INDONESIAN AGRICULTURE ITS AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS AND PROBLEMS By Robert Lerner Green A TEESIS Submittgd to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State 0011080 of Agriculture and Applied Science in parti‘l fulfillment of the requiremente for the degree of mCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY mpgment of Agricultural Engineering Yeer 1953 4| _ fl] 1 - .i‘} FOREWORD Although the author has collected most of the intonation included herein and has made all the field observations during 9. two years' assigmnent as Agricul- tural Engineer with the United States Special Technical md Economic Mission to Indonesia, it must be clearly understood that all Opinions, conclusions, and recommend- 1tions are those of the author alone. Any Opinions, con- claims, or recommendations that are either expressed or implied must be attributed to the author; they cannot be interpreted to any degree whatsoever as representing the views er policies or the Government of the United States of Anerica. 11 '. 1‘. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i'he author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Mr. Ernest H. Kidder for his continued interest and valuable recomendations which have contributed to the completion of this work. He is also indebted to Mr. Arthur W. Farrell and to the Graduate Council of Michigan State College for their approval of this study which deviates far from that normal to the science of agricultural engineering. The author sincerely appreciates the grant-in-aid of the General Education Board which enabled the completion of the resident study at Michigan State College that was preliminary to the study reported herein. He also wishes to OIProgs m. appreciation to Louisiana State University for its gpproval of leave for the above resident study and the extension of this leave to permit the author to accept the two years' assignment in Indonesia. The author is also grateful to the various staff members of the Special and Technical Miaaion to Indonesia whose comments, suggestions, and encouragement have been most helpful. Th0 author is especially grateful to the many officials of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia for their .uistgnee in furnishing reference materials with permission for their use and especially to Ingineur Kaslan A. Tohir, 0111.1- of the Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations, and his “3133.1“; , Hr. Iman Sunadi, for reading and noting minor Orrors in chapter XI , The Organization and Functions I I Q‘- \ hate _#__‘—‘I——~'V iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Mr. Ernest H. Kidder for his continued interest and valuable reeomendations which have contributed to the completion or this work. He is also indebted to Mr. Arthur W. Farrell and to the Graduate Council of Michigan State College for their approval of this study which deviates far from that nomal to the science of agricultural engineering. The author sincerely appreciates the grant-in-aid of the General Education Board which enabled the completion or the resident study at Michigan State College that was preliminary to the study reported herein. He also wishes to express his appreciation to Louisiana State University for its approval of leave for the above resident study and the extension of this leave to permit the author to accept the two years! “Signment in Indonesia. The author is also grateful to the various staff members of the Special and Technical Mission to Indonesia whose comments, suggestions, and encouragemnt have been most helpful. The author 1. egpecially grateful to the many officials or the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia for their assistance 1n furnishing reference materials with ”Mission for their use and especially to I‘ngineur Kaelan A. Tchir, cm“ of the office of Foreign Agricultural Relations, Ind his assistant, Mr. Iman Sulladi, for reading and noting liner errors in Chapter XI, The Organization and Functions /‘ iv or the Ministry of Agriculture. Mr. T. U. G. Dames of the Soils Research Institute is also due a special word of thanks for his careful reading and suggestions for the inprovement of Chapter VII, Climate, Vegetation and Soils. 'v ‘._. . e .‘ Iv . ~ ~ ‘ e. VITA Robert Lamar Green candidate for the degree of Doctor of PhilosOphy Final Examination: Au st 27, 1953, 2:00 P.M., 21 Agricultural Engineering Building Dissertation: Indonesian Agriculture: Its Agricultural Engineering Applications and Problems Outline of Studies: Major subject: Land Deve10pment Minor subjects: Hydraulics, Soils Biographical Items: Born, November 15, 1911+, Moultrie, Georgia Undergraduate Studies, University of Georgia, 1930-3u Graduate Studies, Iowa State College, 1939-39 Louisiana State University, 1914.8-50 (part time) Michigan State College, 1950-51 Experience : Terracing Foreman, Soil Conservation Service, 193h.35 Camp Engineor, Soil Conservation Service, 1935-36 Junior Agricultural Engineer, Soil Conservation Service, 1936-33 Research Fellow, 10‘“ State College, 1938-39 - Work Unit' Conservationist, Soil Conservation Service, 1939-hl, continued 19h6-ip7 Commissioned Officer. Army of the United States, 19M-Lp6 Assistant Professor in Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, 1914-7-50. On leave 1950-53 Graduate Student, Michigan State College with Grant- in-Aid from General Education Board, 1950-51 Agricultural Engineer, Special Technical and Economic Mission to Indonesia, 1951-53 .ee‘ .Ce' a... ‘1 Q‘d - 1.. AW! \Ue Q. 1 A .1 54 Ni ‘9 e Vlfi .\ a! ' I I I e a ' e ' O‘I I'D I I I'. l I ' I a I ' - lo I I I I i I '1 I I Ila vi TABLE OF CONTENTS chapter , V Page I Inflomcnon O O O O O O O 0 0 O O O O O 0 O 0 1 II GEOGRAPHYANDPEOPLE............. 7 m HISTORY OF INDEPENDENCE AND FORM OF GOVERNMENT 18 IV PRESENT POLITICAL AND SECURITY SITUATION . . . 28 vEWCATIONALBACKGROUND............ us v1commcarmus................ 57 VII CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND SOILS. . . . . . . . . 76 le General Characteristics e e e e e e e e e e 76 B. Particular Characteristics of Java. . . . . 99 0. Particular Characteristics of Sumatra . . . 109 D. Particular Characteristics of Kalimantan. . E. Particular Characteristics of Sulawesi. . . 132 F. Particular Characteristics of the Lesser SundaIslands............... 136 G. Particular Characteristics of the Moluccas. 167 VIII DEVELOPMENT OF INDONESIAN AGRICULTURE. . . . . 169 IxPRINCIPALFOODCROPS............. 202 A. GOBCI'UJ. Agronomic Factors e e e e e e e e e 202 Be R100. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 206 Ce Corn. e e e e e e e e e e . e e e e e e e e 226 De GIBSIVG e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 233 Be Horticultural Crepe e e e e e e e e e e e e 235 F. Peanuts, Soybeans, and Pigeon Peas. . . . e 21:14. Ge S‘SOe e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 2“? X PRINCIPAL HPORT CROPS e e e e e e e e e e . . 251 A. General Conditions of Commercial Crop Production. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 251 Be Cacao e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 25“. Ce Cinchona. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 255 De Coffee. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 256 Be Capra e 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 e e e 258 Fe Fiber CPOPI e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 263 Ge KlpOk e g e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 266 He PIlI.011e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 270 Ie Rubber. . e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 273 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Continued Chapter Page J0 8‘18“ 0.110. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 278 Ks T... e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 287 Le Tea-k0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 293 He TOb‘°°° e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 295 1!. Miscellaneous Tree Crepe. . . . . . . . . . 3014 II THE ORGANIZATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. . . . . e e e e . . e 312 m IRRIGATION AND EROSION CONTROL . . . . . . . . 352 A.Irrigation................. 352 B.ErosionControl.............. 37’4- IHI AGMCULTURAL HECHANIZATION AND LAND DEVEOPMENT 336 A.Present8tatus............... 386 B. Relationship of Mechanical Equipment to Land DevelOpment. e e e e e e e e e e e e e 390 C. Program of Division of Mechanisation. . . . 395 De American Assistance e e e e e e e e e e e e “.01 E. Government Agricultural Estates . . . . . . 11.05 E. Land Drainage and Reclamation . . . . . . . h07 XIV PmCESSING OF FARMERS' PRODUCTS. e e e e e e e 14.22 Se GODOI‘I]. CODditiORUe e e e e e e e e e e e e LL22 Be 3106 Processing e e e e e e e e e e e e e e "-23 C. Corn and Cassava Processing . . . . . . . . 1429 D. Coconut Oil and Capra Processing. . . . . . 14.30 Ee Sugar Processing. e e e e e e e e e e e e e [LBZ F.3agoProcessing.............. 1th. Ge Rubber PP000881n8 e e e e e e e e e e e e e LL50 He T68 Processing. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e “.53 Is TObCOOO Processing. e e e e e e e e e e e e 11.56 Je COIIOO ”066.81118 e e e e e e e e e e e e e ”.60 XV FARHSTRUCTURESooooo... E Ae General Conditions. e e e e e e e e e e e e LL63 B. “01111188 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e LL72 Ce Water Supply and Sanitation e e e e e e e e “.76 De LIVOBUOOR ShOltOl‘ e e e e e e e e e e e e e "'39 Be Storage FlGiliUiOIe e e e e e e e e e e e e .4. 2 F. Crop Processing Structures. . . . . . . . . 11,87 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Continued Chapter Page m AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF INDONESIAN AGRICULTURE. . . . . h91 ‘Ommru81tu‘t10neeeeeeeeeeeee ”91 B. Potential Benefits from Improved Engineering Applications. . . . . . . . . . 1491;. 0. Factors Affecting the Improved Applications of Engineering . . . . . . . . 501; D. Primary Agencies Concerned with Improve- ment of Engineering Practices . . . . . . . 511 E. Educational and Research Needs in Agricultural Engineering. . . . . . . . . . 523 F. Training Program and Technical Assistance . 531 GeconOIuflionleeeeeee.eeeeeeeee 51+]. SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY................. Sh3 1 .n o u', 1 l,s--“‘ I. 3. .uo" . O o." i‘lo.o- «Noll!- ... . v ”u... 643.. .. l "I "a .. I IN...- 1 l ‘ "L: .. "’0 a ' .‘Nq I. 3.... ,_ ~.. ’ 'Q'.‘ LIST OF TABLES Tablo Page I repulation Density and Distribution in Indonesia. . , , , eeeeeeeeeeeeee 15 11 Gsruda Indonesian Airways Operation Summary. . . 69 III Precipitation Records from Seventy-eight 8°1°°t°d Stations. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 82 IV Area and Yield of Principal Food Craps . . . . . 207 V Education Centers, Seed Farms, and Demonstration Farms of Djawatan Pertanian Rakjat . . . . . . 327 Ti Extent of Irrigation in Indonesia. . . . . . . . 365 VII Irrigation ROBOI‘Y011“ on JCV‘e e e e e e e e e e 368 VIII Costs and Benefits of Polder Deve10pment on Kalinantan.................. LL18 W N LIST OF TABLES fable Page I repulation Density and Distribution in Indonesia................... 15 II Gamda Indonesian Airways Operation Summary. . . 69 III Precipitation Records from Seventy-eight Selected Stations. . . . .........O. 82 IV Area and Yield of Principal Food Craps . . . . . 207 I Education Centers, Seed Farms, and Demonstration Farms of Djawatan Pertanian Rakjat . . . . . . 327 VI Extent of Irrigation in Indonesia. . . . . . . . 36S VII Irrigation 3.3."011‘I on JIV‘e e e e e e e e e e 368 VIII Costs and Benefits of Polder DeveIOpment on Kalimantan..................14.18 ‘0‘" ..| b.. .0-0 now- 3.1. ‘1'.- A." h lint": lu- :- \‘ Jug. ,'. £15": ‘5. [It s .h .1 l~4 xi LIST OF FIGURES Continued Figure P889 20 Itermite hill on poorly drained area of Sumbawa . mo 21 Bamboo tubes used‘for collecting nectar from Palnyrapalns.................150 22 Mouth of underground river near Waikebubak,8unba............... 150 23 Landscape on Sunba showing stratification of rock 155 21l-LOUIpOJmPllin,Sunbt.o............ 155 25 Land preparation with steel bottom plow on AnakKalangrlain,Sunba........... 157 26 Gilgai relief, in coastal area of North Sumba . . 157 2? Irrigated valley near the home of the Radjah ' ofRendeh,Sunba............... 162 28 Land preparation with dibble sticks on Flores. . 191 29 Poor condition of the can after preparation ‘ withdibblesticks.............. 191 30 Sago palm frond ribs used as vertical siding in wall construction in Provincial Administrative Office Building in Anbon e e e e e e e e e e e 200 31 Indigenous type of home constructed‘of sage laterialonAnboina. ... .. . .... . .. 200 32 Cattle and wooden harrow used for underwater preparation of small terrace area for rice . . 211 33 Dry land preparation with oxen and tapered cylinder wooden plow bottom. . . . . . . . . . 211 31; Dry land preparation with steel pOInted'plow bOttOIeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 213 35 Blacksmiths making a tajak in Negara, Kalinantanshop................ 