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ABSTRACT

A PILOT STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DEGREE OF EXPRESSED SELF-ACCEPTANCE
AND INTERSPOUSAL NEED STRUCTURE
IN THE MATE SELECTION PROCESS

by Marvin Goodman

Recent studies of mate selection focusing upon psychological vari-
ables reveal inconsistent findings. Results have been in the direction
of homogamy, heterogamy or no relationship between mates when the latter
are related on a variety of psychological criteria. Current emphasis
upon both self and interpersonal behavior theory provides a framework
within which the study of mate selection can occur.

The purpose of this investigation was to explore the relationship
between degree of expressed self-acceptance and need arrangements within
couples who recently participated in the mate selection process. Hypo-
theses were formulated on the speculation that high self-accepting indi-‘
viduals tend to choose, interact and affiliate with persons like them-
selves, whereas low self-accepting persons are attracted to others un-
like themselves. Degree of self-acceptance is seen also as a criterion
of personal adjustment.

The instrument for assessing high and low self-acceptance, the in-

1 Its vali-

dependent variables, was the Index of Adjustment and Values.
dity was qualified by the use also of the Berger Scale of Expressed
.Acceptance of Self.2 The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule3 was em-

ployed for measuring needs.

Prior to omission of couples wherein spouses were widely discrepant

Marvin Goodman

in self-acceptance, the initial sample of the study was 102 couples.
After delineation there were seventy-five couples, all of whom were
childless, married less than one year and resided in married housing
facilities provided by Michigan State University. Thirty-eight and
thirty-seven couples were operationally defined as high and low self-
accepting respectively, according to their position relative to the
median of the distribution of self-acceptance scores. Subjects formed
a relatively homogeneous group when comparisons were made according to
age, age at marriage, academic level and socio-economic status, using
father's occupation as the criterion of the latter. Pearson product-
moment correlations were calculated on need scores obtained by spouses,
thereby providing indications of interspousal need structure, the depen-
dent variable of the study.

Within the limits dictated by a lack of both a random sample and
cross validation, the following were the major conclusions:

1. Mates who composed high self-acceptance couples were similar in
their respective need structures specifically when the needs dominance
(p .05), nurturance (p .01) and succorance (p .05) were considered.
Correlations of scores on the needs abasement and deference did not
exceed the level of chance expectation.

2. Mates who composed low self-acceptance couples were complemen-
tary in their respective need structures and specifically when Spouses'
scores were correlated on the needs dominance (p .05), dominance and
deference (p. 05), nurturance (p. 01) and nurturance and succorance

(p .01). Correlations of scores on the needs dominance and abasement

Marvin Goodman

did not exceed the level of chance expectation. When the same need was
compared for husband and wife, its expression varied in intensity and in
this sense Spouses' needs complemented each other. Different needs as
expressed by spouses also were complementary.

3. The highest degree of relationship between needs as expressed
by husbands and wives was found when the needs nurturance and succorance
were considered for both high and low self-acceptance couples. Thus,
the nurturant-receptive dimension of complementarity was probably more
relevant than the dominant-submissive dimension in understanding inter-
spousal need structure. The traditional interpretation of complemen-
tarity based upon all needs provides a misleading framework for the
study of mate selection.

4. High self-acceptance couples were composed of individuals who
indicated much variation in respective degree of expressed self-acceptance.
The difference between self-acceptance mean scores was significant at the
.0001 level of confidence. In contrast, differences in self-acceptance
scores between spouses who composed low self-acceptance couples were
negligible. The latter finding,coupled with complementarity of need
structure, leads to the conclusion that the individual who was low in
self-acceptance was attracted to persons who presumably provide sources

of need satisfaction which may compensate for self inadequacy.

 

 

1R. E. Bills, Index of Adjustment and Values, Manual, Auburn, Ala-
bama: Alabama Polytechnic Institute, undated, (mimeographed).

2E. M. Berger, "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and
Expressed Acceptance of Others," University of Pittsburgh Bulletin,
1951, 47:1-8.

3Allen Edwards, Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, Manual, New
York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959.

 

Copyright by
MARVIN GOODMAN

1963

A PILOT STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DEGREE OF EXPRESSED SELF-ACCEPTANCE
AND INTERSPOUSAL NEED STRUCTURE

IN THE MATE SELECTION PROCESS

By

Marvin Goodman

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education '
Guidance and Personnel Services

1962

 

-5, '2. {705'

Wm/cj

Dedicated to my parents:

Abraham and Sarah Goodman

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A study of this kind is virtually impossible when it is attempted as
a one man effort. The time limits within which it occurreci particularly
dictated the necessity of assistance by others. I am deeply indebted to
a number of people who were willing to give of their time and energy in
order that the project might be completed. My sincere appreciation is
extended to:

My advisor, Dr. William Farquhar, who was most helpful in guiding
my efforts from the proposal stage to that of completion of the final
draft;

The other members of my guidance committee; Drs. Norman Abeles, Don
Hamachek, and Willa Norris, for their encouragement and support;

My wife, Carol, who assisted in all the tabulation, typed the first
draft until our son arrived, and whose love and devotion provide a con-
stant source of inspiration;

My.son, Shaun Geoffrey, who waited to be born until I was able to
collect and analyze data, as well as complete much of the writing;

Dr. Gwen Norrell, who was kind enough to provide instruments, manu-
als, and emotional support when they were needed;

My friends and colleagues, Dr. Ken Takeda and Mr. Duane Varble, who
assisted in the collection of data and the scoring of instruments;

Dr. Thomas Dutch, Director of Housing, and Mrs. Wickham, who is re-
sponsible for the Married Housing Section, for their kindness and assis-
tance in the location of subjects;

And the couples who gave of their time by responding to the various
instruments. Without their cooperation, there would not have been a study

to report in the following pages.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pace
LIST OF TABLES.................................................. vi
Chapter
I THE PROBLEM................................................ I
Sociological Variables in Mate Selection ................... l
Psychological Variables in Mate Selection........ ........ .. 5
The Interpersonal Theory of Behavior.......... ............ . 8
The Purpose of the Study................... ................ ll
Hypotheses.......... .......... ........... .................. 15
Overview of Thesis................................... ..... 17
II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.... ............. . ....... . ...... ... 18
Studies of Psychological Aspects of
Mate Selection..................... ..................... l8
Winch's Theory of Complementary Needs......... ........... 22
Literature and Studies of the Mate Selection Process ....... 40
Unconscious Factors in Mate Selection............. ...... . 43
Psychoanalytic Hypotheses......................... ....... 45
Related Formulations and Research..... ................... 47
Self-Acceptance Literature and Research ................ .... 59
Summary..................... ...... ... ...................... 70
III THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY... ..... ..... ........... . ........... 72
The Design.............. ....................... . ........... 72
The Independent Variables........... ....... ...... ........ 72
The Dependent Variable........ ...... . .................... 73
Control of Extraneous Variables ........ . ................. 74
The Sample.... ...... .......... ........................... 76
Instrumentation. ...... ..... . ......... . .................. 77
Background Data. ..... ..... ........ . .... ................. 77
The Independent Variable Instruments ..................... 78
The Dependent Variable Instrument........ ....... ' ......... 89
The Hypotheses........ ...... .... ........................... 94
The Statistical Analysis.......................... ......... 97
Determination of Couple Self-Acceptance ...... . ........... 97
Determination of Interspousal Need Structure ............. 98
Qualification of Validity...... ..... . ...... . ............. 99
Operational Definitions..... ........ ........ ............... 100
Summary... ................................................. lOl

iv

Chapter Pace

IV PROCEDURES AND DATA COLLECTION ............................. 103
The Selection of Subjects........ ............ ..... ......... 103
The Administration of Instruments .......................... 105
The Sample Characteristics ................................. 106

Sample Identification............ ......... . .............. 106
smaryOOOOOOOO0.000000000000000.... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O 114

V ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS...... ..... . ........................ 117
Delineation Of SUb-Smples ..... ......OOOOOOOOOO O... 0.00.... 117
Analysis of the Data........ ............................... 120
High SEIf-Acceptance Dataoooooooo. ooooooooooooooooooooooo 120

Low Se 1f-Acceptance Data.......... . .............. . ....... 122
High and Low Self- -Acceptance Data ................... 125
Secondary Analysis.. . ... ........ . ..................... 126
sumarYOOOOOOOC......O:.::OO... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 130

VI st'IARY AND CONCIJUSIONSOO. oooooo o o o. o o o o o o o o o O o oo o 00000000 o 133

Summary..... ............................................... 133
The Problem .............................................. 133
The DeSign. 0...... 0.. OOOOOOOOOOOOO O. O O O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 134
Methods and Procedures ................................... , 136
ResultSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O .......... 139
Limitations of the Study ................................. 141

Conclusions ................................................ 144

Implications for Marriage Counseling. ...................... 145

Implications for Future Research ........................... 148

APPENDICES. ........................ . ...... . ................ 151
Appendix A ...................... . ..... . .................. 151
Appendix B. ................ . ............................. 154
Appendix C.. ............................................. 158
Appendix D............ .......... . ....................... . 162

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ . ...................... 164

Table

2.1

2.2

4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Summary of Intercouple Correlations.. ...... ........ ......... 33
Correlations of Particular Patterns of Needs ................ 38
Age and Age at Marriage for the Sample.... .................. 107
Distribution According to Religious Affiliation...... ....... 108
Academic Levels of Male and Female Students ................. 109
Last School Grade Completed of Employed Wives ............... 109
Major Field of Study ........................................ 110
Distribution According to First Meeting Place ............... 110
Length of Courtship, Engagement and Marriage in Months ...... 111
Distribution of Sample According to Home State .............. 112
Sample Distribution According to Type of Home Community ..... 113
Sample Distribution According to Father's Occupation........ 113
Analysis of IAV Scores Based on Initial Sample...... ..... I... 118
Analysis of IAV Scores After Delineation ...... .. ............ 119
Analysis of IAV Scores for High Self-Acceptance Couples..... 119

Analysis of IAV Scores for Low Self-Acceptance Couples...... 120

Interspousal Correlations for Various Sub-Scales on the
Edwards Personal Preference Schedule for High Self-
Acceptance couples.00...........OOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0. ...... .0... 121

A Comparison of Means and Standard Deviations Between
Males and Females in High Self-Acceptance Couples for
Various Sub-Scales on the Edwards Personal Preference
Schedule.... ................................... .... ......... 122

Interspousal Correlations for Various Sub-Scales on

the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule for Low
Self-Acceptance Couples..... ..... ..... ...... .... ......... .... 123

vi

Table

5.8

5.9

5.10

5.11

5.12

LIST OF TABLES CONTINUED

A Comparison of Means and Standard Deviations Between
Males and Females in Low Self-Acceptance Couples for
Various Sub-Scales on the Edwards Personal Preference

SCheduleOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0..........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ...........

Comparison of Distributions of EAOS Scores.... .............

Comparison of Distributions of IAV Scores. ..... ......
The Relationship of Male and Female IAV Scores .......

The Relationship of Male and Female EAOS Scores ......

5.13 The Relationship of IAV to EAOS Scores .......... . ..........

vii

Pace

125

126

127

128

129

130

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM

Only recently have psychologists and sociologists turned scientific
inquiry to the ancient institution of marriage. Particularly relatively
little empirical evidence is available about mate selection. A cursory
examination of folklore attests to the fact that some rationale, how-
ever feebly constructed, is available in answer to this basic question.
In western society, the explanations that are offered are analogous to
the activity of charges of electricity. Simply stated, some propose
that "likes attract" whereas their counterparts suggests that "opposites
attract". Not withstanding the generality of these notions, it becomes
evident that the process of mate selection is a complex phenomenon, if
only from the viewpoint of considering it as another manifestation of

human activity.

Sociological Variables in Mate Selection
Much effort has been devoted to the multi-concomitants (traditional
sociological variables) affecting mate selection. It is reasonable to
assume that physical or environmental proximity is a necessary ingredient.
As early as 1932, James Bossard found that over thirty per cent of a
sample of 5,000 marital pairs lived within twenty city blocks of each
other.1 The role of occupational propinquity has also been studied, in-

dicating that intermarriage between men and women of the same industry

 

1James Bossard, "Residential Propinquity as a Factor in Marriage
Selection," American_Journa1 of Sociology, 1932-33, 38:219-224.

 

1

was distinctly more common than chance expectancy.2
Within the traditional framework of a limited field of inquiry,
Centers attempted to discern the extent to which persons intermarry
according to their membership in various occupational strata. He con-
cluded as follows:
1. In four out of seven of the strata a tendency toward
occupational endogamy is shown. Sons of fathers in
these strata are found to be married to daughters of
fathers in the same strata more commonly than to those
of any other single stratum.
2. Exogamous marriages are as a rule with daughters from
a contiguous occupational level, with wide diSparities
in status between the marriage partners not being at
all common.3
Religion is another factor which presumably is a potent determinant
in the selection process. Most groups have traditionally advocated en-
dogamy for the purpose of maintaining "status quo". Today barriers are
still erected against considering marriage with a partner who is not of
the same religious affiliation. Even though extent of current inter-
faith marriages is an open question, the restrictions were seemingly
more closely adhered to in the past. 0n the basis of a thorough study

of the intermarriage pattern of the citizens of New Haven, Connecticut,

Kennedy summarized her findings as follows:

 

2Donald M. Marvin, ”Occupational Propinquity as a Factor in Mate
Selection," Journal of American Statistical Association, 1918—19, 16:
131-150.

 

3Richard Centers, "Marital Selection and Occupational Strata,”
American Journal of Sociology, 1949, 54:530-535.

 

We shall, in other words, be able to state that, while strict
endogamy is loosening, religious endogamy is persisting and
the future cleavages will be along reli ious lines rather than
along nationality lines as in the past.

In 1951 Thomas tested some of Kennedy's hypotheses on a broader
sample and found, in contrast to the latter's results, that the mixed
marriage rate was even higher than had previously been discovered. He

concluded also ”that religion, although important, is only one of the

factors determining intermarriage rates."5

Educational level is thought to be another important variable
affecting the mate selection process. Most studies in this area have
been restricted to college age level samples. The following conclusion
is characteristic of the relevant research.

A number of studies have shown that education and intelligence
are important factors in mate selection. This study of 330
former students at the State College of Washington who are now
married confirms previous findings that women are likely to
marry above themselves in education and men to marry below
themselves. It also shows that, in spite of this disparity

in educational level between spouses, as the education of the
youth increases the education of his or her spouse increases
and that the more highly educated the young person the more
likely he or she is to choose a mate who also has reached a
higher than average educational level.6

Without detailed study and depth analysis, it could be speculated

 

4Ruby Jo Reeves Kennedy, "Single or Triple Melting-Pot? Inter-
marriage Trends in New Haven, 1870-1940," American Journal of Sociology,
1944, 39:332.

 

5John L. Thomas, "The Factor of Religion in the Selection of
Marriage Mates," American Sociological Review, 1951, 16:491-

6Paul H. Landis and Katherine H. Day, "Education as'a Factor in
Mate Selection," American Sociological Review, 1945, 10:558.

 

that interethnic marriages are of a heterogamous nature. However, a
recent and meaningful study illustrated the homogamous components in

such marriages.

In their attempts to escape from their groups, persons sought
members of other groups as mates but succeeded in attracting
only those who were rebels from those other groups. Both
were rebels and both were rejectees. They had similar ex-
periential backgrounds as rejectees, similar basic attitudes
as rebels, and similar patterns of social adjustment through
interethnic mate selection. As individuals they had much in
common; and, since they were representatives of different
ethnic groups, each was able to satisfy the rebellious needs
of the other. Thus, these dating and marriage pairs exhi-
bited a pattern of selection which was ethnically hetero-
gamous but homogamous with reference to mode of social ad-
justment and psychological background.7

Hollingshead's classical study on the relationship of cultural fac-
tors to the mate selection process is comprehensive in nature, and, as

such, seems appropriate for purposes of terminating this aspect of the

discussion.

In conclusion, I think the data we have presented strongly
support the proposition that one's subculture, and one's race,
age, and class positions in the society effectively determine
the kind of a person one will marry but not the exact indi-
vidual. In a highly significant number of cases the person
one marries is very similar culturally to one's self. Our
data clearly support the theory of homogamy, but a general-
ized theory of the precise influence of cultural and indivi-
dual factors on the selection of marriage mates remains to

be formulated.8

The evidence suggests that the process of mate selection is homo-

gamous in that persons with, among other factors, similar backgrounds,

 

7Linton Freeman, "Homogamy in Interethnic Mate Selection,"
Sociology and Social ResearchJ 1955, 39:376.

8August B. Hollingshead, "Cultural Factors in the Selection of
Marriage Mates," American Sociological Review, 1950, 15:627.

 

religious affiliations, educational levels and occupational levels tend
to choose each other as marital partners. However, many of the studies
in this area were conducted prior to 1950 and in view of the social and
physical mobility of the population today, as merely two facets of
change, one could surmise that because a given individual may be exposed
to others who possess a variety of backgrounds, "personality appears to

be perhaps the single most important factor in selecting a mate."9

Psychological Variables in Mate Selection

In contrast to the tendency toward conclusiveness of results found
in the sociological area of endeavour, a perusal of the pertinent psy-
chological literature reveals l) a dearth of empirical research and 2)
a lack of consistency of findings. In general, there are two basic and
opposing schools of thought related to the question of personality
types. Some authors suggest that those individuals who select each
other as mates tend to be similar in personality structure.10 In con-
trast, there are those who believe that persons of different personality

structure tend to be attracted to each other.11

Proponents of the for-
mer school adhere to the proposition that "like is attracted to like"

(homogamy) whereas those who represent the latter school believe in

 

9E. W. Burgess, Paul Wallin and Gladys Schultz, Courtship, En-
gagement, and Marrigge, New York: Lippincott, 1953, 115.

 

1OE. W. Burgess and Paul Wallin, "Homogamy in Personality Charac-
teristics," Journal of Abnormal and Social_Psycholggy, 1944, 39:475-481.

11R. F. Winch, v. Ktsanes and T. Ktsanes, "Empirical Elaboration of

the Theory of Complementary Needs in Mate Selection," Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 1955, 51:508-513.

 

the notion that "opposites attract" (heterogamy) in a way such that
there is reciprocity or complementarity of need satisfaction. The lat-
ter writers agree generally with the research on propinquity, educational
level, religious affiliation and homogamy in general to the extent that
these factors define the field of eligible mates from which individual
choice is made. However, it is the contention of the heterogamy pro-
ponents that precise choice of mate is made on the basis of complemen-
tary needs which arise in the discrete personality experience of the
individual. Winch's central hypothesis is that "in mate selection the
need patterns of each spouse will be complementary rather than similar
to the need patterns of the Spouse".12

In order to support his thesis, Winch analyzed the individual ex-
periences of twenty-five homogeneous married couples from the under-
graduate population at Northwestern University. The data were derived
from responses to "need interviews” and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
cards. From this analysis Winch and his associates constructed a series
of variables in personality needs and several combinations of these,
based primarily on H. A. Murray's framework. The task, then, was
to determine whether the matched couples would manifest complementary
or homogamous need patterns. Generally, Winch found in using a cor-
relational approach that mates either have different needs or if the
need patterns are the same they are different in intensity which makes

them complementary in this sense.13 He labels the latter type I

 

12Robert F. Winch, Mate-Selection, New York: Harper and Bros.,
1958, 96. _

 

131b1d., 127-130.

complementariness and the former type II complementariness.

Using Winch's hypotheses for a general framework, and correlating
male and female scores as derived from the Edwards Personal Preference
Schedule (EPPS) needs, Bowerman and Day attempted a similar project with
sixty courtship couples and found no evidence to support Winch's con-
clusions.14 This discrepancy led Schellenberg to test the same hypo-
theses, again running interspousal correlations on the EPPS needs in
order to obtain a convergence score, with the result that his findings
were quite similar to those of Bowerman and Day.15

Outside of the problems encountered due to methodological differ-
ences, it becomes apparent that the mate selection process is seemingly
a more complex phenomenon than most theorists and researchers heretofore
have been willing to grant. Bolton studied the process from the view-
point of the development of a relationship as he suggested that a simple
"variables" approach is presumably futile in any attempt toward a fuller
understanding of mate selection.l6 He described five developmental
processes which were derived from case studies with the suggestion that
identity problems play a significant part in ultimate choice of partner.

Further evidence of complexity is offered by Martinson who found, in

 

14Charles E. Bowerman and Barbara R. Day, "A Test of the Theory of

Complementary Needs as Applied to Couples During Courtship," American
Sociologigal Review, 1956, 21:602-605.

15James A. Schellenberg, "Personality Patterns in Mate-Selection:
A Study of Complementary Needs and Homogamy," Unpublished Ph.D. Disser-
tation, University of Kansas, 1959.

16Charles D. Bolton, "Mate Selection as the Development of a Re-
lationship", Marriage and Family Living, 1961, 23:234-240.

his study using a high school sample, that "other things being equal (sex,
age, intelligence, position in family, nationality, father's occupation,
community and amount of education), persons who marry demonstrate greater

feelings of ego deficiency than do persons who remain single."17

The Interpersonal Theory of Behavior

During the last decade there has been a growing tendency within the be-
havioral science;toward interpersonal frame-of-reference theory and research.
The interpersonal theory of personality, as derived from the work of Harry
Stack Sullivan, focusses upon the psychological processes occurring between
individuals.18 Additional and related theories have been formulated deal-
ing primarily with perception, aspects of the self and related phenomena.19
Within this framework, behavior is viewed as functional and purposive, mo-
tivated by the desire to satisfy needs, albeit the latter may be vaguely
perceived, and to avoid anxiety.

Leary has formulated nine working principles for his interpersonal
theory of personality. The levels of personality to which he refers range
from unconscious to manifest expressions. These principles have guided a
voluminous amount of research. They are summarized as follows in view of
their relevance for the present study.

1. Personality is the multilevel pattern of interpersonal re-

sponses (overt, conscious or private) expressed by the indi-

vidual. Interpersonal behavior is aimed at reducing anxi-
ety. All the social, emotional, interpersonal activities

 

17Floyd M. Martinson, "Ego Deficiency as a Factor in Marriage,"
American Sociological Review, 1955, 20:164.

18Harry S. Sullivan, The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, New
York: Norton, 1953, 111.

. 19Calvin Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Porsonaliry, New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1957, Chapters 8 and 12.

 

of an individual can be understood as attempts to avoid
anxiety or to establish and maintain self—esteem.

2. The variables of a personality system should be designed
to measure-on the same continuum-the normal or "adjustive"
aspects of behavior as well as abnormal or pathological
extremes.

3. Measurement of interpersonal behavior requires a broad
collection of simple, specific variables which are sys-
tematically related to each other and which are appli-
cable to the study of adjustive or maladjustive responses.

4. For each variable or variable system by which we measure
the subject's behavior (at all levels of personality) we
must include an equivalent set for measuring the behavior
of specified "others" with whom the subject interacts.

5. Any statement about personality must indicate the level
of personality to which it refers.

6. The levels of personality employed in any theoretical
system must be specifically listed and defined. The for-
mal relationships which exist among the levels must be
outlined. Once the logical system of levels and relation-
ships among levels is defined it cannot be changed with-
out revising all previous references to levels.

7. The same variable system should be employed to measure
interpersonal behavior at all levels of personality.

8. Our measurements of interpersonal behavior must be public
and verifiable Operations; the variables must be capable of
operational definition. Our conclusions about human nature
cannot be presented as absolute facts but as probability
statements.

9. The system of personality should be designed to measure be-
havior in a functional context (e.g., the psychiatric clinic).
Its language, variables, and diagnostic categories should
relate directly to the behavior expressed or to the practi-
cal decisions to be made in this functional situation. The
system, when used as a clinical instrument, should yield
predictions about interpersonal behavior to be expected in
the psychiatric clinic (e.g., in future psychotherapy).

 

20Timothy Leary, Interpersonal Diognosis of Personaliry, New York:
The Ronald Press, 1957, 59-60.

 

10

Using a related approach, Heider has done extensive study on in-
terpersonal relations in general and on the dyadic relationship in
particular. His contributions are particularly pertinent because par-
tial aspects of his theory are related to questions of affinity of
”like for like" versus ”attraction of opposites for eachother”.21

A third general approach is taken by William Schutz who makes the
assumption that peOple need people. He then proceeds to answer the
next logical question which is: "In what ways do people need people?"
Using factor analytic procedures he has determined that people need
people for three kinds of relations. He has built a three-dimensional
theory of interpersonal behavior, namely, inclusion, control and affec-
tion. His contention is that every individual has these three inter-
personal needs, to be both expressed and wanted, and that they consti-
tute a sufficient set of areas of interpersonal behavior for the pre-
diction and explanation of interpersonal phenomena.22

A specific reference is chosen to complete this section of the
discussion particularly as it is illustrative of a clinical approach
which employs an interpersonal orientation. Using Leary's system as
a background, Romano obtained a variety of data on marital partners,
specifically for diagnostic purposes. He concludes:

A theoretical approach emphasizing the interpersonal aspects

of personality, and a methodology for the analysis of per-
sonality in interactional terms was presented. It is believed

 

21Fritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1958, 184.

 

22William C. Schutz, FIRQ, A Three-Dimensional Theory of Inter-
personal Behavior, New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, 1958, 1-2.

 

 

11

that the method has particular relevance in the marriage
counseling situation where the focus of the treatment en-
deavor is on the interaction between husband and wife.
Marital dynamics are a function of the psychodynamics of
the marital participants, since in the final analysis,
any structured human interaction has its psychological
origins in the intrapsychic processes of the individuals
involved. This does not deny the reality of external con-
siderations but insists that the interpretation of these
factors depends upon the person's unique internal organi-
zation. The diagnostic methodology described here deals
systematically with this intrapersonal aspect of the mar-
riage partners also.23 ’

It is evident that the general interpersonal approach and orien-

tation has meaningful potential for purposes of studying mate selection.

The Purpose of the Study
In an extensive review of psychologically oriented research on
mate selection, with particular reference to the research of Winch and
his colleagues, Rosow presented some problems that, to date, have been
generally ignored. The essence of his discussion is quoted at length
because of its relevance to the present concern.

The failure to locate needs in depth may seriously prejudice
the apparent relationship between need organization and be-
havior (that is, mate selection). From Freudian theory and
clinical practice, it is evident that behavior may reflect
either manifest or latent needs, regardless of the person's
awareness or the overtness of the need's expression. Some
fundamental needs are concealed by sublimation or "denied"
by reaction formations. As a result, people with the same
basic needs can show either similar or drastically different
behavior (that is, choose different kinds of spouses).

There is little difficulty when manifest and latent needs
are the same, but any difference between them presents a

 

23Robert Romano, "The Use of the Interpersonal System of Diagnosis
in Marital Counseling," Journal of Counseling Poychology, 1960, 7:17-18.

