This approach builds upon the assumption that the trainee himself must undergo some type of counseling relationship and achieve self-knowledge if he is to be a successful counselor. Gazda and Ohlsen (1961) suggested that group counseling could provide counselor candidates with an opportunity: 1) to discover that others like themselves have problems, that they can be helped by counseling; and that by solving these problems, they can live more richly; 2) to extend their knowledge of human behavior and to apply this knowledge in understanding their peers; 3) to observe, while obtaining help themselves, how a qualified counselor assists various clients; and 4) to apply their knowledge of counseling techniques by assuming the co-therapist role in attempting to help others. 32 There have, however, been few controlled studies evaluating the impact of group counseling on trainees. Most writers in this area have investigated the effect of group counseling on the inter- action of the counselors within the group)on the development of emotional growth and self-awareness, or the awareness of feeling (Gazda and Ohlsen, 1961; Seegars and McDonald, 1963; Parker and Kelly, 1965). One investigator, Betz (1963), attempted to asses the impact of group counseling on a trainee's subsequent interview behavior. In this study, Betz compared the effects of affective group counsel- ing and cognitive group counseling on the subsequent interview behavior of thirty NDEA Institute counselors undergoing a practicum eXperience. Betz reported that, after fourteen hours of group experience, the counselors in the group in which the leader responded to and elicited feelings changed significantly from pre to posttest in response to affect. Similar changes were not found among the cognitive group. No changes were found for either group in degree of lead or variability_of technique. It appears from the data presented by Betz that the nature of the group experience offered counselor candidates, in other words the focus provided within the group, does affect the way in which a counselor subsequently works with students. Despite the widespread acceptance of both role-playing and group counseling, most counselor educators have felt that actual client contact is the most appropriate and effective means for training 33 future counselors (Landy, 1953; Black, 1953; Kirk, 1955). As part of such direct client contact, it has not been uncommon for trainees to be used as observers or as co-therapists in group counseling (Hadden, 1950), individual counseling (Haigh and Kell, 1950), or intake interviews (Bixler, Bordin, and Deabler, 1946). One interesting approach has been advance and investigated in a series of studies by Carkhuff and Truax who have urged the develOpment of an integral series of training experiences combining a didactic-intellectual orientation emphasizing the shaping of counselor behavior with an experiential approach using quasi-therapeutic activities (Truax, C.B., Carkhuff, R.R., and Douds, J., 1964; Berensen, G.G., Carkhuff, R.R., and Myrus, P., 1966). Within this framework, three experiences are provided for the trainee: (l) he experiences an analogue of therapy, (2) he receives from his super- visor a role model of effective counseling, and (3) he has an opportunity for self-exploration. In initial studies implementing this approach in the training of lay personnel and graduate students, Carkhuff and Truax (1965a; 1965b) reported that (a) trainees were functioning at levels of interpersonal functioning comparable to that of experienced professionals, and (b) clients seen by these trainees evidenced greater constructive behavioral change than did control group clients. While the results of these investigations are of considerable interest and merit further investigation, it should be noted that approximately 100 hours was spent in training. In a controlled 34 replication of these studies, Berenson, Carkhuff, and Myrus (1966) were unable to achieve the same level of functioning after a twenty- hour training program. One might suggest that one implication of these and other lay-training studies is the need for longer programs of training which allow for the develOpment of adequate training procedures. In a recent review of the status of counseling programs, Carkhuff (1966) has noted that supervisory practices during practicum range from direct control in the training interview via a mechanical third ear (Korner and Brown, 1952) or radio (Pierce, 1961) to a totally experiential view espoused by Rogers (1957). Within the framework provided by these divergent approaches, supervision has generally been carried on through the use of the one-way mirror and more recently with the use of an audiotape. The remainder of this review will concern itself primarily with the use of recordings as a tool for counselor supervision. Use of Recordings in Counselorggducagigg Audiotape--Although initially most supervisors relied on a trainee's memory or process notes to recreate the counseling inter- view, the use of either audiotape or videotape as a means of recording the counseling interaction is currently common practice in most programs of counselor education. Kubie (1958) has indicated three advantages deriving from the use of audio recordings in psychiatric training: (1) they may obscure issues but they never make up anything, (2) they permit a study of the implications of 35 words, changes in volume, interaction, and affective attitudes, and (3) they are self-revelatory to the student, offering him an oppor- tunity to become aware of himself in an extraordinary way--of his voice, tone, volume, affect, and of subtle tricks of forgetting. Although some supervisors view the use of audiotape as potentially constricting the naturalness of the counseling situation (Ekstein and Wallerstein, 1958), Kubie has noted that "the intrusion of the recording into the privacy of the therapy is a necessary complication and that the constraint on patient and therapist are temporary effects." Early support for the need of a more accurate means of recreating the interview was put forth by Covner (1944). He compared counselors' process notes of an interview with verbatim transcripts in order to investigate the relative merits of each in reporting the actual happenings within the interview. Covner found that counselors' notes contained only ten to thirty-five percent of the actual events and concluded that recordings and the typescripts made from them represented a far more valid and accurate method for studying the counseling process than any other reporting method known to that date. In another study, Covner (1942) also observed that recording the interview was not without its side effects. He reported an increase in counselor anxiety when a microphone was present during the counseling session. While he reported that audiotaping tended to destroy some of the naturalness of the interview situation for all counselors, seemingly producing tenseness, defensiveness, 36 anxiousness, and stiffness, it was perceived as more threatening by inexperienced rather than experienced counselors. More recently, Roberts and Renzaglis (1965) examined the effects of audiotaping on the counseling interaction. Eight train- ees had three contacts with each of three clients under three different conditions: (a) tape recorders and microphone in full view, (b) tape recorder hidden and microphone in full view, and (c) tape recorder and microphone hidden to both trainee and client. The investigators reported that the presence or absence of the recorder made a significant difference on certain counselor/client interactions. Clients made significantly more favorable self- references when they knew they were being recorded while counselors, under the same condition, used a less client-centered approach. The quantity of verbalization was not differentially affected by any of the three conditions. In separate studies, Holmes (1964) and Beiser (1966) have reported on two different approaches to what they termed self-listen- ing. Holmes encouraged counselees to relisten to the audiotape of their counseling session in private. She reported that counselees who took part in this experience gained both new insights into their behaviors and increased ability to crystalize many of their concerns. Holmes also suggested that an additional benefit might acrue to the counselor as a result of listening to client reactions. She indicated that this technique provided an opportunity for the counselor to "check out" his interpretation of client behavior. 37 Indeed, although the counselor might be sensitive to client reactions as they occurred within the interview itself, the accuracy of his interpretations and his understanding of the meaning of client behavior could only be confirmed by the counselee. Beiser (1966) audiotaped three or four half-hour segments of her supervisory sessions with each of nine child psychiatrists during their training, with listening sessions being alternated with recording sessions. She reported that all but two of the therapists reacted favorably to the experience and all the therapists were able to comment spontaneously upon relistening, with their comments ranging from simple surprise at their voices to detailed explanations of their behavior. She further noted that, in most cases, the self-awareness generated by the initial relistening experience led to further discussion particularly related to the trainees' feelings about being therapists. During a second relistening those who did discuss their feelings noted that: Never, even in analysis, had such a clear awareness of their own defense mechanism and character traits been evidenced. It was as if depression, denial, intellectualization, and a number of more conscious mechanisms such as avoidance, had acquired a personal meaning and not just something patients did. However, Beiser also reported that this self-awareness was accompanied by considerable ego pain on the part of the trainee, requiring her to adopt a supportive role during the initial listening sessions in order to maximize the positive impact of the experience. Videotape--Recently, there have been a number of studies involving the use of videotape as part of the supervisory process. 38 In two separate studies, Landsman and Lane (1963) and Walz and Johnston (1963) explored the effects of watching a single replay of a counseling session on a counselor's attitudes toward himself and toward his counseling. Landsman and Lane (1963) videotaped role-played interviews among counselor candidates, later replaying the interviews for the trainees. The authors concluded that counselor candidates watching a replay of their role-played session gained a better understanding of their own behavior in an interpersonal situation than was possible by using audiotape. A more systematic attempt to assess the impact of viewing a videotaped replay of one's counseling was conducted by Walz and Johnston (1963). Each of thirty counselors enrolled in an NDEA Counseling and Guidance Institute held a series of interviews with a coached client as part of their training experience. These interviews were typically viewed either through the one-way vision mirror or over closed circuit television. The experimental situation began in the same manner. Hewever, after ten minutes, the session was stopped and the counselor, Coached client, and supervisor each completed the Interview Check List, reacting to the interview in terms of the client's perceptions of the counselor. Each counselor then viewed the videotape on the day following the session and again completed the Interview Check List. On the second completion of the Interpersonal Check List, the authors reported that the counselor candidates made fewer positive and neutral responses about their 39 interviews than they had immediately after the interview itself and exhibited greater agreement with the supervisor's view of the inter- view than they had earlier. Although both of these studies suggested that counselors-in- training gained new insights and greater self-awareness as a result of viewing a replay of their counseling, there was no evidence to suggest that these insights were or could be translated into new and more effective counseling behaviors during subsequent interviews. Although self-awareness is undoubtedly a vital component of counselor effectiveness, one of the tests of the effectiveness of a supervisory practice, as Bordin (1965) and Carkhuff (1966) have pointed out, must be the ability of the counselor to translate his self-knowledge into new and more effective interview behaviors which lead to client growth. Indeed, all too often studies of supervisory practices have used only paper and pencil or situational tests of counselor attitudes and have neglected this critical dimension of evaluation. Although there is ample evidence to indicate that viewing a videotaped replay of one's counseling results in greater self-aware- ness, the initial impact of the viewing also seems capable of evoking extreme threat, in some cases, bordering on trauma, within the viewer. This threatening dimension of video viewing witnessed in supervisory sessions seems not unlike the "psychic shock" reactions observed by Cornelison and Arsenian (1960) upon confronting hospital- ized psychiatric patients with motion pictures and still photographs of themselves. Similar increases in the level of anxiety upon viewing 40 a tape of one's behavior have also been noted by Moore §£,.31. (1965) with hospitalized psychiatric patients, and Geertsma and Reivich (1965) with a psychiatric out-patient. Poling (l964),while investigating the impact of videotaping counseling interviews in three different physical environments, reported similar findings about the anxiety generated by the initial self-viewing experience on counselor candidates. Each of ten counselors held three twenty-minute videotaped counseling sessions with the same student in a different physical environment. Follow- ing the interviews, both counselors and clients filled out an Environmental Rating Scale. While there were no statistically significant differences between counselor and client ratings of the three physical environments, there was evidence to indicate that counselors were more anxious and concerned about the physical environ- ments than were clients. Poling noted that the counselor's interview ratings, after viewing the videotape more closely, paralleled super- visory ratings than did counselor's ratings after relistening to audiotapes, tending to support the findings of Walz and Johnston. He also stated, however, that the first videotape recorded interview and the subsequent critique became almost a traumatic experience for the counselors who evidenced higher defenses, hostility and resistance. This latter finding coincides with similar observations noted earlier. Additional observations of anxiety contingent upon self- observation, especially among less experienced therapists as well as increased therapist self-awareness and supervisor efficiency resulting 41 from using videotape as a supervisory technique have been reported in two studies dealing with the use of television and videotape in the supervision of trainees in psychotherapy and psychiatry. Schiff and Reivich (1964) and Suess (1966) have described the application of videotape as an aid to supervision in psychotherapy and psychiatric education. Since both training programs were psychoanalytically oriented3the primary focus of the reported supervisory practices was on understanding therapeutic process. In each case, the authors indicated that videotape was useful in understanding the within- interview dynamics of counselor and client. In addition, the non- verbal communication within the interview became a shared experience between supervisor and supervisee enhancing the supervisory session with material not available when only process notes or audiotapes were used. Interestingly enough, Schiff and Reivich reported that the overabundance of material available with the use of videotape necessitated adjustments on the part of supervisors experienced in more traditional approaches. One additional study involving the application of videotape to the training of counselors must be noted although its primary focus was the validation of a rating scale which could serve as a reliable and valid measure of a counselor's interview behavior.1 In an attempt to determine whether this scale would be sensitive to changes in a counselor's interview behavior resulting from training 1This rating scale was used as one of the criterion measures for the current study and is discussed in Chapter III in the section dealing with Instrumentation. 42 Griffin (1966) used two different approaches to supervision via videotape with ten counselors attending an academic year post- masters NDEA Counseling and Guidance Institute. One group of five counselors held six counseling sessions with high school and college clients, viewing the replay of each session with the experimenter who was also serving as supervisor. The supervisor focused the counselors on specified dimensions of their interview behavior. In contrast, a second group of five counselors were paired, two counsel- ors serving as a team,1 in this group each counselor had three client contacts after which his partner interrogated the client while the counselor viewed the recall session over a T.V. monitor. Griffin reported changed counselor interview behavior on the part of those counselors receiving what he termed counselor interrogation. The counselors in this group made significantly more affective, understanding, specific, and exploratory responses in their final interview than did those counselors who both viewed the client recall sessions and acted as interrogators. It is obvious that the nature of the experiences offered each group were clearly different. On the one hand, the goals of the group receiving counselor interrogation were clearly delineated by the experiemnter who focused the counselors on specific dimensions of counselor behavior during the recall sessions. In contrast, a similar focus was not provided the group using only client recall. llThe fifth or odd counselor was paired with other members of the institute not participating in the study. 43 Since the goals of training were not spelled out, the counselors were left to establish their own training objectives, as well as criteria for effective counseling and were allowed to use the recall sessions as they saw fit. Griffin reported no pre to post changes in the interview behavior of these counselors as measured by the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. Conclusions and Implications of the Literature Despite the lack of controlled research in the area of counselor supervision, there are a number of implications to be drawn from the literature in the area. In regard to the nature of the experiences offered, there is an increasing body of evidence supporting an integrated, multi- dimensional approach to practicum. At least one aspect of this approach seems to be the need for substantive direction for the trainee, helping him to generalize from the training eXperience to actual practice, imbedded in an experiential context. These considerations seem to take on added importance when the visual media is introduced into supervision via videotape. Although one must obviously restrict generalizations about video training procedures on the basis of the data presented by Griffin (1966) in view of the methodological problems created by differential focus and experimenter bias, it is important to note the impact of clearly focusing counselors on desired behaviors if one's goal is the increased use of such behaviors. In view of the data, it seems highly possible that focusing on specific behaviors 44 was, in itself, a vital contributor to the change in subsequent interview behavior reported by Griffin. If this is true for counselors who, theoretically, were ready for advanced training in counseling, it should be even more important to focus beginning candidates on the behavioral correlates of effective counselor interview behavior. It would also seem likely that both counselors and clients participating in the present study, knowing that they were being video recorded, would exhibit behaviors similar to those reported by Covner and Roberts and Renzaglis, however, this factor may be partially controlled by: (a) holding all counseling sessions for both experimental groups in the same physical environment with cameras visible but somewhat screened by partitions and (b) increas- ing the number of counseling sessions for each counselor. As counselors become familiar with the environment and with the super- visory process, one would expect some of their anxiety over recording the session to disappear. While the use of videotape in supervision has implications for the trainee, it also demands new skills on the part of the supervisor. Thus, the effective supervisory use of videotape will demand more than pouring "old wine into new bottles", possible requiring both new techniques and new competencies on the part of the supervisory personnel. This implies that, if supervisory techniques involving videotape are to be given an adequate trial, participating supervisors should have experience with videotape and stimulated recall techniques 45 as well as a more traditional approach to supervision. If supervisors encounter difficulty in coping with the abundance of supervisory material available when using videotape, the problems would seem to be compounded for the trainee who is now confronted with a wealth of material, both about the client and himself, which he must now sift and integrate. This would tend to suggest that a trainee be gradually introduced to the wealth of material available so that rather than being overwhelmed by the material, he has an opportunity to incorporate this material into new patterns of behavior. In addition, some of the evidence indicates a need for the supervisor to provide the trainee with an adequate level of support during the early stages of the supervisory experience if the trainee is to cope with this wealth of stimulus material. Indeed, much of the positive impact of video confrontation seems to be dissipated by the potentially debilitating nature of the initial confrontation. Finally, a methodological note must be added. Few of the studies reviewed attempted to determine the ultimate impact of training techniques on actual counselor behavior. Some focused on such intermediate goals as self-awareness and recognition of non- verbal behavior. Others looked at attitude change or changes in counselor responses to paper and pencil instruments such as the Porter Test of Counselor Attitudes. However, only Betz (1963), Kagan 5;, 31, (1965), and Carkhuff g2..gl. (1965) attempted to evaluate actual counselor behavior as a function of type of training. 