213 36 Mixed planting of rice and corn in ladang on Kalimantan.................. 217 37 Community rice harvest on Bali . . . . . . . . . 217 .l.'. {woe O“- n.. (v . . a..- .... .. xii LIST OF FIGURES Continued Figure Page 38 Ani-ani knife used for harvesting rice . . . . . 222 39 Traditional Minangkabau, Sumatra type rice lumbung.................... 222 11.0 Cylindrical rice lumbung woven from bamboo . . . 2214 14.1 Corn stored on bamboo rack on Bali . . . . . . . 22).]. h2 Corn tied around coconut tree for storage onSumba................... 232 h3 Cassava root display at East Java fair . . . . . 232 1114. Miscellaneous fruit trees surrounding kampong inCentralJava................ 238 “.5 Fruit market in Djdkfil‘t. e e e e e e e e e e e e 238 1.6 Horticultural Garden of the Farmers' Agri- ‘ 6111311?“ SOPV10. on Amboina. e e e e e e e e e 2&5 1L7 Cacao, Pa a a, and citrus trees in Hortio ural Garden on Sulawesi e e e e e e e 211.5 as Young sago palm tree in edge of Amboina swamp. . 214.8 #9 Selected cacao seed tree near Ambon. . . . . . . 2&8 50 Monkey trained to harvest coconuts, West CentrllSmatrI...oo........... 261 51 Coconut nursery in Central Sumatra . . . . . . . 261 52 Kapok trees along river bank in Djakarta . . . . 267 53 Grove of oil palm trees in Northeast Sumatra . . 267 Sh Clusters of oil palm nuts. . . . . . . . . . . . 271 55 Sugar cane tied together to'prevent wind du.8.1n'.tm0n800neeeeeeeeeeeee 271 56 Watering tobacco with palmyrapalm leaf container on Madura. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 57me°0.°“f01d1n8eeeeeeeeeeeeeee 302 f‘ I‘ A. :L‘ xiii LIST OF FIGURES Continued Figure Page 58 Schematic diagram of the Ministry of Agriculture 313 59 Schematic diagram of the Farmers' Agricultural S.r71°. e e e e e e e e e e e e e 323 60 Women's class in Central Java village .duO‘tion center e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 328 61 Central Sumatra village education center With Minangkabau design. e e e e e e e e e e e 328 62 Control structure on Belitang irrigation DPOJOOt in South Sumatra e e e e e e e e e e e 357 63 ArgOguruh Dam on Sekampong River in South Sumatra 357 61]. Mountainside irrigation ditches in North Sumatra 362 65 Bucket on bamboo pole for irrigation from Open pit in East J.V‘ e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 362 66 Pumping plant on Bengawan Solo River in East Java 372 67 Water pended above terraces of Central Java erosion control demonstration. . . . . . . . . 372 68 Farmer carrying mud from channel across born to levee in Mantaran Polder, South Kalimantan. 1411 69 Grass swamp area within'area of Alabio Polder, SOUth.K&11flfintfin e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e “11 70 Women of Central Sumatra village pounding rice . 14.26 71 Undershot water wheel for North Sumatra rice pounding I111. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e #26 72 Interior of North Sumatra rice pounding mill showing wooden shaft and studs for lifting wooden.hannerl e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e “28 73 Foot-driven grater in small Central Sumatra coconut oil mill with grated coconut meat on flOGP e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e “28 71; Side view of graters in operation. . . . . . . . 14.32 75 Grated coconut neat being rolled in burlap for pressing e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e #32 Figure 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 31+ 8S 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 LIST OF FIGURES Continued Burlap wrapped meat being fed through wooden SOEPOd roller mill e e e e e e e e e e e e e Coconut oil and water are removed from container beneath mill with dipper . . . . . Coconut oil is cooked in iron drums without spigots. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Coconut husk bd ng removed by striking on a lhfirp fltool Spikbe e e e e e e e e e e e e e Capra spread on flats for sun-drying in Bali . Small wooden sugar mill operated in South Sumatra bY'NQDPpOWOP e e e e e e e e e e e e Horizontal roller power driven sugar mill in Edflt JI'.e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Circular iron inserts used to prevent Juice foaming out Of pan e e e e e e e e e e e e e Screening brown sugar in East Java . . . . . . Sago pulp being loosened from trunk‘with bamboo cudgel. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Sago flour being washed through screen made from frond.. e e e e e e e e e e e o e e e e Farmer's rubber processing shed’and equipment in Central Sumatra e e e e e e e e e e e e e Small rubber processing shed with aluminum coagulating pans in South Sumatra. . . . . . Sheet rubber in open for air drying in C.DtP.l Sumatra. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Model of improved type of‘rubber smoke house in Central Sumatra e e e e e e e e e e e e e Kerf tobacco being shredded'by hand'priorto sun drying e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Barns for flue-curing Virginia type tabacco' 1D.E‘lt JCV‘ e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e xiv Page 1133 #33 #31; #31} #38 #38 1m; MS M9 M9 #52 #52 16h #51; 158 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Continued 93 Improved type houses using bamboo for vertical 9h 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 siding at Anak Kemang, Sumba . . . . . . . . . Removing brick from mold for firing near N08.r‘, Kalimantan e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Brick stacked loosely above fire-box for drying. Silo type coral'lime kiln near Ambon with capacity of approximately thirty-six cubic feet per thirty-six hour burning period. . . . Bamboo pipe'showing’method cf'meking square Joints e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e South Sulawesi well with pole and‘bucket for drawing water. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e Traditional type of Sumbanese house with cattle pen'in center and platform‘around ' pen for living area. e e e e e e e e e e e e e Padi stacked on cpen'concrete floor for " storage at East Java rice'mill with’kapOk' treesinbackground.............. Grain drying and storage plant constructed ' ' in Pare-Pare, Sulawesi in 1952 . . . . . . . . XV Page 1158 1167 1167 1169 h69 14.80 14.80 1185 1185 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTI ON A study of agriculture in general and agricultural engineering in particular in Indonesia is a study in con- trasts with the small indigenous farmer at one extreme and the corporation type farming of the agricultural estates at the other. The small farmer seldom cultivates more than two acres and his investment in implements may be no more than the dollar that he has paid for his m or broad hoe bought without a handle while the area of the estates is measured in thousands of acres and the investment in field equipment alone may amount to several hundred thousand dollars. One North Sumatra corporation owned 33 Caterpillar tractors varying in size from the D-h to the D-8 as a part of its field operating equipment in 1951. Another major contrast is the educational level: while the indigenous farmer usually is illiterate, an estate often is operated by a well trained staff which includes agricultural scien- tists, economists, processing and marketing specialists, and other technically trained support personnel such as mechanics and machinists. The primary objective of the indigenous farmer is the production of sufficient food for himself and family, while u“ Primary objective of the estate is the production and .0. 1 4‘ .5 .. l.- e ha I u M; d'H‘ L... ..vsn 4 .,,_-..,.. ‘ ..sesu .. r1 l“ O. qu1. to. 9: .... "' .IV. 1" . ‘_.. ... "‘10- u processing of agricultural comedities for export, although the estates processing particular comedities supplement their own production by purchasing large quantities of raw products from the small farmers who produce the same commodity within economic hauling distances of the estates' processing plants. As will be shown in more detail later, the farmers' production of comeditie‘s for expert has increased greatly during the Twentieth Century but rice remains the staple crop. A amber of factors have contributed to the lack of general advancement of Indonesian agricultural technology. Among the major pro-war factors was the paternalistic atti- tude of the Netherlandsdfndies Government towards the Indonesian people , an attitude the author had heard expressed in the statement that the people were happy with their conditions and customs and that it was a mistake to encourage them to change. Another facter was that of the subsistence type of farming and its accompanying barter economy, for under this econm the farmer was unable to purchase iaproved implements or other commodities necessary for improved techniques even if he had understood and wanted to utilize such techniques. Probably the factor of greatest 1Iportance to impede agricultural development, as well as doVolopment in other fields, has been the educational level °f the pepulation. Because of the high percentage of “liar“! any change from the traditional practices was -ee‘ O O'.‘. I' 0‘ e .e .p. ev‘ '~ 4'. Q U 1‘. “l hI \ I‘- ‘m ... '9 2‘ I1. 1 I "a. ‘ a. 3‘» subject to suspicion and was accepted only after persuasion or even coercion as has been true in other parts of the world. In addition to the above factors there is the close relationship ef traditional agricultural practices with the religious and social customs, a relationship which makes it difficult even for the few well educated peeple who desire to improve their conditions to utilize techniques which are at variance with traditional methods. Each of the above factors and relationships will be discussed more fully later. In any listing of factors affecting agricultural develop- seat the demographic problem must be included. While Indonesia is not faced with the overall problem of ”too any people - too little land" that has been used for other countries until it is a trite expression, the uneven distribution of its population makes the statement true for lost of Java, Madura, and Bali and for a number of relatively mall areas en‘ some of the other islands. Transmigration er resettlement is underway but it is extremely doubtful if enough peeple can be moved from Java to reduce the papulation in view of the common estimate of 1.0 to 1.5 Porcent annual increase. As a means of devoIOping the a81‘1cultural potential of the sparsely populated areas the movement of people is a worthwhile program but from the lilplest estimates based on logistics it seems that those who at least publicly expect the population to remain at “6 present level or to be reduced are permitting themselves an '5 ‘.'It I‘ w, '9 0.: n‘.“‘ to engage in Wishful thinking. The com»?! or agricultural engineering, as it has become accepted in North America, is new in Indonesia al- though there have necessarily been many applications of engineering in Indonesian agriculture. The major recog- nition of the science as such is in farm power and machinery just as was true in the United States when the first departments were established at Iowa State College and at the University of Nebraska in 1908. The greatest appli- cation of engineering principles in the indigenous agri- culture has undoubtedly been in the field of irrigation but this is still censidered to be primarily in the realm of civil engineering. From discussions with both Indo- nesian and Dutch personnel educated in the Dutch educational system it seems that agricultural scientists have little opportunity for specialisation prior to study at the doc- torate level and, although they are required to take more work in the basic engineering sciences of mathematics and physics than the American agricultural student, that there is no real opportunity for specialisation in the applications ef engineering in agriculture - these remain in the realm of the engineer who is called in more or less on a consultant basis but who was educated in an engineering college where little attention to the basic agricultural sciences was possible. The natural consequence of this has been that those scientists have become specialists in one of the other eo‘I.’ H: o'oaifl "‘ ~ I a 12:91?" a O ; 5:. u. .1- “I ' . er, I ...?I Jung ‘ ~ e-rc 2131:-.- ' i. 5.1;: 1:“ ' 'a w E hfi“ \ v lfi'c I 3.!"- f"e.| ."N.E“ S- V: is gé'cnu a Q“ e,: "w £95“; to VI ‘I 6"? I H “‘3: l- I fields in 1111011 they have been able to receive more training, the agriculturalists in other branches of agriculture and the engineers in other fields of engineer- ing with few having the desirable minimum understanding of both the agricultural and the engineering aspects for cpti- an service to Indonesian agriculture where there were too few personal available in either profession. The objective of this study is to describe the agri- culture of Indonesia in sufficient. detail to permit the most important applications of engineering in Indonesian agriculture to be delineated. Reference will be made to such similarities as exist between conditions of Indonesian and American agriculture fer the reference of those particu- I larly interested in the tropical agriculture of these islands of the Far East. If agricultural engineering problems could be solved from the standpoint of the science alone, aany of the problems would become relatively simple but when the cultural, social, economic, and political facets of the problems must be given due consideration, otherwise simple problems become complex. Because of the complexity of the general conditions in Indonesia Chapters II through VI are devoted to information that, in many respects, is far afield from agricultural engineering but without a reasonable understanding of which no foreigner can arrive at solutions of problems which may be technically and Otherwise acceptable. . 