“A 511' U DY OFTHE COMFARAIBWEHMELUERC‘E-OF?LEAfiNIW WRITENG CGNVE’NTSONS UPON THE EXPRESSIVE LITERACY OF AVERAGE ABILITY BLUE AND WHITE COLLAR CHILDREN Thesis for the Dow of Pub. M §GHEGAN STATE UNIVERSH‘Y M . ROBERT GRAHAM €971 M LIBR A ” y Michig: , gait: t3 Universv . "'1- exoofi‘ This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE COMPARATIVE INFLUENCE OF LEARNING WRITING CONVENTIONS UPON THE EXPRESSIVE LITERACY OF AVERAGE ABILITY BLUE AND WHITE COLLAR CHILDREN presented by Marb en Robert Graham has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education 9in v, (19W, Major professor Date April 15, 1971 l \ o-ms ‘ l . l J ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE COMPARATIVE INFLUENCE OF LEARNING WRITING CONVENTIONS UPON THE EXPRESSIVE LITERACY OF AVERAGE.ABILITY BLUE AND WHITE COLLAR CHILDREN by Marben Robert Graham The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of teaching dialect related writing skills to Black Blue Collar children in the fourth, seventh, and eleventh grades for whom these forms represent identifiable oral, social dialect differences in comparison with similar White Blue Collar students and White White Collar students. Four theo- retical questions were raised: 1. Do Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar children differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? Do male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? Do the variables of male and female interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar to create differences in Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? Is ability to use Graphic Literacy conventions related to the ability to produce Expressive Literacy? Marben Robert Graham Procedure To provide the answers for the four theoretical questions of the study eight Operational hypotheses were developed and tested at the three grade levels. The data to be compared consisted of one paper by each of lhh students rewritten after six daily writings given in re- sponse to audio-visual experiences. Frequency counts for thirteen variables of the Graphic Literacy Scale were made by the researcher. The writings were read by two readers and rated on an Expressive Literacy Scale develOped in the Madaus-Rippey fashion of yes-no answers. Efforts were made to control extraneous variables which could affect the results. The writers at all three grade levels were given the same directions, wrote over a period of seven days and were exposed to the same stimulus. The final cells were balanced for number, race, sex, and social class. All papers were typed, alphabetized, spelling corrected, and names masked from the readers. A 2 x 3 analysis of variance, linear correlation, and difference of correlation statistics were used to test the hypotheses. A multiple regression statistic was used to assist interpretation. Results It was concluded that error entered the reader correlations but that the error was Type II, making it more difficult to achieve statis- tical significance where such significance existed. The Expressive literacy scores may therefore be considered conservative ones. Marben Robert Graham The results were: 1. The study concluded that there were no differences in the abilities of the three social classes to produce Expressive Literacy. One difference was found between Black and White children in the seventh grade, but the difference was attrib- uted to a sampling artifice rather than to race. There were significant (p. ‘<.OS) differences in Graphic Literacy convention use at each grade level. Phonologic related differences occurred in the seventh and eleventh grades, structural in the eleventh, and verb in the fourth. In each case the frequency of deviations was in the direction of the Black Blue Collar students. No differences were found in male and female Expressive Lit- eracy production, Graphic Literacy convention use or in their interaction with the three social classes. In the case of six of the twelve variables tested at each of three grade levels Black students achieved significantly higher correlations of Graphic Literacy use to Expressive Literacy production than did White students. In four cases the corre- lation was negative, in two, positive. The clustered strength of these variables to predict Expressive Literacy was significant as a negative predictor for fourth grade White students on the strength of syntactic variables. It was also significant for eleventh grade Black students both in negative prediction, syntactic variables and in positive prediction, phonologic variables. Marben Robert Graham Conclusions l. 5. Under the conditions of this study male and female Black and White children of the three social classes studied did not differ in their ability to produce Expressive language. Syntactic problems created more interference with Expressive writing than did race related phonologic or verb variables. Some race related phonologic and verb variables had a ca- pacity for predicting positive Expressive writing for Black students. A greatly reduced occurrence of race related variables in writing as compared to speaking suggests that there was a press to write a "standard" English as early as the fourth grade. The press had equal results upon all classes although for possibly different reasons. A common student writing problem was found in syntax. This may be an encounter between thought maturation and the process of writing, syntactic error perhaps serving as a measure of thought maturation. A STUDY OF THE COMPARATIVE INFLUENCE OF LEARNING WRITING CONVENTIONS UPON THE EXPRESSIVE LITERACY OF AVERAGE ABILITY BLUE AND WHITE COLLAR CHILDREN BY Marben Robert Graham A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1971 /-,,;-7 , . (7)00pyright by MARBEN ROBERT GRAHAM 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS ILIS T OF. TABIES O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 CHAPTER I. TI-{E PROBW O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction to the Problem . . . . Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II. RELATED STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . III. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . The History of Composition Teaching Evaluating Composition . . . . . . Social Dialect Identification . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RESEARCH DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Questions . . . . . . . Operational Hypotheses . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV C ANALYS IS OF RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . Reader Agreement . . . . . . . . Hypothesis Testing, Expressive Literacy Hypothesis Testing, Graphic Literacy Hypothesis Testing, Expressive-Graphic Relationships Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Page iv \OCD-QWF’ 116 CHAPTER Page v . SLWARY AND CONCHJSIONS . O C O C O O O O C O C O O O O C O 126 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 swam O O O C O O C C O O C C O O O O O O O O O O O O O 126 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 conClus ions . C . O O O C C C C C O C C O O O O O O C C I 139 Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . lhl Suggestions for the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lh2 APPENDICES .APPENDIX.A: TEACHING PROTOCOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lhh APPENDIX B: EXPRESSIVE LITERACY DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . lh8 .APPENDIX C: EXPRESSIVE-GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALES.AND EXAMPLES . 153 BIBIJIOGRAM C I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O C C O O C 199 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Correlation of Black and White Readers on 1AA Papers . . . 62 2. Means and Standard Deviations for 2 x 2 Data Matrix Comparing Black and White Readers on Black and mite Papers 0 O I O O I O I O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 62 2.1. Summary of Analysis of Variance for Black and White Readers by Black and White Papers . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3. Fourth Grade Expressive Literacy Scores Compared in a 2 x 3 Data Matrix, Sex by Three Socioeconomic variables 0 O C I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 65 3.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Expressive Literacy Scores . . . . ._. . . . . . . . . . 65 h. Seventh Grade Expressive Literacy Scores Compared in p a 2 x 3 Data Matrix, Sex by Three Socioeconomic variables 0 I O O I I O O O I I O O O O O O O O O O O O 66 h.l. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade Expressive Literacy Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 5. Eleventh Grade Expressive Literacy Scores Compared in a 2 x 3 Data Matrix, Sex by Three Socioeconomic variables 0 O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 67 5.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Expressive literacy Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6. Summary of Expressive Literacy Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 68 7. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, ii Plural, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 iv Table 7.1. 8.1. 9.1. 10. 10.1. 11. 11.1. 12. 12.1. 13. 13.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Phonologic Variable, LE Plural . . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, TE Possessive, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Phonologic Variable, -§_Possessive . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, -§_Third Person, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Phonologic Variable, -§_Third Person . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, -9, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade PhOHOlOgiC variable , “g o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic variable, -§ Plural, Seventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade PhODOlogIC variable , -_S_ Plural o o o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, TE Possessive, Seventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade PhOHOlogic variable, 'i POSSESSIVE o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, IE Third Person, Seventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade monOlogic variable, "i Third. Person 0 o o o o o o e V Page 71 72 72 73 73 7h 71+ 75 75 76 76 77 77 Table 11+. 114.1. 15. 15.1. 16. 16.1. 17. 17.1. 18. 18.1. 19. 20. 20.1. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, -d, Seventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade PhOl'lOloglc variable, '9; o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, Ti Plural, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade PhOIlOloglC variable , "-S- Plural o o o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, ii Possessive, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade PhOI'lOloglC variable, "-S_ POSSESSlVB o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, —§ Third Person, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Phonologic Variable, -§ Third Person . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Phonologic Variable, -d, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade PhonOlogic variable, ”-6-.- o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Summary of Graphic Literacy Hypotheses Relating to Phonology O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, T-units, Fourth Grade, Words Per T-unit o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Sentence Structure, T-units . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 78 78 79 79 8O 8O 81 81 82 82 83 85 85 Table Page 21. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, Fragments, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 T-units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 21.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Sentence Structure, Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 22. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, -Capitals, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 T-units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 22.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Sentence Structure, -Capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 23. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, -End Punctuation, Fourth Grade, occwrence per 100 T‘mits o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 88 23.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Sentence Structure, -End Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . 88 2h. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, Run-ons, Fourth Grade, Occurence per 100 T‘mits o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 89 2h.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade sentence StI‘LlCture , Run-ODS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 89 25. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, Black Sentences, Fourth Grade, Occurrence per 100 T-units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 25.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Sentence Structure, Black Sentences . . . . . . . . . . 90 26. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, T-units, Seventh Grade, Words per T—unit O O O I O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O 91 26.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade sentence StrUCtuI'e, T-units o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 91 vii Table Page 33. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, Fragments, Eleventh Grade, occurrence Per loo T-lmits o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 98 33.1. Summary of Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Sentence Structure, Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3h. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, -Capitals, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 T-units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3h.l. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Sentence Structure, -Capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 35. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, -End Punctuation, Eleventh Grade, occurrence per 100 T-unltS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 100 35.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Sentence Structure, -End Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . 100 36. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, Run-ons, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 T-units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 36.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Sentence Structure, Run-ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 37. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Sentence Structure, Black Sentences, Eleventh Grade, occurrence Per loo T-unltS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 102 37.1. 'Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Sentence Structure, Black Sentences . . . . . . . . . . 102 38. Summary of Graphic Literacy Hypotheses Relating to Sentence Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 39. .Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb Variable, -Past Tense, Fourth Grade, Occurrence Per loo 011811088 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 1% 39.1. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Verb variable, -P8.St Tense o o o o o o o o o o o o ~o o o o o 1% ix Table ho. hO.1. M1. h1.1. A2. h2.1. ’43. 13.1. MM. hh.1. 1+5. 15.1. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb Variable, -Auxiliary, Fourth Grade, Occurrence Per loo Cllances O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Summary for.Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Verb variable , -A11Xiliary o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb Variable, -Copula, Fourth Grade, Occurrence Per 100 Chances O O 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O I O 0 Summary for Analysis of Variance for Fourth Grade Verb variable , -C0pu13. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb variable, -Past Tense, Seventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Summary for analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade Verb variable, -Past Tense O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb variable, -Auxiliary, Seventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade Verb variable , -AuXiliary . C O O O C O O O O O . . . . 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb Variable, -C0pula, Seventh Grade, Occurrence Per loo Chances O O O I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Summary for Analysis of Variance for Seventh Grade Verb variable ’ -Copula O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0 Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb variable, -Past Tense, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary for Analysis of variance for Eleventh Grade verb variable, -P&St Tense o o o o o o o o o o o o o Page 107 107 108 108 109 109 110 110 111 111 112 112 Table Page M6. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb variable, -Auxiliary, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence per 100 Chances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 h6.l. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Verb Variable, -Auxiliary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 M7. Means and Standard Deviations for a 2 x 3 Data Matrix: Verb Variable, -C0pula, Eleventh Grade, Occurrence Per lOO glances . C O O C C O O O C C C C C O O O O C 0 111+ h7.l. Summary for Analysis of Variance for Eleventh Grade Verb Variable, -Copula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11h #8. Summary of Graphic Literacy Hypotheses Relating to Verb Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 M9. Summary of Hypothesis Seven--The Influence of Graphic literacy Convention Use Upon Expressive Language Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 50. Differences Between the Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Signifi- cance Levels for Fourth Grade Black and White 'Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 51. Differences Between the Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive literacy Score with Signifi- cance Levels for Seventh Grade Black and White Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 52. Differences Between the Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Signifi- cance Levels for Eleventh Grade Black and White Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 53. Summary of Hypothesis Eight--The Influence of Graphic Literacy Convention Use Upon Expressive Language PrOdUCtion o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 121 5h. Summary of the Expressive literacy Hypotheses . . . . . . 123 xi Table Page 55. Summary of the Graphic Literacy Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 12M 56. Summary of Expressive-Graphic Difference of Correlations . 125 57. Clustered Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Significance Levels for Seventh Grade Black Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 58. Clustered Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Significance levels for Seventh Grade White Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 59. Clustered Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Significance Levels for Fourth Grade Black Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 13h 60. Clustered Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Significance Levels for Fourth Grade White Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 61. Clustered Correlation of Graphic literacy Variables to ‘Expressive Literacy Score with Significance levels for Eleventh Grade Black Students . . . . . . . . . . . 137 62. Clustered Correlation of Graphic Literacy Variables to Expressive Literacy Score with Significance Levels for Eleventh Grade White Students . . . . . . . . . . . 138 xii CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM Introduction to the Problem Recent field studies have defined the significant features which separate the nonstandard socioeconomic varieties from what has often been called a "standard" verson of spoken American English. Sound, structure, and semantic language differences are usually the variables described. "The traditional view is that the nonstandard or substan- dard form of speech used by children is an imperfect c0py of standard English, marred by a number of careless and ignorant errors. Dialec- tologists have been arguing against this view for many years, but current textbooks . . . show that the underlying assumptions about nonstandard English remain unchanged."1 The defects of such assump- tions are causing serious educational problems. As each new immigrant group has been assimilated into American culture the schools have taken on the task of teaching the second and third generations a standard English. It was an accepted assumption that everyone learned English in school. The situation today has, however, changed. Labov points to a major problem in teaching standard school English in urban ghettos.2 Black students seem to speak a variety lWilliam Labov, The Study of Nonstandard English (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1970), p. l. 2Ibid. , p. h. of English further removed from standard school English than most other nonstandard varieties. The city dialect is for the most part an uncon- scious, abstract pattern which differs noticeably from the teacher's standard school variety. For this reason Black nonstandard city chil- dren frequently respond inapprOpriately to the teacher's stimulus. "Even if a teacher comes from the same background as his students, he will find that his grammar has changed, that he no longer has firm intuitions about whether he can say Nobody don't know nothing about it, instead of Nobody knows nothing about it."3 This interference caused by the difference between the standard and nonstandard variety is augmented by the student's production-perception capacity. The child frequently can perceive more than he can produce in language. He may also, as in rote or mimic production, produce more than he understands. Labov speaking of school-Negro dialect notes that Negro children become aware of racial differences early, and that Negro teenagers associate standard English with negative values. This awareness he relates to a lack of verbal responsiveness which is evidenced in lower tested language scores. The end result of the classroom standard-nonstandard language dis- tance is communication static which results in misunderstanding, frus- tration, and stunted language growth. Verbal intelligence is exercised and grows through language use. James Britton, speaking on the "Role of Language Learning in the Elementary School" says: 31bid., p. 10. 1William Labov, "The Non-Standard Vernacular of the Negro Community-- Some Practical Suggestions" (Columbia University, New York, 1967), p. 8. A child learns to speak not simply by imitation, but again (using this favourite word of mine) by improvisation. It soon becomes clear that he is applying a system. He doesn't know a system exists, and he's certainly never tried to learn it. But he is, in fact, acquiring it in the course of his speaking--a fact we can deduce by the errors he makes in applying it. I heard a small girl once say to her mother, "we better cross here, bettern't we?" If you know your Chomsky, you'll know that the (transformations by which you derive that negative tag of "bettern't ‘ we," are very, very complex. Well, the child's got them dead right: it just happens that "better" isn't the kind of word that ought to be submitted to that particular transformation. When the classroom doesn't promote language use and growth, it impedes learning. Leonard Greenbaum, assistant director of the Uhiver- sity of Michigan's Phoenix Project, makes a case for classroom acceptance of nonstandard dialects. "What is needed is the willingness to teach within the dialect environment, with the addition of the vocabulary as needed for a particular subject matter. The special vocabulary belongs not to the standard dialect but to the subject matter. . . . The in- ability to change the dialect of many students means that the teacher either continues the educational process with those students, regard- 1eSs of dialect, or stops the process."-6 James Sledd comes down some- what harder on bi-dialect prOponents. "Obligatory bi-dialectalism for minorities is only another mode of eXploitation. . . . It is unnecessary for communication, since the ability to understand dialects is easily attained, as the Black child shows when she translates her teacher's prissy White model 'his hat' into 'he hat.'"7 5James Britton, "The Role of Language in Learning in the Elementary School," Reason and Change in Elementary Education (washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, February, 1968), p. 63. 6Leonard Greenbaum, "I'd Rather You Made Less Noise, Darling," The English Record, Vol. XX, No. 2, (December, 1969), p. 18. 7Jemes Sledd, "Bi-Dialectalism: The Linguistics of White Supremacy,’ English Journal, V01. LVIII, No. 9, (December, 1969), p. l3lh. ' Another important facet of language learning is underlined by Walter M. MacGinitie in his Encyclopedia of Educational Research article, "Language Deve10pment." He notes that, ". . . tests of verbal ability are the prime predictors of academic achievement. . . . The dependence of school achievement on verbal ability not only sub- stantiates the importance of language in school but makes clear the school's vital responsibility to foster the develOpment of language skills. . . . Obvious problems for school achievement come when the home teaches a different dialect or even a different language from that used in school. In such cases the language or dialect may be supported by peer-group or community values." Community and state groups interested in educational budgets and curriculum are now pressing for more precise knowledge. As John Maxwell's Mr. Novatney explains to his faculty, "The Board of Educa- tion's analysis led to a conclusion that the people want evidence of better education before they'll give us more money. The Board has asked us to begin to apply to the instructional process some of the 9 modes that are used in industry and the military." The "modes used in industry and the military" include behavioral objectives and their operational definitions. These definitions frequently become formalized test statements based on the outdated concepts of standard English, a procedure which proceeds from a racial bias. 8Walter M. MacGinitie, "Language Deve10pment," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Fourth Edition, (London: The Macmillan Company, 1959), p. 686. 