A SURVEY OF SELECTED COMMUNITY SERVICES
PROGRAMS FOR THE DISADVANTAGED
AT INNER-CITY COMMUNITY EOLEEGES

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MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Andrew L. Goodrich
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THESE:

  

L I B R A R Y
Michigan State
University

 
   

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A Survey of Selected Community Services Programs
for the Disadvantaged at Inner City,§ommunity
Colleges

‘If‘lz'.

presented bg

Andrew Goodrich

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for 1

Ph.d. degree in Philosophy I

2 flfi 21Eg‘7fg Li .

Major professor

Date November 144 1969

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ABSTRACT
A SURVEY OF SELECTED COMMUNITY SERVICES

PROGRAMS FOR THE DISADVANTAGED AT
INNER-CITY COMMUNITY COLLEGES

BY

Andrew L. Goodrich

This investigation was undertaken in an attempt to
fill a void that existed regarding the lack of in-depth
information on community services programs for the disad-
vantaged at inner-city community colleges.

The problem with which this study is concerned is
that of describing programs for the disadvantaged at se-
lected inner—city community colleges. A descriptive history
and deve10pmental presentation of the various programs'
origins and essential components provide a collective image
of current programs for the disadvantaged at urban commu-
nity colleges.

One of the purposes of this study is served by the
above-mentioned descriptive history. An additional purpose
was to identify guidelines that might.be used for the devel-
Opment of educational programs designed to meet the needs of
disadvantaged persons in the inner-city.

The "integrating techniques" method was used for the

collection of data. This technique involved several approaches.

Andrew L. Goodrich

Among them were: taped field interviews, observation of
selected programs, questionnaires, and a content analysis

of school catalogues and brochures for additional informa-
tion regarding the programs offered and participants served.
These techniques were designed to provide information in
four basic areas, namely: (1) the types of programs offered,
their administrative structure and professional staffing
patterns; (2) the program's financial and physical resources;
(3) its origin and developmental aspects; and (4) the spe-
cial problems encountered as they pertain to race as a sig-
nificant consideration in staffing and white staff involve-
ment in an inner—city setting.

The sample includes six programs at seven inner-city
community colleges. (One project is Operated jointly by two
colleges, thus accounting for the uneven number.) Each col-
lege was visited for a period of from one to two days. Dur—
ing these visits, taped interviews were held with college
presidents, project administrators, staff, and selected
program participants.

Chapter IV provides an analysis of the data collected
through the above-described procedure. This data was ana-
lyzed as it pertains to the four basic areas pertinent to
the study.

The major conclusions presented show that:

l. The urban communit colle es in this study have
evidenced a visiBIe concern for disadvantaged
citizens in their communities by_implementing

programs of‘direct intervention to improve—the
ggality of life for all. —*

 

Andrew L. Goodrich

2. While the inner-city community services programs
‘5? this study are less than temprehensiVe in their
current‘efforts to meettthe‘Educatiofial and economic
needs of inner—city disadvantaged citizens, their
exploratory_efforts to developiproblemZOriEnted
programs is paving the way for more‘intensive
invoivement intthe nearRYUture.

 

3. Inner-city community servicesgprograms investigated
in this stugy have recognized the need tERintensify
recruitment and—Supportive services in ordertto
Bridge the educational and economic ggp of dis-
advantaged’titiiens.

On the basis of an analysis of the data, the follow-
ing recommendations seem relevant to this study. These
recommendations are also intended to serve as a broad frame
of reference for inner—city community service programs.

Funding . It is recommended that a more stable source
of’funding_5e sopght and provideditoiinner-
city community service programs.

Staffing . An active effort should be made to recruit
YECGIty members who are known to be respon-
sively concerned—with the prOElems of the
disadvantaged.

. College staff members must be provided
Erientation sessions to help them in creat-
ing_a climate that fosters positive seIf+

concepts and‘taciIitatestthE'struggle for
agenzfir “ *

. Teachin and consultant res onsibilities
in inner-city communityprojects shouId be
considered a normal_part of the contractual
commitment—6f‘thettaculty. i.
Programming
On the basis of the classification of programs ob-
served in this study, three types are recommended for a

comprehensive inner-city community services program. These

programs are service, manpower, and intercultural, and are

Andrew L. Goodrich

defined as follows:

1.

Service programs are programs that perform a sup-
portive function by providing the program partici-
pant information, counseling, financial help or
any combination of the three.

Manpower_programs should be designed to provide
program participants with a viable and marketable
skill at the successful completion of the training
cycle.

Intercultural programs should have as one of their
prime aims that of providing a positive focus for
instilling pride and appreciation in the various eth-

nic and minority groups for their cultural heritage.

Evaluation

In order to properly assess present efforts and
to facilitate long-range planning, it is recom-
mended that the research and evaluation offiCe
of the coliege‘hétdiretted thward assessing the
déVelopment—of the ihner-city_program{—

In conclusion, and in view of the many commonalities

found in the inner-city community service programs studied,

it seems critically importagt that diregtors of inner-cipy

community service prpgggms come together to share their

ideas and fOEES on a set of recommended practices andprge

ggdures for the initiation and implementation of programs

of intervention for the inner-city disadvantaged.

A SURVEY OF SELECTED COMMUNITY SERVICES
PROGRAMS FOR THE DISADVANTAGED
AT INNER-CITY COMMUNITY COLLEGES

BY

Andrew L. Goodrich

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in‘partialvfulfillment'of-the«requirements~
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Higher Education

1969

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer extends his grateful appreciation

To his guidance committee chairman, Dr. Max Raines,
and committee members for their wise counsel;

To the community college presidents and adminis-
trative officials of inner-city community services programs
visited, for their courteous c00peration and excellent
support;

To Dr. Kenneth Cummiskey, director of community
services for the American Association of Junior Colleges,
for the advice and direction provided in the selection of
colleges included in.the study;

To my wife, Johnnye, and children--Kenneth, Eric,
Reggie, and Vikki—-who, through their patience, sacrifice,

and understanding, helped make graduate study possible.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

THE P ROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Statement of the Problem . . . . .
Background of Theory and Research
Definition of Terms . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . .
Organization of the Study . . . .

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . .

A Brief Historical Overview of the
Community Services Function . .
Higher Education's Failure to
Serve the Disadvantaged . . .
The Nature of the Disadvantaged
The Law and the Poor . . . . . .
The Inner-City . . . . . . . . .
Closing the Opportunity Gap:
The Urban College Response . . .
Closing the Opportunity Gap at
the Federal Level . . . . . . .

METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . .

The Sample . . . . . . . . . .
Presentation and Analysis of Data

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA .

Laney and Merritt Colleges'
Inner-City Project . . . . . .
Los Angeles City College . . . .
Malcolm x Community College .
Cuyahoga Community College . .
The State University of New York's
Urban Center--Brook1yn . . .
The Community College of Baltimore
summary 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 0

ii

Page

11
12
13

14

14

17
18
21
23

33
4O
43

43
45

46

48
59
67
74

84
88
97

Chapter Page
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . 102

Need of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Role of Inner-City

Community Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

BIBLIOGRAPPIY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 120

APPENDIX

A. LETTER OF INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 126
B o FOLLOW-UP LETTER 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 2 7
C 0 AGENDA 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 28
D. CHECK LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
E. INSTITUTIONAL DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
F o QUESTIONNAIRE o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 3 3
G. INTERVIEW GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
H. ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF INNER-CITY

PROJECT AT LANEY AND MERRITT COLLEGES . . . 139
I. SAMPLE CHART DEPICTING THE COMPOSITE

ADMINISTRATIVE STATUS AND STRUCTURE
OF COMMUNITY SERVICE DIRECTORS AND STAFF. . 140

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Courses Presently being Taught at

£351: Oakland 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 53
List of Special Cultural Events

Held at East Oakland . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Monthly Attendance at East Oakland, 1969 . . . 55
Malcolm X College Adult Education Courses . . 73
Institutional Enrollment for Project

Search, Winter Quarter and Spring

Quarter, 1968-69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Comparison of Three Baltimore Area

Population Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

iv

CHAPTERII
THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study is to describe the es-
sential components of programs for the disadvantaged at
selected inner-city community colleges as a means of devel-
oping a model that will have broad application in urban
community colleges which do not have such programs but wish
to establish them. Additionally, it was the purpose of
this study to identify guidelines that might be used for
the development of educational programs designed to meet
the needs of disadvantaged persons in the inner-city.

In planning the study, it became obvious that a
single technique of data collection would not suffice for
covering the tOpic under investigation. The chief problem
was to gain information about programs that were only re-
cently started, most of which had not yet-~because of a
lack of finance among other reasons--adopted a systematic
way of recording and evaluating their efforts. The tech-
niques employed included taped field interviews, observa—
tions of selected programs, questionnaires, and a content

analysis of school catalogues and brochures with regard

to the programs offered and participants served. This
unconventional use of a variety of research methods has
been referred to by Sieber and Lazarfeld as ". . . inte-
grating techniques."l These techniques were designed to
serve four purposes: (1) to provide information on the
types of programs offered to the disadvantaged at selected
inner-city community colleges, the administrative structure
and professional staffing patterns; (2) to provide data
regarding the programs' financial and physical resources;
(3) to provide infonmation on the developmental aspects as
they relate to the program's origin, community analysis
(Did the director consider a community analysis necessary;
Was one made?); and (4) to provide information regarding
the special problems encountered as they pertain to race
as a significant consideration in staffing and white staff

involvement in an inner-city setting.

Advanta es and Problems
of Techniqpe Used

As mentioned above, this unconventional use of dif-
ferent research methods has been referred to by Sieber and
Lazarfeld as ". . . integrating techniques."2 This technique
afforded definite advantages as well as some problems.

Among the advantages were: (1) the Opportunity through the

 

1Sam D. Sieber and Paul F. Lazarfeld, The 0r aniza-
tion of Educational Research in the United States INew York:
CoIEfihia University, Bureau of Applied Social Research,
1966), p. 14.

21bid.

interview to obtain additional data not included on the
questionnaire; (2) and the opportunity to gather basic in-
formation through the questionnaire which made it unneces-
sary to consume time in the interview and chance jeopardiz-
ing rapport by asking routine organizational questions.

Some problems encountered as a consequence of em-
ploying this technique were experienced in (l) deciding
when to begin the field work, i.e., should the visits be
made prior to or after receiving the questionnaires and
other related materials; and (2) scheduling interviews with
project personnel. Because of the travel and communication
involved, the scheduling and choice of undesignated person-
nel was left to the discretion of the community service or
program director.

Because of the size of the sample, no extensive
statistical analysis is attempted. The analysis of data
will, in addition to providing an in-depth look at each
program, utilize the directors as experts in the search
for guidelines as they pertain to staffing, communication,
and programming activities in an inner-city community ser-
vices program. This approach is not accidental. From the
start, the decision was to give lower priority to methodo-
logical refinement than to the search for hypotheses and
subsequent guidelines and draw from them a model for inner-
city services programs. This approach is also a modifica-
tion of one used by Herbert J. Gans, called participant-

observation. Gans reports:

Howard D. Becker and Blanche Geer have deve10ped new
methods of participant observation and data analysis
which remove some of the dangers of post factum inter-
pretation, and make it possible to quantify data
gathered by this method. . . . The field study in
which these methods are applied is reported in H.
Becker, B. Geer, E. Hughes, and S. Strauss, Boys in
White: Student Cglture in Mggical School, C icago:
'UhIVT-3?_ChiCago Press, 196I.3—

Participant-observation is the only method I know that
enables the researcher to get close to the realities.
. . . Its deficiencies in producing quantitative data
are more than made up for by its ability to minimize
the distance between the researcher and his subject

of study.4

In defense of the analysis of data using the integrating
technique--i.e., field interview or participant-observation
--Becker, Geer, Hughes, and Strauss state:

. . . Because we wished to use our data for several
different purposes, they were not gathered in a form
that lent itself to conventional techniques of anal-
ysis which depended on data gathered in a standard-
ized way for systematic comparison and statistical
test. . . . Since our data do not permit the use

of these techniques we have necessarily turned to
what is ordinarily . . . referred to as "qualitative
analysis."

3Herbert J. Gans, The Urban Villa ers Grou and
Class in the Life of Italian3Americans (GTencoe, III.:'
The Free Press, 1962), p. 348.

41bid., p. 350.

5Howard S. Becker et a1, Bo s in White: Student
Culture in Medical School (Chicago: University of Chicago
ress, 1 , p. .

 

Need for the Study_ }
* J

The need for this study is evidenced by the lack of

_ existing programs for the disadvantaged in most community

service programs both within and without of urban areas.
In fact, the recent awareness of community service as a
community or junior college offering for the "advantaged"
contains a bleak message for the less fortunate. It is no

accident then that when new community service programs are

pestablished, problems related to the poor and disadvantaged
;sectors of the community are treated as incidentals on the

ilist of priorities. A brief look at existing community

’x; service programs at community and junior colleges will ver—

ify this. Harlacher related in a community service workshop
at Michigan State University, summer 1968, that he observed
only five or six programs for the disadvantaged when he made

his national study. Present studies (Medsker, Harlacher,

and Myran and others) do not show clearly how the problem

5 of the Black, the Mexican-American, and the poor white are

attended by existing community service programs. There is
reason to believe that this group comprisescs a section of
the community that is viewed by community colleges and com-
munity service directors as apart or separate with regard to
programming and the provision of service.

The data obtained in this study will aid in providing
a descriptive overview of each program and suggest adminis-

trative and program models for inner-city community and/or

junior colleges interested in addressing problems of the
disadvantaged.

This study should also prove useful to the current
Kellogg Community Service Leadership Program. This project,
directed by Dr. Max Raines, Michigan State university, will,
in at least one of the proposed demonstration centers, ad-
dress the problem of the inner—city disadvantaged and the
role and responsibility of the community college and its

community services program.

B ckground of Theory and Research

Community Service

The community service's function has been described
by Harlacher as being as old as Socrates. Yet, the recent
thrust in this direction by many community colleges and edu-
cators suggests that it somehow got lost along the way in
the programming and planning of too many institutions of
higher learning. The current activism in this area also
suggests that community services are still an emerging func-
tion--a very major one not yet fully realized by many com-
munity and two—year colleges. In addition tothe absence of
community services as an organized function at many commu-
nity and two-year colleges, programs for the people on the
other side of the tracks--the disadvantaged--are grossly
missing. Reynolds states:

Community services may be defined as invalving both
college and community resources conducted for the

purpose of meeting specified educational needs of
individuals or enterprises within the college or the
community.6

Harlacher reports that"many different definitions of commu-
nity services are found in the literature,"7 and cites those
given by Reynolds, Medsker and Basler. A more recent study
by Gunder Myran relates:

There is not yet general agreement as to what programs,
courses, and activities fall within the boundaries of
the community services framework. During the present
decade, however, there has been an increasing tendency
to create divisions of community services by separating
the administration of short courses, seminars, work-
shOps, lectures, concerts, and social action programs
from the administration of degree and certificate pro-
grams. Since the programs, courses, and activities
administered under community services vary from college
to college, it is difficult and perhaps not desirable
to attempt a universally applicable definition of this
concept.

Who Are the Disadvantaged?
Gordon and Wilkerson,in their book CompensatorygEduca-
tion for the Disadvantaged, ask: "Who are the . . . [people]

so poorly served by this, the most affluent nation in

history?"

 

6James W. Reynolds, Community Servicesi_The Public
Junior Colle e, Fifty—fifth Yearbook oftthe NatiBnEI Society
for thé'Stuay of Education, Part I, Chicago, The Society, 1952,
p. 141.

7Ervin L. Harlacher,"Critica1_Requirements_for the
Establishment of Effective JuniOr College Programs of Commu-
nity Services," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University
of California, Los Angeles, 1965, p. 40.

8Gunder A. Myran, "The Structure and Deve10pment of
Community Service Programs in Selected Community Colleges in
the United States," unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Michigan State University, 1969, pp. lO-ll.

This term . . . disadvantaged refers to a group of
populations which differ from each other in a number of
ways, but have in common such characteristics as low
economic status, low social status, low educational
achievement, tenuous or no employment, limited parti-
cipation in community organizations, and limited ready
potential for upward mobility. Variously referred to

as "the culturally deprived," the "socioeconomically
deprived," the “socially and culturally disadvantaged,"
the "chronically poor,""the poverty stricken" . . . and
so on, these are peOple who are handicapped by depressed
social and economic status. In many instances, they

are further handicapped by ethnic and cultural caste
status. For a number of interrelated reasons more and
more of these families are concentrated in the decaying
hearts of our great metrOpolitan centers. Predominantly
Negro, Puerto Rican, Mexican and southern rural and
mountain whites, these peOple are bearers of cultural
attitudes alien to those which are dominant in the
broader communities they now inhabit . . .

This description is supported by Riessman, Crow, Clark,
Passow, and others.

The responsibility of the inner-city two-year college
to its community is vividly portrayed in the following
statements by Benjamin Bloom, H. Miller, and Kenneth Clark,
respectively.

"For 100 years, the major economic and cultural deter-
rents to achievement in school on the part of Negro students
--and they are tragically destructive forces--have been, and
still remain those described below:

The organized system of economic, political, and edu-
cational subordination of Negroes, both in the South
and in the North, has systematically barred Negroes

from skilled or white-collar jobs in business, industry,
or government. For generations, an economic blockage

 

9Edmund Gordon and Doxey Wilkerson, gpmpensatory

Education for the Disadvanta ed Programs_gnd Practice: Pre-
school through_College, ColIege Entrance Examihation Board,
New or ’ 6; pp. 1-20

has been maintained against Negroes, with the result
that most of them felt that there was nothing to be
gained by being educated. Most of those who obtained

an education found no openings except in teaching in
Negro schools, and in the U. S. Postal Service. A

very few worked in Negro insurance companies or small
businesses. (Except for the tiny group of Negro
physicians and dentists, this was the entire educated
Negro middle class 20 years ago.) . . . In 1962, 60
percent of all non-white families in the United States
had incomes under $4,000, while only 26 percent of the
white families were in this lowest income group. Inci-
dentally, this was just a short six years ago and though
the Negro has made some economic gains the gap between
the income of Negroes and whites has widened rather than
narrowed. According to the standards defined by the
Committee on Economic DevelOpment, at least 85 percent
of the Negro families of the deep South, from which most
Negro migrants come, have incomes which place them in
the bottom economic group, the most severely deprived.
Consequently, their daily concern is with being able to
provide food and housing for their children and them-
selves. Their primary interest is in short-term goals,
for their economic life has no security as food and
shelter are on a week-to-week or month-to-month basis.10

Herman P. Miller, in his book Rich Man,_Poor Man,
idstates that "Negroes who have completed four years of col-
lege can expect to earn only as much in a lifetime as whites

11 This is true

who have not gone beyond the eighth grade."

both in the North and South. The exclusion of too many

Negroes from the benefits of economic progress through dis-

crimination in employment, education, and enforced confine—
I ment in segregated housing and schools, is cited by Kenneth
I Clark in Dark Ghetto as a factor that affects the attitude

of the Negro disadvantaged in a negative manner. He also

 

10Benjamin Bloom, A. Davis, and R. Hess, Compensatory
Education for Cultural De rivation (New York and LOhdon:
RoIt, Rhihehart & WinstBn Inc., I965), p. 29.

llHerman P. Miller, Rich Man, Poor Man (New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell Co., l96477tp. 140.

10

contends that the corrosive and degrading effects of this
condition of prejudice and the attitudes that underlie them
are the sources of the deepest bitterness and are at the

center of racial disorder.