46 The present state of knowledge about client growth, the limited number of client contacts during practicum, and the nature of the client population may make it unfeasable to follow Carkhuff's recommendation (1966) to evaluate training programs in terms of client improvement. However, at least the intermediate stage of describing counselors‘within-interview behavior and comparing it with the behaviors of counselors of recognized ability should be the sine qua non of research in counselor supervision. In summary, the studies reviewed in this chapter while they indicate the potential advantages of videotape in the supervision of practicum, also suggest that the undifferentiated use of video- tape does not necessarily lead to changed counselor behaviors. In essence, they support the assumption that the effective use of videotape necessitates its being incorporated into an integrated series of supervisory experiences. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY An experimental research design was formulated which would permit the testing of the two general research questions formulated in Chapter I, namely, that: (a) the interview behavior of counselor candidates will change as a result of a traditional practicum with individual supervision, but (b) supervision employing stimulated recall via videotape will be more effective than traditional super- .vision in bringing about changes in a counselor's interview behavior. In order to answer both these questions, the design had to permit comparisons of counselor interview behavior within experimental groups over time and treatment and between experimental groups after treat- ment. A schematic representation of this design is presented in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Schematic representation of the overall experimental design Groups (N = 18) Treatments Group IPR 11 Video IPR Supervision 12 (5 sessions) Analysis Between Treatmen Group T 11 Traditional Supervision 12 i (6 sessions) I Analysis over time and treatment J 47 48 A pre-post design was used as the framework for answering the main research questions. It is evident that not all counselor candidates, even at the same stage of training, evidence the same degree of therapeutic skill or ability in interpersonal communication. Since the counselors participating in this study were volunteers at varying stages of training, it became doubly important to have a measure of their initial level of functioning if an assessment of the effectiveness of either type of supervision, IPR or traditional, was to be made. The initial interview, the "pre-test", provided such a measure,serving as base line data for assertaining the degree of behavior change resulting from each type of supervisory experience. The pre-training measure also served as an additional check on the power of each of the supervisory procedures. All too often in designs comparing an innovation with a more traditional procedure, differences between groups on the criterion measure occur because there is little or no change within one group. Therefore, it seemed important to determine whether the supervised counseling experience afforded the traditionally supervised group changed a counselor candidate's interview behavior, in order to determine the relative effectiveness of the video supervisory techniques. Only in this way could answers be found to the questions of whether the video supervisory techniques were more effective than an intensive series of more traditionally oriented individual experiences and whether the traditional experiences employed were, indeed, "intensive." In addition, since all the supervisors were aware of the 49 hypotheses under investigation and knew the groups to which trainees had been assigned, changes occuring in the interview behavior of the counselors in the traditionally supervised group could serve as, at least, a partial check on supervisor bias. If there were no changes in interview behavior within the traditionally supervised group over time, any post treatment differences existing between groups might not reflect the superiority of one method but rather the effect of supervisor bias. That is, the traditional approach might not have been used properly, supervisors might have been more familiar with IPR supervision, or per- haps the supervisors were more enthused about one of the two treatmen*s. In regard to the first two possibilities, it should be noted that, while supervisors were admittedly knowledgeable in IPR procedures, the major portion of their supervisory experiences, both in terms of their own training and supervising, had been with what is here termed traditional supervision. Furthermore, if differences in interview behavior were observed both within groups over time and between groups, one would either have to make the assumption that the supervisors worked just hard enough to insure changes within the traditionally supervised group, but changes that were not too great, or discount supervisor bias as a major factor influencing the results. Certainly, in view of our present state of knowledge about supervision and the supervisory process, it does not seem likely that supervisors have either the control or skill to so influence the outcomes of supervision. Finally, judges' ratings of each trainee's initial interview provided a basis for matching trainees on their initial counseling 50 ability as well as their level of training. This provided a measure of control over the possibility of large initial differences between groups with relatively small "n'sfi as well as affording a means of investigating the possible differential potential for change at varying levels of ability. Description of the Experimental Procedures A detailed summary of the experimental procedures within the framework of the overall design is presented in Table 3.2, followed by a discussion of the experimental procedures. Table 3.2 Summary of the experimental procedures IPR Supervision Traditional Supervision Pre-Session a) 30 minute initial counseling session between each trainee and high school client. The initial interview served as a measure of a trainee's counseling behavior at the outset of training. Trainees were matched on the basis of professional judges' ratings of their initial session using the total score on the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) as the criterion and then randomly assigned to treatment groups.1 b) The supervisor and counselor viewed a pre-selected videotape counseling session between an experienced counselor and a high school client. The tape served as a controlled stimulus for a discussion of the dimension of counselor communication leading to client movement-- using the dimensions of the CVRS as a point of reference. 1This procedure was followed during the first two quarters. Because of problems with equipment, this procedure could not be strictly followed during the final quarter. For the final quarter, subjects were randomly assigned to the treatment groups. The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks for the final quarter indicated no significant differences between groups. Except for this deviation from the initial design, all other experimental procedures, including the initial pre-training interview, were followed. 51 Table 3.2 - Continued IPR Supervision Traditional Supervision a) 30 minute counseling interview with a high school client.1 Session #1 b) 15 minute client recall with supervisor conducting recall session while counselor watches through one-way mirror. c) 45 minute counselor recall with supervisor. Session #2 a) 30 minute counseling interview. b) 20 minute client recall with supervisor conducting recall session while counselor watches through one-way mirror. c) 40 minute counselor recall with supervisor. a) 30 minute counseling interview by Counselor A. Session #3 b) 30 minute client recall conducted by Counselor B while Counselor A watches through one-way mirror.2 c) 30 minute counseling interview by Counselor B. d) 30 minute client recall by Counselor A while Counselor B watches through one-way vision mirror. a) 30 minute counseIfng interview with a high school client.1 b) 60 minute supervision using audio tape. Same as Session #1. Same as Session #1. IPre and post interviews were initial contacts with a high school client. Interviews 1 through 6 were mainly with high school clients although some college students also were used as clients. 2Trainees were paired on the basis of scheduling convenience. 52 Table 3.2 - Continued IPR Supervision Traditional Supervision Session #4 Same as Session #3. Same as Session #1. Session #5 a) 30 minute counseling Same as Session #1. interview. b) 60 minute client recall with supervisor and counselor conduct recall together. Session #6 ———— Same as Session #1. Post-Session 30 minute initial counseling session between each trainee and a high school client. Pre-Trainipg Immediately following each counselor's initial interview (pre-session), and before assignment to treatment groups, each counselor and supervisor viewed the same videotape of an interview between an experienced counselor and a female high school client. The intent of this session was to provide the counselor candidate with a common framework within which to conceptualize the counseling interaction. Trainees were each presented with the same model of counseling behavior which permitted the supervisor to focus on those dimensions of counseling which were characterized by specific counselor behaviors and which had been previously defined as behaviors important for novices to learn. It was these behaviors which formed the basis of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. During the replay either counselor or supervisor could stop the videotape at any time to discuss the 53 counselor/client interactions. Typically, the discussion focused on whether the counselor: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) As dealt with the affective or cognitive concerns of the client, followed the client attempting to (a) understand his mood, feeling, and emotion; (b) recognized the under- lying content of his statement; and (c) responded in the appropriate manner and at the appropriate level, allowed and encouraged the client to explore his feelings, concentrated on the central or core issues, helping the client specify the focus of her concerns, rather than on peripheral or incidental matters, maintained the focus on the client and the interaction between client and counselor, conveyed by his verbal and nonverbal behavior that he understood or was attempting to understand the client. the training session progressed, the trainee judged each counselor response in terms of the dimensions used on the Counselor Verbal Response Scale, deciding whether a response (a) referred to affect or cognition, (b) reflected understanding or nonunderstanding, (c) focused on specific or peripheral concerns, and (d) encouraged or limited client exploration. Thus, each trainee was provided with a model which could be used for comparison with other models and which, at the same time, served as a framework within which the trainee could order and evaluate 54 his own counseling. It should be noted that the counselor behaviors described are not tied to any one theoretical position but rather stress what seems to be essentials of interpersonal communication rather than technique (Truax and Carkhuff, 1963; Griffin, 1966). In addition to focusing the counselor candidates on specific counselor behaviors, this initial session also served to introduce trainees to both verbal and nonverbal elements of client communication, in essence providing the counselor candidate with training in both listening and looking. Thus, this session served to increase the trainee's awareness of client behavior by "teaching" them what to look for during the course of the interview. Video Sgpervision As outlined in Table 3.2, the video treatment falls into three distinct yet sequential phases. Phase 1, sessions 1 and 2, combines client and counselor recall. In phase 2, sessions 3 and 4, the counselor was paired with a colleague, listened to his client's recall as his colleague served as interrogator, and then served as interrogator with his partner's client. In the final phase, session 5, the counselor candidate and supervisor together conducted a recall session with the client. Phase l--During sessions 1 and 2, the trainee held a 30-minute counseling session with a client. Immediately after the session, the supervisor replaced the counselor in the counseling room and conducted a 15-20 minute video recall session with the client while the counselor watched the recall through a one-way vision mirror.1 1Both a one-way vision mirror and a T.V. monitor were available for viewing the interview or recall. Counselors or supervisors could use either means of viewing. 55 At the conclusion of the client recall session, and after the client had left, the counselor returned to the counseling room where he and the supervisor viewed a replay of the interview. During this counselor recall session, the supervisor attempted to focus the trainee on the meaning of his behavior and its effect on the client, drawing on material develOped during the client recall as well as the counselor's own recalled feelings upon viewing the replay of the counseling session. Phase 2--For the second phase of video supervision, sessions 3 and 4, counselors were paired on the basis of compatable schedules. While one member of the pair worked with a client, his partner watched over the T.V. monitor in the adjoining room. Following the counseling session, the partner conducted the recall session with the client, assuming the role of interrogator. These roles were then reversed. Thus, during this phase of training, each trainee had two experiences in the interrogator role. The intent of phase 2 was to give each trainee an Opportunity to experience the effect of a new mode of behavior on both the client and himself. Although the role of the interrogator and counselor may differ, the behaviors which characterize effective interrogation are similar to effective counselor behaviors. Thus, the interrogator is instructed to focus on underlying affect and meaning, to help the .client delineate the locus of his concerns, and to encourage the client to explore the meanings of his behavior especially in inter- action. 56 Phase 3--In the final phase of the video treatment (session 5) a variation of the basic IPR format was used. Instead of leaving the room after the counseling session, the counselor remained with the client and the supervisor during the recall. The supervisor, acting as interrogator, began by asking the client the usual questions about underlying feelings. As the session progressed, the counselor was encouraged to join in the recall not merely in 'probing" the client but in revealing his own feelings and understandings. Gradually, the supervisor/interrogator physically moved back, encouraging the counselor and client to continue the recall together, interrupting only to maintain the focus of the session on the videotaped replay. Traditional Supervision In order to equate client contact time and to provide the strongest supervisory experience for this group, the traditionally supervised counselors had 6 client contacts, each of which was immediately followed by one hour of supervision. Like the video group, all interviews were held in the IPR room under simulated video conditions,1 with all sessions being audiotaped. The goals of supervision and the supervisory focus for this group were the same as those for the IPR group. Typically, the supervisors main- tained the focus on the counselor/client interaction, attempting to promote greater self-awareness within the counselor as well as his understanding of interview dynamics. IAs many interviews as possible were actually videotaped and replayed for the counselors after their final interview. 57 These traditional supervisory procedures were, as much as possible, responsive to each student's individual needs and as intensive as possible. In general, supervisors were committed to a supervisory role which was more like counseling itself. However, the supervisors continually tried to maintain their focus on helping the counselor understand his own dynamics as they affected his relation- ship with his client. Counseling Suite All counseling sessions for both groups were held in a specially constructed counseling room equipped with unmanned, pre set television cameras, an unconcealed microphone, and a monitor to receive the replay. The cameras, though not concealed, were enclosed in the corners by an attractive piece of plywood with a symmetrical pattern of perforation. The counselors, supervisors, and staff could view both the counseling sessions and the recall, from an adjoining room, either through a one-way mirror or over a T.V. monitor. The video picture was transmitted over a closed channel only viewable in the IPR rooms. Supervisors Supervision of all trainees was conducted by members of the IPR staff who were randomly assigned to an equal number of counselor candidates in each treatment group. Since it was deemed important that supervisors establish a positive relationship with the super- visees, each supervisor worked with a trainee through all training sessions. This procedure equated supervisors across both groups while, at the same time, permitting the establishment of an effect- ive supervisory relationship. 