9John'Maxwell and.Anthony Tovatt (eds.), On Writing Behavioral Objectives for English (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1970), p. h. The sides in the battle for language competence may at first seem clear, the develOpment of language skill over its regression. But the nature of a victory and the strategy to that end are at the moment clouded with socioeconomic and racial-ethnic issues. Efforts to teach "standard" English so that its use will flow from the school into daily life have not been successful. Some educators now prOpose special lan- guage programs beginning at an early age. Others disagree. "Teachers face daily the contradiction that to serve the school and the curriculum is to hurt the students. As an English teacher, I came to realize that my particular curriculum when it 'takes'--tends toward the production of alienated, anxious, phony peOple."lO Need A writer must as a matter of definition come to accept certain graphic, written conventions of language, Whether he writes for self or to communication with others. To these graphic skills some composition rhetoricians would make additions: ".1. . the discovery of the New English: a human being given freedom to make his own statement out of the rich, bloomin', buzzin' world of his perception can produce com- plexities and meaning that count for him and surprise his readers and listeners."ll Speaking for the rejected low-ability student Holbrook says, "Any revolution in the education of backward children, then, centres round English--largely imaginative English in the context of loBarbara Bailey Kessel, "Free, Classless, and Urbane?” College English, Vol. XXXI, No. 6, (March, 1970), p. 533. 11Ken Macrorie, "Roundtable Review," Research in the Teaching of English, Vol. III, No. 2, (Fall, 1969), p. 235. affectionate sympathy, in the context of teaching-as-an-art, and in conditions in which one may come close to and work with the individual animula, the child spirit."l2 There is an implication of conflict between learning the conventions of standard school English and the interests of the "individual animula." Speaking from a personal knowledge of writing and its demands Ralph Ellison has said of his and his peOples' natural dialect, ". . . within the bonds of their oral culture they possess a great virtuosity with the music, the poetry, of words. The question is, how can you get this skill into the main stream of the language, because it is, without a doubt there. . . . If you can Show me how I can cling to that which is real to me, while teaching me a way into the larger society, then I will not only drOp my defenses and my hostility, but I will sing your praises and I will help you make the desert bear fruit."13 What happens to children as they learn to write? Does conformity to "standard" graphic forms exact any greater toll upon the expressive language of Blue Collar children than it does upon White Collar children? Specifically the study was concerned with race related graphic forms. Do male and female Blue Collar and White Collar children differ in their expressive and graphic productions? Can these differences, where they are found, be explained? l2David Holbrook, English for the Rejected (London: Cambridge University Press, 1965), p. 9. 13Ralph Ellison as quoted in Thomas J- Creswell, "The Twenty Billion Dollar Misunderstanding," Social Dialects and Language Learning (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1965), p. 71. Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of a differential influence of learning standard school English forms upon the expressive language production of average Black and White Blue Collar and White White Collar students. The expressive language pro— ductions of Black and White Blue Collar and White White Collar students were first compared for differences. The same students were also com- pared in their use of certain standard school forms which gave an indi- cation of being race related. Differences in sex as well as interaction relationships were also contrasted. Lastly correlations between the standard school forms and expressive writing were developed and compared for those variables which indicated differential learnings. In this way the study expected to discover the relationship of learning standard English forms upon student expressive writing. Specifically the study sought answers to these questions: 1. Do Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar children differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? 2. Do male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? 3. Do the variables of male and female interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar to create differences in Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? h. Is ability to use Graphic Literacy conventions related to the ability to produce Expressive Literacy? Theory Should any part of the first question be answered positively then evidence will be gained to support the position that race and or socio- economic class dialect does influence written language production. There is long history of linguistic evidence to support the position that there are distinguishing socioeconomic spoken dialect features. To some extent this has also been done with written English. The expectation is for race and socioeconomic differences. Should the second question receive a positive answer then evidence will be gained to support the position that sex and class role expecta- tions Operate differently to influence language production. The direc- tion of the influence is suggested by Shuy's findings that lower socio- economic women are more sensitive than men to the double negative and 1h similar nonstandardisms. A recent study in the American Educational Research Journal sug- gests the direction of interaction influence raised in question three. "The . . . study suggests that features observed in the normal speech of nonstandard speakers may differentially affect performance on an echoic repetition task by imposing some interference in the response which can be noted at the point of a sentence production. It further is suggested that points of structural divergence between nonstandard dialects and the standard language may play a role in performance on other tasks requiring production of the language employed in the schools 1“Roger W. Shuy, "A Study of Social Dialects in Detroit" (Michigan State university, East Lansing, Michigan, 1969), p. 17. 15 in teaching and in testing." Interactions are expected to register differences which favor females and White Collar students. Should class or sex differences be found in answering the first three questions then question four seeks to discover the strength of relationship between learning conventions of English and Expressive production. It is possible that for nonstandard dialects the learning of convention will lower Expressive production. Should question four receive a positive answer then there is reason to believe that acquisition of Graphic Literacy skills most likely con- tributes to an interference in learning Expressiveness. The point and direction of this influence is suggested by Shuy's findings. Because women are more sensitive to several nonstandardisms, their gains in Graphic skills should be more obvious and their EXpressive scores lower. Summagy Through reader ratings and frequency counts two concepts of com- position were measured to gain evidence to answer the study's questions. Also the dimensions of male and female, sub-Blue Collar language envi- ronments, were comparatively and interactively investigated for their differences. In this chapter the problem, need, purpose and theory of the study have been presented. Chapter II offers a review of the literature; Chapter III contains a description of the research design; Chapter IV presents an analysis of the results; and Chapter V gives a summary of the study and its conclusions. lsCatherine Garvey and Paul.McFarlane, "A Measure of Standard English Proficiency of Inner-City Children," American Educational Research Journal, V01. VII, No. 1, (January, 1970), p. 39. CHAPTER II: RELATED STUDIES Introduction To put to test a proposition based on the assumption that standard English is taught in the public schools and that its teaching may have a degenerative effect upon the written language production of nonstandard users presents one problem of justification and two others of composition evaluation and social dialect identification. The literature concerning the history of teaching and evaluating written composition and the identi- fication of social dialect and its effect upon oral and written composi- tion are reviewed in this chapter. Conclusions will be drawn from this survey of the literature with implications for the study's evaluation problems. The History of Composition Teaching The teaching of the English vernacular in American schools stemmed from and was in reaction to classical language training. Benjamin Franklin's "PrOposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Philadelphia" led eventually to vernacular education and the collapse of the Latin grammar school. H However, Judy concludes that in, . . . 1850 English was a minor subject in secondary school curriculum, and composition, when taught, "usualiy obnsisted of monthly or bimonthly essays written on abstract or philos0phica1 subjects with little or no formal instruction. . . . By 1890, however, English had become established as one of the major constituents lO 11 in the high school curriculum; composition was perhaps the most widely discussed school subject and composition teaching had assumed a shape which has been largely unchanged up to the present."1 He has documented this change and notes that in the latter half of the nineteenth century the high schools committed themselves to the pre- paration of students for college and in this way colleges came to have some control over high school English. The acceptance of English in- creased with the increased cry against classical studies and for more practical subjects. College entrance compositions, first required by Princeton in 1870, were read not as much for content as for correctness of form. "English, which had begun as a practical subject for the non—college bound, was by the end of the century to be regarded as an important college preparatory subject, with its content selected by criteria established for the college preparatory students, rather than for the 'ordinary' students for whom it had originally been intended."2 Speaking of two Harvard examination board chairmen Judy points out, Neither Briggs nor Hill was interested in what the boys had to say; they had created an examination where the writer did not have to say anything, provided he said it well. They consistently sepa- rated form and content and regarded the "laws of sentence structure" and correct expression as independently teachable. Where the teacher of object lessons spoke of expression as a natural by-product of fruitful thought, Briggs and Hill placed the forms of expression prior to thought and relegated instruction in the rudiments to the secondary schools. If the student could be taught to express him- self prOperly in school, the colleges would help him find something to say. lStephen Judy, "The Teaching of English Composition in American Schools" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1967): P- 1- 2Ibid., pp. 78-79. 3Ibid., p. 19h. 12 Independent of the college influence on curriculum two approaches to English instruction developed during the same half century: those who placed thought first and those who placed structure first. If we compare Stark on the one hand, and Bouton and Harrington on the other, we can begin to see two approaches to English develop- ing, both derived from a common philOSOphy, but utilizing different conceptions of composition and rhetoric. Bouton and Harrington, like Russell and the object teachers, place thought and its deve10p- ment at the center of instruction. Stark, like most of the other writers I have discussed, turns to the structure of language, to philology, literary criticism, and scientific language study, and works his way back to "thinking." All three, however, have "advanced" beyond their respective predecefisors by incorporating the study of literature into their programs. In 1892 the English Conference of the National Education Association's Committee of Ten gave formal approval to the more traditional aspects of teaching composition. "In theory, the Conference gave the teacher a blank check to devise a method of teaching composition. But a number of limita- tions on the teacher's freedom were implied by the report. First, of course, the Conference had clearly expressed its concern for correctness, which the teacher was to emphasize throughout the course."5 By condemning the practice of more than one course in English, college bound, technical or scientific, and terminal, the committee, by implication, recommended that all students subscribe to a college entrance requirement dominated English curriculum. In composition this meant writing a critical essay. In evaluating the composition matters of correctness were of first consideration, the rules of rhetoric second. In addition, in recommending a four year English curriculum in high school the committee emphasized the importance of English as a discipline among disciplines rather than as a process. 1‘Ibid., p. 23h. 51bid., p- 331. 13 The associationist learning theory, which helped in large measure to bring about some reform in the methods and content of the English course, had superimposed on it older, discipline- centered ideas about teaching. Even the Committee of Ten, for example, emphasized that English was to be considered of disci- plinary value equal to any subject. During the century teachers began to demand actual writing practice, but reduced such practice to mental discipline by driving at "fundamentals." Exercises like the correction of false syntax, which had been develOped as a main- stay of "memorization" texts like those of Murray and Kirkham, became exercises in correction of "specimens of bad English" and were reinterpreted in the second half of the century to be part of actual practice. Rhetoric and composition theory, too, were to be practically oriented; rules, it was universally claimed, would never teach a student to write, and rhetoric was to be sub- ordinated to composition. But rhetoric continued to focus on the form of compositions rather than on the "art" of composing; rules were renamed "principles" but continued to possess their Platonist, absolute qualgties; and compositions became vehicles for testing rule mastery. The issue was not settled in 1892. The NEA, NCTE Hosic Committee reacted strongly to the college entrance curriculum in 1917 and stressed in its Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools: 1. English has personal and social ends more important than the ‘minor college preparatory function. 2. Articulation between elementary and high school is more important than between high school and college. 3. It is a mistake to regard English as merely a formal subject. The implication of such a view is that skill is the sole end sought and that this may be attained by drills upon technique quite apart from an interesting or valuable content. . . . The content of both literature and composition is, first of all, the body of fact, interpretation, and imaginative conception to be expressed, and second, that small body of principles of technique and consciousness of which actually enables children and young peOple to improve their use of the vernacular. 6Ibid., p. 3A1. 7James Fleming Hosic (chm.), "Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools," Report by the National Joint Committee on English Representing the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Bulletin No. 2, in U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletins l-lS, 1917 (Washington, D. C.: Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, 1917), p. 18. in u. English is unique in its relationship to mental development and the life process and as such only as much technique should be taught as can be used. 5. English is social and is acquired in a social context. The Hosic Committee's emphasis on process had little influence upon English teaching for in 1929 grammar drill was still the most common language work in the junior high school. Hatfield chaired an NCTE committee which published An Experience Curriculum in English in 1935. The curriculum was based on "well- selected experiences" clustered under headings of Literature, Reading, Creative Expression, Communication, Corrective Teaching, and Electives. The report stressed functional grammar, those items which posed diffi- culties for adults and students. In a special section the report defined "good English" as that which is, "apprOpriate to the purpose of the speaker, true to the language as it is, and comfortable to 8 speaker and listener." In 1952 the NCTE Commission on the English Curriculum listed: . . . five basic concepts which are, or should be, the foundation of the current attitude toward any teaching of the English language today: Language changes constantly. Change is normal . . . not corruption but improvement. Spoken language is the language. Correctness rests upon usage. All usage is relative.9 \J'l-C'UONl-J 8W. Wilbur Hatfield (chm.), An Experience Curriculum in English, A Report of the Curriculum Commission of the National Council of Teachers of English (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1935), p. 2hl. 9National Council of Teachers of English, Commission on the English Curriculum, The English Language Arts, NCTE Curriculum Series, Vol. I (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952), pp. 27h-79. 15 In addition the Commission pointed to a concern which has become the focus of this study. Competence in language then means more than a conformity to correct usage, possession of an elaborate vocabulary, a pleasing voice, or approved diction, more than the ability to interpret a poem or pursue a pattern of reasoning to a logical conclusion. Each individual needs the desire and ability to say what he has to say; a recognition of language as a social instrument of great value; an understanding of the difficulties of communication; and a sense of responsibility for what he says or writes. Writing, in addition to the many difficulties which it shares with speech, demands skill in handwriting or typing, spelling, punctuation and capitalization, and in meeting the misunderstanding of an absent and often unknown audience--skills more difficult, more meticulous, and less likely to be mastered without classroom help than those of speaking.10 Squire and Applebee studied 168 high schools selected for their state or national reputations in 1966. Results showed that 15.7 percent of classroom time went to composition and 13.5 percent to language. Teachers, ". . . have come to depend enormously on the process of teaching writing by correction--on instruction after the fact and after the act. . . . it is nearly always concerned with correcting errors of mechanics or expres- sion and infrequently with errors in judgment."ll While organized professional criticism has since 1917 pointed to the negative or at least superfluous concern with "correctness," the process of teaching writing by negative correction and concern for correctness has persisted. To this day it is clear that there is a distance between theory and practice in the teaching of composition. lOIbido , pp. 302-030 llSquire and.Applebee as quoted in Richard Braddock, "English Composition," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Fourth Edition, (Iondon: The Macmillan Company, 1969), p. Hh9. 16 Evaluating‘Composition The four main reviews of research in composition evaluation, Sherwin,l2 15 Searles and Carlsen,l3 and two by Braddock,lh’ agree that the task is a difficult one. Searles and Carlsen analyzed this difficulty. The problem of evaluating growth in language development involves a complex of variables that makes exact measurement extremely difficult. The language act grows out of the experi- ence of the individual, the situation in which the act is per- formed, and the skill of the individual in the situation. In turn the situation is itself changed by the act of communication itself. Inadequate expression may be the result of lack of skill in the situation, or it may result from the inadequacy of the ideas that are being expressed. The constant interaction between these two ' gedes interpretation of results of most evaluative situations.l Sherwin approached the critique of research in his chapter, "Increas- ing Skill in.Writing," by first surveying the condition of writing instruc- tion and then examining three ways teachers attacked the problem of growth in writing skill. His analysis of investigations of writing instruction pointed out a strong tendency by the investigators to rely on error counts' and error analysis. Errors were found to have a high frequency and strong persistence. Grammatical knowledge, linguistics, and frequency of writing had little effect on writing ability. Better teaching had a positive effect. 12J. Stephen Sherwin, Four Problems in Teaching English: A Critique of Research (Scranton: International Textbook Company, 1969), p. 109. 1 3John R. Searles and G. Robert Carlsen, "English," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Third Edition, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960), p. h6h. 1h Richard Braddock, Richard Lloyd-Jones, and Lowell Schoer, Research in written Composition (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1963), p. 5. l5 Braddock, "English Composition," 0p. cit., pp. ##3-81. 16 Searles and Carlsen, loc. cit. l7Sherwin, loc. cit. 7 1? Braddock found composition research to be of limited value, ". . some terms are being defined usefully, a number of procedures are being refined, but the field as a whole is laced with dreams, prejudices and makeshift operations."18 As an end to improved research he identified and discussed four variables pertinent to the rating of compositions, the writer, the assignment, the rater, and the colleague (coraters). In a chapter on "The State of Knowledge about Composition" he sum- marized the environmental, instructional, and rhetorical factors influenc- ing composition. Almost nothing has been proved about the last two factors. But for environment there is some evidence relating writer experience, sex, socioeconomic and psychological factors to "better" compositions. Evaluations of composition differ in their purpose, structural form, reliability and validity. It is possible to identify nine nonexclusive methods: wholistic grades, reader rating scales, composition scales, objective tests, frequency counts, syntactic analysis, computer analysis, analysis of expressive language, and combinations of these. Wholistic Grades Wholistic measures, usually alphabetical or numerical, are difficult to control for variability from reader to reader or for a single reader over a period of time. In a comprehensive study of the judgment of writing ability Diederich concluded, "It was disturbing to find that 9h percent of the papers received either seven, eight, or nine of the nine possible grades, that no paper received less than five 18Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, and Schoer, loc. cit. 18 different grades, and that the median correlation between readers was .31."19 While frequently low in reliability wholistic grades have high validity and lend themselves to predictive purposes. Smith found that under certain conditions agreement among expert judges was possible and reliable.20 Rating Scales Diederich, who used wholistic scores, then worked from the comments made by his readers to the development of "five schools" of thought which emphasized: I Igggg, II Egrm, III Flavor, IV' Mechanics, and V Wording. These he used to control variability. Follman and.Anderson21 compared five evaluation systems including Diederich's scale, to clarify the relationship between teacher judgment and the use of a scale. One system was wholistic, the "Everyman's Scale," which directed the judge to use your own judgment. The study indicated that the "Everyman's Scale" had unexpected high reliability and suggested,- ". . . the unreliability usually obtained in the evaluation of essays occurs primarily because raters are to a considerable degree heterogeneous in academic backgrounds which are likely to produce different attitudes and values which Operate significantly in their evaluation of essays."22 The raters in this study had in fact highly homogeneous backgrounds. The 19Paul B. Diederich et al., "Factors in Judgments of Writing Ability," Research Bulletin (Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, August, 1961), Abstract. 20Vernon H. Smith, "Measuring Teacher Judgment in the Evaluation of Written Composition," Research in the Teaching of English, Vol. III, No. 2, (Fall, 1969), p. 181. 21John C. Follman and James A. Anderson, "An Investigation of the Reliability of Five Procedures for Grading English Themes," Research in the Teaching of English, Vol. I, No. 2, (Fall, 1967), p. 190. 221pm” p. 198. 19 authors suggest the use of "sensitizing" rating scales where the readers are heterOgeneous. After reviewing the research available in 1965, Armstrong selected six sets of criteria and reduced them to four categories for use as an objective and valid measure of the quality of the written composition of fifth-grade students. The categories were: Ideas, Organization, Style, and Presentation.23 His readers were elementary school teachers and the criteria was typical of rating scales in general. Armstrong found reason to question its validity and noted a need for more precise but simplified indices. Scannell and MarshallZ" reported that even when raters are given in- structions to grade an essay examination on the basis of content only, papers with errors were assigned lower grades than papers without. Composition Scales Early in this century composition scales were developed in an effort to improve grading systems by placing equally ranked and spaced compositions on a continuum. The ranks were determined by a wholistic grade derived in part from content and in part from mechanics. These scales were eventually judged low in reliability as it was difficult to match a given composition's qualities with those of the 25 scale. 23Robert David Armstrong, "An Objective Measure of the Quality of the written Composition of Fifth-Grade Pupils" (unpublished Ed.D. disser- tation, University of California, 1965), p. hl. 2"Dale P. Scannell and Jon c. Marshall, "The Effect of Selected Composition Errors on Grades Assigned to Essay Examinations," American Educational Research Journal, Vol. III, No. 3, (March, 1966), p. 125. 25Henry C. Meckel, "Research on Teaching Composition and Literature," in N. L. Gage, ed., Handbook of Research on Teaching (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1963), p. 987. 