12

problem. The uncertain level of a need drastically limits
our ability to interpret any findings with confidence. If
we do not know the level of need we are dealing with, we do
not know which level is shaping the behavior we are trying
to explain. We do not know when we are using superficial
and when basic needs in our explanations. For in judging
the complement of a need, we do not know when we are mat-
ching it with a Spouse's need on the same level and when
with its opposite on a different level. One person's mani-
fest needs can be inadvertently compared with the latent
needs of the Spouse. In one case, the needs might seem
complementary, and in another, they would not. But there
is no principle to distinguish them. This becomes a major
source of possible error, both in increasing spurious com-
plementarity and in concealing genuine complementarity.
There is no reason to expect these errors to cancel each
other out. ‘ 7

Some significant variable intervenes between need organi-

zation and behavior. This is the person's adjustment to

his basic need structure, whether his accommodation is

concious or not. We may call this intervening variable

”self-acceptance."24

In view of the lack of consistency of findings, as well as the fact
that no control has previously been exerted over the problem of latent
versus manifest needs, the main purpose of this study was to ascertain
the relationship, if any, between degree of expressed self-acceptance
and couple need structure in the mate selection process.

The dominance-submissive and nurturance-receptive dimensions of
interspousal behavior were chosen to represent need structure because of

their importance as stressed by previous researchers.25 Furthermore,

these dimensions derive greatest support from Winch's data.26 The

 

4Irving Rosow, "Issues in the Concept of Need-Complementarity,"
Sociomorry, 1957, 20:219-220.

25Timothy Leary, op.cit., 107.

26Robert F. Winch, op.cr£., 213-214.

l3

element of self-acceptance was used as a form of qualification of need
structure with the postulate that an individual who is more accepting
of self will not seek to derive a completion of self from external
sources, viz., the mate, to the extent that an individual will who is
lower in degree of self-acceptance. For example, Colvin has presented
evidence to support the hypothesis that "opposites attract" when self-
acceptance is lacking, and that "birds of a feather flock together"
when self-acceptance is present.27
One of the traditional problems in marriage relations research is
related to the pepulations that have been selected for purposes of ob-
taining data. If one is to accurately study the process of mate selec-
tion, ideally it would seem desireable to derive information from couples
who are contemplating marriage, usually in the engagement period. It is
conceivable that the nature of the relationship may change after the
actual marriage occurs. However, researchers have been faced with the
problem that many engagements do not, in fact, culminate in marriage
and, as such, the data obtained are irrelevant for the purposes of
study. Some researchers have ignored this aSpect and have studied sam-
ples of engaged couples whereas others have derived data from marital
pairs, the latter approach tending to be rather indiscriminate with re-
spect to length of marriage. In addition, no attempts have been made to
screen those couples wherein pregnancy occurred prior to marriage, many

of these marriages conceivably being of a non "free choice” variety.

 

27R. W. Colvin, "Friendship Selections as a Defense of the Self-
Concept," Paper read at American Psychological Association Meeting, New
York, September, 1957, (mimeographed), 3.

14

Finally, it is presumed that the presence of a child or children in a
marriage would tend to alter the interpersonal dynamics of the couple,
thus suggesting that couples who fit into this category would not be
suitable for the purpose of mate selection studies. Some attempt has
been made in this study to control the above-mentioned contaminating
variables. In order to be eligible a couple had to be married less

than one year. They further had to be without children at the time of

the collection of data. Finally, a deliberate effort was made in order to
screen couples who could have been pregnant prior to the time of marriage,
assuming less freedom in mate selection under these conditions. Thesev
three factors in themselves seem to provide an improvement over previous
efforts in this area.

The purpose of the study was to ascertain the above degree of re-
lationship and to determine the differences in need structure between
high and low self-acceptance couples using the following measurable cri-
teria:

1. Degree of expressed self-acceptance (independent variable).

2. InterSpousal need structure (dependent variable).

This study may be seen as an attempt toward clarification and fur-
ther elaboration of existing theory. Many textbooks used in marriage
and family living courses, only one of which is cited, espouse the no-
tion that mate selection occurs on the basis of complementary need sat-

isfaction.28 If this theory is not readily verifiable, it then becomes

 

—‘,

28Thomas Ktsanes and Virginia Ktsanes, "Do 'Opposites Attract' or
[9"

Does 'Like Marry Like . , in Ruth Cavan, (ed.), Marriage and Family in
the Modern World, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1960, 139-157.

 

 

15

obvious that lack of definitive statements is preferable to the advo-
cation of half truths. Finally, it was hoped that implications in terms

of the practice of marriage counseling might be derived.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses of this study were derived from the previously cited
work of Winch and Colvin and their reSpective associates. In addition,
Rosow's provocative paper evolved the germination of an interesting
speculation that the qualifying variable of self-acceptance might prove
to be an important consideration.

There were three basic questions that this study was directed
toward answering:

1. Do those spouses who are high in self-acceptance indicate simi-
lar need patterns?

2. Do those spouses who are low in self-acceptance indicate com-
plementary or reciprocal need patterns?

3. Is there a difference in interspousal need structure between
high and low self-acceptance couples?

The major and the subsidiary hypotheses were as follows:

A. Those mates who compose high self-acceptance couples are simi-
lar in their respective need structures.

A.l. There is a positive correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need dominance.

A.2. There is a positive correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need abasement.

A.3. There is a positive correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need deference.

A.4. There is a positive correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need nurturance.

A.5. There is a positive correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need succorance.

Bo

B.3.

B.4.

B.5.

B.8.

C.

C.l.

C.2.

16

Those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples are com-
plementary in their reSpective need structures.

There is a negative correlation between mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples on the need dominance.

There is a positive correlation between male's need domi-
nance and female's need abasement in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

There is a positive correlation between male's need abasement
and female's need dominance in those mates who compose low
self-acceptance couples.

There is a positive correlation between male's need dominance
and female's need deference in those mates who compose low
self-acceptance couples.

There is a positive correlation between male's need deference
and female's need dominance in those mates who compose low
self-acceptance couples.

There is a negative correlation between mates who compose low
self-acceptance couples on the need nurturance.

There is a positive correlation between male's need nurtur-
ance and female's need succorance in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

There is a positive correlation between male's need succorance
and female's need nurturance in those mates who compose low
self-acceptance couples.

There is a difference in interspousal need structure between
high and low self—acceptance couples.

There is a difference between high and low self-acceptance
couples in interspousal need structure on the need dominance.

There is a difference between high and low self-acceptance
couples in interspousal need structure on the need nurturance.

Numbers 1 and 6 under major hypothesis B are considered as repre-

senting the above-mentioned type I complementariness whereas 2, 3, 4,

5

a 7 and 8 are representative of type II complementariness. One, 2, 3,

‘3 and 5 may be considered as testing the dominance-submissive axis of

conmlementary patterns and 6, 7 and 8 as testing the nurturant-receptive

17

axis of complementary patterns.
Overview of Thesis

A more comprehensive and detailed description of the research and
literature pertinent to the current study will be presented in Chapter
11. In Chapter III the design of the study will be examined with
reference to independent and dependent variables, control of extraneous
variance, instrumentation, the null hypotheses, alternate hypotheses
and the statistical analysis. The latter will include methodological
delineation of sub-samples. The selection of the subjects and adminis-
tration of the instruments used in data collection for the study will
be discussed in Chapter IV. Specific sample characteristics will be
presented also in Chapter IV. In Chapter V the accumulated data will

be presented and analyzed.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In Chapter I an overview of sociological research was presented,
specifically with the intent of assisting the development of a research
rationale. Related directly pertinent sociologically based materials
will be presented in this chapter because they are seen as sources of
extraneous variance to the study of mate selection.

The order of presentation is: 1) a review and critique of psycho-
logically oriented literature and research on mate selection; 2) a sec-
tion devoted to a discussion of associated matters; and 3) a review and
critique of the literature and research concerned with self-acceptance

and related self phenomena.

Studies of Psychological Aspects of Mate Selection
Generally, students of the behavioral sciences are unwilling to
accept explanations about human activity which are based upon "rational"
factors. The notion that all is not what it appears to be is expressed
in the following.

The real reasons we choose a mate usually remain secret and
are supplanted by plausible rationalizations. Many believe
in marrying for security. There is no security obtainable
through marriage. There is no security in life at all. Mar-
riage does not solve any problem; it remains a problem in
itself, which has to be solved, and merely adds a new task
to the others with which life confronts us. Some marry for
social or financial improvement. Of course, a spouse, es—
pecially a wife, may grow into the status of the partner,
and men sometimes enjoy their wives' money. But even these
tendencies to take advantage of the position or wealth of
the mate indicate a more personal and general aim, reaching
far beyond the apparent social or economic objectives.

l8

19

But the real reason why people marry, regardless of their

conscious reason,is a deep desire for association, the fun-

damental human need to "belong", a social drive which is

part of human nature.

As personality has developed in the efforts of the child to

integrate himself with others, so our resulting life style

attracts us to persons who fit in with our personal method

of social interrelation. Sexuality and the social institu-

tion of marriage make the marital choice more intimate than

any other human relationship; hence the fundamental structure

of the individual personality is evinced more decisively in

the choice of a mate than in any other human affiliation.l

Most students of human behavior subscribe to the thesis that all
human behavior is meaningful. In addition, superficial nuances of daily
living are thought to be symptomatic of more basic needs, wants and
strivings. It would seem logical, then, that the kinds of persons with
whom one chooses to associate, let alone the more permanent affiliation
of a husband and wife, are indicative of the kind of person a given in-
dividual happens to be.

Richardson reviewed the literature on homogamy or assortative mating

from 1928 to 1939.2

Much of the material constituted quantification of
physical characteristics. However, these studies were subjective and
speculative of mental traits, particularly in the matter of personality
resemblances. The area of temperament was the only one in which negative

correlations were found, the latter being slightly suggestive of a ten-

dency toward complementarity of selection in mate choice. Furthermore,

 

lRudolph Dreikurs, The Challenge of Marriage, New York: Duell,
Sloan and Pearce, 1946, 86-87.

 

2Helen M. Richardson, "Studies of Mental Resemb lance Between Hus-
bands and Wives and Between Friends," Psychological Bulleting 1939,
36:104-120

 

.111... 1 ll". l'llll. I ‘l. i ll!

20

there were a variety of methodological problems and weaknesses that
characterized these studies. There seemed to be little control, if any,
over the length of time married of the samples. No reports are given of
the reliability and validity of instruments that were employed. Sampling
procedures also were haphazard with the result that replication would be
impossible.3 Generally, it was assumed that if attitudes, values and
opinions were similar, these characteristics provided evidence of homo-
gamy. However, a beginning suggestion of complementarity is found in
the following:

It may not be, therefore, too futile a speculation to suppose

that to some degree potential spouses are attracted to each

other through empathetic appreciation of and identification with

each other's outlook and problems. Special studies directed to

the determination of this point would be of great interest.

Another early example which is illustrative of a definite improve-
ment in methodology was initiated by Kelly in 1934 and completed in 1938.
He administered, to his sample of 300 engaged couples, anthropometric,
blood grouping and a battery of psychological tests, as well as a thirty-
six variable personality rating scale and a biographical questionnaire.

The obtained correlations were practically all positive, thus seemingly

offering support for a theory of homogamy.5 It is important to note,

 

3An example of these studies is: Mary Schooley, "Personality
Resemblances Among Married Couples," Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 1936, 31:340-347.

 

4R. R. Willoughby, ”Neuroticism in Marriage, IV, Homogamy; V,
Summary and Conclusions," Journal of Social Poychology, 1936, 7:30.

 

5E. L. Kelly, "A Preliminary Report on Psychological Factors in
ASsortative Mating," Psychological Bulletin, 1937, 34:749 (Abstract).

21

however, that the personality variables did not include any measures of
needs.

6 tested one thousand engaged couples using the

Burgess and Wallin
Thurstone Neurotic Inventory as the primary instrument of investigation
as well as a self-reporting chart on twenty-three personality traits.

The results were consistent with those of Kelly. However, there were

at least two major problems in this study. There was no control over
deliberate "faking" on the self-rating sheet and the tendency to gener-
alize was unwarranted in view of the lack of cross validation. Further-
more, it is improbable that personality variables were actually derived,
thus suggesting a lack of validity of findings.

It could be assumed that the manner in which one deals with affect
or feelings would be pertinent in relation to the mate selection process.
Because Carl Jung's psychological types, namely introversion and extro-
version, sensation and intuition and thinking and valuing are polar
opposites, this kind of framework presents some possibilities for the
study of complementariness. In Gray's study of 271 married couples, a
Jungian approach was employed with the result, that evidence was offered
in support of heterogamy, assuming that Spouses are unconsciously at-
tracted to each other.7 Although Gray's study is of interest, particu-
larly because of the unique approach taken, Winch's analysis of Gray's

data did not reveal statistical significance in support of the theory.8

6E. W. Burgess and Paul Wallin, ”Homogamy in Personality Character-
istics," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1944, 37:475-481.

 

7Horace Gray, "Psychological Types in Married People," Journal of
Social Poychology, 1949, 29:189-200.

8Robert Winch, Mate-Selection, New York: Harper and Bros., 1958,
131-132. 1

 

22

Winch's Theory of Complementarereeds

Currently, the foremost advocate of the theory of complementary
needs in mate selection is Robert Winch. AS early as 19439 and culmi-
nating in a volume published in 195810, Winch has contributed much to
the study of this area of interest. In a 1950 study on the Oedipus

hypothesis, he concludes as follows:

We may state our revised hypothesis concerning the culturalized
expression of the Oedipus Complex: to achieve their sex-roles,
males must achieve independence which involves loosening their

Oedipal attachments to their mothers; females on the other hand,

need do neither but rather they need only to transfer their de-
pendency from father to husband.

Using the hypotheses of psychoanalytically oriented theorists, with
a specific acknowledgement to Freud, as well as much of the previously

cited research also as points of departure, Winch began his extensive

writings by defining love in terms of needs:

Love is the positive emotion experienced by one person (the
person loving or the lover) in an. interpersonal relationship
in which the second person (the person loved, or love-object)
either (a) meets certain important needs to the first, or (b)
manifests or appears (to the first) to manifest personal at-

tributes (e.g., beauty, skills, or status) highly prized by
the first, or both.

 

9Robert Winch, "The Relation Between Courtship Behavior and Atti-

tudes Towards Parents Among College Men," American Sociological Review,
1943, 8:164-174.

10Robert Winch, Mate Selection, op.cit.
11

Robert Winch, "Some Data Bearing on the Oedipus Hypothesis,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1950, 45:488.

12Robert Winch, The Modern Family, New York: Holt, 1951, 333.

23

Winch then hypothesized that mate selection would occur according
to what he termed the theory of complementary needs:

In mate-selection each individual seeks within his or her field

of eligibles for that person who gives the greatest promise of

providing him or her with maximum need gratification.l3

The theory, as of 1953, was elaborated upon with the use of a case
study by Thomas and Virginia Ktsanes.14 Since that date Winch and his
associates have attempted to test the theory which they report in a num-
ber of published articles.15 The primary hypothesis of the theory is
that "In mate-selection the need-pattern of each spouse will be oomolo-

mentary rather than similar to the need-pattern of the other spouse."16

 

It is to be noted that there are two major aspects to the complementary
patterns hypothesis; type I and type II complementariness. In the for-
mer, the assumption is made that those individuals who compose recently

married couples or those individuals who are to be married to each other

 

13Ibid., 406. The phrase "field of eligibles" includes, according
to Winch, the previously cited homogamy with respect to such sociologi-
cal variables as race, religion and social class.

14Thomas Ktsanes and Virginia Ktsanes, "The Theory of Complementary
Needs in Mate-Selection," in Robert Winch and Robert McGinnis, (eds.),
Selected Studies in Marriage and the Family, New York: Holt, 1953,
435-453.

 

15Robert Winch, "The Theory of Complementary Needs in Mate-Selection:
Final Results on the Test of the General Hypothesis," American Sociolo-
gical Review, 1955, 20:552-555; Robert Winch, Thomas Ktsanes and Virginia
Ktsanes, "Empirical Elaboration of the Theory of Complementary Needs in
Mate-Selection," Journal of Abnormal and Social Poychology, 1955, 51:508-
514. Additional publications by Winch and his associates will be cited
in later footnotes.

 

 

 

16Robert Winch, Mate-Selection; op.cit., 96.

24

are dissimilar rather than similar in their respective need patterns in
the sense that they differ in level of intensity on the same need. In
the latter, it is assumed that there is regularity of matching of certain
need variables between prospective mates. As an example of this arrange-
ment, it is speculated that a dominant person will be attracted to a
submissive person and vice versa.

In order to test his hypotheses, Winch drew a sample of twenty-five
married persons and their spouses from the undergraduate population at
Northwestern University. All the students were white, middle-class,
native born, married less than two years and childless. "Need interviews"
were conducted, these consisting of a series of forty-five open-ended
questions. A content analysis of the interviews was performed indepen-
dently by two judges who rated the existence of variables on a five-
point basis. Because the rating used for each subject on every sub-
variable was the sum of the scores assigned by the two raters, inter-
rater reliabilities were obtained by the correlation between their
ratings, adjusted by means of the Spearman-Brown formula for double
length. The median "corrected" correlation of the raters for all sub-
variables was .75.17

Case-history interviews were then held followed by the administra-

tion of an eight-card Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to each subject.18

 

17Robert Winch and Douglas More, "Quantitative Analysis of Quali-

tative Data in the Assessment of Motivation: Reliability, Congruence,
and Validity," American Journal of Sociology, 1956, 61:445-452.

 

8Robert Winch, Mate-Selection,‘oo;oirr, llO.

 

25

The analysis of the TAT data was similar to that of the need-interview
data. Five judges then met and determined a final set of ratings on
each subject's needs.19

The variables used included twelve needs (abasement, achievement,
approach, autonomy, deference, dominance, hostility, nurturance, recog-
nition, status aspiration, status striving, and succorance) and three
general traits (anxiety, emotionality and vicariousness). All of these
variables were then subdivided for the most part into overt or covert
and within or without-marriage dichotomies. Thus, fifteen variables
were converted into forty-four variables. Because thirty-five of the
forty-four variables correlated negatively, in addition to the fact that
eight of these were both negatively correlated and statistically signi-
ficant, the hypothesis of complementary patterns was, in Winch's estima-
tion, supported.20 Another method of testing the contrasting needs
pattern was through comparing correlations between mates with correla-
tions between randomly matched pairs of men and women.21 The latter
approach was taken, in part, as a result of criticism by Corsini who

suggested that the validity of Winch's results could be questioned

 

19Robert Winch-and Douglas More, op.cit.

20Robert Winch, Thomas Ktsanes and Virginia Ktsanes, "The Theory
of Complementary Needs in Mate-Selection: An Analytic and Descriptive
Study," American Sociological Review, 1954, 19:241-249.

21Robert Winch, "The Theory of Complementary Needs in Mate-
Selection: A Test of One Kind of Complementariness," American Socio-
logical Review, 1955, 20:52-56.

 

 

26

because of the lack of a control group.22

Rosow was critical of Winch's using many different need ratings of
a given subject as if they were discrete and independent variables. He
recommended also that need complementarity be analyzed within a frame-
work of global personality types.23 An example of the kind of result
that led to this suggestion is Winch's finding of significant positive
correlations between husband's need succorance and wife's need nurtur-
ance, but not the reverse, i.e., husband's nurturance and wife's succor-
ance.24 However, from a Q-type factor analysis, using Thurstone's cen-
troid method of factoring, and based upon Winch's subjects and variables,
Ktsanes derived four factors which he labeled:
. yielding (submissive) dependency
hostile dominance

mature nurturance
. neurotic self-deprecation.25

CJCJU35>

In spite of the general support for dissimilar need patterns of
spouses offered by Ktsanes, he concludes as follows:

According to the findings of this study, however, the princi-
ple of polar attraction operates systematically only in the

 

22Raymond Corsini, "Understanding and Similarity in Marriage,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social Poychology, 1956, 52:331.

 

23Irving Rosow, "Issues in the Concept of Need-Complementarity,"
Sociometry, 1957, 20:216-233.

24Robert Winch, Thomas Ktsanes and Virginia Ktsanes, ”The Theory

of Complementary Needs in Mate-Selection: An Analytic and Descriptive
Study," op.cit., 241-249.

25Thomas Ktsanes, "Mate Selection on the Basis of Personality Type:
A Study Utilizing an Empirical Typology of Personality," Ameriooo
§ociologica1 Review, 1955, 20:550.

27

case of some specified need patterns. This suggests that the
complementary need hypothesis is a more complicated principle
than the mere principle of "opposites attract".26

Another comprehensive approach was taken by Roos, again with the
result that general support was offered for the theory. Roos carried
out an R-type factor analysis on ratings of Winch's fifty subjects on
the above-mentioned forty-four sub-variables. The following six basic
dimensions or factors emerged:

. achievement-oriented independence vs. succorance
. anxious succorance vs. secure nurturance

strong need approval

submissiveness vs. dominance

instrumental deference
neurotic self-deprecation vs. status oriented dominance.27

"ULTIUOUUW'

Additional support is offered by Winch in his most recent work
through the develOpment of an extended qualitative analysis of contras-
ting patterns of needs of his original twenty-five couples. Four rela-
tively distinct types of marital complementariness were described. The
most apparent type was the "Mother-Son" relationship in which the wife
is dominant and maternal, while the husband is passive and non-aggressive.
A second type was the "Ibsenian” couple where the male is the dominant,
nurturant mate, and the female is childishly dependent. The third type
was the "Master-Servant Girl" pair. TheSe males were overtly dominant
and covertly dependent. Their preference was for women who were sub-

servient and strong. These wives had a traditional view of the status

 

26
Ibid., 551.

27Donald Roos, "Complementary Needs in Mate-Selection: A Study
Based on R-Type Factor Analysis,” unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Northwestern University, 1956. '

28

of women. The forth type was described as the "Thurberian" type of mar-
riage in which husbands tended to be inhibited in the expression of their
feelings. These men were attracted to spouses who were highly expressive.
As a result of the analysis, Winch tentatively hypothesized three types
of complementariness, because he was neither certain that the types are
mutually exclusive nor that they represent a fullness of possibilities.28

Another question related to Winch's methodology is that pertaining
to the ability and objectivity of the observers, or judges. Relative to
this question, Bowman made some pertinent comments.

Somehow or other "need interviews" were conducted and analyzed.

And just what are "need interviews?" How many hours were de-

voted to each? What is the scientific competence in the area

of human dynamics of those who gathered and analyzed these

data? The reader is left completely in the dark in regard

to these fundamental matters. Are we to accept the statis-

tical conclusions of these two articles entirely on faith?

Studies like these can rise no higher than their original

sources. How adequate are the original data? An answer to

this basic question is conspicuously absent.29

While Bowman's criticisms were made prior to publication of some
of the articles which deal with methodology, and to which reference has
already been made, the question of competence and objectivity is answered
in meagre fashion. Limited evidence is available of the qualifications

of interviewers or judges. There is no guarantee that vested interest

on the part of the judges did not affect the ratings.

 

8
Robert Winch, Mate-Selection, op.cit., 135-233.

 

29Claude Bowman, "Uncomplimentary Remarks on Complementary Needs,"
_émerican Sociological Review, 1955, 20:466.

29

Richardson, another reviewer, raises some questions about Winch's
research and offers a note of optimism at the same time.

Two areas of criticism are revealed in this study. One, there
is doubt whether Winch had adequate data on the unconcious or
covert elements of the marriages of his couples. To gain full
perspective on the emotional needs of spouses necessitates
depth interviews. These Winch did not have. The other cri-
ticism concerns the dangers inherent in using a small sample
of twenty-five couples. Relationships which may exist be-
tween a pair of variables could be obscured by a small sam-
ple but would appear in a large sample. Possibly both of
these criticisms will be rectified in succeeding studies.
Considering these limitations, Winch's study has much merit
both for those interested in probing into the realm of emo-
tional needs in marriage and for functional application such
as in marital counseling.3

Kernodle takes a dim view of studies on mate selection which are
based on personality needs, specifically when there is question of the
competence of researchers to manipulate Specific kinds of data. His
attack seemed to be indirectly aimed at Winch.

To some it is tempting and it also may very well be instruc-
tive to study the discrete life histories of a given number of
individuals who shared residential propinquity and who chose
each other as a marriage partner. The entire psychological
and/or psychoanalytic history of each individual could be ob-
tained. These data could then be analyzed to determine what
psychological variables have operated to influence Male A

to choose Female B as a mate. Such a task calls for a type

of professional training which most sociologists do not have
and concerns itself with phenomena which the field of socio-
logy does not ordinarily encompass, and further suggests

that a described type of social interaction (here mate choice)
is explainable in terms of discrete psychological factors rather
than in terms of the context of social facts which define the
conditions under which nearness may or may not operate as an
influencing factor.31

3OArthur Richardson, "Review of Mate-Selection, by Robert Winch,"
IMarriage and Family Living, 1959 21:97.

 

31Wayne Kernodle, "Some Implications of the Homogamy-Complementary
'Needs Theories of Mate Selection for Sociological Research," Social
Forces, 1959, 38:147-148.

«1 '1‘.

30

In addition to these criticisms already raised about the research
of Winch and his associates, there are several other areas of weakness
that become readily apparent, some pertaining to theoretical matters
and others to methodology.

The question of covert versus manifest needs has already been dis-
cussed in detail (See Chapter I). Another theoretical problem arises,
however, when consideration is given to the fact that an individual may
seek sources for need gratification outside of marriage. The male who
is a "task master" at the office and an "obedient servant" at home is a
comnon phenomenon. It would obviously be fallacious to assume that one's
mate must be the essential reservoir of need satisfaction. Coincidentally,
western society seems to place a premium upon high degree of emotional
proximity within the marital pair. It is evident that this is a diffi-
cult problem to resolve in any research endeavour.

Inherent also in Winch's work is the operational assumption that
people have segregated needs in contrast to general personality needs.
Needs are segregated according to diverse social roles, thereby deriving
gratification in some roles in contrast to others. When certain roles
tend to activate needs selectively there is no problem. However, diffi-
culty arises in those roles which offer opportunity of satisfaction to
a wide range of needs. A classical example of this situation is found
in the neurotic. His behavior is inappropriate to Specific circumstances
precisely because he does not conform to role expectations and seeks
gratification which is more in keeping with other socially prescribed
roles. The general problem is one which permeates much research on hu-

man behavior.

31

Methodologically, there are also additional problems. One wonders
about the approximate size of the parent population from which the sam-
ple was drawn. Aside from the fact that all the couples were married
less than two years, no data are given about Specific length of time
married. While the sample is purported to be homogeneous, no criteria
of homogeneity are reported. Likewise, no criterion is offered for pur-
poses of establishing social class background. No reference to non
"free choice" marriage or control over it is made, thereby affording
limited control over a potential source of extraneous variance. Further-
more, the tendency to generalize findings is not justified because of
the lack of cross validation.

Finally, the hypotheses included Murray's needs and the TAT was the
primary instrument for measuring these needs. However, the TAT ratings
were the least favorable of the three sources for testing the hypotheses.
These data were more often than chance in opposition to Winch's postu-
lates. It is noteworthy also that only approximately half of the corre-
lations derived from case-history data were in the hypothesized direction.
As a result of the above "global analysis", many permutations were found
to be in the direction as hypothesized. The number of significant corre-
lations, however was only 71 out of 388.