The Inner-City Ghetto
Tom Wicker, in the introduction to the Kerner Report,
related:
Above all, the ghetto today is Black. Since white
society is far more prejudiced against Black men than
against mere foreigners, jobs and social acceptance
are harder for them to get.

Speaking further on the inner-city poor, he states:
. . . They were and they are a time-bomb ticking in
the heart of the richest nation in the history of
the world. But more than that . . . [they] are the
personification of the nation's shame, of its deep-
est failure, 3f its greatest challenge. They will
not go away.1

Addressing the Problem of the Disadvantgged

In addition to groping for its proper role with re-
jgard to itself and the community, the existing community
glservices program both 32 and out of the city finds itself
5 plagued with problems of the poor-—Black and white--the
Hispanic—speaking American, as well as the forgotten
American Indian.

As evidence of social unrest continues to mount, it
supports a widely held view that one of the most critical
areas of community concern today is the plight of the inner-
‘ pity disadvantaged. AngJ de§pite all the rhetoric_and
12Tom Wicker, Report of the National Advisor Com-

ggpsion on Ciyil Disorder (New York: Bahtham Books, E. P.
Dutton & Co. Inc., 1968), p. x.

ll

fanfare about what is being done by American higher educa-
tion, when all is assessed, it amounts to very little nation-
wide.

Two former studies of community college community
service programs by Harlacher and Myran have been primarily
concerned with the more comprehensive approach to community
service programs of colleges located in a non-urban setting.
This study will make a sharp departure from this approach
by concentrating on two—year colleges located in the inner-
city with programs specifically designed for that commu-

nity's resident, the multi-disadvantaged.

Definition of_Terms

 

For the purposes of this study, the following terms
are defined thusly:

Disadvantaged: A poor person, most often Black,
Chicano (Mexican-American), Puerto Rican, Indian, or white
who is multi-deprived--educationa1ly, economically, socially-—
and meets the government's new poverty cutoff for 1968 of
$3,553 for a non-farm family of four.

Inner-Cipy: A predominantly Black, Puerto Rican, or
Chicano community (located within a city with a pOpulation
in excess of 200,000) that approaches the Tauber Index of
100 signifying total residential segregation.

Ipner-Cipy CommunitygServices: Any services or edu-
cational programs now offered, that have previously either
consciously or unconsciously excluded the poor Black, Brown,

Yellow, Red, or Caucasian (white) American.

12

Limitations of the Stugy

This study will present a descriptive analysis of
the inner-city community services' programs surveyed. It
will not attempt to evaluate the productivity or effective-
ness of each program, as this was not a purpose of this
study. Of the six colleges selected, four were chosen be-
cause they were part of a new CEO and American Association
of Junior Colleges' Inner-City Community College Demonstra-
tion Project. The remaining two colleges were selected
upon the recommendation of Dr. Kenneth Cummiskey of the
AAJC and Dr.Max Raines of Michigan State University. The
relatively new and experimental nature of many of the pro—
grams is not viewed as a handicap, but offers an opportunity
to report problems peculiar to program development and im-
plementation in an inner-city setting.
Selected Inner-City Community and
'Uhfii0r ColIeges Used—in the Study

The community colleges chosen were selected from a
list of inner-city community and junior colleges located in
cities whose populations exceeded 200,000. Four of the col-
leges are involved in a program coordinated by the American
Association of Junior Colleges and the Office of Economic
Opportunity. Each is using a different approach in dealing
with the educational problems of the inner—city resident.
Among them are peer counseling, a student service corps,

project outreach, and a multi-project approach. At least

13

two of the remaining programs involved Black directors and
will, hopefully, provide some insight regarding problems of
white—administered programs for the ghetto resident, the
type of programs that have proven more meaningful, and the

problem of relating to participants.

Organization of the Study

The remaining chapters of this study are organized
as follows:

Chapter II is based on a review of related literature
regarding the inner—city community college, the inner-city
disadvantaged citizen, and community services in urban com-
munity colleges.

Chapter III (Methods of Procedures Re: Data Collec-
tion) describes the procedures preparation and methodology
used for collecting the data.

Each of the college's programs is described in Chap-
ter IV and includes an analysis of the data collected as it
relates to the four major areas under question: (1) adminis-
trative structure, (2) financial and physical resources, (3)
deve10pmenta1 features, and (4) special problems.

Chapter V (Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations)
provides a summary and conclusion and a recommended model
for an inner-city community services program that, hopefully,
can be used by other inner-city community service adminis-

trators.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter focuses on a review of related litera-
ture as it pertains to a brief overview regarding the his-
tory of community services, significant characteristics of
the disadvantaged, the nature of the inner—city, the re-
sponse of the urban community college, and the federal
government's effort to close the opportunity gap.

A Brief Historical Overview of the
__”C5mmfihitYT§erviEes‘Ffinction—

"The genesis of the community service function in
f the community college can be traced to two different move—
ments in American education, the community school concept
in the public schools and the community development concept
in the four-year institution of higher education."1

A more recent study by Myran lists the historical
antecedents of community services as:

. . . The lyceum movement, . . . started in the 1820's;
the Chautauqua movement . . .; land grant colleges . . .
[established] in the mid-1800's; c00perative extension

. . . established by the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, and

encouraged the use of agricultural technology by bring-
ing the results of research to the farmer . . .; the

 

1Harlacher, "Junior College Programs," p. 41

14

15

community school . . . [as] typified by the Mott adult
education and recreation program of the Flint [Michigan]
Board of Education, [and] Univegsity extension [which]
began in the late 1800's . . ."

During the post-World War II period, adult education (with a
heavy emphasis on vocational education) was credited as the
most significant community service antecedent.
Studies by Medsker, Morton, Harlacher, and Myran, in
general agree with Reynolds on the components of community
services. This list adapts and supplements a list by H.
Curtiss Mial, and includes many of the following functions:
. . . [l] mutual aid for meeting college community
needs; [2] community-experience programs; [3] commu-
nity study and research problems; [4] public—affairs
education; [5] specialized community services such as
those related to economic conditions, public education,
health, cultural and recreational activities; [6] com-
munity development; [7] leadership training; [8] the
use of mass media for communication; [9] public rela-
tions programs; [10] community use of school plant;
[11] and formal adult-education programs.

Raines, in a recent taxonomy on community services, has

identified some 18 functions ranging from Career Develop-

ment to Program Evaluation.4

This attempt to clarify what constitutes community
services should aid in correcting a condition found in a
study by Morton which states:

Some felt that everything the college did was a com-
munity service while others felt that community serv-

ices were extraneous to a college's normal daily
programs of degree granting curriculum. Though some

 

2Myran,"Community Services Programs{'pp. 18-19.

3Reynolds, Communipy Services, p. 144.

4Myran, "Community Services Programs," Appendix C.

16

confusion as to what constitutes community services
was found among administrators, it was generally found
that they are looked upon as being special activities
and functions which are not a part of the daily degree
granting programs.
For special emphasis, excerpts of a statement by Myran are
repeated: "There is not yet general agreement as to what
programs, courses and activities fall within the boundaries
of the community services framework." And ". . . since the
programs, courses, and activities administered under commu-
nity services vary from college to college, it is difficult
and perhaps not desirable to attempt a universally applicable
definition of this concept."6
It might be well to suggest here that for the purposes
of teaching and research, a definition of community services
might be both desirable and necessary.
0n the other hand, with regard to serving the disad-
vantaged community, a definition of community services that
is universally acceptable may seem even less desirable and
necessary because of its delimiting potential in terms of
programming and the provision of services.
Socioeconomic changes of the past . . . [few] years
have created new educational needs from the standpoint
of the individual person and . . . the social order.
. . . These changes have implications for the general,
preparatory and vocational education programs, and also
in the comparatively_new field of community services. . .
SPaul Wesley Morton, "Community Services of the Com-
munity Colleges in the State of Pennsylvania," unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Lehigh University, 1966, p. 109.
6Gunder A. Myran, Community Services Working Papers

Number 1: First Definitions and'SéIected‘EiampIes (WaShington,
5. C.: American Association of CoIlegéE, 1969}, pp. 1-2.

17

Since a community services program [especially for the
inner-city resident] entails a [drastic] departure
from the traditional concept of the functions of a
college, certain essential factors must be recognized.

The college personnel must have a definite commitment,
[and] . . . understanding of the importance of such a
program, and . . . the community to be served must have
an understanding of what is being done by the college.
. . . It should be realized from the outset that an ex-
pansion of the educational program into the field of
community services [for the disadvantaged] will require
additional staff members, facilities and expense."
[Italics added.]

Higher Education's Failure to
Serve the Disadvantaged

 

If, as Harlacher relates, the community college is

". . . committed by philOSOphy to the specific purpose of

8

serving all members of the community [,J" little evidence

was found in reviewing the literature that this is more
than a rhetorical position taken by many two- and four—
year colleges. A study conducted by Robert Sidnell regard-
ing the community service of the junior college in the fine
arts culture of the community, asks "Are all socio-economic

strata served equally by the junior college program, the

fine arts culture and the interaction of the two?"9 The

results revealed that most of those in the disadvantaged

7Reynolds, Community Services, p. 160.

8Harlacher,"Junior College Programs," p. 37.

9Robert G. Sidnell, "The Influence of the Tyler
Junior College on the Fine Arts Culture of Tyler, Texas,"
unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas,
1960, p. 4.

18

community, the Blacks, were not even aware a junior college
existed in their community. A

A statement by Noah Porter in 1869 depicts the his-
torical posture of the college regarding its commitment to
the poor and the provision of services to the entire commu-
nity: ". . . The college community is emphatically an 2327
lated community more completely separated and further re-
moved than almost any other from the ordinary and almost
universal pervading influence of family [and community]

life."10

Birenbaum reports: Clark Kerr says that "today's
urban universities are less involved in urban problems than
they were in the 1930's. They are in the urban setting,
but not of it."11
"[But] now a field of new and major importance faces
the community college, calling for an expansion of services
much beyond their present sc0pe and focused upon the needs
of out-of—school youth and adults who live in the inner-city

12

of the nation's metrOpolitan areas." This group, more

often than not, is referred to as the disadvaptgged.

 

The Nature of the Disadvantaged
Riessman cites several characteristics peculiar to
the culture gfthe underprivileged. ". . .[The] deprived

10Reynolds, Commugityigervices, p. 160.

 

 

11William M. Birenbaum, Overline-Power Povert and
the University (New York: Dell-PuhIishing Co., nc., .)
12

Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., This Is the Community
College (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968), p. 87.

19

individual feels alienated, not fully a part of society,
left out [and] frustrated in what he can [and can't] do.
. . . He holds the world [not himself] responsible for his
misfortunes: consequently he is much less apt to suffer
pangs of self blame. Many of . . . [his] patterns of be-

havior while acceptable to the majority, may be compatible

13

with successful urban living." Carothers, in his book

Kegpers of the Poor, indicates a line of definitions that
mark the poor.

According to a statement . . . by R. Sargent Shriver,
Jr., former Director of the Office of Economic Oppor-
tunity . . . May 3, 1965, the poor are to be defined
as those in a family of 4 whose combined income is
less than $3,130 per year or a single person whose
income is under $1,540 per year. This puts a family
of 2 at about $1,990 per year and a family of 3 at
about $2,440 per year.

Typically included in this rubric are children from
families with low socio-economic status (as measured
by the occupation of the breadwinner, educational at-
tainment of the parents, income, place of residence,
etc.); people from minority groups (as determined by
recent immigration of families from countries outside
the United States [,] . . . groups that have been
residents for generations) and of a minority racial
status (in particular Negroes and Indians who have
been in caste-like status in this country for genera—
tions). These definitions usually have in common the
element of poverty or low income in relation to the
median income of most white Americans.

IsFrank—Riess‘man, "'I' he Culture of Ehe'Under‘p'ri'vIIeged:

 

 

A NewLOOIS'Staten w. Webster (ed.), The Disadvantaged
Learner: Knowin Understandin E uca ing an Francisco:
Chandler PuBIi hi 5

5 ng ompany, I9 677

14J. Edward Carothers, Kee ers of the Poor (Cin-
cinnati, Ohio: Board of Missions o e et 0 15 Church,
1966), p. 26.

15

Susan S. Stodolsky and Gerald S. Lesser, Learnipg

Patterns in the Disadvanta ed (New York, N. Y.: YeEhiva
University, Ferhaugh Graduate School, 1967), p. 16.

20

David Gordon, in studying how many New Yorkers share

in the city's mountains of corporate wealth, has divided the

city's population into five classes according to income dis-

tribution. Based on a budget standard that defines a cer—

tain quality of standard of living, he calculates the income

required by different family sizes to achieve that standard.

And, commenting on the dissatisfaction of the poor with re-

gard to the uneven distribution of the nation's wealth, he

states:

are

To the extent that the basic source of discontent in
New York is the inadequate dispersion of income, the
city's problems dg6not differ from those of the nation
as a whole. . . .

The five standardized income classes cited by Gordon
as follows:

Class I "Poor'families; $0 to $3,500 annual income for
a family of four.

Class II "Low income" families earning between the
poverty line and the "lower than moderate" budget
level; $3,500 to $6,000 for a family of four.

Class III "Modest income“ families receiving between
the "lower than moderate" and "modest but adequate"
standards; $6,000 to $9,400 for a family of four.

Class IV "Moderate income" families receiving between
the "modest but adequate" and the "higher than moderate"
standards; $9,400 to $14,500 for a family of four.

Class V "Affluent families" receiving above the "higher
than moderate" budget level; above $14,500 for a family
of four.

 

The

16David Gordon, "Income and Welfare in New York City,"
Public Interesp, No. 16 (Summer, 1969), p. 88.

21

Distribution of familiesa in New York among "constant

consumption" incomeclasses, January 1968, by ethnicity

 

 

Income Percent of a Percent of
Class White Families Black and Puerto
Rican Familiesa
I Poor families 3.7 28.4
II Low income
families 13.6 31.1
III Modest income
families 29.6 23.3
IV Moderate income
families 27.5 13.0
V Affluent families 25.6 4.2
100.0 100.0

 

aExcluding families with heads of sixty-five and over.

Source: David Gordon, "Income and Welfare in New York
City," The Public Interest, No. 16 (Summer,
1969), p. 88.

 

Although minority families represent only 28.6 per cent
of all families in the city, they comprise a full 75.6
per cent of "poor" families, almost half (47.9 per cent)
of "low income" families, and only 6.3 percent of
"affluent" families.

The Law and the Poor

The foregoing conditions have been referred to by one

writer as the "culture of poverty" and are reflected in this

statement regarding the law and the poor. "To us [white

middle class Americans], laws and regulations are protec-

tions and guides, established for our benefit and for us to

 

l7Ibid., pp. 71-72.

22

use. But to the poor they are a hostile maze, established
as harrassment, at all costs to be avoided."18 "We are com-
ing to recognize that the legal assistance we have given
some poor men has been only a beginning. . . . The scales
are now tipped against the poor. . . . The solution is not
charity, but justice."19 William Grier and Price Cobbs,

authors of Black Ragg, suggest that "men reduced to the

 

status of non-persons and removed from the protection of the
social code can hardly be expected to honor responsibilities
imposed by that code. . . . We suggest that there is no
more efficient way to produce a thief than to steal a man's
substance and command that he hold his place."20
Implied in the previous section is the lack of will
and commitment on the part of the most affluent nation on
earth to address the issue of national poverty. Robert
Theobald states in his book An Alternative Future for
America that:
The barriers to the elimination of poverty are not
[solely] economic. . . . The barriers are moral and
social. The United States is not willing to apply its

vast productive potential to the elimination of pov-
erty and hides its unwillingness with statements 7% .

 

18Jacobus ten Broek (ed.), The Law of the Poor (San
Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, I9667, p. 62?

19Ibid., "Address by Attorney General Nicholas deB.
Katzenbach to the National Conference on Law and Poverty,"
Washington, D. C., June 24, 1965.

20William H. Grier and Price M. Cobbs, Black Rage
(New York: Bantam Books, 1968), p. 93.

23

21

about the need for motivation and incentives. [Ital-

ics added.]
A similar implication regarding commitment can also be cast
at the level of community services in the inner-city commu-
nity college. The successful provision of educational ser-
vice to the inner-city community will necessarily require

institutional commitment.

The Inner-City
As mentioned previously, Tom Wicker states that,

above all, the ghetto is Black. Kenneth Clark identifies
”Eleven metrOpolitan areas that have Black communities of
between 200,000 and one million: New York, Chicago, Los
Angeles, Detroit, Philadelphia, Washington D. C., St. Louis,
Baltimore, Cleveland, Houston and New Orleans . . . [and re-
lates that] in every one of these cities, . . . Blacks are
compelled to live in concentrated ghettos where there must
be a continuous struggle to prevent decadence from winning
over the remaining islands of middle-class society."22

The separation of America's 20 million . . . Blacks

(approximately 11 per cent of the total population)

from the white population in the United States in

meaningful primary group contacts . . . has been at-

tested to in . . . community studies and . . . sur-

veys by . . . Drake and Cayton, Frazier, . . . Davis

and the Garagers, Dollard, Davie, D. Johnson and
R. Johnson.

 

21Robert Theobald, An Alternative Future for America,
(Chicago: Swallow Press, Inc., , p. .
22

Kenneth Clark, Dark Ghetto (New York: Harper and
Row, 1965), p. 23.

23Milton M. Gordon, Assimilation in American Life
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp. 163-164.

24

Typical of the inner-city ghetto is the following

description by Clark. Using Harlem as a symbol, he states:
. . . In all of Harlem there is no museum, no art gal-
lery, no art school, no sustained little theater group
. . . only five libraries—-but hundreds of bars, hun-
dreds of churches and scores of fortune tellers.

It is in a state of economic and social decay and
its residents are afflicted by

. . low aspirations, poor education, family instabil-
ity, illegitimacy, unemployment, crime, drug addiction
and alcoholism, frequent illness and early death. . . .
The most Eoncrete fact of the ghetto is its physical
ugliness.

Joseph Himes in an article in The Disadvantaged
Learner supports this view regarding lack of recreational
and cultural outlets with the following statement concerning
inner-city teenage culture and "the street."

The street as a social institution is an important
factor in . . . [inner-city] culture . . . . It is
frequented by teenagers as well as adults. . . .
Within this environment—~relatively free from re-
strictions and taboos of the dominant moral order--
the habitue receives a sense of belonging and a
greater feeling of personal worth. . . . 0n the
street he is ready to laugh, play and have fun. He
is equally prepared to feud, fuss and fight.25

In addition to being Black, the inner-city in some

states is also Spanish-speaking, in others,Puerto Rican.

The Spanish-SpeakingJ Inner-City Poor
Julian Samora, in his book La Roza: The Forgotten

American, in speaking of the Spanish-speaking, states:

 

24Clark, Dark Ghetto, p. 27.

25Joseph Himes, "Negro Teenage Culture," in The Dis-
advantaged Learner: Knowing, Understandin Educatin
Staten Webster, ed. TSan Francisco: ChandIer Puinshing
CO., 1966), pp. 166-1670

 

25

The Mexican-American population in the United States
was numerically insignificant until the turn of the
century. Between 1910 and 1930 there was a very large
immigration from Mexico. The immigrants were primarily
laborers who came to work in the agricultural expansion
of the Southwest. Some came to work on the railroads
in both the South and Middlewest. Others traveled as
far North and East as Chicago and Detroit . . .

There are nearly four million persons with Spanish-
Mexican antecedents in five southwestern states: 2
Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico and Texas.