58 On occasion, scheduling conflicts necessitated the absence of a supervisor. However, this situation occurred only six times in over two hundred supervisory contacts and did not seem to have a significant impact on the supervisory relationship affected. Because of the importance of supervisors being trained in IPR procedures, all supervisors were members of the IPR staff with prior supervisory experience. These supervisors knew the research hypotheses and, because of the obvious differences in supervisory procedures, knew the experimental group to which trainees had been assigned. Nevertheless, random assignment of these supervisors to trainees in both treatment groups and reliance on their professional attitudes seemed more advisable than attempting to match supervisors across groups, especially in the light of the current state of knowledge concerning the characteristics of effective supervisors, or using supervisors unaccustomed to the IPR procedures or the use of videotape. In addition, the procedure finally adapted had the advantage of assuring a common frame of reference within supervisors across groups. Thus, equality of supervisor skill, background, and training was assured across treatment groups quarter by quarter. As noted earlier, because IPR is new, all of the supervisors. had been trained "traditionallf‘ and had themselves supervised "traditionally." In addition, any evidence of within group changes in counseling behavior for the traditionally supervised group served as at least a quasi control on possible supervisor bias. Clients The majority of clients for sessions 1 through 6 were 59 students from area junior and senior high schools who indicated an interest in educational, vocational or personal-social counseling. These clients were typical of practicum clients at Michigan State University. A small number of clients were college students enrolled in an introductory course in Educational Psychology who also indicated an interest in talking with a counselor.1 Clients were assigned to counselors on the basis of schedule compatability with counselors generally working with two or three clients during the course of training. However, because counselors often came from a distance of over 100 miles it was, on occasion, necessary to role-play inter- views, rather than cancel sessions because of last-minute client cancellation.2 In these cases, members of the IPR staff, but not the supervisor, or else office secretaries served as clients. All clients were aware that the interviews were both audio and videotaped and no attempt was made to conceal either the cameras or the microphone. However, each client was informed that the tapes would be used only in supervision. Clients for the control group were shown the videotapes of their sessions only after termination with the counselor. Criterion Interview Clients for both the initial interview and the post-treatment criterion interview were tenth grade students from local high schools IIIWithin the regular university practicum, it is common practice for students in introductory classes in guidance to serve as clients. 2There was no consistent bias in favor of either treatment group in the assignment of real versus role-played clients. 60 drawn from the total client population. A particular age-grade level was selected since it was assumed that these clients would be facing relatively similar develOpmental tasks and therefore present- ing somewhat similar problems to the counselor. It was hoped that this approach would at least minimally equate clients across counselors while, at the same time, avoiding the problems involved in using a coached client. Commenting on the use of a coached client in the criterion interview, Kagan gg. 31. (1965) suggested that, in part, the coached clienes willingness to respond regardless of counselor adequacy might have muted any treatment effects. It may also be possible that judges have a difficult time avoiding rating bias when they know the nature of the client's concerns early in the game. Sample The counselors participating in this study were masters degree candidates in the Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology at Michigan State University. All degree candidates as of Spring, 1966 were informed of an opportunity to receive additional supervised counseling experience by participating in a research project. Subjects were told that while they would receive supervised counseling experience, this would not substitute for practicum on their program. Credit for independent study was given to participants. The use of a volunteer sample, although creating some method- ological problems and limiting the generalizability of results, was dictated by practical considerations. Because of the small number of 61 enrollees in the regular university practicum during the academic year, it was unfeasable to use practicum as a source of subjects. More important, however, was the need to control the entire super- visory process, providing a single supervisory modality during training if there was to be an adequate evaluation of new approaches to super- vision. Obviously, this could only be done outside of the regular university practicum which includes other experiences in addition to individual supervision. An attempt to control the variability in counseling skills inherent in a population representing all levels of experience was made by using a randomized block design. However, the very variability in subjects provided an opportunity for investigating the impact of supervised experience with counselors at several ability levels and at various stages in training. The final sample was composed of thirty-six graduate students. The number of trainees in any quarter was dictated by the availability of the physical facilities and the schedules of the supervisory personnel. Eight trainees participated during the first quarter and fourteen during each of the next two quarters. Because of the third quarter departure from the pairing procedures used during the first two quarters prior to randomly assigning subjects to groups, the total initial interview score for the two groups across all dimensions of the CVRS were compared. In addition, the groups were also compared on a number of other variables which could have influenced the outcomes of training, namely: (1) level of experience, 62 (2) sex, (3) age of subjects, (4) grade point average in guidance courses, and (5) number of professional courses in Counseling and Guidance. Summaries of this data, quarter by quarter, are found in Tables 3.3 through 3.7. Table 3.3 Mean total score on counselors pre-interviews on the CVRS quarter by quarter Quarter N IPR N Traditional I 4 22.66 4 25.01 II 7 20.34 7 21.66 III 7 23.79 7 20.04 Treatment Group Means 18 22.26 18 22.24 Table 3.4 Number, sex, and level of experience of students in each treatment group quarter by quarter Quarter IPR Traditional Total I 3 Males 3 Males 6 Males 1 Female 1 Female 2 Females 4 Pre-practicum 3 Pre-practicum 7 Pre-practicum 0 Practicum 1 Practicum 1 Practicum II 4 Males 3 Males 7 Males 3 Females 4 Females 7 Females 5 Pre-practicum 5 Pre-practicum 10 Pre-practicum 2 Practicum 2 Practicum 4 Practicum 63 Table 3.4 - Continued Quarter IPR Traditional Total III 4 Males 2 Males 6 Males 3 Females 5 Females 8 Females 4 Pre-practicum 4 Pre-practicum 8 Pre-practicum 3 Practicum 3 Practicum 6 Practicum Total 11 Males 8 Males 19 Males 7 Females lO Females 17 Females 13 Pre-practicum 12 Pre-practicum 25 Pre-practicum 5 Practicum 6 Practicum ll Practicum Table 3.5 Mean age for each treatment group by quarter Quarter N IPR N Traditional I 4 29.5 4 40.25 II 7 30.4 7 32.9 III 7 39.4 7 32.6 Treatment Group Means 18 33.72 18 34.39 Table 3.6 Mean grade point average in guidance courses for each treatment group by quarter Quarter N IPR N Traditional I 4 3.33 4 3.28 11 7 3.41 7 3.48 III 7 3.37 7 3.33 Treatment Group Means 18 3.38 18 3.44 64 From the data presented in Tables 3.3 through 3.7, there is no evidence to suggest that either group had a pre-experimental advantage on any of the variables considered. Table 3.7 Mean number of professional courses in counseling and guidance for each treatment group by quarter Quarter N IPR N Traditional I 4 12.67 4 16.67 II 7 12.14 7 10.14 III 7 8.71 7 8.14 Treatment Group Means 18 10.2 18 9.9 Instrumentation Two criteria were used to measure trainee effectiveness, the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS, Griffin, 1966; Kagan and Krathwohl, 1966) and the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale (WROS, Steph, 1963). Counselor Verbal Response Scale Overview--The CVRS consists of five forced choice dichotomous dimensions measuring the extent to which counselors are characterized by affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective responses. The dimensions are defined as follows: An affective response is one which makes reference to or encourages some affective or feeling aspect of the client's communication while a cognitive 65 response refers primarily to the cognitive component of a client's statement; understanding refers to the counselor's ability to convey to the client his awareness of and sensitivity to the client's feelings and concerns by attempting to deal with the core of his concerns rather than making vague responses or refering to periphecal concerns; exploratory reSponses encourage the client to explore his feelings providing him with an opportunity to do so while nonexploratory responses typically restrict the client's freedom to explore. The final dimension, effective-noneffective, is a global rating of the overall effectiveness of a counselor's response in promoting client movement. The CVRS differs from other rating scales in that it focuses on a series of individual client/counselor verbal units (client statement--counselor response) during the course of an interview rather than on global ratings of entire interviews or longer inter- view segments. Thus, the judge is required to describe every counselor response to a client verbalization on each of the five dimensions of the scale. Reliability--In determining interjudge reliability, Griffin applied Hoyt's analysis of variance technique to the ratings of two ’sets of three judges who had rated the videotaped interviews of fifty inexperienced M.A. candidates in Counseling and Guidance and thirteen experienced Ph.D. candidates in Counseling and Guidance at Michigan State University. Corresponding four-minute segments were rated for fifty-three of the counselors (45 M.A. candidates and 8 Ph.D candidates) 66 who had interviewed the same coached client. Because a timed segment with unequal numbers of response was used, ratings were converted to proportionate scores. Corresponding twenty response segments were rated for the other ten counseling interviews. Griffin reported coefficients of average tape interjudge reliability of .84, .80, .79, .68, and .79 for the affective-cognitive, understanding-nonunderstanding, specific-nonspecific, exploratory-nonexploratory, and effective-non- effective dimensions of the scale respectively. Validity--More important perhaps than even this evidence of objectivity leading to interjudge agreement is the data supporting the validity of the dimensions of the scale for characterizing counselors at different ability levels. Griffin reported that, on each dimension of the scale, significant differences at the .01 level were found between the responses of the Ph.D candidates and the M.A. candidates with the former having more responses rated as affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective. He also noted that separate ratings made of 10 counselors with some advanced training and counseling experience indicated that their response patterns fell between those of MnA. and Ph.D. candidates. Replication--Because the criterion instrument was an integral part of the experimental procedure, a series of studies were under- taken to determine whether similar results could be obtained using the same videotapes with different raters as well as with different counseling tapes. First, a manual was written and illustrative "exercises" were included so that less judge training would be required. 67 Definitions were also changed somewhat. Then counselor judges were trained in the use of the scale. Three separate sets of counseling tapes were rated using different combinations of judges for each rating. In the first study, raters judged six audio tapes represent- ing counselors at different levels of preparation, selected from the department's counseling tape library by members of the faculty. In the second study, fourteen videotapes of initial interviews of high school counselors were used. Finally, the fifty-three videotapes developed by Ward (1966), used in the initial IPR study (Kagan g5, 31, 1965) and rated by Griffin, were re-rated using a different set of judges. An overview of the three studies is presented in Table 3.8 and the coefficients of inter-rater reliability, calculated by the technique of analysis of variance described by Ebel (1951), are presented in Table 3.9.1 Table 3.8 Overview of three studies designed to determine inter-rater reliability on the CVRS Study No. of No. of Mode of Type of Judges Tapes Presentation Rating A 4 6 Audio 20 Responses each tape B 3 14 Video 20 Responses each tape C 3 53 Video 4-minute timed segment IIData presented in Tables 3.9 - 3.11 is a summarization of data reported in Kagan, N. and Krathwohl, D.R. (1966a). 68 Table 3.9 Average tape and item inter-rater reliability coefficients for each dimension of the CVRS on three separate studiesa Study Aff.- Und.- Spec.- Exp.- Eff.- Cogn. Nund. Nspec. Nexp. Neff. Tape .80 .81 .70 .87 .83 A Item .638 .568 .524 .549 .524 Tape .824 .873 .682 .839 .825 B Item .625 .506 .454 .450 .547 Tapeb C Item .637 .508 .524 .549 .574 8The formula used to derive the estimate of the reliability of individual ratings is: MR _ M Mg 4' (k- 1)M where M = mean square for error, Mg = mean square for persons, and k = number of raters. bBecause of the unequal number of rateable response, units within any given timed segment, only item reliability estimates were calculated. Aff.- Cogn. = Affective-cognitive Und.-Nund. = Understanding-nonunderstanding Spec.-Nspec. = Specific-nonspecific Exp.-Nexp. = Exploratory-nonexploratory Eff.-Neff. = Effective-noneffective The data from studies A and C as described above was also used to further test the validity of the scale's dimensions, that is, to determine if the dimensions of the scale actually differentiated 69 counselors at different levels of experience. The data from Study A involving six audio tapes is presented in Table 3.10. Table 3.10 Mean scores of six counselors at various levels of training on each of the dimensions of the CVRS Counselor Affect Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. Total A 9.75 17.25 15.25 11.25 15.75 69.25 B 9.25 9.00 7.75 10.00 7.50 43.50 C 11.25 17.25 12.00 16.25 15.50 72.25 D 2.25 7.50 5.25 8.00 3.50 26.60 E 5.25 6.75 6.00 8.00 5.75 31.75 F 1.00 2.00 1.00 5.25 .50 9.75 Counselor A = Ph.D. candidate rated good by supervisor B = Ph.D. candidate rated weak by supervisor C = School counselor rated good by supervisor D II M.A. practicum rated poor by supervisor ['11 ll Beginning practicum F = Beginning practicum In all but one case, there is a clear differentiation between counselors at varying ability levels on each of the scales' five ‘ dimensions. The second validity study involved fifty-three videotapes rated by Griffin. These tapes represented 4-minute segments of the final 70 interview of fourty-five M.A. candidates and eight Ph.D. candidates involved in the initial IPR study (Kagan g£,‘gl., 1965). Since the use of a timed segment precluded the rating of an equal number of responses for each counselor, the ratings of the three judges were extrapolated to a base of twenty responses, thus making them comparable to other data collected. The mean number of responses of the M.A. and Ph.D. candidates were then compared on each dimension of the scale using 5 tests. On every dimension summarized in Table 3.11, there were statistically significant differences between the responses of M.A. and Ph.D. candidates. Table 3.11 Comparison of mean scores of Ph.D. and M.A. counselor candidates on the five dimensions of the CVRS D' , Ph.D. M.A. 1men31on N Mean N Mean t p Affective 8 10.04 45 4.33 3.401 .005 Understanding 8 14.08 45 9.66 2.164 .025 Specific 8 10.04 45 5.50 2.51 .01 Exploratory 8 14.17 45 8.56 3.07 .005 Effective 8 12.42 45 6.99 2.646 .01 These results, coupled with the results obtained in the initial developmental studies reported by Griffin (1966), strongly suggested that the CVRS could serve as an adequate and useful measure of counselor behavior.1 IIManual of instructions and format appear in Appendix B. 71 Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale There exists ample evidence in the counseling literature to suggest that a critical element of effective counseling is the ability of the counselor to establish a meaningful, personal relationship with the client. If this is so, it seemed likely that the client's perception of the relationship might well serve as a measure of the degree to which the counselor was able to communicate such qualities as empathic understanding and positive regard. The Wisconsin Relation- ship Orientation Scale (WROS, Steph, 1963) was used to determine the nature of the relationship existing between counselor and client, as perceived by the client. In using the scale, the client is asked to indicate how he feels about the counselor in terms of five steps which range from total avoidance of the counselor to the feeling of probably being able to talk with the counselor about almost anything.1 Judging of the Criterion Tapes--Nine advanced doctoral candidates in both clinical and counseling psychology, all with prior counseling experience, served as judges for the rating of the criterion tapes. A different set of judges rated the criterion tapes during each term, rating both the pre and post tapes. Because of the necessity of rating pre-tapes for pairing subjects and the necessity of re-using videotapes, it was impossible to use a set of judges who could rate all tapes at the conclusion of the study. To insure maximum commonality in rating across all judges, each judge was trained in the use of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale with 1See Appendix C. 72 a series of pre-selected counseling tapes. During the training sessions, the tapes were stOpped at pre-selected points and the ratings of the judges compared. Discussion of the ratings continued until there was evidence of ample agreement among the judges or a common interpretation of the dimensions of the rating scale. The videotapes were randomly presented to the judges during the rating sessions. The procedures for rating tapes outlined by Griffin (1966) were used. Judges rated twenty consecutive counselor responses drawn from the middle of an interview. It was felt that this procedure avoided the rating difficulties associated with the initial and terminal phases of the interview. Tapes were started at the fifth minute of the interview. Prior to rating, judges viewed approximately two or three minutes of the tape in order to gain an understanding of the pace and content of the interview and to get accustomed to the sound and visual quality of the videotape. Judges then rated twenty consecutive counselor responses. Analysis of Data Testing Significance Between and Within Experimental Groups-- The use of a matched randomized block design dictated the use of a E test for the difference between the means for paired observations and equated groups in testing the differences within groups between pre and post measures and between groups on the post measures. Edwards (1954) has indicated that this is the appropriate statistical test in cases where subjects have been paired or in which the same group of subjects is tested twice and the investigator wishes to determine 73 whether the mean obtained on the second testing differs significantly from that obtained on the first testing. Because all hypotheses were directional, a one-tailed test of significance at the .05 level was used in all cases. Because the samples were not paired during all three terms and use of a volunteer sample raised some question about the comparability of subjects across terms, it was necessary to determine whether the samples for each of the three quarters were drawn from the same population before the data could be grouped for analysis. To do this, the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks was used. The total initial interview scores across all dimensions of the CVRS were obtained and trainees were ranked by total score. The sum of the ranks were then obtained for each of the three samples. The test statistic (assuming no ties) is then:, H: 12 fk iii-3(N+1), N(N+1) 1' = 1 hi 2:3 where N = i = 1, and R = the sum of the ranks of the ith sample. Large values of fl_lead to rejection of the null hypot'eses r‘a- there is no difference in the three samples. If the samples are not too small, H.1s approximately distributed as chi—square. Analysis of the ranks from the pretest interview yielded an H_= .16 indicating that the three samples were drawn from the same population. It was therefore assumed that data from all three quarters could be grouped for analysis. In creating pairs for the third quarter, subjects were ranked within each eXperimental group with the highest ranking counselors in 74 each group being treated as one pair and so forth. The rankings of the subjects for the final quarter were com- pared using thezKruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks Edwards(l954) suggests that this test may be used even when only two groups are involved. Analysis of the ranks for the groupings of the third quarter counselors yielded an H = .01 indicating that the two samples were drawn from the same population. Inspection of the rankings indicated that random assignment had, in fact, yielded actual paris for the tOp two and bottom two pairs respectively. While the three pairs in the middle of the sample were not actual pairs, the bias was consistently in favor of the traditionally supervised group. Testing Inter-Judge Reliabilitye-To test for agreement among judges' ratings, an analysis of variance technique described by Ebel (1951) was used. Item and tape inter-rater reliability was calculated for each dimension of the CVRS across all judges and tapes. Hypotheses The specific hypotheses generated by this study are presented in research form. Hypotheses Related to Differences Between Groups After Treatment-- H1 The IPR supervised group will make a significantly greater number of responses rated affective, under- standing, specific, exploratory, and effective than the traditionally supervised group after supervision. H2 Clients will perceive a stronger relationship orientation with IPR supervised counselors than with traditionally 75 supervised counselors after treatment. Hypotheses Related to Differences Within Groups After Treatment-- H1 There will be a difference in the number of responses rated affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective for the traditionally supervised group between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measure. H2 There will be a difference in the number of responses rated affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective for the IPR supervised group between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measure. Summary A group of counselor trainees were selected and assigned to two treatments: (1) supervision employing a sequential approach to IPR and (2) traditional individual supervision using audiotape. A randomized block design incorporating pre and post treatment measures was used to study the differences between groups and within groups on the five dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale: that is, the number of counselor responses rated affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective during corresponding twenty response segments of initial interviews with high school clients. Ratings on the Counselor Verbal Response Scale were made by nine professional judges trained in the use of the rating scale. In addition, each counselor's final client filled out the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale to evaluate the strength of the relation- ship as perceived by the client. 