Two other studies, both of which were almost wholly derived from
Winch's theory and research need careful consideration. Bowerman and

Day32 were the first to test Winch's hypotheses. Because they were

 

32Charles Bowerman and Barbara Day, "A Test of the Theory of Com-
plementary Needs as Applied to Couples During Courtship," Amorican
Sooiplogic§1 Royloy, 1956, 21:602-605.

32

concerned with possible need pattern changes in married couples after a
period of time, their sample consisted of sixty college couples who were
engaged or viewed themselves as regular dating partners. The EPPS was

the primary instrument of data collection. Ten of the variables in the

EPPS are similar in definition and meaning to ten of those used by Winch.

These were: abasement, achievement, approach (affiliation), autonomy,
deference, dominance, hostility (aggression), nurturance, recognition
(exhibition), and succorance. The other five EPPS variables (order, in-
traception, change, endurance, and heterosexuality) were not directly
comparable to the remaining five variables used by Winch (status aspira-
tion, status striving, anxiety, emotionality, and vicariousness). Fur-
thermore, the EPPS gives one score for each person on each variable,
whereas Winch "double dichotomized" many of his need variables. scoring
the variables as overt or covert and within the marriage and outside the
marriage, giving four scores on the need for each individual. Although
the methods of measurement in the two studies differed, Bowerman and Day
assumed that the asseSSment of variables was similar, thereby allowing a
comparison of obtained results. Their results are summarized in the

following table.

4‘

33

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34

Since the number of correlations which they found to be in the
hypothesized direction was less than would be expected by chance, they
concluded that their results were not in accord with the general theory
of complementary needs. The evidence in Table 2.1 also indicates little
support for homogamy of needs. The total number of correlations in the
direction opposite to the hypothesis is barely higher than that expected
by chance. Furthermore, not only were most of the correlations between
needs of couples quite small, but also it is of particular interest to
note that those which were large enough to be significant offer no re-
liable support for either homogamy or heterogamy.

Although the Bowerman and Day study is generally sound in a method-
ological sense, at least three weaknesses are apparent. First, there is
ambiguity over the population from which the sample was derived. Second,
they hypothesized that every variable should correlate interspousally
with every other variable in a positive direction. The latter assump-
tion is not justified on the basis of complementarity at least as de-
scribed by Winch. Bowerman and Day stated that they were, in fact,
testing Winch's hypotheses. The study cannot be viewed, however, as a
valid replication of Winch's research. Third, the study lacks cross
validation; a weakness that seems to exist in many studies of this na-
ture. The conclusion of the study, however, includes some interesting
comments on the problem:

It is very unlikely that any theory of mate selection which is

stated in terms of a uniform direction of relationship between

needs in general will be substantiated. Of all the needs which
could be listed, we might expect only a few to be highly rele-

vant to mate selection and marital adjustment. Furthermore,

there is no reason to believe that all needs should be either
homogamous or complementary. This depends on the kind of need

35

relationship required to bring satisfaction, and the find-
ings of both studies discussed here would support our doubt
that any uniform directionality of relationship can be found.

In view of these results, we would suggest that further ef-
forts in this research area would be most effective if one
started not with a theory of needs, but with a general theory
of mate selection and marital adjustment. This theory should
specify the personality variables which are theoretically
relevant to the situations being studied, not limiting the
variables to a needs formulation. This theory would also in-
dicate the kind 6f relationships which we would expect to
find among our variables. These relationships might be com-
plementary in some instances and homogamous in others, and
would probably be in terms of patterns of personality char-
acteristics rather than single variables. And finally, such
a theory would include consideration of background and situ-
ational variables which must be taken into account in explain-
ing the Operation of the personality variables. Since there
has been comparatively little research on the influence of
personality variables on mate selection and marital adjust-
ment, Winch and his associates have made an important con-
tribution by focusing attention on this problem.3

It was the need to reconcile the contrasting findings of Winch and
those of Bowerman and Day that led Schellenberg to attempt a similar
project.35 In order to allow for any difference in results in the two
former studies which may have been due to differences in marital status,
Schellenberg used both married and premarried couples as subjects. The
data obtained from these two groups were analyzed separately. The mar-
ried sample was composed of sixty-four couples, all married less than

ten years, with the median length of marriage less than two years. There

 

/
3"‘lbid., 605.

35James Schellenberg, ”Personality Patterns in Mate-Selection: A
Study of Complementary Needs and Homogamy," unpublished doctoral disser-
tation, University of Kansas, 1959; James Schellenberg and Lawrence Bee,
'h Re-Examination of the Theory of Complementary Needs in Mate Selection,‘
Marriage and Family Livlog, 1960, 22:227-232.

 

36

were thirty-six premarried couples; half were engaged and the other half
were in the "going steady” category. Characteristics of the total sam-
ple were: most of the subjects were between twenty and twenty-five years
of age; over 85 per cent were affiliated with the Protestant church; all
were of the white race; and over 75 per cent were of urban, middle-class
backgrounds.

The instrument used for the study of needs was the EPPS. The basic
hypothesis of the initial part of the study was that the need patterns of
the couples artsmore dissimilar than would be expected by chance. In
order to approach the study of the relationship between partners in an
holistic manner, Schellenberg developed a measure for similarity or dis-
similarity. The measure was termed a ”convergence score” and it was as-
sumed that the latter assessed the extent to which patterns of manifest
needs of the two members of a couple were similar. The potential range
of scores was from perfect negative correlation at O to perfect positive
correlation at 200, with 100 the expected chance average. Thus, all con-
vergence scores above 100 were interpreted as showing homogamy, whereas
all scores below 100 were indicative of heterogamy. The steps used to
obtain the convergence scores for the study were as follows:-

1. The original scores were corrected for differences which

vary systematically with sex; this was to insure that the
average of chance convergence for members of opposite

sexes would be 100 rather than skewed in one direction.

2. The different variables for each person were ranked in
order of his scores on them.

3. A coefficient of rank correlation was computed to measure
the extent of convergence between the profiles of the
two persons of a couple (in this study Spearman's
coefficient was used).

37
4. Negative scores were eliminated by adding one to each
score thus obtained.

5. Decimal points were eliminated by multiplying each score
by 100.36

The hypothesis was not supported and, in fact, the results tended
in the direction of homogamy. Sixty-nine of the 100 couples revealed
positive correlations of need patterns, including 73 per cent of the
married sub-sample and 61 per cent of the premarried sub-sample. The
average of need convergence scores for the married group was 112.4 and
for the premarried group it was 106.9. If the total sample is considered
together, the average convergence score is 110.4, the latter being sta-
tistically significant in the direction opposite to that predicted.37

While the evidence did not support the theory of complementary
needs, it occurred to Schellenberg that particular need patterns of
couples may illustrate some consistency. He then turned to a considera-
tion of the dominant-submissive and nurturant-receptive axes which
yielded particularly significant results to Winch (see Hypotheses in
Chapter I). Within this framework, five hypotheses were formulated
with the result that none of the correlations were statistically signi-
ficant. However, ten of the sixteen correlations were in the predicted

direction. The results are tabulated as follows:

 

36Ibid., 229.

371bid.

38

Table 2.2. Correlations of Particular Patterns of Needs38

 

 

 

Predicted
Hypothesis ‘ Direction of Married Premarried
Tested Variables Matched Correlation* (N=64) (N=36)

(a) Male Dominance and Fe-

male Dominance , - -.06 +.02
(b) Male Dominance and Fe-

male Abasement + +.05 +.01
(b) Male Abasement and Fe-

male Dominance + -.11 +.12
(c) Male Dominance and Fe-

male Deference + +.05 +.13
(c) Male Deference and Fe-

male Dominance + -.06 -.19
(d) Male Nurturance and Fe-

male Nurturance - +.23 +.12
(e) Male Nurturance and Fe-

male Succorance + +.08 +.08
(f) Male Succorance and Fe-

male Nurturance + +.07 +.31

 

*Product-moment correlations

In discussing differences in findings between his results and those
of previous researchers, Schellenberg noted that the methods for measur-
ing strength of needs differed and this factor, in itself, could account
for different results. Accordingly, he compared seven variables (defer-
ence, autonomy, succorance, dominance, abasement, nurturance and aggres-
sion) which the EPPS has in common with Winch's list. The results were
still in opposition to the theory of complementarity, but the differences
from chance were no longer statistically significant}9

The next area of disparity examined by Schellenberg was related to

the fact that in Winch's data, ratings were made by judges whereas the

38Ibid., 230.

39Schellenberg, op.clr., 74-76.

39

EPPS used in his study allows for the individual's own judgement of
himself. This basic difference could conceivably have led to variation
in results. It was particularly in this endeavour, which is described
in the following, that Schellenberg made a major contribution with re-
spect to methodology in mate selection research.

The above seven variables which were used in Winch's research and
which are part of the EPPS were used for the analysis. A rank order of
the strength of associations of all possible pairs of these variables
for 1509 subjects taking the EPPS was compared with the rank order of
the same pairs of variables used with Winch's sample. The rank order
correlations between the set of intercorrelations for the EPPS and the
sets of intercorrelations from Winch's data (EPPS and Overt-within need
ratings) ranged from .78 to .70 (EPPS and overt-without ratings). In
addition, approximately half of the difference between the two sets of
intercorrelations were traced to the single variable nurturance. The
latter was more closely related to succorance in the EPPS than in Winch's
scores and more closely related to autonomy in Winch's scores. Schellen-
berg concluded that the EPPS and Winch's instruments tended, in fact, to
measure essentially the same phenomena.4O

It is necessary to indicate several shortcomings of Schellenberg's
research. No claim is made for randomness of his sample or sub-samples.
The length of time married for the already-married sample was less than
ten years and the median was less than two years. It is certain, there-

fore, that some of the couples were married for over two years, thus

 

401bid., 77-81 and 85-97.

40

raising questions about the feasability of using a sample of this kind
for mate selection research. A further aspect related to sampling is

the afore-mentioned criticism pertaining to the lack of guarantee that
the premarried couples would inevitably be married. While social class
background is referred to in conjunction with homogeneity of the sample,
no criterion is stated for this particular characteristic. An additional
lack of concordance is evidenced in the absence of provision for control
over the presence or absence of children within the married group.
Finally, an element of confounding was present in the arrangement of calcu-
lating correlations for each couple on all needs. It is improbable

that complementarity founded upon all needs would exist, if only on the

basis of following the dictates of reason.

Literature and Studies of the Mate Selection Process

It is almost redundant to note that vast array of changes that have
taken place in the United States within the last half century, almost in
direct relationship to urbanization and industrialization. The resulting
modifications are of particular consequence for youth. The automobile
and expanded resources for transportation in general have enlarged the
area of potential social contacts from a radius of several blocks to one
of hundreds of miles. The outside world is now within the home as a re-
sult of television. Familial control in general seems to have been
undermined and lessened. The closeness of living units has made the
problem of privacy more acute. Thus, public parks, automobiles and
theatres become the loci of courting in contrast to earlier days in

western society. Furthermore, the art of love is depicted by screen

41

stars and becomes a pattern for purposes of emulation.

A current philosophy is portrayed in pOpular songs, among other
media, that love between two persons is a sufficient basis for the es-
tablishment of a marriage, not withstanding a family. In marriage can
be found supreme happiness, yet only with a specific loved one. The
latter or "soul-mate" theory was expanded to include "love at first
sight". There is little doubt that current societal conditions and
mores have great impact upon the mate selection process. There is great
freedom of choice, but there is also a greater bond with romantic influ-
ences.

There are specific situations within the broader context of cultural
homogamy that are tainted with elements of heterogamy. One example of
this kind of arrangement is where a girl has been overprotected by her
parents, particularly her mother. The young person, upon reaching the
freedom that is akin to college life, becomes deeply involved with al-
most the first male with whom she has contact. He too may be compensa-
ting for an earlier lack of freedom. Even a superficial glance affords
the observer of college campus life a picture of these two "lost souls"
in a bond of mutual sympathy and understanding. This kind of selection
is homogamous only with respect to probable neuroticism, whereas, in
fact, their needs may be almost in violent Opposition.

An additional example of heterogamous mating is one that is a re-
sult of the social environment. With the current amount of mobility it
is not improbable that a young person finds himself, particularly in a
large city, restricted in opportunities for having contacts with poten-

tial mates. The need to marry, both socially and emotionally, may drive

42

these individuals into marriage with mates who are also without peer
groups containing potential mates. These are merely two examples of
situations which may be atypical yet do exist.

A review of several textbooks in marriage and the family reveals
the tendency to focus upon what is often described as the "ultimate" or
"only real" type of love. The following are illustrative of this ap-
proach:

Although one may fall precipitously into a condition of vio-
lent infatuation, it takes time for real love to develop....
Genuine love is centered on one person only.41

Love at first sight is actually impossible, because love be-
tween two individuals is always a product of intimate and
complex interaction, which depends upon varied types of ex-
periences.

....love never makes the individual less effective, less
fully functioning; rather it promotes growth and increases
awareness of meanings, needs and opportunities in the world
about one.43

We can admit that young couples may be, and usually are,
'terribly infatuated' or 'awfully thrilled' with each other,
but we hesitate to apply the word '1ove' to such untested
relationships. (Untested by many years of marriage.)

Genuine love is possible only when couples know each other
well.... IS it actually possible to 'fall in love at first
sight'? The answer is 'no'....If a person has serious doubts
as to whether or not he is in love, obviously he is not.

 

41Henry Bowman, Marriage for Moderns, New York: T.Y. Crowell, 1953,
32-37.

 

42J. Hirning and A. Hirning, Marriage Adjustmoor, New York: American
Book Company, 1956, 125.

 

43J. Landis and M. Landis, Building a Successful Marrioge, Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958, 169.

 

44E. LeMasters, Modern Courtship and Marriage, New York: MacMillan
Co., 1957, 61.

45R. Skidmore and A. Cannon, Building Your Marriage, New York:
Harper and Bros., 1951, 57-61.

43

In quest of an empirical approach and in reaction to certain kinds
of statements, of which those illustrated above are representative,
Reiss46 proposed a frame of reference on a sociological level for the
study of love. He developed a "Wheel Theory" which encompasses four
processes; namely, rapport, self-revelation, mutual dependency and per-
sonality need fulfillment. Each process is interrelated with all others
and each one occurs constantly in the development of a love relationship.
After discussing some of the major researches that have been reported in
this chapter, he concludes as follows:

These are representative findings and they all are explainable

by the Wheel Theory: e.g., if love does develop through the

culturally directed processes of a primary relationship in-

volving rapport, revelation, dependency, and need fulfillment,

then one would expect that there would be wide differences in

the amount of needs which were fulfilled in any one relation-

ship; that the very common failure to fully satisfy one's

needs might well make one have some doubts and conflicts con-

cerning the value of the relationship; and it also follows

that although one has fulfilled some of his needs in one love

relationship, he may fall simultaneously in love with another

person who is capable of fulfilling different combinations of
needs.47

It is of interest to note, that irrespective of initial approach

and orientation, most authors seem inevitably to arrive at some consi-

deration of needs in their discussion.

Unconscious Factors in Mate Selection
One could speculate that the criteria for mutual attraction in any

dyadic relationship are largely unconscious, having their roots in an

 

461. Reiss, "Toward a Sociology of the Heterosexual Love Relation-
ship," Marrioge and Family Liviog, 1960, 22:139-145.

47Ibid., 144-145.

44

earlier period of growth and development and resulting from repressions
related to conflicts in lack of satisfaction, among other dynamics. It
could be speculated further that if these impulses became conscious, they
would tend to colour existing elements of attraction for those with whom
mate choices are made. Likes and dislikes, therefore, have their basis
in a multitude of experiences, many of which are unrelated to love rela-
tionships. Consequently, attraction toward a given human being is not
based on singular likes or dislikes, rather it is permeated by a configu-
ration of motives. It follows logically that a conscious rationale of-
fered as the basis for attraction may be, more often than not, in the
form of a rationalization. Lack of conscious awareness of factors en-
tering into mate selection then leaves either minimal or no control over
the selection.

Human beings, however, also possess some degree of rationality.
Mate selection can occur on an apparent rational basis with love,
however defined, becoming a subsequent aspect of the process. Currently,
courses in marriage and family living, workshops held with young peoples'
groups as well as the provision of blueprints for happy marriage in gen-
eral, tend to be focussing upon the fact that love is not the sole pre-
requisite for successful matching. Careful and rational scrutiny can
thus be a part of the process.

In keeping with the salience of unconscious elements, it seems
that an individual's estimate of himself is an important facet of his
state of mental health. Personal weaknesses can be masked through asso-
ciation with others who satisfy feelings of inadequacy often by the pro-

vision of reassurance that other qualities are held in esteem. Ohmann

45

speculates that "all love affairs operate on essentially the same prin-
ciple.. Stated very simply, this principle is that we fall in love with
those whom we need to complete ourselves emotionally."48 In answer to
why people marry, Ohmann suggests the following:

1. Biological sexual cravings.

2. Environmental and, more particularly, economic pressures.

3. Cultural and social requirements.

4. Personal or emotional striving, whether consciously recog-
nized or not.

In hypothesizing why a particular individual is chosen, Ohmann fur-
ther suggests that freedom of choice is more mythical than actual, as is
evidenced in the following reasons for Specific choice.

1. Rationalized motives.

2. Environmental and cultural situations which determine the
supply and demand of marriageable persons.

3. Motives depending on personality.50

The basis of importance of unconscious factors, regardless of cur-

rent source, is traceable to Sigmund Freud.

Poychoanalytic Hypotheses

According to the Freudian conception, as well as that of Freud's
more direct disciples, all love is derived from one great source, namely
the libido. The latter is viewed as a kind of reservoir of love energy

which is reasonably constant within a given individual. The libido is

 

48Oliver Ohmann, "The Psychology of Attraction,’ in Helen Jordon,
(ed.), You and Marriage, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1942, 15.

49lbid., 17.

 

501bid., l8.

46

channelized toward various objects through a process which is labeled
cathexis. The average individual develops through several stages of
cathexis in a fairly sequential manner. These are: autoeroticism,
narcissism (love of self) and object-cathexis (love of an outside ob-
ject). The stages of object-cathexis may be generally subdivided into:
a love of the parent of one's own sex; a love of the parent of the op-
posite sex; and the mature love of an outside person of the opposite sex.
An individual, however, can have this libido development arrested at any
of the stages. He thus becomes fixated upon any object. The narciss-
istic individual, whose love of others is said to be only a reflection
of self-love, the homosexual, and the male who cannot fall in love with
a potentially marriageable woman because of emotional ties to his mother,
all represent arrests in their development. Coincidentally, an indi-
vidual's love may become fixated upon a person of the opposite sex who
is neither able nor willing to marry him. Normally, the libido will
shift to new objects until one is found which tends to provide satisfac-
tion. When the shift.is impossible and the object is futile, this kind
of love is designated as neurotic.51
Impressions that were based upon clinical observations led Freud to
believe that there is-a tendency for narcissistic persons to mate with
anaclitic (dependent) persons.52 Elsewhere, Freud stated that often an

individual will fall in love with a specific person because that person

 

51Sigmund Freud, An Outline of Psychoanalysis, New York: W. W.
Norton and Co., 1949, 22-24 and 78.

 

52Sigmund Freud, "On Narcissism: An Introduction,” Collected Papero,
Vol. 4, London: Hogarth Press, 1925, 30-59.

 

47

represents a perfection which the lover has striven to attain, though
unsuccessfully.53 In other words, to the narcissistic lover a loved

one is essentially an extension of self or Stated differently, a pro-
jection of the ego-ideal. The anaclitic type of person usually searches
for a mate who will be protective.54 While Freud is not explicit on the
point of which type is most characteristic of either sex, he implies that
the types of personalities are complementary and that the tendency would

be for one to fall in love with the other.55

Related Formulations and Research

 

A series of writers have propogated Freudian thinking, particularly
with respect to pathological aspects. In a study of neurotic interreac-
tions of individuals who are in frequent and intimate contact, Mittelmann
categorizes the following types of reactions:

1. Partnerships in which mutual needs are satisfied although
the unconscious strivings are essentially neurotic. Even
under these circumstances minor conflicts lead to distress,
but the main result is that of gratification and security.

2. Those in which the needs of one individual are satisfied
and his anxiety kept at a minimum by the behavior of the
other who, in turn, is satisfied only in part while many
of his cravings remain unsatisfied and his anxiety is
aroused. Thus one individual appears well, whereas the
the other is manifestly sick.

 

53Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and_the Analysis of the E80,
London: Hogarth Press, 1922, 74.

 

/
5“'Sigmund Freud, op.cit., 47.

55161d., 45-46.

48

3. Others in which one individual is motivated by marked
anxiety and the other evaluates this fear in terms of his
own inner conflicts and reacts to it in a manner which
immediately or potentially increases the anxiety of the
first person.
With Specific reference to mate choice based upon some form of neu-
rotic attraction, Mittelmann lists some common types, of which the fol-

lowing is a summary.

1. One aggressive and sadistic versus one dependent and submis-
sive.

2. One self-sufficient through emotional detachment versus one
demanding love.

3. Mutual attempts at domination.

4. One neurotically ill versus one extremely considerate.

5. One with fluctuating helplessness and assertiveness versus

one fluctuating in responsibility and disappointed desires
for love.

In a similar vein, Colby58 borrows the term symbiosis from biology
for purposes of description of the basic interpersonal bond in marriage.
He begins with the assumption that marriages are attempts to gratify
certain wishes, these being instinctual in nature and centering around
the erogenous zones. From a dynamic standpoint, those factors which

operate in the formation of a symbiosis are the wishes and defenses

against wishes in two peOple. When the wishes and defenses on the part

 

56Bela Mittelmann, "Complementary Neurotic Reactions in Intimate
Relationships," Psyohoanalyric_guarterl , 1944, 13:479.

 

57Bela Mittelmann, ”Analysis of Reciprocal Neurotic Patterns in
Family Relationships," in V. W. Eisenstein, (ed.), Neurotic Interaction
in Marriogo, New York: Basic Books, 1956, 82-83.

 

 

58K. Colby, "Human Symbiosis," Psychiatry, 1949, 12 135-139.

49

of both partners interlock in such a way that allows each to remain in
a state of rest, then the relationship is solidified. If the fusion of
wishes and defenses results in disturbance, the relationship disinte-
grates. After citing some case material for purposes of illustration,
Colby summarizes as follows:

Since the dynamic forces operating behind a particular char-

acter structure drive a person in a Specific direction--that

is, towards the person able to provide a dynamically suitable

dovetail--conscious will has little to do with the choice of

a mate. Such vectors preclude also the role of random chance

in the unions of men and women.

Similar observations to those cited above, which are either directly
or indirectly related to Freudian assumptions and are expressions of
psychodynamic complementariness, have been expressed by a number of
other writers. Ackerman6O has studied the problem of marital and the
wider family interaction processes. Benedek61 refers to complementari-
ness in a general treatment of the psychology of individual adjustment.
Treatment of marital pairs and divorce form the basis of Bergler's re-

lated discussion.62 Flugel63 presents essentially the same thinking in

studying the family. The analysis of already-married couples is treated

 

59Ibid., 139.

60Nathan Ackerman, ”The Diagnosis of Neurotic Marital Interaction,”
Social Casework, 1954, 35:139-147.

61Therese Benedek, Insight and Personaliry Adjustment, New York:
The Ronald Press, 1946, 25.

 

62Edmund Bergler, Unhappy Marriage and Divorce, New York: Interna-
tional Universities Press, 1946, Chapter 1.

 

63J. Flugel, The Psycho-Analytic Study of the Family, London: The
Hogarth Press, 1921, Chapter 11.

 

50

64 and Oberndorf;65 In Speculating

in a similar vein by both McLean
about the dynamics of love, Reik66 delves into complementariness inter-
mittently through the course of a comprehensive volume.

Much of the literature cited above is based upon observations of
psychoanalytic patients. A question could be raised relative to the
fact that these patients, because of their predominant neurotic disabil-
ities, are highly unrepresentative in that they tend to possess primarily
middle class backgrounds. In a most recent and comprehensive treatment
to this effect, differences are emphasized over similarity of marriage
partners.67 However, the authors of one chapter are explicit in stating
that complementariness need not include only neurotic phenomena.

Complementation....implies that two people are attracted to

each other on the basis of their healthy or neurotic needs

for the purpose of maintaining and developing their habitual

needs and goals.68

Strauss69 studied male and female mate preferences from the view-

point of felt personality needs. He found that both groups recognized

 

64Helen McLean, "The Emotional Background of Marital Difficulties,"
American Sociological Review, 1941, 6:384-388.

65C. Oberndorf, "Psychoanalysis of Married Couples," Psychoanslytic
Review, 1938, 25:453-457.

 

66Theodor Reik, A Psychologist Looks at Love, New York: Farrar and
Rinehart, 1944.

67V. W. Eisenstein, op.cit., Neurotic Interaction in Marriage.

68Zygmunt Piotrowski and Stephanie Dudek, "Research on Human Move-
ment Response in the Rorschach Examinations of Marital Partners,” in
V. W. Eisenstein, Ibid., 194-195.

69Anselm Strauss, "Personality Needs and Marital Choice," Social
Forces, 1947, 25:332-335.

51

such needs as: being loved, having someone to confide in, being under-
stood and appreciated, and having someone to turn to when making decisions.
Certain needs were recognized more by males than by females; ”someone who
respects my ideals, appreciates what I want to achieve, understands my
moods, stimulates my ambition, and gives me self-confidence in my relations
with people." The needs that females emphasized more than males were;
"someone who loves me, shows a lot of affection, helps me in making impor-
tant decisions, and someone that I can look up to very much."70 From this
Study it appeared that males tend to prefer women who will give them sup-
port and stimulation while females prefer men who will give them love and
protection. No evidence for reliability and validity of the basic instru-
ment was reported.

The article cited above was based upon the assumption that overt per-
sonality needs stem from early childhood relationships, particularly those
with one or both parents. It could be speculated also that the mate meets
either the same needs for the individual that were previously met by a
parent, or that the mate satisfies needs that were previously left unsat-
isfied by the parent. This formulation can be elaborated to include
mate choice based upon an ideal mate conception and parental images.

In regard to the former, Strauss demonstrated that the characteris-
tics of the ideal mate were quite related to the preferential value
hierarchy of the group or groups to which the individual belongs, and

that there was a marked resemblance between mates and ideals.71

 

7OIbid., 333.

of Sociology, 1946, 52:204-208.

 

52

Relative to the latter, Strauss found similarity in the temperamental
traits and value ideals of parents and the mate chosen. However, the
similarity was related not to the parent of the opposite sex but to
parents of both sexes.72 There is no evidence to suggest that the
findings could not have occurred on the basis of chance, thus suggesting
that the findings are worthy of note but that they cannot be viewed
within the realm of empirical evidence.

Bee73 uses a similar framework to that of Winch in explaining mate
choice. Each individual is seen as having three components in his basic
personality with several variable combinations. The component is almost
always dominant, yet none need be dominant. These components are: (l) the
socially engaging-affirming, (2) the socially assertive-ascendant, and (3)
the socially shy-withdrawing. Bee suggests that each type iS distinguish-
able in temperament, direction of interests and abilities, patterns of
values or "path of life" and constitution or physiological characteristics.
The Specific choice of mate is as a result of the individual's seeking
to complement the absence of particular components in his basic person-
ality.