By far a greater part of the migration from Mexico
has occurred within the past 50 years and continues today.
Many are victims of poverty and hardship as described in
one of a series of articles in a major Michigan daily:

Most of the 50,000 migrant workers who are harvesting
Michigan's fruit and vegetable crOps this summer will
reap their own grim harvest of misery and poverty.
Nomads who move from state to state and crOp to crOp,
they have no money, no power and no voting rights.
"They are not even second class citizensé" said State
Representative James Bradley, D-Detroit. 8

Herman P. Miller warns that "the 'typical' Easterner
thinks of Spanish-Americans as migrant farm workers. This
may have been the case at one time, but it was far from true
in 1960. Spanish—Americans in California and Texas are pre-
dominantly urbanites-—85 percent in California and 79 per-

. O O 29
cent in Texas l1ve in urban areas.”

 

26Julian Samora (ed.), La Roza: Forgotten American
(Notre Dame, Ind.: University oftNotre Dame Press, 19667,
pp. xii-xiii.

27Ibid.’ p. 1.

28The Detroit News, Aug. 8, 1969, p. 4a.

29Miller,_R_ich Man, Poor Man, p. 116.

26

Further research revealed that while Spanish-Ameri-
cans are not as well off as whites, they are better off
than B1acks--with the exception of Colorado where both
groups are small in number--and Indians. Though two years
behind in their schooling, Spanish-Americans in California

had a median income of $2,800, $300 above the Negro median.

Puerto Ricans in the Inner-City

Puerto Ricans represent one of the newer minority
groups in the United States. There were about 856,000
Puerto Ricans living in this country at the time of
the last census (1960). Nearly three out of every
four lived in New York City . . . Half of the . . .
families had incomes under $3,800 in 1959 . . . Four
out of every five families had incomes under $6,000

in 1959 . . . The average Puerto Rican in the city

had only 7-1/2 years of schooling as compared with 9-1/2
years for Negroes and nearly 10—1/2 years for whites.
One out of every two adult Puerto Ricans in New York
City had not gone beyond the seventh grade and nearly
three out of every four had no formal education beyond
the eighth grade. 0

Some Commonalities among the Poor

Though many diversities exist within each of the
above-mentioned inner-city groups, it might be well to sum-
marize some of the characteristics that are peculiar to each,
and affect them all. Anthony Mensah, in a study of Mil-
waukee's Inner-City - North Negro Community, relates: "The
urban Negro's three greatest problems are 1222, schools and

housing."31
30

Among the available literature, this statement

 

Ibid., pp. 104-106.

31Anthony J. Mensah, "Social Commitment: A Study to
Determine an Effective Participation for Urban Universities
in Poverty Programs in America's Turbulent Cities, with Spe-
cial Reference to the People of Milwaukee's Inner-City - North
Negro Community," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Marquette
University, 1968, p. 16.

27

is supported by Woods, Jacobs and Gardner, and others.

Anthony Downs includes in his study Who Are the Urbag Poor?

the following randomly selected findings: (All statistics
here are based on the official Social Security Administra-
tion's definition of poverty.)

In 1966, about 12.1 per cent of the total metropolitan-
area population of the United States--or 15.2 million
persons--lived in poverty.

Within metropolitan areas, the prOportion of poor
people in 1966 was almost twice as high in central
cities (16.2 per cent) as in suburbs (8.6 per cent).

About two-thirds of all poor persons in metropolitan
areas in 1966 were white, and one-third nonwhite.
However, the prOportion of all metropolitan-area
whites who were poor (9.3 per cent) was less than one-
third the proportion of such nonwhites who were poor
(32.1 per cent).

(a) About 82 per cent of the poor nonwhites and 53
per cent of the poor whites in metropolitan
areas lived in central cities.

From 1959 to 1966, the total number of poor persons in
the United States drOpped by 9.2 million (or by 23.6
per cent), from 38.9 million to 29.7 million.

About 47 per cent of all poor in metropolitan areas are
in households that cannot be expected to become econom-
ically self-sustaining at any time in the future. These
households include the elderly, disabled males under 65
and females under 65 with children.

Nearly one-third of all poor persons in metropolitan
areas (31.4 per cent) are in households headed by em-
ployed men under 65 whose poverty_results from low

earnin s rathertthan unem lo mentt—disabiiit or old
age. IItaIics added.|

About 6.3 million poor . . . in metropolitan areas--or
41.7 per cent of all such peOple in l966--were children
under 18. The poverty in which they lived is likely to
inflict them in such a way as to reduce their future
income-earning capabilities.

(a) Almost two-thirds of these . . . children lived in
central cities, and over half . . . were nonwhite.

28

Although poverty is technically defined as having a
very low annual income, for many . . . it is also a
chronic state of failure, disability, dependency, de-
feat, and inability to share in most of American
society's major material and Spiritual benefits. Their
continuance in this deprived state is reinforced by
many institutional arrangements in our society3 in-
cluding those supposedly designed to aid them. 2

An editorial in the Christian Science_Monitgr high-
lights the problem of white racism and unemployment experi—
enced by the inner-city disadvantaged in such cities as
Detroit, Boston, and Chicago:

. . . Only 2 per cent of Pittsburgh's 30,000 building
trade union membership is [B]lack-—in a city with 20
per cent [B]lack population. Despite a tight labor
situation (workers have had to be imported from other
regions to help with the city's building boom) not

many apprentices are being trained. 0f the 200 ap-
prentices trained this year, about a sixth were [B]lack.
. . . The construction job interest among [B]lacks is
heightened by the fact that such jobs are available
right in their midst.33

This incident and much of the information in the pre-
ceding section have broad implications for community service
programs designed to upgrade the technical skills of hard-
core disadvantaged,and involves such allied problems as ef-
fective communication techniques necessary for reaching the
inner-city community; the problem of white staff involvement
in inner-city community college programs and the broad role
of an effective inner-city community services program func-

tioning as an intercessory between the inner-city resident

and his community.

 

32Anthony Downs, Who Are the Urban Poor7, Committee
for Economic Development Shpplementary Paper Number 26,

33The Christian Science Monitor, "Signs from
Pittsburgh," Sept? 4: i969, Section 2, editorial page.

 

29

The Inner-Citngommunity College,

Erickson reports that "From 1900 to 1960 the public
junior college flourished primarily in smaller urban centers
. . . But in recent years . . . it has grown rapidly in big
cities, even those already served by four-year colleges and
universities. Multi-campus junior colleges are already es-
tablished in Chicago, St. Louis, Los Angeles and Oakland

34 He cites the

and are projected for several other cities."
several factors responsible for this recent development as:
(1) the rural-to-urban population shift; (2) selective pop—
ulation migration; (3) the high birthrate of the post-war
years which is producing a rapid increase in the college-age
papulation; (4) the rapid changes in technology; and (5) the
increasing understanding shown by administrators and boards
of senior colleges regarding the role of the "open-door"
junior and community college in the world of higher education.
One of the most recent accounts of the inner-city com-

munity college development is provided by Gleazer, who states:

Since 1960 community colleges have been established for
the first time in. . . the following cities:

Philadelphia St. Louis Seattle Dayton
Boston Miami Portland Minneapolis
Pittsburgh Dallas Spokane Newark 35
Cleveland Fort Worth Birmingham Rochester.

The history of the urban community college is a brief

one, as the above statements suggest. Its task, however, is

 

——

34Clifford Erickson, "Multi-Campus Operation in the

Big City," Junior College Journal, Vol. 35, No. 2 (October,
1964), pp. - o

3SGleazer, Community College, p. 87.

30

monumental, for as Birenbaum states:

We have created an overlive society—-a country in which a
substantial number of citizens do not share in the techno-
logical angeindustrial success which is there for all to
see . . .

But . . . there are no answers in the back of the book;
in former periods the population of the inner-city was
of concern to the college community only as an object
of research . . . Now a field of new and major impor-
tance faces the community college, calling for an ex-
pansion of services much beyond their present scope and
focused upon needs of out-of—school youth and adults
who live in the inner-cities of the nation's metropoli-
tan areas . . . Unquestionably, patterns of educational
services which were devised to suit the practical re-
quirements of a rural population must find an equiva-
lent expression today in urban culture. Proposals have
been made for grant universities in some sixty-seven
cities. These would take their places along side the
sixty-seven land—grant universities established Under
the Morrill Act of 1862 . . . and promote the liberal
and practical education of those industrial classes. 7

Extending educational services to the poor is not a
recent concept. Potter reports ". . . an act passed in 1735

for employing and providing [elementary school education]

for the poor of Boston."38 The role of higher education in

extension of educational services to the poor is in part
reflected in the following statement by Koch and Wooley:

Most universities have well-defined extension programs,
usually for the benefit of professionals such as teachers
who wish to advance in their careers. Some offer informal
courses in cultural subjects . . . geared to an already
well-educated segment of the community. The community
college, on the other hand, can render a new service by
using these two types of programs and directing them in-
stead toward ths semi-skilled worker . . . or toward the
undereducated.3

36

37Gleazer, Communipy College, pp. 87-98.
38Robert E. Potter, The Stream of American Education
(New York: American Book Company, 1 , p. .

39Moses S. Koch and Priscilla M. Wooley, ”An Opportun-
ity for Community Colleges," JUnior College Journal, Vol. 36,
No. 2 (1967), p. 26.

Birenbaum, Overlive-Power, pp. 2-3.

31

The authors warn, however, that:
. . . A special kind of faculty will be required for
these prdgrams, perhaps . . . anusually gifted ele-
mentary school teachers . . .4 [Italics added]
Kirschner suggests that ". . . those . . . [factors]
that have been isolated as effective for learning by school
children should be tested for their effectiveness with vary-

41 If these factors and tech-

ing populations of adults,"
niques can be assumed to be effective with educationally dis-
advantaged adults, a shortage of qualified staff for inner-
city community colleges and community services poses serious
implications for effective educational programs. One such
factor is pointed out by Robert Green in speaking of one
city's special school project that focused on improving the
language patterns of disadvantaged youth.
Once again, it was observed that the attitude that the
teachers [staff] hold toward [the] economically and educa-
tionally poor . . . is a critical factor in their progress
. . . No longer can a . . . [staff member] work, comfort-
ably isolated within the ivory tower of his university,
and still maintain an accurate understanding of the com-
plexities involved in teaching [and working with thig
economically and educationally disadvantaged. . . .
Other related factors that pose significant implica-
tions for inner-city community college staff who work with

disadvantaged include concern for their self-concept

 

4°Ibid., p. 26.

41Corrine Kirschner, "Motivating to Learn," in Basic
Education for the Disadvanta ed Adult: Theor and Practice,
ed. 5y FranE W. Lanning and aesley A. Many (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1966), p. 109.

42Robert Green, "Intellectual Development among Dis-
advantaged Youth," in Urban Schooling, ed. by Herbert C. Rudman
and Richard L. Feathers one ew Yor : Harcourt Brace and
Wbrld, Inc., 1968), pp. 192-193.

‘\_-p‘ '

32

(Brookover, Kvaraceus, Rogers, Maslow, Combs, and Riessman),
and their expectations of a student as well as the student's
expectation of himself (Rosenthal and Jacobson). For the
educationally and economically disadvantaged adult brings
with him all the educational, emotional, and economic defi-
ciencies of a childhood, enhanced by age.

The failure of institutions of higher education to
address the needs of this segment of the community--E§e|
pggrr-can be attributed in large part tolggat John Gardner

refers to in the snail-like pace of school desegregation,

‘ggjvalue conflicts.

The type of tactics employed to meet the problems are
directly related to the values held by the socio-polit-
ical and educational power structure. . . The attitudes
held regarding the desirability of desegregation are
directly related to the values held in regard to racial
prejudice and to the priorities given these values by
both the community at large and education professions. 3

The findings in a study by Mensah--mentioned earlier--that
assessed the importance of various social agencies on inner-
city ghetto residents living on Milwaukee's north side sup-
ports these ideas and concludes that:

Judging from the response of all 250 agencies in this
program, one can support the thesis that most social
agencies were set up for problems other than those of
the present day Negro ghetto areas. Consequently, they
do not see themselves adjusted enough to embody that
community in these programs. . . . The silence on rec-
ommendations by some primary public agencies and the
irrelevance of some of their recommendations add up to
the general view that most agencies would prefer to have
things the way they are. . . . Those agencies that posi-
tively responded to . . . request for university help,
seek new programs that improve their staff . . . Others
solicit help to improve on their own services.

43Robert J. Havighurst, "Change the Child," Urban
Review, Vol. 3, No. 5 (April, 1969), p. 4.

44Mensah, "Social Commitment," p. 88.

33

If this behavior of institutions in higher educa-
tion is typical-~and the conspicuous scarcity of literature,
programs, and inner-city community colleges reflecting con-
cern for the inner-city poor prior to 1960 suggest that it
is--the current "social revolution" is understandably long
overdue. For "no segment of society has as much talent
and resources to develop innovations in society, welfare . . .

and other areas than institutions of higher education."45

Closing the O ortunity Gap:
The Ufban ColIege Response

Though much of the previous information points a

 

 

rather dismal picture, urban colleges and universities do

1 offer some promise as instruments in these communities with
the potential for helping repair the social ills of the
inner—city. One author suggests that "To solve the gaps
and frustrations of higher education, education will have
to be overhauled from Kindergarten up;[[present] resources
are being too heavily drained by remediatioriflfi6 The prob-
1em extends far beyond the academic community, however.
Colleges and universities located in the inner-city repre-
sent only one element in the social and economic fabric of

our cities. They cannot be expected to, in "solo fashion"

 

45Ronald Lee, Assistant Postmaster General, in speech

at Michigan State University, May 9, 1969, Michigan State
News, May 12, 1969, p. 3.
45R. Frank Mensel, "Federal Support for Two-Year
Colleges: A Whole New Ballgame," Junior College Journal,
Vol. 40, No. 1 (September, 1969), p. I6.

‘\ a

34

fbring about the salvation of our cities. They must c00per-

I
I

V

ate with, solicit, and receive the cooperation of government
agencies at all levels as well as that of the private sector.
Currently, several basic directions may be observed

among two- and four-year institutions and other agencies
attempting to meet the needs of the disadvantaged. Richard-
son and Elsner suggest that in the area of general education
the first and most common attempt involves the piecemeal
offering of remedial or developmental courses; a second
more ambitious approach consists of the structuring of a
unified program of remedial courses of one or two semesters
in length; a third method evolving from the remedial ap-
proach has shifted to a concept of terminal preparation for
entrance into an occupation; a fourth approach involves the
use of programmed learning. The authors add that ". . .
while programmed materials are not suggested as any type of
panacea, their intelligent and selective use under carefully
controlled conditions may well be a major part of the answer
to the repair function of inner-city 2 year colleges."4"7
Community and federal agencies are found offering the fol-
lowing programs:

Chicggo Citngunior Colleges:

A Basic Education program that consists of one year of

pre-college works in reading, writing, speaking, social

science and the humanities. In addition to the Basic

Program, all campuses offer remedial courses, writing,
spelling, speaking, reading and math.

 

4F’Richard C. Richardson and Paul Elsner, "General
Education for the Disadvantaged," Junior College Journal,
Vol. 36, No. 4 (December l965/January 19667: pp. 18-21.

35

A special curriculum to train assistants to city plan-
ners was instituted here. Initiated under a 1964 Hous-
ing and Urban Development grant that furnished two-
thirds of the funds, this curriculum provides courses
in general education, traditional subjects like geog—
raphy, sociology and specialized courses in city plan—
ning. Perhaps the most significant conclusion reached
that could have curriculum implications for inner-city
programs, is that the type of assistant needed must
always be defined hy_theyprofessionals_in the area and
that the curriculum muSt stem from a job analysis.

fir‘lwr‘
_ ~ -. . t
I . . U

u.

Central Y.M.C.A. Communiry College:

Operating a program known as SET-GO, an acronym for Sup-
port and Encouragement for Talent, Gateway to Opportu-
nity, Central Y College in Chicago works with high-risk
students through assessing their potential for college
and helping other colleges recognize the kinds of safe-
guards this type of student needs. Placing great em-
phasis on counseling, a staff of 3 outreach workers,
assisted by 12 college work—study students and a number
of indigenous staff, the program is able to relate per—
sonally to high school dropouts and graduates in 200
street groups and identify a wide range of talent that
would otherwise be missed.

The Facilities Response: Building
Ndighborhodds Not Campuses

A publication by the Educational Facilities Labora-
tories, Inc., a nonprofit corporation established by the Ford
Foundation to help schools and colleges in the United States
and Canada with their physical problems, states:

The nation's colleges and universities particularly
those in the cities, can and should be a prime resource
and a catalyst in the remaking of the cities and the
treatment of the deep-seated ills wrecking the urban
society.

Many of the more than 200 urban institutions of higher
learning have responded to that message by initiating
a welter of proggams dealing with the whole range of
urban_problems.

48Campus_i_n the City, A Report from Educational Fa-
cilities LaBOratories, New York, N. Y., p. 1, 1968.

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36

Unfortunately, however, in the past, most urban institutions
have rarely become involved in the physical problems Of the
neighborhoods around them. ". . . In fact, the planners of
our urban institutions historically have tried to create
bucolic islands Of academe within the cities campuses that

denied their urbanism."49

Many critics of urban institu-
tions uuse Of Section 112 Of the 1959 Housing Act that pro-
vided a new tool for campus expansion and neighborhood re-
newal, state, however, that ". . . the real motivation behind
most university involvement in renewal admittedly has been
selfish, in fact defensive in nature."50

Currently, many forces are causing urban institutions
to take a new look at their campuses and how they should be
put together as well as function in serving its inner-city
clientele. Listed among these forces are: (1) the increas-
ing short supply of urban real estate and its expensiveness;
(2) the exempt tax status Of colleges and universities that
further shrinks an already withered tax base in the cities; and
(3) the higher cost Of construction in cities as Opposed to
the suburbs and the further removed countryside.

In response to these political and fiscal realities,
EFL reports that a number Of inner-city colleges and univer—
sities have come up with imaginative solutions to their
problems. Thus:

49Ibid., pp. 1-2.

soIbid., p.3.

The dawning commitment Of urban colleges and universi-
ties to a new role in their communities has significant
physical ramifications. Here and there, institutions
are beginning to throw outposts into the city. In a
number Of instances, community services and facilities
are . . . found within the campus. A pioneering hand-
ful Of institutions have accepted the need for a total
physical commitment to the community. These institu-
tions are beginning to_plan neighborhoods rather than
cam uses. The institutional outposts in most cases are
tac111t1es housing new social, health, or recreational
rO ram Operated by the univer51t1es for Uthan commu-
n1ties.§

Some examples follow:

A new four-year college is being planned for Brooklyn
by the Education Affiliate of the Bedford—Stuyvesant
DevelOpment and Services Corporation. The college, as
yet unnamed, will take a number of experimental ap-
proaches. It will Operate on a lZ-month calendar and
a 6-day week. It will assure part—time employment to
every student under an internship program linked to
the student's academic program. Students will help
administer the college. Negro students from existing
colleges in the metropglitan area wiii BE employed as
tutorsi—MStudents willggpend’the summer pridr to formal
admission workipggon the skiIis neEded to succeed in
college and wiil continue such studies as long as re-
quired.

The college is scheduled to Open in the fall of 1968, ac—
commodating some 300 students in converted commercial

or residential structures. The probability is that the
college always will Operate in renovated buildings and
that these will be scattered or "woven" through the com-
munity, so that the college and other aspects of commu—
nity life will be intimately linked. The linear, dis-
persed approach to the Bedford-Stuyvesant campus origi-
nated with Dr. William M. Birenbaum, President Of the
Education Affiliate.