76 Analyses were made of the mean differences on each dimension of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale between the two groups and the mean differences of client relationship ratings between groups. Analyses were also made of the changes in interview behavior within groups pre to post treatment on each dimension of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA In Chapter IV, an analysis of the data is presented based on the methodology and statistical treatment outlined in Chapter III. Professional judges rated the middle segment (twenty responses) of each counselor's pre-training and post-training interview using the CVRS. Each counselor's final client also rated the counselor after the interview using the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale. Results of the analysis of this data are reported in the following sequence: (1) pre-treatment and post-treatment scores on each dimension of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale are compared for both the IPR supervised and Traditionally supervised group to determine the within group effect of each treatment, and (2) post- treatment scores of the IPR supervised group are compared with post- treatment scores of the Traditionally supervised group on both the Counselor Verbal Response Scale and the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale to determine differences between the two treatments. Differences Within Groups After Supervision The null hypotheses tested for the five dimensions of counselor performance were: H01 There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the IPR supervised group rated affective between the pre-treatment and post- treatment measures. 77 H02 H63 H04 H05 H06 H07 H08 78 There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the IPR supervised group rated understanding between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the IPR supervised group rated specific between the pre-treatment and post- treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the IPR supervised group rated exploratory between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the IPR supervised group rated effective between the pre-treatment and post- treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the traditionally supervised group rated affective between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the traditionally supervised group rated understanding between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor H09 H010 79 interview responses for the traditionally supervised group rated specific between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the traditionally supervised group rated exploratory between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. There is no difference in the number of counselor interview responses for the traditionally supervised group rated effective between the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures. A E test for paired observations was computed for each of the five dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale to determine whether a significant difference in means existed pre to post for both the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group. in Tables 4.1 Table 4.1 The results of these analyses are summarized and 4.2. Comparison of pre and post treatment means on each dimension of the CVRS for the IPR supervised group Pre Post Dimension N Mean Mean t p Affective 18 3.30 7.74 6.42 .001 Understanding 18 6.00 13.05 8.81 .001 Specific 18 3.35 9.33 7.57 .001 Exploratory 18 5.81 12.18 7.68 .001 Effective 18 4.06 10.57 9.97 .001 Necessary: E .05 2 1.74 for 17 degrees of freedom Necessary: E .01 z 2.57 for 17 degrees of freedom 80 Table 4.2 Comparsion of pre and post treatment means on each dimension of the CVRS for the traditionally supervised group Pre Post Dimension N Mean Mean t p Affective 18 3.13 5.37 5.46 .001 Understanding 18 5.76 8.48 6.97 .001 Specific 18 3.24 5.85 5.02 .001 Exploratory 18 5.57 8.76 6.78 .001 Effective 18 4.18 7.50 7.36 .001 Necessary:- .05 E 1.74 for 17 degrees of freedom Necessary:- .01- t E 4 2.57 for 17 degrees of freedom A E value of 1.74 for a one-tailed test of significance with 17 degrees of freedom is necessary before chance differences within treatment groups can be rejected at the .05 level of confidence. Inspection of Tables 4.1 and 4.2 reveal E values greater than 1.74 on each dimension of the CVRS. It seems clear therefore that both supervisory approaches were effective in bringing about changes in a counselor's interview behavior. Because the investigation extended over three separate terms with differences in subjects as well as supervisors and raters each term, it was deemed important to determine whether the behavior changes observed within both treatment groups were influenced by unique condit; ions existing during any single term. Because of the small 2 for each 81 treatment group by term, four, seven, and seven respectively, few statistical procedures seemed appropriate. However, inspection of the pre to post differences within groups by quarters on each dimension of the CVRS (Tables 4.3 and 4.4) indicates a consistent pattern of changed interview behaviors within groups across quarters. Table 4.3 Mean change pre to post on each dimension of the CVRS for the IPR supervised group quarter by quarter a DIMENSION Quarter N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. I 4 5.00 8.49 7.41 6.35 6.25 11 7 4.47 7.00 6.04 6.62 7.05 III 7 4.94 6.29 5.94 5.86 6.14 aChange score = post mean - pre mean Table 4.4 Mean change pre to post on each dimension of the CVRS for the traditionally supervised group quarter by quartera DIMENSION Quarter N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. I 4 1.66 2.25 1.92 1.83 1.58 II 7 2.00 2.79 3.33 2.95 3.90 111 7 2.81 2.91 2.18 5.19 4.29 aChange score = post mean - pre mean Differences Between Groups After Supervision A E test for paired observations was computed across all 18 82 pairs of counselors to determine whether a significant difference in means existed between the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group on judges' post ratings using the Counselor Verbal Response Scale and client ratings on the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale. The null hypotheses tested for this part of the study were: H01 H03 H04 H05 There is no differences between the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group in the number of counselor interview responses rated affect- ive after supervision. There is no difference between the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group in the number of counselor interview responses rated under- standing after supervision. There is no difference between the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group in the number of counselor interview responses rated specific after supervision. There is no difference between the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group in the number of counselor interview responses rated explora- tory after supervision. There is no difference between the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group in the number of counselor interview responses rated effect- ive after supervision. 83 H06 There is no difference in the client perceived relation- ship orientation between counselors in the IPR super- vised and traditionally supervised groups. CVRS--The results of the analyses on each of the five dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale are presented in Table 4.5. Table 4.5 Comparison of post interview scores on each dimension of the CVRS between pairs of IPR supervised and traditionally supervised counselors IPR Trad. S.E. Dimension Mean Mean Diff. t p Affect 7.74 5.37 .93 2.94 .005 Understanding 13.05 8.48 1.00 4.57 .0025 Specific 9.33 5.85 1.05 3.31 .005 Exploratory 12.18 8.76 1.12 3.05 .005 Effective 10.57 7.50 1.07 2.95 .005 Necessary: E .05 z .74 for 17 degrees of freedom Necessary: E .01 2 .57 for 17 degrees of freedom For a one-tailed test of significance with 17 degrees of free- dom, a E value of 1.74 is necessary in order to reject the null hypothesis of no difference between groups. The data presented in Table 4.5 reveals significant differences between IPR supervised and traditionally supervised counselors on each dimension of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. As with the data for within group changes, an inspection of mean between group differenced, quarter by quarter, on each dimension 84 of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale reveals comparable differences by quarter. This data is presented in Table 4.6. Table 4.6 Mean post-interview differences between pairs of IPR supervised counselors and the traditionally supervised counselors on each dimension of the CVRS quarter by quarter No. of DIMENSION Quarter Pairs Affect. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. I 4 2.25 6.16 5.16 4.92 3.42 II 7 2.23 4.05 3.00 2.96 2.67 III 7 2.61 4.19 3.85 2.05 2.72 While not replication in the strictest sense, this data suggests that the observed behavior changes and differences between groups can not be attributed to any unique factor operating during any one quarter. fl§Q§7-A E test of differences between mean client ratings of counselors in both groups on the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale yielded differences corresponding to those found on the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. An inspection of the data presented in Table 4.7 indicates a significant difference between groups in terms of the client perceived relationship. Table 4.7 Mean client ratings of counselor/client relationship using the WROS O O S.E. IPR Traditional Diff. t p WROS 3.94 3.00 .42 2.238 .025 Necessary: E .05 e 1.74 for 17 degrees of freedom Necessary: E .01 ?'2.57 for 17 degreea of freedom 85 On the WROS, a rating of "4" is defined as a willingness on the part of the client to talk with his counselor about many of his personal concerns, while a rating of "3" indicates the client's will- ingness to talk to the counselor about factual, e.g., educational or vocational concerns, and some of the personal meanings connected with these. An inspection of the group means quarter by quarter, Table 4.8, also shows consistent differences between groups. It seems likely that the larger means for Term I are an artifact of the small sample size rather than the effect of any differences in treatments. Table 4.8 Mean client ratings of counselor/client relation- ship using the WROS quarter by quarter Quarter N IPR Traditional Difference I 8 4.75 3.25 1.50 II 14 3.57 2.71 .86 III 14 3.94 3.00 .94 Descriptive Analysis--Despite the evidence of differences existing within groups and between groups, the statistical analyses did not reveal the meaningfulness of the data. It was possible that client ratings of counselors may have been influenced by a halo effect which would tend to increase the overall level at which counselors were rated. A similar question applies to the ratings on the dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. While the question of mean- ingfulness would not affect the observed differences between groups, 86 it was desirable to have some estimate of the meaningfulness of the observed behavioral changes. That is, it might be helpful to compare the interview behaviors of the trainees in this study with the inter- view behaviors of counselors or counselor candidates at known 1€V€1S of training. Two sources of data were available for such a comparison: (1) the ratings of the four-minute tape segments of the forty-five M.A. and eight Ph.D. counselors involved in the study by Kagan 5E, El: (1965) and rated as part of the reliability and validity studies into the CVRS1 and (2) the pre-interview ratings of those counselors participating in the present study who had already completed practicum. Since the interview situations were not directly comparable, no statistical comparisons were made. The interview segments from the Kagan study represented timed segments of a longer interview with a coached client. While the pre-treatment interviews of all subjects in the current study were comparable, at least one to three terms had elapsed since some of these subjects had completed their previous practicum. Finally, the small E_involved in some of the possible comparisons dictated a descriptive comparison. A comparsion was made of the pre-treatment interview behavior of the eleven counselors in the current study who had already completed practicum with the interview behavior of the fourty-five M.A. counselors from the initial IPR study who had also completed practicum. As indicated in Table 4.9, there were distinct similarities in the pattern of interview behaviors exhibited by those counselors who had already 1See page 65. 87 completed their supervised experience. At the same time, however, there are clear differences between the interview behaviors of trainees who had not as yet had practicum and the behaviors of those counselors who had completed this phase of their training. Table 4.9 Descriptive comparison of counselors at various levels of training on each dimension of the CVRS DIMENSION N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. Practicuma 45 4.33 9.66 5.50 8.56 6.99 Practicumb 11 5.76 11.82 5.67 8.88 7.21 Non-Practicumb 25 2.09 3.67 2.25 4.33 2.76 aCounselors in study by Kagan EE, El: (1965) bCounselors in current study - Pre-treatment interview Comparisons of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors in the current study with the interview behaviors of Ph.D. candidates and trainees having completed practicum at the M.A. level yield the following observations: (1) The interview behaviors of the five trainees who had already completed their university practicum and EEEE had IPR supervision were described as more affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective than the interview behaviors of the Ph.D. candidates in the study of Kagan 2E, 31, In addition, an inspect- ion of Table 4.10 reveals that the interview behaviors of those trainees who had completed practicum and then 88 had additional individual supervision as part of the current study, while comparable to the behaviors of Ph.D. candidates were, nevertheless, less affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective. Table 4.10 Comparison of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors having completed regular university practicum with behaviors of Ph.D. candidates DIMENSION N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. Ph.D.a 8 10.04 14.08 10.04 14.17 12.42 IPR Supervisionb 5 10.87 15.33 12.33 14.93 13.67 Trad. Supervisionc 6 9.11 13.50 9.44 11.83 11.89 aCounselors in study by Kagan EE, El: (1965) bPracticum, IPR supervision CPracticum, Traditional supervision (2) After IPR supervision, the pattern of interview behaviors exhibited by trainees who had not as yet been enrolled in the regular university practicum falls between the behavior patterns of Ph.D. and M.A. counselors (Table 4.11). Table 4.11 Comparsion of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors having IPR supervision but not practicum with behaviors of counselors having completed practicum DIMENSION N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. M.A.a 45 4.33 9.66 5.50 8.56 6.99 Practicumb 11 5.76 11.82 5.67 8.88 7.21 IPR SupervisionC 13 6.54 11.41 8.18 11.13 9.38 aCounselors in study by Kagan 35, El: (1965) bCounselors in current study - Pre-treatment interview CNo practicum, IPR supervision 89 (3) The pattern of interview behaviors exhibited by those trainees who had not as yet been enrolled in the regular university practicum but who had received traditional individual supervision as part of this study while comparable to the behaviors of M.A. counselors were somewhat less affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective. (Table 4.12). Table 4.12 Comparison of post-treatment interview behaviors of counselors having traditional supervision, but not university practicum with behaviors of counselors having completed practicum DIMENSION N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. Practicuma 45 4.33 9.66 5.50 8.56 6.99 Practicumb 11 5.76 11.82 5.67 8.88 7.21 Trad. SupervisionC 12 3.95 8.80 4.06 7.22 6.31 aCounselors in study by Kagan et. a1. (1965) bCounselors in current study - Pre-interview CNo practicum, Traditional supervision 9O Reliability of Judges' Ratings The analysis of variance technique outlined by Ebel (1951) was used to test for agreement (reliability) among judges' ratings of the criterion interviews (both pre and post treatment). The intraclass correlations indicating the reliability of individual ratings and average ratings for each set of judges across tapes and responses (items) are presented in Table 4.13. While reliability coefficients were calculated both across tapes (interviews) and individual responses (items), the former is more applicable in view of the use made of the ratings. Because the CVRS requires judges to describe individual coun- selor responses, an estimate of inter-judge agreement across responses was computed and is reported. However, comparisons between counselors were made in terms of each counselor's modal interview response pattern, that is the average number of responses rated affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective. 'Therefore, inter-judge agreement across tapes seemed a more pertinent statistic for the purposes of this study. The data from this analysis is also presented in the following table. In addition, reliability coefficients for both individual and average ratings were calculated, but the latter are more appropriate since judges' ratings of each counselor's interview behavior were added together and then averaged. These average ratings were then used as the criterion for testing thehypotheses. 