In a Study related to similarity and dissimilarity, Corsini74 hy-
pothesized that: happiness in marriage is a function of the under-
standing of the mate's self and other; understanding between a husband

and a wife is a function of the degree of Similarity of the two selves;

 

72Anselm Strauss, "A Study of Three Psychological Factors Affecting
Choice of Mate," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago,
1945.

73Lawrence Bee, Marriage and Family Relations, New York: Harper and
Bros., 1959, 176-193.

 

74Raymond Corsini, op.cir., 327-332.

53

and happiness in marriage is related to similarity of the selves of the
partners. His conclusions were as follows:

1. There is no evidence that happiness in marriage is a func-
tion of understanding the mate.

2. There is no evidence that understanding the mate is a func-
tion of similarity of the selves of the mates.

3. The evidence indicates that happiness in marriage is asso-
ciated with similarity of self-perceptions of the mates.

4. Husbands and wives are no more similar in their self per-
ceptions than randomly paired men and women.

5. Happiness in marriage is related to the conformity of men

to self-perceptions of their sex. This relationship does
not hold for women.

Corsini considers his results as a refutation of Winch's findings.
There are, however, at least two major methodological weaknesses in the
study. First, the criterion measure of marital happiness is of dubious
validity. Second, a Q sort technique was used for purposes of measuring
perception of self and other. The latter technique is limited in vali—
dity. AS regards the validity of Q sorts, Sundland points out that due
to the interrelatedness between items, there is a tendency to obtain
spurious results because of an overestimation of the correlation coeffi-
cient as well as the number of degrees of freedom.76

In another related study, Katz, Glucksberg and Krauss77 hypothesized

interspousal complementarity of needs of mates as well as attempting to

determine the relationship between satisfaction in marriage and need

 

751bid., 332.

76Donald Sundland, "The Construction of Q Sorts: A Criticism,"
Psychological Review, 1962, 69:62-64.

77Irwin Katz, Sam Glucksberg and Robert Krauss, "Need Satisfaction
and Edwards PPS Scores in Married Couples," Journal of Consulting Psycho-
logy, 1960, 24:205-208.

 

 

54

scores. The results were contradictory to the complementary hypothesis.
The degree of total satisfaction of wives was not consistently related
to interspousal need complementarity, yet total satisfaction of husbands
was positively associated with interspousal complementarity in four need
pairings. A shortened version of the EPPS was used. There is no evi-
dence given of how the validity of the instrument may be altered in an
abbreviated version. Reliability and validity Statements are lacking
for the scale which is purported to measure need satisfaction. Finally,
because the mean length of time married for the sample was 5 years, there
is no justification for considering the study within the realm of mate
selection. -

Part of the discussion to this point has consisted of suggestions,
however tentative, that an important intervening variable in the mate
selection process may be related to what has been termed neurotic ele-
ments, unsatisfied needs or general problems under the rubric of person-
ality adjustment. The next few Studies are cited specifically for pur-
poses of elaboration upon this general area.

Recent concern over the increasing number of early marriages led

Moss and Gingles78

to study and compare characteristics of females who
marry early with those who marry late. They hoped to obtain insight
into factors involved in early marriages and to follow these marriages

for purposes of comparing their respective success. The latter goal is

to be achieved at a future date. It was hypothesized that girls who

 

78J. Moss and R. Gingles, "The Relationship of Personality to the
Incidence of Early Marriage," Marriage and Famlly Living, 1959, 21:373-
377.

55

marry early tend to be less well adjusted than their schoolmates and
that the former tend to have less satisfying relationships with their
families than do the latter. In this reasonably well controlled study
the Mooney Problem Check List, the Minnesota Personality Scale, 3 ques-
tionnaire and interviews were all employed for purposes of data collec-
tion. Comparative analyses suggested the following conclusions:

1. Girls who marry early are emotionally less stable than
those who marry later.

2. Girls who marry early have less satisfactory relationships
with their parental families.

3. Early and Steady dating practices are associated with ear-
lier marriages.

4. Socio-economic Status, as evidenced by parents' educational
level and apparent ability to finance college education,
may not be as closely related to age at marriage as has
been expected.79
In a related study, Martinson8O matched two groups of girls, single
and married, on a number of characteristics in order that ego deficiency
might be measured under controlled conditions. The girls were matched
on age, position in the family, nationality, father's occupation, high
school attended, year of high school graduation, number of years since
graduation and intelligence. Although Martinson offered no operational
definition of ego deficiency, he used the Adjustment Inventory, the

California Test of Personality, Kuder Masculinity-Femininity, high school

extra-curricular participation, presumably in order to obtain scores for

 

79Ibid., 377.

80Floyd Martinson, "Ego Deficiency as a Factor in Marriage,"
American Sociological Review, 1955, 20:161-164.

56

purposes of comparing the two groups. All mean scores favored the Sin-
gle girls who showed better overall adjustment than did their married
counterparts. Martinson concludes:

It may be that it is the immature or not-so-well adjusted per-
son for whom marriage has its Strongest appeal.81

In a later and duplicate study using male samples, Martinson em-
ployed the same instruments as stated above, and in this instance
operationally defined ego deficiency "as the relative mean performance
of the two groups of males on these indices."82 The latter were in
reference to the instruments of the study. Partial aspects of the con-
clusions, considering the fact that Martinson made no attempt to gener-
alize due to non randomness of samples, were as follows:

Males who marry within four years after the year of graduation
from high school Show greater signs of personal and social
maladjustment than do males who remain single....Secondly, the
level of adjustment for both the married group and the single
groups, however, falls within the "normal" range except for
emotional adjustment where the score of the early-marrying
group approaches the "unsatisfactory" category and the score
of the very-early-marrying group (within two years after year
of graduation) falls well within the category designated as
"unsatisfactory". Thirdly, as more males enter marriage the
pre-marriage differences in personal and social adjustment
between single and married tend to level off, except for dif-
ference in educational achievement.

After detailed criticism of mate selection research and theory, a

 

81Ibid., 164.

82Floyd Martinson, "Ego Deficiency as a Factor in Marriage--A Male
Sample," Marriage and Famllpriving, 1959, 21:49.

 

831bid., 51-52.

57

somewhat distinct approach is taken to the area by Boltonfia. It was

suggested that the process be viewed not only according to variables
but also relative to transactions between individual in which a rela-
tionship is developed. Data on backgrounds and self conceptions were
gathered on twenty recently married couples through questionnaires.
Material on the development of the relationships was gathered through
a series of interviews.. Five types of developmental processes evolved
from the data:

Type 1. Personality meshing developmental processes.

Type II. Identity clarification developmental processes.

Type III. Relation centered developmental processes.

Type IV. Pressure and intrapersonal centered developmental

processes. 8

Type V. Expediency centered developmental processes. 5

Without lengthy description of each type, certain implications
were apparent. Expediency seemed to play an important role in the de-
velopment of many of the relationships. Assuming the latter to be va-
lid, current conceptions about free marital choice demand further ex-
amination. In many cases there seemed to be perception of pressure to
marry at a particular stage. 'Another relevant finding was that young
peOple tend to use their love relations as vehicles for dealing with

identity problems. The conclusions of the study, however tentative,

would have to be seriously challenged. The researcher was the only

 

. 84Charles Bolton, "The Development Process in Love Relationships,‘
unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1959; Charles
Bolton, "Mate Selection as the Development of a Relationship," Marriage
and Family Living, 1961, 23:234-240.

 

851bid., 237-238.

58

interviewer. There is no way of knowing the extent to which subjectivity
contaminated the data. Neither brief description nor reliability and
validity information are given related to the questionnaires used in the
study. The only quantitative data reported are the number of couples
which approximated the above-mentioned types of developmental processes.
Replication of a Study of this kind would be impractical, if not im-
possible.

An example of the extent to which theories of homogamy and hetero-
gamy in mate selection have influenced practical application may be a
fitting point of closure for this aspect of the discussion. The extreme
of arranged marriages is found in more recent attempts at "scientific
matchmaking”. In one example86 of the latter, potential mates are in-
terviewed to determine likes and dislikes, family background and goals
in life. Seventy personality traits are then run through an I.B.M.
electronic sorter:

"We look for personality factors that complement each other as

well as those that are alike," pointed out Dr. Riss. "People

dont look for someone just like themselves, but for a partner

who can fill their needs. For example, a man with a stern

outlook on life might need and want a wife with a more re-

laxed nature."

"This is not a cold method - but a real ally to romance.
Those who fall in love do so head over heels.

Perhaps the days of individual initiative are, in fact, declining.

 

86Hal Boyle, "Machine-Made Marriages Result iIl Fewer Divorces," The
State Journal, Lansing, Michigan: October 12, 1961, 4. A

871bid.

59

Self-Acceptance Literature and Research

Relatively speaking, the area of self-acceptance is unexplored.

Self phenomena and concomitants have been emphasized and studied in-
tensively only recently. The‘literature on various interpretations of
the self is now quite extensive. This section of the discussion includes
considerations of self-acceptance and related matters only as they per-
tain to the present endeavour.

In a residential treatment center for emotionally disturbed child-
ren and as part of a series of projects on the role of self concept and
impulse control in friendship selection,88 Colvin89 studied the friend-
ship choices of a sample of thirty-three boys. The research was based
upon the psychodynamic theory of projection for relating the above-
mentioned three variables. That is, it was hypothesized that individuals
defensively select friends of similar or dissimilar level of impulse
control on the basis of whether or not they defensively accept them-

selves. The Subjects.were tested on self concept ratings and friendship

 

88A partial list of these studies includes: Ralph Colvin, "Word-
Color Matchings as a Research Method for Study of Object Relationships
and Self Concept," American Psychologist, 1956, 8:360 (Abstract); Ralph
Colvin, "Friendship Patterns as a Function of Self Concept and Impulse
Control," Paper read at Interamerican Society of Psychology, San Juan,
Puerto Rico, December, 1956, (mimeographed); Sister Mary Finneran,
"Friendship Patterns as a Function of Self Concept and Dependency,"
unpublished master's thesis, Fordham University, 1958; G. Miller, ”Ag-
gression and Acceptance: A Study of the Interpersonal Relationships of
Four Aggressive Boys in Residential Treatment," unpublished master's
thesis, University of Ottawa, 1957.

 

89Ralph Colvin, "Friendship Selections as a Defense of the Self
Concept," Paper read at the American Psychological Association Conven-
tion, New York, August, 1957, (mimeographed).

6O

selections and impulse control. No reliability data were available.

Some evidence for concurrent validity was offered, using seven judges

to rank the subjects on each variable. The specific hypotheses and re-

sults were as follows:

Hypothesis 1:

Results:

Hypothesis 2:

Results:

Hypothesis 3:

Results:

Subjects presenting a high self concopr will
select friends similar to themselves in level
of impulse control, and subjects presenting a
low self concopt will select friends dissimilar

 

 

 

to themselves in level of impulse control.

The number of friendship selections consistent
and inconsistent with this hypothesis were com-
pared. The resulting chi square of 4.20 sup-
ports the hypothesis at the .05 level.

Subjects that rate themselves as "well behaved"
will select friends similar to themselves in
level of impulse control, and subjects that
rate themselves as "badly behaved" will select
friends dissimilar to themselves in level of
impulse control.

 

 

Comparison of the number of friendship selec-
tions consistent and inconsistent with this
hypothesis produces a chi square of 9.56 which
supports the hypothesis at the .01 level.

If friendship selections can thus serve as a
defense of the self concept, it would follow
that subjects who select friends in this man-
ner are, in a general sense, more defensive
than subjects who do not.

The boys' ratings of themselves on strength,
Smartness, good behavior, and popularity were
compared with staff and peer ratings on the
same variables. Those subjects previously
showing the most defensive friendship selec-
tions now reveal a significantly greater ten-
dency to over-evaluate themselves in self con-
cept testing, a test of this tendency produgfing
a "t" of 2.85 significant at the .01 level.

 

90Ibid., 2-3.

61

Related to these results, Colvin concludes:

Present findings thus support the hypothesis that friendship
selections have singificant defensive characteristics. Our
results suggest that 'Opposites attract' when self acceptance
is lacking, and that 'birds of a feather flock together' when
self acceptanCe is present.

As was stated above, the interpretation of behavior in general as
regards self theory has been given considerable attention in recent
years. This emphasis can be traced almost wholly to the work of Carl
Rogers.92 The well-adjusted individual, for Rogers, is one who is able
to accept all perceptions, including those about self, into his person-
ality organization. He describes this situation as follows:

It would appear that when all of the ways in which the indivi-
dual perceives himself - all perceptions of the qualities,
abilities, impulses, and attitudes of the person, and all
perceptions of himself in relation to others - are accepted
into the organized conscious concept of the self, then this
achievement is accompanied by feelings of comfort and free-
dom from tension which are experienced as psychological ad-
justment.

This relationship between self-acceptance and adjustment is further

94

emphasized by Snygg and Combs who have adapted Rogers' definition to

 

91Ibid., 3.

92Only a few examples of Rogers' work are cited: Carl Rogers, Tho
.Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.,
1939; Carl Rogers, Couseling and Psychotherapy; Newer Concepts in Prac-
tice, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1942; Carl Rogers, Client-Centered
Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implicationsy and Theory, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951.

 

 

 

93Carl Rogers, "The Organization of Personality," American Psycho-
logisr, 1947, 2:364.

 

94D. Snygg and A. Combs, Individual Behavior: A New Frame of
Reference for Psychology, New York: Harper and Bros., 1949.

 

62

their phenomenological interpretation.

A phenomenal self is adequate in the degree to which it is

capable of accepting into its organization any and all aspects

of reality. ‘

These authors suggest further that the individual who feels inade-
quate to cope with his perceptions of reality, feels threatened by such
perceptions and is likely to reject or distort them. The maladjusted
person is then characterized by many threatening perceptions, and his
maladjusted behavior occurs largely as a result of his attempts to deal
with the threals to which he feels himself subjected. In this sense a
maladjusted person is synonymous with a threatened one and degree of
self-acceptance is related to degree of adequacy.

In a Study designed to test this formulation, Taylor and Combs96
used a sample of 205 school children and administered the California
Test of Personality and a list of damaging statements. The former was
used to assess degree of adjustment. The latter was used in order to
obtain a measure of self-acceptance. No evidence for reliability and
validity of the list of statements was offered. The hypothesis was
supported.

Zimmer97 attempted a study in order to check the value of self-
acceptance as a measure of conflict. He used the Index of Adjustment

and Values to measure self-acceptance by computing the discrepancy be-

tween self and ideal-self concept scores and a twenty-five personality

 

951bid., 136.

96C. Taylor and A. Combs, "Self-Acceptance and Adjustment," Journal
of Consulting Psychology, 1952, 16:89-91.

97H. Zimmer, "Self-Acceptance and Its Relation to Conflict,".Journal
.Of Consulting Psxcholggy, 1954, 18:447-449. -—--——-

 

63

trait list for purposes of measuring conflict. The results were that the
discrepancy scores were not indicative of conflict. However, the design
of the study leaves much to be desired. The sample was inadequate, the
validity of the trait list as a measure of conflict is questionable and
the groups that were used were not matched. In another study, in which
a superior design was used, evidence was found to support the same hypo-
thesis.98

Because of the previously stated Rogersian hypothesis that a self-
accepting person will have better interpersonal relationships than his
counterpart, a number of research studies have been generated. These
studies vary in nature, sc0pe and consideration of specific variables.
However, each can be seen as a facet of the self-acceptance complex and
thus are relevant to the problem under consideration, namely the rela-
tionship of self-acceptance phenomena to variations within the realm of
interpersonal behavior.

Logically, one would suppose that an individual's self-acceptance
would alter during the course of therapy, assuming that the therapeutic
process is of a helping and growth providing nature. It was on this pre-
mise as well as its relationship to increased acceptance of others that
Sheerer99 posited several hypotheses relative to these dynamics. Defi-
nitions of acceptance of and respect for self and acceptance of and re-

spect for others were formulated. These were applied to statements made

 

98G. Roberts, "A Study of the Validity of the Index of Adjustment
and Values," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1952, 16:302-304.

99E. Sheerer, "An Analysis of the Relationship Between Acceptance
of and Respect for Self Acceptance of and Respect for Others in Ten Coun-

seling Cases," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1949, 13:169-175.

 

64

by clients during the course of counseling. Without reference to the

extensive methodology, yet noting the fact that the design was of super-

ior quality, only the conclusions of the study are stated:

1.

It was found that acceptance of and respect for self and

acceptance of and respect for others can be operationally
defined and objectively rated with a satisfactory degree

of reliability.

In roughly three-fourths of the units of client response
in the ten cases the clients are occupied with self eval-
uation while less than one-fifth of the units deal with
evaluation of others.

In general there is a marked and fairly regular increase
in the measured acceptance of and respect for self from
the beginning to the end of the cases. There is also a

marked but more uneven rise in the acceptance of others

from the beginning to end.

There is definite and substantial correlation between at-
titudes of acceptance of and respect for self and attitudes
of acceptance of and respect for self and attitudes of ac-
ceptance of and respect for others.

Acceptance of self and acceptance of others is, on the
average, higher in the second half of the counseling in-
terviews than in the first.

There is a closer correlation between the "Self" and
"Others" ratings in the SIO8nd half of the cases than
occurs in the first half.

Another Study in the same vein, yet with Specific emphasis upon the

relationship between self-acceptance and interpersonal relations, con-

cludes as follows with appropriate notation relative to design:

The results are ambiguous with respect to Rogers' hypothesis
that better attitudes toward self and others are positively
related to better interpersonal relations inasmuch as the

results might be attributed at least as easily to the method

 

100

Ibid., 175.

of the experiment as to the incorrectness of the hypothesis.

65

101

Stock102 attempted a slightly different though directly related

study.

Ten counseling cases, conducted according to the principles of

nondirective therapy, were used as the sample for the study. Although

no reference was made to validity of instruments, inter-rater reliability

based only on two judges was quite high. Stock concludes her study as

follows:

1.

The total results of thk; study indicate that a definite
relationship exists between the way an individual feels
about himself and the way he feels about other persons.
An individual who holds negative feelings toward himself
tends to hold negative feelings toward other people in
general. As his feelings about himself change to objec-
tive or positive, feelings about others change in a simi-
lar direction.

It is impossible from the results of this study to identi-
fy a sequential relationship between feelings about the
self and feelings about others. Each type of relationship,
when tested, showed a low positive correlation, not on a
significant level.

Separate and rather specific factors can be identified
within the general area of feelings about others. Feel-
ings toward the self are shown to be correlated in varying
degrees with these different aspects of feelings toward
others. It was found in this study that attitudes toward
individuals in a social relationship correlated more highly
with self attitudes than did feelings in the area of family
relationships or more impersonal relationships. It was
also indicated that there is a close correspondence be-
tween self attitudes and the emotions directed toward
others and the feelings about the relationships with
others.103

 

101C. McIntyre, "Acceptance of Others and Its Relation to Acceptance
of Self and Others," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1952, 47:625.

102D. Stock, "An Investigation Into the Interrelations Between The Self
Concept and Feelings Directed Toward Other Persons and Groups," Journal_of
Consulting Psychology, 1949, 13:176-180.

 

103lplg., 180.

66

In the process of developing an instrument for the measurement of
acceptance of self and acceptance of others (an extensive description

104 attempted also to test the relationship

follows in Chapter IV), Berger
between these variables in a variety of groups, using his instrument.
Seven different groups comprised the sub-samples and the individuals were
asked simply to respond to the two scales. Pearson product-moment corre-
lations between expressed acceptance of self and expressed acceptance of
others were significant at the .01 level of confidence with the exception
of one group, the latter having been significant at the .05 level of con-
fidence.' Berger assumes that self-acceptance is the more basic variable
in the relationship although he points out that the data and analysis
cannot lead to conclusions with reference to cause and effect relation-
ships.

In a later study by the same author, and attempt was made to relate
the two above-mentioned variables to scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) for purposes of increasing the diagnostic

value of the latter.105

The subjects, 109 males and 76 females, were un-
selected testees at the Student Counseling Bureau of the University of

Minnesota. The mean scores on the MMPI were no more deviant than those

for a larger group of men and women freshmen, with the indication that

 

104E. Berger, "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and
Expressed Acceptance of Others," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
1952, 47:778-782.

 

105E. Berger, ”Relationships Among Acceptance of Self, Acceptance of
Others, and MMPI Scores," Journal of Counselinngsychology, 1955, 2:279-
283.

 

67

the former were in no reSpect more deviant in the direction of malad-
justment. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed among self-
acceptance, acceptance of others and scales of the MMPI. The fairly high
and positive correlations between K and self-acceptance for both men and
women seemed to Suggest that K may function as more than a measure of
test-taking attitude, and reflects to an appreciative extent an expressed
acceptance of self. Likewise, it is possible to consider self-acceptance
as representing defensiveness in the sense of denial of self-rejecting
attitudes. Thus, the validity of the scores may be questionable. On

the other hand, low K scores may be considered as self—rejection. By

the same token, normal K scores can be considered normal self-acceptance
or social security. The problem that is presented is obviously a diffi-
cult one to resolve.

Logically, there is some question related to the use of the self
concept as a measurable variable for empirical Study. The researcher in
this area is confronted with similar problems to the researcher who at-
tempts to Study abstractions such as "ego", ”ego strength", "sublimation"
and so on. A partial resolution to this problem has been to offer opera-
tiOnal definitions of variables to be studied. A study which exemplifies
this approach, as well as having relevance for the present study, was done

106

by Brownfain. Stability of the self concept was measured according to

 

106John Brownfain, "Stability of the Self-Concept as a Dimension of
Personality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1952, 47:597-
606. .

 

68

the discrepancy between two definitions of the self: the self as it is
"positively" conceived and the self as it is "negatively" conceived.
The latter were operationally defined according to an instrument developed
by the researcher. It was hypothesized that individuals whose self con-
cepts are comparatively Stable are happier, more adequate members of the
group that was studied and the reverse was hypothesized for individuals
with less Stable self concepts. The measure of stability had an estima-
ted reliability of .93. It seemed that the self concept was an employable
variable for the study and understanding of behavior. The more salient
findings were summarized relative to subjects who had more stable self
concepts.
1. They have a higher level of self-esteem as manifested by

a higher mean rating and also by a higher self-rating on

the inventory item defining self-acceptance. The inter-

trait variability of their self-ratings is lower, indicat-

ing that their self-esteem is generalized.

2. They are freer of inferiority feelings and nervousness as
measured by the Guilford and Martin Inventory of Factors.

3. They are better liked and considered more popular by the
group.

4. They see themselves more as they believe other people see
them.

5. They know more people in the group, indicating more active
social participation.

6. They Show less evidence of compensatory behavior of a de-
fensive kind.107

A description of a study concerned with self concepts related to

marital adjustment, and is therefore indirectly relevant, will be used

 

1071bid., 606.

I I III | l‘ III-IL“

Ill-Ii. Ill 5 15.5.}11‘! 5‘.l.{l I] l I!

69

to conclude this aSpect of the discussion. Personal adjustment, with
particular reference to self and ideal-self concepts, was considered in
Luckey's study.108 It was assumed that if congruence of self and ideal-
self concept is a valid measure of self-acceptance, it could be expected
that the individual with congruent concepts would be more satisfied in
the marital relationship. The Modification of the Marital Adjustment
Scale was used to determine satisfactorily and less satisfactorily mar-
ried couples. As an adjunct measure, Terman's self-rating happiness
scale was used and the extreme scores on the distribution on this instru-
ment were taken such that the uppermost and lowermost quartiles were
deemed to represent satisfactorily and less satisfactorily married per-
sons. The instrument for measuring the self concept variables was
Leary's Interpersonal Check List. The scores from four scales of the
latter were used to compare degree of congruity of self and ideal-self,
ideal-self and spouse. It was concluded that agreement between the con-
cept a wife holds of herself and her ideal-self is related positively to
satisfaction in marriage. Second, satisfaction in marriage was found to
be associated positively with congruence of ideal-self and concept held
of Spouse. Finally, congruence of husband's concept of self and ideal-
self was positively associated with marital satisfaction. There is some
evidence then, if only fragmentary, that wives tend to offer some degree
of complementarity to their husbands. The findings of this Study must

be considered tentative, however, in view of the uncertain validity of

 

108Eleanore Luckey, "Implications for Marriage Counseling of Self
Perceptions and Spouse Perceptions," Journal of Counseliog Psychology,
1960, 7:3-9.

70

the instruments that were employed to measure marital adjustment. It
could be assumed that social desirability would play an important role
in instruments like the latter. No rationale was presented for using
quartiles as cutting off points and while these were used for purposes
of operational definitions, the latter must be derived from a more logi-

cal base than was evident.

Summary

The importance of mate choice as being one expression of underlying
personality traits was discussed as a preface to general psychologically
oriented literature and research pertinent to the mate selection process.
The earlier studies in this area yielded results which were consistent
with homogamy. Many methodological and statistical problems associated
with these studies were noted.

More recent attempts to study mate selection were illustrative of
the fact that personality attributes may well serve as important vari-
ables to be explored. A major portion of the chapter was devoted to an
extensive review of the work of Robert Winch and his associates, the
foremost advocates of complementary need satisfaction in mate selection.
A variety of criticisms were raised relative to their research. A de1
tailed description and critique of two related though independent stu-
dies revealed that the findings related to Winch's hypotheses have been
inconsistent.

Psychoanalytic theory and interpersonal relations were discussed,
specifically because current research has tended to draw heavily upon

the formulations of these schools of thought. Starting with Freud and

71

concluding with more recent psychoanalitically oriented students of
marriage, the unconscious factors in selecting a mate were elaborated
upon, with specific emphasis extended to neurotic interaction and re-
lated phenomena. Complementarity, however, was not restricted only to
the maladjusted segment of the pOpulation. The act of mate choice was
explored further to include selection based upon the notion of comple-
mentarity, yet as derived from Specific sources. Two of these were re-
lated to choice as a consequence of parental image and ego-ideal. In
each concept unsatisfied need was an important concomitant. The latter
thesis was enlarged to include literature and research which could be
described under the rubic of ego inadequacy.

In the last part of the chapter self-acceptance literature and re-
search were discussed. The relationship of self acceptance to other
variables is a matter which is no less settled than that of mate selec-
tion. It was noted that this area has received limited attention and,
in fact, the current study is the first to attempt to relate self-
acceptance to the mate selection process. The role of Carl Rogers as a
contributor to self theory was evident. The construct of the self-
accepting person as described by Rogers was seen to be somewhat anala-
gous to Freudian and neo-Freudian formulations, in that degree of self-
acceptance could be seen as an indicator of individual conflict. Stu-
dies relating acceptance of self to acceptance of others were then des-
cribed and the chapter was concluded with reference to a study on the

self concept as related to marital adjustment and maladjustment.

CHAPTER III

THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The Design
The present study is designed to evaluate Specific psychological
variables which are hypothesized to be pertinent to the mate selection
process. The assumptions underlying the independent and dependent vari-
ables are stated. There follows a discussion of identification and con-
trol of extraneous variables. After an overview of the sample is pre-
sented, the instruments used in the study are described. The null hy-
potheses and their respective alternates are then stated and the chapter

is concluded with a description of the Statistical analysis of the data.