The new Borough of Manhattan Community College in New
York currently is searching for the best way tO create
a high-rise campus for 5,000 students on a four-and-a-
half-acre site. Planners Of the two-year institution
hope to create a prototype for urban, high-rise commu-
nity colleges that will foster close links with the

 

511bid., p. 10.

38

surrounding neighborhood and with nearby businesses
and governmental institutions.

At both the Milwaukee campus Of the University of Wis-
consin and the new South Side campus of Chicago City
College, the air space over city streets will be em-
ployed as building sites. New York City will build a
l4-acre platform over a railroad yard to accommodate
an entire new campus for Bronx Community College.

The University of Chicago plans to build a neighborhood
social service andfichild care center for the Woodlawn
neighborhood. Rather than creating an outpost, the
University plans to locate the center on campus, setting
up what might be called an inpost. The child care cen-
ter and social service functions, including local Of-
fices of city agencies, will be housed in separate wings
Of the structure. Their proximity is expected to give
the agencies better contact with the community, particu-
larly with the families of children enrolled in the day
care program.

This same university in another one of its community
programs, has contracted with the Chicago Board of Edu-
cation to adOpt four Chicago public schools in the WOOd-
lawn district, adjacent to the campus, and establish an
experimental school district. Utilizing federal and
foundation aid and University resources, the district
will spend $800 per child more than normal annual ex-
penditures in the Chicago schools in an effort to provide
an education tailored to the needs Of deprived pupils.
Eventually, new school facilities will be built under
supervision of the University to house the new programs.

In St. Paul, Minnesota, Macalester College has "adOpted"
its surrounding neighborhood to a distance Of one-
half mile from the campus perimeter. In cooperation
with city agencies and community interests, the College
will sponsor and finance a comprehensive community de-
velopment plan covering land use, pedestrian traffic
circulation, utilities, parking, and recreation.

Seattle University will locate a new $3.2 million phys-
ical education and convocation center two blocks away
from the campus and inside a Model Cities project area.
The center is designed to serve not only the university
but the community and will accommodate organized
recreational programs for community youth as well as a
new, University-affiliated Boy Scout program. It is
hOped that the programs and the center will serve as
devices to help persuade underprivileged youth to con-
tinue their education.

39

The University of Pennsylvania is providing financial
encouragement to its faculty and staff to purchase and
rehabilitate housing in the University area of Phila-
delphia. Under a University agreement with a local
bank, qualified personnel can Obtain 40-year mortgages
at the going interest rate and covering up to 100 per
cent of purchase price plus the cost of necessary re-
pairs and rehabilitation. By salting the neighborhood
in this fashion, the University expects to stabilize
its community and claims that the program already has
resulted in the improvement Of public schools in the
area. (Harvard and Chicago, among others, make similar
efforts by Offering university-financed second mortgages.)

The Tufts-New England Medical Center has involved itself
in Boston's South Cove urban renewal project and, in ad-
dition to development Of its hospitals and medical and
dental school facilities, is planning moderate-income
housing, commercial develOpments, community recreation
and welfare facilities, transportation, and a public
school. (The new school will replace the Quincy School,
built in 1847 as the nation's first fully graded elemen-
tary school.) It will provide comprehensive health

care as well as education for its students. Envisioned
as a shared site or joint-occupancy project in combina-
tion with housing, the school will be a community in-
stitution and share its facilities with other agencies
serving adults as well as children.

Antioch College, a distinctly nonurban institution in
Yellow Springs, Ohio, offers evidence that institutional
involvement in the cities will not be limited to urban
colleges and universities. Antioch has "adopted" a pub-
lic school in Washington, D. C., and is a member of the
l2-college Union for Research and Experimention in
Higher Education. The Union is planning to establish
"beachhead campuses" or field centers in both rural and
urban deprived areas. The "colleges" essentially will
be portable or disposable campuses staffed by student
and faculty task forces from member institutions who
will study or otherwise attempt to resolve social, eco-
nomic, and cultural problems in the beachhead commu-
nities.

 

SZIbido ’ pp. 5-150

40
Closing the Oppgrtunity Ggp
it at the Federal LeveI‘

"The history of federal involvement in education
spans approximately 180 years."53 TO attempt a chronologi-
cal description of these various programs and enactments,
however, would require much more time and space than a1—
lotted here. A theme, however, that ran through many Of
the early bills and acts was that of wiping out illiteracy,
more recently it has become that of providing equality of
educational Opportunity.

The federal response Of providing financial aid
specifically for the community college is a comparatively
recent one, as evidenced in a statement by Senator
Harrison A. Williams.

While the community junior college is demonstrating
that it is equipped best for the job Of extending
much-needed educational Opportunities in the country,
the federal government has failed in its full responsi-
bility to these colleges which represent almost half

of all institutions of higher education and approxi-
mately one-third of all students in higher education.

54
Frank Mensel reports that, "When the U.S.O.E. dashed
Off . . . summaries of programs helping two-year colleges
for Senator Williams, it could list fewer than thirty pro-
grams. And when the Congressman introduced the Comprehen—

sive Community College Bill . . ., Senator Williams remarked:

'Of twenty-four institutional support programs administered

 

 

S3Sidney W. Tiedt, The Role Of the Federal Government
in Education (New York: Oxford University Press, I966), p. ii.
54

Senator Harrison A. Williams, "To Close the Oppor-
tunity Gap," Junior College Journal, Vol. 40, NO. 1 (Septem-
ber, 1969), p. 8.

41

by the Office Of Education, junior colleges take part in

55

only six.'" A recently prepared U.S.O.E. list in the

September issue of the Junior College Journal shows 58 pro-
grams for which two-year colleges are potential participants.

It seems Obvious but worth passing mention also that
the two-year colleges themselves are to blame at least
partly for the lack of concern for their interest in
federal agencies. Junior college participation in so
few programs rather clearly indicate that the colleges
have not pushed applications and proposals to the fed—
eral agencies with the same frequency and consistency
as have the senior institutions.

Current Proposed Federal Legislation

For the first time, Congress is looking at broad
legislation devoted solely to community college planning
and development. The most significant example of proposed
federal legislation designed to provide direct support to
community colleges is the Comprehensive Community College
Act Of 1969. This Bill, if enacted, will support the de-
velopment and construction of both private and public two—
year, post-secondary institutions, including two-year branch
campuses Of four-year universities with comprehensive
philosophies that include the provision Of service to the
community. The Bill calls for:

. A year of planning in order to give each state time to
develop or update a master plan for post-secondary edu-
cation. This plan will include curricula that contain
(1) occupational-technical programs, (2) career develop-
ment Opportunities, (3) adult continuing-education pro-

grams, and (4) community service, counseling and lower
division university parallel programs.

55Mensel, "Federal Support,", p. 15.

SGIbid.

42

. An emphasis on research to be carried in the college
in order to help increase its effectiveness and to
provide data for future development.

. The provision of federal funds as to make the college
available to all state residents through a tuition-free
policy.

. Policies and procedures designed to assure that federal
funds available under this bill are not used to sup-
plant state Or local funds, but supplement them.

This plan, relates Senator Williams, is a "one-stop
service station” for community colleges, most Of which do
not have the manpower or resources to pound the pavements
in search of grants.

Additional evidence of current concern for the com-
munity junior college is found "in President Nixon's edu-
cational budget for the fiscal year starting July 1 [1969,
here] there is a 43-million dollar item for construction

57 Another example is the Urban

Of more junior colleges."
Education Bill.

Regardless Of the outcome, these bills, according
to one author, "have already made a monumental contribution
to the development of federal policy on two-year college

58

assistance," and will either directly or indirectly af-

fect the lives Of the inner-city disadvantaged.

 

57"Community Colleges: New Frontier in Education,"
U. S. News and World Report, Vol. LXVI, NO. 18 (May 5,
‘I9697, p. 64.

58Mensel, "Federal Support," p. 19.

CHAPTER III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The purpose Of this chapter is to present the
methods and techniques employed in the collection of data.
The descriptive bent of this study provides an in-depth
analysis of six community service programs for the education-
ally and economically disadvantaged at inner-city community
colleges. Interviews with presidents, community service
administrators, and other selected personnel provided data

for this analysis.

The Sample
Participation was solicited and received from ad-
ministrators of the following colleges:
. Cuyahoga Community College, Cleveland, Ohio

. The Community College of Baltimore,
Bal timore , Maryl and

. Laney and Merritt Colleges, Oakland, California

. Malcolm X Community College (formerly Crane),
Chicago, Illinois

. New York State University's Urban Center,
Brooklyn, New York.

43

44

Procedure

Each college was visited for a period Of from one
to two days. During these visits, tapes were made of each
administrator and staff member interviewed; tours viewing
the projects' physical facilities were provided, along
with the Opportunity to Observe classes. At least one
project's termination via its graduation exercise was also

witnessed.

Instruments Used

An Open-ended interview guide was used covering
questions under five areas related to the study. A modi-
fied approach in the use of the guide was employed in order
to get at information peculiar to a certain administrator
or program, and to avoid consuming unnecessary time and
jeopardizing rapport. Other instruments used include a

brief questionnaire and a materials check list.

Selection of Colleges

Four of the colleges in the study were selected
because Of their involvement in a national demonstration
project coordinated by the American Association of Junior
Colleges and the Office Of Economic Opportunity. Each was
allegedly using a different approach in dealing with the
educational problems Of inner-city residents. The two re—
maining colleges were recommended by Dr. Max Raines, direc-

tor Of the Kellogg Community Services Leadership Program

45

at Michigan State University, and Dr. Kenneth Cummiskey,
Director of Community Services for the American Associa-

tion of Junior Colleges.

Visitation Arrangements
The initial contact with at least four project ad-
ministrators was made in March, 1969, at the American As-
sociation of Junior College's annual convention in Atlanta,
Georgia. A letter was sent to the remaining directors and
college administrators soliciting their COOperation and
support. All responded favorably and follow-up letters
and materials were forwarded them. (See Appendices.)
Periodic communication with all the directors was
maintained until time for the visits to the campus. A
few days prior to the visit, contact was again established
either by letter or phone, confirming arrival and inter-

view schedules.

Presentation and Analysis of Data

An in-depth descriptive presentation Of the data
was analyzed as it pertains to the following areas: (1) the
types Of programs Offered, administrative structure and
professional staffing patterns; (2) their financial and
physical resources; (3) their origin and develOpmental as-
pects; and (4) special problems as they pertain to race as
a significant staffing consideration in an inner—city

setting.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Following a description of the six inner-city
community services programs, a summarization of signifi-
cant findings is presented.

Inner—city community services programs studies were
classified using two approaches: (1) the demonstration
project, and (2) institutional commitment.

l. The demonstration-project approach is usually based
on short-term one to five years of federal or state
funding, and is committed to demonstrate within
this time a productive program as measured by the
sponsoring agency's evaluation criteria.

2. The institutional commitment approach, based on
institutional commitment, dynamic presidential
leadership, and institutional $2 and outreach ef-
forts with active departmental involvement.

Five Of the programs surveyed were classified as
using the demonstration project approach to community ser-
vices. Based on a requirement that calls for demonstrated
productiveness and operating on either state or federal
short-term funding, are the following inner-city community
service programs:

46

47

Before beginning the first descriptive analysis, it
might be well to point out some typical factors that char-
acterize all Of the inner-city communities involved in the
survey. On the basis of a thorough examination Of the lit-
erature, a summarization of these problems would include:

. A community that is predominantly Black or Chicano
(Mexican-American) with a high rate of unemployment,
necessitating excessive dependence on welfare.

. A deep-rooted handicap as a result of years of both
economic and educational deprivation.

. An under-utilization of human resources and potential.

. One whose residents are acquiring a new sense of
brotherhood, togetherness, and self-pride.

. A feeling Of lessening allegiance to a system that
has failed to respond to its most basic needs.

. A feeling that the scales of law enforcement and
justice are tipped against them.

. Either distrust, misunderstanding, or no knowledge
Of existing community services available to them.

. The almost wholesale lack of such recreational facil-
ities as bowling alleys, skating rinks, tennis courts,
and swimming 22213, forcing the inner-city teenager
and adult into such hangouts as beer joints, alleys
and 522 street.

Inherent implications in the above-stated inner-city

characteristics strongly suggest the need for an intercessory,

48

and the community college is the agency that is increas-
ingly seen by educators and federal Officials as the in-
stitution best equipped to fill this need.
Laney and MerriEt Colleges'
InnerJCity Prdjedt
The Demonstration Project Approach

Laney and Merritt Colleges in Oakland, California,
are public junior colleges maintained by the Peralta Junior
College District Of Northern Alameda County. Following a
series Of structured and curricula changes that extend back
to 1927, a separate junior college district was established,
and on July 1, 1964, the new Peralta multi-campus district
ruled that the two campuses operate as separate and auton-
omous institutions.

The district also charged the colleges with provid-
ing a comprehensive curriculum through courses in general
education, lower division education, vocational education,
community services, guidance services, and student activities.

The community services programs at both Laney and
Merritt Colleges have included the traditional lecture-
concert series type presentations that reached only a cer-
tain segment Of the community. Since March of 1968, how-
ever, the Peralta Colleges' (Laney and Merritt) major com-
munity services effort has been directed toward the inner-

city target areas Of the city Of Oakland.

49

Profile of the Target Areas

The area served by the Inner-City Project is that
portion of Oakland, California, referred to as the "target
areas." This term refers to those geographical sections
of the city designated as poverty areas under the community
action program Of the Office of Economic Opportunity. These
sections Of the city are characterized as depressed areas
requiring special services to combat the chronic effects Of
poverty, i.e., high rate Of unemployment, coupled with
general low income patterns, poor housing conditions, se-
vere health problems, and educational deficiencies. The
target areas comprise approximately 41 per cent of Oakland's
total population, but 91 percent of the total Negro pOpula-
tion and 51 per cent of a population with Spanish surnames.
Geographically, the area consists of 37 Of the 102 census
tracts of the city. All tracts in the target areas have an
unemployment rate of at least 9 per cent, and some have
rates as high as 33 per cent. Many tracts have become
urban renewal areas with the consequent problems of family
relocation. Since decent housing for low-income families
is at a premium in the target areas, this relocation creates
further social problems. Educationally, the children Of
the areas suffer severe handicaps in academic performance,
especially in communication and mathematics skills. Al—
though the schools have given the problems some special at-

tention, the conditions appear to be deteriorating. County

50

health department reports indicate that the health needs Of
these areas Of Oakland are disproportionate to the popula-

tion. For example, 68 per cent of the active tuberculosis

cases of the county are in these portions Of the city.

In summary, an examination Of the current situation
of the population Of these target areas leads to the ines-
capable fact that the residents of these sections Of Oakland
suffer severely from all the dilemmas of poverty. These
conditions are Of such an extreme nature that massive sup-
portive services are required if the situation is to be im-

proved.1

Project Components

The Inner-City Project is a community outreach ef-
fort Of three components designed to demonstrate ways in
which the community college may effectively extend its serv-
ices and programs into the inner-city, to develOp there a
new sense of community identity, participation and involve-
ment. The three components included a Student Service Corps,
a Scholarship-Subsistence Program and a group of four Com-
munity Development Centers. These components are described
as follows:

1. A Student Service Corps.--This arm Of the project
as originally planned, was to employ 100 students (50 Merritt
and 50 at Laney) to carry out a work-study service program
Of community outreach. Students selected for this program
must be residents of the inner-city and they:er their

1Peralta Colleges' Inner-City Project Evaluation
Report, prepared by Sam Toney and Others. May 15, 1969, p. 1.

 

 

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51

families must meet low-income criteria as established by
the U. S. Office Of Economic Opportunity. Students in this
program are assigned to some of the following functions:

. Working with community-located credit unions,
assisting inner—city applicants in processing and
filling out credit forms. The purpose of this par-
ticular credit union is to make loans to low-income
families, provide financial counseling, and help in
credit matters.

. Provide tutorial assistance for neighborhood youth
and adults at neighborhood centers.

. Participation in self-development activities for pre-
teens Operation Of a tiny-tot program, and by provid-
ing group counseling.

The actual number Of students active in the program
at the time of the investigation was 37. Their character-
istics ranged from:

Age 18 to 25, with sixteen past their
25th year;

Race Indian, Chicane (Mexican-American),

Black (Afro-American), and white
(Caucasian);

Education All were in their second year of college.
They were assigned to work with such community organizations
and agencies as the Oakland Council Of Churches, credit
unions, a Uhuru newspaper, neighborhood community centers

and welfare organizations.

2. A Scholarship-Subsistence Program provides

up.”

:01“

ESCE

35‘

SW

52

financial assistance tO residents of the inner-city who
wish to attend college to prepare themselves for careers in
public service. The program provides a monthly allotment
of $125--a concept similar to the G. I. Bill of Rights.

All Of the scholarship students are Black, Chicano (Mexican-
American), American Indian, and poor. Members of the proj-
ect staff emphasize that the goal of the scholarship pro-
gram is not merely to educate and train people so they can
escape the inner-city, but to equip them so they can serve
as teachers, social workers, public health nurses and in
other roles upon returning to their home communities.

3. Four Community Develgpment Centers provide
easily accessible facilities for educational programs and
counseling services. These centers also serve as a focal
point for an enrichment program that provides workshops in
art, music and drama, supplemented by recreational, social
and intercultural experiences at the block and neighborhood
level. Each college (Laney and Merritt) Operates two Of
the centers in close COOperation with community planning
and advisory groups. The staff at each center includes two
teacher counselors recruited because Of their experience in
the inner-city or because they possess special skills in
art and basic education. Other personnel include a commu-
nity liaison worker, program assistants and clerical help.

One example of the kind of intercultural activities

sponsored by one center was a program entitled "The Mexican-

53

American Cultural Experience." This week-long series of
programs sponsored by different groups and organizations
from the Chicano community was climaxed by a performance
Of the National Ballet Of Mexico. An estimated 5,000 people
attended the various parts Of this program.

A list Of courses and cultural events typical of
those Offered at each of the centers follows:

Table l.--Courses presently being taught at East Oakland

 

Number ReguIdr COllege

Course Title Enrolled Credit Available

 

Yes No
Black Philosophy 24 x
Beginning Ceramics 17 x
Black Sociology 22 x
Survey of Afro-American Art 10 x
Conversational Spanish 16 x
Modern Dance 27 x
Secretarial Training 18 x
Free Columbian Civilization 17 x
English as a Second Language 23 x
Art WorkshOp for Youth 25 x
Social Service 30 x
Photography Workshop 17 x
Sewing 10 x
English Writing for Spanish 12 x
Graphic Art 14 x

 

 

Source: Sam TOney and others. Peralta Colle es' Inner-City
PrO'ect Evaluation Re ort. Oahiand, Calit.:
PeraIta Inner—City P j

ro ect, May 15, 1969.

 

54

Table 2.--List Of special cultural events held at East

 

 

 

 

Oakland

Event Brief Description of Activities

Open House Showing Of Center facilities and ex-
hibits Of community and college
services.

Black Film Series Free film series shown once a week
to community residents during
February and March.

‘Art Show An enormous art exhibit of local

talent.

 

‘ Co-sponsored by Merritt College Community Services.

Source: Sam Toney and others. Peralta Colleges' Inner-

City Progect Evaluation Report. Oakland, CaIif.:
Pera a nner-C ty Project, May 15, 1969.

 

Community interest and involvement is evidenced by
the attendance at Open house functions that were used as an
instrument for securing community responses. Initially,
these Center staff encouraged community organizations to
utilize the Center for community meetings and workshops.
Consequently, various other kinds of activities developed
from this. A door-to-door communication effort by liaison
workers and other staff resulted in an attendance increase

as shown below.