0-” 0.: .fltol. 1.‘ .e“ :0 It: 1 “at .0 ‘1 A . ‘ l' ".gu'.‘ ell be... .-‘ "' .e ... '5' "a 0.! '1; I‘ aim. “~l ... 0... £15": 0b.. 3W. l e '4’ I e‘a Q' . 54 ~ e~ ie 4. ': P-e'. s Q: It should be stated that the material in these pages is by no means exhaustive; on the contrary it is very cursory for the presentation of the complete aspects of any particular phase of the diverse conditions of Indonesia would require the work of a lifetime and several volumes. Furthermore it has been necessary to limit most of the detailed descriptions, observations, and recommendations primarily to the agriculture of the small farmers because the nature of the author' s work and travel in Indonesia has been directed at thesolutions of the problems pertain- ing to general agriculture rather than the more specialised agriculture of the estates. Another limiting factor from the historical viewpoint is the limited agricultural literature available in English and Indonesian. [I I ‘- Vs '\ It should be stated that the material in these pages is by no seams exhaustive; on the contrary it is very cursory for the presentation of the complete aspects of any particular phase of the diverse conditions of Indonesia would require the work of a lifetime and several volumes. Furthermore it has been necessary to limit most of the detailed descriptions, observations, and recommendations primarily to the agriculture of the small farmers because the nature of the author's work and travel in Indonesia has been directed at the solutions of the problems pertain- ing to general. agriculture rather than the more specialised agriculture of the estates. Another limiting factor from the historical viewpoint is the limited agricultural literature available in English and Indonesian. .- CHAPTER II GEOGRAPH AND PEOPLE The Republic of Indonesia extends over more than three thousand miles of land and sea from its northern extremity in Sumatra to the middle of New Guinea if the disputed territory of Irian is included. Its more than three thou- sand islands1 have a total land area of 750,000 square miles, which is approximately equivalent to the area of the United States east of the Mississippi River. The island empire lies astride the equator, extending from six degrees north to eleven degrees south latitude. From west to cast, it spans from ninety-six to one hundred forty- ‘oso degrees east longitude. The major island groups are the Greater Sunda Islands, which include Sumatra, Java, Madura, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi 3 the Lesser Sunda Islands composed of Bali, Lombok, Sahara, Sumba, Flores, Timer, Suva, and Roti; and the Moluccas which extend northward from the Lesser Sundas almost to Mindanao in the Philippines and include Ternate, Tidcre, Halmahera, Buru, Ceram, Amboina, and several mailer groups in the area between Ceram, Irian and Flores. Also! included is the Riouw Archipelago, many small islands off the southern tip of the Malays Peninsula, lying between M l. Messy of Indonesia, Inf. Div., Re ublic of Indo- aesia The7Countgz, The People, Th: Elston, as ngt'cn, e P0 I 0 N's fl" 3.. ‘5 la. 's. at, s v in L‘ r ‘ ‘ ‘ §IU I ‘ 1.. ... ‘ N .. . kt nIa \; a i “lag and Sumatra. Even casual inspection of the map (Fig. 1) shows the geographical importance of Indonesia. Traditionally its islands have been the stepping-stones for traders betwoen Asia and Australia Just as before the last glacial period it formed a land bridge between the continental. Indonesia also occtmies a doninating position in inter-ocean trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans because all ships must travel within three hundred miles of Indonesian territory or sail south of Australia. In World War II the Japanese quickly occupied the area of Indonesia with little opposition and took full advantage of its strategic position to interfere with and destroy Allied shipping. If it had' not been four thousand miles from Djakarta (Batavia) to Tokyo, the Japanese night have been able to use this area to a far greater advantage against the Allies. For thousands of years the northern part of Sunatra has been the entry point into Indonesia fer emigrants and traders from Asia and the Near East, who also were the missionaries for the religions of their areas. It is through this area that the migratory movement of the Proto- Halay people (Earlier-Malay) during the Neolithic Age spread "01' Indonesia about 3.000 3.0.2. Another migration by the Deutero-Halays (Later-Malays) during the Bronze Age 300-200 3.0. ‘— 1. Bernard H. M. Vlekke, Nusantara Harvard Univ Press, Canbridgc, Mass” 1915. p. xII. ’ . 2. Many of Indonesia, op, cit., pp. 73-79. 239.333 .nogsfiuomsH no Eamdaaz one ..od .Govmuanmdz ..mnusnfim 5:23.95” no 53.303 «3289: no aoavsooa wnazonu 3303 can no as: ..n 938.3 1....‘4; , . . e . .1 . , . ‘. 1 ' . .4 . . ; l" -Isl' " -lse .III V . . a . I . u . O .a .A \ i , , V . C A . . . , ,. L . o . . . . . . _ . . Al . . 7., . n . r .. .w. . .. a. , .... , , . . c . a I n I x \\ of pt 1 l m 10 1. “m by Kennewl to have forced the Proto-Halays from the coastal areas to the higher island areas. The influence of the nongeloid characteristics of the Deutero-Halays extended into Indonesia. Typically, the Indonesians from the island areas where the Frets-Malays were forced to move have darker conplexions, are shorter and stockier in stature, and have wavier hair than the inhabitants of the coastal areas. In New Guinea the people are Papuanz, a hybrid race originating fron the Australoids and from the Melanesians who had migrated through Indonesia prior to the leotholic Age. The Papuan peeple are characterized by their tall, thin, hairy bodies; angular, bearded faces; thin lips 3 long noses; and frizsly hair. Vlekke3 states that the Hindu influence entered Indo- nesia prior to the eighth century; however, other sources say that at the beginning of the historical era the Hindu influence began to appear from Indian traders and teachers. By the eleventh century most ef the rulers of the Indonesian tribes and their ceurtiers had been converted to the Hindu faith. The Moslen religion entered in the sane area of lorth Sunatra primarily through Arab traders and merchants, and the Hindu influence gradually shrank so that today it is of minor inpertance except on the island of Bali. The ‘— 1. Raymond Kennedy, Islands and Peoples of the Indies Snithsonian Inst. War Background Stu-dies No. 1):,- Elication 3731‘» 19,43, P0 5e ' 2. Ibid.’ p. 6. ‘ 3. Vlekke, op. cit., pp. 3-26. 