91 Table 4.13 Intraclass correlation reliability estimates of individual and average ratings calculated for judges' ratings across tapes and counselor responses on each dimension of the CVRS Intraclass Correlation Dimension t N Aff. Und. Spec. Exp. Eff. Quar er Cog. N.Und. N.Spec. N.Exp. N.Eff. lanes Averagea 16 .93 .96 .90 .94 .95 Individual 16 .82 .90 .76 .85 .86 fiflfiflflnfifii Average 320 .88 .88 .80 .81 .82 Individual 320 .72 .71 .57 .59 .60 Tapes Average 28 .93 .96 .93 .96 .96 Individual 28 .81 .87 .80 .87 .89 11 Responses Average 560 .87 .88 .84 .86 .88 Individual 560 .69 .71 .64 .67 .71 Tapes Average 28 .93 .94 .92 .92 .93 Individual 28 .83 .83 .80 .79 .82 111 Responses Average 560 .88 .82 .85 .80 .84 Individual 560 .71 .61 .66 .58 .64 a = M; M rk Where M = mean square for error M M; = mean square for persons k = number of raters b r1: Mx "' M Summary The hypotheses postulated in this study were tested using a E_test for paired observations. All hypotheses related to changes in counselor interview behavior within groups over time on the dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale were accepted. Both the IPR supervised group and the traditionally supervised group changed significantly in the number of interview responses rated affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective from pre to post-treatment. The second series of hypotheses related to differences between treatment groups after supervision were also accepted. After super- vision, the IPR supervised group gave a significantly greater number of affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective responses than the traditionally supervised group. There was also a significant difference, in favor of the IPR group, on the client ratings of counselors using the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale. A descriptive comparison of the interview behaviors of the counselors in the current study with counselors at known levels of training was also undertaken. After supervision, those counselors who had already completed practicum displayed interview behavior comparable to that of Ph.D. candidates while those trainees who had not as yet had practicum had interview patterns similar to those of M.A. counsel- ors. In both instances, the behaviors of the IPR supervised counselors were described as being more affective, understanding, specific, exploratory, and effective. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS Met): The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of two different supervisory experiences on the subsequent interview behavior of counselor candidates. One supervisory procedure was an adaptation of the Interpersonal Process Recall technique (IPR) developed by Kagan EEn.§l° (1963). The second supervisory procedure was one hour of intensive, traditional individual counselor supervision conducted immediately after each client contact. In a previous study of the use of IPR in supervising counselors, Kagan ££°.§l' (1965) combined stimulated recall methodology via videotape and a trained counselor (interrogator) to heighten a client's ability to recall his covert feelings during an earlier counseling session. Later, the counselor listened to an audiotape of the client recall session, viewed a videotape replay of the session, and was supervised by the interrogator. Judges' ratings of the counseling effectiveness of counselors receiving video IPR, audio IPR, or traditional supervision indicated no significant differences in the effective- ness of counselors supervised by any of the three procedures. While the subjective evaluations of observers and participants were encouraging, suggesting the effectiveness of IPR as a train- ing technique, it seemed that the initial investigations had 93 94 overestimated the potential of the vehicle. A review of the earlier study and the literature in the area of counselor educa- tion suggested a need for a more structured approach to practicum supervision. Such an approach would consider the developmental needs of counselors during training and the unique ways in which stimulated recall might meet these needs. In the present study, therefore, the basic recall techniques were expanded to include both client and counselor recall and were integrated into a sequential program of training experiences. The use of a sequential approach stemmed from the assumption, already noted, that there were a series of developmental tasks facing counselor candidates as they went through practicum: (a) the need to become aware of the elements of good counseling, (b) the need to become sensitive to and understand a greater amount of client communication, (c) the need to become aware of and sensitive to his own feelings during the counseling session, and (d) the need to become sensitive to the bilateral nature of the counseling interaction. The IPR treatment consisted of four integrated stages which were designed to meet these developmental needs. During the first stage, trainees viewed a videotaped counseling interview after which the supervisor helped the counselor identify the essential components of effective client/counselor communication. In the second stage, both client and counselor recall were used in an attempt to (a) provide the counselors with maximum awareness and understanding of the client's verbal and nonverbal 95 behavior, (b) help the counselors discover and explore attitudes within themselves which affected their counseling, and (c) negate the debilitating impact of the initial video confrontation. During stage three, each counselor served as an interrogator with his colleague's client, thereby giving each counselor an opportunity to serve in a new role in which the focus was on direct communica- tion with the client. During the final stage, both counselor and client viewed a replay of the counseling session together, while the supervisor serving as interrogator encouraged both to share their feelings as they occurred during the interview, especially those relating to their perceptions of one another. Both IPR and traditionally supervised counselOIS were focused on the essential elements of effective client/counselor communication. Thus the first stage of training was the same for both groups. For the remainder of their practicum, the trad- itionally supervised counselors met with a supervisor immediately after each of their client contacts. The two primary goals of traditional supervision were: (1) helping the counselor understand himself and his dynamics; and (2) understanding the relationship between counselor and counselee, rather than on diagnosis or action. This self-exploratory approach to supervision viewed the counselor as an instrument in the counseling relationship. Every attempt was made to provide the counselor with an experience within which he could examine not only his skills and knowledge but also his own defenses and personality dynamics. 96 The trainees in this study were thirty-six graduate students working toward their master's degrees in counseling at Michigan State University. Twenty-five of the subjects had not as yet taken practicum, while eleven trainees had completed practicum and were shortly to complete their degree requirements. For the purposes of testing the research hypotheses a pre-Post design was used. Counselors were paired on the basis of judges' ratings of their initial interviews with a high school client, with the total score across the five dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale used as the criterion for pairing. Counselors were then randomly assigned to one of the two treatment groups. Analysis of the judges' ratings of the initial interviews indicated no significant differences between groups on any of the dimensions of the CVRS suggesting that neither treatment group had a pre- experimental advantage in counseling effectiveness which might have affected their post-treatment behavior. At the completion of training each counselor again had an initial contact with a high school client which was rated by judges using the CVRS. In addition, each counselor's final client rated the counselor immediately after the interview, using the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale. The basic hypotheses of this study were: Hypothesis 1: The interview behavior of counselor candidates will change as a result of both traditional individual supervision and IPR supervision. 97 Hypothesis II: Supervision employing a sequential application of stimulated recall via videotape will be more effective than traditional individual supervision, in changing the interview behavior of counselor candidates. The analysis of pre to post changes in counselor interview behavior within each group by means of a E_test for a paired sample indicated significant differences in counselor performance on each dimension of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale at the .001 level. That is, after training there were a significantly greater number of counselor verbal responses rated as affective, understanding, specific, exploratory and effective for counselors in both groups. Analysis of the post interviews indicated differences between groups, in the hypothesized direction, on each dimension of the CVRS at the .005 level. Similar differences between groups were observed in client ratings of the counselors using the WROS. In essence, the analysis of differences between groups on both the Counselor Verbal Response Scale and the Wiscon- sin Relationship Orientation Scale constituted the crucial test of experimental change. Discussion Before conclusions and implications can be drawn from the data, there are several questions relative to the research design and methodology which must be considered. One critical question concerns the extent to which possible supervisor bias may have favorably influenced the outcomes of the study. Certainly the very fact that supervisors knew the research hypotheses and the group 98 (IPR or traditional) to which the trainee had been assigned, raises questions about interpretation of the results. While the possibility of such bias cannot be totally dis- counted, the data itself tends to minimize the assumption of such supervisory control. It is true that the post interview behaviors of the IPR supervised counselors were significantly different from those of the traditionally supervised counselors (Table 4.5), however significant pre to post changes in interview behavior were also observed for counselors within ppEE treatment groups (Table 4.1 and 4.2). If one is to accept the possibility of supervisor bias influencing the results, one would also have to assume, in light of the changes observed within groups, that supervisors were able to exert a significant degree of control over the supervisory process to cause significant changes within the traditional treatment group and even greater change in the IPR group. In view of the current state of our knowledge about the supervisory process and the many variables involved in the course of training, it seems unlikely that supervisors could so control the interview outcomes of supervision. However there still exists the possibility that the super- visors'possible enthusiasm or preference for IPR supervision was conveyed to the counselors, thereby affecting their motivation. However, the records of counselor participation give no evidence of greater interest and/or motivation between groups. CounselOrs in both groups regularly kept appointments even during adverse 99 weather conditions and often continued client contact after termination of training. Furthermore there is evidence from the written comments of the participants two months after com- pletion of training, that the counselors in both groups per- ceived their experiences as being positive and observed a noticeable change in their counseling behavior. While such self-reports are admittedly subject to a halo effect, they nevertheless tend to suggest that supervisors communicated their concern and interest to the trainees regardless of the type of supervision offered. A second question concerns the impact of a volunteer sample. Because all the trainees were volunteers, they must be considered somewhat different from the general population in terms of both interest and motivation. While this would not affect the observed differences between groups, it might suggest that this particular group of counselor candidates were more receptive to either supervisory experience, in essence that they were "ready to learn." To some extent this was undoubtedly true. However, in light of the extent of the observed changes in interview behavior for both groups it seems unlikely that motiva- tion alone could be the causal factor accounting for change. Instead it seems more likely that the motivational level of the trainees may have affected the amount of change rather than the fact of change. That is, it may be possible that such extreme changes in behavior in such a limited amount of time might not have lOO occurred with a less motivated group. Nevertheless, since we must assume that the level of motivation was similar for both groups, this factor would not affect the observed behavioral differences existing between groups after treatment. Thus while caution must be exercised in generalizing from a volunteer sample to the general population, this should in no way affect any conclusions about the superiority of one treatment over the other. Is it possible that the counselors in the traditionally supervised group felt short-changed by not immediately viewing the videotapes of their counseling session? Again, the self-reports of counselors yield no support for this assumption. In addition, while all counselors were aware of the fact that the interviews were videotaped, they were told that one variable under consideration was the timing of viewing the replays. Since counselors were not aware Of the "other“ treatment there seems no reason to believe that counselors were somehow affected by virtue of being assigned to the traditional treatment group. There are also a number of questions which may be raised about the procedures used to determine pre and post treatment inter- view behavior. One question centers around the adequacy Of judges' ratings of a single interview, and indeed only a small portion of that interview, for making judgments about an individual counselor's behavior. While there is no clear-cut answer to this question, Hart (1961) has observed that a four-minute interview segment is as reliable a sample unit for rating a counselor's behavior as any other 101 time unit. In this case a twenty-response segment of the inter- view was used. In most cases this represented from fifteen to twenty minutes of a thirty-minute interview. The results of the validity study of the CVRS in which four—minute interview seg- ments were rated, indicated that differences in counselors' interview behavior were observable even within time segments shorter than those used to obtain the current results. Another flaw, existent in most counselor rating systems, is the assumption that the counselor is the sole contributor to the progress of the interview. However, often, the same coun- selor may "look good" with a highly motivated client while exper- iencing difficulty with the more reluctant counselee. In this case, counselees for both pre and post treatment interviews were volunteers presumably equally motivated for counseling. Further- more, one must assume that random assignment of clients to coun- selors in both treatment groups served to control for possible counselee variables. Were the pre training and post training interviews, con- ducted with different clients comparable? Obviously there were client differences, however rating a fourth or fifth interview with the same client, while a desirable procedure, was not possible because of the need to provide each trainee with a variety of clients and the early termination of most practicum counselees. In addition, all clients for the IPR counselors were exposed to client recall after each counseling session. Ratings of any but the initial 102 session for these counselors would have been subject to some contamination. It would be difficult to determine if changed interview behavior resulted from change within the counselor, client, or an interaction. While two ratings of one counselor with the same counselee were not obtained, the comparison of ratings at the beginning of training and at the end of training, although the counselees were different, is defensible on the assumption that counselor responses characterized as affective, understanding, specific, and exploratory are characteristic of effective counselors regardless of the client. To the extent that this is so, the effective counselor can be assumed to respond in this manner in all counseling situations. Furthermore, the use of client ratings of the WROS served as a check of the judges' ratings of the counselor, indicating greater client willingness to relate with the IPR supervised counselors. Certainly the ability to create an atmosphere in which a positive relationship can exist is a necessary ingredient to successful counseling. Evidently the IPR supervised counselors were able to develop the beginnings of such a relationship within the initial interview. In summary then, the differences observed in the behaviors of counselors in the two treatments groups (significant at the .005 level) and the client ratings of their perceptions of the existing relationship (significant at the .025 level) strongly suggest that the sequential pattern of IPR supervisory experiences used in this study are a viable and effective means of educating 103 counselors during practicum. Implications for Counselor Education Prior to considering the implications of the results of this study for practicum supervision it seems appropriate to discuss some of the clinical observations gleaned from a review of the counseling tapes and the supervisory and recall sessions. These clinical observations may help answer the question of why the video procedures were more effective than the traditional supervisory approach in changing a counselor's interview behavior. Clinical Observations In many instances, practicum poses an unique problem for the counselor candidate for it is at this point that he must make the transition from theory to practice. For all counselors, those who had not as yet taken practicum as well as those who had already completed practicum, the initial training session during which they viewed a videotaped interview and discussed the concrete dimensions of counselor/client communica- tion seemed to provide a bridge for making this transition. In essence, counselors were shown what was expected of them in terms of a concrete model of client/counselor communication. While such a focus did not necessarily lessen the anxiety associated with supervision and the initial client contact, it did seem to give direction to the counselors' efforts. Indeed, one of the counselors who had already completed practicum commented, 104 at the end of the IPR supervision, that not enough time was spent on the discussion of the dimensions of interpersonal communication since this provided him with a focal point from which to evaluate his own counseling. Perhaps it is not far fetched to liken this initial training session to the develop- ment of counselor "readiness." It seemed that once the counselor had a framework for understanding interpersonal communication he was then ready for an actual counseling experience and super- vision. The initial client recall sessions exposed the counselor to some client feedback (perhaps as much as previous studies seemed to suggest he could assimilate at the outset of training). Counselor comments later suggested that these initial client recall sessions provided a number of insights. Counselors frequently noted their preoccupation with themselves rather than with the client, along with a greater awareness of the underlying implica- tions of a counselee's verbal and nonverbal behavior. At the same time the counselors suggested that the supervisor, in his role as interrogator, served as a model of how to relate to a client and how to help the client clarify his concerns. Indeed it seems likely that, in many cases, the supervisor was more effective than the counselor. Quite often counselors would comment about the effectiveness of the supervisor during the initial counselor recall session. The trainee, therefore, was continually presented with models of counselor behavior against which he could 105 compare and evaluate his own performance. He had (a) the dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale, (b) the interview behavior of the counselor that he viewed in the initial training session, (c) the supervisor's behavior, and (d) his own behavior with which he was confronted during the counselor recall sessions. During counselor recall, the supervisor attempted to focus the trainee on the meaning of his own behavior and its effect on the client. The supervisor drew on material developed during the client recall session just completed as well as the counselor's own feelings upon viewing the videotape replay. The trainee was thus encouraged to overtly express and deal with