55

Table 3.--Monthly attendance at East Oakland, 1969

 

 

Jan. Feb. Mar. April

Regular Classes 730 747 845 811
Special Events 79 88 98 2,000
Community Meetings 187 213 50 97
Visitors 243 262 272 260
TOTALS 1,239 1,311 1,265 4,008

Source: Sam Toney and Others. Peralta Colleges' Inner-

Cit Pro'ect Evaluation Report. OakIand, Caiit.:
PeraIta Inner-City Projeét, May 15, 1969

 

 

Impact Of Project on the Community

One of the major achievements cited by Officials Of
the project is that the community is now relating to the in—
stitutions through the project's centers. The community is
aware Of the services being performed by the various com-
ponents of the prOject. "Never before has there been any-
thing like the Inner-City Student Service Corps and the
Scholarship Subsistence Program serving poor organizations
and individuals in the inner-city," reports one of the

project administrators.

Special Problem Areas
In spite of the project's successful efforts, its
positive impact has also been matched by some major prob-

lems that are worthy of including here. They are:

56

. Inadequate preplanning before attempting to imple—
ment the project.

. The failure to secure adequate community involvement
during the prOposal structuring stage.

. A lack Of clearly defined realistic goals for im-
plementation.

. The restrictive guidelines imposed by the Office of
Economic Opportunity.

. The need for staff training prior to project's be-
ginning so they would be more knowledgeable Of the
enormous task as well as the project's significance.

The source Of this information was the Peralta College's
Evaluation Report and interviews with project administra-

tive personnel.

Administrative Structure of Project

The professional staff consists of 18 persons plus
supportive personnel. An organizational chart provides a
picture of the staff breakdown. (See Appendicesg)

Through the Inner-City Project, Laney and Merritt
Colleges play a supportive role to a signal component of an
inner-city community services program-—the soeial outreach
function. The extension Of services to the educationally
and economically disadvantaged inner-city resident is in
many ways a new experience for both the college and commu-
nity, as evidencedby their past behavior. This behavior

ranges from awe to distrust on the part of the inner-city

57

resident, to reluctance and fear on the part of many college
faculty to become involved in community programs. Both
Laney and Merritt Colleges are currently attempting to over-
come these problems through inreach community services
functions. The target area of the inreach function is the
inner—city campus, its service recipient is the inner—city

disadvantaged student.

Inreach Community Services Functions
For a clearer picture of the services provided by
inreach community service functions, the definition is re-
peated. Inreach community service functions are those sup-
portive activities and programs aimed at addressing the on-
campus needs peculiar to minority and poor white students
that are not being met by existing institutional programs.
One inner—city community services administrator
related that, "For at least four years, the college has pre-
sented a community lecture series, featuring prominent pub-
lic figures. This is a format borrowed from a sister col-
lege and one which is followed by most junior colleges in
our area. And aside from the fact that everyone is doing it,
there seems to be little justification for such programs."2
Among these colleges' inreach efforts were:
Merritt College
. The provision of free food and books to students

in need.

2Richard Ricca, Director of Community Services at
Laney College, Oakland, California, June, 1969, in an inter-
view with the author.

58

. The Opening of the library and the offering of
courses on Saturday.

. Paying for and making the GED test available once
a week on campus, thus eliminating a lS-mile trip
outside the community to take it.

Laney College

. Efforts to Open on-campus apprenticeship programs
to minority group students through a Black-Student-
Union—led recruitment program.

. The provision of funds for the develOpment and im-
plementation of a tutorial program, using minority
group students as teacher aides in the English
Department.

. The recruitment of minority students to work as
aides in the colleges' counseling office. These
programs not only provided jobs for needy students,
they also made a substantial improvement in the
level of supportive services that the college pro-
vides for all students.

. A special day—long faculty workshop on prOposals
for a Black curriculum. Despite initial faculty
Opposition, the workshOp made a number of signifi-
cant contributions to the development of new pro-
grams for minority group students on the campus.
The above-mentioned approaches suggest the need for

the ability to shift emphasis without becoming frustrated

in executing both inreach and outreach functions in inner-

59

city community service programs. Richard Ricca, Director
of Community Services at Laney College, identifies a basic
ingredient necessary for inner-city community services as
flexibility, ”We must be willing and able to change and
modify our approach to bring the Community Services to

bear wherever and whenever points of tension arise, because
we as an institution in society in genera1,have failed to

meet the needs of the community we serve."3

Los Angele§_City College

Los Angeles City College serves a District of some
882 square miles and a pOpulation of more than three mil-
lion. It has a full-time enrollment of over 10,500 day
students and some 7,982 evening students. The minority
group student pOpulation consists of: Blacks, 27 per cent;
Mexican-American, 11 per cent; and Oriental, 10 per cent.

Prior to the academic school year 1968, the Community
Services program at Los Angeles City College consisted ba-
sically of summer recreational programs for youth. Origin-
ally called Youth Services, it was administered through the
unified district's central office.

During the 1963-64 school year, the college under-
went an internal transitional phase in terms of accredita-
tion and new staff appointments. As a result, it was the

feeling of many faculty according to the present community

 

3Richard Ricca,'Community Services at Laney College,"
unpublished report to the president, June 2, 1969, p. 7.

60

services director, that community services should be more
than a recreational program for youth. It should be meet-

ing the needs of the adult community as well.

Description of Programs

In response to a community that has changed from
suburban to inner-city, Los Angeles City College and its
community services director have launched what amounts to
a "triple-threat" approach to community services. This new
approach includes: (1) educational, (2) intercultural, and
(3) recreational activities. One educational component is

described below.

The Student Counseling Assistants Program

According to a statement by this project's director,
"On a campus where last year's student unrest almost closed
the school, the Student Counseling Assistants program, under
the umbrella of community services, played a vital role in
preventing complete polarization between the administration
and militant students."

This program is a demonstration project funded
through the Office of Economic Opportunity and coordinated
by the American Association for Junior Colleges. Its pur-
pose is to enable selected minority group students to act
in a para-professional capacity as counselors in diagnosing
and helping to solve special problems faced by freshmen

and new minority students.

61

Counseling assistants receive approximately 40

hours of training in learning how to listen without acting

like psychiatrists, and how to provide a big-brother, big-

sister type guidance and companionship during registration

and other similar required institutional processes.

The program as originally developed listed the

following objectives:

To determine if student counselor assistants can
assist socio-economically disadvantaged students
to succeed academically in college during their

first year.

To determine if student counselor assistants can
contribute to motivation and reinforcement neces-
sary for socio-economically disadvantaged students
to complete a two-year occupational or transfer

program.

To determine the effect of selected factors in the

Student Counseling Assistant Program.

To determine if student counselor assistants can be
instrumental in recruiting socio-economically dis-

advantaged youth into junior college education.

To establish guidelines for increasing the effective-
ness of the Student Counseling Assistants.

Twenty—seven student counselor assistants carry a

case load of from 15 to 20 counselees each and are assisted

62

by the college's counseling staff in matters that require
professional help.

In an effort to secure vocational counseling from
industrial personnel for minority students, the program
director has effected ties with local industry: One air-
craft company has authorized 14 persons to visit the campus
and serve as industrial counselors. According to the pro-
gram's director, Claude Ware, "This is . . . industry's
response to Black militants' question: What have you done?

Evidence that the program's objectives are being
met are seen in the following conclusions excerpted from a
1968 evaluation report compiled and compared for three
groups, which were: (1) an experimental group of socio-
economically disadvantaged students who were counseled by
the paraprofessional student counselors; (2) a comparison
group of socio-economically disadvantaged students who
failed to respond to the invitation to be counseled by the
student counselors; and (3) a comparison group of Fall 1967
entrants selected to match the experimental group on the
college aptitude test (S.C.A.T.). Subjective data were ob-
tained by means of questionnaires submitted to students who
were counseled, the student counselors, and the professional
college counselors. The report's findings revealed that:

. Students who were counseled by the student counselors
clearly persisted at a higher rate throughout the

semester than those students who were invited to be

counseled but declined the invitation (Group B).

63

When compared to a group of Fall 1967 entering
students matched on age, sex, high school background,
and total S.C.A.T. scores (but not on any motiva-
tional factors), counselees persisted at a higher
rate (99 per cent versus 88 per cent), and performed
at a higher academic level (GPA 1.94 versus 1.66).
Counselees from predominantly Negro Los Angeles city
high schools persisted throughout the semester at a
100 per cent rate. Grade point average for this
group was slightly below the Group A average (1.76
vs. 1.60). Male performance in this group was sig-
nificantly better than that of their counterparts

of a year ago (1.73 vs. 1.28), primarily due to the
high performance of those not in DevelOpmental Stud—
ies (GPA 1.91).

Ninety per cent of the students counseled rated the
program as good or excellent, with almost two-thirds
rating it excellent and only one student rating it
poor. They almost unanimously rated their relations
with their student counselor as warm and friendly.
They indicated that they received most assistance

in the areas of selecting a class schedule and getting
information about four-year colleges and two-year
programs. Black counselees particularly felt they
received considerable help in being inspired to do

well in college, in having respect for themselves,

64

and understanding their abilities and limitations.
Student counselors unanimously rated the program

good (75 per cent) or excellent (25 per cent). They
felt that their experiences personally were valuable
ones of learning, that they were successful in im-
proving attitudes toward college, of their counselees,
that the relationship with the professional coun-
selors was generally one of working together but with
some conflicts and jealousies, that their relation-
ship with the program director was generally close
and satisfactory with some conflicts about decision
making, that sex and race were usually but not always
irrelevant, and that their training program was
generally good but could be improved, with a variety
of suggestions offered.

The college professional counselors indicated con-
siderable concern for the program, with nearly half
rating it poor. They reported few instances of re-
ferrals by student counselors, felt that student
counselor—professional counselor relations were in
need of considerable improvement, suggested several
criteria for selection of student counselors, and
evidenced concern about political activities taking
place during student counseling sessions. Almost
all, however, indicated that a student counseling

assistant program, with apprOpriate changes should

65

be made a permanent part of the Los Angeles City

College guidance program.4

Next year a planned extension of this program will
take a self-contained mobile unit of counseling assistants
into the heart of the Black and Barrio communities to in-
form inner-city residents of the educational Opportunities

available at the college.

Intercultural Activities

Theatre Ethnic is an example of the college's inter-
cultural approach to community services. On a campus with
3,000 Black students, 1,000 Mexican-Americans and many
Orientals among its minority group population, problems
exist that require fresh, innovative techniques. Theatre
Ethnic is one such attempt. It was created to help the
minority individual.better understand his background and
heritage, the achievements of his people and to further
clarify communication between various ethnic groups both
on campus and in the community.

The program consists of ethnically oriented theat-
rical productions produced COOperatively by the community
services office and the Theatre Arts Department, and was
rated by the community service director as one of the most

successful community service ventures.

4Ben K. Gold, Research Study No. 69-6, The Fall 1968

 

 

Student Counselor Assis an ro ram: An valuatIOn (Lfis
XfigeIes CIEy CoIIege, Office of Research, May, 1969), pp.

31-330

66

Educational Participation in Communities (EPIC)

EPIC is a volunteer program in which students spend
a few hours each week working either on the campus or in
the community. Volunteer student participants work in com—
munity centers, settlement houses, on playgrounds, in hos-
pitals and clinics as nurses aides, as tutors to individ-
uals or small groups at all grade levels in subjects fa-
miliar to the volunteer and as teacher aides.

Other community services programs include:

. Short-term Mexican-American classes offered in the
community, using paraprofessionals paired with pro-
fessionals as teachers.

. Afternoon and Saturday music classes for talented
minority and needy students who are unable to af—
ford private lessons. These classes will be spon-
sored in COOperation with the music department and
will make use of their instruments and facilities.

. A summer recreational program that includes a com-
munity services basketball league, a swimming pro-
gram, and an all-comers track meet.

As evidenced by the foregoing programs, a new era
of service to the inner-city community is dawning. More
often than not, at the inner—city community college, program
initiation stems from pressures from within the college by
minority students or pressures from without by the ghetto

or barrio community. In either case, the nature of programs

67

initiated and the methods and techniques used for implemen-
tation have changed the "tea and crumpets" posture of com-
munity services. This posture has changed from one of re-
action to a polite reguest from a select group, to one of
relevant response to the demands Of a long-neglected seg-

ment of the community--Blacks, browns, and poor whites.

Malcolm X Community Collegg

Another institution using the demonstration project
approach to community services while also attempting to
effect the complete involvement of the college staff and
community, is Malcolm x Community College. It is one of
the eight existing campuses in Chicago's junior college
system. Formerly Crane Technical High School, and more
recently Crane Junior College, it was founded in 1911 and
marked the beginning of Chicago's present public community
colleges.

Fully accredited by the North Central Association
of Colleges and Secondary Schools in 1917, the college had
a curriculum primarily designed for the student who planned
to cOntinue his higher education after junior college. In
a recent report of an evaluation visit to the campus some
52 years later, this same agency states:

The college needs a new identity. On one hand, it must
divorce itself from the unfavorable image which the col-
lege staff and students now have of the College . .

The other reasons for creating a new image is that the
College is actually being transformed. It is attempting

to become more of a comprehensive community college
which more nearly serves the needs of the "West Side"

68

and of metropolitan Chicago. Dr. Charles Hurst, presi-

dent, and the first Black to hold such a post in the

history of junior colleges in Illinois, suggests that

'. . . the concept of community must be comprehensive

enough to include those elements of the community not

represented by any structure or organization."

The college and its community services office, di-

rected by Mrs. Barbara King, are attempting to meet these

needs through outreach kinds of programs.

Community Services Background

Prior to September, 1960, the college had no type
of community services program. Since the hiring of a di-
rector in May of 1969, however, several non-credit adult
education classes have been established in store fronts,
settlement houses, churches, and neighborhood centers. Es-
tablishing courses in this manner, relates the director,
required ignoring all of the formal type stipulations usu-
ally associated with educational institutions. Instructors
had to be selected who could be available any time of the
day that classes were requested. Classes ran the gamut from
public speaking to Afro-American history and child develop-
ment. Response from the college staff to teach in these
situations was less than satisfactory because many were re-
luctant to go out into the community out of fear for their

personal safety.

5North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary
Schools, "Report of an Evaluation Visit to the Crane Campus
of the Chicago City College for the Commission on Colleges
and Universities of the North Central Association of Col-
leges and Secondary Schools," May 19, 1964, p. 34.

69

Bernstein, in his book The Education of Urban POpu-
1ations, relates that "Our only feasible approach [here] is

to have administrators and teachers who are as much at home

6

in the community as they are in the school." Implications

here strongly suggest that race and sincere commitment will
become increasingly significant factors in staffing at

inner-city colleges.

Community Profile

Malcolm X. Community College is located on the West
Side of Chicago in the most depressed pocket of poverty in
the city.

According to the Urban League, in 1960 some fourteen
per cent of the total West Side Negro labor force were
unemployed compared to citywide rates of 3.1 per cent
for whites and 11.6 per cent for Negroes. Studies also
show that between 65 to 70 per cent of the students
drop out of school [and] the median education level is
8.6 years. In 1960, according to the Urban League,
thirty-five per cent of Negro dwelling units were sub-
standard, and the Negro, on the average, paid 10 per
cent more than whites for housing. The juvenile delin-
quency rate is double that of all Chicago: one out of
four births is illegitimate; and there are high rates
of infant mortality and tuberculosis.

As the information above suggests, this community is
overwhelmingly Black, Chicano, and powerless to control its
own destiny. The following program represents new institu-

tional efforts to remedy some of these conditions:

¥

6Abraham Bernstein, The Education of Urban POpula-

tions (New York: Random House, 1967), pp.‘316-317.
. 7"Project 0utreach--Demonstration Proposal, Chicago
City College," unpublished proposal, October 16, 1967, p. 4.

70
Description of Prggrams
Project Outreach

Project Outreach-—funded by the Office Of Economic
Opportunity and developed in COOperation with the American
Association of Junior Colleges (AAJC)--was designed to meet
certain basic educational needs in the West Side community.
It was to demonstrate that Crane College, now Malcolm X
Community College--which had frequently been criticized for
its lack of "real concern" for the needs of the community--
had at last recognized the importance of involving the com-
munity in its decision-making process. It also hoped to
demonstrate that the college could successfully organize
people in the community around a program of adult education
and community involvement.

In its final form, the program consisted of four
central areas:

1. Basic Education and Literacy;

2. Preparation for G.E.D. (General Education
DevelOpment);

3. Employment Guidance and Academic Counseling;
4. A Community Advisory Council.

Because of administrative difficulties and a 25 per
cent budget cut, the project did not become operative until
midLJune, 1968.

With a staff of five professionals and 21 paraprofes-

sionals over a period of eight months, more than 300 adults

a:
V-

:0».

71

were enrolled in seminars and classes conducted by the
project. A breakdown of classes and seminars follows (in-

cluded is the number of students enrolled in each);

 

African and African-American History Classes 30
Leadership DevelOpment Seminar 35
Basic Literacy for Spanish-Speaking Adults 52
Basic Literacy for English-Speaking Adults 38

G.E.D.:
Sears Community Center 192
Boys Brotherhood Republic 15
Urban Education Center (Crane) 6
TOTAL 368

The project's impact on the community reported by
one administrator, is evidenced in the following information:

. 77 percent of those enrolled in four G.E.D. classes
passed their examination.

. Through the project's Advisory Council, community
educational needs were identified and programs were
designed and develOped to address those needs. This
type of involvement in the decision-making process
of the college resulted in a heightened feeling of
responsibility for the community.

. Observations by the professional staff in their eval-
uations revealed that most of the paraprofessionals
have been significantly affected by their experi—
ences, having learned what it means to be patient,

tolerant and understanding when working within

72

"the system" in order to bring changes without.

Unfortunately, funding for the project--as in many
other similar demonstration type projects-~has been discon-
tinued. This behavior is quite peculiar to that of many
"poverty programs” and tends to support the initial suspi—
cions held by inner—city communities regarding institutional
intentions.

Based on the successes and lessons learned, the col-
lege is continuing the project at its own expense with some

reduction in staff and programs.

Adult Education

Adult Education courses are offered through the
combined offices of Adult Education and Community Services
in storefront churches, settlement houses and various
other neighborhood facilities. Table 4 provides a list of
the type of courses Offered, where they were held, and the
number of students served.

Through the use of the outreach technique and demon-
strated commitment, Malcolm X Community College and its com-
munity services Office are attempting to create a new image
in the mind's eye of the inner-city community. "We can't
take the attitude that we have so much to offer that we can
go out and smother the communityfl relates Mrs. King, "Com—
munity services are our 'take off' for getting into the
community." In the relatively brief existence of these pro-
grams, 500 students have received diplomas as graduates of the

dunbined Adult Education and Community Services programs.

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73

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74

Cuyahoga Community College

Cuyahoga Community College, in Cleveland, is Ohio's
first public community college. Chartered by the state in
1962, it now has an enrollment of nearly 15,000 students.
With three campuses and membership in the North Central
Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the college
and its community services program are attempting to meet
the educational and sociological needs of a rapidly expand-
ing and changing community.

According to the college's president, the fall
quarter of 1969 will mark the opening of a new three million

facility covering four acres in downtown Cleveland.

Community_Profile

Located in downtown Cleveland, the college's com-
prehensive services district contains some 2.1 million people.
Within this district is the community of Hough, a teeming,
depressed area of 2.2 square miles crowded with 72,000 peOple.
flhis figure varies, depending on who's counting.) Most of
these people are Blacks, in-migrants who came from the Deep
South during the decade of the mid-fifties. During this
period, the non-white population increased from 3.3 per
cent to 73.6 per cent. Other in-migrant residents include
mainly whites from the mining regions of Appalachia. And
those characteristics peculiar to the poor, such as poor
health, unemployment and low self-esteem that they didn't

bring with them, they soon acquired upon their arrival.