20 Frequency Counts As an alternative to rating compositions Braddock26 suggests frequency counts, which have a potential for objective definition in contrast to the low reliability of raters using ambiguous rating scales. He considers these counts to be "frustrating" yet capable of becoming "one of the most important types." Strength lies in their objectivity; "frus- tration" rests in the investigators failure to define precisely, and the frequency counts inability to measure rare events that happen only once. Braddock cautions, " . . . before conducting a frequency count or using the results of one, a person should determine what his purpose is and then ascertain that the compositions used are apprOpriately controlled or sampled according to tOpic, mode of discourse, and characteristics of the writers."27 As alternatives to error counting he suggested fre- quency counts which correlate the response item with another variable, or a rank ordering of frequency, or the use of the error quotient, that is errors divided by the total Opportunity. Traditionally frequency counts have been concerned with errors, and the difficulty with error counts is that some errors increase with the subject's maturity while others decrease. Errors are also sensitive to regional dialects and vary from region to region.2 Syntactic Analysis From the 1930's when the subordination ratio was the accepted syntactic basis until the more recent linguistic based communication, phonologic, and T-unit counts, researchers have sought a sentence maturity-composition maturity ratio. There hasn't been much 26Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, and Schoer, op. cit., p. #1. 27Ibid., p. 17. 28Ibid. 21 success and Braddock noted, . . . it is beginning to look as though quantity and quality of syntactic develOpment are far from synonymous."29 Objective Tests Objective tests, both multiple-choice and interlinear, have been used with success as "predictors of success in future composi- tion classes." They are criticized for their low validity. (A student doesn't use his own words and ideas.) Computer Analysis Page and Paulus3O succeeded in their effort to simu- late human ratings on a computer. Using thirty indicators much in the style of frequency and error counts, the researchers were able to correlate the items, misspellings, uncommon words, length of words, number of commas, parentheses, etc., at .62 with pooled human judgments. The analysis has been criticized for correlating well with the human grading of essays which is something humans do not do reliably, as already noted.31 This" process does hold promise for the machine analysis of essays for evalua- tion of student ability and prediction of success in freshman composition courses which stress conventional values. Analysis of Expressive Language David Holbrook has emphasized subjec- tive aspects of composition in Opposition to the more frequently discussed empirical ones. He sees in composition a writer's efforts to control the world by "exercising the abstracting intellect over it." 29Ibid., p. h53. 30Ellis B. Page and Dieter H. Paulus, An.Analysis of Essays by Computer (Washington, D. C.: Office of Education, U. s. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,.April, 1968). 31Don H. Coombs, "Roundtable Review," Research in the Teaching of English, Vol. III, No. 2, (Fall, 1969), p. 222. 22 Literacy is gratefully entered into by most individuals because it brings great satisfactions, enlarges perception, and helps to bring order and beauty to the inner world. There are also other natural processes in adult and child, upon which education depends: . . . One is that the child needs to work symbolically with great energy on "inward" problems, to develop his capacities to deal with the world, to get on with other people, and to establish his identity. . Language, particularly in its subjective aspects, plays a large part in this; 32 By symbolic or abstract control he has in mind more than intellectual awarenes S . In this book I shall use the term "the poetic function." By this I mean the capacity to explore and perceive, to come to terms with, speak of, and deal with experience by the exercise of the whole mind and all kinds of apprehensions, not only intellectual ones. This poetic function, I consider, is neglected too much in all education and not least in the education of children deficient in intellect. I want to try to establish in this book that nour- ishing what I call the poetic function is certainly the most impor- tant work with less able children, and that the most efficient work a teacher of backward children can do is the free, informal, imagi- native and often pleasurable and rewarding work of creative English, towards literacy and insight into personal and external reality. I also wanted to imply that wgat I say here about "backward" teach- ing is true of all education. Holbrook develOps his points much as a psychoanalyst does through reference to specific written behavior supported in interpretative detail from the student's personal life. His methods have been criticized because such material is difficult to apply to other specific students and because of its dependence upon intimate knowledge of the student. Combined Systems A successful combination of systems for a special purpose is reported in an ETS study conducted by Godshalk and others.3" 32David Holbrook, The Exploring World (London: Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. A. 33David Holbrook, English for the Rejected (London: Cambridge University Press, 1965), pp. lO-ll. 3"Fred I. Godshalk, Frances Swineford, and William E. Coffman, The JMeasurement of Writing Ability (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1966), p. 39. 23 Noyes suggests in the introduction that a breakthrough in the measurement of writing ability appropriate for use by college admissions officers and advisors has been achieved. Five themes, written by each of 6M6 students, and rated on a three-point scale were correlated with the student's scores on eight objective tests. Most themes were read by five judges and thus controlled for rater variance and inconsistency. The report concluded: l) The reliability of essay scores is primarily a function of the number of different essays and the number of different readings included. 2) When objective questions specifically designed to measure writing skills are evaluated against a reliable criterion of writing skills, they prove to be highly valid. 3) The most effective predictor of a reliable direct measure of writing ability is one which includes essay questions 8r interlinear exercises in combination with objective questions.3 ' Madaus and Rippey reported on the develOpment of seven criterion reference scales used to help graders, . identify the incidence of 1:36 specific writing behaviors on the part of students. Variables under study were: 1) Punctuation, 2) Usage, 3) Sense of Audience and Purpose, h) Organization, 5) Use of Detail, 6) Attitude, 7) TOpic and Concluding Criterion Score. The organization of the scale is unique in that the rater is asked direct yes or no questions concerning student writing behaviors. "Does the subject use capital letters correctly? Can you, the reader, state the purpose of the author?" In this way the scale combines elements of both frequency counts and reader ratings. The authors did not claim that the scales measured global writing ability or that they were comprehensive. Using four of these criteria which seemed to measure comparable concepts in the STEP Test the authors 35Ibid. 36George F. Madaus and Robert M. Rippey, "Zeroing in on the STEP Writing Test: What Does It Tell the Teacher?" Journal of Educational Measurement, Vol. III, NO. 1, (Spring, 1968), p. 19. 2h concluded, 1) The ability to produce good writing appears only moderately related to the ability to manipulate previously given material on STEP, and 2) the total writing score from STEP does not relate strongly to any of the individual essay—evaluating criteria but does agree moderately with their combined score.37 Judy38 presented another combination grading plan which avoided vague "wholistic" evaluation by identifying five categories of descriptive essays. Each category was rated from 1 (absence of the characteristic) to 5 (presence of the desired characteristic). The categories were: 1) Organization and Structure, 2) "Locational" Details, 3-h) Characterizing and Classifying Details, 5) Sentence Structure. Each category was given Operational definition through sample themes arranged much like the old composition scales but on the basis of more definite criteria in the Rippey style. Each theme was rated and ranked in the five areas on the basis of the criteria for each area. A wholistic grade was derived by adding scores. In summary Judy noted, on the positive side, that the scheme evaluated, and at the same time gave the teacher and student a definite why. He also noted that the process was time consuming. To assist in the evaluation of the language arts program of the District of Columbia, Dailey developed a Language Facility Test for evaluating the preschool program. The test is, ". . . relatively insensi- tive to the sex or cultural group of the examiner. The subject is asked to tell a story about each of three pictures of the series. Each story 37Ibid., p. 22. 38Stephen Judy, "A Guide to the Evaluation of Descriptive Essays," Papers on Composition (Evanston, Illinois: The Curriculum Center in English, Northwestern University, 1966), p. 6. 25 or description is then scored on a nine point scale . . . completely inde- pendent of vocabulary, information, and grammar."39 The Story Score Scale ranges from O: No response, to 5: More than one sentence, but no inter- pretation of movement or action, to 9: A good story with imagination and creativity. A second measure of obtained "frequency of 2M types of major errors in pronunciation or usage," gives promise with refinement of use- fulness in measuring aspects of dialects. Social Dialect Identification An understanding of the contributions which a knowledge of social dialects can make to the study of composition is clouded by two issues. First, Negro dialect or Black English has been viewed by some as a deficit or deficient form of standard English. For the most part the language def- icit prOponents have attributed this to genetic factors (race differences in mean intellectual capacity) or ecological factors (noisy environment). Stewart counter argues, . . were a difference in intellectual performance to be found between two pOpulations in almost any other part of the world, it would be considered a matter of course to explore first the possi- bility that the apparent intellectual disparity might merely reflect cultural differences between the two groups through a bias in the measurement techniques toward one or the other culture. In the United States, on the other hand, only the scantiest consideration has been given to the same possibility--that being "white" and "Negro" might involve correlations with more-or-less different American subcultures, and that cultural differences might there- fore be responsible for the infisllectual performance disparity between the two ethnic groups. 39John T. Dailey, "An Evaluation of the Language Arts Program of the District of Columbia" (George Washington University, washington, D. C., 1965), P- 2. AD William A. Stewart, "On the Use of Negro Dialect in the Teaching of Reading," in Joan Baratz and Roger W. Shuy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), p.8165. 26 Dillard has summarized and interpreted this conflict. "Linguists (and anthrOpolOgists) have been virtually unanimous in rejecting such a theory. [deficit] (The really shocking thing . . . has been the emotional-- almost religious--appeal which the deficit theories have had from other large segments of the academic, white liberal, and even black middle class "1+1 communities.) Cazden was more cautious in her analysis of the issue noting: At the present time, we cannot completely resolve the difference- deficiency issue. . . . Children who are socially disadvantaged on such objective criteria as income and educational level of their parents do tend to be deficient on many measures of verbal skills. But the concept of subcultural relativity is nevertheless relevant. We must be sure that develOpmental scales of language develOpment do not distort our assessment of children who speak a nonstandard dialect. We must be equally sure that studies of language function do not simply reflect the predilection of the investigators. In short, subcultural relativity provides an essential perspfictive for objective analysis and for any prOgram of planned change. 2 As Dillard noted most linguists accept the language difference posi- tion; however, within the field of linguistics a second clouding issue spreads the linguists across a spectrum ranging from those who see dialect in the tradition of the regional geographic "isoglos approach" to the "Black English has an entirely different history approach." Dillard has defined these poles. Isoglos: For an advocate of this point of view Negro dialect and white dialect can differ no more than New York dialect and Boston dialect . . . recent publications have tended to minimize differences between Negro dialect and white dialect--even to assert that Negro dialect is actually identical to the white dialect of a given region. "lJ. L. Dillard, "Books," College English, Vol. XXXI, No. 7, (April, 1970): P- 733- 1+2Courtney B. Cazden, "Subcultural Differences in Child Language: An Inter-Disciplinary Review," Merrill Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, Vol. XII, No. 3, (1966), p. 213. 27 Different History: Negro dialect (Black English) has an almost entirely different history from that of American white English, having gone through stages of pidginization (West African pidgin English) in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, creolization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and decreolization (partial merger with other varieties of English--which might as well, for the purposes of argument, be conceived of as "reg§onal" varieties) in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Toward the center of the linguistic spectrum are positioned researchers like Labov who in analyzing the data on reading failure for urban ghetto and suburban children said, "These findings lead us to conclude that the principle problem in reading failure is not dialect or grammatical differ- ences but rather a cultural conflict between the vernacular culture and the schoolroom. . . . some of this conflict proceeds from the pluralistic ignorance which prevails in the classroom: the teacher does not know that the students' dialect is different from his own, and the students do not know just how the teacher's system differs from theirs." Oral Dialect Composition is close to speech. Strickland has pointed out, "Writing is one of the language arts, and it is highly dependent for its growth on the growth in the other language arts. The quality of writing is closely related to the quality of speech.""5 Putnam and O'Hern did a phonetic descriptive analysis of 8M% of the population of a Washington, D. C., alley to determine the social signifi- cance of dialect as a mark of social status. They found systematic pho- netic differences between the alley dialect and standard English. The "3Dillard, op. cit., p. 73h. ""William Labov, The Study of Non-Standard English (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1970), p. A3. "5Ruth G. Strickland, "Evaluating Children's Composition," Elementary English, Vol. XXXVII, No. 5, (May, 1960), p. 322. 28 significance of these differences was born out by a panel of untrained judges who were able to rate the social status of the speakers with 6h% accuracy. The researchers concluded, "Persons who grow to adulthood as members of an underprivileged Social group may carry a mark of their origin through life and suffer from the various forms of discrimination "M6 which society imposes as members of the lower socio-economic Classes. A7 Ioban's study of childhood language is unique because it traces the speech develOpment of the same Oakland, California, area children from kindergarten through high school. Of three hundred thirty-eight original subjects, two hundred and twenty were intact at the ninth grade. Each subject was interviewed once a year and his responses recorded. Some pupils have difficulties in Speaking standard English as it is typically used by most Americans. This is not a problem of regional language variation but rather one of social class dialect. Dialects are differing ways of Speaking a language. Vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation differ from one dialect to another, yet the differences are not so great that persons using different dialects cannot communicate. Whereas regional differences in language are usually acceptable and in many respects delightful, social class dialects offer a diffi- cult problem to American schools in which equality of Opportunity for all pupils is accepted as an aim. Economic and social lines have always been difficult to cross, and language is one of the strongest barriers to a fluid Society in which human worth is to count for more than fortunate birth. It is a sociological fact that all speech com- munities tend to feel hostility or disdain for those who do not use their language. "He doesn't talk like us" is a way to say "He is not one of us." "6G. N. Putnam and Edna M. O'Hern, "The Status Significance of an Isolated Urban Dialect" (Language dissertation No. 53), Language, Vol. XXXI, No. A, (1955), whole Part II. h 7Walter Loban, Problems in Oral English (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1966), p. l. LLBIbid., p. A7. 29 He identified nonstandard oral usage problems for both standard and nonstandard students. Among his conclusions concerning the differences between high socio-economic Caucasians, low socio-economic Caucasians, Negro, and a random group are: l. The subjects speaking standard English do not have trouble with usage, but rather have problems restricted to matters of clarity and precision. These Loban calls problems of coherence. The subjects Speaking a social class dialect have difficulties with usage problems,especially verbs. Through schooling dramatic improvement is made in agreement, auxillary verb use, and omis— sion problems, but the verb "to be" persists as a problem. Eight of the ten problems of this group are usage problems. Many word beginnings and endings continue to be drOpped. This category represented Negro subjects, but Loban believes the results would hold for Orientals, Hawaiians (Pidgin), Spanish-speaking, Cajun, and Appalachian subjects. All subjects did well in some categories like modification with adjectives and adverbs. However, conjunctions were limited across groups to and and but. As the subjects began to use more complex Speech at about grade five, their difficulties with coherence increased. The social class or Negro group spends much of its energy in confronting problems which Caucasian groups never face. Not only do they have more serious problems of coherence, but they must A9 also contend with usage. "91bid., p. A9. 3O Williamson50 found that for Memphis high school Negroes verb struc- ture deviations were the most obvious feature of substandard dialect; and that /d/ replaced A5/ in this and that. 51 McDavid and Austin concluded from a Chicago study that vocabulary reflects cultural experience while grammar reflects social and educational advantages. They also found it easier to distinguish between the speech of White Chicagoans and Southern Negroes than to distinguish between the speech of middle class and lower class Negroes. Labov52 concluded from his work with New York City speech that there are stages in the acquisition of standard English and that these stages have relevance for the classroom. He first described the linguistic behavior of a sampling of the city's adults. Then he studied the fifty- eight children of the informants and compared their competence in standard English as established by the adult norms. For each age level he then figured the percent of conformity. ggp % CONFORMITY 8-11 52% 12-13 50% lA-ls 57% 16-17 62% 18-19 6A% 20-39 8A% SOJuanita Williamson, "Report on a PrOposed Study of the Speech of Negro High School Students in Memphis," in Roger W. Shuy, ed., Social Dialects and Langgage Learning (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1965), p. 23. 51Raven I. McDavid, "American Social Dialects," College English, Vol. XXVI, No. A, (January, 1965), p. 258. 52William Labov, "Stages in the Acquisition of Standard English," in Roger W. Shuy, ed., Social Dialects and Language Learning (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1965), pp. 77-103. 31 From this and other evidence he has constructed a six stage model for the acquisition of the full range of spoken English. 1. The Basic Grammar: The mastery of the main body of grammatical rules and the lexicon of spoken English. 2. The Vernacular: In the years from five to twelve the child learns the dialect of his immediate group of friends and associates. 3. Social Perception: He becomes aware of the dialect character- istics of his friends. A. Stylistic Variation: Now he learns to modify his Speech in the direction of the prestige standard. 5. The Consistent Standard: For mobility the lower class person must learn to consistently use the standard speech. 6. The Full Range: Not one of the informants raised in New York was able to achieve complete consistency in the prestige form. The range of differences in acquisition of the prestige pattern he attributed to isolation from Opportunity to hear the form, to structural interference from the vernacular, and to a conflict of value systems. 53 Cazden's inter-disciplinary review of data relevant to the question, "IS the concept of cultural relativity valid in a 'culturally different and culturally deprived' context?" concluded that the most frequent structural differences between nonstandard dialects and standard English were in verb usage, agreement with subject, "to be" deviations, present for past; and then in the forms of the pronoun; double negative; and use of got and ain't. Efimafelt it was "probably true" that there is a correlation 53 Cazden, op. cit. 32 between deviation from standard English and impoverishment, but that the causes lie in historical and Sociological factors. On the "important" finding that ethnic background and social class have different effects she quoted Lesser's observation: Apparently, different mediators are associated with social- class and ethnic-group conditions. . . . The importance of the mediators associated with ethnicity is to provide differential impacts upon the development of mental abilities, while the impor- tance of mediators associated with social class is to provide pervasive (and not differential) effects upon the various mental abilities. This conclusion allows selection among several expla- nations ofEered to interpret cultural influences upon intellectual activity.5 On the issue of stimulation-reinforcement she concludes that, . . . once true language begins to develOp there is no clear evidence that any specific kind of adult response, verbal or non- verbal, aids the child's progress. Natural observations and the few existing manipulative studies are consistent with the hypo- thesis that it is the amount and richness of language stimulation available in the context of face-to-face interaction which is most important. Differential access to such stimulation by children from different subcultural groups can be explained by differences in the conditions of their lives, . . .55 These conditions she defines from the research as variety of family activity, range of objects as referents, active participation with more verbally mature individuals, and range of personal contacts.56 With these condi- tions in mind Cazden suggests that, "a child's language develOpment Should be evaluated in terms of his progress toward the norms for his particular speech community."57 She concludes: we know little about dialect differences but that there is the expectation of knowledge in ongoing research; we know most 5"Lesser as quoted in Cazden, Ibid., p. 192. 55Ibid., p. 202. 56Ibid., pp. 195-96. 57Ibid., p. 20A. 33 about language develOpment and the evidence is that "retardation among lower-class children is extensive;" we know little about differences in language function and basic research is needed on the ways of categorizing language function in natural speech and of analyzing the use of language as mediation.58 Research Since Cazden has born out her expectations of knowledge about dialect differences. AS Baratz points out, however, this knowledge has led to disagreement over grammar construction. All the linguists studying Negro non-standard English agree that these differences are systematized structured rules within the vernac- ular; they agree that these differences can interfere with the learn— ing of standard English but they do not always agree as to the precise nature of these different rules. . . . No one would disagree that standard English has a grammatical structure and uniqueness and many descriptions of that structure have been written. Yet it is probably true that no two linguists would agree in all details on how to write that grammar. Shuy notes that the COpula and auxiliary have been the most fruitful areas of study. He also mentions frequency distribution differences between racial and social groups in multiple negation, pronominal apposi- tion, r-deletion, l-deletion, consonant-cluster reduction, and devoicing of word-final stOp consonants.60 Shuy has drawn clear lines for the correlation of grammatical pat- terns and social-racial stratification: The particular feature must be 58Ibid., p. 213. 59Joan C. Baratz, "Linguistic and Cultural Factors in Teaching Read- ing to Ghetto Children," in Eldonna L. Evertts, ed., Aspects of Reading (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1970), p. 50. 60Roger W. Shuy, "A Linguistic Background for DeveIOping Beginning Reading Materials for Black Children," in Joan C. Baratz and Roger W} Shuy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), pp. 121-22. 3A expected to occur in the discourse, and it must be readily quantifiable.61 As language correlates he Chose multiple negation, pronominal apposition, and cluster reduction as his variables. "In the first place, for some time now educators have focused on them as 'stigmatized' features of American English. An impressionistic association of these features with social stratification thus nominates them to be investigated for their actual correlation with the social variables of status, age, sex, and race. They also meet the requirement of sufficient occurrence in the corpora. Further more these features can be readily quantified."62 He concluded that there was a close correlation between the relative frequency of these three features and his variables of Social status, age, sex, and race. Labov among others has noted the COpula as an important distinguisher of Negro dialect. One of the most well-known characteristics of this [Negro] dia- lect of English is the absence of the COpula in the present before predicate nouns and adjectives, locatives and comitative phrases, and the parallel absence of the forms of to be in the auxiliary unit be...ing: He a friend. He over there. He tired. He with us. 63 He working with us. Loflin has confirmed this observation and made an argument that there are deep structure semantic differences in sentences containing the verb 61Roger W. Shuy, "A Study of Social Dialects in Detroit" (Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1969), p. 6. 