his feelings, fears, and expectations experienced during the counseling interview. Typically, the counselor's initial anxieties and fears as he entered supervision were brought into awareness during these first sessions as a result of the impact of client recall and the initial self-confrontation. While similar content was evident in the traditional supervisory sessions, it was generally not expressed until the later stages of supervision. This early expression of underlying feelings seemingly helped the counselor identify and explore the locus of his own discomfort early in the supervisory process. It also seems likely that this overt ex- pression of underlying feelings made it easier for the trainee to cope with them. Since they were expressed during the early super- visory sessions, the trainee was later able to build on his feelings 106 and use them in his relationships with his clients rather than be constricted by them. It also seems possible that this early exploration of self in an interpersonal context helped the trainee overcome his preoccupation with himself during the counseling interview, thus opening the trainee to a greater amount of client communication. As the study progressed, a modality of counselor concerns began to unfold. Counselor after counselor, regardless of level of experience, described his own discomfort upon meeting a client. Counselors were frequently concerned over "the kind of impression I am making on both the client and the supervisor." It seemed that this discomfort, coupled with a lack of trust in his own perceptions, often seemed to be what had inhibited the counselor during the course of the interview. Frequently, counselors commented that: "I refrained from continuing with that subject because it was touchy and I didn't want her (client) to turn away," "I didn't want to hurt her because she might reject me." At times the counselor would recall “I didn't know what to do," while, almost in the same breath, displaying considerable insight into the nature of the client's concerns. Indeed, it often seemed that counselors would sell themselves short, fearing to act on their perceptions and feelings because of the assumed risks to themselves. What caused counselors to change? As counselors viewed the client recall sessions it seems likely that they began to realize that their perceptions were, in fact, surprisingly 107 accurate. Further they often listened to the counselee suggest that, rather than feeling rebuffed by interaction, it was often sought. During the client recall sessions, counselors often heard clients wonder about the level at which they (the counselors) would operate and how much they could disclose without meeting misunderstanding or even rejection. In some sense then the counselors perhaps began to realize that they could interact with their clients without meeting rejection, and in addition, that clients were not as fragile as the trainee often pictured them. On another level, viewing the client interrogation and then having a counselor recall session seemed to increase the trainee's awareness of the totality of interpersonal communication within the interview. It became apparent from viewing the initial interviews that beginning counselors generally neglected anything but the most overt dimensions, verbal and nonverbal, of the client's behavior. Counselors expressed surprise not only about the meaning and implications of the client's behavior which often became apparent during client recall, but also at their own nonverbal behavior. They reflected on their looks of boredom as a client rambled on, their physically pulling back when certain topics were brought up, or the closeness that was communicated, nonverbally, when client and counselor were attuned. These observations suggest that the initial client recall sessions followed by counselor recall increased the counselor candidates' 108 awareness of a greater amount of client communication, and more important began to sensitize the trainee to his own feelings during the counseling session, thus in a sense freeing him to use himself as an instrument in the counseling relationship. The second phase of training, during which each trainee served as an interrogator for his partner's client, seemingly provided the counselor with an opportunity to practice new behaviors. The recall session is, in essence, a structured situation for the interrogator making it somewhat easier for him to "try on" new behaviors. The role of the interrogator is clearly spelled out. He is to "push" and "probe" the client for greater clarity, to help the client explore affective dimen- sions of his behavior as well as his underlying feelings, and finally to focus the client on specific dimensions of verbal and nonverbal behavior. In addition, the groundwork for recall has already been laid during the initial counseling session. Moreoever, the primary focus of the recall session is on the interaction between the original counselor and the client not on the interaction between interrogator and client. Therefore, the counselor-interrogator can now adopt new behaviors without experiencing the assumed threat of similar behavior exhibited in a counseling situation. In essence, the counselor received practice in using his perceptions and feelings, in focusing on the client's concerns as well as on his interaction with the counselor, and on encouraging the client to explore his covert 109 feelings. In many respects these are the same behaviors that are characteristic of effective counselors. It is interesting to note that trainees, commenting on their initial experiences as interrogators, reported that they were able to achieve a degree of closeness with the client and a feeling of personal satisfaction as a result of their impact on the client during the recall session rarely realized during their counseling experience to date. This self-reported observa- tion was true of counselors on all levels of experience. Did this approach foster one mode of counselor behavior? While a number of writers have suggested that it is not inappropriate for supervisors to espouse a particular theoretical position (Patterson, 1964; Ekstein and Wallerstein, 1958), it seems unlikely that two sessions of acting as interrogator could com- pletely change counselor style. It seems more reasonable to suggest that the trainee was presented with new modes of behavior which he could actually experience and that therefore his potential for varied behavior increased. During the final phase of training, in which supervisor, counselor, and client viewed the replay of the counseling session together, trainees were provided with an experience which seemed to serve as a bridge between focusing on the elements of the counseling interaction in an interrogation session with someone else's client and looking at the interaction with one's own client. The intent of this training phase was to increase counselor llO awareness of the meaning of the interaction and to provide him with an opportunity for viewing the interaction as a possible source of data for counseling. In this session, both client and counselor seemed able, often for the first time, to look directly at their interactive relationship, to become aware of their impact on one another, and to recognize some of the pitfalls of their interpersonal communication. It was typically a session during which the counselor was able to focus on the relationship with the client and the meaning of that relationship in terms of helping the client understand his own dynamics and behavior. Indeed, it often turned out that the counselor and client were able to achieve a new level of interpersonal communication during this mutual recall session. While clinical observations are admittedly difficult to interpret, they seem to suggest some possible factors contributing to the success of the IPR experiences. It seems likely that the combination of client and counselor recall created a "readiness" on the part of the counselor candidate to look at himself in interaction, and to change. He was confronted by a videotape of his own counseling behavior, the reactions of a supervisor, and finally, the recalled feelings of the client all of which often prodded him in the direction of newrbehavior. Then, when the trainee did attempt new behaviors he received immediate feedback relative to their impact, not merely from his supervisor, but more important, directly from the counselee via client recall. 111 While the feedback for the traditionally supervised counselors was also immediate, it was solely from the supervisor. The supervisor is admittedly a significant other for the trainee, but so is the client. Indeed, the client adds a degree of confirmation of counselor impact which no one else can offer for he is really the only firsthand observer of the counseling interaction. In addition to creating a readiness for change, the IPR procedures also provided the trainee with a structured situation in which he could actually practice new behaviors. Thus while the impact of counselor on client was a major focus of traditional supervision and while trainees seemingly developed new insights about themselves and their actions, there was no guarantee that new modes of behavior would follow-~that the insights derived from supervision would generalize to practice. In the traditional supervisory model the supervisor may help the trainee see that the very interaction between counselor and client provides a source of data for counseling. In the IPR model, the trainee is actually placed in a situation in which he views the interaction, first when he interrogates his partner's client and then when he conducts recall with his own client, as one source of counsel- ing material. In essence, clinical observations tend to support the assumption that video confrontation via client and counselor recall have a positive impact on subsequent counselor behavior. On the one hand, the impact of recall seems to create an atmosphere 112 in which change is possible. On the other hand, the series of structured situations seemed to provide a series of experiential learning situations for the trainee in which he could actually modify his behavior. When these new behaviors were rewarded, as they often were, by client feedback, they then became part of the trainees' repetoire of behaviors which he could later use in counseling. Implications for Supervision In light of the changes observed in counselor behavior as a result of IPR supervision and the significant differences between these changes and behavioral changes observed in a group of traditionally supervised counselors, it is assumed that the IPR procedures are a potentially potent tool for use in pro- grams of counselor training. Even in view of the limitations detailed in Chapter I, differences between groups at the .005 significance level seem too large to ignore. The data presented in Tables 4.10, 4.11, and 4.12 further suggest that these changes, in addition to being statistically significant, are meaningful when the interview behavior itself is compared with that of more experienced counselors. Finally, it should be noted that these changes occurred after only six client contacts (prior to the post interview) and approximately six hours of actual supervision. The question of the implications of results of this study for programs of counselor education now remains to be considered. 113 Many theoreticians in counseling and psychotherapy agree that counselor responses which refer to affect, which communicate understanding, which help the client delineate his concerns, and which encourage him to further self-exploration are essential ingredients of the counseling relationship. While there are undoubtedly other dimensions of the counseling process, these seem to be basic. If this is so, it seems that "teaching" these dimensions by helping the counselor recognize the components of effective counselor/client interaction should become an integral part of the training program. It often seems that much of the anxiety generated by practicum stems from the trainee's lack of a model of effective interpersonal communication. While the trainee may be aware of counseling theory, he often has little knowledge about actual practice. In this respect the results of this study lend further support to the recommendations of Carkhuff and Truax (1965), Maccoby gt. _l. (1965), and Tintera (1963) that students in training programs, whether teacher train- ing or counselor training, be made aware of the behavioral correlates of effective practice. One possible way of implementing such a procedure would be to incorporate tape viewing and rating experiences into a pre-practicum program serving to prepare the counselor candidate for actual client contact. During such a program, the counselor candidate might be presented with a series of counseling tapes representing counselors of different theoretical persuasions 114 and given an opportunity to compare counselors on specified dimensions of client/counselor interaction. Trainees might then tape their own role-played interviews and rate these in terms of counselor behavior. This would provide trainees with a self-measure which might, in itself, serve as motivadon for change. More important, however, this seems to be one way of beginning to bridge the gap so often observed between theory and practice. As implemented in this study, supervised experience did not include any of the group procedures so common in current practicum training nor did it allow for extended feedback from colleagues. If self—understanding is a goal of group interaction during practicum, it seems possible that video confrontation (client and counselor recall) may serve as a motivator for group interaction while, at the same time, the group process in- creases the counselor's ability to gain insights from the recall procedures. Thus the group may serve as another source for "checking“ perceptions about self gleaned from the recall sessions. Many programs of counselor education rest on the assumption that there exists a body of theory which the counselor candidate must learn prior to the practicum experience. The impact of both IPR and traditional supervision on trainees in the early stages of their graduate programs raises a number of questions about the timing of practicum. The data presented in the study suggest that learning effective interpersonal communication may 115 not depend on first learning counseling theory as such. The possibility exists that supervised experience might well come in conjunction with courses in theory so that the two may be integrated. The behavior changes observed in those counselors who had already completed practicum, even after only six additional hours of supervision, suggests a series of supervised experiences, strategically placed within the framework of a student's total program in counseling. An interesting possibility is also suggested by the data from the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. It may well be that there exists a patterning of behavior change as the counselor goes through practicum. That is, while the trainee may first begin to communicate some degree of understanding and to encourage client exploration it seems more difficult for him to respond to the affective components of a client's communication and to help the client delineate the dimensions of his concerns. If this is so,it seems possible to provide a series of exper- iences for the trainee which would help him incorporate these skills. It may also be possible to differentiate the nature of a trainees' problems. Thus if one trainee has difficulty in responding to affect, he may be helped by continued involvement in a counseling group or individual counseling. On the other hand, if another trainee plateaus on helping a client differen- tiate his concerns, a possible prescription might be allowing the counselor to spend more time acting as an interrogator to 116 gain "practice" in this mode of behavior. While we are admittedly not at this stage yet, the possibility of what Roeber (1962) has termed the individualized practicum may, indeed, exist. Implications for Further Research While the results of this study indicate the effectiveness of IPR as a supervisory technique, a number of questions were raised which should be the subject of further investigation. 1. Because of the need to have a sample large enough to permit comparisons between groups, it was necessary to omit an audio recall group from the experimental design. Any replication of this study should include a third group for whom audio IPR procedures are used as the basis for supervision. Such a procedure would help determine whether it was the uniqueness of video confrontation or merely recall which contributed to the observed changes. This would also contribute to our under- standing of what may be the unique contributions of video. If the observations about the effectiveness of a sequential series of training experiences is correct, it becomes important to determine the impact of each phase of the supervisory procedure on counselor behavior. This could be accomplished by rating 117 counselor performance at transitional points during training. As an example, rating a counselor's inter- view which followed his serving as an interrogator would give some indication of the specific behaviors interrogator training seemed to foster. Such a procedure might then lead to the development of specific experiential correlates of counselor be- havior suggesting the types of experiences for a counselor candidate desirable at the various stages of training. A follow-up study should be undertaken to determine the permanence of behavior change over time. Because few of the trainees participating in the current study were actually counseling in the public schools, it was impossible to secure longitudinal data relative to their counseling behavior. That is, however, a critical phase of research in supervision which is too often neglected. The same basic approach should be used with a different sample of counselor candidates. In order to justify inclusion of this supervisory format into the regular counselor education program, the sample should include non-volunteer master's degree candidates. By the same token, a different set of supervisors should be trained in IPR procedures to determine whether the 118 results were due to the experimental treatment or to the skill and personality of the supervisors. Other dimensions besides those used to define counselor performance in this study could be operationalized and used as dependent variables in subsequent investigations. One such question might well concern the impact of viewing client recall on a counselor's empathic ability. That is, do the IPR supervisory techniques increase a counselor's ability to accurately identify client feelings? LIST OF REFERENCES Anderson, R. P. and Anderson, C. U. "Development of an Instrument for Measuring Rapport," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1962, 41, pp. 18-24. Appel, M. L. "Self-Understanding for the Guidance Counselor," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1963, 42, pp. 143-148. Arbuckle, D. S. "The Learning of Counseling: Process Not Product," Journal of CounselinggPsycholggy, 1963, 10, pp. 163-168. Beiser, H. R. "Self-Listening During Supervision of Psychotherapy," Archives of General Psychiatry, 1966, 15, pp. 135-139. Berenson, B. G., Carkhuff, R. R., and Myrus, P. "The Interpersonal Functioning and Training of College Students," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1966, 13, pp. 441-446. Betz, R. L. "A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Group Counseling on the Counseling Performance of Counselor Candidates." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963. Bixler, R. E., Bordin, E. S., and Deabler, H. "Supervised Training in a College Counseling Bureau," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1946, 10, pp. 233-236. Black, F. A. "Counseling Laboratory Experience," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1953, 32, pp. 36-38. Bloom, B. S. "The Thought Process of Students in Discussion," in French, Sidney J., editor, Accent on Teaching: Experiment in General Education, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954, pp. 23-46. Bordin, EL"Simplification as a Strategy for Research in Psychotherapy," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1965, 29, pp. 493-503. Boy, A. V., and Pine, G. J. "Strengthening the Off-Campus Practicum," Counselor Education and Supervision, 1963, 3, pp. 19-22. Brammer, L. M., and Shostrom, E. L. Therapeutic Psychology: Fundamentals of Counseling7and Psychotherapy. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961. 