75

Community Services

The program of community services at Cuyahoga began
in 1963 under a dean with dual day and evening responsibil-
ities. In view of the rapidly changing community, the need
for offering more than evening credit courses was recog-
nized. Under a new community services director, plans were
implemented that provided both credit and non-credit edu—
cational services that were not being met by credit classes.

The new courses ranged from ”How to Study," for
adults, to "Basic Business Practices for Small Independent
Black Businesses," Operating with a philosophy that its
role is to provide educational services when, where, and of
whatever nature or type necessary, the program also attempts
to serve the higher education needs of those inner-city
residents unable to attend during the day because of their
jobs.

Description of Programs

Community service programs at Cuyahoga involve two
basic functions: (1) training, and (2) service. The train-
ing program prepares the individual for a vocation or em-
ployment by providing a marketable skill with the success—
ful completion of the training cycle. The service program
is a supportive function that aids the program participant
through the prOvision of information, counsel, financial
help or any combination of the three. Two programs will be
described here, each representing one of the two functions

described above.

76
Training Program

Project New Careers is a program in which trainees
are guaranteed jobs after the successful completion of the
training cycle. Trainees also receive at least a two-step
promotion in salary and job title.

This project has undertaken to train 25 Health Tech-
nical Aides, 22 Plumbing Inspector Aides, 20 Recreational
Aides, l3 Interviewer Aides, 10 Water Serviceman Aides, and
10 Police and Safety Aides in one cycle for one year. The
training program is conducted under the terms of the
Scheuer Amendment to Title II of the Economic Opportunity
Act, and is carried out with the support of Cleveland's
Concentrated Employment Program, AIM-jobs.

The training methodology is based on the Department
of Labor's O.J.T.—coupled idea. Trainees will spend in-
creasingly more time away from the college classroom in work
assignments. The city has guaranteed the existence of jobs
for trainees as aides. All trainees are expected to qualify
for full Civil Service status soon after full-time employ-
ment with the city. Many are already planning to continue
their education on their own for associate degrees.

The instructional time is divided into three parts:
(1) basic education, (2) vocational instruction, and (3)
core discussions, i.e., dialogue aimed at reinforcing self-
concept and personal aspirations of trainee. Fifty-five of

the trainees are men, 45 women. They range in age from 22

77

to 45 years. Several £1313 £2193 9.2.9. m full-time permanent
1223. Their educational achievement ranges from eighth
grade to some previous college experience. Specially tail-
ored academic groupings span individual needs from personal
tutoring to enrollment in regular college classes. It is
expected that all will have at least the equivalent of a
high school education by the time they move into full-time
employment and will be prepared for regular college studies.

All trainees are assigned to supervisors in the di-
vision of their interest with the City of Cleveland. Under
supervision, the trainee observes for a period of time,
then he is gradually allowed to conduct simple jobs. Trainees
may handle emergencies when things, rather than peOple are
involved, and are expected to follow any and all procedures
required of full-time employees with the city.

A survey conducted at the end of the 1969 winter
quarter to determine the progress of the program's enrollees

revealed the following data:

 

 

 

 

Educational Initial Terminated Enrollment
Level Enrollment to Date to Date
(Winter Qr. (Winter Qr.
1969) 1969)
Basic Education 13 6 7
G.E.D. ‘ 4S 12 23
College Skills 33 4 29
Regular College 6 O 6
Total 97 22 75

Disposition of G.E.D. and Basic Education to date:

G.E.D. enrollees who passed and received a high
school equivalency 5
G.E.D. enrollees who passed four parts,
failed one 4

78

G.E.D. enrollees who passed three parts,

failed two 2
G.E.D. enrollees who failed,
scores too low 2

TOTAL G.E.D. enrollees who
took the examination 13

Disposition of Students in College Skills and
Regular College Courses (May, 1969):

Total number of enrollees 35

Total number of hours taken Fall

and Winter Quarter 336
Cumulative average per enrollee 1.71
Cumulative hours per enrollee for two quarters8 9.6

The various academic classes taken by the trainees
were: College Skills English, Reading Improvement, Psychol—
ogy, Introduction to Data Processing, College Mathematics,
Algebra, PhilOSOphy, Criminal Law, Business Law, Race Rela-
tions, Black History, Art Appreciation, Music Appreciation,
Introduction to Logic, Introduction to Sociology, Introduc—
tion to Building Construction, Child Growth and DevelOp-
ment, Health Education, Chemistry, Soft Water and Filtra-

tion, and Engineering Drawing.

Service Program

Project Search was established in 1967 with one of
the precipitating factors being the burning of Hough in
1966. With reference to a suburban setting, it seems

8Clarence Nixon, Ei hth Re ort: Pro'ect New Careers
(Cleveland, Ohio: Cuyahoga Community COIIege), May 8, 1969,

p. 2.

 

79

significant to note here that the recommended and typical
approach to program initiation in a traditional community
service setting (one that is predominantly white and sub-
urban-oriented) is usually accomplished by conducting a
community survey. More often than not in inner-city com-
munity services, however, program initiation and the nature
of programs offered are influenced by such factors as:
incidents on the campus led by minority group students and/
or demands from the community expressed through incidents
like the burning of Hough.

Through recruitment counseling and provision of
financial aid, Project Search is encouraging and assisting
Hough residents to achieve a higher quality and greater
quantity of education.

The project received initial funding in July, 1967,
through a $60,000 U. S. Office of Education grant under
Section 408 of the Higher Education Act of 1965. Since then,
subsequent yearly funding based on demonstrated productive-
ness has been granted from this same source.

The program's objectives are to:

.. Uncover counselees' aptitudes for academic and
technical occupational achievement.

. Encourage and assist counselees to develop their em-
ployment potentials by completing existing secondary
and/or post-secondary educational programs.

. Provide new training programs through the College

or other apprOpriate community agencies to meet

Dub-i

80

community manpower gaps.

. Assist in obtaining financial means necessary for
counselees' education.

. Develop new knowledges and skills to meet the edu-
cational needs of the socio—economically disad-

vantaged.

Project Components

Community Recruitment.--Major recruitment activity
is focused upon three specific groups: (1) high school
graduates who were not enrolled in post-secondary educa-
tional pursuits; (2) individuals who have drOpped out of
colleges, universities, and technical institutes; and (3)
high school dropouts over twenty-one years of age. Outreach
recruiting, distribution of project literature, community
agency referrals, and client referrals have all made sig—
nificant contributions toward client response to project
services. As of January, 1969, more than 1,100 individuals
were being regularly counseled at the Center.

Counseling.--Counselors assist clients in an ex-
ploration of their abilities and interests, survey of vari-
ous careers, and consequently the selection of an apprOpri-
ate educational program. Shortly after clients enroll in
courses, they are contacted by counselors and invited to
discuss their progress and problems. When learning prob-
lems are identified, tutorial assistance is arranged for

the counselee. This service is provided by institutional

81

and non-institutional sources. University Christian Move-
ment, a student organization, provides the major non-insti-
tutional tutorial service.

Financial Aid.--To date, more than $135,000 has been
awarded Project Search clients. Slightly more than $92,000
of these awards were administered by institutional financial
aid offices and private foundations. Approximately $43,000
has been disbursed from the Project Search fund. This fund
has been maintained for the purpose of aiding needy clients
who are unable to obtain financial assistance from other
sources. Most awards from the Search Fund have been com-
bination grant/loans, and the loan repayments have been made
on an incentive basis. Clients who achieved at the "A"
level, repaid one-fourth of the loan; those achieving at
the "B" level repaid one-half of the loan obligation; and
"C” students repaid three-fourths of the loan. Revenue for
the Project Search fund has been provided by contributions
from Cuyahoga Community College, private organizations,
and individuals.

Enrollment and Achievement.--During the first year
of operation, Project Search assisted 301 clients to regis-
ter into various institutions and programs. This amount
has increased to 538. The retention rate during each school
term has been in excess of 79 per cent, and the group
achievement level has been 2.0 and higher for each term

(A34L B33, C=2L 0:1)09

9Major Harris, Pro'ect Search Annual Re ort (Cleve-
land, Ohio: Cuyahoga Community College, 1969).

82

The following table shows the distribution of en-

rollment by institution for Project Search participants:

Table 5.--Institutional enrollment for Project Search,
Winter Quarter and Spring Quarter, 1968-69

_—A —Number TOEaT alien?

 

 

 

 

 

Institution Enrolled Enrollment
i. %__
Colleges and Universities
Cuyahoga Community College 418 77.6
Part-time, less than 10 credit hrs. 293 54.4
Full—time 125 23.2
Kent State University 16 2.9
Cleveland State University 7 1.4
University of Akron 6 1.2
Central State University 5 .9
John Carroll University 5 .9
Bowling Green State University 4 .7
Miami University 3 .5
Baldwin—Wallace College 2 .3
Bluefield State 1 .2
Case-Western Reserve University 1 .2
Coppin State 1 .2
University of Cincinnati 1 .2
Howard University 1 .2
Kentucky State University 1 .2
Lane College 1 .2
Ohio State University 1 .2
St. John College 1 .2
Tennessee A. & I. l .2
Wilberforce University 1 .2
TOTAL 477 88.6

Cleveland Board of Education
Aault Education Programs

Extension High Schools 43 8.
Jane Addams Vocational School
Max Hayes Vocational School

TOTAL 50 9.5
Commercial and Technical Schools

NUT
o 0
wow

 

 

 

 

Erma Lee's Beauty School 4 .7
Griswold College 3 .5
Erieview Beauty School 2 .3
COOper School of Art 1 .2
Wilkins Beauty School 1 .2

TOTAL 11 1.9

GRAND TOTAL 538 100.0

 

 

Source: Cu aho a Communit Colle e Community Services
Report, April 1, 1969, p. 9.

83

Points of concern regarding the project as cited
by its director, Major Harris, are: (l) inadequate suppor-
tive services in the various educational institutions that
serve the project's clients, and (2) the lack of sufficient
financial aid at the participating institution for the
economically disadvantaged client.

Other programs serving the educationally and econom-
ically disadvantaged at Cuyahoga are:

Prgject Eve.--This project serves a limited number
of disadvantaged women directly through vocational counsel-
ing. It concentrates more, however, on working with com-
munity organizations that can best help eliminate the atti-
tude and communication barriers that prevent minority group
women from entering meaningful employment. Since its open-
ing in November, 1966, the project has directly served over
3,600 women through a variety of approaches that range from
individual counseling to an institute for widows and divorcees.

Prgject Day Care Cegter Consultant.—-This project has
the responsibility of working with 18 centers that are oper-
ated by the City of Cleveland and the Cuyahoga Welfare De-
partment, to serve either families whose mothers are enrolled
in a project training program, or those referred by the Child
Welfare Services. A corollary function of the program is to
prepare the centers to meet newly established federal, state,
and city standards of performance, with an emphasis on the
educational components of day care centers. Operationally,

the program involves three consultants that meet in the

84

classrooms with teachers, hold conferences with staff and
provide training to teachers on common problems related to
day care programs. In-service training is also provided
and planned to include early childhood development, educa-
tional program planning, use of space and equipment, nutri-
tion, and many other program areas of concern to day care

centers.

The State University of New York's
Urban Center-—Brooklyn_

A Vocational Technical Education Project

The Urban Center in Brooklyn, New York, is adminis-
tered through New York City Community College. It is one
of five diversified technical and vocational educational
programs located throughout the state that are funded
through an act of the state legislature.

The Brooklyn Center became Operative in October,
1967, approximately one year after its official Opening
date. Presently operating on three 15-week cycles and a
budget of over one million dollars, the Center is physically
well equipped and offers training in data processing, busi-
ness machine repair, apparel processing, office skills,
secretarial science, offset duplicating, drafting, and a
College adapter program. Beginning with a student load
‘Df about 40 students in office skills, the program has
Since expanded to 700 full—time regular session students

and 200 or more in summer programs.

f"

85

According to the director, the major objective is
to provide peOple with a viable skill that they can offer
in the job market. The philosophy of the program from the
beginning has attempted to create an image of upward mobil-
ity by avoiding the stigma of a poverty agency image and
the mistakes of the public schools. "Students did not want
to identify with the idea of ggigg 2255,22 school," relates
the director. By offering the program through the state
university and community college, a certain amount of pres-
tige was added to what might have been viewed by the com-
munity as a warmed over secondary vocational-technical pro—
gram that would be here today and gone tomorrow.

Some characteristics of students served by the
Center's programs are:

. Recent high school graduates
. Drop-outs

. Graduates of the general diploma course
in high school

. Adults with no currently useful skill

. Persons with no more than an 8th grade reading
level.

Tuition, books, and course materials are free to all
participants. Supportive services available to the student
include: tutorial help; counseling with a 50-1 ratio that
allows for monitoring and an almost daily contact with stu-
den¢s having major problems; placement; and some financial
laid. Out of a staff of 110 persons, 45 are professional and

‘55 are supportive clerical and maintenance personnel.

'4-

H1

86

In addition to the above-mentioned programs, the
Center offers short-term courses in High School Equivalency,
Licensed Practical Nursing, and a cooperative program with
local businesses under an MA-S contract. This arrangement
provides for a special tax write—off for companies that ac-
cept students as trainees and promise them a job. At the
time of this investigation, this program was being arranged

with the Coca-Cola Company and the Coalition Jobs Agency.

The Family_Education Prgjggt

This program is another three-year demonstration
and experimental effort established to see that if by rais-
ing the vocational and educational levels and aspirations
of adults in 38 Head Start families, the aspiration and
achievement levels of the children could be influenced. In—
itiated in September of 1968, it is supported by a $115,000
grant from O.E.O., and coordinated by the A.A.J.C. The
project seeks to upgrade the parents' education through courses
in basic education, licensed practical nursing, liberal arts
courses at New York City Community College, and through many
of the courses offered at the Urban Center. In addition to
course work, parents and children are involved in a variety
0f recreational and cultural activities such as seminars,
Picnics, field trips, and trips to the zoo and theatre.

At no cost to the participant, a staff of 13 persons
are assisting the project in community liaison, counseling,

teaching, paraprofessional and research roles. Fifty per

87

cent of the families involved are on Aid to Dependent
Children welfare and such fees as transportation to and

from the Center, baby sitting, food costs in connection

with project activities, and books, are borne by the project.

The evaluation procedure consists of two measures:
(1) the Princeton Cooperative Pre-SChool Inventory Test
which measures the current achievement level of the chil-
dren, and (2) an Attitudinal Questionnaire, administered
to the parent at the beginning, the mid-point and at the
end of the cycle. At the time this survey was conducted,

a complete evaluation report was unavailable. The director
did report, however, that the project had been quite suc-
cessful in terms of the following results:
. 30 of the 38 families have remained in the program.
. 2 of the women have enrolled in the community col-
lege day care program.
. An improved self-concept Observed among both parents
and children.
. An improved attitude toward education has been
observed among a number of parents.

A less successful facet of the project thus far has
been the failure to get more courses developed for fathers.
Their involvement is hindered because most work during the
day when courses are offered and because the Center is
closed evenings. Plans are now being made to have the Cen-

ter open during the 1969-70 school year to remedy this

88

situation. One other difficulty experienced by this pro-
gram was in the seeking of refunding for another year. At
the completion of this visit (July 3, 1969), the project

had not been refunded.
The Community College of Baltimore

An Institutional A roach to Community
Services in the Inner-City

The Community College of Baltimore was opened in

 

 

February of 1947 by the Department of Education of Balti-
more City. From an initial enrollment of 53 students, the
college has develOped a daytime enrollment of more than

2,800 students.

Communitnyrofile
The Community College of Baltimore is located in a
highly industrial and commercial community with typical
inner-city characteristics. Namely, the Baltimore inner-
city resident lives in a city where:
. The Black population has, according to the 1960
census, increased from 19 per cent in 1940 to
39.2 per cent in 1960.
. Within this same group, only 5.4 per cent were
listed as holding professional and managerial jobs.
. The city per-pupil expenditure for library books
was $0.80, compared to $2.71 in the county. Thus,
it is precisely the youngster who lacks books in

his home who has fewer books around him in school.

89

It is this type of deprivation that begins the
crippling process which, as was mentioned earlier, only
reinforces and enhances those conditions that produce the
educationally_and economically disadvantaged Egglt.

The following table provides a pictorial view of

some of the above-listed characteristics:

Table 6.--Comparison of three Baltimore area pOpulation

 

 

Groups
—_ . 8altimore §altimore
Characteristic Pgofifgtign City County
p ngulation Population
Median school years '
completed, 1960 8.4 8.9 10.9
Median family income,
1960 $4,123 $5,659 $7,098
Per cent of males employed
in professional and
managerial positions 5.4 17.9 27.4
Per cent under 18 years
of age 41.3 33.6 37.9

 

‘

Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census, U. SL_Census of popula-
tion and Housin : 1960. Baltimore— MdT* Standardw
Métropolitan Statistical Area (Wasfiingfon, U. 5.:

S

. . overnment Printing Office, 1962).

 

 

The Community Services Prggrgm

In its broadest terms, the college's community ser-
vices office performs several functions, which have been
referred to throughout the study as traditional community
services activities. Among these functions at the Community

College of Baltimore are:

9O

. On-campus seminars, clinics and workshOps.

. Art exhibits, concerts, lectures and film series.

. Plays produced by both students and a newly formed
community drama group.

In another approach under the leadership of the
college's president, Dr. Harry Bard, and the Associate Dean
of Community Services, the program's urban orientation is
expressed through year-round programs that attempt to reach
all age groups in the community.

Efforts to change the image of what was formerly a
junior college which served a predominantly white population
that sought out its offerings, to an outreach-type, service-
oriented institution caught up in a rapidly changing neigh-

borhood, are observed in the following programs:

Description of Programs

Four federally funded programs provide Opportunities
for educational and vocational training for both high school
age participants and adults, through: (1) New Careers, (2)
Upward Bound, (3) The Manpower Project, and (4) Child Care
Worker Training Program. Two of these will be described
in some detail below:

The Baltimore Metropplitan Area Manpower Project.--
This is a Title I, two-year comprehensive program designed
to secure training and employment opportunities for young
unemployed men and women in the community. The basic goal

of the program is to utilize the full resources of the col-

Q~

91

lege to make a significant contribution toward breaking the

‘vicious cycle of poverty and the meeting of manpower strin-

gencies in the community.

The specific objectives of the program are:

To educate the community to employment needs in and
resources for selected industries, businesses, and
occupational groups.

To stimulate the expansion of training Opportuni-
ties and employment Opportunities.

To contribute to the goal of full utilization and
development of manpower resources in our community.
To assist in the develOpment of more positive and
favorable attitudes among potential employees and
trainees, among disadvantaged and under-utilized
groups, and among training institutions.

To motivate all elements to apprOpriate action so
that the cycle of training and education, employment
opportunities, and full employment can be served.

With a staff of two persons-—the director and a

secrxatary--the project was initiated with a $32,000 budget

In Chaly, 1967. Among the project's activities were:

1.

Two seminars involving 200 people representing the
entire spectrum of the manpower process presented
under the aegis of this program. The project's
director states that, "For the first time, at least
to our knowledge, employers requested their tOp of-

ficials to participate in what amounted to a

92

confrontation with those representing persons who

are disadvantaged by virtue of being either unem-

ployed or underemployed. This particular program
was so well received that the participants asked

the project managers to provide leadership in the

staging of another similar experience to meet the

needs of an even broader segment of the community.”