62Ibid. 63William Labov and Paul Cohen, "Systematic Relations of Standard and Non-Standard Rules in the Grammars of Negro Speakers" (Columbia University, New York City, 1967), p. 6. 35 "be" which lead to structural ambiguity. 66 and Shuy67 have found that the third person singu- Labov,65 Baratz, lar marker of the verb is simplified consistently in the Negro dialect while it is retained in the equivalent White social dialect. "The third person singular marker //-S// does not exist in the particular grammar being used here (Negro)."68 69 and Labov7O Baratz have both related the absence of the possessive pronoun and the terminal t/d and "ed" suffix reduction to Negro dialect. Baratz has pulled the literature of differences together and noted: "The Negro ghetto child is speaking a significantly different language from that of his middle class teachers. Most of his middle class teachers have wrongly viewed his language as pathological, disordered, 'lazy speech. This failure to recognize the interference from the child's different 6"MarVin D. Loflin, "A Note on the Deep Structure of Nonstandard English in Washington, D. C." (Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D. C., 1966), p. 1. 65William Labov, "Some Sources of Reading Problems for Negro Speakers of Non-Standard English," in Joan C. Baratz and Roger W. Shuy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), pp. 59-60. 66Joan C. Baratz, "Teaching Reading in an Urban Negro School System," in Joan C. Baratz and Roger W. Shuy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), p. 98. 67Shuy, "A Linguistic Background for DevelOping Beginning Reading Materials for Black Children," Op. cit., p. 129. 68Labov, "Some Sources of Reading Problems for Negro Speakers of Non-Standard English," loc. cit. 69Baratz, "Teaching Reading in an Urban Negro School System," loc. cit. ‘ 7OLabov, "Some Sources of Reading Problems for Negro Speakers of Non-Standard English," Op. cit., p. 51. 36 linguistic system, and consequent negative teacher attitudes towards the child and his language, leads directly to reading difficulties and sub- . "71 sequent school failure. She summarizes the differences in distributions, patterns, and syntax found by other researchers: Written Dialect VARIABLE Linking verb Possessive marker Plural marker Subject expression Verb form Past marker Verb agreement Future form "If" construction Negation Indefinite article Pronoun form Preposition Be Do tinct from Speech. STANDARD ENGLISH He is going. JohHTE cousin. I have five centa. John__lives in New York. I drank the milk. Yesterday he walked home. —_ He rung home. She has a bicycle. I wiII—go home. I asked if he did it. I—don't have any. He didn't go.——— I want an apple. We have—to do it. His book HE-is over at his friend's hafise. He teaches at Francis P061. Statement: He ii here all the time. Contradiction: No he isn't. NEGRO NON-STANDARD He__goin'. John;_cousin. I got five cent;_3 John ha live in New York. I drunk the milk. Yesterday he walk home. —_ He run__home. She have a bicycle. I'ma go home. I aks did he do it. I don't got none. He ain't go. I want a apple. Us got to do it. HE book HE over 39 his friend house. He teach Francis Pool. -—' Statement: here. Contradiction: No he don't. He‘bg Learning to write English composition is quite dis- Handwriting, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, usage, rhetoric, creative writing, practical writing and modes of discourse are 71 72Ibid., p. 50. Baratz, "Linguistic and Cultural Factors in Teaching Reading to Ghetto Children," op. cit., p. A9. 37 variables which Braddock relates to the general tOpic English Composition.73 The dialect features just discussed were found in oral language and may or may not be found frequently in composition. Labov suggests four points of oral language and written language congruence worthy of study. a. Forms of agreement of the verbs 93, have, d9, gay. b. Forms of the possessive: attributive nouns and pronouns. c. The points where negative concord occurs--especially whether the negative appears with both subject indefinites in the preverbal position as in Nobody don't know. d. The duplicatigfl of place adverbs, as in I wanna get down back on that. He has also indicated that some differences are easy to reduce to standard English while others are not. There are many syntactic rules by which non-standard Negro English differs from standard English. Some, like the Optional deletion of the copula in He with us, are commonplace and are easily converted to the standard form by speakers. But many other syntactic differences are governed by deep-seated and abstract rules. Embedded yes-no questions such as I asked.Alvin if he knew appear as I asked Alvin did he know. In this case we are dealing with two alternate realizations Of an underlying "Question" element: the use of if with declarative order, as Opposed to no if with the inverted order of auxiliary and subject. This non-standard form is surpripingly regular and resistant to conversion to the standard form. An early and widely quoted study of social class and standard English writing relationships was reported by Fries in his American English Grammar.76 The study was an analysis of some three thousand letters sent to government agencies during World War II. Fries concluded that "Vulgar English" was 73Braddock, "English Composition," op. cit., p. AA3. 7"Labov, The Study of Non-Standard English, op. cit., pp. 62-63. 75William Labov, "The Non-Standard Vernacular of the Negro Community-- Some Practical Suggestions" (Columbia University, New York City, 1967), p. 3. 76Charles C. Fries, American English Grammar (New York: Appleton- Century—Crofts, l9AO). 38 characterized by both an impoverishment of grammatical structure and vocabulary. He noted also that it used less of the resources of the language. Miller develOped a Mechanics of English scale which in part avoided the dialect related items mentioned by most language researchers. He used the Mechanics of English sections in two pOpular language arts texts in use in his school districts. I. Punctuationp(omission or misuse) Period ending sentences Question mark ending sentences Abbreviations (Mr., Mrs., and la.) After an initial Question mark at the close of a question . Comma between the name of a City and the state Comma in a series Comma in a date CCQ'ijtZJUOUJD> II. Capitalization (omission or misuse) . First word in a sentence First and last name Name of city, state, school, day, month and some titles Holidays The word;77 tinOtIiID Parts III, IV, and V covered material related to dialect differences. Two recent studies of Negro dialect were based upon the underlying theory that the dialect studied (Alabama Negro) had a system of its own and that this system could be described in deviations from standard English. 78 D. G. Briggs studied deviations found in the papers of selected Birmingham, Alabama, high school students. She used Loban's categories 77RaymondL. Miller, "An Evaluation of an Experimental Written Composition Program for Second Grade" (unpublished Ed.D. disSertation, University of Nebraska, 1967), pp. 69-70. Delores Griffin Briggs, "Deviations From Standard English in Papers of Selected Alabama Negro High School Students" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alabama, 1968), Abstract. 39 (Verb Problems, Pronoun Problems, Syntactic Problems, and Other Problems) with the addition of two for spelling and vocabulary. Only in spelling and vocabulary did the students in the higher grades Show a regular decrease in deviations per 1000 words. Total deviations (minus spelling and vocabulary) were almost consistent from grade to grade. They were also consistently higher than Loban's totals. O. D. Briggs, working with Alabama Junior College students, found that the students had higher group and deviational means than Loban's ninth grade students (with the exception of pronouns). He attributed this to the fact that his students wrote to a formal abstract tOpic, in longer T-Units with greater Chance for deviation, but cautioned: . . . it seems likely that the increased deviations in many of the categories for the college level Alabama students consisted of omitted or substituted inflectional endings which may have been passed over as being "poorly articulated" in Loban's study. It appears evident from the irregular occurrence of many of the deviations (1.3., the informants use both they were and they was or he walk and he walked) that the writers are either mis- spelling some forms quite often or that they are doing some dialect shifting (they have been exposed to and have partially assimilated the standard forms and they use these forms much of the time; the assimilation process is not complete or stable7 however, and the dialectal nonstandard forms keep Slipping in). 9 Houston80 compared the five areas of written compositions of fourth- grade Head-Start pupils with non—Head-Start pupils and found sentence quantity favoring the total "non" group and "non" group boys. Only the low-intelligence Head-Start group gained in sentence quantity. 79Olin Dewitt Briggs, "A Study of Deviations From Standard English in Papers of Negro Freshmen at an Alabama College" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alabama, 1968), Abstract. 80David Ree Houston, "A Comparison of written Compositions of Head- Start Pupils with Non—Head—Start Pupils" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1969), Abstract. A0 Summary In this chapter was reviewed the general concern of teachers for teaching "standard" English; the literature concerning the evaluation of written composition; and the literature concerning the identification of social dialect and its influence upon oral and written composition. It can be concluded that at least since 1890 the teaching of composi- tion in the public schools has remained basically unchanged. And that this teaching is characterized by concern for rules of correctness, college entrance, and a distance between professional statement and classroom practice. The assumption that a standard English is taught in public schools seems warranted. Composition evaluation is a difficult, incomplete practice. For the most part it has been concerned with the counting and identification of errors, broad concepts of "goodness" and prediction of college success. Successful composition evaluation should control the writer, assignment, rater and corater variables. Frequency counts represented in precise ratio figures offer the greatest potential for objectivity if properly defined. Precisely defined dialect differences lend themselves easily to frequency counts, but for the more subjective aspects of expressive language a Madaus-Rippey yes or no question seems to offer the best potential for precise definition and objective evaluation. Issues of the difference or deficiency of Black English and the con- text of linguistic study, either isoglos or different language, confuse the understanding of dialect identification. This study, while related to such concerns, does not seek answers to the basic theoretical issues. Al Oral language dialect features are closely related to class and race. For lower class Negro speakers the problems of controlling standard dia- lect are more difficult than for White Speakers. Problems with standard English seem to be centered in verb, copula, auxiliary usage, forms of the pronoun, double negatives, agreement, pronominal apposition, and the past conditional question. To be successful in developing class, sex, and grammar correlations a feature must occur frequently in the discourse and be identifiable. Cazden has pointed out that evaluation of a feature should be in terms of the child's Speech community. It seems reasonable to assume that continued evaluation of composition in terms of norms that are not those of the student pOpulation will place the students in a position detrimental to their language growth. And that the negative influence of this concern for form might easily be expected to register in stunted expressive language growth. Of the oral dialect features which research has related to class and race four are pointed out as giving the greatest expectation of oral- written language congruence: verb agreement form, possessive form, negative concord, and duplication of class adverbs. The few studies which have reported oral-written language dialect correlations emphasize the persistence of nonstandard differences in written discourse, even into junior college. This survey indicates a need for a study of the relationships of teaching dialect related writing Skills to children for whom these standard forms represent identifiable oral social dialect differences in comparison with more standard speaking children. CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction The research procedure was designed to provide answers for the four questions of the study and to control or randomize extraneous variables. To obtain empirical answers to the questions, eight operational hypoth- eses were developed. To test these hypotheses it was necessary to draw a sample pOpulation, define concepts, develOp instruments, and arrange procedures for the collection and analysis of data. This chapter con- tains a description of the development of these Operations as well as a report of the statistical procedures used to test the Operational hypotheses. Theoretical Questions The research reviewed in Chapter II indicated a need for a study of the relationships of teaching dialect related writing skills to Black Blue Collar children for whom these forms represent identifiable oral- social dialect differences in comparison with White Blue Collar and White Collar children. It also indicated that it is reasonable to assume that prolonged evaluation of student composition in terms of language norms that are contrary to those of the student's dialect might place the students in a position detrimental to their language growth and that this negative influence might easily be expected to register in stunted expressive language growth. A2 A3 More specifically these expectations as phrased in Chapter I were: 1. Do Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar children differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? 2. Do male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? 3. Do the variables of male and female interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar to create differences in Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? A. IS ability to use Graphic Literacy conventions related to the ability to produce Expressive Literacy? Operational Hypotheses For research design purposes these four theoretical questions were phrased into operational hypotheses. The eight Operational hypotheses develOped from the questions were categorized for ease and clarity of presentation, analysis, and discussion. The first three hypotheses deal with Expressive Literacy questions. The second three deal with Graphic Literacy questions and the last two with Expressive-Graphic Literacy relationships. The hypotheses for Expressive Literacy were: Hypothesis One No differences will be found between the use of expressive language at each of the three grade levels as measured by the Expressive Literacy Scale for children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents. AA Hypothesis Two No differences will be found between the use of expressive language at each of the three grade levels as measured by the Expressive Literacy Scale for male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents. Hypothesis Three The variables of male and female will not interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar at the three grade levels to create differences in Expressive Literacy production. A second set of hypotheses develOped from the study's first three questions tested conditions of.no difference between the variables of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar, between male and female, and the interaction of sex variables with social Class at the three grade levels on the thirteen measures of the Graphic Literacy Scale. These Graphic Literacy measures were presented in clusters of variables about phonolOgic, sentence structure, and verb concepts. The concepts were drawn from the race related variables discussed in Chapter II. The Graphic Literacy hypotheses were: Hypothesis Four No differences will be found between the use of Graphic Literacy conventions at each of the three grade levels as meas- ured by the Graphic Literacy Scores for children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents. Hypothesis Five No differences will be found between the use of Graphic Literacy conventions at each of the three grade levels as meas- ured by the Graphic Literacy Scores for male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents. A5 Hypothesis Six The variables of male and female will not interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar at the three grade levels to create differences in Graphic Literacy convention use. A third set of hypotheses were developed from question four. Because question four seeks to establish a relationship between Graphic Literacy use and Expressive Literacy production, only those dimensions and interactions of sex and class which demonstrated a statistically significant difference were subjected to final analysis. Hypothesis Seven The degree of linear correlation between the Graphic Literacy Scores and the Expressive Literacy Scale for males as compared to females is zero. Hypothesis Eight The degree of linear correlation between the Graphic Literacy Scores and the Expressive Literacy Scale as compared for the three social classes is zero. These two hypotheses were based upon the assumption that the dimen- sions of sex and class have the possibility of demonstrable correla- tional differences. This proved to be an unwarranted assumption under the conditions of this study. In the testing of the first six hypoth- eses none of the dimensions of sex were found to have difference or interaction. And only in the racial conditions of class (Black Blue Collar and White--both Blue and White Collar) were there statistical differences. (Chapter IV, Tables A, 1A, 15, 3A, 35, A2) A decision not to submit hypothesis seven to correlational analysis seemed warranted. In the case of hypothesis eight the discovered differ- ences were between the Black and White race factors. A6 A decision not to test the difference of correlation coefficients between the three classes seemed justified. The test in hypothesis eight became: Hypothesis Eight The degree of linear correlation between the Graphic Literacy Scores and the Expressive Literacy Scale for Black students (Black Blue Collar) as compared to White students (White Blue Collar and White Collar) is zero. Population The pOpulation for this study came from integrated fourth, seventh, and eleventh grade classes in the Pontiac Public Schools. Forty-eight average students at each grade level were randomly selected from pools which met the study's definitional data of Blue Collar and White Collar, male and female, and Black and White. Of these, 16 students were socio- economic White Collar and 32 students socioeconomic Blue Collar at each grade level. The Blue Collar groups were divided into cells of eight each of Black, White, male, and female. The White Collar dialect stu- dents were divided into two cells of eight male and female White students. The decision to limit the standard group to White students was motivated by the fact that within the pOpulation schools a sufficient number of White Collar Black students were not available. The decision was justified by Shuy's conclusions: "It is only possible to assign social class 'labels' (e.g. upper middle class, lower middle class, etc.) to the divisions of the social level scores in an arbitrary way. The only positive use of the scores is as indicators of relative social status, so that at one end of the scale is upper class, and at the A7 other end, lower class. Where the divisions can be made in between, and how many can be made, or whether they can be made at all is an Open question."l One focus of the study was to highlight the contrast between socioeconomically White Collar and Blue Collar English, both Graphic and Expressive. Within this context the decision to limit the White Collar English cells to White students seems justified. An additional highlight to the contrast between Blue Collar and White Collar classes occurred in the fourth grade when it was not possible to generate enough White Collar students in the four fourth grade classes of the elementary school chosen for the study. Another class in a second elementary school in a more economically favored part of town was used to gather the fourth grade White Collar papers. Forty-eight students were used at each grade level. Twenty-four were male and twenty-four female. Sixteen were Black Blue Collar, Sixteen were White Blue Collar, and sixteen were White Collar. Two elementary schools, two junior highs, and one high school were used. Five fourth grade, four seventh grade, and four eleventh grade classes were taught. In the seventh grade it was necessary to select two Black Blue Collar boys and one White Collar girl from the trial pro- cedures group. Definitions Any student who met the school's definition for the grade level was considered to be in that grade. Black, White, male, 1Roger W. Shuy, "A Study of Social Dialects in Detroit" (Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1969), p. 12. A8 and female designations were those used in the student's CA 39 or CA 60 folder. Where data was lacking, personal interview was used. The average ability designation was established from a suggestion by Fader and McNeil2 which logically seems to offer less Opportunity for bias than traditional intelligence tests. One of the first Six composition periods (about 20 minutes) was devoted to the assignment of a "tin can" paper. The students were asked, "Write down as many uses for a tin can as you can invent." The assignment was illustrated with a similar group board exercise on "corn cob" uses. The extremities of fluid verbal ability were excluded by this exercise. Average range for the fourth grade was between five and 19 uses of a tin can. For the seventh grade it was between seven and 63, and for the eleventh grade it was between nine and 106. Except for the fourth grade where 120 Blue Collar students were taught,there were real problems in finding enough Black boys to fill the cells. The available Black boys thus became the practical limits to the verbal fluency cut off points. All students used in the study fit within the average range as defined. In addition sections in the high school were chosen from the general English track in preference to college bound or remedial. Justification for the Social classification was established in Chapter II. Loban,3 among others, noted that high socioeconomic 2Daniel N. Fader and Elton B. McNeil, Hooked on Books: PrOgram & Proof (New York: Berkley Publishing Corporation, 1968), p. 210. 3Walter Loban, Problem in Oral English (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1966), p. A9. A9 Caucasians did not have trouble with usage while students speaking social class dialects had trouble with usage. The pOpulation was broken into two social classes, Blue Collar and White Collar. This classification system is the same as one used in the Pontiac-Detroit area by TALUS-—the Transportation and Land Use Study." Within the logic of this study the Blue Collar TALUS definition became the Operational definition of nonstandard user of English and White Collar became an Operational definition of standard user of English. The TALUS profile used a dichotomized White Collar/Blue Collar class definition rather than the four-fold classifications used by the, Bureau of Census and the Department of Labor. Its definition also differs from the White Collar/Blue Collar distinctions used in the Michigan Manpower Study. TALUS has done this as, ". . . a dramatic indicator of the changing roles being created by the technological revolution . . . (and to make) white collar growth relatively slow."5 This is done by placing Service Workers in the Blue Collar category. Such a decision seems defensible in this study as the service workers in the Pontiac area are basically lower wage earners and Speakers of nonstandard varieties of English. The Dictionary of Occupational "A Profile of Southeastern Michigan, TALUS Data Report of the Detroit Regional Transportation and Land Use Study (Detroit, Michigan: Southeast Michigan Council of Governments, 1968), p. 8. 5K. Dhanda and L. Polk, Project 210, Technical Paper #1, "Relative Growth of Blue Collar and White Collar Jobs in the Detroit Region, 1960- 2000," TALUS Data, Detroit, Michigan, 1968, p. l. 50 Titles, U. S. Department of Labor, lists the service occupations: Domestic; Food and Beverage Preparation; Lodging Service Occupations; Barbering, CosmetolOgy and Related Services; Amusement and Recreation; Personal Service; Apparel; Protective Services; and Building Services. "The Manpower Report of the President, by the United States Depart- ment of Labor, has four major occupational groups: (1) White-Collar Workers; (2) Blue-Collar Workers; (3) Service Workers; (A) Farm Workers. "The White-Collar occupation group includes the occupations of; (1) professional, technical and kindred workers, (2) managers, officials and proprietors (excluding farm). "The Blue—Collar occupation group includes the occupations of; (l) craftsmen, foremen and kindred workers, (2) operative and kindred workers, (3) laborers (excluding farm and mine). "The Service Workers occupation group includes the occupations of; (1) private household workers, (2) service workers (excluding private household workers). "The Farm Workers occupation group includes the occupations of; (l) farmers and farm managers, (2) farm laborers and foremen."7 By compressing the Service Workers into the Blue Collar group this study's definition of Blue Collar comes to include in its definition the occupations of; (l) craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers, (2) Opera- tive and kindred workers, (3) laborers (excluding farm and mine), (A) private household workers, (5) service workers. There were no farm workers' children involved in the study. 6U. S. Department of Labor, Dictionary of Occupational Titles 1965, Vol. II: Occupational Classification, Third Edition. (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Labor, 1965), p. 1. 