4... ..Lu q... heme ' "e. v a. '-e.. . 11 Islamic faith continued spreading through the centuries until now it is variously estimated that from seventy to ninety percent of the Indonesians profess this religion, although the influence of ancient native customs modifies it to a considerable degree. The Christian religion is the only religion to enter Indonesia by routes other than the North Sumatra one for two principal reasons. The Achinese peeple of North Sumatra were so strong in their following of Islamic teachings that they forcefully rejected any attempts of Christian mission- aries to enter and were not completely under control of the Dutch until late in the nineteenth century. EurOpean traders of the sixteenth century who brought the first Christian missionaries to Indonesia were primarily interested in the spice trade which then centered in the Moluccas, where the Christian religion has been most readily accepted. As trade moved to other areas and the European population increased, the Christian religion was spread throughout the islands, but was never widely accepted. Vlekkel attributes the lack of acceptance, at least in part, to the lack of energy of the early Dutch priests who showed marked racial prejudice against native clergy. Over the course of the seventeenth and eiyteenth centuries, the natives in the vicinity of Dtharta who did profess Christianity were absorbed into the Moslem religion in spite of the presence of twelve ministers _.__ 1Q Ibido’ p. 172. ,fi 1“"... ..n. ~- 'I I—s. ‘I4 I.‘ e- '|~M1 a I i, ‘ am.- to fill .s: I s it. t.- I . u." L '04 ... “Us ~ ".e um.- s.' ‘; u. .' ‘ ..- s I i In .:. a,. a. ‘- 12 of the Calvinist Church who were maintained by the Dutch East Indies Company in the city. According to Kennedyl all religions, whether Christian, Hohamedan, or Hindu, are modified by the early culture and customs_cf the Indonesians. From the early pagan beliefs there remain influences of the ghost, spirit, and ancestor cults, as well as faith in magic. Inherent in the folklore are the fights between evil spirits or demons with legendary characters representing gods or historical leaders, struggles which in best folklore fashion end with the gods or histor- ical leaders winning over the evil spirits. "Conversion" of the Indonesians to the Christian, Moslem, or Hindu religion has in many cases been primarily a changing of names for former customs and gods. The present general distribution of non-Hoslom religions is Hinduism on the' island of Bali and Christianity in the Batak highlands of Sumatra, in isolated villages in Kalimantan, in the Minehasa territory of North Sulawesi, on the island of Amboina in the Moluccas group, on the island of Flores in the Lesser Sunda islands, and among the non-Asiatic population through- out tho Archipelago. The Moslem religion is embraced by the remainder of the population with the exception of a few small primitive tribes in remote islands and in remote areas that are still pagan or amniotic. _ 1. Kennedy, op. cit., p. 1.6. fl 13 The present day influence of the various religions upon Indonesian life is most apparent to the newcomer through the frequent official holidays and the black $392.33 or fez worn by the men. While the latter probably was introduced along with the Hoslem religion, it has been proclaimed the national headdress for men and is sometimes worn by men of other faiths upon formal occasions. The Indonesians recog- nize Christian religious holidays formerly observed by the lotherlsnds East Indies government as well as the Moslem holidays with the combination resulting in a total of twenty-two or twenty-three holidays per year. In addition to these recognized holidays the minority Chinese population observes the Chinese llew Year, and a large percentage of the Chinese also observe the anniversary of the formation of the Conunist regime of the New Chinese People's Republic. Chinese observance of those and other holidays virtually steps retail business in most cities and towns because most of the retail establishments and small industries are Chinese owned. The Chinese population is estimated as between two and five million, but the Chinese predominance in trade and in the professions gives them far greater influence on the national econm than is proportionate to their numbers. Just as has been observed in other parts of the world, the Chinese people seemingly will not become assimilated into the population of their countryof residence, but remain Chinese for several generations. .Ol ‘ 1 n‘ 114- lie census hna been conducted since 1930, and present population estimates are usually calculated upon the 1930 figures p111! In annual increase of one and one-half percent until l9l|.0 and one percent after 191m due to the effect of the war. The inequity of pepulation distribution is shown in Table I based upon information from Kennedy‘1 and from a. Indonesian Ministry of Informationa. The distribution of population is influenced by the natural factors of soil fertility and abundance of year- round streams. Wherever there is fertile soil and sufficient water to permit irrigation, the population density is greatest; wherever the soil is unproductive or there is insufficient water for irrigation, areas are sparsely pepulated. One of the sharpest contrasts is on the island of Bali where the one and one-quarter million population is largely concentrated in the central portion of the island's 2,300 square miles. All of the island is of volcanic origin, but in the central portion the annual rainfall is 3605 mm (1&2 in.) as. compared with only 1671 mm (66 in.) in the western part of the island and only 1383 mm (55 in.) in the eastern part (Stations 60, 61, 62, Table III). 1‘ Ride, PPO 11'31e 2. 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Ntoa .0 000 0 00003 0 000 . m. 1 0 H.» mb mogfipdoo am .00 nodsdefi 000000.01 0 00000 .00 .3 J. . 0. 00 0.0a 0 00 00 0 to 00.0.0 mmWMQ a MMMHGWWI n u flmwwwv h QOdWMfiQOMii“ “Odfldgawnvan “OAK-n“? 