The Independent Variables

 

High expressed self-acceptance and low expressed self-acceptance in
marital pairs are the two independent variables of the current study.
These variables are deemed to be expressions of the extent to which in-
dividuals accept or reject themselves relative to their needs, wants and
general level of functioning. Self-acceptance is seen also as a tentative
indicator of psychological adjustment, the latter having particular rele-
vance for the nature of one's interpersonal relationships. The general
assumption is that a self-accepting person is sufficiently complete and
adequate in his daily living that he does not require constant satisfac-
tion of his needs, particularly when gratification must be derived from
external sources. A further distinction may be seen in the individual's

internal resources for dealing with both intrapsychic and environmental

72

73

pressures. If the two extremes of self-acceptance represent these dif-
ferences in personal organization and mode of functioning, it is postu-
lated that they are reference categories for purposes of understanding
the nature of interpersonal relationships in general and the expression
Of need interrelationships and satisfaction in particular. A primary
assumption in this study is that a person who is self-accepting will be
attracted to a person or persons who are similar to him, whereas a non
self-accepting person will be attracted to others who are quite Opposite
in personality structure. This study is unique in that it is the first
empirical attempt to relate self-acceptance to other variables which have

been considered in the mate selection process.

The Dependent Variablo

 

The dependent variable in the study is interspousal need structure.
This term is used to define the relationship between given pairs of needs
as manifested by the individuals who constitute a marital pair. More
precisely, a correlational approach is taken for purposes of relating
Specific need pairs.

The notion Of interspousal needs is derived from the Freudian formu-
lation of complementary neurotic interaction between individuals and
specifically between marital partners. Elaboration of this thesis has
included the idea that one chooses to interact and be with persons who
represent those qualities that the individual is kicking. In this sense,
person choice is based upon the ideal-self of the individual who initiates
the choice. A further extension of the original premise is found in the

inference that some people are attracted to others who are like themselves

74

whereas other persons are attracted to those who are quite opposite, thus
allowing for reciprocity to occur within the latter arrangement.

Because intensity of needs is relative, a comparison and contrast
of the need patterns of two persons can be accomplished. While Robert
Winch1 was first in using this particular approach, subsequent researchers
have employed either the identification method or variations based upon
it. All of the attempts, however, have been with an aim toward assessing
some aspect of the interrelationship between two people. Because this
study is an extension of some Of Winch's hypotheses, interspousal need

Structure as a variable is in keeping with realistic hypothesis testing.

Control Of Extraneous Variables

Some of the primary sources of extraneous variance in this study
are sociological in nature. It is conceivable that the motivations which
send people into marriage are many and varied. One example is what might
be termed a "marriage of practicality" wherein one or both partners marry
for purposes Of enhancing their social status. The girl who is reared in
a slum area and marries a millionaire's son is an example of the latter.
Another example is found in the situation where a striving young execu-
tive in the business world marries a woman who is a good hostess and his
primary motivation in the selection of a mate is to add to his potential
resources for climbing the ladder of success. It was assumed, however,
that these kinds of marriages did not exist or were in small proportion

in the population that was considered in this study.

 

 

1Robert Winch, Mate Selection, New York: Harper and Bros., 1958,
111-116.

 

a l l I‘ ‘ .

75

Another source of extraneous variance is found in a marriage where
at least one of the mates is either foreign born or is the product of a
cultural background where elements that enter the selection process are
atypical, at least with respect to western society. This problem was
easily controlled and the procedure is described under the heading of

"Instrumentation"

which follows.

Population selection is an additional source Of variance in mate
selection research. Through the discussion in Chapter II it was evident
that some researchers have been extremely deliberate in this respect
whereas Others have been apparently unconcerned. It is probably best to
study selection using samples of engaged couples. The basic problem in-
herent in this approach is that couples who do not culminate their en-
gagement status in marriage are obviously not suitable candidates for
studies in which the assumption is made that a mate is, in reality, se-
lected. An approach toward resolution of this problem is to sample cou-
ples who have been recently married. This study, in fact, is the first to
consider only couples who have been married for a short period of time,
thereby suggesting that these couples are as close to the time of marriage
as is possible, as well as the fact that they have entered into the state
of marriage. The couples in this study were married for a period of less
than one year, the delineation thus being the most specific heretofore
reported in the literature.

Another problem related to population selection is that of marriages
wherein a child or children exist as a result of the union. Speculation

affords the premise that a child, however young, would tend to alter the

interpersonal relationship between husband and wife. It was for this

76

reason that only childless couples were included in the sample. A re-
lated problem is the situation where a marriage is of the non "free
choice" variety, with specific reference to pregnancy occurring out-of-
wedlock. The latter would undoubtedly affect the element of mate choice.
It was, therefore, decided to omit any marriages that fit into this cate-
gory and the means by which this was attempted is described subsequently.
Distortion of reSponses is an additional source of extraneous vari-
ance. This is a problem, however, which is common to all tests of per-
sonality, attitudes and interests. "Faking”, "lying", unconscious self .
deception and the tendency to acquiesce are all aspects of the general
trend toward distortion. Only limited control over these matters is
possibka. Error variance is contributed when subjects make errors in
recording responses, have reading difficulties, do not understand what
is requested or are confused in their thinking. A final related problem
is the tendency to "fake good” or "fake bad" in order to give a Specific
impression, for whatever reasons, to the test administrator. An attempt
is made to control some Of these sources of extraneous variance and the
controlling elements will be elaborated upon under the general heading

of "Instrumentation".

The Sample

 

The sample consisted of childless couples who had been married less
than one year. It was derived from the married student population at
Michigan State University and the couples in the sample were all living
in campus housing provided by the institution. The males were all enrol-

led as students at Michigan State University in the Spring quarter of

77

1962. The individuals included were all caucasian and were born in the
United States. In Chapter IV the selection and characteristics of the

sample are described in further detail.

Instrumentation
Four instruments are described and discussed in the following sec-
tion. The first is the Background Information Questionnaire which was
employed for purposes of obtaining relevant personal data about the in-
dividuals who were studied. The second and third instruments were the
independent variable instruments and were used to measure self-acceptance.
The fourth instrument was employed in order to derive measures of needs

for purposes of obtaining the dependent variable.

Background Data

 

The Background Information Questionnaire (see Appendix A) was de-
signed by the researcher with the expressed purpose of eliciting perti-
nent information about the subjects. It is of a check list, circle or
fill in the blanks variety and can be completed within. a few minutes. In
the choosing and wording of items, a deliberate attempt was made to eli-
minate material that could be threatening to the respondents, regardless
of the fact that the latter remained anonymous. It seemed that the only
potentially threatening item was that which sought information about ex-
pectancy date if a wife happened to be pregnant at the data collection
time. This item, however, was an important one to include in order that
expectancy date could be compared with date of marriage with the result
that if pregnancy had occurred prior to marriage, the Situation could

be detected. The latter was the only method of eliciting marriages of

78

the ”forced choice" variety because it is obvious that a direct verbal-
ized question to this effect is not a desirable approach. A sample of
five married couples, all Of whom were acquaintances of the researcher,
were asked to independently read and label all those items which, in
their opinion, were threatening or ambiguous. On the final form of the
questionnaire there was complete agreement among these couples that none
of the items were felt to be either threatening or ambiguous.

An overview Of the content of the other items is as follows. Age,
age at marriage and religious affiliation were listed. Educational level,
both at time Of marriage and time Of the study, were sought. An item was
used for determining the number of working wives in the sample. Further-
more,other items were listed to Obtain Specific information about length
of courtship, engagement and marriage. Another item elicited data about
whether the subject was employed or going to school at the time of deci-
sion to marry. This item was Specifically chosen for the purpose of
identifying the above-mentioned "marriagasof practicality". Other items
pertain to parental approval Of the marriage, home state, type Of home
community and father's occupation. Some of the items were used to obtain
measures of homogeneity of the sample whereas others were designed to
gather information about homogamy as it pertains to characteristic socio-

logical variables.

The Indopendent Variable Instruments

 

The Index of Adjustment and Values2 (hereafter referred to as the

 

2R. E. Bills, Index of Aojustment and Valoos, Manual, Auburn, Alabama:
Alabama Polytechnic Institute, undated, (mimeographed).

 

.. .Idflilfl. t

 

79

IAV) was the basic instrument to measure self-acceptance in the study.
There are several instruments which purport to measure self-acceptance
through the use of a self minus ideal-self discrepancy score.3 However,
there are many problems with these measures. To begin with, the process
of summing across items implies that the items are comparable in their
perceived salience for the subject's self-regard. Evidence is not usually
available to support this assumption. A second difficulty arises in the
treatment of signs when summing. It is assumed, in these instruments,
that it would be unlikely for a subject to rate his self more favorably
than he rates his ideal-self. In this connection some authors contend
that amount of discrepancy is important, regardless of Sign. However,

it is not known whether discrepancies in an atypical direction denote

the same psychological meaning as do discrepancies in the more usual di-
rection. It is for these reasons, among several others that are accurate-
ly described by Wylie4 and results that were obtained by Palermo and
Martire5, that it seemed desirable to employ an instrument that is pur-
ported to give a direct measure of self-acceptance.

The IAV was developed to measure variables of importance to client-

 

3Some examples of these are: P. Worchel, "Adaptability Screening of
Flying Personnel, Development Ofla Self-Concept Inventory for Predicting
Maladjustment," School of Aviation Medicine, U.S.A.F., Report NO. 56-62,
1957; R. LaForge and R. Suczek, "The Interpersonal Dimension of Person-
ality: III, An Interpersonal Checklist," Journal of Personaliry, 1955, 24:
94-112; and J. Brownfain, "Stability of the Self-Concpet as a Dimension of
Personality," Journal Of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1952, 47:597-606.

4Ruth Wylie, The Self Concopt, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
1961, 79-82, 91, 97, 106-107, 133, 145 and 212.

5D. Palermo and J. Martire, "The Influence Of Order Of Administration
on Self-Concept Measures," Journal of Consultiog Psychology, 1960, 20:372.

80

centered therapists and to perceptual theorists. These self-concept
theorists hold that behavior is consistent with a behaver's perceptions
of the world in which he lives. Accordingly, perception is influenced

by needs, values, beliefs about self and other people, among several dif-
ferent variables. It is these important beliefs and values that the IAV
is designed to measure.

One hundred and twenty-four trait names were selected from Allport's
list of 17,953 traits as representative, in the opinion of the test's
designer, of items which occur frequently in client-centered interviews.
Forty-nine items showing greatest test-retest stability on pretesting
were retained in the final form.6

The data on norms for this instrument are quite extensive. To de-
termine the relative meaning of a subject's scores, comparisons may be
made with the norms which have been established for high school and col-
lege students. The high school norms were obtained from the records of
1599 high school seniors located in 16 high schools in eight states. All
of the available seniors in these schools were included in the sample.

Of the 1599 seniors, 46 per cent were males and 54 per cent were females.
The 1728 subjects included in the college normative group were tested at
the University of Florida, the University of Louisville, the University

7

of Minnesota and the University of Kentucky.

A subject is asked to give three answers to each item: Column 1:

 

6R. E. Bills, E. Vance and O. McLean, "An Index of Adjustment and
Values,” Journal Of Consulting Psychology, 1951, 15:257-261.

 

7R. E. Bills, op.cit., l4.

81

”How often are you this sort of person?" (to be marked on a five-point
scale from ”most of the time" to "seldom"). Column II: "How do you
feel about being this way?" (to be marked on a five-point scale from
"very much like" to "very much dislike"). Column III: "How much of the
time would you like this trait to be characteristic of you?" (to be
marked on a five-point scale from "seldom" to "most of the time"). The
sun of Column I (with negative traits reversed) is equal to the self
score. The sum of Column II is taken as a direct measure of self-
acceptance. The sum of the discrepancies between Columns I and III is
taken as the self minus ideal discrepancy, from which self-satisfaction
is inferred. The subject also answers these same questions about other
people, defined in terms of a relevant peer group.8 Because this study
necessitated the obtaining of measures of self-acceptance only, an ab-
breviated form of the IAV was used (see Appendix B), employing only the
directions, Columns I and II and the scoring procedure from the original
instrument.

Much reliability data are available and the following is offered
only for representative purposes. Split-half (corrected) reliabilities
for 100 college students ranged from .53 for self scores (Column 1) to
.87 for self minus ideal discrepancies (Column I minus Column 111).
Six-week test-retest correlations, with varying sizes of samples, ranged
from .83 for self-acceptance (Column II)to .90 for self (Column 1).
Sixteen-week test-retest correlations for varying sizes of samples

ranged from .52 for self minus ideal discrepancies (Column I minus

 

8Ibid., 9-12.

82

Column III), to .86 for self scores (Column 1).9

Although the IAV has not been validated as a predictive instrument,
evidence is available for purposes of content, concurrent and construct
validity. Again, only a summary of these data are presented and because
indirect reference has already been made to content validity in the de-
scription of instrument design, the following statements are in reference
to the latter two types of validity. Three groups of students at the
University of Kentucky completed the "self" index and were tested with
the Phillips Attitudes Toward Self and Others Questionnaire, the Calif-
ornia Test of Personality and the Washburne S-A Inventory. Although the
coefficients are small, statistically Significant relationships appeared
between the acceptance of self measure of the IAV and both the Phillips

self score and the total scores on the California Test of Personality.10

Omwake11

tested 113 students and found several relationships be-
tween the IAV, the Berger scales for measuring self-acceptance and ac-
ceptance of others and the Phillips scale that was referred to above.
Again, the coefficientsvaried from medium to low but most were statis-
tically significant. Omwake summarized her study by Stating that "the

three measures of self-acceptance agree closely; those for attitudes

toward others agree less well."12

 

9Ibid., 53-62.

lolblo., 66.

11K. Omwake, ”The Relation Between Acceptance of Self and Acceptance
of Others Shown by Three Personality Inventories," Journal of Consultiog
Psychology, 1954, 18:443-446.

12Ibid., 446.

 

 

 

 

 

llII..ltl ‘9 Ii 5 "1

83

Fink reported that at Statistically significant levels, people who
are high in acceptance of self, as measured by the IAV, have higher
group status, are more responsible, are more efficient intellectually,
are more dominant, participate in social events, have fewer psychosomatic
complaints, have less anxiety, have fewer contacts with student-affairs
counselors and many other "positive" attributes than people who are lower
in acceptance of self, as measured by the IAV.13

Thirteen people participated in thirty minute, open-ended interviews,
from which verbatim transcriptions were recorded. Two judges working in-
dependently of each other scored the interviews for acceptance of self
and Obtained satisfactory percentages of agreement.

Subjects were ranked according to acceptance of self shown by

the interview material and the Index Of Adjustment and Values,

and the ranks were correlated to give a rho of .84, which is

significantly different from zero at less than the .01 level

and which permits the conclusion that what a subject says about

himself in an interview corresponds highly with the rztings he

gives himself on the Index of Adjustment and Values.1

Roberts15 studied the validity of the self ratings given on the IAV
as measures of the emotionality of the IAV traits for his sample of fifty
college Students. He used reaction time for free association as measured
by a chronoscope and voice key to Show that traits that showed a dis-

1

crepancy between the concept of self and the concept of ideal-self, and

 

13R. E. Bills, op.cit., 64-65.

14R. E. Bills, "Acceptance of Self as Measured by Interviews and the
Index of Adjustment and Values,” Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1954,
18:22.

15G. E. Roberts, "A Study of the Validity of the Index of Adjustment
and Values," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1952, 16:302-304.

84

traits which were given low ratings on acceptance of self had signifi-
cantly longer reaction times than did their counterparts. He stated in
summary:

The results indicate that the self-ratings of the Index are

valid indices of emotionality. Reaction time was significantly

longer for trait words on which the subjects indicated dis-

crepancy between concept of self and concept of the ideal-

self. A significantly longer reaction time was also found

for words in which the subjects disclosed a rejection Of

self in their present condition. In addition, the results

reveal that the concept of self is not an index of emotion-

ality unless a rejection origiscrepancy is indicated upon

the same personality trait.

A final study on the validity of the IAV is cited in order to con-
17

clude the discussion on this instrument. Renzaglia did an extensive
Study using the IAV as the primary instrument administered to 329 fresh-
men at the University of Minnesota. He had a variety of hypotheses, all
dealing with "low and high self-describing types" and self-structure in
general. Renzaglia concluded from the data that the high self-scorers
on self-acceptance when contrasted with the low self-scorers showed:

1. More optimism with reSpect to future success in college;

2. Greater satisfaction with immediate periods in their life;

,3. Much less feelings of tension and anxiety;

4. A greater tendency to externalize their conflicts;

5. A more favorable appraisal of their self-characteristics;

6. That they value certain personal traits considerably more;

 

lélplq., 304

17
G. Renzaglia, "Some Correlates of the Self Structure as Measured

by an Index of Adjustment and Values,” unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Minnesota, 1952.

85
7. That they conceive others to possess more favorable per-
sonal attributes;
8. Less experience of a negative sort;
9. Less intense feelings toward these punishing experiences;
10. More favorable attitudes toward their parents;
11. That fewer people punished them;

12. And, that they are more certain about what they are willing
to say about themselves.1

A second instrument was used in this study to assess self-
acceptance. It was employed primarily as a check on the validity of the
instrument that was described above. The Berger Scales of Expressed Ac-

19 is another instru-

ceptance of Self and Expressed Acceptance of Others
ment which is purported to assess self-acceptance through the use of a
direct measure. This instrument will be described in the following
paragraphs.

The Berger instrument was developed on essentially the same basis
as the IAV. Part of the design, however, was to lead to a measure of
acceptance of others in order that the latter could be related to self-
acceptance. Some of Berger's research was reported under the heading
"Self-Acceptance Literature and Research" in Chapter II and will there-

fore not be elaborated upon in this part of the discussion.

Prior to the development of the Berger instrument, Sheerer20 found

 

18Ibid., 182.

19E. M. Berger, "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self
and Expressed Acceptance of Others," unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Pittsburg, 1952.

2OE. Sheerer, "An Analysis of the Relationship Between Acceptance of
and Respect for the Self and Acceptance of and ReSpect for Others in Ten
Counseling Cases," Journal of Consulting Bsycholggy, 1949, 13:169-175.

86

a “definite and substantial correlation between attitudes of acceptance
of and respect for the self and attitudes of acceptance and respect for

others." Part of a study by Stock21

confirmed the results obtained by
Sheerer. Berger then attempted to develop a group instrument as well as
test the relationship between the two variables.

The definitions used by Sheerer were abridged and slightly modified
by Berger. Only those pertaining to self-acceptance are stated because
of their relevance to the current study.

The self-accepting person:

1. Relies primarily upon internalized values and standards
rather than external pressure for a guide for his behavior.

2. Has faith in his capacity to cope with life.

3. Assumes responsibility for and accepts the consequences of
his own behavior.

4. Accepts praise or criticism from others objectively.

5. Does not attempt to deny or distort any feelings, motives,
limitations, abilities or favorable qualities which he sees
in himself, but rather accepts all without self-condemna-
tion.

6. Considers himself a person of worth on an equal plane with
other persons.

7. Does not expect others to reject him whether he gives them
any reason to reject him or not.

8. Does not regard himself as totally different from others,
”queer", or generally abnormal in his reactions.

9. Is not shy or self-conscious.22

 

21D. stock, "An Investigation Into the Interrelations Between the Self
Concepts and Feelings Directed Toward Other Persons and Groups," Journal of
Consulting Psychology, 1949, 13:176-180.

 

 

22E. M. Berger, "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and
Expressed Acceptance of Others," University of Pittsburgh Bulletin, 1951,
47:2.

 

87

Using the various elements that make up the definitions as a guide,
statements about the self and others were selected or constructed which
were in accord with these elements. Four items were required for each
element. The preliminary scales consisted of 47 statements on self-
acceptance and 40 on acceptance of others. A five-point scale was used
for scores on all the items, ranging from ”not at all true of myself" to
"true of myself". I.B.M. answer sheets are used with the instrument.

An individual's score is his total score for all the items on the par-
ticular scale.

The preliminary scales were administered to 200 students who ranged
in age from 17 to 30 years. In the item analysis, those subjects whose
total scores were in the top 25 per cent were compared on each item with
those whose total scores were in the bottom 25 per cent. The difference
between the mean scores of the criterion groups was computed for each
item. This difference was then used as an index of the discriminating
power of the item. The final selection of items was made on the basis
of appropriateness of the items to the element of the definition and
discriminating ability. Thirty-six items were selected for the self-
acceptance scale and 28 were selected for the acceptance of others scale.
The present study is concerned only with a measure of self-acceptance.
Only 36 items are used in an abbreviated version (see Appendix C) and
the scale is labelled as the Berger Scale of Expressed Acceptance of
Self (hereafter referred to as EAOS).

The final form of the scales was administered to seven different
samples which consisted of: 183 day session college students; 33 evening

session college students; 33 prisoners; 38 stutterers; 18 adults in a

'1: ..Ilr III-ll! I‘ll-I'll ll!

 

88

class at the Y.M.C.A.; 7 Speech problem cases; and 3 counselees.

Pearson product-moment correlations between expressed acceptance
of self and expressed acceptance of others were, with one exception sig-
nificantly greater than zero, the exception being significant at the .06
level. Matched-half reliabilities, corrected by the Spearman-Brown
formula, were all .89 or greater for the self-acceptance scale except
for one group for which it was .746. For the acceptance of others scale
reliabilities ranged from .776 to .884.

Three approaches were used to establish validity of the scales.

The first consisted of having a sample of 20 subjects write freely about
their attitudes toward themselves, and a second group write freely about
their attitudes toward others. Both groups used the elements of the de-
finitions as a guide. The paragraphs were rated by four judges and the
mean ratings for each individual were correlated with their scores on

the corresponding scale. The Pearson product-moment correlation between
scores and ratings was .897 for self-acceptance, and .727 for acceptance
of others, both significantly greater than zero. The average of the in-
tercorrelations among judges' ratings was .869 for self-acceptance and
.769 for acceptance of others.

The second, approach was to compare groups. For example, it was ex-
pected that stutterers would score lower on self-acceptance than other
groups. Several group comparisons based upon a priori factors were made
by matching mean scores. All indicate significant differences, with the
counselee group having the lowest mean score on both self-acceptance and
acceptance of others.

The third approach was to compare average rankings of seven members

89

of the speech problems sample with self-acceptance scores for the re-
mainder of the group. A rho of .59 was obtained and was not any higher
than might have been obtained by chance. Further evidence of validity
has been cited in relation to the discussion of the validity of the IAV,
with particular reference to Omwake's study.23

One point is worthy of note prior to concluding the discussion on
the EAOS. The term I'expressed" is used in the current study in the same
manner in which it was intended by Berger in the development of his in-
strument. Expressed self-acceptance in purported to mean the extent to
which an individual accepts himself as expressed by himself, not by ex-
ternal judges who are providing an "objective" rating. Although this
issue is not clarified by Bills with respect to the IAV, the same as-
sumption is made in the current study for purposes of measures of self-

acceptance as derived from the IAV.

The Dependent Variable Instrument

The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (hereafter referred to as
EPPS) was the instrument used in this study to provide measures of var-
ious needs. The rationale for its use and equivalence to the TAT has
been described (supra, page 39). The EPPS has been used and studied
extensively. Only pertinent matters about the instrument will be refer-
red to in this discussion. A complete description is found in the EPPS

ManuaLZL+

 

23K. Omwake, op.cit., 443-446.

24Allen Edwards, Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, Manual, re-
vised edition, New York: The Psychological Corporation. 1959.

 

90

The EPPS was designed to elicit scores on a number of relatively
independent personality variables. The statements in the instrument and
the variables that these statements purport to measure had their origin
in a list of manifest needs as described by H. A. Murray25 The EPPS
provides a measure of fifteen personality variables, a measure of test
consistency and a measure of profile stability.

Normative data were obtained on 1509 college students and 8963 adults
in the general population. Scores on each of the fifteen variables range
from O to 28 and are fairly symmetrically distributed around their respec-
tive means. The variables are relatively independent of each other, with
the mean of their intercorrelations being -.O7. Only twelve of the 105
correlations are plus or minus .30 or higher.26

The inventory consists of 225 pairs of statements from which the
respondent is asked to choose the statement in each pair which he be:
lieves to be most characteristic. of himself. An.I.B.M. answer sheet is
provided. Scores on the consistency variable are based upon a compari-
son of the number of identical choices made in two sets of the same fif-
teen items. By correlating the partial scores in each row and column on
the answer sheet over the fifteen personality variables for a single sub-
ject, a measure of profile stability is obtained. The average profile
correlation obtained from a random sample of 279 cases drawn from the

college normative group of 1509 records, based upon the z transformation,

 

25H. A. Murray, et.al., Explorations in Personality, New York:
Oxford University Press, 1938.

7
“6Allen Edwards, op.cit., 20.

 

91

was .74.27

Coefficients of internal consistency were determined on the sample
of 1509 for the fifteen personality variables. The coefficients, cor-
rected by the Spearman-Brown formula, range from .60 to .87. Further data
on reliability are available and are derived from coefficients of sta-
bility. These data were based on the reSponses of 89 students with a one
week interval between testing and retesting. The coefficients ranged from
.74 to .88.28

Validity data on the EPPS include matching scores with self-rankings
and correlating Q sorts with scores on the EPPS.29 Furthermore, there
has been some investigation of the relationships between the variables
of the inventory and other variables which should theoretically be re-
lated in specified ways. The latter procedure was carried out using the
Guilford-Martin Personnel Inventory and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale.
The correlations were, in general, in the expected directions.3O An in-
teresting study, particularly in terms of the present endeavour, was done
using EPPS variables and self-ratings on these same variables. It was
concluded not only that the EPPS "has satisfactory test-retest reliability"
but also that the EPPS "correlates with self-ratings on the variables

which it purports to measure.31

 

27Ibid., 16.

281bid., 19.

29W. Stephenson, Th§_Study_of Behavior, Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1953, l7-18.

30

 

Allen Edwards, op.cit., 22.

31J. Mann, ”Self-Ratings and the EPPS," Journal of Applied_Psychology,
1958, 42:268.

 

92

Two further studies that are pertinent to validity will be noted
in order to conclude this aspect of the discussion of the EPPS. First,
an attempt was made to correlate the autonomy and deference subscales
with a criterion measure of conformity behavior.32 A sample of fifty
students was used and a group situation was developed for measuring con-
formity behavior. The results are quoted as follows:

The correlation between the conformity scores on the Autonomy

subscale was found to be -.54, significant at the .02 level of

confidence. Therefore, the Autonomy subscale of the EPPS as
described by Edwards is empirically valid with respect to the
criterion of conformity behavior as developed in this study.

The correlation between the conformity scores and the scores

on the Deference subscale was not significant. On the basis

of the criterion measure, conformity behavior, the Deference

subscale does not predict an individual's conformity behavior.

These findings indicate that a person who has a need for De—

ference does not necessarily exhibit an equal need to conform
to group situations.