7Dhanda and Polk, loc. cit. 51 Instruments The study posed two problems of instrumentation. An Expressive Literacy Scale was used to measure the natural expressive talents of a writer as he gave verbal order to his internal and external perceptions. A second instrument, Graphic Literacy Scale (a set of thirteen vari- ables), was used to measure the productive use of standard writing forms which the literature has related to Socio-race dialect. Expressive Literacy For the most part composition evaluation has been Confined to wholistic statements of "goodness" based on either impression or on criterion develOped more from tradition than from empirical data. The Expressive Literacy instrument was developed to measure the use of subjective language in Holbrook's sense of literacy 8 H as . . . insight into personal external reality," and as symbolic work with ". . . inward problems . . . his (the student's) capacities to deal with the world, to get on with other peOple, and to establish his identity."9 Questions concerning student writing were develOped in the Madaus- Rippeylo yes-no style from the writings of Holbrookll and Macrorie.l2 8David Holbrook, English for the Rejected (London: Cambridge University Press, 196A), pp. lO-ll. 9David Holbrook, The Exploring World (London: Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. A. 10George F. Madaus and Robert M. Rippey, "Zeroing in on the STEP Writing Test: What Does It Tell the Teacher?" Journal of Educational Measurement, Vol. III, No. 1, (Spring, 1968). llHolbrook, English for the Rejected, op. cit. 12Ken Macrorie, telling writing (New York: Hayden Book Company, Inc., 1970), pp. l8-2A. 52 The first form of the scale was pretested with a class of graduate students in a measurement class using a selection (Theme 12) from the Illinois Association of Teachers of English publication, "Evaluating Ninth-Grade Themes."13 The ten most reliable questions were given operational definition from student writing collected for but not used in the present study. These questions with their Operational defini- tions were used on a random sample of papers selected for the study by another class of graduate students in an English method's Class. A correlation of .16 between readers was found. The major complaint dealt with the overlapping of concepts and the lack of preciseness in definitions. All questions develOped from Holbrook's concepts of controlling internal and external reality were then taken from the scale and "Chapter Three" of telling writing became the theoretical basis for the scales' thirteen questions. Definitions and examples are in Appendix B and C. Two readers, one Black and one White, one a junior high school teacher and one a senior high school teacher, were hired from the Pontiac system. The readers were trained to use the scale independ- ently in an hour and a half session. In each case the readers were asked to defend their choice of rating by referring to specifics in the trial papers. The resulting correlation was an unacceptable .20. In a second training session the researcher presented his ratings of the same papers to the readers in a group session. In each case he l3Illinois Association of Teachers of English, "Evaluating Ninth- Grade Themes," Illinois English Bulletin, Vol. XL, No. 7, (March, 1953): PP- 22-23- 53 referred to Specifics in the papers to justify the rating. The readers tended to agree with the researcher and when they disagreed it was a parallel disagreement with the two readers disagreeing with the researcher. The readers then read ten papers with a correlation of .77. During the final training session the readers maintained a correlation of .65. 1A Graphic Literacy Braddock has suggested that frequency counts have a potential for objective definition. The difficulty with such counts is the need for precise definition. His suggestion also points out that the purpose of evaluation needs to be determined and controls for extra- neous variables be introduced. As an alternative of Simple error counts he suggests the frequency counts be correlated with other variables or expressed in an error quotient, errors divided by total Opportunity. The Graphic Literacy skills measured in this study are those which have been found to correlate with social-racial dialect. They can be subsumed into three main categories, phonologic, syntactic, and verbal. PhonolOgic Variables Labov15 in discussing race related problems in reading mentions five phonologic problem areas: 1) r-lessness, 2) l-lessness, 3) simplification of consonant clusters, A) weakening of final consonants, and 5) other variables. Because the study sought to discount Spelling as a deterrent to writing by actively helping children spell their words, several of the categories were not used although most l"Richard Braddock, Richard Lloyd-Jones, and Lowell Schoer, Research in written Composition (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1963), p. Al. 15William Labov, "Some Sources of Reading Problems for Negro Speakers of Non-Standard English," in Joan C. Baratz and Roger W. Shuy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), pp. AO-A6: 5A help was asked for in the fourth grade with rarely used nouns. A count of weakened final consonants indicated a sizable prOportion of the d and §_consonants were omitted. The -t_consonant did not occur enough to use (2). Following Labov's report of differential reduction accord- ing to grammatical status the data was analyzed into ed for both root words (an ad) and verbs (bake 79 or done for did). This latter category was made up of negative past tense markers. The -§_category was broken down into root words (like wa in for was), plural nouns (boy -a were), the third person of the verb (he get -§), and La for possession (papa bear -L§ chair). The counts for the -§ root words were too insufficient (3) to use and were therefore drOpped. The -d root words were also rela— tively few in number (19), however, they supported the expected direc- tion of the -d_verb in indicating Black English. These 19 (all of them were an ad for and) were added to the 79 verb category and counted as simply phonologic 19' The phonologic variables which were used were: -§_plural nouns, fig possessive, -§_third person verb, -d_(verb plus an f§)° The scores were presented in number of deviations per 100 chances. One (1) deviation in five (5) chances was reported as 20 per hundred. Verb Variables LOban,l6 Labov,l7 and others have noted that social class dialects can be distinguished by verb use. Loban has found that through schooling dramatic improvement can be made in auxiliary verb 16mm, 1.1.9112 l7Labov, Op. cit., pp. 51-52. 55 use and omissions, while the "be" verb persists as a problem. The verb variables used for the Graphic Literacy Scores were -past tense, -auxiliary, and -copula. It should be noted that the verb ~past tense and phonologic -d categories intersect in part. At the time of the experimental design the relationship of either or both to race and composition was not known. Subsequently the phonolOgic -d_was discarded for the more fruitful -past tense. This was especially necessary to conduct the multiple regression correlations to discover if Graphic Literacy 'variables clustered to predict Expressive Literacy. The phonolOgic and verb deviations from standard textbook forms Ivere presented in number of deviations per 100 chances of Opportunity S cores 0 Ehentence Variables McDavid andAustin18 have noted that grammar Iweflects social and educational advantage. Within this light it seemed rweasonable to measure and compare syntactic differences in sentence Sfxructure. If two groups are equated for social and educational factors ‘tllenl any differences in syntax might be assumed to reside in differen- 1Sialsocial-cultural syntactic conflicts with the standard school syntax. The T-unit as developed by Hunt19 was used as the basic unit. Ckirfloles, as defined by Hunt,20 were included in a second variable called fra-gments which (also included intelligible but unrelated sentence segments. \ 18Raven I. McDavid, "American Social Dialects," College English, V01. XXVI, No. A, (January, 1965), p. 258. l9Kellogg W. Hunt, Grammatical Structures Written at Three Grade Ifiyvfals, NCTE Committee on Research Report No. 35(Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1965): PP. 20-53- 20Ibid., p. 6. 56 In addition to fragments, run-on sentences, -end punctuation, and -capitalization were measured. All four variables were reported in occurrence per 100 T—units. Shuy21 chose pronominal apposition (My brother he go to town.) and the double negative as two of his three variables for measuring social dialect. Baratz22 suggested the "past conditional question" (I ask did he do it. replaces, I asked if he did it.) is a firm indicator of Black English or dialect. These three constructions were measured, but the total frequency of each was so small (apposition, 3; double negative, 10; and "if," 1) that they were summed into one variable called Black sentences and reported in chances per T-unit. Data Collection The data was collected from fourth, seventh, and eleventh grade cilasses on the last day of a seven day treatment (See Appendix.A) Chasigned to generate the most thoughtfully expressive writing possible. Ekach day the class was given an audio-visual experience followed by a CiiJSCUSSlOH and then a 30-A5 minute writing period. The researcher, IVAHD taught the lesson, and the regular teacher circulated about the (lliass helping students on request with spelling. In the fourth grade iInportant words were frequently placed on the board during the discus- sion period. The requests for help decreased with age. Papers were \ 21Roger W. Shuy, "A Linguistic Background for DevelOping Beginning Refinding Materials for Black Children," in Joan C. Baratz and Roger W. 8&1Euy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), pp. 121-22. 22Joan C. Baratz, "Linguistic and Cultural Factors in Teaching REE-ding to Ghetto Children," in Eldonna L. Evertts, ed., Aspects of Readin (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 19707; p. 50. 57 collected from the students at the end of each writing period. On the seventh day all papers were returned to the students, and they were given instructions to select and write about one of five tOpiCS. DIRECTIONS Read your papers. Your assignment is to find the writing which you think will interest me the most. You may wish to: 1. Write or rewrite a story, 2. Tell me a personal experience, 3. Start with something concrete, and make an imaginative jump to ? , A. Explain to me what your reactions to the past six days have been, 5. Put together the sentences and ideas which you think I will be most interested in reading. DO ONLY ONE. Fourth grade Blue Collar students reacted quite differently to the least day's assignment than did White Collar fourth graders and seventh amid eleventh graders. Where the fourth grade Blue Collar students had Eixxplied themselves diligently for up to A5 minutes of writing on the IfiJrst Six days, they treated the last day like something of a party day, Writing a Shorter time. Eleventh grade students reversed the pattern. A few wrote well ‘334311 day but no one consistently and rarely a class in unison. On the Jiisrt day by far the longest and most intense writing was produced. Several deviations from the initial plans were made necessary by .tI1EB nature of the pOpulations under study. All of the fourth grades irl (Dne elementary school (four) received the treatment, but it was not IKDSESible to generate more than four or five of the Sixteen members of theWhite Collar cells. A fifth class in a more favorable economic 58 area of Pontiac then received the treatment and the Sixteen White Collar members were selected from this classroom. Three students, two Blue Collar Black males and one White Collar female from the pre-data collecting trial session were used to complete cell sizes in the seventh grade section. These students received essentially the same treatment as the data collection groups. The papers were selected randomly by alphabetical position from the pool of papers. They met all other definitional criteria. Four classes of eleventh grade general English students made up the high school pOpulation. Three tracks, college, general, and reme- dia1.are used in the school. The "tin can" or verbal fluency test was silso used with all classes.23 Although there were sufficient numbers tn: fill the eleventh grade cell sizes, on the last day three Black boys (lid.not write. The researcher returned the next day and had them write ill as close an approximation of procedure as could be made. The papers used in the final body for analysis were selected on a rwandom_alphabetical basis from lists of students who qualified for cell Vq 0.00 1 0.00 0.033 COlumn 0.02 2 0.01 3.611* I3<>Vv x Column , 0.00 2 0.00 0.011 Error 0.10 A2 0.002 \ *p. < .05 F.05 (2,A2) = 3.20 80 TABLE 16 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: PHONOLOGIC VARIABLE, -_S_ POSSESSIVE, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar Whlte Collar Total X = 1 X = 0 X = O 1 Male s.d. = A s.d. = 0 s.d. = O N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 0 X = 0 X = 0 0 Female s.d. = l s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 2 0 0 TABLE 16.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE PHONOLOGIC VARIABLE, -§ POSSESSIVE Soulrce of Variance SS df MS F \ Row 0.00 l 0.00 0.310 COZLumn 0.00 2 0.00 1.690 Row x Column . 0.00 2 0.00 0.310 EI‘Jcor 0.01 A2 0.000 \ 81 TABLE 17 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: PHONOLOGIC VARIABLE, -§ THIRD PERSON, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 1 X = 1 X = 1 A Male s.d. = A s.d. = A s.d. = A N z: 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 2 X = 0 X = 0 2 IFenmle s.d.: A SAL = 0 s.d.: 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 COlumn CFCDtnal 3 l 1 TABLE 17.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE PHONOLOGIC VARIABLE, -_S_ THIRD PERSON Source of Variance SS df MS F \ Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.722 Column 0.00 2 0.00 O.A22 ROW x Column 0.00 2 0.00 O.A22 Error 0.0A A2 0.001 \ 82 TABLE 18 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: PHONOLOGIC VARIABLE, -_12, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 13 X = 1 X = 3 17 IVIale s.d. = 35 s.d. = 2 s.d. = 5 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 12 X = 3 X = 1 16 Female s.d. = 15 s.d. = 5 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 25 3 A TABLE 18.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE PHONOLOGIC VARIABLE, -2 Sol—lrce of Variance SS df MS F \ Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.001 COlumn 0.12 2 0.06 2.A70 ROW x Column 0.00 2 0.00 0.050 Error 1.06 1+2 0.025 \ 83 TMEE19 SUMMARY OF GRAPHIC LITERACY HYPOTHESES RELATING TO PHONOLOGY Iigrpothesis Content Grade Table Decision I?cmu‘ A condition of no differ- A 7-8 Accepted ence in the use of the 9-lO four measures of phonology exists between the three 7 ll-l2 Rejected* social classes. l3-lA 11 15-16 Rejected** l7-l8 LFEive A condition of no differ- A 7-8 Accepted ence in the use of the 9-10 four measures of phonology exists between male and 7 ll-l2 Accepted female. l3—lA ll l5-16 Accepted l7-18 ESjgx: A condition of no differ- A 7-8 Accepted ence in the use of the 9-10 four measures of phonology exists as they interact 7 ll-12 Accepted with sex and social class l3-lA variables. ll lS-l6 Accepted 17-18 \ *p. < .05 F 05 (2,A2) = 3.20 (19, Table 1A) **p. < .05 F 05 (2,A2) = 3.20 (—§_plural noun, Table 15) The -d variable existed as a trouble spot for Black students in 5‘141 three grades although it reached a Significant level only in the ‘SEEVenth. Fourth grade White Blue Collar students also experienced SOme difficulty. White Collar students had no difficulty. The occur- rEnce is relatively frequent, 2O deviations per 100 chances at its 8A liigghest for fourth grade Black students and 12 deviations for eleventh {gxwade Black students. The -S plural noun follows a similar pattern unith.less frequent occurrence ratio, A per 100 in the eleventh grade vnnere significance was achieved and 12 per 100 in the fourth grade. Hypothesis four relating to a no difference between social classes iflor each of the thirteen variables was accepted in the fourth grade, and eacncepted for twelve of the thirteen variables in both the seventh and eileventh grades. Hypothesis five relating to a condition of no difference between rustle and female variables was accepted for the phonologic variables at 51141 of the three grade levels. Hypothesis six relating to a condition of no difference between IneLle and female variables as they interact with those of social class was accepted for the phonologic variables at all of the three grade :Lervels. §§j§£1tence Structure Variables The research indicated that some Black- qulfiste oral language differences are marked in larger than phonologic EShructural units. Among these units were standard Black sentences using double negative, past conditional question, and pronominal apposition. CD}1€3 basic unit of comparing these scores became an occurrence per 100 'vallnit ratio. Both the T-unit and a fragment category are reported. Dir; speech, intonation Signals thought unit relationships; in writing this meaning is carried in part by sentence opening and closing conven- ‘tfiions. To check upon the possibility of differential social and sex t>hought expression structures as related to these conventions, devia- ‘tions from the standard in occurrence per 100 T—units were compared. TABLE 20 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 x 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, T-UNITS, FOURTH GRADE, WORDS PER T-UNIT Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White 001lar Total X = 12.31 X’ = 9.32 X" = 9.36 31.00 Male s.d. = 8.68 s.d. = 3.26 s.d. = 2.A9 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 9.10 X’ = 9.10 X’ = 9.71 27.91 Female 5 d = 2 O6 s.d. = 1 l3 s.d = 1.51 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 2l.A1 l8.A2 19.07 TABLE 20.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, T-UNITS m Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 12.71 1 12.71 0.763 Column 19.75 2 9.87 0.592 Row x Column 29.26 2 1A.63 0.878 Error 699.99 A2 16.666 86 TABLE 21 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A.2 x 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, FRAGMENTS, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS -— l H Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar Whlte Collar Total X' = 7 X" = 1 X' = A 12 Male s d. = 18 s.d. = A s d. = 11 N=8 N=8 N=8 X = 9 X’ = A X' = A 16 Female s.d. = 11 s.d. = 5 s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 15 5 7 TABLE 21.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, FRAGMENTS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.266 Column 0.02 2 0.01 1.096 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 0.068 Error O.A5 A2 0.011 87 TABLE 22 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -CAPITAIS, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS a: Black White . Row sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X = 16 X = 26 X = 15 57 Male s.d. = 31 s.d. = 32 s.d. = 27 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 15 X = 9 X = 9 32 Female s d = 18 s d = 21 s d. = 15 N :: 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 31 35 2h TABLE 22.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -CAPITAIS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.08” 1 0.08 1.338 Column 0.03 2 0.01 0.211 Row x Column 0.06 2 0.03 O.AA5 Error 2.61 A2 0.062 88 TABLE 23 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -END PUNCTUATION, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar Whlte 0°1lar Total X = 15 X = 2A X = 1 A0 Male s.d. = 18 s.d. = 36 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 12 X = 10 X = 2 25 Female s.d. = 28 s.d. = 11 s.d. = 5 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 27 3“ h TABLE 23.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -END PUNCTUATION Source of Variance Ss df MS F Row 0.03 1 0.03 0.717 Column 0.20 2 0.10 2.395 Row x Column 0.05 2 0.02 0.583 Error 1.76 A2 0.0A2 #1 89 TABLE 2A MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, RUN-ONS, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X’ = 16 X' = 17 X = 16 50 Male s.d. = 28 s.d. = 25 s.d. = 28 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X’ = 6 X = 19 X = 10 35 Female s d = 11 s d = 16 s d = 12 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 22 36 26 TABLE 2A.l SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, RUN-CNS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.03 1 0.03 0.656 Column 0.0A 2 0.02 O.AA2 Row x Column 0.03 2 0.01 0.287 Error 1.92 A2 0.0A6 ¥ 9O TABLE 25 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, BLACK SENTENCES, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 0 X = 0 X = 0 0 Male s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X - 0 X = l X = 0 1 Female s.d. = 0 s.d. = A s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 0 l 0 TABLE 25.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, BLACK SENTENCES Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 l 0.00 1.000 Column 0.00 2 0.00 1.000 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 1.000 Error 0.01 A2 0.000 - 91 TABLE 26 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, T-UNITS, SEVENTH GRADE, WORDS PER T-UNIT Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 13.AA X = 10.A7 X' = 12.81 36.72 Male s.d. = 5.67 s.d. = 2.2A s.d. = 3.27 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 13.26 X' = 10.39 X' = 10.71 3A.36 Female s.d. = 5.85 s.d. = 1.90 s.d. = 3.79 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 20.70 20.86 23.52 TABLE 26.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, T-UNITS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 7.AA 1 7.AA O.AA6 Column 68.33 2 3A.16 2.0A8 Row x Column 10.35 2 5.18 0.310 Error 700.A8 A2 16.678 92 TABLE 27 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, FRAGMENTS, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total Y = Ll» i- = 7 5(- -'-’ 9 20 Male s.d. = 7 s.d. = 7 s.d. = 8 N z 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 9 X' = 0 X' = A 13 Female s.d. = 16 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 12 7 13 TABLE 27.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, FRAGMENTS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.01 1 0.01 0.8AA Column 0.01 2 0.00 O.A22 Row x Column 0.03 2 0.02 2.078 Error 0.35 A2 0.008 R 93 TABLE 28 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, —CAPITAIS, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X = 136 X = 11 X' = 3 150 Male s.d. = 3A1 s.d. = 2A s.d. = 5 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 9 X = 1 X’ = A 1A Female s.d. = 11 s.d. = A s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 1A5 12 7 TABLE 28.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -CAPITALS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 2.A9 1 2.A9 1.276 Column A.89 2 2.A5 1.252 'Row x Column A.05 2 2.02 1.036 Error 82.10 A2 1.955 9A TABLE 29 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -END PUNCTUATION, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS f— -__ Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X = A X' = 5 X' = 1 10 Male s.d. = 7 s.d. = 9 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 12 X' = 1 X' = 0 1A Female s.d. = 21 s.d. = A s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 16 6 1 TABLE 29.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, —END PUNCTUATION Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 l 0.00 0.191 Column 0.05 2 0.02 2.383 Row x Column 0.03 2 0.02 1.787 Error ' O.Al A2 0.010 TABLE 30 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, RUN-ONS, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White , Row sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X' = 16 X' = 1A X' = A 3A Male s.d. = 32 s.d. = 18 s.d. = 10 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 6 X' = 12 X' = 10 29 Female s.d. = 5 s.d. = 21 s.d. = 1A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 22 26 1A TABLE 30.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, RUN-CNS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.117 Column 0.03 2 0.02 O.A37 Row x Column 0.05 2 0.02 0.722 Error 1.A5 A2 0.03A 96 TABLE 31 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, BLACK SENTENCES, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T—UNITS Black White _ Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X = 9 X = 0 X = O 9 Male s.d. = 17 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 i = 2 i = ‘ O i- : O 2 Female s.d. = 5 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 11 O 0 TABLE 31.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, BLACK SENTENCES Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.01 1 0.01 0.978 Column 0.03 2 0.02 3.168 Row x Column 0.01 2 0.01 0.978 Error 0.22 A2 0.0005 97 TABLE 32 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, T-UNITS, ELEVENTH GRADE, WORDS PER T—UNIT Black White , Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 15.02 X' = 11.3A X' = l8.A1 AA.77 Male s.d. = 5.29 s.d. = 3.12 s.d. = 16.36 N 8 N 8 N 8 X 13.31 X' 10.29 X' 12.80 36.A0 Female s.d. = 7.28 s.d. = 2.85 s.d. = 3.11 N=8 N=8 N=8 Column Total 28.3A 21.62 31.21 TMflE321 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, T-UNITS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 93.52 1 93.52 1.A92 Column 193.66 2 96.83 1.5AA Row x Column A8.62 2 2A.3l 0.388 Error 2633.AA A2 62.701 98 TABLE 33 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, FRAGMENTS, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER lOO T—UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White C01lar Total X = 12 X" = 1 X = A 16 Male s.d. = 16 s.d. = 2 s.d. = 5 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 7 X' = A X' = 7 18 Female s.d. = 10 s.d. = 5 s.d. = 12 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 19 5 11 TABLE 33.1 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, FRAGMENTS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 ‘1 0.00 0.058 Column 0.0A 2 0.02 2.127 Row x Column 0.02 2 0.01 0.960 Error 0.39 A2 0.009 99 TMflE3A MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -CAPITALS, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White 001lar Total X' = 1A X’ = A X' = 1 19 Male s.d. = 23 s.d. = 7 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X' = 29 X’ = 0 X' = 1 30 Female s.d. = A6 s.d. = 1 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total ”2 h 2 TABLE 3A.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -CAPITALS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.02 1 0.02 0.369 Column O.Al 2 0.20 A.A39* Row x Column 0.08 2 0.0A 0.860 Error 1.92 A2 0.0A6 *p. (.05 F.05 (2,A2) = 3.20 lOO TABLE 35 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -END PUNCTUATION, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T—UNITS Black White _ Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X = 15 X = A X = 5 2A Male s.d. = 21 s.d. = 5 s.d. = 8 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X’ = 20 X = 2 X' = 2 2A Female s.d. = 25 s.d. = A s.d. = 5 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 35 5 7 TABLE 35.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, -END PUNCTUATION Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.001 Column 0.22 2 0.11 5.AA5* Row x Column 0.01 2 0.01 0.356 Error 0.8A A2 0.020 *p. < .01 F.Ol (2,A2) = 5.16 lOl TABLE 36 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, RUN-ONS, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White 001lar Total X" = 7 X" = 5 X" = 1 1A Male s.d. = 7 s.d. = 11 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X" = 9 X" = 2 X" = 2 1A Female s.d. = 11 s.d. = 3 s.d. = 5 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 16 8 A TABLE 36.