0 UGNSHflDd—OO H “Wm—an... ||a\ll u a 0 . < w c 0 m D ‘0 Q I ' n i a w m 0 b e o e . I ' ' e . - m w v o o o a e e e e O c I 0 Ir 0 e s u ‘ I g e n p I e C I t t o C I m e -e I o o e n . -- . I I I m l e , 1 {1 H -e [I a A i O 17 Mom o.m 000.0 «90 0.0. 0.00 0.00 000.0 00000000 0. 0.00.0 . . ma.” . . 00000000000000 5 0 00000 .00. .00 I: 0. 00 sons 9 .w n . 00a .ca 00.00000 0000 :00 000000 c 000000 nmmmm 9WWWMMMU 000 Hmmwmmom 000 H 9d flinch ends HWQR‘ 605530000 H Wflm‘fl ’l 5 d .‘1 \~ '“ CHAPTER III HISTORY OF INDEPENDENCE AND FOFM OF GOVERNMENT Indonesia 18 the youngest sovereign nation of the world, hung gained. do :ure recognition on December 27, l<9L|.9,l after more than four years ef revolution and negotiations with the Dutch. On August 17, 191;.5, President Sukarno issued the Indonesian Declaration of Independence only two days after the capitulation of the Japanesez. For the first time in three hundred and fifty years all of the peeple became a single, free nation. Independence was not yet complete, but when the British landed with a token force six weeks later, they found a government functioning which ropresented de facto authority in Sumatra, Java, and Kadura and which claimed de lure authority for all of the former Netherlands East Indies territory. The token British force landed about October 1, 1914.5, to accept the surrender of the Japanese occupation tr00ps and to liberate prisoners of war in the name of the Allies. Soon thereafter the officials of the Netherlands Indies Govern-ant returned to Indonesia from Australia where they had fled in l9h2 when the Japanese occupied Indonesia. Actually, in several instances the Japanese had already 10 Ibide, Fe 1.0 20 Ibidee Po 35e 4"e . .... ' C 's v I . \I‘ ‘0 U 01 I‘|\ I.‘ "a 0"" " e. ‘-,:;' .‘ .I 19 surrendered and turned over their arms and ammunition to the de facto Indonesian Government, and while the official surrender was made to the small British force present, the Indonesians were able to obtain more of the Japanese arms, munitions, and equipment with which to fight in the four years of "police actions" and revolutions which were to follow. In these struggles another advantage for the Indo- nesians was the military training received from the Japanese during the late stages of the war. Units of the People's Army (Laskar Rakjat) were equipped with small arms and trained by the Japanese in the expectation that the Indo- nesians would fight with then as allies. The political negotiations, from September 1914.5 to Jasuary 19133, have been described in detail and the military or police actions to a lesser degree by Holfl. ' In 1914.5, after the surrender of Japanese troops to the British, the troOps ef the letherlands' returned. The Indonesians did not agree for these troops to land before their independence was recognised, and when the attempts at landing were made, fighting began on a large scale. The British arranged a truce under the good offices of Lord Killearn, England's Special Commissioner. The Linggad- Jati Agreement, signed on November 15, 19146, between the Government of the Netherlands and the Republic of Indonesia, 1. Charles Wolf, Jr. The Indonesian Stogz John Day and Co., New York, 19148, passi'm, pp. I491. , l‘ (I 20 recognized the sovereignty of the Republic over Java and Sumatra, but left intact the bridgeheads held by Dutch troOps in the areas of the principal cities of these two islands. Both governments pledged themselves to the early fermatien ef the United States of Indonesia, which would be encompassed within a connonwealth, along with the Netherlands, Surinam, and Curacao, not later than January, l9h9. The United States of Indonesia was to include the Republic of Indonesia, Kalimantan (South Borneo), and the Great Eastern State (consposed of Sulawesi @elebeg. the Holuocas, and the Lesser Sunda Islands). The ensuing months resulted in many violations of the truce by both sides, and on July 18, 1913.7, the Dutch initiated a ”police action” to restore "order”. it that time the Dutch forces were estimated at one hundred and nine thousand well-equipped men, while the Indonesian forces were relatively poorly equipped and trained. The Match forces1 were able to penetrate the republican territory almost at will but were unable to destroy the estimated twa hundred thousand Indonesian troops who, unable to under- take pitched battle or to contain the Dutch within the bridgeheads, adopted guerrilla tactics and began a battle of attrition. The situation was brought before the Security Council of the United Nations, which entered the negotiations by 1. Ibid., p. 132. first issuing a cease-fire order in August 1911?. Through the Good Offices Committee of the Security Council, a cease- fire agreement was arranged along the status quo lines of August 27, 19ml, and on January 17, 191.8, . second agree- ment known as the Renville Agreement was signed. At the request of Frank Graham, United States representative on the Security Council Good Offices Committee, the United States of America sent the U.S.S. Benville to anchor off Djakarta for the consummation of this agreement, this measure becoming necessary when ropresentatives of neither side would agree to meet in the territory held by the opposite forcesz. Further negotiations were unsuccessful, and on December 18, l9h8, the Dutch forces initiated a second 'police action", capturing President Sukarno, Vice-President Hatta, and a number of ministers of the Republic3. Ii'his action was termed a direct violation of the principles of the United Nations Charter and of the Renville Agreement by the Good Offices Committee. A nineteen-nation Asian conference headed by Prime Minister Nehru of India demanded that the Dutch surrender all prisoners and territory and grant full sovereignty for Indonesia. The United Nations recomended the establishment of a time-.table for the 1. Mbassy of Indonesia op cit p 37 2e ”01f, Jr., 0p. Citep’pe ill-7O ., . . 3. nbassy of Indonesia, op. cit., p. 38. 