34 was essentially an attempt at

A final study by Phares and Adams
construct validation of the heterosexuality subscale with males. The
regular scale plus twenty-two buffer items were administered to 170
males at Kansas State University. A series of photographs were classi-
fied as sexual or nonsexual and subjects were asked to rate these on a
five-point scale as to esthetic value. A brief passage dealing with

sexual matters was administered in order to determine the amount of re-

tention of the material. The authors concluded:

 

32D. Gisvold, "A Validity Study of the Autonomy and Deference Sub-
scales of the EPPS," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1958, 22:445-447.

33Ibid., 447.

34E. Phares and C. Adams, "The Construct Validity of the Edwards PPS

Heterosexuality Scale," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1961, 25:341-344.

 

93

In the first case it was found that high PPS males placed a
significantly higher esthetic value on sexual photographs
than did low subjects. In the second study suggestive evi-
dence was found that high subjects exhibit better retention
of sexual material than do low subjects.

Generally, the evidence appears supportive of the construct
validity of the Edwards PPS Heterosexuality Scale.

One of the unique features of the EPPS is that the pairs of state-
ments comprising the items have been matched according to their social
desirability scale values. The statements were scaled for social de-
sirability using the scaling method of successive intervals described

36 The statements from two different variables

by Edwards and Thurstone.
which make up an item were selected such that their social desirability
scale values would be comparable. An interclass correlation of .85 be-
tween the social desirability scale values of the paired statements was
found, thus indicating some promise of minimizing social desirability
as a factor influencing responses to the items.37
Only five need scales, namely dominance, abasement, deference, nur-
turance and succorance, as well as the measure of test consistency were
used in the present study. It seemed reasonable, therefore, to use an
abbreviated version of the EPPS including only those items which were
relevant, and thereby lessen the time required for administration. There

were two basic reasons why the total profile was retained. First, there

is evidence that removing items from the context of a standardized test

 

351bid., 343-344.

36A. Edwards and L. Thurstone, "An Internal Consistency Check for
Scale Values Determined by the Method of Successive Intervals," Psycho-
metrika, 1953, 17:169-180.

37A. Edwards, op.cit., 22-23.

94

like the EPPS may alter the nature of the items and responses to them.38

Second, a measure of test consistency is not available when the format

of the test is abbreviated and only certain items are retained. In this
instance, the latter measure was deemed to be an important variable in
making decisions about the acceptability of profiles for inclusion in the

analysis of data.

The Hypotheses
The null hypotheses are formulated with their respective alternates.
The major hypotheses and the subsidiary hypotheses are as follows:

Null Hypothesis A: High Self-Acceptance ngples

 

Those mates who compose high self-acceptance couples are
not different in their respective need structures.
Alternate A: Those mates who compose high self-acceptance
couples are similar in their respective need structures.

 

Null Hypothesis A.l:
There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need dominance.
Alternate A.l: There is a positive correlation between
mates who compose high self-acceptance couples on the
need dominance.

 

 

Null Hypothesis A.2:
There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need abasement.
Alternate A.2g There is a positive correlation between
mates who compose high self-acceptance couples on the
need abasement.

 

 

Null Hypgghesis A.3:
There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need deference.
Alternate A.3: There is a positive correlation between
mates who compose high self-acceptance couples on the
need deference.

 

 

 

33A. Edwards, C. Wright and c. Lunneborg, "A Note on Social Desir-
ability as a Variable in the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule,"

Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1959, 23:558.

 

Hull

95

Hypothesis A.4:

 

There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need nurturance.
Alternate A.4: There is a positive correlation between

 

mates who compose high self-acceptance couples on the
need nurturance.

Nulleypothesis A.5:

 

There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
high self-acceptance couples on the need succorance.
Alternate A.5: There is a positive correlation between

 

mates who compose high self~acceptance couples on the
need succorance.

Null Hypothesis B: Low Self-Acceptance Copples

 

Null

Those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples are
not different in their respective need structures.
Alternate B: These mates who compose low self-acceptance
couples are complementary in their respective need struc-
tures.

 

Hypothesis B.l:

 

Null

There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples on the need dominance.
Alterggte 3.1: There is a negative correlation between
mates who compose low self-acceptance couples on the
need dominance.

 

Hypothesis B.2:

 

Null

There is a zero correlation between male's need dominance
and female's need abasement in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate B.2: There is a positive correlation between
male's need dominance and female's need abasement in
those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples.

 

Hypothesis B.3:

 

Null

There is a zero correlation between male's need abasement
and female's need dominance in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

.Alternate B.3: There is a positive correlation between
male's need abasement and female's need dominance in
those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples.

Hypothesis B.4:

 

There is a zero correlation between male's need dominance
and female's need deference in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate B.4: There is a positive correlation between
male's need dominance and female's need deference in
those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples.

Null

96

Hypothesis B.5:

 

Null

There is a zero correlation between male's need deference
and female's need dominance in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate B.5: There is a positive correlation between
male's need deference and female's need dominance in
those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples.

 

Hypothesis B.6:

 

Null

There is a zero correlation between mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples on the need nurturance.
Alpggpate BLQ: There is a negative correlation between
mates who compose low self-acceptance couples on the
need nurturance.

Hypothesis B.7:

 

Null

There is a zero correlation between male's need nurturance
and female's need succorance in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate B.7: There is a positive correlation between
male's need nurturance and female's need succorance in
those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples.

 

Hypothesis §;§:

 

Null

Null

There is a zero correlation between male's need succorance
and female's need nurturance in those mates who compose
low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate B.8: There is a positive correlation between
male's need succorance and female's need nurturance in
those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples.

 

Hypothesis C: High and Low Sglf—Accgptance Couplgs
There is no difference in interspousal need structure
between high and low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate C: There is a difference in interSpousal need
structure between high and low self-acceptance couples.

 

Hypothesis C.l:

 

Null

There is no difference between high and low self-acceptance
couples in interspousal need structure on the need domi-
nance.

Alternate C.l: There is a difference between high and low
self-acceptance couples in interSpousal need structure on
the need dominance.

 

Hypothesis C.2:

 

There is no difference between high and low self-acceptance
couples in interSpousal need structure on the need nurtur-
ance.

Alternate_gL2: There is a difference between high and low
self-acceptance couples in interspousal need structure on
the need nurturance.

97

The Statistical Analysis

The basic statistic used in this experiment is the product-moment
correlation coefficient (Pearson r).39 It is used consistently through-
out to test the hypotheses as well as in the attempt to qualify the
validity of the IAV, the basic independent variable instrument. Fur-
thermore, it is used for secondary analysis purposes related to ques~
tions of attraction based upon degree of expressed self-acceptance.
All the correlations, means and standard deviations in this study, with
the exception of measures of central tendency and measures of diSpersion
derived from sample background data, were obtained through the use of

the MISTIC Digital Computer Program K2.4O

'Hetermination of Couple Self-Acceptance

 

As the theory relating to self-acceptance provides no stipulation
about dyadic relationships and is essentially a singular based one, as
well as the fact that the present study deals only with extremes of the
range of self-acceptance, the following procedure is used for purposes
of obtaining a measure of a given couple's degree of expressed self—
acceptance.

Discrepancy scores will be obtained by subtracting the female's
score on the IAV from the male's score on the IAV. All the couples

will then be ranked according to discrepancy scores from positive high

39Quinn McNemar, Psychological Statistics, New York: John Wiley
and Sons, 1955, 118.

 

40MISTIC Digital Computer Program K2 available upon request:
MISTIC Office; Fifth Floor, Electrical Engineering Building, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, Michigan.

98

discrepancy through zero discrepancy to negative high discrepancy.
Twelve per cent of the couples who compose the two extremes will then

be displaced for purposes of further analysis and study. The remainder
M
of the sample will then be ranked, again according to the male's score,‘?)

Mug... --...» ...

 

mull-PP".- "' \ .

 

 

 

from highest to lowest IAV score. The median of this distribution will

u“.

 

then be determined and the total sample will be split at the median.
$1"?

All coupleSVfalling above the median will be considered as high self-
~—

acceptance couples.while all couples below the median will be considered

as low self-acceptance couples. The procedure described above is ada~

41

pted from Farquhar who had a similar problem in selection under- and
over-achievers. A comparison of several techniques indicated, within
the limitations of sample size, that this approach was most expedient
and beneficial. In this instance, two sub-samples are then derived, one

of high self-acceptance couples and the other of low self-acceptance

couples.

Determination of Interspousal Need Structure

 

All the EPPS profiles will be scored first on the consistency
7)?

variable. Scores on the latter are based upon a comparison of the
_-\

number of identical choices made in two sets of the same fifteen items.
If a subject obtains a low consistency score, his profile may be ques-
tioned and thus, his profile as well as that of his Spouse are omitted

for purposes of further analysis in the study. A low consistency score

is one that is less than nine in this study and is in accord with that

41William W. Farquhar, "A Comparison of Techniques Used in Selecting
Under- and Over-Achievers," Michigan State University, undated, (mimeo-
graphed), 25 pages.

99

recommended by Edwards.42

Couples will be arranged on the need scores as stated in the hy-
potheses and ”interSpousal correlations" will be calculated for both
high and low self-acceptance couples. It is important to recognize
that this is essentially a Pearson r. The latter is calculated on
mates' scores and not on the basis of combining at least two scores de-
rived on two different variables for the same individual. The "inter-
spousal correlation" was used by Winch43 and is in keeping with pre-
vious research in this area.

The high and low self-acceptance couples will then be compared and
contrasted, as dictated by major hypothesis C. This will be done by
converting the obtained correlations to 2's in the manner described by
McNemar.44 This procedure is essentially a test for significance be-
tween two r's.

It was decided that a p of .05 was necessary for rejection of the

null hypotheses.

Qualification of Validipy

 

In order to qualify the validity of the IAV as an instrument for
measuring self-acceptance, comparable scores obtained from the EAOS will
be correlated with those obtained on the IAV. The correlating will be

done on the basis of the total sample as well as the two sub-samples.

 

 

42A11en Edwards, op.ci£., 15-16.

43Robert Winch, Mate Selection, New York: Harper and Bros., 1958,
111-116.

 

4(“Quinn McNemar, op.cit., 148.

100

Pearson r's will be the statistic used in each test.

Operational Definitions

For purposes of both clarity and measurement, the following are the

operational definitions of this study:

k

Degree of expressed self-acceptance: score obtained on column
II measuring self-acceptance on the IAV.

High self-acceptance couple: a couple who are not widely dis-
crepant in self-acceptance scores and in whom the male's self-
acceptance score lies above the median of the total sample
distribution after the removal of twenty-four per cent of the
most discrepant couples.

Low self-acceptance couple: a couple who are not widely dis-
crepant in self-acceptance scores and in whom the male's self-
acceptance score lies below the median of the total sample
distribution after the removal of twenty-four per cent of the
most discrepant couples.

Interspousal need structure: the product-moment correlation
coefficient of males' and females' scores on pairs of needs.

The needs to be examined in this study are:

Dominance (dom): to argue for one's point of view, to be a
leader in groups to which one belongs, to be regarded by
others as a leader, to be elected or appointed chairman of
Committees, to make group decisions, to settle arguments and
disputes between others, to persuade and influence others to
do what one wants, to supervise and direct the actions of
others, to tell others how to do their jobs.

Abasement (aba): to feel guilty when one does something
wrong, to accept blame when things do not go right, to feel
that personal pain and misery suffered does more good than
harm, to feel the need for punishment for wrong doing, to
feel better when giving in and avoiding a fight than when
having one's own way, to feel the need for confession of
errors, to feel depressed by inability to handle situations,
to feel timid in the presence of superiors, to feel infer-
ior to others in most respects.

Deference (def): to get suggestions from others, to find
out what others think, to follow instructions and do what is
expected, to praise others, to tell others that they have
done a good job, to accept the leadership of others, to

read about great men, to conform to custom and avoid the
unconventional, to let others make decisions.

101

Nurturance (nur): to help friends when they are in trouble,

to assist others less fortunate, to treat others with kind-

ness and sympathy, to forgive others, to do small favors for

others, to be generous with others, to sympathize with others

who are hurt or sick, to show a great deal of affection toward
others, to have others confide in one about personal problems.

Succorance (sue): to have others provide help when in trouble,

to seek encouragement from others, to have others be kindly,

to have others be sympathetic and understanding about personal

problems, to receive a great deal of affection from others, to

have others do favors cheerfully, to be helped by others when
depressed, to have others feel sorry when one is sick, to have

a fuss made over one when hurt.

Summary

The independent variables of the study are high and low self-
acceptance and the dependent variable is interspousal need structure.
Several sources of extraneous variance were cited as well as attempts
to control these through specific procedures in sampling and the col-
lection of data.

The instruments of the study were then listed and described in
detail with reference to develOpment, normative data, administration,
reliability and validity. The Index of Adjustment and Values is the
basic instrument for the measurement of self-acceptance. The Berger
Scale of Expressed Acceptance of Self was also described as it is to
be used for the purpose of qualifying the validity of the former instru-
ment. Problems associated with the use of discrepancy scores in self-
acceptance instruments were discussed. Both of the instruments in this

study are purported to measure self-acceptance directly. The Edwards

Personal Preference Schedule, which is used to assess manifest needs,

 

45

Allen Edwards, op.cit., ll

102

was then described.

The null hypotheses and their alternates were stated. The statis-
tical analysis of the data was elaborated upon to include the determina-
tion of couple self-acceptance, interSpousal need structure and quali-
fication of the validity of the self-acceptance measure. A p of .05
was required to reject the null hypotheses and this level was chosen

prior to analysis of results.

CHAPTER IV

PROCEDURES AND DATA COLLECTION

The selection of the subjects is described in this chapter. There
follows a discussion of the administration of instruments used in data

collection and a detailed outline of the sample characteristics.

The Selection of Subjects

Michigan State University owns and Operates married housing facili-
ties for students. The male must be a student in order that a couple
can reside in these facilities. Both one and two bedroom apartments
are available. A couple must have at least one child to be eligible
for the latter. Because the population of this study was childless
couples only, locating potential couples for research included obtain-
ing the names of students dwelling in one bedroom units. This was ac-
complished by checking the card files in the Housing Assignment Office.

There are 1052 one bedroom apartments which are distributed among
three general living areas; the latter are referred to as villages.
The card file provided no information about the length of time a couple
had been married or whether or not they had a child. However, in cer-
tain cases individuals could be deleted from the sample because it was
apparent that a couple had been married for more than one year because
of the date of assignment of the apartment. Furthermore, information re-
garding home address was available on the file cards and 63 couples were
not placed on the list of potential couples where it was obvious, from the

home address, that at least one of the mates was foreign born. The

103

104

listing was begun as of March 26, 1962 and was completed on May 1, 1962
in order to allow for the inclusion of couples who had moved into mar—
ried housing in the interim. The final list, after ignoring couples
who had obviously been married over one year as well as those where at
least one mate was foreign born, consisted of 614 couples who became
the potential population of the study. It is to be noted that many
married students live in houses, cooperatively and privately owned apart-
ments, and trailer courts. However, the task of locating and contacting
these couples within the Spring term would have been insurmountable.

From the population list of 614 couples, 210 were then selected as
the sample for purposes of research according to the table of random
numbers. The smaller total may seem arbitrary, but at least two basic
factors were taken into account in establishing a manageable figure.
First, the length of time during which data could be obtained was limi-
ted to approximately one month. There were two basic reasons for this
restriction. It was assumed that toward the end of the school quarter,
students would become involved with studying for and writing final
exams and would not be inclined to cooperate in the provision of data.
Furthermore, once the quarter is over, many students leave for summer
vacation and the source of potential respondents is thereby lessened.
Secondly because the scheduling of appointments and the administration
of instruments were all done by the researcher, and these processes
were extremely time consuming, the 210 size sample was within a reason-
able range of closure.

A letter (see Appendix D) was then mailed to each of the 210 couples

in order to enlist their cooperation. The letter stated that the purpose

105

of the study was to obtain information about the kinds of people who

had been married recently. Furthermore, the promise was made that a
summary of the conclusions (see Abstract of thesis) would be forwarded
at a later date to those couples who were willing to cooperate. Tele-
phone calls were made to each of the couples within two days after the
mailing of the letters. The statements of the letter were reinforced,
particularly with reference to anonymity, and appointments were scheduled.
As a result of the latter process, it was determined that 54 couples had
been married more than one year, 14 couples had a child although they
had been married less than one year and 23 couples refused to cooperate
in the study. There remained 119 of the 142 couples who met the re-

strictions placed on the sample (83.8%).

The Administration of Instruments

Appointments were scheduled for the 119 couples. The researcher
was present during the administration of instruments to the first six
couples. However, the time required to respond to the instruments was
approximately two hours, and because the instruments were of the self-
administering variety, it appeared logical to leave the forms with
couples while other couples could be seen simultaneously. The proce-
dure then was to deliver the instruments, request that the couple com-
plete the forms independently of each other and then return to collect
the completed forms within a period of two hours after delivery. The
average time required to respond was approximately two and one-quarter
hours. Cross consultation was quite improbable, if only from the view-

point of the time factor alone. Because every male was a student and

106

was thus occupied during the day, all the data collection took place

during evenings and weekends. A complete unit of material was delivered
to each couple. The package contained one copy of each of the Background
Information Questionnaire, the IAV, the EAOS and the EPPS for every hus-

band and every wife, plus some machine scoring pencils.

The Sample Characteristics

After initial screening of answer sheets, it was apparent that
some of the data would have to be omitted for purposes of further study.
By comparing date of marriage with expectancy date because of pregnancy,
as derived from the Background Information Questionnaire, it was found
that six couples acknowledged the fact that the female was pregnant
prior to the time of marriage. Furthermore, the profiles obtained from
three couples were incomplete. In these cases, there was evidence of
deliberate distortion, exemplified by responding in a sarcastic manner
to the questions pertaining to background information, or merely by not
responding to all of the items. Finally, after all the EPPS profiles
were scored for the consistency variable, there were eight couples
wherein one or both of the individuals obtained a consistency score of
less than nine. It was because of these reasons that the profiles of
the above 17 couples were considered inappropriate for inclusion in fur-
ther analysis. Thus the sample, prior to further delineation, consisted

of 102 couples (71.83%).

Sample Identification

 

Starting with the sample of 102 couples, each wife's score on the

IAV was subtracted from her husband's. The mates' discrepancy scores

107

were then ranked for the 102 couples and rank difference scores were
listed. Because the procedure for further delineation is described in
Chapter v, it will suffice at this point to note that the most discrepant
couples were then omitted. As a result of this procedure, 75 couples
were left for purposes of hypothesis testing. These couples were then
further divided into two sub-samples of high and low self-acceptance
couples. The former consisted of 38 couples and the latter of 37 cou-
ples. The description that follows is based upon the background data
that were obtained from the 75 couples.

The mean age for males was 23.147 and the mean age for females was
21.333 at the time of data collection. The mean age was 22.52 and 20.693
for males and females respectively at the time of marriage. A further

elaboration of these data is presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. Age and Age at Marriagg for the Sample

 

 

 

 

Age Agg at Marriage
__ __ Male Female Male Female
Range 19-30 17-29 19-29 17-28
Mean 23.147 21.333 22.520 20.693
SD 2.296 2.081 2.283 2.033
Median 23.000 21.000 22.000 21.000
Mode 22.000 22.000 21.000 21.000
N 75 75 75 75

 

In reference to religious affiliation, the most frequent choice

for males was Methodist, with 21 per cent of the male sample indicating

this preference.

Forty per cent of Unafemalesample were equally die

vided between Catholic and Methodist.

When the couples were compared

on religious affiliation, 23 or almost 31 per cent of the sample, were

108

composed of husbands and wives who indicated different religious pre-
ferences. This figure would seem to exceed the logic of chance, if only
from a cultural point of view, and raises some question in regard to ho-
mogamy of religious affiliation. A more concise distribution of religious

affiliation is indicated in Table 4.2.

Téble 4.2. Distribution According to Religious Affiliation

 

 

 

 

Preference Male Per Cent Female Per Cent
Presbyterian 11 14.67 13 17.33
Catholic 15 20.00 15 20.00
Methodist 16 21.33 15 20.00
Jewish 2 2.67 2 2.67
Baptist 2 2.67 2 2.67
Episcopalian 4 5.33 2 2.67
Lutheran 8 10.67 10 13.33
Congregational 7 9.33 7 9.33
Evangelical United 1 1.33 4 5.33
Christian Reform 1 1.33 l 1.33
Unitarian l 1.33 O 0.00
Atheist l 1.33 O 0.00
Agnostic 4 5.33 2 2.67
No preference 2 2.67 2 2.67
Total 75 100.00 75 100.00

 

As was previously noted, all the males in the sample were students.
Twenty-six of the men were graduate students. The next highest fre-
quency for any academic level was the 24 seniors. The various academic
levels for the males and the 17 females who were students: are summarized

in Table 4.3.

109

Table 4.3. Academic Levels of Male aHd_Female Students

 

Hgig Per Cent ‘Egpglg Per Cent
Freshman 1 1.33 2 11.76
Sophomore 7 9.33 0 0.00
Junior 17 22.67 3 17.65
Senior 24 32.00 11 64.71
Graduate 26 34.67 1 5.88
Total 75 100.00 17

100.00

A total of 58 of the wives, or 77 per cent of the sample, were
employed. Under this category are included 15 housewives, 15 secre-
taries, 13 clerical workers, 10 teachers and 5 nurses. The distribu-

tion of last school grade completed for these women is found in Table

4.4.

.1391? 4.4. Last School Grade Completed of Employgd Wives

 

 

 

 

Grade Level Npmpgp .£§£_QEEE
Grade ten 1 1.72
Grade eleven 1 1.72
Grade twelve 21 3 .20
College freshmen 12 20.69
College sophomore 2 3.45
College junior 2 3.45
College senior 18 31.03
Graduate school 1 1.72
Total 58 100.00

In Table 4.5 is found a distribution according to major field of
study for the males and the iemales who were students at the time of

the study.

110

Tablg 4.5. Major Field of_§tudy

 

 

Male _Her Cent Egmgig Per CEEE
Business 16 21.33 1 5.89
Education 13 17.33 9 52.94
Social Work 1 1.33 - -
Veterinary Medicine 1 1.33 - -
Social Science 7 9.33 - -
Mathematics 1 1.33 - -
Science 14 18.67 17.65
Industrial Arts 1 1.33 -
Agriculture 5 6.67 - -
Radio and TV 4 5.33 - -
Engineering 7 9.33 - -
Psychology 3 4.00 -
Restaurant Management 2 2.66 - -
Home Economics - - 2 11.67
No preference - - 1 5.89
Music - - l 5.89
Total 75 100.00 17 100.00

 

There was large variation found when the length of courtship was

analyzed. Some spouses had obviously known each other even prior to

high school days whereas others had met while at least one of the

spouses was at the college level.

In reporting the place where one had

first met his Spouse, there was one hundred per cent agreement between

spouses"responses.

in Table 4.6.

The distribution of first meeting place is found

 

Table 4.6. Distribution According to First Meeting Place

 

 

Meeting Plagg Number Per_§gp£
School 39 52.00
Blind date 12 16.00
Party 5 6.67
Church 7 9.33
Home town 6 8.00
Vacation 6 8.00
Total 75 100.00

 

 

111

The distribution of length of courtship, engagement and marriage
is given in Table 4.7. It is evident that most of these couples did

not rush into marriage.

Table 4.7. Length of Courtship,_§ngagement and Marriagg in Months

 

 

Courtship gmgagement Harriagg
Range 1-84 0-36 1-11
Mean 21.253 7.253 7.667
SD 16.695 6.171 2.729
Median 18.000 6.000 8.000
Mode 36.000 9.000 8.000
N 75 75 75

 

One of the items on the Background Information Questionnaire was
designed to elicit information about whether or not parental approval
of the marriage existed. It could be speculated that parental approval
is not forthcoming when a couple have known each other only for a brief
period of time. Seventy of the 75 males reported that either one or
both parents sanctioned their marriage prior to the actual time of _
marriage. Sixty-eight of the females reported a similar situation re-
lative to their parents. However, after the marriages had taken place,
74 couples,or 99 per cent of the sample, reported that both parents of
both husband and wife had given their approval to these marriages.

In most cases both parents of the sample subjects were native to
the United States. Sixty-five of the male respondents indicated that
both of their parents were born in the United States. This figure re-
presents approximately 87 per cent of the male sample. In approximately
nine per cent and four per cent of the cases one parent and neither

parent respectively were born in this country. The corresponding

112

distribution for females was: approximately 85 per cent of the parents
were both born in the United States; in approximately 11 per cent of

the sample one parent was native born; and in four per cent of the cases
neither parent was born in this country. Although these figures re-
present an approximate indication, it could be speculated that mate se-
lection practices, at least as derived from general parental influence,
were in keeping with normative behavioral concomitants of western so-
ciety.

The breakdown of the sample according to home state affords the
indication that whereas most of the respondents came from the state of
Michigan, the remainder were spread, in this respect, across the country.
When the couples were matched according to home state, it was found
that 59 or almost 79 per cent of the sample had the same home state.

The distribution relative to home state is summarized in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8. Distribution of Sample According to Home State

 

 

Male Per Cent _§gmglg Pg£_ggp§

Michigan 48 64.00 54 72.00
New York 7 9.33 4 5.33
Ohio 3 4.00 4 5.33
North Carolina 2 2.67 l 1.33
Minnesota 1 1.33 1 1.33
Pennsylvania 1 1.33 1 1.33
Massachusetts 2 2.67 2 2.67
Texas 1 1.33 2 2.67
Indiana 1 1.33 2 2.67
Iowa 1 1.33 l 1.33
Illinois 2 2.67 1 1.33
Kansas 1 1.33 - -

Wisconsin 2 2.67 - -

New Jersey 1 1.33 - -

Washington 1 1.33 - -

Oregon - - l 1.33
Idaho 1 1.33 - -

Montana - - l 1.33
Total 75 100.00 75 100.00

 

113

Two further characteristics of the sample were analyzed. These
were type of home community and father's occupation. The highest per-
centage of both males and females came from large cities, these defined
as having a population of more than fifty thousand. The next highest
corresponding percentage came from small cities. The specific distri-

bution is illustrated in Table 4.9. The differences between males and

Table 4.9. Sample Distribution According to Type of Home 09mmunipy_

 

 

Male Per Cent Epmale Per Cepp

 

Large city (more than 50,003) 32 42.67 28 37.33
Small city (less than 50,000) 20 26.67 25 33.33
Small town (less than 2,500) 14 18.67 13 17.33
Country (farm) 9 12.00 9 12.00
Total 75 100.00 75 100.00

__ ,_.._.

females were greater, however, when comparisons were made between re-
spective fathers' occupations. In Table 4.10 the classification ac-

cording to occupations is presented. There seems to be a slight ten-
dency toward upward mobility of females, if occupational level of the

father is used as a criterion of socio-economic class.