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, RUN-ONS Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.000 Column 0.03 2 0.02 3.090 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 O.AA1 Error 0.23 A2 0.005 102 TABLE 37 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR.A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: SENTENCE STRUCTURE, BLACK SENTENCES, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 T-UNITS Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar Whlte Collar Total X = 0 X" = 0 X" = 1 1 Male s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 2 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X" = 2 X" = 0 X" = 0 2 Female s.d. = A s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 2 O 0 TABLE 37.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE SENTENCE STRUCTURE, BLACK SENTENCES Source of Variance SS df -MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 1.138 Column ' 0.00 2 0.00 1.809 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 3.152 Error 0.01 A2 0.000 103 TMEE38 SUMMARY OF GRAPHIC LITERACY HYPOTHESES RELATING TO SENTENCE STRUCTURE Hypothesis Content Grade Table Decision Four A condition of no differ— A 20—21 Accepted ence in the use of the 22-23 Six measures of sentence 2A-25 structure exists between the three social classes. 7 26—27 Accepted 28-29 30-31 11 32—33 Rejected* 3A-35 36-37 Five A condition of no differ- A 20-21 Accepted ence in the use of the 22-23 Six measures of sentence 2A-25 structure between male and female. 7 26-27 Accepted 28-29 30-31 ll 32-33 Accepted 3A-35 36-37 Six A condition of no differ- A 20-21 Accepted ence in the use of the 22-23 Six measures of sentence 2A-25 structure exists as they interact with sex and 7 26-27 Accepted social class variables. 28-29 30-31 11 32—33 Accepted 3A-3S 36-37 *p. <:.05 F 05 (2,A2) = 3.20 (capitalization, Table 3A) *p. <:.01 F 01 (2,A2) = 5.16 (end punctuation, Table 35) 10A This resulted in six sentence structure variables: T-units, fragments, -capitals, -end punctuation, run-ons, and Black sentences (double negative, pronominal apposition, and past conditional question) reported at the study's three grade levels. The Black sentence variable was made by collapsing the three struc— tures, double negative, pronominal apposition, and the past conditional question into one concept. Analysis, Sentence Structure Variables A comparison of the six sentence variables at the three grade levels developed two statistically significant differences: capitalization and end punctuation deviations between classes in the eleventh grade. (Tables 3A and 35) In both cases the column totals indicated that the deviations favored White classes (Blue and White Collar) over Black (Blue Collar). Minus capi- talization was significant with an average 21 deviations per 100 chances and negative end punctuation at an average 17 per 100 chances. The strength of the student press to write standard English sen- tences is seen most clearly in the Black sentence category. All of the research indicated a high correlation between the double negative, pronominal apposition, and the past conditional question and race. Even when all three items were summed the largest average cell size was 5.5 per 100 chances. The correlation still has a racial bias, however. Hypothesis four relating to a no difference between social classes for each of the thirteen variables was accepted for the fourth and seventh grades. In the eleventh grade it was accepted on eleven of the thirteen variables. 105 Hypothesis five relating to a condition of no difference between male and female variables was accepted for the sentence structure variables at all of the three grade levels. Hypothesis Six relating to a condition of no difference between male and female variables as they interact with those of social class was accepted for the sentence structure variables at all of the three grade levels. Verb Variables The research indicated that some Black—White oral language differences are clearly marked in verb structure. Among these were the past tense, minus c0pula, and auxiliary form deviations. These three variables were reported in deviations from the standard per 100 chances of occurrence ratios. Analysis, Verb Variables The comparison of the three verb vari- ables at the three grade levels developed one statistically significant F score, negative past tense marker in the seventh grade. (Table A2) The column totals indicated that the difference was between the Black Blue Collar cell (19) and the White Blue Collar (2) and White Collar (2) cells. The negative c0pula which is closely linked to Black speech did not register as a class or race related item. The highest mean nega- tive c0pula frequency was a 7.5 per 100 chances achieved by fourth grade White Collar students. Hypothesis four, class differences, was accepted at all grade levels with the one exception, -past tense, seventh grade. Hypothesis five and Six, sex and interactional differences, were accepted at all grade levels. 106 TABLE 39 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -PAST TENSE, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White , Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White C01lar Total X = 10 X" = 10 X" = 0 20 Male 8 d. = 17 s.d. = 21 s d = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 1A X" = 9 X" = 1 2A Female 8 d = 15 s d. = 10 s d = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 2’4 19 1 TABLE 39.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -RAST TENSE Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 l 0.00 0.107 Column 0.11 2 0.06 3.185 Row x Column 0.01 2 0.00 0.1A3 Error 0.7A A2 0.018 107 TABLE A0 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -AUXILIARY, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White COllar Total X = 15 X" = 29 X" = 2 A6 Male s.d. = 28 s.d. = A5 s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 2 X" = 16 X = 9 27 Female s d = 7 S d = 35 S d = l6 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 17 A5 11 TABLE A0.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, eAUXILIARY Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.05 l 0.05 0.638 Column 0.26 2 0.13 1.755 Row x Column 0.09 2 0.05 0.638 Error 3.09 A2 0.073 108 TABLE Al MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -COPULA, FOURTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 0 X = O X" = 2 2 Male s.d. = O s.d. = O s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 13 X = l X" = 13 26 Female s.d. = 35 s.d. = A s.d. = 35 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 13 l 15 TABLE Al.l SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FOURTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -COPULA Source of Variance Ss df MS F Row 0.08 l 0.08 1.761 Column 0.0A 2 0.02 0.502 Row x Column 0.03 2 0.01 0.327 Error 1.79 A2 0.0A3 109 TABLE A2 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -BAST TENSE, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X" = 6 X" = 2 X" = 1 10 Male s.d. = 9 s.d. = 7 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 12 X = O X = 0 13 Female s.d. = 13 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 1 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 19 2 2 TABLE A2.l SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -PAST TENSE Source of Variance Ss df MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.230 Column 0.07 2 0.0A 7.082* Row x Column 0.02 2 0.01 l.6A5 Error 0.22 A2 0.005 *p. < .01 F.Ol (2,A2) = 5.16 llO TABLE A3 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -AUXILIARY, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White Collar Total X = 2 X = 0 X" = 13 15 Male s.d. = 7 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 35 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 3(- : lo 3(- = O Y = 2 .12 Female s.d. = 17 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 12 O 15 TABLE A3.l SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -AUXILIARY Source of Variance Ss df MS F Row 0.00 1 0.00 0.031 Column 0.05 2 0.03 0.9A8 Row x Column 0.06 2 0.03 l.l3l Error 1.1A A2 0.027 111 TABLE AA MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -COPULA, SEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White 001lar Total X = 0 X" = 0 X" = 0 0 Male s.d. = O s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 0 X" = 1 X" = 0 1 Female s.d. = 0 s.d. = A s.d. = O N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 0 l 0 TABLE AA.l SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR SEVENTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -COPULA Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 l 0.00 l.000 Column 0.00 2 0.00 1.000 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 1.000 Error 0.01 A2 0.000 112 TABLE A5 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -PAST TENSE, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White , , Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar Whlte Collar Total X = 5 X = 2 X = 5 12 Male s.d. = 11 s.d. = A s.d. = 8 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X = 10 X = l X" = 0 12 Female s.d. = 12 s.d. = A s.d. = l N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 15 3 5 TABLE A5.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, —PAST TENSE Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.00 l 0.00 0.000 Column 0.03 2 0.02 2.9A0 Row x Column 0.02 2 0.01 1.775 Error O.23 A2 0.006 _ 113 TABLE A6 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, ~AUXILIARY, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White . Row sex Blue Collar Blue Collar White 0°1lar Total X = 13 X" = 7 X" = 5 25 Male s.d. = 35 s.d. = 21 s.d. = 8 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 3(- : ll 3? = 6 3(- = l 19 Female s.d. = 21 s.d. = 11 s.d. = A N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 2A 1A 6 TABLE A6.1 SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -AUXILIARY Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.01 1 0.01 0.135 Column 0.06 2 0.03 0.796 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 0.022 Error 1.63 A2 0.039 11A TABLE A7 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR A 2 X 3 DATA MATRIX: VERB VARIABLE, -COPULA, ELEVENTH GRADE, OCCURRENCE PER 100 CHANCES Black White _ Row Sex Blue Collar Blue Collar Whlte Collar Total X = 2 X = 0 X = O 2 Male s.d. = 7 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 0 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 X" = 7 X" = 0 X" = 2 10 Female s.d. = 18 s.d. = 0 s.d. = 7 N = 8 N = 8 N = 8 Column Total 10 O 2 TABLE A7.l SUMMARY FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ELEVENTH GRADE VERB VARIABLE, -COPULA Source of Variance SS df MS F Row 0.01 l 0.01 1.105 Column 0.02 2 0.01 1.596 Row x Column 0.00 2 0.00 0.368 Error 0.28 A2 0.007 115 TABLE A8 SUMMARY OF GRAPHIC LITERACY HYPOTHESES RELATING TO VERB VARIABLES Hypothesis Content Grade Table Decision Four A condition of no differ- A 39—A0-Al Accepted ence in the use of the three verb variables 7 A2-A3-AA Rejected* exists between the three social classes. 11 A5-A6-A7 Accepted Five A condition of no differ- A 39-A0-A1 Accepted ence in the use of the three verb variables 7 A2-A3-AA Accepted exists between male and female. 11 A5-A6-A7 Accepted Six A condition of no differ- A 39-A0-A1 Accepted ence in the use of the three verb variables 7 A2-A3-AA Accepted exists as they interact with sex and social class 11 A5-A6-A7 Accepted variables. *p. <1.01 F Analysis, Graphic Literacy .01 (2,A2) = 5.16 (negative past tense, Table A2) Thirteen racially related variables representing concepts of phonology, syntax, and verbness were tested at three grade levels for differences of social class, sex, and sex- social class interaction. significances found: In only five of the 117 Opportunities were phonologic -d, seventh grade and -§ plural, eleventh grade; syntax -capitals and -end punctuation, eleventh grade; and verb —past tense, seventh grade. were between Black and White students. In all cases the differences 116 Hypothesis Testing, Expressive-Graphic Relationships A third set of hypotheses were develOped from question four, "Is ability to use Graphic Literacy conventions related to the ability to produce Expressive Literacy?" The expectation was for sex and social class differences which would be compounded through interaction. Hypothesis Seven The degree of linear correlation between the Graphic Literacy Scores and the Expressive Literacy Scale for males as compared to females is zero. Hypothesis Eight The degree of linear correlation between the Graphic Literacy Scores and the Expressive Literacy Scale for Black students (Black Blue Collar) as compared to White students (White Blue Collar and White Collar) is zero. A decision was made to accept hypothesis seven without submitting it to correlational analysis. It was justified by the data which indi— cated conditions of no difference between sex and sex-social class interactions at all grade levels. Correlations were develOped between twelve of the thirteen Graphic Literacy Scores and the Expressive Literacy Scale for Black and White students at each grade level. (Tables 50, 51, 52) The phonologic variable ad was not used because it was a partial duplication of count with the verb variable, -past marker. The -verb past was chosen because its F score was higher than the phonologic -d. (Tables 1A, A2) A difference of correlations test2 was used to measure the differences between correlations for each variable. 2William L. Hays, Statistics for Psychologists (New York: Holt, Rinehart_and Winston, 1965), pp. 530-32. 117 TABLE A9 SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS SEVEN—-THE INFLUENCE OF GRAPHIC LITERACY CONVENTION USE UPON EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE PRODUCTION m Content Grade Table Decision A 3 7-lO 20-25 39-hl A condition of no differ- Not submitted to correla- ence between the correla- 7 A tional analysis as sex tion of Graphic Literacy ll-lA was not found to exert Scores to the Expressive 26-31 influence in hypotheses Literacy Scale for male A2-AA two, three, five, and six. and female students. . ll 5 15-18 32-37 A5-A7 Analysis, Expressive-Graphic Relationships Twelve racially related Graphic Literacy variables as correlated to Expressive Literacy were compared at three grade levels for differences of correlation between Black and White students. In six of the 36 comparisons statistically significant comparisons were found. Four of the differences were in sentence structure and two were phonologic. In all cases the Black mean was higher. All with the exception of ii possessive and fragments in the seventh grade were negatively correlated to Expressive Literacy. Fourth Grade Hypothesis eight was accepted for eleven of the twelve variables at the fourth grade level. It was rejected for the_condition of -end punctuation. (Table 50) Under this condition the Black mean exceeded the White mean. The difference resulted in a "z" score signif- icant at the .OA level. 118 TABLE 50 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR FOURTH GRADE BLACK AND WHITE STUDENTS Variable Black White Black White 2 Sig. m m r r Level Phonology -third person 19.0 7.0 .3A6 -.003 -l.510 .07 'E possessive A.0 0.1 .013 -.311 0.05A .A9 -§ plural 11.0 2.0 .219 .132 0.936 .18 Sentence T—units 10.7 9.A .070 -.072 0.293 .39 fragments 7.0 3.0 -.298 -.038 -1.289 -.11 run-ons 11.0 15.0 -.318 .018 -1.381 -.09 -end punctuation 13.0 9.0 -.A06 -.237 -1.805 .0A* -capitals 15.0 1A.0 -.l36 -.l56 -0.571 -.71 Black sentences 0.0 0.3 .000 .163 Verb -past tense 11.0 5.0 .106 .088 O.AA5 .33 -auxiliary 8.0 1A.0 -.l27 -.A89 0.533 .30 -copula 6.0 A.0 .013 -.025 0.05A .A9 *Significant at .05 level. 119 TABLE 51 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR SEVENTH GRADE BLACK AND WHITE STUDENTS Variable Blng M13138 Black White Z Sig. m m r r Level Phonology -third person 5.0 1.0 -.291 -.l29 -l.255 -.11 -s possessive 0.8 0.0 .386 .000 1.709 .0A5* -§ plural 3.0 0.9 .1A2 .0A0 0.592 .28 Sentence T-units 13.3 9.0 .09A .281 0.39A .35 fragments 6.0 5.0 .AA9 .12A 2.028 .02* run-ons 11.0 10.0 -.180 -.008 -0.76A -.23 -end punctuation 8.0 1.0 -.01A .059 -0.058 -.A9 -capita1s 72.0 A.0 -.309 -.053 -1.339 .10 Black sentences 5.0 0.0 -.089 .000 -0.373 .36 Verb -past tense 9.0 1.0 -.315 -.001 -1.369 .09 -auxiliary 6.0 3.0 -.171 -.203 —0.722 .2A -00pula 0.0 0.3 .000 .103 *Significant at .05 level. 120 TABLE 52 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR ELEVENTH GRADE BLACK AND WHITE STUDENTS Variable BlECk White Black White Z Sig. m m r r Level PhonolOgy -third person 12.0 1.0 .235 .080 -l.003 .16 -s possessive 0.8 0.0 .179 .000 0.760 .23 —§_p1ura1 A.0 0.0 -.389 .198 -1.721 -.0A3* Sentence T-units 1A.1 13.2 .0A2 -.231 0.176 .AA fragments 9.0 A.0 .185 .129 0.793 .22 run-ons 8.0 2.0 -.377 .151 -1.663 -.0A9* -end punctuation 17.0 3.0 -.208 -.023 -0.886 -.18 -capitals 21.0 1.0 -.A18 .130 -1.868 -.032* Black sentences 1.0 0.1 —.230 -.0A6 -0.982 .17 Verb -past tense 7.0 2.0 .1A3 -.050 0.60A .28 -auxiliary 11.0 5.0 .050 -.159 0.209 -.A3 -copu1a 5.0 0.6 -.107 .076 -0.AA9 -.33 *Significant at .05 level. 121 TMHE53 SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS EIGHT-~THE INFLUENCE OF GRAPHIC LITERACY CONVENTION USE UPON EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE PRODUCTION Content Grade Table Decision A 50-52 Rejected* (one of 12) A condition of no dilference between the correlation of Graphic Literacy 7 53 RejecteditX Scores to the Expressive Literacy (two of 12) Scale for Black and White students , ll 50—57 Rejected*** (three of 12) *—end punctuation p. < .OA Six variables predict negative Expressive Literacy for White students, p. < .05. **_§ possessive p. < .OAS fragments p. < .02 ***-S plural p. < .0A3 rEn-ons p.‘< .0A9 -capita1s p. < .032 Two variables predict positive Expressive Literacy, two predict negative Expressive Literacy for Black students, p. < .05. Seventh Grade Hypothesis eight was accepted for ten of the twelve variables at the seventh grade level. (Table 51) In the case of the Ti possessive and fragment variables, ”z" scores of comparison between the strengths of correlation for Black and White students were signifi- cant beyond the .05 level. In both cases the correlation was a positive one with the frequency means for number of deviations favoring the Black students. Eleventh Grade Hypothesis eight was accepted for nine of the twelve variables at the eleventh grade level. (Table 52) In the case of the -s plural, run—ons, and —capital variables, "z" scores of comparison 122 between the strengths of correlation for Black and White students were Significant beyond the .05 level. In each case the higher frequency of deviations was in the direction of the Black students and the correlation to expressiveness negative. Summary In this chapter the tests of reader agreement and the data generated to test the study's three sets of hypotheses were presented and analyzed. It was concluded that error entered the reader correlations but that the error was Type II, making it more difficult to achieve statis- tical Significance where such Significance existed. The Expressive Literacy Scores may therefore be considered conservative ones. Three sets of data, Expressive Literacy, Graphic Literacy, and Expressive- Graphic relationships, dealing with the comparative and interactive relationships of socioeconomic class and sex, were also presented. The data which resulted from the statistical tests of the study's eight hypotheses was presented in three clusters relating to the study's three questions, Expressive Literacy hypotheses, Graphic Literacy hypotheses, and Expressive—Graphic Literacy relationships. The Graphic Literacy variables were subdivided into phonologic, sen- tence structure, and verb components. Decisions on the eight hypotheses were: 1. Hypothesis one was rejected in the seventh grade where Black- White Expressive Literacy differences were found. It was accepted at the fourth and eleventh grade levels. 2. Hypotheses two and three were accepted without qualification when conditions of no difference for sex and sex-social class 'interactions were found for Expressive Literacy Scores. 123 TMHE5A SUMMARY OF THE EXPRESSIVE LITERACY HYPOTHESES Hypothesis: One Two Three Statement: No difference No difference No difference between classes between sexes sex and class Grade: A 7 11 A 7 11 A 7 11 Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3. Hypothesis four was rejected for five of the 39 Graphic Literacy conditions submitted to comparison. It was accepted for the remaining 3A. Hypotheses five and Six were accepted without qualification when conditions of no difference for sex and sex-Social class interactions were found for Graphic Literacy Scores. Hypothesis seven which tested the male-female differences in correlation of Graphic to Expressive Literacy was accepted without statistical test. This decision was made because of the no difference conditions found between sex and sex-social class interaction in testing hypotheses five and six. Hypothesis eight was rejected for six of the 36 conditions which compared Black student correlations of Graphic Literacy Scores to Expressive Literacy with White student correlations. It was accepted for the remaining 30. 12A TMEE55 SUMMARY OF THE GRAPHIC LITERACY HYPOTHESES ——_J 1 1+ ‘1 Hypothesis: Four Five Six Statement° No difference No difference No difference between classes between sexes sex and class Grade : A 7 11 A 7 11 A 7 11 PhonolOgy -§_third person Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes -5 possessive Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes -3 plural Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes -d Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Sentence T-units Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes fragments Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes run-ons Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes -end punctuation No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes —capitals No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Black sentences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Verb -past tense Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes -auxiliary Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes -c0pula Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 125 TABLE 56 SUMMARY OF EXPRESSIVE-GRAPHIC DIFFERENCE OF CORRELATIONS Hypothesis: Seven Eight No difference Statement: between sexes No difference between races Grade: A 7 11 A 7 11 Phonology -§_third person .07 -.11 .16 Accepted -3 possessive without .A9 .0A5* .23 test -s plural .18 .28 -.0A3* Sentence T-units .39 .35 .AA fragments -.11 .02* .22 run-ons Accepted -.09 -.23 -.0A9* without -end punctuation test .0A* -.A9 -.18 -capita1s -.71 .10 -.032* Black sentences .00 .36 .17 Verb -past tense .33 .09 .28 Accepted -auxiliary without .30 .2A —.A3 test -copula .A9 .00 -.33 *Significant at .05 level. CHAPTER V: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Introduction This chapter summarizes the basic questions which initiated the study, the research foundations upon which it rested, the design, con- clusions, a discussion of results, and a pointing out of the study's research implications. Summary The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of teach- ing dialect related writing skills to Black Blue Collar students in the fourth, seventh, and eleventh grades for whom these forms represent identifiable oral, social dialect differences in comparison with White Blue Collar and White Collar students. At least since 1890 the teaching of composition in the public schools has remained basically unchanged. This teaching is character- ized by concern for rules of correctness, college entrance, and a dis- tance between professional statement and classroom practice. The study was based on an assumption that a standard English is taught in public schools. Composition evaluation is a difficult, incomplete practice, but dialect differences lend themselves easily to frequency counts, and for the more subjective aspects of Expressive language a Madaus—Rippey yes or no question seemed to offer the best potential for precise defi- nition and objective evaluation. 126 127 Issues of the difference or deficiency, of Black English, of bi-dialectalism and the context of linguistic study, either is0glos or different language, confuse the understanding of dialect identifi- cation. This study, while related to such concerns, does not seek answers to the basic theoretical issues. It seems reasonable to assume that continued evaluation of com- position in terms of norms that are not those of the student pOpula- tion will place the students in a position detrimental to their lan- guage growth, and that the negative influence of this concern for form might easily be expected to register in stunted Expressive lan- guage growth. The study's four theoretical questions were: 1. Do Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar children differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? 2. Do male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? 3. Do the variables of male and female interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar to create differences in Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use? A. IS ability to use Graphic literacy convention related to the ability to produce Expressive Literacy? To provide the answers for the four theoretical questions, eight Operational hypotheses were develOped and tested at the three grade 128 levels. The data to be compared consisted of one paper by each of 1AA students, rewritten after six daily writings given in response to audio- visual experiences. Frequency counts for thirteen variables of the Graphic Literacy Scale were made by the researcher. The writings were read by two readers and rated on an Expressive Literacy Scale develOped in the Madaus-Rippey fashion of yes-no answers. Efforts were made to control extraneous variables which could affect the results. The writers at all three grade levels were given the same directions, wrote over a period of seven days and were exposed to the same stimulus. The final cells were balanced for number, race, sex, and social class. All papers were typed, alphabetized, spelling corrected, and names masked from the readers. A 2 x 3 analysis of variance, linear correlation, and difference of correlation statistics were used to test the hypotheses. To assist in the interpretation of results multiple regression correlations were run to find the clustered strength of the.Graphic Literacy variables to predict Expressive Literacy. The results of the hypotheses tests were: 1. Hypothesis one was rejected in the seventh grade where Black- White Expressive Literacy differences were found. It was accepted at the fourth and eleventh grade levels. 2. Hypotheses two and three were accepted without quealification when conditions of no difference for sex and sex-social class interactions were found for Expressive Literacy Scores. 