119 120 Bridgewater, R. B., and Crookston, B. B. "An Experiment in Counselor Training on the Masters Level,” School and Society, 1952, 76, pp. 24-26. Bugental, J. F. ”The Person Who is the Therapist," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1948, 12, pp. 82-87. Carkhuff, R. R. "Training in the Counseling and Therapeutic Practices: Requiem or Reveille?" Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1966, 13, pp. 360-367. Carkhuff, R. R., and Truax, C. B. "Training in Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Evaluation.of an Integrated Didactic and Experimental Approach," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1965, 29, pp. 331-336. Carkhuff, R. R., and Truax, C. B. "Lay Mental Health Counseling: The Effects of Lay Group Counseling," Journal of Consult- ing Psychology, 1965, 29, pp. 426-431. Cash, W. L., and Munger, P. F. "Counselors and Their Preparationj' Review of Educational Research, 1966, 36, pp. 256-263. Cornelison, F. D., and Arsenian, J. "Study of Responses of Psychotic Patients to Photographic Self-Image Experiences," Psychiatric Quarterly, 1960, 34, pp. 1-8. Covner, B. J. "Studies in Phonographic Recordings of Verbal Material: I. The Use of Phongraphic Recording in Counseling Practice and Research," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1942, 6, pp. 1059113. Covner, B. J. ”Studies in Phongraphic Recordings of Verbal Material: III. The Completeness and Accuracy of Counseling Interview Reports," Journal of General Psychology, 1944, 30, pp. 181~203. Ebel, R. L. "Estimation of the Reliability of Ratings," Psychometrika, 1951, 16, pp. 407-424. Ekstein, R., and Wallerstein, R. S. The Teaching and Learning of Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1958. Gaier, E. L. "The Use of Stimulated Recall in Revealing the Relation- ship Between Selected Personality Variables and the Learning Process." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1951. Gazda, G., and Ohlsen, M. "The Effects of Short-Term Group Counseling on Prospective Counselors," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, 39, pp. 634-638. 121 Geertsma, R. H., and Reivich, R. S. "Repetitive Self-Observation by Videotape Playback," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1965, 141, pp. 29-41. Gottesman, L. E. "The Relationship of Cognitive Variables to Therapeutic Ability and Training of Client-Centered Therapists," Journal of Consulting Psyghology, 1962, 26, pp. 119-126. Griffin, G. G. "An Evaluation of the Objectivity of an Audio-Visual Counselor Scale Which Compares the Behaviors of M.A. Candidate Counselor with the Behaviors of Ph.D. Candidate Counselors." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966. Hadden, Samuel B. ”The Utilization of a Therapy Group in Teaching Psychotherapy," American Journal of Psychiatgy, 1950, 103, pp. 644-648. Haigh, G. E., and Kell, B. "Multiple Therapy as a Method for Train- ing and Research in Psychotherapy," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1950, 45, pp. 659-666. Hamlin, W. "Fission and Fusiod; in Jones, R. M., editor, Contemporary Educational Psychology, New York: Harper and Row, 1966, pp. 254-272. Hart, J. T., Jr. "Some Inter-Rater and Intra-Rater Reliability PrOperties of the Process Scale." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1961. Holmes, D. J. "Closed Circuit Television in Teaching Psychiatry," University of Michigan Medical Bulletin, 1961, 27, p. 6. Holmes, J. E. "Counselor Listening--Another Dimension of the Counsel- ing Process," Counselor Education and Supervision, 1964, 3, pp. 153-157. Hoppock, R, "Two Methods of Training Counselors for Group Guidancef' Occupations, 1949, 27, pp. 523-526. Hurley, J. A. "The Guidance Practicum in Counselor Education.” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Western Reserve University, 1965. Jones, E. Biography of Sigmund Freud. Vol. II, New York: Basic Books, 1959. 122 Jones, R. M. "The Role of Self-Knowledge in the Educative Process," in Jones, R. M., editor, Contemporary Educational Psychology, Harper and Row, 1966, pp. 210-221. Joslin, L. C., Jr. "Knowledge and Counseling Competence," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1965, 43, pp. 790-795. Kagan, N., Krathwohl, D., and Miller, R. "Stimulated Recall in Therapy Using Video Tape--A Case Study," Journal of Counsel- ing Psychology, 1963, 10, pp. 237-243. Kagan, N., Krathwohl, D., and Farquhar, W. W. "The Effect of IPR in Supervising Counseling." Educational Research Series, Number 26, March 1965, Michigan State University. A report submitted to the U.S. Office of Education, NDEA Grant No. 7-32-0410-216. Kagan, N., and Krathwohl, D.R. "Interpersonal Process Recall Tech- niques--Progress Reports.” East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, NDEA Title VII, Grant Number GB 7-32-0410-270, 1966a, 1966b, 1967 (mimeographed). Kagan, N., Krathwohl, D. R., and Farquhar, W. W. "Using IPR to Accelerate Client Progress in Counseling." Educational Research Series, Number 29, March, 1965, Michigan State University. A report submitted to the U.S. Office of Education, NDEA Grant No. 7-32-0410-216. Kagan, N., Krathwohl, D. R., and Farquhar, W. W. "Interpersonal Process Recall: Stimulated Recall by Videotape." East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, NDEA Title VII, Grant Number OE 7-32-0410-216, 1965. Kell, B. L., and Mueller, W. J. Impact and Change: A Study of Counseling Relationships. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1966. Kemp, C. G. "Influence of Dogmatism on the Training of Counselors," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1962, 9, pp. 155-157. Kirk, B. A. "Techniques of In-Service Training,” Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1955, 34, pp. 204-207. Klopf, G., and Cohen, N. "The Impact of NDEA Counseling and Guidance Institutes on the Professional Education of School Counselors," Counselor Education and Supervisiog, 1962,l, pp. 151-161. Korner, I. N., and Brown, W. H. "The Mechanical Third Bar," Journal of ConsultingyPsychology, 1952, 16, pp. 81-84. 123 Kubie, L. S. "Research Into the Process of Supervision in Psycho- analysis," Psychoanalyticyguarterly, 1958, 27, pp. 226- 236. Kubie, L. S. "Research in Protecting Preconscious Functions in Education," in Passow, A. H., editor, Nurturing Individual Potential, Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1964, pp. 28-42. Landsman, T., and Lane, D. "AV Media, Yes, Depersonalization, No," Audio Visual Instruction, 1963, 8, pp. 24-28. Landy, E. ”Counselor Training Through Practice," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1953, 31, pp. 310-314. Maccoby, N., Jecker, J., Breitrose, H., and Rose, E. "Sound Film Recording in Improving Classroom Communication: Experimental Studies in Non-Verbal Communicationf' Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University, Stanford, 1965, National Defense Education Act of 1958, Title VII Project 600, Grant Number 7-14-1380-136. Moore, F. J. Mimeographed Speech Presented at the Southern Regional Education Board's Convention on Regional Approaches to Educational Television Programming, Fort Lauderdale, December 5-6, 1963. Moore, F. J., Chernell, E., and West, M. J. "Television as a Therapeutic Tool," Archieves of General Psychiatry, 1965, 12, pp. 217-220. Munger, P. F., Brown, D. F., and Needham, J. T. "NDEA Institute Participants Two Years Later," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1964, 12, pp. 987-900. Nielsen, G. Studies in Self-Confrontation: Viewing a Sound Motion Picture of Self and Another Person in a Stressful Dyadic Interaction. Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1962. Nielsen, G. S. "The Method of Self-Confrontation," in White, R» W., editor, The Study of Lives, New York: Atherton Press, 1963, pp. 125-144. Parker, C. A., and Kelly, B. C. "The Effects of Interpersonal Labor- atory Experience on the Behavior of Counselors in Training." A paper presented at the American Personnel and Guidance Association Convention, Minneapolis, 1965. Patterson, C. H. "Supervising Students in Counseling," Journal of CounselingyPsychology, 1964, 11, pp. 47-53. 124 Paul, N. L. "Effects of Playback on Family Members of Their Own Previously Recorded Conjoint Therapy Material," Psychiatric Research Report 20, American Psychiatric Association, 1965, pp. 175-187. Pierce, R. F. "Supervision of Student Clinicians by 'Radio'," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1961, 8, pp. 280-281. Poling, E. G. "Video Tape Recordings in Counseling PracticumJ' Title VII Project 1235, National Defense Education Act of 1958, Grant Number 7-51-0140-246, University of South Dakota, 1965. Rioch, M., Elkes, C., Flint, A. A., Usdansky, B. S., Newman, R. G., and Silber, E. "National Institute of Mental Health Pilot Study in Training Mental Health Counselors," The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1963, 33, pp. 678-689. Roberts, R. R., Jr., and Renzaglia, G. A. "The Influence of Tape Recordings on Counseling," Journal of Counseling_Psychology, 1965, 12, pp. 10-16. Roeber, E. "Position Paper--Practicum and Internship," in American Personnel and Guidance Association, Counselor Education: A Progress Report on Standards, Washington: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. Rogers, C. Client Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951. Rogers, C. R. "Training Individuals to Engage in the Therapeutic Process," in Strother, C. R., editor, Psychology and Mental Health, Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1957. Rogers, C. R. Sponsor: Mathieu, P. and Moursund, J. P. "Relation- ship of Group Counseling to Subsequent Academic Performance at the College Level.: COOperative Research Project No. OE 1417, Wisconsin Psychiatric Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1962. Ross, S. "Report on Conference on an Ideal Training Program for Psychotherapists," American Psychologist, 1963, 18, pp. 677-679. Schiff, S. B., and Reivich, R. "Use of Television as Aid to Psycho- therapy Supervision," Archieves of General Psychiatry, 1964, 10, pp. 84-88. 125 Schmidt, L. D., and Pepinsky, H. B. "Counseling Research in 1963," Journal of Counseling Psyohology, 1965, 12, pp. 418-427. Seegars, J., and McDonald, R. L. "The Role of Interaction Groups in Counselor Education," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1963, 10, pp. 156-162. Sperle, H. "The Case Method Technique in Professional Trainingfi' Teachers College Record, 1933, 35, pp. 235-237. Steph, J. A. "Responses to Hypothetical Counseling Situations as a Predictor of Relationship Orientation in School Counselorsfl' Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1963. Stoughton, R. W. "APGA and Counselor Professionalization," in Loughary, J. W., editor, Counseling, A GrowingyProfession, Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1965. Thompson, C., and Bradway, K. "The Teaching of Psychotherapy Through Content Free Interviews," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1950, 14, pp. 321-323. Tintera, J. B. "Analysis of Methods in Which Application of New Communications Media May Improve Teacher Preparation in Language, Science, and Mathematics." Mass Communications Center, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, Title Vii Project Number 008E, National Defense Education Act of 1958, Grant Number 7-2-0410-037, 1963. Truax, C. B., Carkhuff, R. R., and Douds, J. "Toward an Integration of the Didactic and Experiential Approaches to Training in Counseling and Psychotherapy," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1964, 11, pp. 240-247. Walz, G. E., and Johnston, J. A. "Counselors Look at Themselves on Video Tape," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1963, 10, pp. 232-236. Ward, G. R. "Educating Counselors by Videotapes Using the Interpersonal Process Recall Technique." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1965. Wolfle, D. "Preface," in Wrenn, C. G., The Counselor in a Changing World, Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. 126 Wrenn, C. The Counselor in a Changing World. Washington: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. Wyatt, F. "The Self-Experience of the Psychotherapists," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1948, 12, pp. 82-87. APPENDIX A DESCRIPTION OF INTERROGATOR ROLE 127 128 INTERROGATION ROLE The interrogator encourages the participant to describe the feelings, thoughts and imagery at various times during the video- taped interview. He also encourages the participant to recall the thoughts and feelings he believed the other had of him. In some ways, the interrogator and counselor are alike; both require clinical skill, perceptive abilities and empathic qualities, but differences in function do exist. First, the interro- gator is not so much conerned with the pogo; dynamics of the subject, but rather with teaching him how to interrogate himself and how to gain insight from the "self-confronting' situation afforded by video- tape. Second, the interrogator tends to actively Efléfl.the client or counselor for greater specificity and clarity in describing and under- standing his feelings and emotions, aspirations and attitudes, but always in relation to the stimulated recall material; whereas, the counselor allows the client more freedom to set the pace, and to investigate a wide range of areas of concern. Interrogation can be a learning situation where the client or counselor comes to be in- tensely aware of a specific sample of his own behavior. As he views his interaction with the counselor and recalls his feelings and perceptions, he may consciously choose to alter or redirect his future behavior with the counselor and with others as well, but usually it is the interrogator's function to create within the client an intense 129 awareness "in deptH' of his own recorded behavior, and it is the counselor's function to then promote client growth through discussions leading to acce tance or change in the client's life st'le or P 3 situation. APPENDIX B IPR COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE AND MANUAL FOR TRAINING JUDGES IN USE OF COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE This scale was developed as part of a project supported by a grant from the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, "Exploration of the Potential Value of Interpersonal Process Recall Technique (IPR) for the Study of Selected Educational Problems" (Project Nos. OE 7-32-0410-216 and OE 7-32-0410-270). 130 131 IPR COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE The Counselor Verbal Response Scale is an attempt to describe a counselor's reSponse to client communication in terms of four dichotomized dimensions: (a) affect-cognitive; (b) understanding- nonunderstanding; (c) specific-nonspecific; (d) exploratory-non— exploratory. These dimensions have been selected because they seem to represent aSpects of counselor behavior which seem to make theoret- ical sense and contribute to client progress. A fifth dimension-- effective-noneffective--provides a global rating of the adequacy of each reSponse which is made independently of the four descriptive ratings. The unit for analysis is the verbal interaction between coun- selor and client represented by a client statement and counselor response. A counselor response is rated on each of the five dimen- sions of the rating scale, with every client-counselor interaction being judged independently of preceding units. In judging an in- dividual response the primary focus is on describing how the coun- selor responded to the verbal and nonverbal elements of the client's communication. Description of Rating7Dimensions I. Affect-cognitive dimension The affective-cognitive dimension indicates whether a coun- selor's response refers to any affective component of a client's communication or concerns itself primarily with the cognitive com- ponent of that communication. 132 A. Affective responses--Affective responses generally make reference to emotions, feelings, fears, etc. The judge's rating is solely by the content and/or intent of the counselor's response, regardless of whether it be reflection, clarification<3r interpret- ation. These reSponses attempt to maintain the focus on the affect- ive component of a client's communication. Thus they may: (a) Refer directly to an explicit or implicit reference to affect (either verbal or nonverbal) on the part of the client. Exam 1e: "It sounds like you were reall angry at him." A y (b Encourage an ex ression of affect on the art of the client. P P Example: "How does it make you feel when your parents argueT' (c) Approve of an expression of affect on the part of the client. Example: "It doesn't hurt to let your feelings out once in a while, does it?" (d) Presents a model for the use of affect by the client. Example: "If somebody treated me like that, I'd really be mad." Special care must be taken in rating responses which use the word "feel." For example, in the statement "Do you fool that your stu- dent teaching experience is helping you get the idea of teaching?", the phrase "Do you fgel that" really means "do you think that." Similarly the expression "How are you feeling?" is often used in a matter-of-fact, conversational manner. Thus, although the verb "to feel" is used in both these examples, these statements do po£_ represent responses which would be judged "affective." B. Cognitive Responses--Cognitive responses deal primarily with the cognitive element of a client's communication. Frequently, such responses seek information of a factual nature. They generally maintain the interaction on the cognitive level. Such responses may: (a) Refer directly to the cognitive component of the client's statement. Example: "So then you're thinking about switching your major 133 to chemistry?" (b) Seeks further information of a factual nature from the client. Example: "What were your grades last term?" (c) Encourage the client to continue to respond at the cognitive level. Example: "How did you get interested in art?" II. Understanding-nonunderstanding dimension The understanding-nonunderstanding dimension indicates whether a counselor's response communicates to the client that the counselor understands or is seeking to understand the client's basic communica- tion, thereby encouraging the client to continue to gain insight into the nature of his concerns. A. Understanding responses--Understanding reSponses communi- cate to the client that the counselor understands the client's communication--the counselor makes appropriate reference to what the client is expressing or trying to express both verbally and nonverbally--or the counselor is clearly seeking enough information of either a cognitive or affective nature to gain such understanding. Such responses: (a) Directly communicate an understanding of the client's communi- cation. Example: "In other words, you really want to be treated like a man." (b) Seek further information from the client in such a way as to facilitate both the counselor's and the client's understanding of the basic problems. Examplg: "What does being a man mean to you?" (c) Reinforce or give approval of client communications which exhibit understanding. Example: CL: "I guess then when people criticize me, I'm afraid they'll leave me." CO: "I see you're beginning to make some connection between your behavior and your feelings." 