Table 4LLQL__§ample Distribution According to Father's Occupation

 

 

 

Male Per Cent Fgmglg Per Cent
Business owner 16 21.33 12 16.00
Professional 5 6.67 3 4.00
White collar 7 9.33 12 16.00
Farm owner 8 10.67 9 12.00
Teacher 3 4.00 2 ~ 2.67
Skilled labor 7 9.33 14 18.67
Semi-skilled 13 17.33 7 9.33
Public service 2 2.67 3 4.00
Executive or managerial 13 17.33 10 13.33
Deceased 1 1.33 3 4.00
Total 75 100.00 75 100.00

 

 

114

Several additional discernable features are apparent as a result
of the analysis of background information. All the males were students
at the time of their decision to marry. This factor would then dispel

"marriages of

the existence of extraneous variance as derived from
practicality", not withstanding the notion of choosing a wife for pur-
poses of assisting the male with the completion of his studies, if only
from a financial point of view. In addition, these couples seem to in-
dicate homogamous trends when sociological variables are examined. Most
spouses knew each other for almost two years prior to the time of mar-
riage. There was no great dispersion also in type of home community.
Furthermore, the concept of propinquity seems to be supported as the
majority of the individuals who composed the couples had the same home
state. The only possible exception for homogamy was that of religious

affiliation and since almost 31 per cent of the couples indicated mixed

religious choice, the trend is not a strong one.

Summary

The procedure for selection of subjects was outlined. Married
couples residing in housing facilities provided by Michigan State Univ-
ersity were considered eligible for study purposes if they were child-
less, married less than one year and born in the United States. There
were 614 couples who fit these criteria on the basis of the initial
information that was available. Two hundred and ten of this group were
selected as the study sample according to the table of random numbers.
However, as a result of telephone calls made to these couples, it was

determined that 119 of those who had met the restrictions placed on the

115

sample were willing to cooperate in the study. Additional sample reduc-
tion then followed due to incomplete profiles, low scores on the EPPS
consistency variable and acknowledgement of pregnancy prior to marriage.
The remaining 102 couples consisted of spouses who were widely discrepant
in self-acceptance scores and the omission of the latter resulted in 75
couples for purposes of hypothesis testing.

The major portion of Chapter IV consisted of a description of sam-
ple characteristics. The males and females were approximately 23 and 21
years old respectively. Although the 75 couples represented many differ-
ent religious affiliations, a comparison revealed that almost 31 per
cent of the sample was composed of spouses who indicated different reli-
gious preferences. All the males and 17 of the females were students,
whereas the other 58 females functioned as housewives or were employed.
The range of last school grade completed for the latter was limited in
contrast to that for males. The distribution according to major field of
study was consequently a broader one for males than for females and the
highest frequency in this respect was found in business for males and
education for females.

Large variation was found again when length of courtship was ana-
lyzed. The mean length of time for courtship, engagement and marriage
was 21.253, 7.253 and 7.667 months respectively. Although parental ap-
proval of these marriages did not exist in all cases prior to the time
of marriage, 99 per cent of the sample reported that both parents of
both spouses had subsequently condoned the marriages. Most parents of
the sample subjects were native to the United States. The sample was
predominantly from the state of Michigan whereas the remainder came

from a variety of states across the country. Almost 79 per cent of

116

the Spouses had the same home State. The highest percentage of both
sexes came from large cities. A final sample characteristic was father's
occupation. As a result of the distribution according to the latter, it
was evident that 1) wide variation existed and 2) there was a slight
tendency toward upward mobility of females. With the possible excep-
tion of religious affiliation, when all the above variables are examined,

there is a tendency toward homogamy.

CHAPTER V
ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

In the first section of Chapter V the sub-samples are delineated.
There follows an elaboration of the analysis of the data, with specific
reference mainterspousal need structure. The chapter is concluded with
the secondary analysis of the data as derived from measures of self—
acceptance, their distributions, their relationship pertaining to males

and females, and the validity of the independent variables' instrument.

Delineation of Sub-Samples

A total of 119 couples c00perated in the Study. After 17 couples
had been omitted for purposes of further study because of incomplete
profiles, pregnancy prior to the time of marriage and low consistency
scores on the EPPS, 102 remained. Using the male's score on the IAV
as a base, the wives' scores were subtracted from their husbands' with
the result that discrepancy scores were obtained for every couple. The
latter scores ranged from 81 to -76. The mean IAV score for males was
not Significantly different from the mean score of the normative IAV
sample. The mean IAV score for females was also not Significantly dif-
ferent from the mean score of the normative IAV sample. The distribu~
tion of scores is illustrated in Table 5.1. It is to be noted, however,

that the normative sample scores are combined to include both sexes.

117

118

Table 5L1. Analysis of IAV Scores Based_gpylnitial Sample

 

 

 

 

 

 

Male Femalg Qipcrepangy’ Normative Sgpplgl
Range . 112 to 235 91 to 224 81 to -76 81 to 245
M3an 184.890 177.740 20.873 171.86
SD 21.644 23.368 17.630 24.77
Median 184.738 179.000 16.167 -
Mode 184.000 174.000 1.000 -
N 102 102 102 1728

 

The discrepancy scores were ranked according to the manner in which
the process was described in the design of the study. Because there was
a three-way tie for the rank of 12 in positive high discrepancy on the
rank difference scores, the top 14 couples were identified and their pro-
files omitted for further study. In identifying the bottom 12 couples on
the rank difference scores, it was found that there was a tie for the
rank of 90 and thus the bottom 13 couples were noted and their profiles
were likewise omitted. The result of this process was that 75 couples
were left after the first delineation and these couples composed the
basic sample of the study.

The IAV scores for the 75 couples were then tabulated and analyzed.
Some interesting features of these data, in contrast to the analysis of
the original sample of 102 couples, were that the male mean score had
not appreciably altered, whereas there was a sharp increase in the fe-
male mean score. The variability of the scores had altered also to the
extent that there was little distinction between that of the male and

and female distributions. Furthermore, and as was expected because of

__ __ _‘_ ‘—
_— _-— -—,

1R. E. Bills, Index of Adjustment and Values, Manual, Auburn, Ala-

bama: Alabama Polytechnic Institute, undated, (mimeographed), 36-37.

 

119

the delineation process, the mean and variance of the discrepancy scores
were reduced by almost one-half when contrasted to the sample of 102

couples. In Table 5.2 are illustrated the respective distributions.

Table 5.2. Analysis of IAV Scores AlpepyDelineation

 

 

 

Male .Eemale Discrepangy
Range 155 to 227 134 to 218 34 to -20
Mean 185./00 183.033 12.120
SD 17.347 16.874 8.392
Median 185.330 181.700 11.530
Mode ' 184.000 191 and 175 1.000
N 75 75 75

As outlined in the design of the study, a final delineation was
then necessary. Because the median of the male IAV scores was 185.33,
the split was made at that point in the distribution where the score
was 185. The number of couples above and below the median was 38 and
37 respectively. These were accordingly defined as high and low self-
acceptance couples. The analysis of the IAV data from the sub-samples

is illustrated in Tables 5.3 and 5.4. Notably there is a minimal

Table 5.3. Analysis of IAV Scores for_High SelfZAcceptangg_Couple§___

 

.___Ma 1 e Bengals Bieeweeeex
Range 187 to 227 167 to 218 34 to -13
Mean 199.632 189.634 12.842
SD 10.627 7.210 8.604
Median 198.250 189.500 12.030
Mode 187 and 191 182.000 12.000

N 38 38 38

-—— *

 

 

 

120

‘Table 5.4. Analysis of IAV Scores for Low Self-Acceptapgngouples

 

Male Female Discrepancy
Range 155 to 185 134 to 204 34 to -20
Mean 171.514 170.987 11.378
SD 8.930 15.713 8.220
Median 173.417 170.060 11.063
Mode 178.000 164.000 2.000
N ' 37 37 37

__ —— -"#”

difference in mean discrepancy scores for the high and low self-

acceptance couples and, in fact, the mean scores are highly similar to the
mean score for the combined 75 couples. The mean IAV scores for males and
females in high self-acceptance couples represent at least a ten point dif-
fbrence. When the same statistics are compared for low self-acceptance cou-
ples, the difference is found to be minimal. This point and concomitant mat-
ters, however, will be elaborated upon under the heading "Secondary Analysis",

as they are not directly pertinent to the testing of hypotheses.

Analysis of the Data
A restatement of the hypotheses in both the null and alternate

forms is found prior to each of the three major tests.

High Self-Acceptance Data

 

Null Hypothesis A: High Self-Accgptance Copples
Those mates who compose high self-acceptance couples are
not different in their respective need structures.
.Alternate A: Those mates who compose high self-acceptance
couples are Similar in their respective need structures.

 

In order to test this hypothesis, the need scores obtained by mates
who compose high self-acceptance couples are correlated in the following

manner:

121

l. male's need dominance - female's need dominance.
2. male's need abasement - female's need abasement.

female's need deference.

3. male's need deference

4. male's need nurturance - female's need nurturance.

5. male's need succorance - female's need succorance.

All the interSpousal correlations were in the predicted direction.
Furthermore, three of the five correlations are statistically signifi-
cant, two at the .05 level and one at the .01 level. The variables
that were correlated and the resulting correlations are found in Table
5.5. The only correlations that resulted in acceptance of the null hy-
potheses were those obtained from the needs abasement and deference.
Otherwise, the null hypotheses are rejected when scores on the other
three pairs of variables are correlated. Thus, it appears that although
mates who composed high self-acceptance couples tended to be generally
similar in their respective need structures, the evidence as found in
this pilot study is not conclusive to this effect.

Table 5.5. Interspousal Correlations for Various Sub-Scales on the

Edwards Personal Preference Schedule for High Self-
Acceptance Cogples

 

 

Variables Correlated Predicted direction 3
Male dominance-female dominance + +.323*
Male abasement-female abasement + +.293
Male deference-female deference + +.301
Male nurturance-female nurturance + +.459**
Male succorance-female succorance + +.325*

 

*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level

When a comparison is made using the male and female scores on the

various needs, it is apparent that there are significant mean score

122

differences on two of the five need variables. However, it is to be
noted that Significant differences exist also when the male and female
EPPS normative group scores are compared and, in fact, these differences
were found on all five variables. In the sub-sample women scored high-
er on succorance and abasement. There were no differences between men
and women on the needs deference, dominance and nurturance. In Table
5.6 are illustrated these comparisons.

Table 5.6. A Comparison of Means and Standard Deviations Between

Males and Females in High Self-Acceptance Couples for
Various Sub-Scales on the Edwards Personal Preference

 

 

 

 

 

Schedule __
§2 Means p

'Vagiable Male Female Mglg Female

Deference 3.63 3.91 12.01. 12.95. 1.08
Succorance 4.68 4.87 10.63 13.66* 2.71
Dominance 5.17 4.34 15.02 14.01 .92
Abasement 4.52 5.10 12.04 15.98* 3.56
Nurturance 4.12 5.21 13.98 15.08 1.02
N 38 38

*This mean is significantly larger at p .01 than the corresponding
mean for the opposite sex.

Low Sglf-Acceptance Data

 

Null Hypothggis B: Low Self-Acggptance Cgpples
Those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples are
not different in their respective need Structures.
‘Alternate_H: Those mates who compose low self-acceptance
couples are complementary in their respective need struc-
tures.

In order to test this hypothesis, the need scores obtained by
mates who compose low self-acceptance couples are correlated in the
at

following manner.

1. male's need dominance - female's need dominance.

123

2. male's need dominance - female's need abasement.

3. male's need abasement - female's need dominance.

4. male's need dominance - female's need deference.

5. male's need deference - female's need dominance.

6. male's need nurturance - female's need nurturance.

7. male's need nurturance - female's need succorance.

8. male's need succorance - female's need nurturance.

All the interspousal correlations were in the predicted direction.
Furthermore, six of the eight correlations are statistically signifi-
cant, three at the .05 level and three at the .01 level. The variables
that were correlated and the resulting correlations are found in Table
5.7. The only correlations that resulted in acceptance of the null hy-
potheses were those obtained from Spouses' scores on the needs dominance
and deference.

Table 5.7. Interspousal Correlations for Various Sub-Scales on the

Edwards Personal Preference Schedule for Low Self-
Accgptance_§opples.

 

 

 

Variables Correlated Predicted direction E

Male dominance-female dominance - -.330*
Male dominance-female abasement + +.318
Female dominance-male abasement + +.312
Male deference-female dominance . + +.338*
Female deference-male dominance + +.327*
Male nurturance-female nurturance - -.501**
Male nurturance-female succorance + +.453**
Female nurturance-male succorance + +.512**

 

7"‘Significant at .05 level.

“KSignificant at .01 level.

Both type I complementariness hypotheses were supported. Four of

the six type II complementariness hypotheses were supported. Thus,

124

from this pilot study it appeared that mates who composed low self-
acceptance couples were complementary in their respective need struc-
tureS.

It is interesting to note that of the obtained correlations, both
for high and low self-acceptance couples, those based upon the needs
nurturance and succorance are highest in the degree of relationship
between spouses. Relative to low self-acceptance couples and indica-
tions of complementarity in particular, these findings suggested that
the nurturant-receptive dimension may be even more important than the
dominant-submissive components in interSpousal need satisfaction.

When a comparison is made using the male and female scores on
the various needs, it is apparent that there is a significant mean
score difference on one of the five need variables. Again, however,
significant differences between male and female scores are found on
all five variables when the respective comparisons are made with the
EPPS normative sample. In the sub-sample, women scored higher on nure
turance. No differences are discernable between mean scores for fe-
males and males on the needs deference, succorance, dominance and

abasement. In Table 5.8 are illustrated these comparisons.

125

 

 

Table 5.8. A Comparison of Means and Standard Deviations Between
Males and Females in Low Self-Acceptance Couples for
Various Sub-Scales on the Edwards Personal Preference
___ Schedule
EE§E§ 5
Variable Malg Hgmale Mglg_ figmglg
Deference 3.98 3.98 11.92 13.62 1.29
Succorance 5.19 3.89 11.46 11.98 1.54
Dominance 5.51 3.93 18.64 13.01 1.60
Abasement 4.01 5.14 11.62 12.34 .21
Nurturance 3.94 4.96 13.49 17.83*

4.25

 

*This mean is significantly larger at p .001 than the correspond-

ing mean for the opposite sex.

High and Low Self-Accgptance Data

 

Null

Hypothesis C:

High and Low Self-Acggptance Coupleg.
There is no difference in interspousal need structure

between high and low self-acceptance couples.

Alternate C:

 

couples.

There is a difference in interspousal
need structure between high and low self-acceptance

In order to test this hypothesis, the differences in interspousal

correlations between high and low self-acceptance couples are obtained

in the following manner:

1. high self-acceptance couples' interspousal need dominance -

low self-acceptance couples' interspousal need dominance.

2. high self-acceptance couples' interspousal need nurturance -
\\\\J low self-acceptance couples' interspousal need nurturance.

The correlation for high self-acceptance couples on dominance was

.323; the same correlation obtained from low self-acceptance couples

was -.330.

The null hypothesis was accepted and it was concluded that

there is no difference in interSpousal need structure between high and

low self-acceptance couples on the need dominance.

.2 §..

Sample Mean SD

126

The correlation for high self-acceptance couples on nurturance was
.459; the same correlation obtained from low self-acceptance couples
was -.501. The difference between the correlations when transformed to
2'3 and taken relative to the standard error of the difference between
the two z's provided a z of 1.76. The null hypothesis was therefore
rejected. It was concluded from this pilot study that there was a dif-
ference in interspousal need structure between high and low self-

acceptance couples on the need nurturance.

Secondary,Analysis

In order to qualify the validity of the IAV as an instrument for

measuring self-acceptance, comparable scores were obtained on the EAOS.

The analyses of the scores obtained by the various samples are found in

Table 5.9. When the male and female mean scores are compared according

Table 5.9i_‘Cgmparison of Distributions of EAOS Scores

 

 

Initial male sample of 102 151.27 14.55
Initial female sample of 102 145.87 18.04
Delineated male sample of 75 152.10 13.04
Delineated female sample of 75 148.50 14.78
Male Sub-sample of 38 156.87 10.26
Female sub-sample of 38 154.11 12.07
Male sub-sample of 37 146.87 14.27
Female sub-sample of 37 143.42 15.47

 

/

to respective sample sizes, the only significant difference between
scores is for that obtained between the initial male sample of 102 and
the female counterpart, this difference being significant at the .05
level of confidence. It appears that mean score differences are not

apparent once the initial sample is delineated with the omission of

127

highly discrepant couples and sub-divided into sub-samples of high and
low self-acceptance couples.

When the same procedure is employed, only using the scores obtained
on the IAV, a somewhat different picture is in evidence. The comparisons
are illustrated in Table 5.10. Not only is there a difference in mean
scores between males and females in the initial sample which is signi-
ficant at the .05 level of confidence, but also there is a difference
between male and female scores in high self-acceptance couples, this

difference being significant at the .0001 level of confidence. In

Table 5.10. Comparison of Distributions of IAV Scores

 

_S_a_e__m 18 has §.12

Initial male sample of 102 184.89 21.64
Initial female sample of 102 177.74 23.37
Delineated male sample of 75 185.70 17.35
Delineated female sample of 75 183.03 16.87
Male sub-sample of 38 199.63 10.63
Female sub-sample of 38 189.63 7.21
Male sub-sample of 37 171.51 8.93
Female sub-sample of 37 170.99 15.71

 

contrast, the most negligible difference between male and female mean
scores is found between those persons who compose low self-acceptance
couples.y It could be inferred, then, that there may be mutual attrac-
tion between low self-acceptance persons whereas this comparison is
not evidenced in high self-acceptance couples. In addition, Since
these findings suggest the fact that low self-acceptance persons are
married to low self-acceptance Spouses, as well as the fact that cou-
ples seem to indicate complementary need structures, the interaction

patterns of these couples may indeed be neurotic in nature, as has been

128

hypothesized in some of the mate selection theory. Furthermore, it is
of interest to note, regardless of sample considered, that the mean
male scores as derived from both the IAV and the EAOS are all higher
than the corresponding mean scores for females. ‘It does not seem un-
reasonable to deduce that males were more self-accepting than females,
granting the defensive possibilities which are inherent in these ex-
pressions. Coincidentally, the latter finding is of particular impor-
tance in view of a basic theoretical premise that was stated at the
onset. It was suggested that persons who are high in acceptance of
self could indicate much variation in their choices of mates, peers
and the like whereas those who are low in self-acceptance would tend
to make person choices on the basis of how the latter would presumably
provide sources of completion of self for the former.

The tendency for attraction based upon degree of expressed self-
acceptance can be viewed also by determining the degree of relationship
between mates by correlating their respective scores. This procedure
was conducted on the initial sample as well as the sample after delinea-
tion and the correlations based upon the IAV and the EAOS scores are

reported in Tables 5.11 and 5.12 respectively.

Table 5.11. The Relationship of Male and Female IAV Scppes

Sample 3

Initial sample of 102 .082
Delineated sample of 75 .230
Sub-sample of 38 .220
Sub-sample of 37 .434:

 

*Significant at .01 level

129

Table 5.12. The Relationship of Male and Female EAOSySgores

 

Sample 3
Initial sample of 102 .103
Delineated sample of 75 .223
Sub-sample of 38 .314
Sub-sample of 37 .502*

 

*Significant at .01 level

Again, it is to be noted that there is a high degree of relation-
ship between males and females who composed low self-acceptance couples,
as evidenced by correlating spouses' scores obtained both on the IAV and
the EAOS. Otherwise, no Significant relationships are found. The re-
sults are as would be expected for the initial sample of 102 couples,
particularly because of the fact that this sample consisted of couples
within whom the mates were widely discrepant in their scores on self-
acceptance. Additional evidence is found in that the correlations
tend to increase when the latter are obtained on the delineated sample
of 75 couples. The correlation between spouses who composed high self-
acceptance couples was higher when the EAOS scores were used in contrast
to those obtained on the IAV. Neither of the correlations, hpwever,
are large enough to have occurred beyond chance expectation. The latter
analysis provides an additional indication that high self-acceptance
individuals make person choices on an inconsistent basis. However,
these findings too must be considered tentative until cross validation
is possible and present conclusions are therefore drawn within the re-
strictions of a pilot study.

Scores on the IAV and the EAOS were correlated. The latter instru-

ment served as a check on the validity of the former. Reference to

130

Table 5.13 indicates, irrespective of sample size, that correlating in-

dividuals' scores on both instruments provides correlations which are

Table 5.13. The Relationship of IAV to EAQS Scores

 

Variables correlated

 

E.
Males' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 102 .243*

Females' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 102 .239*

Males' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 75 .389*e
Females' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 75 .378**
Males' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 38 .423**
Females' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 38 .421**
Males' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 37 .422**
Females' scores on IAV and EAOS for sample of 37 .419**

 

*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level
all beyond the level of chance expectation. Since six of the eight
correlations are significant at the .01 level or better, and the re-
maining two correlations are significant at the .05 level, it is con-
cluded that the IAV provides a valid measure of self-acceptance. The
conclusion, however, must be based on the assumption that the EAOS too

is an instrument which, in fact, measures self-acceptance.

Summary

The results of the study were analyzed and reported in Chapter V.
The data relevant to the delineation of sub-samples were indicated after
the procedure for culmination of the sample of 102 couples was described.
Omission of couples who were most discrepant on their self-acceptance
scores led to the sample of 75 couples. The data which were used for
hypothesis testing were considered after this group was further subdivi-
ded into 38 couples who were defined as high self-acceptance couples and

37 couples who were defined as low self-acceptance couples.

131

The results of analysis for high self-acceptance couples were all
in the predicted direction and three of the five correlations were sig-
nificant at p .05. The latter provided tentative evidence to the effect
that high self-acceptance couples were similar in their respective need
structures. Furthermore, when mean scores on the EPPS needs for males
and females were compared, females were found to score Significantly
higher at p. 01 on the needs succorance and abasement in contrast to the
differences between mean scores for the sexes on the normative EPPS data.
In the latter, there were significant differences on all five need vari-
ables.

The analysis of the data for low self-acceptance couples indicated
correlations which were all in the predicted direction. Three of the
eight correlations were significant at p .05 and three were significant
at p. 01.13These statistics provided evidence to the effect that low
self-acceptance couples were complementary in their respective need
structureSfl2TUuaruuturance-receptive axis of complementarity was the
most heavily supported by the data. In addition, it was found that fe-
males in the low self-acceptance couples had a mean score which was sig-
nificantly higher (p .001) than their spouses on the EPPS need nurtur-
ance. In contrast, all five needs that were derived from the EPPS in-
dicated differences between males and females in the standardization
sample.

Correlations were converted to z's and the differences between the
correlations were tested using interspousal scores on the needs domi-
nance and nurturance for high and low self-acceptance couples. It was

concluded that the differences in these respects were not significant

132

when the need dominance was considered but were Significant (p. 05)
when the need nurturance was analyzed.

Secondary analysis of the data was performed. One of the most
interesting findings was that although there is much variation in degree
of expressed self~acceptance in those individuals who are defined as
composing high self-acceptance couples, the differences between Spouses
who compose low self—acceptance couples are negligible. A tentative
conclusion was that low self-acceptance individuals tend to be attracted
to persons who are similar to themselves in degree of expressed self-
acceptance. Furthermore, it seemed that because of the need complemen-
tarity indicated by these couples, there was beeinning evidence to sug-
gest that mate choice may be an attempt toward completion of self. An
additional approach to this area was taken by calculating correlations
between male and respective female scores both on the IAV and the EAOS
for all sample sizes. The only significant correlations were those for
low self-acceptance couples, thus providing similar evidence to that
already stated above in this connection.

The chapter was concluded with a brief discussion of the qualifi-
cation of the validity of the IAV as a measure of self-acceptance.
Comparable scores derived from the EAOS were correlated for both sexes
on all sample sizes. All correlations were significant at p .05 or
p .01, thus suggesting that the IAV is a valid instrument for purposes

of assessing self-acceptance.

CHAPTER V1

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The initial part of Chapter VI consists of a summary of the prob-
lem, design, methods and procedures, results, and limitations of the
study. The conclusions of this pilot study are then stated followed by

a discussion of implications for marriage counseling and future research.

Summary

The Problem

 

The study of the relationship of personality types to mate selec-
tion indicates the existence of two basic schools of thought. Some
authors suggest that individuals of similar personality Structure (homo-
gamy) are attracted to each other. Others adhere to the heterogamy
theory in which it is hypothesized that "opposites attract” in a way
that there is reciprocity of need satisfaction between mates.

The main purpose of this Study was to ascertain the relationship,
if any, between degree of expressed self-acceptance and interspousal
need structure in the mate selection process. The focus was on the
dominance-submissive and nurturance-receptive dimensions of inter-
spousal behavior. It was hypothesized that couples who are high in
self-acceptance would be similar in their respective need structures,
primarily because of the assumption that a high self-accepting person
would not choose a partner on the basis of a need to have an external

reservoir for the provision of need satisfaction. The reverse was

133

134

hypothesized for low self-accepting couples; they would be complementary
in their respective need Structures. The latter hypothesis was formu-

lated on the opposite assumption to that of the former.

The Design

 

The independent variables of the Study were high and low expressed
self-acceptance. The instrument used for measuring these variables was
the IAVl which is purported to provide a direct measure of self-
acceptance. The EAOS2 scale, another measure of self-acceptance, was
also administered in order to qualify the validity of the IAV.

The dependent variable of the study was interspousal need struc-
ture. This variable is simply the product-moment correlation between
a variety of pairs of needs as manifested by marital pairs. The in-
strument used for the measurement of needs was the EPPS.3

There were several means by which control of extraneous variance
was attempted. Couples consisting only of native born subjects were
included in the study because it was assumed that a person of foreign
birth would select a mate outside of the traditional framework as found
in western society. Population selection in general is seen as an addi-
tional source of variance in mate choice research. Although one would

ideally attempt to study couples who are in the midst of the actual

 

1R. E. Bills, Index of Adjustment and Values, Manual, Auburn, Ala-
bama: Alabama Polytechnic Institute, undated, (mimeographed).

2E. M. Berger, "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self
and Expressed Acceptance of Others," Hpiyersity of PittsburgH_Hulletin,
1951’ 47:1-80

 

3Allen Edwards, Edgards Personalpreference ScHgdule, Manual, New
York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959.

135

selection process, an inherent problem is the fact that there is no
guarantee that the relationships will culminate in marriage. It was,
therefore, decided to select a sample of married subjects, all of whom
had been married less than one year, in order to specifically study
couples as close as possible to the actual time of marriage.

Only childless couples were included in this study because it is
probable that the presence of a child would tend to alter the nature of
the interpersonal relationship between husband and wife. Furthermore,
marriages of the non "free choice" variety, with specific reference to
pregnancy occuring out-of-wedlock, would presumably affect the nature
of the selection process. A Background Information Information Ques-
tionnaire was designed to elicit the above-described information for
further sample refinement as well as other pertinent material about
the subjects.

The basic statistic used in the experiment was the product-moment
correlation coefficient (Pearson r). It was used not only for hypothe-
sis testing but also for purposes of qualifying the validity of the IAV.
Because the theory relating to self-acceptance provides no Stipulation
about dyadic relationships and is essentially a singular based one, a
specific procedure was employed for purposes of obtaining a measure of
a couple's degree of expressed self-acceptance. Using the male's score
on the IAV as a base, the respective female scores were subtracted and
discrepancy scores were obtained for every couple. These ranged from
81 to -76. The discrepancy scores were ranked from high positive dis-
crepancy through zero discrepancy to high negative discrepancy. Twelve

per cent of the most discrepant couples at both ends of the distribution

136

were then omitted from further analysis. The result of this procedure
was that 75 couples were left who were statistically similar. These
individuals were the final sample of the study. After ranking accord-
ing to male's score, the median of the males' IAV scores was calculated
and those couples falling above the median were considered high self-
acceptance couples whereas those below the median were considered low
self-acceptance couples. These sample sizes were 38 and 37 couples

respectively.