129 3. Hypothesis four was rejected for five of the 39 Graphic Literacy conditions submitted to comparison. It was accepted for the remaining 3A. A. Hypotheses five and six were accepted without qualification when conditions of no difference for sex and sex-social class interactions were found for Graphic Literacy Scores. 5. Hypothesis seven which tested the male-female differences in correlation of Graphic to Expressive Literacy was accepted without statistical test. This decision was made because of p the no difference conditions found between sex and sex-social class interaction in testing hypotheses five and six. 6. Hypothesis eight was rejected for six of the 36 conditions which compared Black student correlations of Graphic Literacy Scores to Expressive Literacy with White student correlations. It was accepted for the remaining 30. Discussion The one finding of Expressive Literacy Scale difference occurred in the seventh grade between the Black Blue Collar students and the White Blue Collar and White Collar students. Black students received lower (p. < .01) Expressive Literacy Scores than White students. (Table A)1 The seventh grade Graphic Literacy variables compared for hypotheses four, five, and six indicated significant differenCes between Black and White students for the -g_and -past tense variables. These two concepts 1The tables of reference are included for the convenience of the reader. 0 130 TABLE 57 CLUSTERED CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR SEVENTH GRADE BLACK STUDENTS Variable Black 5' White El F ratio* Sig. Level r fragments .06 .05 3.5A N.S. +.AA -§ possessive .008 .00 2.87 N.S. +.38 -capita1s .07 .0A 2.21 N.S. -.30 -past tense .09 .01 2.13 N.S. -.31 run-ons .ll .10 2.00 N.S. -.18 -third person .05 .01 1.83 N.S. -.29 Black sentences .05 .00 1.73 N.S. -.08 T-units 13.35 11.09 1.53 N.S. +.09 -auxiliary .06 .03 1.20 N.S. -.17 -end punctuation .08 .01 0.96 N.S. -.01 -§ plural .03 .009 0.8A N.S. +.1A2 -copula .00 .003 0.57 N.S. .00 *F ratio for each variable includes interaction with all those above it. intersect and therefore measure some of the same aspects. (Tables 1A and A2) When the seventh grade Graphic Literacy variables were compared by comparison of correlations, 7E possessive and fragments were found to be significantly stronger in their relationship to Expressive Literacy for Black students than for White students. (Table 51) Both correla- tions, however, were positive and therefore not related to the low Expressive Scores. 131 TABLE 58 CLUSTERED CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR SEVENTH GRADE WHITE STUDENTS . o:;===-===—== Variable Black 5 White E" F ratio* Sig. Level r T-unit 13.35 11.09 2.57 N.S. +.281 -auxiliary .06 .03 1.77 N.S. -.203 -third person .05 .01 1.37 N.S. -.129 -end punctuation .08 .01 1.37 N.S. +.059 -§ plural .03 '.009 1.23 N.S. +.0A -c0pula .00 .003 1.13 N.S. +.10 -capitals .07 .0A 1.06 N.S. -.05 fragments .06 .05 1.02 N.S. '+.12 run-ons ‘ .ll .10 0.89 N.S. -.008 -past tense .09 .01 0.77 N.S. -.001 -§_possessive .008 .00 0.67 N.S. .00 Black sentences .05 .00 - 0.58 N.S. .00 *F ratio for each variable includes interaction with all those above it. In a further check upon the cause of the lower seventh grade Black Expressive Literacy Scores, a multiple regression correlation was run to see if the Graphic Literacy variables clustered to predict Expres- sive Scores.. In the case of both Black and White seventh grade stu- dents the variables did not cluster. (Tables 57 and 58) . These three correlational indices suggest that the seventh grade Black pOpulation differed from the White pOpulation in some nonrandom 132 way and that this systematic bias was not the use of dialect related language, verbal fluency, school age, or social class. The Expressive Literacy statistical nonsignificance at both the fourth and eleventh grade suggests, although does not rule out, that race is not a factor. The single instance of phonologic difference is also supportive. (Tables 3 and 5) Some factor such as family mobility, number of years residence outside Oakland County, teacher attitude, or counselor place- ment apparently influenced the results. A second finding, the failure to find sex differences and sex- social class interaction, was unexpected. (Tables 3, A, 5) Much writing research has found upper and middle class girls to be better writers. Shuy2 found Negro girls to be sensitive to the double negative. The failure may have resulted from insensitivity on the part of the Expressive Literacy instrument, from an equal distribution of Expressive ability, or from counter-acting unrecognized nonrandom error. The Expressive Literacy instrument seemed capable in registering seventh grade differences. In addition, the Graphic Literacy variables compar- ing sex and sex-social class also indicated a condition of no difference. (Tables 19, 38, A8) It can be concluded that under the conditions of this study that there are no discernible sex and sex-social class Expressive or Graphic Literacy differences. In a third finding an unexpectedly low number of distinctions resulted from the Graphic Literacy comparisons. The Graphic Literacy variables were selected for their high correlation to race and in only 2Roger w. Shuy, "A Study of Social Dialects in Detroit" (Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1969), p. 17. 133 five of 39 race comparisons were they found to be significantly related to Black writing. This was especially true for the Black sentence 1 category (Tables 50, 51, 52) where three strong indicators of spoken dialect were reduced to one variable. In addition, in only six of 36 difference of correlations were significances found; and of these only four were negatively correlated. The press to write a standard English was well established by the fourth grade. For the most part children were faced with similar prob- lems in learning to put ideas on paper. In all categories the occur- rence of racially related variables was infrequent although mean totals consistently favored Black students. As a general rule (Tables 50, 51, 52) Black Blue Collar students encountered more phonolOgic, sentence, and verb problems than did White Blue Collar students, who in turn had more problems than did White Collar students. The assumption, based upon a historical survey of teacher attitude toward English, that a standard rule oriented English is taught in the schools, received empirical support in this study. The rule orientation should it influence Expressive writing seems to do so with equal strength across social class and sex lines. When the Black-White populations were tested for clustered influ- ence of Graphic variables upon Expressive Scores, the White fourth grade students were able to cluster seven variables into significant predictors of Expressive Literacy Scores. (Table 60) Five of the significant variables dealt with sentence structure: -end punctuation, fragments, ~capitals, T-units, and Black sentences. {The first four had a negative correlation, the more deviations and the ILonger the T-unit, the lower the Expressive Score. 13A TABLE 59 CLUSTERED CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR FOURTH GRADE BLACK STUDENTS :::: 1==== Variable Black 5 White 5' F ratio* Sig. Level r -end punctuation .13 .09 2.75 N.S. -.A0 -capitals .15 .1A 2.31 N.S. —.13 run-ons .11 .15 1.9A N.S. -.31 -§_possessive .0A .001 1.53 N.S. +.01 -auxiliary .08 .1A 1.32 N.S. -.l2 T-units 10.70 9.37 1.11 N.S. +.07 -§_plural .ll .02 0.91 N.S. +.219 -third person .19 .07 0.75 N.S. +.3A fragments .07 .03 0.63 N.S. -.29 -past tense .11 .05 0.56 N.S. +.10 -capita1s .06 .0A 0.56 N.S. +.01 Black sentences .00 .003 0.39 N.S. .00 *F ratio for each variable includes interaction with all those above it. The positive Black sentence correlation for White students appeared to result as an artifice from the use of a double negative by one expres- sive White writer. In addition -§_possessive had a negative correlation with Expression. The frequency of the White -§ possessive was one and therefore the weight of its correlation is questioned. CLUSTERED CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO 135 TABLE 60 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR FOURTH GRADE WHITE STUDENTS Black‘fi White'fi Variable F ratio* Sig. Level r -auxiliary .08 .1A 9.A3 .01 -.A8 7E possessive .0A .001 6.99 .01 -.31 -end punctuation .13 .09 5.82 .01 -.23 fragments .07 .03 A.52 .01 -.03 Black sentences .00 .003 3.78 .05 +.l6 —capitals .15 .1A 3.21 .05 -.15 T-units 10.70 9.37 2.71 .05 -.07 -§ plural .ll .02 2.33 N.S. +.l3 -third person .19 .07 2.11 N.S -.003 -c0pula .06 .0A 1.8A N.S. -.02 -past tense .11 .05 1.60 N.S. +.08 run—ons .11 .15 l.AO N.S. +.01 *F ratio for each variable includes interaction with all those above it. The generalization for fourth grade White students that the longer the sentence the more the sentence error and the lower the Expressive Score indicates that a language growth period may have existed for these students with a resultant negative influence on the Expressive Score. This line of reasoning is also supported by the eleventh grade findings. Analysis of variance indicated no Expressive Literacy 136 differences (Table 5) but Significant Black-White differences in the use of ii plural, -end punctuation, and -capitals. Black means were higher. (Tables 15, 3A, 35) When the variables were measured for difference of correlation to Expressive Literacy, Black students had significant cor- relations for -s plural, run-ons, and -capitals. (Table 52) The cor- relations were negative. When the eleventh grade Black-White pOpulations were measured for clustered influence of Graphic variables upon Expressive Scores, condi- tions of significance were not found for the White pOpulation. (Table 62) The Black students clustered five variables into significant (p. < .05) predictors of Expressive Literacy. (Table 61) Three of the vari— . ables dealt with sentence structure and were correlated negatively; -capita1s, run-ons, and Black sentences. (-capitals was not Significant by itself but contributed to significance in union with run-ons.) Two variables, -§_third person and 7E possessive were phonologic and posi- tively correlated to Expressiveness. Eleventh grade Black students appeared to be facing syntactic problems in achieving Expressiveness. The race related phonologic variables were not Expressive problems. The clustering is similar to, not the same as, the fourth grade White students and it indicates two areas of possible study: dialect as a factor in expression and syntax as related to communication complexity. Labov has commented upon stigmatized oral language use, "Someone who uses a stigmatized form 20 to 30 percent of the time will be heard 137 TABLE 61 CLUSTERED CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR ELEVENTH GRADE BLACK STUDENTS Variable Black'fi White E? F ratio* Sig. Level r -capitals .21 .01 2.95 N.S. -.Al run-ons .08 .02 3.93 .05 -.37 -third person .12 .01 A.07 .05 +.23 -§_possessive .008 .00 3.8A .05 +.l7 Black sentences .01 .001 3.30 .05 -.23 -past tense .07 .02 2.61 N.S. +.1A3 fragments .09 .0A 2.23 N.S. +.185 T-units 1A.16 13.20 1.96 N.S. +.185 -§_plural .OA .00 1.91 N.S. -.389 -end punctuation .17 .03 2.87 N.S. -.208 -auxiliary .11 .05 2.66 N.S. +.05 -c0pula .05 .006 0.37 N.S. -.10 *F ratio for each variable includes interaction with all those above it. as using this form all of the time."3 The percentages for use of written significant negative correlated variables were: Black students -end punctuation, fourth, 13%; LE plural, eleventh, A%; run-ons, 3William Labov, "Some Sources of Reading Problems for Negro Speakers of Non-Standard English," in Joan C. Baratz and ROger W. Shuy, eds., Teaching Black Children to Read (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969), p. 3A. 138 TABLE 62 CLUSTERED CORRELATION OF GRAPHIC LITERACY VARIABLES TO EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCORE WITH SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR ELEVENTH GRADE WHITE STUDENTS Variable Black In? White E F ratio* Sig. Level r T-unit 1A.16 13.20 1.69 N.S. -.23 -§ plural .OA .01 1.33 N.S. +.l9 -auxiliary .11 .05 1.05 N.S. -.15 fragments .09 .0A 0.88 N.S. +.l2 -end punctuation .17 .03 0.75 N.S. -.02 Black sentences .01 .001 0.65 N.S. -.0A -third person .12 .01 0.62 N.S. .08 run—ons .08 .02 0.56 N.S. .15 -c0pula ‘ .05 .006 O.A8 N.S. +.07 -past tense .07 .02 O.Al N.S. -.05 -capitals .21 .01 0.36 N.S. +.13 7g possessive .008 .00- 0.31 N.S. +.l9 *F ratio for each variable includes interaction with all those above it. eleventh, 8%; and -capitals, eleventh, 21% A The frequency of these totals was exceeded on several occasions but the problem wasn't re- stricted to one race; fourth grade -third person, Black 19% and White 7%. Or the variable was race related and failed by reason of vari- ability; seventh grade -capitals, Black 72% and White A% but the Black 1+Syntactic percents are based on deviation per T-unit. PhonolOgic and verb percents are based on chance of occurrence. 139 male s.d. = 3A1. (Table 28) The type of variable would seem to be of more importance for indicating stigmatized writing than its race re- latedness or frequency. Conclusions The study's first question, "Do Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar children differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use?" was answered: 1. There is no difference in the Expressive Literacy production of the study's fourth and eleventh grade classes. The Black- White student difference which occurred in the seventh grade was attributed to a sampling artifice rather than to class or racial differences. 2. There are significant (p. < .05) differences in Graphic literacy convention use at each grade level. Phonologic related differences occurred in the seventh and eleventh grades, structural in the eleventh, and verb in the fourth. In each case the frequency of deviations was in the direction of the Black Blue Collar students. The frequency was lower than expected. The study's second question, "Do male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents differ in their Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use?" was answered: 1. There is no difference in the Expressive Literacy production of male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents. 2. 1A0 There is no difference in the Graphic Literacy convention use of male and female children of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar parents. The study's third question, "Do the variables of male and female interact with those of Black Blue Collar, White Blue Collar, and White Collar to create differences in Expressive Literacy production and Graphic Literacy convention use?” was answered: 1. There is no difference in the Expressive Literacy production as a result of interaction between sex and class variables. There is no difference in the Graphic Literacy convention use as a result of interaction between sex and class variables. The study's fourth question, "Is ability to use Graphic Literacy conventions related to the ability to produce Expressive Literacy?" was answered: 1. Yes, in the case of six of the twelve variables tested at each of three grade levels Black students achieved significantly higher correlations of Graphic Literacy use to Expressive Literacy production than did White students. In four cases the correlation was negative, in two, positive. The frequency was lower than expected. The clustered strength of these variables to predict Expressive Literacy was Significant as a negative predictor for fourth grade White students on the strength of syntactic variables. It was also significant for eleventh grade Black students both in negative prediction, syntactic variables; and positive, phonologic variables. 1A1 Suggestions for Further Research The results of this study suggest a need for replication with these changes: control for the sample selection day, control for teacher variables, control for student extra school educational experiences, control for the reader's work period, and better control of spelling variables. The sample collection procedures generated a feeling that different age groups respond to similar writing situations in different ways. The fourth grade students responded to the last day almost as they would to the day before a vacation while the eleventh graders put out their best effort. The teachers who taught the classes on a regular basis definitely set a classroom atmosphere which influenced the collection technique. Student anticipations of the reader helped mold his writing. One hour a day for seven days did not seem to counteract these expectations. One of the reasons given to explain the seventh grade Black differ- ence was the possibility that a systematic bias like the years of educa- tion outside Oakland County was Operating. Controls should be made for such educational experience. As a rule there were fewer Black boys available in the classroom than any other group. There is no explana- tion for this. The two readers had some difficulty reaching agreement. When they worked together with the researcher and discussed their problems with interpreting the scale the agreement was high. This agreement continued even after discussion stepped. When the readers worked independently their agreement drifted apart. Stricter controls should be placed on the reading situation. 1A2 There were some suggestions that by Spending so much time helping the younger children spell, an opposite effect might have been achieved; the students became over conscious of spelling. Suggestions for the Classroom Two broad suggestions for the classroom can be drawn from this study. Apparently there is a cultural press to write a standard English. The press exists as early as the fourth grade and exerts its influence ‘with equal results upon Blue Collar and White Collar, Black and White, Inale and female students. Students for the most part seem concerned \With generating Standard as opposed to Expressive English. The first snaggestion is that the classroom teacher reduce or perhaps stOp rein- karcing the press to learn Graphic skills. Society external to the cilassroom will quite likely provide that motivation. The teacher can Iweserve his reinforcement for the neglected Expressive Skills. The reumders, even with conscious effort, found it difficult to concentrate Orl the Expressive Scale to the exclusion of ”errors." Reading for and PIWDducing Expressive writing has been sadly neglected. Several of the Incfl?e Expressive pieces came about from unexpected personal encounters 'bETndeen the teacher and a student which resulted in the student letting r11) a piece of writing in spite of himself. The suggestion is for eneouragement of this encounter with meaning. Students strive for larlgguage control and lack a motivation or reason to write rather than a nubtivation to careful language. A second suggestion can be drawn from the fourth grade White and eleB‘Venth grade Black student correlation of syntactic problems with lOWered Expressiveness. There is in this correlation a suggestion of 1A3 conflict between self expression and syntax. To encourage Expressive growth is to encourage encounter with syntactic error. To the extent that the teacher can find self-reward not discouragement in error he will encourage expression, for growth in expression is paralleled by syntactic problems. If the teacher is to encourage growth he must accept syntactic error. APPENDICES APPENDIX A TEACHING PROTOCOLS The teaching protocols include a list of the films used, the daily sequencing of the audio-visual material, and the final writing assignments. Slide Show #1 was made from Holt, Rinehart and Winston reading series, Sounds of Language, edited by Bill Martin. 1AA 1A5 APPENDIX A PROTOCOL l FILMS USED IN THE CLASSROOM THE BLUE DASHIKI EncyclOpedia Britannica 1969 color sound 1A min CLAY (ORIGIN OF THE SPECIES) McGraw-Hill 196A b/w sound 8 min GLASS McGraw-Hill 1958 color sound 11 min HAIKU Stanton Films 1969 color sound 1A min "MAGIC MOMENTs" SERIES Encyclopedia Britannica 1970 color 3-8 min CLAP (unit 2) 5 min JOIN HANDS, IET 00: (Unit 5) 8 min WHAT IF? (Unit 1) 3 min RHINOCEROS McGraw-Hill 196A color sound 11 min sound "SHORT STORIES SHOWCASE" SERIES Encyclopedia Britannica 1969 to date color sound 16-28 min BARTLEBY 28 min DR. HEIDEGGER'S EXPERIMENT 22 min THE LADY OR THE TIGER? 16 min THE LOTTERY 18 min THE STRING BEAN McGraw-Hill 196A color sound 11 min TOYS National Film Board of Canada 1967 color sound 8 min FOURTH GRADE October l2 13 1A 15 l6 19 2O SEVENTH GRADE October 22 23 26 27 28 29 30 ELEVENTH GRADE November 1 2 1A6 PROTOCOL 2 DAILY SCHEDULE The Blue Dashiki Slide Show #1 Clap or Join Hands, Let Go! Clay (Origin of the Species) What if? and "Tin Can" Test Toys Final Writing The Lady or the Tiger? Slide Show #1 The Blue Dashiki Glass What if? and "Tin Can" Test The String Bean Final Writing The Lady or the Tiger? Bartleby 0r Rhinoceros Haiku The Lottery What if? and "Tin Can" Test Dr. Heidegger's Experiment Final Writing 1A7 PROTOCOL 3 WRITING DIRECTIONS Read your papers. Your assignment is to find the writing which you think will interest me the most. You may wish to: 1. Write or rewrite a story, 2. Tell me a personal experience, 3. Start with something concrete, and make an imaginative jump to ? , A. Explain to me what your reactions to the past six days have been, 5. Put together the sentences and ideas which you think I will be most interested in reading. DO ONLY ONE. APPENDIX B EXPRESSIVE LITERACY DEFINITIONS 1A8 1A9 APPENDIX B EXPRESSIVE LITERACY DEFINITIONS The peOple who wrote the papers you are to read are beginning writers. They need to learn many Skills, but they have also written many sentences that are good in Ken Macrorie's sense of goodness. "They . . . ring true and stay in the reader's ear." This scale is an effort to measure the characteristics of good writing which Macrorie discusses. Good writing is economical. You may find that a sentence will possess several characteristics. In this case check the apprOpriate number of ygg boxes. The scale measures only the occurrence of a characteristic, frequency is not measured. CHARACTERISTICS 1. THE WRITER SPEAKS HONESTLY WITH CANDOR. I don't plan on getting married. My parents have a bad marriage and so do both my sisters. I wouldn't want to be tied down to a husband and a bunch of squalling brats. I've been tied down all my life and when I'm free, I'm going to stay that way. The first necessity of good writing is a truth which relates the writer's experience, his world, to that of his words. 2. THE WRITER USES ONCENESS, PERSONAL ANECDOTE, AN INSTANCE OF REALITY FROM WHICH HE SPEAKS. Every year when summer vacation comes around you say to yourself, This year I'm going to do something but like always you never get around to it. Over the Halloween holidays I found out I was a night man. I like the night. For quite a few nights I slipped out of the house at 1 or 3 o'clock in the morning and went waxing windows, smoking and smashing pumpkins. I had more fun than I had in the whole year. 150 Because he has given his reader a once that matters, this writer has said something more than the incident itself. He rates points for honesty and "onceness." THE WRITING IS CLEAR IN ITS DEVELOPMENT. One day the rabbit was gone. My sister looked and looked for it. Finally she thought the dog got it. So she looked in the dog house. And guess what She saw. The dog and rabbit fast asleep. One statement follows another in a clear develOpment and complication to an end. The tension ends in a surprise. THE WRITING IS VIGOROUS. The word dull bothered me because the girl said that it was too easy. She didn't know if we knew it or not. She was dull! She dull! Cause she don't like that word. In this example the writer unconsciously underlines the agitation of her thought by Shortening the length of her state- ments from 1A, to 9, to 3, to 2 words. The final comment comes like an apology after the thrust of her thought. This selection rates points for vigor, honesty, and surprise. School was out. Two boys on bikes come racing down the sidewalk about 20 miles per hour. The boys knocked a woman over and then a man. Her books fell all over the sidewalk. The man's glasses fell into the street. The boys went across the street without looking both ways. The details of the second example are ordered down the page so that we see the scene clearly, feel the vigor of the movement and are given a moment of insight into the naiveness of the thoughtless act with the final echo of school morality, "without looking both ways.’ It rates points for vigor, clarity, and surprise. 151 5. THE WRITING IS RHYTHMIC. She has two children, boy and girl, two dogs, boy and girl, and two cats, boy and girl. I was standing on the lepe watching the speedway. There goes Dennis Day, here comes Arthur Pilgrim, thunder- ing round the track. (Holbrook) The first example presents a pattern of words which has a rhythm of its own while at the same time it lacks the vigor of the "She dull" example. The second example from English for the Rejected has both rhythm and a vigor of motion. 6. THE WRITING IS FRESH. Lady and the Tiger If I was the lady I would point to the door with a tiger. Because if I was the princess and I couldn't marry him I would let him die. But if I was him I'd Open the other door. The freshness of this example comes almost unknowingly to the writer as he tries on consecutively the roles of princess and lover. It is at once both honest and fresh. 7. THE WRITING SURPRISES THE READER WITH WORDS OR IDEAS. The hand's finger nails shot alcohol when it stuck peOple. It stuck the old man and he was drunk....Then the hand stuck the old lady. Then She was drunk too. Then the hand went upstairs and locked the door. And they lived happily ever after. In this selection the conventional develOpment of the science fiction tension is relieved with a surprise conclusion. It is both clear and surprising. I'm glad the clock on the wall is round instead of square. 10. 152 ' achieves the same surprise effect in the second "Square' selection, it sets the reader wondering. The roughness of the wild ocean waters Came splashing over my feet As I walked along the rocky beach. In this poem the surprise is in the reverse of the sensation of roughness from the bottom of the feet to the top. THE AUTHOR (0R HIS CHARACTER) SPEAKS IN AN AUTHENTIC VOICE. Earnest Watson, Ha! He wears glasses for the first thing. The writer is unpretentious. His words come almost literally from himself. He rates points for honesty, vigor and voice. THE LANGUAGE IS METAPHORIC. The darkroom so very quiet The stillness keeps me awake And never lets me Sleep. This is an honest and surprising use of metaphor from a boy who had spent the writing period in what seemed a trance. Or in another poem: The white flakes of snow on the land In the light of the moon Keep the earth alive. or more prosaicly: My life is like a match. THE WRITING IS LIGHT, HUMOROUS. When my dog Samantha was over my grandmother's house, my grandmother screamed at her and she growled right back and my grandmother said, "She told me didn't she?" This author rates points for both humor and the authentic voice of her character. it: J APPENDIX C EXPRESSIVE-GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALES AND EXAMPLES At each grade level the lowest and highest rated papers and two from the mean are presented to illustrate the range of writing. The race, rating, and score (parenthesis) are given after the papers alphabetical number. Also included are the rating scales from each reader and the Graphic Literacy Scale rating in percent of Opportunity for phonolOgy and verb, and in error per 100 T-units for sentence. 