2. A seminar on Personnel Testing, with over 300 per-
sons attending, was co-sponsored by the Baltimore
Community Relations Commission and the Social Security
Administration.

3. Project officials were also called upon to provide
consultative services to agencies, both public and
private, on an intermittent as well as a systematic
basis throughout the year. These services sometimes
took the form of one-to-one conference sessions,
discussing the formulation and presentation of pro-
grams by the agency in question, and the presenta-
tion of formal addresses to relatively large groups
of peOple with a peculiar interest in manpower prob-
lems.

In reference to Dr. Bard and his commitment to the
inner-city and the college's maximum involvement in the com-
munity, Grover McCrea, director of the project,states, "I
was very fortunate in being housed in an institution whose

president is committed to social change."

93

Weaknesses of the program as outlined by the direc-
tor include:

. Inadequate staffing.

. An attitude at the federal level that shows little
concern for changing the social ills in terms of a
type of funding, that is both too little and for
far too short a period.

. The need for Blacks at the administrative level of
the Title I state agency.

The Child Care Worker Training Program.-—This program
is an Office of Education funded project. It is designed to
provide educationally and economically disadvantaged persons
training that will equip them to work as aides in nursery
schools, day care centers, hospitals, and schools for men-
tally retarded, disturbed, or handicapped children.

Since the beginning of the training period in February
of 1969, two classes consisting of 50 persons each have been
graduated. During their 12 weeks of training, the trainees
received on-the-job training mornings (Monday through Friday)
at various nursery schools and day care centers; attended
specially designed secondary school level educational courses
in preparation for the general educational equivalency exam;
received attitudinal training through core courses; and
studied child care (child growth and development). All
trainees received a small training allowance for the time

they spent in training.

94

A description of one of the classes provides a
general overview of the trainees characteristics. Out of
a class of 29:

1. All members of the class were women, Blacks, with
an average age of 22 to 23.

2. Half were welfare recipients referred to the program
by WIN, the welfare Work Incentive Program.

3. The other half did not receive welfare, but were en-
rolled in a community action poverty program, the
Concentrated Employment Program (C.E.P.) and were
referred to the program by their respective counselors.

4. Eleven of the 29 trainees were high school graduates;
the rest ranged from 8th to 12th grade drOpouts. The
majority were mothers, and most had more than one
child.

One problem that the project experienced with the
first class is expressed by its director. "This difficulty
in finding decent-paying jobs for the Child Care Aides was
our biggest problem . . . " Upon graduation, only eight of
the 29 graduates had secured jobs.

A second class of Social Service Aides, with 26 of
30 women graduating, used another approach and had 25 jobs
guaranteed in the city's Department of Social Services (Wel-
fare Department) before their training began. Their jobs
upon graduation consisted of visiting welfare recipients'
homes and aiding these mothers with their children (espe-

cially in problem situations); caring for children when the

'13

(1.

['1’

95

mother is not present; and taking children to clinics and
other necessary appointments.

An interview with a group of the graduates of this
program revealed that this was their first time on the col-
lege's campus. A number of the graduates when asked what
was their impression of the Community College of Baltimore
prior to enrolling in the training program, remarked, "We
didn't know it was here," and added "but we plan to come
back and take some more courses."

A follow-up interview with the director revealed
that approximately 10 graduates (a combination from each of
the two classes) are planning to enter the college as reg—
ular day or evening students. One other has been accepted
as a full-time student at Morgan, a four—year state college
in Maryland.

The type of institutional involvement and commitment
that permeates the program of the entire college is again
reflected in this statement regarding community. One admin-
istrator, when asked if the administration had committed
itself to his program, replied, "Not only is he [the presi-
dent] involved here in the community itself, he was instru-
mental in conceiving and effecting the Bard reapportionment
plan that redistricted the city and enabled the inner—city
residents to have a city council representative they would
not have ordinarily had." This type of comment was, with-
out exception, made by all of those interviewed at the Com-

munity College of Baltimore.

96

Other Programs

Further evidence in support of this position is seen
in the following on-campus and community efforts:

1. Collegiate Horizons.--An idea of the president
wherein the student personnel office works with junior high
school students and their counselors encouraging the stu-
dents to think of college well before going to high school.
The counselors and interested students visit the campus,
attend classes, and have a discussion and question-and—
answer period.

2. An Ofvaampus Recruiting program utilizes a mini-
bus with two students and a counselor, visiting shopping
centers, housing projects and other inner-city areas re-
cruiting underprivileged high school students, drop-outs
and adults. In 1968, from 100 to 125 students were recruited
via this method.

3. A Special Human Relations Workshgp.--Now in its
second year, it includes a special class of children care-
fully selected to represent different ethnic, racial and
religious groups. The class is used as a demonstration
group and is taught by two teachers assisted by adult aides.

4. A Summer Spprts Clinic is also in its second
year and teaches real skills to inner-city youth ages 10 to
18. Aided by players from major league teams and a staff
of some 17 persons, it served over 200 students in its sum-

mer program for 1969.

97

5. A Spgcial Financial Aids program is a supple-
mentary service administered by a special school official.
This project, assisted by a student government grant, helps
needy students who find themselves with insufficient funds
near the completion of registration. The program covered
93 emergency student loans in 1969 and, according to its ad-
ministrator: "No one was turned down, no parental signature
was required, and the student determines his own repayment
plan." Out of $12,000 loaned in the 1968-69 school year,
$9,000 had been repaid by the end of the school year. Sev-

enty per cent of these loans went to minority group students.

Summagy

In order to provide a sharper focus for the common-
alities and differences observed in the programs under in-
vestigation, a synthesis of the preceding data as it per-
tains to the four areas central to the study's purposes is
provided. These areas as outlined in Chapter I include:

(1) types Of programs, administrative structure and staffing
patterns; (2) financial and physical resources; (3) origin
of program or program-initiating factors, and (4) special
problems.

TO better mirror the types of programs observed,
three classifications are provided. They are: (1) service
programs, (2) manpower programs, and (3) intercultural
presentations. By definition; Service programs are programs

that perform a supportive function by providing the program

98

participant information, counseling, financial help, or
any combination of the three.

Manpower proggams are designed to provide program
participants with a viable and marketable skill at the suc-
cessful completion of the training cycle.

Intercultural programs are those ethnically oriented
presentations that have as one of their prime aims that of
instilling pride and appreciation in the various ethnic and

minority groups for their cultural heritage.

Service Programs

An analytical summary of the data revealed that
counselipg was the one service program peculiar to all six
projects. In an attempt to establish a more meaningful
relationship with the educationally disadvantaged inner-
city client, the techniques used included: (1) the use of
a predominantly Black and minority group staff; (2) student
paraprofessional assistants; (3) discontinuance of the use
of records and test results in the initial contact with
clients and a keen concern for the client's self—concept,
self-confidence, and personal aspirations. Other service
programs included in at least one component of the six
projects observed are: day care services; supplementary
financial aid; tutorial assistance; at one college, food
provided those students who could not afford to buy their
lunch; awareness seminars for business and management

personnel.

99

Manpower Programs

Some of the more significant commonalities observed
in the design of training programs, such as New Careers and
Day Care, are as follows:

1. Basic classroom learning coupled with an opportunity
for live experience in real or simulated work situa-
tions that will eventually become the trainee's
normal environment;

2. The cooperative planning of curricula and course
content by project staff and industrial personnel;

3. Guaranteed employment after the successful comple-

tion of the training cycle.

Intercultural Presentations

0f the several approaches used by community services
directors in the search for an improved climate of communi—
cation between the various ethnic and racial campus and
community groups, through intercultural presentations, two
are: (l) jointly sponsored ethnically oriented theatrical
productions by the community services office and the Theatre
Arts Department, and (2) the presentation of local and na-

tionally known ethnic and minority group artists.

Administration

An examination of the administrative status of the
community services directors revealed that five reported
directly to the president and one to the dean of institu-

tional develOpment. (See Appendix I.) Project staffs

100

ranged from 2 persons to 110, with credentials extending

from the doctorate to the paraprofessional level. Though
none of the programs were performing all of the administra-
tive functions listed below, all of the directors reported
some involvement in at least two or more functions. Their
responsibilities have been summarized under three classifica-
tions: (1) initiation, (2) coordinating, and (3) directing

project activities. In list fashion, this would include:

 

 

Initiating Coordinating
. Proposal writing . Acting as liaison
between staff, community,
. Seeking and securing funds faculty, and students
. Designing and implementing . Meeting with community
new projects groups, social agencies,
etc.

. DevelOping curriculum for
new careers and other
industry-related vocational
and technical programs

Directing
. Hiring staff
. Supervising entire program

. Preparing departmental
budget

. Supervising publicity
and public relations
efforts

. Evaluating project and project
personnel

101

Funding_Patterns

Three types of funding patterns were reported:

1. Ad hoc federal funding,
2. A combination of institutional and federal funding,
3. Funding by private foundations.

Special problems and the techniques used in program-

ming are included in the following section.

CHAPTER‘V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Historically, the junior/community colleges' com-
munity services programs have failed to meet the basic
human needs of a distinct segment of the community-—the
Black and brown educationally and economically disadvan-
taged resident.

The phenomenal growth of junior community colleges
since 1900 and the recent establishment of community col-
leges in less than 20 major metropolitan areas since 1960
(Gleazer, 1968), are two rather significant observations
that support this statement. Recent nationwide studies
(Harlacher, 1965) also revealed that less than ten community
colleges had community services programs designed to meet
the educational, economic and social needs of disadvantaged

minority residents.

Need of Study
This investigation was undertaken in an attempt to
fill a void that existed regarding the lack of in-depth in—

formation on community services programs for the disadvan-

 

taged at inner-city community colleges. Previous investiga-

102

103

tions have provided marginal descriptions of programs for
the disadvantaged, but in none of them has an attempt been
made to provide an in-depth descriptive analysis of the
community service efforts of inner—city community colleges.
Studies by Medsker, Harlacher, Myran, and others have,
through national surveys, dealt with topics ranging from
critical requirements for establishing programs, to various

structural and develOpmental aspects.

Pugpose
The purpose of the study was two-fold: (l) to des—

cribe the essential components of community service programs
for the educationally and economically disadvantaged at
inner-city community colleges, and (2) to identify guide-
lines that might be used as a frame of reference for the
develOpment of education programs designed to meet the needs

of disadvantaged persons in the inner-city.

Methodology

The "integrating techniques" method was used for
the collection of data. This technique employed several
approaches. Among them were: taped field interviews, ob-
servations of selected programs, questionnaires, and a con-
tent analysis of school catalogues and brochures for addi-
tional information regarding the programs offered and
participants served. These techniques were designed to

serve four purposes: (1) to provide information on the

104

types of programs Offered to the disadvantaged at selected
inner-city community colleges, the administrative structure
and professional staffing patterns; (2) to provide data re-
garding the programs' financial and physical resources;
(3) to provide information on the develOpmental aspects
as they relate to the programs' origins, community analysis
("Did the director consider a community analysis necessary?"
"Was one made?"); and (4) to provide information regarding
the special problems encountered as they pertain to race as
a significant consideration in staffing and white staff in-
volvement in an inner-city setting.
'222_Role of_;pner—City
Community_CoIleges

Caught up in a community it had little involvement
in creating, the inner-city community college is in especial
need of a "soft area" in the administrative structure that
will act as a mediator between the inner-city community and
itself. The "service concept" of a community services pro-
gram and especially one in the inner-city, commands a re-
sponse to the problems of inner—city residents. Inherent
implications in the above statement strongly suggest the
need for an intercessory. The community services program
at the inner-city community college is the one agency that
is increasingly seen by educators as best equipped to fill

this need.

105

Conclusions

In a review and analysis of the data presented, the
following conclusions are presented:

1. The urban community colleges in this study have
evidencedha‘Visihle concern for disadvantgged
citiEens in their communities by_ifiplementing
programs of direct interventi§n thhimprove the
Quality of life for all.

The larger significance of this study lies in the
visible evidence in Chapters II and IV that some inner-city
institutions of higher education are providing through
either service, manpower, or intercultural programs, oppor-
tunities for educational, economic and cultural experiences
for inner-city disadvantaged citizens. These programs
represent demonstrable proof that some inner-city community
colleges are beginning to exhibit a sense of responsibility
for disadvantaged citizens. Through their examples, they
are redefining the role of inner-city community colleges by
establishing action-oriented programs based on involvement
and commitment.

2. While the inner-city community services prOgrams of
this stugy are less‘than comprehensive in their
current effofts t5”heet the edUCatIOnaI ahd'eEOnomic
peeds of inner-city disaHVanEagedhEiEizeh§i_thEir
exploratory efforts'tohdevelOp problem-oriented
programs is paving the way for more intensive—in-
volvement in the near—futfire.

An examination of the composite objectives of the

six projects and the nature of their programs established

that the greater majority were problem ggiented. This

106

point, as well as the social significance of these programs'
efforts, can probably best be mirrored by reiterating some
of the common problems shared by all of the communities
visited. Indicated here also are the specific programs

that were implemented to address these needs. Included
below are a few of the problems, programs and intervention
techniques observed that strongly support the above-stated
conclusion. The problems that characterize all of the

inner-city communities visited include:

A. Problem
A community that possesses a feeling of lessening
allegiance to a system that has failed to respond to its

most basic needs.

Intervention Technique

The hiring of two Black inner—city community col-
lege presidents for the first time at Malcolm X and Merritt
Community Colleges. Although this is not considered a part
of the community services function, this technique was ob-
served as a significant factor in offsetting inner-city
tensions inherent in the above-stated problem. This should
not be used, however, merely as a survival technique for
buying the community off. Much is yet left to be done to
offset the "game-playing" image so often associated with

inner-city agencies and institutions.

107

B. Problem
A community that is predominantly Black or Chicano
(Mexican—American), with a high rate of unemployment, neces-

sitating excessive dependence on welfare.

Program

The Child Care Worker Training Prggram (Community
College of Baltimore).—-A11 trainees were Black women with
50 per cent on ADC or some other type of welfare.

Classes in English as a Second Language.--Inner-
City Project (Laney and Merritt Colleges, Oakland, Cali-
fornia) and Project Outreach (Malcolm X Community College,

Chicago, Illinois).

C. Problem
A community characterized by an under-utilization

of human resources and potential.

Program

Brooklyn's Urban Center's vocational-technical and
college—adapter educational project provides eight differ-
ent programs for either entering a college program or ac-

quiring a viable and marketable technical skill.

D. Problem
A community whose residents are acquiring a new

sense of brotherhood, togetherness, and self pride.

Program

108

This problem was being addressed throughout all of

the projects through an emphasis on identity, political

 

awareness, and a concern for individual self-concept.

Identity:

 

Theatre Ethnicl_Los Angeles City College

presents ethnically oriented intercultural
programs whose primary objective is to in-
still pride and appreciation in ethnic and
minority student and community groups for

their cultural heritage.

The Inner-City ProijectjL Laney and Merritt
Colleges.--Four neighborhood development cen-
ters provide a facility with which Chicano

and Black inner-city residents can identify
through educational, social, and intercultural

programs.

Political Awareness: Prpject Outreach, Malcolm X

Community College.--Classes on community or-
ganization and develOpment; bus trips to the
state capitol to attend a legislative ses-
sion on a bill to raise community college

tuition.

Self-Concept: ngject Search, Cuyahoga Community Col-

lege, Cleveland.--A counseling program that

109

functions with an all—Black staff that ex-
presses a concern for individual self-
concept through questions about clients'
opinions of Malcolm X, his personal feel-
ings regarding his identity and manhood,
the value of riots, etc. No records or
tests are used in initial contact with

client.

Student Counseling Assistants' Prgjectnygg
Angeles City College.--Another counseling
program which uses students in paraprofes—
sional counseling, tutoring and big brother
roles in helping Black and Chicano freshmen
and new students make a smooth institutional

adjustment.

E. Problem
A community that possesses the feeling that the
scales of law enforcement and justice are tipped against

them.

Program Initiators

Several "critical incidents" were perceived by proj-
ect administrators and interviewees as precipitating factors
that influenced the initiation of programs and practices
implemented to meet the above-stated problem. Among these

incidents were: (1) the burning of Hough in Cleveland in

110

1966; (2) the frisk and "shoot to kill" order by the Mayor
of Chicago and its endorsement by the Fraternal Order of
Police; and (3) campus unrest and community pressure to

hire more Black and brown faculty and administrators.

Programs

Programs and practices developed as a result of
these incidents include: (1) Project Search, Cuyahoga--
a counseling program already referred to above; and (2) a
course on the Afro-American Policemen in the Urban Crisis,
Project Outreach, Malcolm X Community College. New minor-
ity group faculty and administratOrs are also conspicuously
present in large numbers for the first time in history of

all the institutions included in the study.

P. Problem

A community where the almost wholesale lack of such
recreational facilities as bowling alleys, skating rinks,
tennis courts, and swimming pools forces the inner-city
teenager and adult into such hangouts as "beer joints,"

back alleys, and the street.

Program
Community services sponsored recreational programs
at two inner-city community colleges are attempting to
meet the needs of inner-city youth through:
1) A summer sports clinic-~Community College of Baltimore

2) A summer swimming and track program-~Los Angeles City
College.

111

G. Problem
A community with either distrust, misunderstanding,
or no knowledge of existing community services available

to them.
Program

EPIC (Educational Participation in Communities) at
Los Angeles City College uses volunteer students serving on
campus and in the community as tutors, nurses and teacher
aides. Students serve in settlement houses, hospitals, and
community centers in an attempt to dispel the notion that the

college is blind to the needs of the inner-city community.

3. Inner-city community services programs investigated

in hlS s u y_ ave recognize e nee o in en51 y

recruitment andisupportive services in order to

Bridge theteducatihnalflahd economic gap of disad-

yantaged citizens. 7"

Among the more innovative techniques and approaches
used in the execution of these measures was the inreach
function. The implementation of this function strongly sug-
gests that what has been done in the past for former junior
college students, is not enough to meet the new educational
needs of recent community college clients from the inner-
city ghetto and barrio. Functioning as a supportive measure,
inreach efforts attempt to match the efforts of outreach
programs through the extension of on-campus services such
as supplementary financial aid, free books, and the provision

of food to inner-city students in need.

o
A"?

 

112

While the initial efforts toward the solution of
some of these problems are encouraging, it must be recog-
nized that within the inner-city, agencies must establish
their credibility as a stable and dependable facilitating
force. Not only must this be done with students and the
community, but with various community agencies and college
staff. Consequently, these programs are currently operat—
ing in what might be termed a credibility development stage.
And a few are just beginning to find acceptance among this
massive arena that is bound by most of the problems men-

tioned above.

Special Problems in Inner-City Programs

Several areas pose rather serious challenges to in-
ner-city programs. However, just two will be dealt with
here. The matter of white staff involvement in an inner-
city setting that is predominantly Black and brown repre-
sents a dilemma in terms of faculty involvement in college-
sponsored community programs. The fear held by some faculty
and staff of going physically into the ghetto and barrio
community is often very real and the answer is not yet clear.
However, the problems caused by this dilemma are also just
as real for the inner—city resident and student as well,
and hold very serious implications for inner-city community
college faculty.

Based on an analysis of the data found in this

study, certain implications suggest that for the Black and

113

brown inner-city resident, the public community college is
the most important single source of higher education avail-
able to him. One Health, Education, and Welfare official
relates that:
The reasons are obvious; these are the accessible
institutions, geographically, financially, academi-
cally. A quarter of all Black American collegians
are concentrated ip public 2:year colieges in three
citieeJ New YorkJ Chicago, and:tos An eles. In vir-
tually every large American city--C1eveIand, St.
Louis, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Miami, Dallas--
more Blacks study at public commupity colleges than
all nearby institutions combined. [Italics added.]