134 B. Nonunderstanding responses--Nonunderstanding responses are those in which the counselor fails to understand the client's basic communication or makes no attempt to obtain aporoprfate information from the client. In essence, nonunderstanding implies misunderstanding. Such responses: (a) Communicate misunderstanding of the client's basic concern. Example: CL: "When he said that, I just turned red and clenched my fists." C0: "Some people don't say nice things." (b) Seek information which may be irrelevant to the client's communication. Example: CL: "I seem to have a hard time getting along with ‘ my brothers." C0: "Do all your brothers live at home with you?" (c) Squelch client understanding or move the focus to another irrelevant area. Examplo: CL: "I guess I'm really afraid that other people will laugh at me." CO: "We're the butt of other people's jokes some- times." Example: CL: "Sometimes I really hate my aunt." CO: "Will things be better when you go to college?" III. Specific-nonspecific dimension The specific—nonspecific dimension indicates whether the counselor's response delineates the client's problems and is central to the client's communication or whether the resgonse does not specify the client's concern. In essence, it describes whether the counselor deals with the client's communication in a general, vague, or peripheral manner, or "zeros in" on the core of the client's communication. NB: A response judged to be nonunder- standing must also be nonspecific since it would, by definition, 135 misunderstand the client's communication and not help the client to delineate his concerns. Responses judged understanding might be either specific (core) or nonspecific (peripheral) i.e.,they would be peripheral if the counselor conveys only a vague idea that a problem exists or "flirts" with the idea rather than helping the client delineate some of the dimensions of his concerns. A. Specific reSponses--Specific reSponses focus on the core concerns being presented either explicitly or implicitly, verbally or nonverbally, by the client. Such responses: (3) Delineate more closely the client's basic concerns. Example: "This vague feeling you have when you get in tense situations--is it anger or fear?" (b) Encourage the client to discriminate among stimuli affecting him. Example: "Do you feel in all your classes or only in some classrooms?" (c) Reward the client for being specific. Example: CL: "I guess I feel this way most often with some- one who reminds me of my father." CO: "So as you put what others say in perspective, the whole world doesn't seem so bad, it's only when someone you value, like Father, doesn't pay any attention that you feel hurt." B. Nonspecific reSponses--Nonspecific responses indicate that the counselor is not focusing on the basic concerns of the client or is not yet able to help the client differentiate among various stimuli. Such responses either miss the problem area com- pletely (such responses are also nonunderstanding) or occur when the counselor is seeking to understand the client's communication and has been presented with only vague bits of information about tne client's concerns. Thus,such responses: (3) Fail to delineate the client's concern and cannot bring them 136 into sharper focus. Example: "It seems your problem isn't very clear--can you tell me more about it?" (b) Completely miss the basic concerns being presented by the client even though the counselor may ask for specific details. Example: CL: "I've gotten all A's this year and I still feel lousy." CO: "What were your grades before then?" (c) Discourage the client from bringing his concerns into sharper focus. Example: "You and your sister argue all the time. What do other people think of your sister?" IV. Exploratory-nonexploratory The exploratory-nonexploratory dimension indicates whether a counselor's response permits or encourages the client to explore his cognitive or affective concerns, or whether the response limits a client's exploration of these concerns. A. Exploratory responses--Exploratory responses encourage and permit the client latitude and involvement in his response. They may focus on relevant aspects of the client's affective or cognitive concerns but clearly attempt to encourage further ex- ploration by the client. Such responses are often open-ended and/ or are delivered in a manner permitting the client freedom and flexibility in response. These re5ponses: (a) Encourage the client to explore his own concerns. Exgmplg; Cognitive--"You're not sure what you want to major in, is that it?" Affective--"Maybe some of these times you're getting mad at yourself, what do you think?" (b) Assist the client to explore by providing him with possible alternatives designed to increase his range of responses. Example: Cognitive-~"What are some of the other alternatives that you have to history as a major?" Affective--"In these situations do you feel angry, mad, 137 helpless, or what?” (c) Reward the client for exploratory behavior. Example: Cognitive-~"It seems that you've considered a number of alternatives for a major, that's good." Affective--"So you're beginning to wonder if you always want to be treated like a man." B. Nonexploratory respopses--Nonexploratory responses either indicate no understanding of the client's basic communication, or so structure and limit the client's reaponses that they inhibit the exploratory process. These responses give the client little oppor- tunity to explore, expand, or express himself freely. Such responses: Discourage further exploration on the part of the client. Example: Cognitive-~"You want to change your major to history." Affective-~"You really resent your parents treating you like a child." V. Effective-noneffectivedimension Ratings on the effective-noneffective dimension may be made independently of ratings on the other four dimensions of the scale. This rating is based solely upon the judge's professional impression of the appropriateness of the counselor's responses, that is, how adequately does the counselor's response deal with the client's verbal and nonverbal communication. This rating is pop dependent on whether the response has been judged affective-cognitive, etc. A rating of 4 indicates that the judge considers this response among the most appropriate possible in the given situation while a 3 indicates that the response is appropriate but not among the best. A rating of 2 indicates a neutral reSponse which neither measurably affects client progress nor inhibits it, while a rating of 1 indicates a response which not only lacks basic understanding 138 of the client's concerns but which in effect may be detrimental to the specified goals of client growth. 139 acumen wa ooczmMfibw b ”mmwozmm mo>fim mcvgmonu umnm“ UHZNZmHOZm oocommwos wmmpoomm mmmmon Comb»: neH HOH>E 140 MANUAL FOR TRAINING JUDGES IN USE OF COUNSELOR.VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE This manual is intended nostandardizeprocedures for use of the IPR Counselor Verbal Response Scale in the judging of either video or audio tapes and to provide some guidelines in the training of judges in the use of the scale. I. What is a scorable response? Scorable responses include words, phrases, or sentences used by the counselor which interrupt the flow and momentum of client communication or which are in direct response to a client's statement. Although such responses normally occur at the conclusion of a client's communication, there are times when a counselor will deliberately interrupt a client's statement. In either case, such counselor state- ments are treated as scorable responses. Responses which are part of a counselor's unconscious mannerisms, and do not interrupt the flow and momentum of client communication, e.g., "Umm," "Okay," "Hmm," "Yes," and "I see' are not scored. Responses such as "continue" and "go on" are scorable responses. In essence, they urge and encourage the client to continue with his flow of communication and reinforce the client's pattern of communication. There are times when counselors make two distinct responses to a single client communication, these responses normally being separated by a pause: Example: CL: "It's good to get rounded especially if I decided 141 to teach which you really can't decide until you get into college, I guess." CO: "Kind of hard to figure things out, isn't it?" "Do you think student teaching is helping you get the feel of teaching?" In this case, there are clearly two responses differing in nature which must be scored separately to accurately evaluate the counselor. There are other instances in which there is a clear shift in the content of the counselor's response without a distinct pause. In such cases, as in the proceeding example, counselor statements are treated as two separate responses and are scored individually. N.B.: Each scorable counselor response must be rated on each of the five dimensions of the scale. II. How many responses are scored? For purposes of accurate evaluation, twenty consecutive counselor responses are scored from each counseling session rated. These responses should be drawn from the middle portions of a counsel- ing session, avoiding both the beginning and the terminating segments of the interview. Judges should, however, be given an opportunity to listen to a few responses prior to the start of judging so that they may become acclimated to the voices and pace of both client and counselor, and may gain some familiarity with the general tone of the interview. III. When is rating done? Each response is rated at the conclusion of the counselor's statement (word or phrase). The tape (audio or video) should be stopped after each scorable counselor response and scoring should be completed 142 by all judges prior to the playing of the next unit. As judges become more comfortable with the use of the scale, they should require no more than thirty seconds for the scoring of each response. As in all judging procedures, it is desirable that communication among judges be minimized during the rating session. Thus, judges should be so placed that, while they all have adequate view of the video monitor or can clearly hear the audiotape, there is a minimum of contact among judges. IV. How are judges trained? It is important that adequate time be given to the training of judges. The success of any evaluation of this sort depends upon the agreement reached by the judges in defining the dimensions of the scale. Training must involve actual rating of practice tapes. The number of tapes used will, of course, depend on the needs of the judges. However, the tapes used should represent a variety of counseling interviews, i.e., experienced, inexperienced or beginning, etc. During training, discussion should follow the rating of each counselor response (obviously in the later stages of training, this is not as crucial and a group of responses may be rated before discussion occurs) until agreement about interpretation of the dimensions of the scale is reached. Prior to the actual rating, judges should again go over the definitions of the five dimensions to insure complete understanding. 143 V. How much time does rating require? It has been found that at least one hour is required for the rating of two audiotapes. It is clear that more time would be involved in the rating of videotapes due to the time required for changing tape. These time allowances should be noted prior to establishing a rating session.* It has also been our experience that approximately three hours is necessary for adequate training of judges and discussion of the definitions of the five dimensions. General Questions: The most frequent question which occurs centers about whether responses can be judged independently of prior content in the inter- view. The intent of this scale is to focus primarily on a single client communication and counselor response. It is obvious, however, that many counselor responses take into account material which has been elicited in prior portions of the interview. Most interviews also present a general theme within which individual interactions occur. The judge must clearly be aware of this larger framework in making his rating. However, the emphasis still remains on the individual response to a client communication. In this context, it is important to note that ratings of responses take into account the appropriateness of the response at a *Care should be taken in scheduling rating sessions so that judges are not required to rate too many tapes at any one session. If this is allowed to occur, judges may acquire a "set" which will affect later ratings. 144 given moment in time. For instance, while a response may be specific in the early portions of the interview, the same response coming later in the interview may not only be nonspecific, but also inappro- priate in moving the client to a further understanding of his own concerns. To this extent, the unfolding theme and the appropriate timing of responses must be considered by the judge in making his rating. APPENDIX C WISCONSIN RELATIONSHIP ORIENTATION SCALE (WROS) 145 146 WISCONSIN RELATIONSHIP ORIENTATION SCALE (WROS)=':1 Level 1: I would attempt to avoid any kind of interaction or relationship with this person. Level 2: If no one else were available, I might consult this person for specific information of a factual, e.g. educational or vocational nature, but I would avoid any personal exposure. Level 3: I would be willing to talk with this person about factual, e.g. educational or vocational concerns, and some of the personal meanings connected with these. Level 4: I would be willing to talk with this person about many of my personal concerns. Level 5: I have the feeling that I could probably talk with this person about almost anything. *Half-ste ratings are not permitted on this scale. 1Steph, Joseph. "Responses to Hypothetical Counseling Situation as a Prediction of Relationship Orientation in School Counselors." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University Of Wisconsin, 1963. APPENDIX D MEAN POST-INTERVIEW SCORES BY PAIRS FOR THE IPR SUPERVISED AND TRADITIONAL SUPERVISED GROUPS ON EACH DIMENSION OF THE CVRS 147 Mean number of post-interview responses rated affective 148 Quarter Pair IPR Trac IPR - Trad. A 7.67 12.67 5.00 B 9.67 5.00 4.67 I C 7.33 1.67 5.66 D 4.33 0.67 3.66 E 12.00 12.67 .67 F 10.00 6.33 3.67 C 10.00 7.00 3.00 II H 5.33 5.67 .34 I 3.33 3.00 .33 J 11.00 1.67 9.33 K 1.00 1.00 0.00 L 13.33 6.67 6.63 M 12.33 9.67 2.67 N 8.00 7.33 .67 III 0 3.33 4.33 1.00 P 6.67 6.67 0.00 Q 7.67 3.67 4.00 R 6.33 1.00 5.33 I: 139.32 96.69 42.61 i 7.47 5.37 Mean number Of post-interview responses rated understanding 149 Quarter Pair IPR Trad. IPR - Trad. A 18.00 13.33 4.67 B 17.00 10.00 7.00 I C 13.00 5.00 8.00 D 6.33 1.33 5.00 E 15.33 18.33 3.00 F 17.33 12.67 4.66 G 15.33 10.67 4.66 II H 11.67 10.33 1.34 I 9.33 5.33 4.00 J 12.33 1.33 11.00 K 6.67 1.00 5.67 L 19.00 12.67 6.33 M 17.67 14.67 3.00 N 14.33 11.67 2.66 III 0 4.67 6.67 2.00 P 7.33 9.67 2.34 Q 16.33 5.67 10.66 R 13.33 2.33 11.00 2: 234.98 152.67 82.31 3E 13.05 8.48 150 Mean number of post-interview responses rated specific Quarter Pair IPR Trad. IPR - Trad. A 15.33 13.33 2.00 B 11 67 7.00 4 67 I C 8 33 4.33 4 00 D 6 00 0.00 6 00 E 14.33 16.33 - 2.00 F 12.67 7.33 5.34 C 11.33 11.00 .33 II H 6.33 5.33 1.00 I 5 67 4.67 1 00 J 14.33 0.00 14.33 K 2 00 1.00 1 00 L 17.33 8.33 9.00 M 14.67 9.00 5.67 N 8 33 4.33 4 00 III 0 1.00 5.67 - 4.67 P 2 67 3.33 - 66 Q 10.33 2.67 7.66 R 7.67 1.67 6.00 I: .167799 105.32 62.67 .33 5.85 7” so 151 Mean number of post-interview responses rated exploratory Quarter Pair IPR Trad. IPR - Trad. A 15.33 12.00 3.33 B 16.33 11.33 5.00 I C 13.33 10.00 3.33 D 8.00 0.00 8.00 E 17.00 17.33 - .33 F 16.00 9.67 6.33 G 10.33 13.67 - 3.34 II H 12.33 7.67 4.66 I 8.33 7.33 1.00 J 16.00 3.33 12.67 K 2.33 .67 1.66 L 18.33 11.00 7.33 M 18.33 13.00 5.33 N 15.67 10.00 5.67 III 0 2.67 8.00 - 5.33 P 5.00 10.67 - 5.67 Q 12.33 6.67 5.66 R 11.67 5.33 6.34 2; 219.31 157.67 61.64 E 12.18 8.76 152 Mean number of post-interview responses rated effective Quarter Pair IPR Trad. IPR - Trad. A 13.00 14.33 — 1.33 B 13.67 8.67 5.00 I C 10.33 6.00 4.33 D 6 00 0.33 5 67 E 16.33 17.33 - 1.00 F 15.67 9.33 6.34 C 12.33 9.67 2.66 II H 8.67 8.33 .34 I 4 33 6.00 - l 67 J 14.00 2.33 11.67 K 1 67 1.33 34 L 16.67 10.00 6.67 M 14.00 13.00 1.00 N 12.67 8.33 4.34 III 0 1.33 4.67 - 3.34 P 5 67 8.33 - 2 66 Q 12 67 2.67 10 00 R 11 33 4.33 7 00 B 190.34 134-:9; 55.36 10.57 7.50 >fl APPENDIX E MEAN SCORES PRE TO POST FOR THE IPR SUPERVISED AND TRADITIONAL SUPERVISED GROUP ON EACH DIMENSION OF THE CVRS 153 154 Pre to post differences for Pre to post differences for individuals in the I 3 group on individuals in the traditional responses rated affective group on responses rated affective D D Quarter Pre IPR Post - Quarter Pre IPR Post - Post Pre Post Pre 4.00 7.67 3.67 7.67 12.67 5.00 4.33 9.67 5.34 0.00 0.67 .67 I 1.67 4.33 2.66 I 4.00 1.67 - 2.33 0.00 7.33 7.33 1.67 5.00 3.33 .67 1.00 .33 1.00 1.67 .67 5.67 10.00 4.33 4.33 6.33 2.00 7.67 12.00 4.33 3.67 7.00 3.33 II 3.67 10.00 6.33 II 3.67 5.67 2.00 1.00 11.00 10.00 9.67 12.67 3.00 0.00 3.33 3.33 1.00 3.00 2.00 2.67 5.33 2.66 0.00 1.00 1.00 8.00 13.33 5.33 4.67 6.67 2.00 6.67 3.33 - 3.34 3.33 7.33 4.00 1.67 7.67 6.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 III 3.67 6.67 3.00 III 1.33 3.67 2.34 4.33 12.33 8.30 5.00 9.67 4.67 1.67 6.33 4.66 2.67 4.33 1.66 2.00 8.00 6.00 2.67 6.67 4.00 2: 59.36 139.32 80.26 Z: 56.35 96.69 40.34 3? 3.30 7.74 '1? 3.13 5.37 155 Pre to post differences for Pre to post differences for indi- individuals in the IPR_group on viduals in the gxadinional group responses rated understanding on responses rated understanding D D Quarter Pre IPR Post - Quarter Pre IPR Post - Post Pre Post Pre 8.67 18.00 9.33 3.00 5.00 2.00 6.33 17.00 10.67 5.00 10.00 5.00 I 1.67 6.33 4.66 I 12.67 13.33 .66 3.67 13.00 9.33 0.00 1.33 1.33 1.67 6.67 5.00 1.00 1.33 .33 11.67 17.33 5.66 7.33 12.67 5.34 10.33 15.33 5.00 5.33 10.67 5.34 II 4.67 15.33 10.66 II 8.33 10.33 2.00 2.67 12.33 9.66 15.33 18.33 3.00 3.67 9.33 5.66 1.67 5.33 3.66 4.33 11.67 7.34 1.00 1.00 0.00 15.00 19.00 4.00 9.67 12.67 3.00 5.33 4.67 - .66 9.67 11.67 2.00 4.67 16.33 11.66 0.00 2.33 2.33 III 12.67 17.67 5.00 111 3.00 5.67 2.67 2.33 13.33 11.00 10.33 14.67 4.34 4.33 14.33 10.00 4.67 6.67 2.00 4.33 7.33 3.00 5.67 9.67 4.00 2: 108.01 234.98 126.97 23 103.67 152.67 49.00 i 6.00 12.50 SE 5.76 8.48 156 Pre to post differences for Pre to post differences for individuals in the IPR_group on individuals in the tgadjcjgnal responses rated specific group on responses rated specific D D Quarter Pre IPR Post - Quarter Pre IPR Post - Post Pre Post Pre 8.67 13.33 4.66 2.33 4.33 2.00 5.67 11.67 6.00 4.33 7.00 2.67 I 0.00 6.00 6.00 I 10.33 13.33 3.00 1.33 8.33 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.67 6.33 3.66 4.67 7.33 2.66 2.00 5.67 3.67 6.67 11.00 4.33 II 1.67 14.33 12.66 II 3.67 5.33 1.66 4.00 11.33 7.33 6.67 16.33 9.66 6.67 14.33 7.66 .67 4.67 4.00 6.33 12.67 6.34 0.00 1.00 1.00 8.00 17.33 9.33 5.67 8.33 2.66 1.67 1.00 - .67 2.67 4.33 1.66 0.00 10.33 10.33 0.00 1.67 1.67 III 6.67 14.67 8.00 III 1.67 2.67 1.00 .67 7.67 7.00 4.33 9.00 4.67 2.00 8.33 6.33 2.67 5.67 3.00 1.33 ' 2.67 1.34 2.00 3.33 1.33 I: 60.35 167.99 107.64 2: 58.35 105.32 46.97 .35 9.33 E' 3.24 5.85 V” C: 157 Pre to post differences for Pre to post differences for indi- individuals in the IPR_group on viduals in the traditional group responses rated exploratory on responses rated exploratory D D Quarter Pre IPR Post - Quarter Pre IPR Post - Post Pre Post Pre 10.67 15.33 4.66 6.67 10.00 3.37 9.33 16.33 7.00 8.67 11.33 2.66 I 3.33 8.00 4.67 I 10.67 12.00 1.33 4.33 13.33 9.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.33 2.33 1.00 2.33 3.33 1.00 8.00 16.00 8.00 7.67 9.67 2.00 8.33 17.00 8.67 8.33 13.67 5.34 II 5.67 10.33 4.66 II 4.67 7.67 3.00 2.67 16.00 13.33 13.67 17.33 3.66 4.33 8.33 4.00 1.33 7.33 6.00 3.67 12.33 8.66 0.00 .67 .67 14.33 18.33 4.00 8.67 11.00 2.33 2.33 2.67 .34 7.67 10.00 2.33 3.67 12.33 8.66 0.00 5.33 5.33 III 4.00 5.00 1.00 III 4.33 6.67 2.34 10.33 18.33 8.00 6.33 13.00 6.67 2.00 11.67 9.67 5.00 8.00 3.00 6.33 15.67 9.34 4.33 10.67 6.34 2 104.65 219.31 114.66 2 100.34 157.67 57.37 i 5.81 12.18 i 5.57 8.76 158 Pre to post differences for Pre to post differences for indi- individuals in the 123 group on viduals in the traditional group responses rated effective on responses rated effective D D Quarter Pre IPR Post - Quarter Pre IPR Post - Post Pre Post Pre 9.33 13.00 3.67 4.00 6.00 2.00 6.00 13.67 7.67 6.33 8.67 2.34 I 1.67 6.00 4.33 I 12.67 14.33 1.66 1.00 10.33 8.67 0.00 0.33 .33 .67 1.67 1.00 1.33 2.33 1.00 5.67 15.67 10.00 5.33 9.33 4.00 6.00 16.33 10.33 4.00 9.67 5.67 II 4.67 12.33 7.66 II 3.67 8.33 4.66 1.67 14.00 12.33 11.33 17.33 6.00 3.67 4.33 .66 1.33 6.00 4.67 1.33 8.67 7.34 0.00 1.33 1.33 9.67 16.67 7.00 8.33 10.00 1.67 1.00 1.33 .33 5.00 8.33 3.33 2.67 12.67 10.00 0.00 4.33 4.33 III 2.00 5.67 3.67 III 1.00 2.67 1.67 8.67 14.00 5.33 6.33 13.00 6.67 3.00 11.33 8.33 1.67 4.67 3.00 4.33 12.67 8.34 3.00 8.33 5.33 2 73.02 190.34 116.66 2‘. 75.32 134.98 59.66 i 4.06 10.57 i 4.18 7.50 APPENDIX F CLIENT RATINGS OF COUNSELORS ON THE WROS 159 160 Client ratings of counselors on the WROS Quarter Pair IPR Trad. IPR - Trad. A 5 5 0 B 5 4 +1 I C 5 1 +4 D 4 3 +1 E 5 5 0 F 4 3 +1 G 4 4 0 II H 3 3 0 I 3 1 +2 J 5 1 44- K 1 2 -l L 5 4 +1 M 5 4 +1 N 4 4 0 III 0 1 2 -l P 2 3 -1 Q 5 2 +3 APPENDIX (: TOTAL SCORES AND RANKS OF COUNSELORS ON THE CVRS BY QUARTER 161 Total scores of counselors on the CVRS by quarter 162 Quarter II 111 52.01 56.67 53.00 41.34 41.00 42.67 31.66 37.34 40.01 26.00 29.33 34.32 20.00 28.00 28.34 10.33 24.01 20.68 7.34 22.68 18.99 SCORES 0.00 14.67 17.67 13.67 17.00 9.68 15.33 6.00 12.68 5.66 11.33 5.34 9.67 1.00 0.00 163 Ranks of counselors on the CVRS by quarter Quarter I II III 34 36 35 32 31 33 27 29 30 23 26 28 19 24 25 10 22 20 7 21 18 RANK 1.5 l4 l7 l3 l6 9 15 6 12 5 ll 4 8 3 1.5 R1 = 153.5 R2 = 243 R3 = 269.5 164 Total scores of counselors on the CVRS in Quarter III by groups IPR Traditional 53.00 42.67 34.32 40.01 18.99 28.34 SCORES 17.00 20.68 15.33 17.67 12.68 11.33 9.67 0.00 Ranks of counselors on the CVRS in Quarter III by groups IPR Traditional 1 2 4 3 7 5 RANK 9 6 10 8 ll 1 12 13 14 "11117:qumumlmiflfligjili'