153 APPENDIX C EXPRESSIVE-GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALES FOURTH GRADE EXAMPLES Paper 5A Black low Paper 56 White mean Paper 61 White mean Paper 90 White A high 15A (1) (3) (3) (8) 155 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper Do you find evidence in this paper that: l. 10. The The The 2%? The The The The The The writer speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL __2L_ Reader 1 2 PHONOLOGY 7g third person gg’possessive -§|plural a SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons —end punctuation -capitals Black sentences "VERB —past tense —auxiliary —copula 156 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE Paper This for Standard He run_ home. He rung home. John__ cousin. Johnlé cousin. I got five cent_. Yesterday he walk;__home. Yesterday he walkgd home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 T-unit = 5 wdS. average They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_ You are very nice. I liked the movie. you are very nice. pronominal apposition: John ha live in New York. double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He __ goin'. He 15 going. That __ the man That 13 the man I want. I want. I have five cents, i TOTAL 10 10 TOTAL 10 10 10 2O TOTAL 20 20 157 Paper 5A The princess loved the man she didnt want him killed. she was jealous of the lady that stand in the door. She knew that the lady that stand in the door. The man that Open the other door got killed. but the man that Opened the door T33 Where the lady stand choose the right door. The money A; Once I was going to the store and I found a wallet it had 20 dollar in it And i gave it to my mother. She Spend it on some clothes and a pair of shoes And i seen the girl who had lost the wallet and she was crying because she going Once this girl was going to the cleaner. 158 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 56 Do you find evidence in this paper that: l. 10. The The The The The writer speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL Reader 1 2 I . I X X Lu, I X 3 PHONOLOGY TE third person -5 possessive -§_plural '9. SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons —end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB —past tense -auxiliary -COpula 159 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He rung home. Johny__cousin. Johnla cousin. I got five cent_. Yesterday he walk__ hame. Yesterday he walkgd home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then thay/ then a girl came. I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_. You are very nice. I liked the movie. you are very nice. pronominal apposition: John ha live in New York. double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. He __ goin'. He 1E going. That ___the man I want. That 13 the man I want. I have five centa. T-unit = 5 wds. average I drank the milk. 56 TOTAL 3O 10 TOTAL 160 Paper 56 The Haunted grave yard Once I went out on devil's night, and I went in the ggayg yard. My friend looked around he saw a Open coffin and we went to the coffin. My friend looked in the coffin somebody had pushed my friend in. .And then a devil came and picked up my friend he took my friend and took him to a old house and killed him. 161 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 61 Do you find evidence in this paper that: Reader 1 2 l. The writer speaks with candor. 2. The writer uses "onceness" anecdote. 3. The writing is clear. X A. The writing is vigorous. 5. The writing is rhythmic. X 6. The writing is fresh. 7. The writing surprises with words or ideas. 8. The author (character) Speaks in an authentic voice. X 9. The language is metaphoric. 10. The writing is light, humorous. TOTAL 3 PHONOLOGY 5a third person -§;possessive 'E plural a. SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences "VERB -past tense —auxiliary -c0pula 162 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE Paper This for Standard He run_ home. He runs home. John__ cousin. Johnls cousin. I got five cent_. I have five centg. Yesterday he Yesterday he walk__ home. walkgd home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 15 words = They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie__ You are very nice. I liked the movie. ‘you are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John ha live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He __ goin'. He i§_going. That __ the man That i§_the man I want. I want. T-unit = 5 wds. average 61 TOTAL 10 3O 163 Paper 61 The glass the people made some glass and they made bottles and lamps and they made little bottles and lamps covers. and they made some candles and they made holders for them and they made shades for the wall and they were pretty 16A EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 90 DO you find evidence in this paper that: 1. The 2. The 3. The A. The 5. The 6. The 7. The 8. The 9. The 11). The writer Speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL Reader 1 2 X X X X X X X X PHONOLOGY -§ third person -§_possessive -§ plural a SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxiliary —c0pula 165 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He run§_home. John__ cousin. Johnlg cousin. I got five cent_, Yesterday he walk__ home. Yesterday he walkgd home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie__ You are very nice. I liked the movie. you are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John ha live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. He __ goin'. He 1E going. That __ the man That 15 the man I want. I want. I drank the milk. Paper I have five cents, T-unit = 5 wds. average ._29. TOTAL TOTAL 10.9 lO A0 TOTAL 166 Paper 90 My Surprise Ending When I raked the yard today guess what happened to me? Well I raked a little bit of leaves up yesterday and went into the house to get a drink, And when I came out the leaves were all scattered around? So i started to rake them up again. I got half of them raked up again when the wind blew again and the leaves scattered all around again. So i thought, oh well I'll rake them up again. So I raked them all up till, the wind again. But instead of blowing sideways they blew up in my face. And that was my surprise ending? APPENDIX C EXPRESSIVE-GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALES SEVENTH GRADE EXAMPLES Paper 21 Black low (2) Paper 53 Black low (2) Paper 91 Black mean (5) Paper A1 White high (11) 167 ~11 it“. 3:». W EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 21 Do you find evidence in this paper that: Reader 1 2 1. The writer speaks with candor. 2. The writer uses "onceness" anecdote. 3. The writing is clear. X A The writing is vigorous. 5 The writing is rhythmic. 6 The writing is fresh. 7. The writing surprises with words or ideas. 8. The author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. X 9. The language is metaphoric. 10. The writing is light, humorous. TOTAL 168 PHONOLOGY -§ third person -s possessive -s plural -A SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation —capita1s Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxi1iary -COpula 169 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run__home. He runs home. John__ cousin. Johnls cousin. I got five cent_, Yesterday he walky__home. Yesterday he walkgd home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_ You are very nice. I liked the movie. ‘you are very nice. pronominal apposition: John.hg live in New York. double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. He __ goin'. He 1E going. That ___the man I want. That 15 the man I want. I have five centg. T-unit = 5 wds. average I drank the milk. 21 TOTAL 2O TOTAL 3O 10 TOTAL 20 170 Paper 21 The String bean The string bean was put into the soil and it started to grow when you put the water and the next day the string bean was going good and then it got bigger every day then she put it out in the hall and the sun was shining on the plant and the plant was moving a little I guess it was glad to see the sun because the sun helps it grow then the old lady look after the plant every day and every day she would take it were ever She go one day She look out the window and she saw a EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 53 Do you find evidence in this paper that: Reader 1 2 l. The writer speaks with candor. 2. The writer uses "onceness" anecdote. 3. The writing is clear. X X A. The writing is vigorous. 5 The writing is rhythmic. 6. The writing is fresh. 7. The writing surprises with words or ideas. 8 The author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. 9 The language is metaphoric. 10. The writing is light, humorous. 171 TOTAL PHONOLOGY —§ third person —§Ipossessive -§ plural ~51 SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB —past tense —auxiliary -COpula 172 Paper GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He run§_home. John___cousin. Johnlg cousin. I got five cent_, I have five cents. Yesterday he Yesterday he walky__home. walkgd home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 T-unit = 5 wds. average They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movigyygu are very nice. I liked the movie_. You are very nice. I liked the movie. you are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John ha live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He __ goin'. He 15 going. That __ the man That 1E the man I want. I want. 53 TOTAL TOTAL 11 173 Paper 53 The blue dashiki The Story Was About A Boy Who Wanted A Blue Dashiki But Didn't Have Enough Money So He Helped An Old Lady And She Gave Him a Quarter And He Started Doing Odd Jobs In Stores Car Washes And Jobs For People So After a While He Got Enough Money To Buy a Blue Dashiki. EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 91 Do you find evidence in this paper that: Reader 1 2 l. The writer Speaks with candor. X 2. The writer uses "onceness” anecdote. X 3 The writing is clear. X X A. The writing is vigorous. 5. The writing is rhythmic. 6 The writing is fresh. 7. The writing surprises with words or ideas. 8 The author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. X 9 The language is metaphoric. 10. The writing is light, humorous. TOTAL 17A PHONOLOGY -s third person -s_possessive -s plural a SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons —end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxiliary -COpula 175 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs home. John__ cousin. Johan cousin. I got five cent_, Yesterday he walk__ home. Yesterday he walksg home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_, You are very nice. I liked the movie. ‘you are very nice. pronominal apposition: John PE live in New York. double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. He ___goin'. He is going. That the man ___ That is the man I want. I want. I drank the milk. Paper I have five cents. T-unit = 5 wds. average 91 TOTAL lO TOTAL 10 20 TOTAL 20 -.fl- n-.. -'. .r“..J"" . '- 176 Paper 91 Well I was suppose to be keeping some money for someone and I lost it and I didnt tell them. They asked me "were is my money" and I said it is suppose to be were I keep the rest of my and they said well it isn't and I said I wonder were it is at because I knew that I had lost it so I was all scared and then she said I'm not going to you any more money for me. 177 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper A1 Do you find evidence in this paper that: 1. The 2. The 3. The A. The 5 The 6. The 7 The 8 The 9. The 10. The writer speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL "no.4 "b-aL V ‘3' Reader 1 2 X X X X X X X X X X X 11 [F PHONOLOGY -s third person -sypossessive TE plural ‘51. SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense —auxiliary -COpula 178 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs home. John__ cousin. Johnls cousin. I got five cent_, Yesterday he walk___home. Yesterday he walksg.home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_ "You are very nice. I liked the movie. you are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John ps_live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He __ goin'. He Es_going. That 1E the man I want. That __ the man I want. Paper I have five cents. T-unit = 5 wds. average ___’+_3!_ TOTAL TOTAL 15.1 20 3O 179 Paper A1 The Bad things of Life The bad things in life are not needed by me. Like a kid sister a Spoiled brat and is a nosy person and most of all she always follows me around. One time we were at a gas station and she followed me into the men's room and I didn't even know it until I closed the door. Because she screamed that I was killing her blanket in the door. When I got back to the car they were putting bandaids on it. The second worst thing in life is school, the worst is homework, which I forget to do every night and then the next day I get a Swat by the paddle. One of the worst things in life is getting the measles or the chicken pox on the first day of summer vacation. APPENDIX C EXPRESSIVE—GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALES ELEVENTH GRADE EXAMPLES Paper 29 Black low (3) Paper 81 Black mean (7) Paper 121 Black mean (7) Paper 92 White high (12) Paper 39 White high (12) 180 181 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 29 Do you find evidence in this paper that: Reader 1 2 1. The writer speaks with candor. 2. The writer uses "onceness" anecdote. X 3. The writing is clear. A. The writing is vigorous. 5. The writing is rhythmic. X 6. The writing is fresh. 7. The writing surprises with words or ideas. 8. The author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. 9. The language is metaphoric. X 10. The writing is light, humorous. TOTAL 3 PHONOLOGY -s third person -s possessive -s.plural '9. SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxiliary -copula 182 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs home. John__ cousin. Johnls cousin. I got five cent_. Yesterday he walk___home. Yesterday he walksg home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_ You are very nice. I liked the movie. ypu are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John hs live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He __ goin'. He is going. That the man That is the man I wanIT' I want. Paper I have five cents, T-unit = 5 wds. average 29 TOLAL 10 TOTAL 3O 3O TOTAL 2O 10 183 Paper 29 The Boy & Girl Who Sang to Each Other Once long time ago an fifteen year old boy named Sylvan was in love with this young lady named Sylvia. Sylvia Sylvan grew up together and were in Kindergarten tOgether Sylvia never knew Sylvan was in love with her until one night he sang this song "Can you Remember" he had a lovely voice this was how the song went. Can you Remember when we were babies we were always tOgether when we were in Kindergarten but now that your grown so girl you left me alone so didnt I promise you that this is to what I'll do so girl I love you Dont you know I love you yeh I love you Dont you Know I love you yeh Can you Remember when we were in Kindergarten and our love had no end "No end" Sunny Skys are blue so this is to what I'll do girl I'll love you. And she looked him in the eye and said Sylvan I've listened to you now you listen I Remember I remember when I was a little girl I never ever ever wore curls I wore nothing but an old Shaggy Shaggy I never ever tried to look my best now when you look at me all your love come running through I changed and showing all my love, all of my love is growing. And he said yeh and your legs were little but now they are big instead of wearing pony tails you wore a little red wig. Your lip are big you've got some kissable lips I love the way you walk and you wiggle your hips Now when I look at you all my love come running through you've changed and its showing all my love is growing. Do 10. 18A EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper you find evidence in this paper that: The The The The The The The writer speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL 81 Reader 1 2 X X X X X X X PHONOLOGY TE third person -s_possessive 7E plural -9_ SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxiliary -COpula 185 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs_home. John__ cousin. Johnls cousin. I got five cents; Yesterday he walks__home. Yesterday he walksglhome. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_ You are very nice. I liked the movie. ‘you are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John PE live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard Paper I have five cents. T-unit = 5 wds. average I drunk the milk. He __ goin'. That __ the man I want. I drank the milk. He is going. That Es_the man I want. 81 TOTAL lOO TOTAL 2O lO lO TOTAL 30 lOO 186 Paper 81 School is a big rag I Hate school. some peOple come to learn some come to see the girls and friends. I come to go to wrestling practice and, pop, popcorn in after school I I like seven days you were here I thought it was interesting. I like movies you Show the class. ' I thought the was fun seeing how many words you can get out of, TIN CAN, and that movie about the raffle. and I like the music on i the movie the rhinoceros. 1. The 2. The 3. The EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 121 Do you find evidence in this paper that: Reader 1 2 writer speaks with candor. X X writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. X X writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. X writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. X X language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. 10. The 187 TOTAL PHONOLOGY -s third person -sypossessive -s_plural e SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxiliary -c0pula 188 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs home. John__ cousin. Johan cousin. I got five cent_. Yesterday he walky__home. Yesterday he walksg home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie_ You are very nice. I liked the movie. .you are very nice. pronominal apposition: John Es live in New York. double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He __ goin'. He is going. That __ the man I want. That is the man I want. I have five cents, T-unit = 5 wds. average Paper 121 TOTAL 0 O O 10 TOTAL 17.6 30 TOTAL 20 189 Paper 121 1. Rewriting a Story. The first one- I think in the first time the man come to pick the right door. I thought in both doors was a tiger. But when they showed the other door I was surprise. And when the second man, the one the lady like so much. I think she lead him to the tiger because she was jealous of the other woman a I think she would want to see him eaten by the tiger than to be with the other lady. But about the last part of the film, I think they should of added a little more to it. Like Show us who was first to come out of the door. Oh, the way the door came Open I guess it was the tiger. But in the other case it could of been the girl. 190 EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 92 Do you find evidence in this paper that: l. The 10. The writer speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL Reader 1 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X 12 PHONOLOGY as third person -s.possessive -s_plural a SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capitals Black sentences VERB -past tense -auxiliary -cOpula 191 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs home. John___cousin. Johnls_cousin. I got five cent_. Yesterday he walk__-home. Yesterday he walksg home. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie__ You are very nice. I liked the movie. ‘you are very nice. pronominal apposition: John ES live in New York. double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. I drank the milk. He ___goin'. He is going. That __ the man I want. That is the man I want. Paper I have five cents, T-unit = 5 wds. average _9_2_ TOTAL TOTAL 13.2 192 Paper 92 It all started 2 years ago when I wanted to go somewhere to go. I went through many magazines and paper folders on different places to go. Finally I chose Alaska. I chose Alaska because there is snow there just about all of the time and it is very beautiful in the summertime also. But most of all I went to see the animals there, especially the "PENGUIN". The penguin fascinates me. So when I arrived, we worked on making us an igloo after it was complete I took a walk with one of the friends I had met in my short time there. His name was Walter and he was a walrus. We hadn't gone very far when we spotted something in the snow. I turned to Walter and said lets go see what it is. So we went over there and they were tracks in the snow, but these tracks were unusual in that they were 8 ft. across and 11 ft. long. (highly unusual). So we decided to follow them, but they seemed end- less. Up this hill, down this hill, around this corner. Well they went on for quite a ways. Then all of a sudden they just stopped, right in the middle of nowhere as if whatever or whoever was lifted off his feet. Well we soon found out he was not lifted off of his feet because we heard a noise from one of the trees above, we looked up and there was this thing coming at us. It was the biggest, the ugliest, the homeliest looking thing that I had ever seen. It was a giant Penguin and by now he was chasing us. Well he caught up to us and we are in a cave right now being prepared for a most delightful dish, walrus and me. 193 Paper 92 Well I really couldn't tell you how it was because I am in a most difficult place to tell anything for I have been eaten up by that big ugly creature. But I must say the guy sure does have good taste in picking me for one of his meals. But before I end this incredibly strange story, take these words of advice. If you are ever in Alaska and a giant, ugly, 10 ft. penguin just happens to drOp in from nowhere and invites you for supper. Take it from me don't go. 19A EXPRESSIVE LITERACY SCALE Paper 39 Do you find evidence in this paper that: l. 10. The The The The The The The The The writer Speaks with candor. writer uses "onceness" anecdote. writing is clear. writing is vigorous. writing is rhythmic. writing is fresh. writing surprises with words or ideas. author (character) speaks in an authentic voice. language is metaphoric. writing is light, humorous. TOTAL Reader 1 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X 12 PHONOLOGY -s third person -sypossessive -s_plural ~21 SENTENCE T-unit fragments run-ons -end punctuation -capita1s Black sentences VERB -past tense —auxiliary -cOpula 195 GRAPHIC LITERACY SCALE This for Standard He run_ home. He runs_home. John__ cousin. Johan cousin. I got five cent_, Yesterday he walk__ home. Yesterday he walkEQDhome. EXAMPLE What I will do/I will keep the ball/ and I will tell the teacher./ T = 3 words = 15 They put on they coat/and then they/ then a girl came./ I liked the movie you are very nice. I liked the movie__ You are very nice. I liked the movie. ‘you are very nice. pronominal apposition: in New York. John 23 live double negative: I don't got none. past condition: I ask did he do it. This for Standard I drunk the milk. He __ goin'. He is going. That is the man I want. That __ the man I want. I drank the milk. Paper I have five cents. T-unit = 5 wds. average 39 TOTAL TOTAL A.1 196 Paper 39 Personal Experience (I think it would interest you to know) I am going to do two things 1. Write or rewrite a story. 2. Tell me a personal experience. 1. Write or rewrite a story. Girl looking at skeleton hand (personal experience) The reason I picked this strip is not because of my personal experience, but a friends. He was walking down a road near my house, Doris Road, and he spotted something in the woods. He couldn't figure out what it was. So, he walked up to it. He saw it was a man laying on a big piece of cardboard, like what a refrigerator comes in, with his brains beat out. He ran to a phone and called the police. They found it was an insurance man. And the kid said, "Well at least they were nice enough to lay him on something. 2. Tell me a personal experience. The reason I picked this is because when you put that down I thought of my own personal experience. One day my Mom and dad were up North and my brother and I were home alone. It was a real nice day and a lot of peOple, mostly kids, were over riding their horses including me. 197 Paper 39 This one girl named Mary Segula, daughter of Doctor Segula, was walking her horse around. She decided she wanted to take her horse way back in the field to let him eat some grass. And she did. But there was only one thing wrong that I noticed she had a long rOpe, about 10 ft., and a slip knot around her hand. She had been told many times before to take the slip knot off. She just wouldn't listen. I told her again and she took it off. The reason she had it on was because she didn't have enough power to hold him back. She took it off and walked down the path. But, she put it back on! She was letting her horse eat and about a half an hour later a car went down the path, and the horse was scared of cars. It was a real loud and noisy car. She was sitting there and the peOple pushed down on the gas real hard. The horse took off running. You could see in the field where she was running along behind him then POW! down she went. The horse was running as fast as he could and her behind him. Her hair got caught on a board and ripped a hunk of her skull out. She was coming down the driveway real fast then P-O-Wl The girl hit a brick then the corner of the barn. She looked like a dummy being drug. The horse finally fell on the cement. I went up to my house and called an ambulance. They came and got her. She died when she got to the hospital. 198 Paper 39 Her arm was pulled out of socket and she had a great big rOpe. burn on her hand. It was awfull It was a lesson to me. Never tie myself to a horse. Our family bought the horse. This girl now owns it and they are the best couple. The reason I picked this was because her hand looked like that skeleton hand and I looked like that girl. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Armstrong, Robert David. "An Objective Measure of the Quality of the Written Composition of Fifth-Grade Pupils." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of California, 1965. Baratz, Joan C. "Linguistic and Cultural Factors in Teaching Reading to Ghetto Children," in Eldonna Evertts, ed., Aspects of Reading. Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1970, A9-53. Baratz, Joan C. 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