Two other rather dismal statistics relate that:

. . . approximately two-thirds of all students in
two:year colleges require remedial or compensatory
education. . . . and that nine out of ten of the
disadvantaged do not complete their programs.

Herein is suggested the need for a new type faculty
and new teaching techniques. Too many faculties at inner-
city community colleges are staffed by instructors trained
for purposes other than community college teaching. Many
activities of the community services program are stifled
by "old guard" faculty attitudes that dichotomize their
service roles when programs for inner-city disadvantaged
residents are involved. With regard to the urgency of the
above inner-city community college and community service

needs, William Moore, an inner-city community college ad-

ministrator, states: "I've never seen a physician lose

 

1Robert H. Finch, speech at the American Association
of Junior Colleges' National Workshop on Federal Programs,
Oct. 3, 1969, Washington, D. C.

zIbid.

114

30 to 50 percent of his patients and people continue to
go to him."

Finally, erasing the "stigma of poverty" from

 

service and mappewer programs offered in inner-city com-
munities remains a major challenge to inner-city community
college administrators, community services directors and
supportive staff.

At stake here is the matter of individual dignity.
Too often, the dignity and respect that we both expect and
demand for ourselves, is denied the Black, brown, and poor
white inner-city residents. The idea of the inner-city
community college and its community services office, func-
tioning as a cateripg agency_of programs and services to
meet urban community needs is an acceptable one--providing
its epirit is not abused.

With the foregoing data and observations in mind,

the following recommendations seem relevant to this study.

Recommendations
The following recommendations are also intended to
function as guidelines that can be used as a broad frame
of reference for inner-city community service programs.
Funding . It is recommended that a more stable ang_
permanent‘Source of fundipg be sought and
provided—totinner-city commhnity service

programs.

For five of the six programs studied, the primary

source of funding was through either federal or state short-

115

term grants. It is felt that this ad hoc funding pattern
found in the majority of inner-city community services pro-
grams investigated is a deterrent to long-range planning
and severely impairs the efforts Of administrators to eval-
uate the impact of the program on the community. Community
services is a distinct department in the overall community
college structure, deserving equal consideration in terms
of budget and commitment. The inner-city community college
cannot afford the price of whetting the community's appe-
tite by the "crash" provision of "instant" services that
have been previously withheld and then have them disappear
for the lack of continued funding. For, unlike many recent
poverty program agencies that left the community after being
unsuccessful, the inner-city community college is a highly
visible institution within the community. And, it is in-
creasingly being held accountable py the community for un-
filled promises. A continuance of this funding pattern
could very well set the stage for what is termed here as
programmed conflict. In addition, it could have an adverse
effect on staff commitment and the recruiting of skilled
and much-sought-after minority group personnel. If inner-
city community services are to succeed on a long-range
basis, the provision of programs must move from an ad hoc
level of funding to a level of full commitment by the in-

stitution.

116

Staffing . An active effort should be made to recruit
‘taculty memhers'who aretknowntto be re—
sponEively concerned with the prOhlems of
the disadventaged. 2" t—

A matter of critical concern has to do with the use
and employment of staff at inner-city community colleges.
It would appear that there is an urgent need for an exami-
nation of existing screening processes in the hiring of
both professional (faculty,administrators, etc.) and sup-
portive (clerical, paraprofessional, custodial, etc.) staff
at inner-city community colleges.

With inner-city communities progressively becoming
more Black and brown, the attitudes of all those that come
into contact with its members becomes a factor of prime
importance. Respect for persons with a different "life
style" and culture is a signal imperative in an inner-city
setting.

. College staff members must beyprovided
priehtation sessiOns to help them in__
creating a climate—that_fosters posi—
tive self concept§_and_faciiitates—the
struggle for2identity.

The problem of self doubt and low esteem so preve-
lant among the disadvantaged requires a change in the in-
stitutional environment. Such a change requires that all
faculty and staff members be sensitized to ways in which
they can help in building self confidence and self esteem.
They must also be helpful to recognize staff behaviors

which work negatively and tend to build distrust and mis-

understanding. The establishing of such a climate in the

117

entire institutign would be conducive to, and supportive
of, a continued and positive reinforcement of persons whose
self concept, self confidence, and personal aspirations
have been blurred by poverty and discrimination.

. Teaching and consultant respensibilities
in inner-city community prejécts shouid'
be considered a norm51_part of the con-
tractfial commitmentiéf the facuity.

Because of the unclear status of the role of inner-
city community college faculty regarding their involvement
in community-oriented programs for the disadvantaged, the
recommendation above would seem to hold the following ad—
vantages: (1) improved communication between the college
and the community; (2) an Opportunity to offset the inner-
city resident's suspicions regarding institutional and
agency motives; and (3) most important of all, an oppor-
tunity for faculty and staff growth and enrichment through

a process of professional sharing.

Programming

On the basis of the classification of programs ob-
served in this study, the following three types are recom—
mended for a comprehensive inner-city community services
program. These programs are service, manpower, and $2335"
egltural, and are defined as follows:

1. Service programs are programs that perform a sup-
portive function by providing the program partici-

pant information, counseling, financial help or

118

any combination of the three.

2. Manpower_programs should be designed to provide
program participants with a viable and marketable
skill at the successful completion of the training
cycle.

3. Intercultural prqgrams should have as one of their
prime aims that of providing a positive focus for
instilling pride and appreciation in the various
ethnic and minority groups for their cultural

heritage.

The initiation and implementation of the above pro-
grams in an inner-city setting will require exercising a
great deal of flexibility and sensitivity. As pointed out
by a majority of the administrators and interviewee's con-
sulted, the ability to shift emphasis without becoming
frustrated is of utmost importance in implementing inner-

city community services projects.

Evaluation
In order to properly assess present efforts and
to faciIitate“Iong-range_pIanning, it i3‘recOh:
mended that the researEh and etaiuatiOHWOffice
Of'the collegeihe directed‘tOward asséssing the
develepment of the inner-city program.
Because Of the relative newness of a majority of
the projects, a lack of funds and the failure to build ade-
quate evaluative measures in the original proposals, a

critical need is seen for establishing sound techniques for

program evaluation.

119

\ In conclusion, and in view of the many commonalities
found in the inner-city community service programs studied,
it seems critically_important that directors of inner-city
community,serviceyprggrams come together to share their

ideas and focus on a set of recommended practices and pro-

cedures for the initiation and implementation of pregrams

of intervention for the inner-city disadvanteged.

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for the Disadvantaged," Junior Colle e Journal, Vol.
36, No. 4 (December, l965fJanuary, 1866), 18-21.

Williams, Harrison A. "To Close the Opportunity Gap,"
Junior College Journal, Vol. 40, No. 1 (September,
1969), 8.

Dissertations

Harlacher, Ervin L. "Critical Requirements for the Estab-
lishment of Effective Junior College Programs of
Community Services." Unpublished doctoral disser-
tation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1965.

Mensah, Anthony J. "Social Commitment: A Study to Determine
an Effective Participation for Urban Universities in
Poverty Programs in America's Turbulent Cities, with
Special Reference to the People of Milwaukee's Inner—
City - North Negro Community." Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Marquette University, 1968.

Morton, Paul Wesley. "Community Services of the Community
Colleges in the State of Pennsylvania," Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Lehigh University, 1966.

Myran, Gunder A. "The Structure and DevelOpment of Community
Service Programs in Selected Community Colleges in
the United States." Unpublished doctoral disserta-
tion, Michigan State University, 1969.

124

Sidnell, Robert G. "The Influence of the Tyler Junior Col-
lege on the Fine Arts Culture of Tyler, Texas."
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Texas, 1960.

Reports

Campus in the City. Report from the Educational Facilities
LaBOratOries, New York, 1968.

"Community Education Director's Report." Malcolm X Commu-
nity College, Winter Quarter, 1969.

Gold, Ben K. Research StudyiNo. 69-6, the Fall 1968, Student
CounselorrAssistant Program: An Evaluation. Los
Angeles City Coliege, Office Of Research, May, 1969.

Harris, Major. Project Search Annual Report. Cleveland,
Ohio: Cuyahoga Community College, 1969.

Nixon, Clarence. Eighth Report: Pro'ect New Careers.
Cuyahoga Community College, levelahd, Ohio, May 8,
1969.

 

North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.
Re ort of an Evaluation Visit to the Crane Campus of
the Chicego City College, by the CommissiOn on Col-
Ieges and‘UniterSities of the North Central Associa-

tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Chicago,
May 19, 1964.

 

Ricca, Richard. "Community Services at Laney College." An
unpublished report to the president of Laney College,
Oakland, Calif., June 2, 1969.

Toney, Sam, and others. Peralta College's Inner-City Project
Evaluation Report. FerdIta Colleges,—Oak1and,
Calif., MayCIS, 1969.

U. 5. Bureau of the Census. U. S. Censuejof Population and
Housin : 1960. Baltimorey_Md.yrStEhdatd'Metrd-
peIitan Etatistical Area. WaShington, O{_C.: U. S.

overnmenthrinting Office, 1962.

 

Papers

Chicago City College. "Project Outreach-—Demonstration

PrOposal." An unpublished prOposal, Chicago City
College, Oct. 16, 1967.

125

Myran, Gunder A. Community_Services Working Pepers.
Number 1. FirSt Definitionsthnd Selected Examples.
Washington, D. C.: American Association of Junior
Colleges, 1969.

Speeches and Interviews

Finch, Robert H. Speech given at the American Association
of Junior College's National Workshop on Federal
Programs, WashingtOn, D. C., Oct. 3, 1969.

Katzenbach, Nicholas de B. Attorney General's "Address to
the National Conference on Law and Poverty,"
Washington, D. C., June 24, 1965.

Lee, Ronald. Assistant Postmaster General's speech at
Michigan State University, May 9, 1969; also in
Michigan State News, May 12, 1969, p. 3.

Ricca, Richard, Director of Community Services at Laney

College, Oakland,California, June, 1969, in an
interview with the author.

Newepapers

Christian Science Monitor, September 4, 1969, sec. 2, editorial
page.

Detroit News, August 8, 1969, p. 4a.

- APPENDIX A

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

'

.Dear

iMr. Andy Goodrich is one of our doctoral students in the field of commun-
ity college administration. He is particularly interested in analyzing
the community services provided for the disadvantaged in inner-cities.
Through visitation and case studies as well as a follow-up conference of
directors of selected programs, he hopes to identify model programs and
significant guidelines for their development.

Your college is one of six which he plans to visit during the early summer.
Following the visit he will bring together the directors of these programs
for a three day conference at Michigan State University.

Your support and COOperation in providing important information will be
greatly appreciated. We believe that this study can provide important
information for community develOpment.

Sincerely,

‘Max R. Raines

Professor

Higher Education
Michigan State University

1126

APPENDIX B

FOLLOW-UP LETTER

Dear

Thank you for your willingness to cooperate with us in our study of
community services in the community college. An enclosed envelope
addressed to you will give you details about this study and its part

in our total community service project. I would appreciate your co-
operation in making those arrangements for my two-day visit which would
be difficult for me to do personally before I arrive. My visit at your
college is now set for . I am enclosing several items which
are related to my visit.

1. EnvelOpes for each person to be interviewed: I would like to inter-
view each person at your college who holds a full-time administrative po-
sition, and who is responsible for one or more community service functions
for the disadvantaged. Please distribute an envelope to each person.

2. Agenda sheet: It would be helpful if the schedule for interviews was
established prior to my arrival. The interviews would be more meaningful
if the people to be interviewed received the enclosed envelopes and were
aware of the time schedule prior to my visit. Each interview will be
approximately 45 minutes in length.

3. Check list for supplementary data: It would be helpful if as many of
these materials as possible were collected prior to my visit. If this is
not possible, please have them available at the time of the critique on
the second day.

4. Institutional data: Please obtain the data requested on the "Institu-
tional Data" form enclosed.

I realize that this visit will require a considerable amount of time on
the part of you and your staff. Your participation, however, will provide
important information which will be used throughout the duration of the
project. The study should make a real contribution to the available re-
search related to community services programs for the inner-city disadvan-
taged.

I will call you a few days prior to my visit to discuss final arrangements.
Please call me if problems arise.

Sincerely,

Andy Goodrich
Administrative Intern
401B Erickson Hall
Michigan State University

2127

APPENDIX C

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APPENDIX D

CHECK LIST

KELLOGG COMMUNITY SERVICES
LEADERSHIP PROGRAM
College of Education
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

Name of Institution

Check List for
Institutional Materials to Supplement
Recorded Interviews

ADMINISTRATION

COMMUNITY

FINANCIAL

College president's annual report for past three years
Community services annual report for past three years
Information on advisory or community committees

Information on facilities for community service programs
Organizational chart of the administrative structure

SERVICE PROGRAMS

Statements of objectives

Curricular information: program outlines, syllabi, statements
of objectives, guidelines for programs concerning the disad-
vantaged

Information re: evaluation of instruction, programs, courses
DATA

Budgetary information for total college operation including
community service program. (Including professional and clerical

salaries, furnishings, supplies, equipment, etc.)

Tuition and fee schedule

RESEARCH DATA

Follow-up questionnaires

Materials prepared for accreditation visitation or other self-
studies

Research or project reports (published reprints or unpublished
mimeographed material)

.130

STAFF DATA

Contract signed by community service faculty

 

Faculty handbook
Job descriptions of community service staff members

Roster of staff members engaged more than one-third time in
community service activities

STUDENT DATA

Application blank for students enrolled in community service
activities or courses

Enrollment statistics for Fall 1968-69

Registration forms for courses offered as a part of community
services

GENERAL INFORMATION
Calendar

College catalog

Any other publication or interpretive data related to community
service functions

 

 

 

 

 

131

APPENDIX E

INSTITUTIONAL DATA

KELLOGG COMMUNITY SERVICES
LEADERSHIP PROGRAM

College of Education

Michigan State University

 

 

 

1969
INSTITUTIONAL DATA
Name of College
Location
Year Established Accreditation

 

 

Students Enrolled Fall Semester 1967, Total Head Count

 

Full Time Part Time Equated

 

Students Served by Community Services Activities, 1968-69:

Total Head Count Enrolled in Credit Courses
(approximately)

Engaged in Non-Credit Activities
(approximately)

 

Total Professional Staff Members Employed by College:

Administrators Counselors Instructors

Total

 

 

 

Full Time

 

 

 

Part Time

 

 

 

Equated

 

 

 

Professional Staff Members Employed in Community Services:

Administrators Counselors Instructors

Total

 

 

 

Full Time

 

 

 

Part Time

 

 

 

Equated

 

 

 

£132

APPENDIX F

QUESTIONNAIRE

QUESTIONNAIRE

To community service director: Please complete and include with other

requested information

1. Has your trustee board (or board of directors) endorsed these particular
community service programs? Have they adopted a written policy
regarding the program?

2. What is the district or area served by the college?
3.

What are your present full-time and part-time enrollments for the
college as a whole? What enrollments do you have at present in the

community service programs for the disadvantaged for which you are
responsible?

£133

To what segments of the population in your district are your
community service programs directed?

What facilities are used in your community service program?

Are there local, state, or federal legal requirements which either
enhance or restrict the development of your community service program?

2134

7. In your opinion, what are the minimum educational qualifications
necessary for a position such as yours?

8. Please give a brief description of your educational and experimental
background, and how you feel it relates to your present position?

.135

APPENDIX G

INTERVIEW GUIDE

INTERVIEW GUIDE

A Question Outline of Discussion Topics

(Questions will not be confined to these particular areas however)

Topic 1: Origin and Description of Programs

1.

10.

How did your particular program(s) for the disadvantaged get
started? How long have they been established?

Has the college made an institutional commitment to the pro-
gram? What was the source of this thrust, the board of
trustees, president, etc.

Describe the community service programs for the disadvantaged
which you are responsible.

What are the major objectives of the community service
programs for which you are reaponsible?

What evidence could one expect to find in your program
that these objectives are being carried out?

How do you define community services?

What factors determine whether or not a program or activity
is initiated as a community service project by your office?

The college might involve itself in several phases of
community development. These include:

. Identification of community problems.

A community survey.

Organization of resources to deal with the problem.
Evaluation of program made.

O‘CO‘D

Within your college, which of these receive emphasis?
Please give examples.

What percentage of (or how many) males do you have in your
total program? How many of these are black?

Do you see a need for involving more black males in your
program? If so, what steps would you take in recruiting them?

Topic II: Organization, Staffing, and Financing Community Services

1.

Please describe your major reSponsibilities related to carrying
out community service programs for the disadvantaged.

What is the place of your position in the administrative
structure of the college? Has your place in the adminis-
trative structure changed in the recent past?

Describe the criteria by which you choose staff members for
your community service programs. How many staff members are
involved in the program for which you are responsible?

136

Topic III:

10.

ll.

12.

Is race an important consideration in staffing your pro-
gram(s)? Is there pressure from the community to hire
Specific ethnic representatives?

What are some of the specific things you are trying to
accomplish in working with individuals or groups of individualg?

 

What type of supportive services are available for disadvan-
taged participants in your community services program?
Examples, tutorial, financial, counseling.

Do you consider the supportive services provided adequate?

In your opinion does the counseling provided relate to the
set of values held by disadvantaged persons?

Please describe the structure of advisory committees, and
indicate the ethnic or racial composition of these committees.

Describe briefly the financing structure under which your
programs operate. Indicate all sources of financing in-

cluding federal, state, and local taxes, tuition, and other
sources.

What are the major areas of cost?

What major financial problems have you encountered during
the development of your program?

Development of Community Services

1.

Could you identify some critical events in the development of
community services that determined the direction of your
program? In reviewing these events, could you identify such
things as the struggle for power; community pressure.

Please comment on successful and unsuccessful ventures
during the development of your program.

If you were beginning a new community service program for the
inner-city disadvantaged would there be a sequence of steps
you would follow to get the program underway? That is, is
there some crucial order to the steps that should be taken

in developing a community service program?

What role have advisory committees played in the development
of community service programs? Basically, would you say
that advisory committees play a primary or peripheral role
in development? What specific guidelines for the develop-
ment of educational programs designed especially to meet the
needs of the inner-city disadvantaged would you recommend?

1137

Topic IV:

Topic V:

What are some of the major challenges facing your community
service program, and what plans are you developing to meet
these challenges?

What type of innovative programs do you have? How successful
are they?

Identifying Community Needs

1.

In your opinion, does the disadvantaged segment of your
community have a sufficient awareness and understanding of
what your program is about? How is the program publicized?

How do you think they perceive this community college?

What are the methods used to identify those needs of the
community which can be approached through community service
programs?

Who are the people involved in the identification of needs
process; in the decision-making relative to initiating a
program?

In your opinion, should the community college play a role
in the community as an agent for change? That is, should
it be an agency for such action as opposed to Eggction?

Community Services: Its Relation With Other Educational Programs
and Community Groupg

1.

What is the relative emphasis on community services programs
for the disadvantaged in your college as compared to other
areas such as liberal arts, vocational-technical education,
general education, and counseling programs?

Are these community service programs largely independent of
other programs of the college, or is there inter-relationship?
If there is inter-relationship, give examples.

As the community service program has developed, has its
development resulted in significant organization of

philosophical transitions within the college?

What inter-relationship is there between the college and
other community groups providing community services?

What contact do you have with militant (black or white)
groups in the community?

How much contact do you have with the students?

2138

APPENDIX H

ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
OF INNER-CITY PROJECT AT
LANEY AND MERRITT COLLEGES

 

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