Methods and Procedures

 

The couples of this pilot study all resided in married housing
facilities provided by Michigan State University. The potential popu-
lation of the Study consisted of 614 couples. However, because of the
nature of the information that was available, there was a limitation in
knowing how many couples may have been married for over one year or had
a child, irrespective of the fact that they resided in one bedroom
papartments. The latter are generally assigned to couples who have no
children.

A sample of 210 couples was selected from the above group according
to the table of random numbers. A letter was mailed and was followed
by a telephone contact to each of the couples in order to enlist their
c00peration. The result of these steps was that 23 couples refused to
cooperate, 14 couples had a child although they had been married less
than one year and 54 couples had been married more than one year. There
remained 119 couples for purposes of data collection.

The respondents were given no more information than the fact that

137

they were being asked to participate in a study in order that insight
might be gained about the kinds of people who get married. Pending
their cooperation, they were provided information about the findings
and a summary of the conclusions.

After appointments were scheduled, a complete unit of material was
delivered to each couple. The package contained one copy of each of
the Background Information Questionnaire, the IAV, the EAOS and the EPPS
for every husband and wife. Couples were asked to respond independently
to the‘instruments within a two hour time limit. At least this amount
of time was required for completion of the instruments. As a result, it
is suggested that cross consultation between husbands and wives was
either non-existent or minimal.

Upon completion of data collection the sample was delineated to 102
couples because of incomplete responses and other similar factors. After
removing the extreme scoring couples, as described above, the sample con-
sisted of 75 couples. As a group, these males were approximately two
years older than the females. A similar difference was found in age at
the time of marriage. Wide variation in religious affiliation was found
and almost 31 per cent of the sample consisted of husbands and wives who
professed different religious preferences.

All the males in the sample were students both at the time of data
collection as well as the time of their decision to marry. The latter
is a tentative indication that these couples did not enter into "marriages
of practicality", at least as derived from the usual definitiOn of the
term. The academic levels for males and the 17 females who had not left

the academic ranks to become employed ranged from freshman to graduate

138

school. Approximately 77 per cent of the female sample were employed,
with the last school grade completed for these women ranging from grade
10 to graduate school. The males represented 13 different major fields
of study and the females represented six major fields of study.

Length of courtship ranged from one to 84 months. The couples had
met under a variety of circumstances. The mean length in months for
courtship, engagement and marriage was 21.253, 7.253 and 7.667 respec-
tively. Some couples entered marriage shortly after they first met
whereas more of the couples consisted of persons who knew each other for
as much as almost two years. Parental approval of these marriages ex-
isted prior to the time of marriage for most couples and after the
marriage had occurred for almost all couples.

Most parents of the sample subjects were born in the United States,
a factor which presumably would affect mate selection practices to the
extent that the latter would be influenced by normative behavior which
is in keeping with western society. Although most of the respondents
came from the state of Michigan, the remainder of the sample ranged
across the country in home state. Almost 79 per cent of the couples
were composed of individuals who had the same home state.

When fathers' occupations were used as a basis for comparison,
the highest percentage of both males and females had fathers who were
business owners. If father's occupation is used as a criterion of
socio-economic level, there is a slight tendency for upward mobility
of females as a result of their marriages. Generally, however, the
overall tendency is toward homogamy of sociological variables and

characteristics.

139

Resultg

In the high self-acceptance couples women were found to score
higher on the needs succorance and abasement (p .01). All the inter-
spousal correlations were in the predicted direction. When males' and
females' scores were correlated on the need dominance, the correlation
was found to be Significant at the .05 level of confidence. The same
result was found when males and females were correlated on the need
-succorance scores. Similar analysis on the need nurturance resulted
in a correlation which is significant at the .01 level of confidence.
The hypotheses in reference to these needs were accepted. However, the
hypotheses based upon the needs abasement and deference were rejected.

In the low self-acceptance couples, women scored higher on the
needs deference and nurturance (p .01). However, men scored higher on
dominance (p .01) whereas there were no discernable differences for
males and females on the needs succorance and abasement. All the in-
terspousal correlations were in the predicted direction. Six of the
eight correlations are statistically significant. When spouses' scores
were correlated on the need dominance and the needs dominance and de-
ference, the resulting correlations are significant at the .05 level of
confidence. When spouses' scores were correlated on the need nurturance
and the needs nurturance and succorance, the resulting correlations are
Significant at the .01 level of confidence. Thus, six of the eight hy-
potheses for low self-acceptance couples were accepted. Both type 1
complementariness hypotheses and four of the six type II complementari-
ness hypotheses were supported.

The test for significance of the difference between interspousal

140

correlations indicated that there was no difference between high and
low self-acceptance couples on the need dominance. In contrast, when
the need nurturance was considered, the finding was slightly different.
The difference between the correlations was transformed to z's and
taken relative to the standard error of the difference between two z's.
A z of 1.76 was obtained. The latter is significant at the .05 level
of confidence.

Several features of interest were apparent as a result of the sec-
ondary analysis of the data. The difference in mean scores between males
and females on the IAV in high self-acceptance couples was significant at
the .0001 level of confidence. In contrast, when the reSpective means
were compared for males and females in low self-acceptance couples, the
difference was negligible. Another finding was that, regardless of
sample considered, the mean male scores as derived from both the IAV
and the EAOS were all higher than the corresponding mean scores for
females. A tentative conclusion is that males were more self-accepting
than females, granting the defensive possibilities inherent in these
expressions. An equally reasonable conclusion is that males tended to
be more defensive in reSponding to instruments which measure such vari-
ables as self-acceptance.

Another approach was taken to the data referred to above. An at-
tempt was made to determine the degree of relationship between mates
through correlating respective self-acceptance scores. Correlations
were calculated in this manner on all sample Sizes. The result was
that, in the case of both the IAV and the EAOS, the only significant

correlations were obtained when the males and females in low self-

141

acceptance couples were considered.

Scores on the IAV and the EAOS were correlated, the latter instru-
ment serving as a check on the validity of the former. This procedure
was carried out on all sample sizes. All of the correlations were sig-
nificant at the .05 level or better. Granting the assumption that the
EAOS measures self-acceptance, the IAV was found to be a valid instru-

ment for purposes of assessing self-acceptance.

Limitations of the Study

 

There are several limitations of this study, some of which are
considerable whereas others are relatively minor.

First, criticism can be raised about the method by which the variety
of needs was assessed. The EPPS provides ipsative scores on the need
variables. The implication is that, because of the forced-choice tech-
nique, if an individual scores very low on some of the variables, the
scores on the other variables will tend to be high. However, there is
no way of determining the effect of the specific instrument design,
particularly because only five of the EPPS need scales were used in
this study. An alternative approach for the assessment of needs would
have been to use one or more of the projective techniques which are
purported to measure needs. However, the validity of such instruments
is highly questionable with the effect that the risk resulting from
their use would be increased many times over that taken with the EPPS.

A second alternative would be to derive need ratings through interviews.

142

However, Ellis4 has shown that the questionnaire method of gathering
data seems to be as satisfactory as the interview method, particularly
because the former tends to produce more self-revelatory information
than the latter. The same argument can be applied toward a rationale
for using a questioniaire in contrast to interviews for purposes of
obtaining relevant background information from the subjects.

The degree of relationship between variables has been emphasized
in this study because of the statistical approach taken to the analysis
of the data. Presumably cause and effect factors would be of interest
in enlightened understanding of the mate selection process. However, no
claim to the latter effect can be made. Furthermore, it is recognized
that variables other than self-acceptance affect the process of mate
choice, yet these are not within the scope of this study.

In the process of screening couples in order to control for non
"free choice" types of marriages as a source of extraneous variance,
it is possible that some couples deliberately provided a distorted im-
pression over expectancy date due to pregnancy. There was no way,
however, through which control of this factor could be increased beyond
that taken in the items of the Background Information Questionnaire. A
related problem is that pertaining to the possibility of cross

consultation between spouses. However, this source of variance was

4Albert Ellis, "Questionnaire versus Interview Methods in the Study
of Human Love Relationships. 11. Uncategorized Responses," American
Sociolpgical Review, 1948, 13:61-65; Albert Ellis, ”Questionnaire versus
Interview Methods in the Study of Human Love Relationships," Americdp
Sociological Review, 1947, 12:541-553.

 

 

143

reasonably controlled as subjects were given a limited amount of time
in which to respond to the instruments, thereby lessening the possibility
of mutual referral.

Another weakness of this study is due to the instruments used to
measure expressed self-acceptance. The latter contain no control over
"faking good" or ”faking bad" in order to provide a specific impression.
For example, some high self-accepting persons may not be, in fact, too
accepting of self. The element of social desirability may have an un-
known effect upon responses with the result that defensive expressions
may occur, particularly those related to rationalization. The defen-
siveness to which reference has been made may be either deliberate or
unconscious.

An additional limitation arises from the select nature of the sam-
ple used in this study. All the males and many of the females were
college students and, as such, any application of findings must be
considered relative only to the married college population. It is
conceivable that the sample of this study possessed many characteristics
-which are unique to the population from which it was drawn. However,
Christopherson, et al.5 have shown that the married college student may
not be radically different from other young married people.

The original sample selection was carried out on a random basis.
However, the nature of the delineation process and the lack of willing-

ness to cooperate on the part of some couples tended toward a non

 

5V. Christopherson; J. Vandiver and M. Krueger, "The Married College

Student, 1959," Marriage and FamiiyyHiving, 1960, 22:122-128.

 

144

random group. In addition, in the process of original sample selection,
there was no evidence for these couples of length of time married or
number of dependents. Thus the latter was another source of delimiting
possibilities of having a completely random sample. The combined lack
of a random sample and cross validation both restrict the possibilities

of generalization of findings from this study.

Conclusions

The major conclusions of the study are:

1. Those mates who compose high self-acceptance couples were Simi-
lar in their respective need structures. This conclusion held specifi-
cally when the needs dominance, nurturance and succorance were considered
but did not include the needs abasement and deference. In the latter,
the degree of relationship did not exceed the level of chance expecta-
tion.

2. Those mates who compose low self-acceptance couples were com-
plementary in their respective need structures. This conclusion held
Specifically when spouses' scores were correlated on the needs domi-
nance, dominance and deference, nurturance, and nurturance and succor-
ance. The needs dominance and abasement for husbands and wives did not
correlate beyond the level of chance expectation. When the same need
was compared for both husband and wife, a variation in intensity was
noted such that when one Spouse had a high need, the other had a low
one and vice versa. Furthermore, different needs as expressed by spouses
were found to complement one another.

3. The highest degree of relationship between needs as expressed

145

by husbands and wives was found when the needs nurturance and succorance
were considered for both high and low self-acceptance couples. The nur-
turant-receptive dimension of complementarity was probably more impor-
tant than the dominant-submissive dimension in the understanding of in-
terspousal need structure. Furthermore, the traditional interpretation
of complementarity based upon all needs provides a misleading framework
within which mate selection can be studied.

4. The high self-acceptance couples were composed of individuals
who indicated much variation between degree of expressed self-acceptance
on the part of males and females. In contrast, mates who composed low
self-acceptance couples were similar in their degree of expressed self-
acceptance. Low self-acceptance males tended to be attracted to low
self-acceptance females and vice versa. Finally, and as a result of
both the latter and the fact that low self-acceptance couples were com-
plementary in their respective need structures, it was concluded that
the individual who was low in self-acceptance was attracted to persons
who presumably provide sources of completion of self for this individual.

His need gratification was heavily dependent upon external sources.

Implications for Marriage Counseling
Marriage counseling is unique in that its focus is placed upon the
relationship that exists between two people. The marriage, rather than
the individuals, is first viewed as the patient. It is apparent, there-
fore, that understanding of the interpersonal dynamics of marital pairs
is perhaps of even greater Significance than in other professionally

therapeutic endeavors. The understanding of how individuals relate to

146

and affect each other is of no less importance in the practice of pre-
marital counseling.

Is it possible that self-acceptance, when considered as an indi-
cator of personal adjustment, is an important variable for purposes of
gaining insight into how an individual sees himself in contrast to the
kind of person he would like to be in an ideal sense? Is it not prob-
able that satisfaction of needs is sought from external sources when
certain qualities are lacking in the self? In this sense, the indivi-
dual may be seeking a completion of self. The extreme of Stable margi-
nal adjustment in this respect may be found in complementary neuroses
where there is reciprocity of need satisfaction, yet only in an incon-
sistent and self-defeating manner.

In contrast to the above, is one's interpersonal competence ade-
quate when he can function primarily within the framework of his own
emotional resources? This individual seeks satisfaction of his needs
as provided by others only occassionally. He may be described as an
adjusted person to the extent that there is minimal discrepancy between
that which he wants to be in contrast to how he sees himself. As a
result, his interpersonal associations can be varied both in intensity
and quality.

Personal satisfaction is one of the goals of marriage counseling.
Are couples more satisfied with marriages in which there is reciprocity
of need satisfaction? The counseling process theoretically can be
directed toward this end. However, there are certain qualifying con-
ditions, at least as derived from this pilot study. If an individual

grows, develops and changes in the course of time and if the selection

147

of the mate occurred originally on a reciprocal need basis, it is pro-
bable that the premise upon which the choice was made becomes altered.
A possible result is that at least one of the spouses is no longer
willing, whether consciously or not, to act as an emotional provider,
at least to the same extent that was possible earlier in the marriage.
Insight, the primary goal of all counseling, is needed on the part of
spouses with the result that they are able to realize how much and in
what ways they support each other emotionally. Whether the instruments
of this study or others are employed by the marriage counselor with the
purpose of assessing self-acceptance, some indication of the latter could
act as a guide for formulation of both counseling method and process.
When changes in self-acceptance evolve as a result of the process, the
progress of counseling effectiveness could be estimated.

Gratification may be sought outside of marriage to balance Satis-
factions or frustrations which the partners experience in the family.
The notion of need satisfaction from only one source is too restrictive.
The reverse situation, of course, may also hold true. In these marriages
the tendency may be toward grandiose expectations of one's partner. The
resulting implication for the counselor is the provision of guidance
toward increased mutuality extramaritally and within the marriage, de-
pending upon the nature of the extreme that exists. In short, inter-
personal need-fits can be extended to a variety of contexts.

Is the complementary needs theory in particular of help in under-
standing why certain marriages are contracted when, on the surface,
there is neither "rhyme nor reason" for specific mate selection? The

theory may be an adjunct also toward comprehension about the maintenance

148

of certain marriages, even as the latter seem to provide minimal sources
of personal gratification and happiness to the partners. It behooves
the marriage counselor to detect the need pattern of each spouse as well
as the meaning held by each spouse for the other. What kinds of grati-
fications are both demanded and offered? The answer to this question
may indicate the kinds of influences both within and outside of the
marriage as described above. In analogy with all approaches to coun-

seling, it is the total human being that is studied and helped.

Implications for Future Research

The relationship of expressed self-acceptance to need structure
seems to provide a meaningful framework within which the mate selection
process can be studied. However, the complexity of the area to be re-
searched suggests that other variables pertinent to mate selection
exist. These must be identified and researched. Furthermore, once
cross~va1idation is accomplished, the theory should be expanded to in-
clude populations of persons of diverse backgrounds. Both the sample
and population of the present study are highly select and because one
quality of adequate theory is its comprehensiveness, the latter proce-
dure as suggested provides an added rationale for increased theory
testing. Research on a larger scale should include not only subjects
of varying socio-economic backgrounds but also samples of greater
magnitude.

The pursuit of increased understanding of interpersonal attraction
and choice should be expanded. Associated studies, however, need not

be limited solely to mate choice. They should be expanded to include

149

all areas wherein persons interact and particularly where positive
growth is seen as a desired outcome. Teacher-pupil, pupil-pupil, parent-
child, and work-partner relationships are merely a few examples of these
areas. The already established field of sociometry and its contributions
could serve as an adjunct to both research design and process. Group
therapists have long been plagued by the dearth of information relative
to the problems of adequate grouping. Similar issues exist in student
personnel work in general and in classroom grouping in particular.
Knowledge could both be gained from and contributed to more effective
practices in these areas.
A final problem area is adjustment and maladjustment in marriage
and its relationship to interspousal need structure. Although some of
the criteria of marital adjustment have been explored more recently,
these studies have focussed upon values, attitudes and congruence of
self concepts. Minimal evidence is available about marital relation—
ships and the needs involved in these, particularly with reference to
successful marriage. It could be Speculated that the prediction of
marriage outcome based upon interspousal needs is as fruitful an area
of exploration as that of mate selection. Both the preventive and
curative potential would provide implications of decided value.
Considering the suggestions as outlined above, further researCh on
mate selection should include large samples of subjects of diverse back-
grounds. In addition to self-acceptance, other variables that are per-
tinent to the process should be identified. The framework of the present
Study should be elaborated upon to include many areas wherein interper-

sonal attraction and choice occur. Future research should be expanded

150

also in order that insight may be gained into the prediction and es-
tablishment of successful marriage. There is potential in these areas

of inquiry for both theory testing and creative practice.

APPENDIX A

BACKGROUND INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE

151

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Sex 2. Birthdate 3. Age
M or F Month Day Year

 

 

Age at time of marriage

Religious affiliation: (Check one)
Presbyterian_____ Catholic _ Methodist_____ Jewish_____

Baptist_____ Episcopalian_ _ Christian Science_____ Lutheran_

Atheist __ Agnostiq_____ Others: (Please specify)

 

Circle the last school grade you completed:
(Grade School) (High School) (College) (Grad. School)
5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 Fr. So. Jr. Sr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

If you are a student presently, circle accordingly:
(High School) (College) (Grad. School)
9 10 ll 12 Fr. So. Jr. Sr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

If you are a student presently, what is your major?

 

If no longer a student but were in the past, State your major

If you are not a student now, state your occupation

 

Where did you first meet your husband/wife? (Be specific)

. When you met, you were a student

employed __ other .

.-

 

The date you first met your husband/wife was
How long did you date your husband/wife prior to marriage and no one

else? years, months

 

 

Length of your engagement (ring or official announcement to marriage

date). years, months

 

 

At the time of your decision to marry:

(a) If you were a studenn circle accordingly:
(High School) (College) (Grad. School)
9 10 ll 12 Fr. So. Jr. Sr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(b) If you were employed, state your employment

 

Is this your first marriage? _
Yes or No

152

17.

l8.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

153

Date of marriage

 

Month Day Year

Length of marriage years _ inonths

 

Did your parents approve of your marriage?

Father: Before _ Later Mother: Before Later

If you are presently pregnant, what is your expectancy date?

 

Were your parents born in the U.S.A.? (Check) Yes ___ One was ___

neither was

Your home State is

 

Type of home community (check)

___-__country (farm)

______small town (less than 2,500 population)

______Small city (less than 50,000 population)
._____large city (more than 50,000 population)

Father's occupation: (check one)

______Business Owner
Professional
White Collar
____Farm Owner
Teacher
Skilled Labor
Semi-Skilled
___yPublic Service
__Executive or Managerial

 

 

APPENDIX B

INDEX OF ADJUSTMENT AND VALUES

154

INDEX OF ADJUSTMENT AND VALUES

The IAV
Robert E. Bills, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama

DIRECTIONS
(Adult Form)

This device is a way of helping you to state some of your beliefs
about yourself. It tells nothing more than what you want it to say -

there are no hidden scores or tricks. It will have value only if you

 

are careful and doyyour best to give an accurate description ofyyourseli.

 

On the answer sheet is a list of 49 trait words. You will be asked
to answer two questions about yourself for each of these traits. The
questions are:

1. How often are you this sort of person?

2. How do you feel about being this way?

On the answer sheet are two lists of 49 trait words and an example.
Take each word separately and apply it to yourself by completing the
following sentence:

I am a (an) __ __ person.

The first word in the list is academia, so you would substitute this
term in the above sentence. It would read:

I am an apademic person.
Then decide how much of the time this Statement is like you, that is, is
typical or characteristic of you as an individual, and rate yourself on
a scale from one to five according to the following key:

1. Seldom, is this like me.

2. Occasionally, is this like me.

 

3. About half of the time, this is like me.

 

155

156

4. A good deal of the time, this is like me.

 

5. Most of the time, this is like me.

Select the number beside the phrase that tells how much of the time the
statement is like you and insert it in Column I on the answer Sheet.
EXAMPLE: beside the term ACADEMIC, a number two is inserted to indicate
that, "Occasionally, I am an agadamig person."

Now go to Column II. Use one of the statements given below to
tell how you feel about yourself as described in Column I.

1. I very much dislike being as I am in this respect.

2. I dislike being as I an in this respect.

3. I neither dislike being as I am nor like being as I am in this

respect.

4. I like being as I am in this respect.

5. I like very much being as I am in this respect.

You will select the number beside the Statement that tells how you feel
about the way you are and insert the number in Colunn II.

EXAMPLE: In Colunn II beside the term ACADEMIC, number one is inserted
to indicate that I dislike very much being as I am in respect to the
term, academic. Note that being as I am always refers to the way you
described yourself in Column I.

Start with the word ACCEPTABLE and fill in Columns I and 11 before
going on to the next word. There is no time limit. Be honest with
yourself so that your description will be a true measure of how you see
yourself.

Please fill in the blanks with your age, sex, and date of marriage.

The IAV Answer Sheet

 

 

Sex Age
a. academic

l. acceptable
2. accurate

3. alert

4. ambitious
5. annoying

6. busy

7. calm

8. charming

9. clever

10. competent
ll. confident
12. considerate
13. cruel

14. democratic
15. dependable
l6. economical
17. efficient
18. fearful

l9. friendly
20. fashionable
21. helpful

22. intellectual
23. kind

24. logical

—_———-

—“-- -

II

Date of Marriage

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.

34.

157

 

meddlesome
merry
mature
nervous
normal
optimistic
poised
purposeful
reasonable
reckless
responsible
sarcastic
sincere
stable
studious
successful
stubborn
tactful
teachable
useful
worthy
broad-minded
businesslike
competitive

fault-finding

fl‘“—

II

APPENDIX C

BERGER SCALE OF EXPRESSED ACCEPTANCE OF SELF

158

BERGER SCALE OF EXPRESSED ACCEPTANCE OF SELF

Berger Scale EAOS

Before reSponding to this instrument, fill in pply the following on the
answer sheet: Date, Date of birth, Age, Sex.

This is a study of some of your attitudes. Of course, there is no right
answer for any statement. The best answer is what you feel is true of
yourself.

You are to respond to each question on the answer sheet according to the
following scheme:

1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Slightly About half- Mostly True of
true of my- true of way true of true of myself
Self myself myself myself

Remember, the best answer is the one which applies to you.

1. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve
my personal problems.

2. I don't question my worth as a person, even if I think others do.

3. When people say nice things about me, I find it difficult to believe
they really mean it. I think maybe they're kidding me or just aren't
being sincere.

4. If there is any criticism or anyone says anything about me, I just
can't take it.

5. I don't say much at social affairs because I'm afraid that people
will criticize me or laugh if I say the wrong thing.

6. I realize that I'm not living very effectively but I just don't be-
lieve I've got it in me to use my energies in better ways.

7. I look on most of the feelings and impulses I have toward people as
being quite natural and acceptable.

8. Something inside me just won't let me be satisfied with any job I've
done--if it turns out well, I get a very smug feeling that this is
beneath me, I Shouldn't be satisfied with this, this isn't a fair
test.

9. I feel different from other people. I'd like to have the feeling of
security that comes from knowing I'm not too different from others.

159

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

21.

25.

26.

160

I'm afraid for people that I like to find out what I'm really like,
for fear they'd be disappointed in me.

I am frequently bothered by feelings of inferiority.

Because of other people, I haven't been able to achieve as much as
I should have.

I am quite shy and self-conscious in social situations.

In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect
me to be rather than anything else.

I seem to have a real inner strength in handling things. I'm on a
pretty solid foundation and it makes me pretty sure of myself.

I feel self-conscious when I'm with people who have a superior posi-
tion to mine in business or at school.

I think I'm neurotic or something.

Very often I don't try to be friendly with people because I think
they won't like me.

I feel that I'm a person of worth, on an equal plane with others.

I can't avoid feeling guilty about the way I feel toward certain
people in my life.

I'm not afraid of meeting new people. I feel that I'm a worthwhile
person and there's no reason why they should dislike me.

I sort of only half-believe in myself.

I'm very sensitive. People say things and I have a tendency to think
they're criticizing me or insulting me in some way and later when I
think of it, they may not have meant anything like that at all.

I think I have certain abilities and other people say so too but I
wonder if I'm not giving them an importance way beyond what they

deserve.

I feel confident that I can do something about the problems that may
arise in the future.

I guess I put on a show to impress people. I know I'm not the person
I pretend to be.

I do not worry or condemn myself if other people pass judgment against
me.

I don't feel very normal, but I want to feel normal.

29.

32.

33.

161

When I'm in a group I usually don't say much for fear of saying the
wrong things.

I have a tendency to sidestep my problems.
Even when people do think well of me, I feel sort of guilty because
I know I must be fooling them-~that if I were really to be myself,

they wouldn't think well of me.

I feel that I'm on the same level as other people and that helps to
establish good relations with them.

I feel that people are apt to react differently to me than they would
normally react to other people.

I live too much by other peoples' standards.

When I have to address a group, I get self-conscious and have diffi-
culty in saying things well.

IEI didn't always have such hard luck, I'd accomplish much more than
I have.

APPENDIX D

LETTER TO RESPONDENTS

162

LETTER TO RESPONDENTS

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSlTi East Lansipg
College of Education

 

May, 1962

Dear Mr. and Mrs.

I am writing to you to seek your cooperation in participating in a Study
that is currently being carried out with married couples at Michigan State
University. The focus of this study is to obtain information about the
kinds of people who have been married recently. It is therefore important
to have the assistance of both the husband and wife.

I am mindful of the fact that persons are often participants in a study
without later being given the findings of the study to which they have
contributed. It is, however, my intention to share the results with you
when they are available in the summer of 1962. At that time I will mail
a summary of the conclusions to you.

The total time required to respond to some brief questionnaires will not
exceed 90 minutes per couple. The forms can be delivered to you at your
home at your convenience. A member of our research team, Mr. Marvin
Goodman, will be contacting you on the telephone shortly in order to
arrange a time that is appropriate to your weekly schedule. Please be
assured of the fact that participants will remain completely anonymous
and to insure the latter you will be asked not to indicate your name,
address, telephone, etc., on any of the written material.

Your contribution to this project is both welcomed and sincerely appre-
ciated.

Sincerely yours,

William W. Farquhar
Associate Professor

lflJF/ml

163

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Miscellaneous

Campbell, William. Form and Style in_THesis Writidg. Cambridge: Houghton
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Office of the Graduate School. Handbook for Graduate Studenps. East
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Turabian, Kate. A Manual for Writers of Term Hapersy Theses, and Disser-
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