22 gradual transfer of sovereignty by July 1, 1950. The Round Table Conference convened at the Hague on August 23, 191-t9. After further negotiations a proclamation was issued on December 27, 1911.9, transferring sovereignty from the Netherlands government to that of the United States of Indonesia. The Netherlands Indonesian Union was estab- lished simltaneously as a voluntary union between sovereign states to facilitate foreign relations, defense, economics, and commerce. The United States of Indonesia, to which sovereignty was transferred at the Round Table Conference, was a federation of sixteen autonomous states, the strongest of which was the Republic of Indonesia. Within less than a year the ether fifteen states, through action of their own legislative councils, dissolved their respective governments and merged with the Republic of Indonesia to form; a new unitary state under a revised constitution. On August 17, 1950, exactly five years after the original proclamation of independence, President Sukarno issued another proclamation establishing the new government. The provisional constitution was drafted by the representative bodies of all the states of Indonesia and was based upon the constitution of the former Republic, which in turn had been modeled after the Constitution of the United States of America. Under provisions of the Constitution, the first presi- dent and the first vice-president were elected by the .ev 23 unicameral Parliament for four years. The President is empowered to dissolve Parliament, to introduce and approve legislation, and to appoint the formateur or formateurs of the cabinet who act according to the mandate given by the President at the time of his appointment. The two hundred and thirty-seven members of Parliament were initially appointed by the legislative bodies of the former sixteen states, with one member per three hundred thousand pepu- lation, to represent all political parties, social groups, and geographical areas. Subsequent executives and members of Parliament will be elected at four year intervals. The Cabinet is a coalition, representing enough of the many political parties and groups to obtain parliamentary support. It may be dissolved either by action of the President or by a vote of no-confidence on the part of. Parliament. Because representation in Parliament is in proportion to the strength of the various political parties, any action of the Cabinet must have the support of the strongest parties, or it is faced with plenary session debates in Parliament and the problem of successfully defending its action against a motion of no-confidence. Even if the defense is successful, the party opposing the action may withdraw its ministers from the Cabinet and thus break down the coalition. At least until general elections can be held for the election of executives and members of Parliament by the people under definite programs or platforms, ‘ ‘3. . e .‘. a 3e ”a a, ‘ - .l u . a» \ ‘.. at. 51‘ an. the position of cabinets will probably remain precarious. Consolidation of several of the parties would undoubtedly improve the stability of the cabinets, but seems unlikely because of differences in religions and political ideologies and political ambitions of party leaders. The size of the cabinet, as well as the number of ministers, has varied in several cabinets; there have been ministers without portfolio, perhaps as the only means of obtaining support of enough political parties to enable formation of a cabinet under specific conditions. The April 1952 - June 1953 cabinet consisted of the Prime Minister, the Vice-Prime Minister and sixteen ministers with portfolios that are listed below in their order of precedence. This cabinet resigned June 3, 1953 with the statement that it was returning its mandate because insuf- ficient support from the political parties representatives in Parliament had made it impossible for the cabinet to be effective. 1. Foreign Affairs 9. Communications 2. Interior Affairs 10. Public Works 3. Defense 11. Labor 11.. Justice 12. Social Affairs 5. Infomation 13. Education 6. Finance . 1h. Religious Affairs 7. Agriculture 15. Health 8. Economic Affairs 16. Personnel Affairs1 k 1. In May 1953. u on the resignation of the Minister of Social Affairs, the Min ster of Personnel Affairs was iven the Social Affairs portfolio which was enlarged to incéude the Ministry of Personnel Afro-In..- ,- ‘0 l I! 25 The Cabinet formulates the general program of the government, while each ministry prepares the operation plans pertinent to its area of responsibility. Actual Operations are the responsibility of the divisions or services of the ministries which have direct contact with the peeple through their representatives at the provincial, district and sub- district levels. The governors and other administrative officials for~the ton provinces and the special area of Djogjakarta, as well as for several autonomous areas or municipalities, are appointed by the Ministry of Interior Affairs, a procedure which will be continued until general elections can be conducted. Similarly, the divisions or services of the mdnistries appoint the officials necessary to perform their various functions at provincial and lower levels. At this thus there is virtually no autonomous authority at the provincial and.lower levels because all resources are under control of the central government. Almost all revenues result from taxes levied by the central government and all expenditures are in accordance with the central government's budget which allocates funds to the ministries and from.which specific service or division allocations are mmdo to the provinces based upon compromise between local needs and funds available. Kalimantan was made an.auteno- :mous province by government decree in.January 1953, but the extent of its authority was not defined at the time of the decree. \ w.\\. 26 In theory the budgets are subject to parliamentary approval, but in fact they are made by the Cabinet because Parliament has remained one to two years behind in its budgetry debates. The 1953 budget presented to Parliament in December 1952, by Finance Minister Sumitro was the first budget to be submitted for prior approval. The government' s principal sources of revenue are expert and import duties, export of tin from government owned mines, and income taxes. The financial status of the government reflects very quickly the condition of the world markets in tea, tobacco, petroleum, palm oil, rubber, and copra because these comedities make up a large per- centage of the value of export commodities. This group of exports represented 80 percent in 1950 and 85 percent in 1951 of the total value of Indonesian exportsl'. Rubber alone accounted for 56 percent of the value of exports in 1950, but with the increase in total value of all exports of slightly over 50 percent in 1951 it represented only 35 percent. Kapok, pepper, peanuts, and corn were the only four of 32 items listed showing a decrease in export value. The decrease of the latter two occurred primarily because of restrictions on export of foods in order to reduce the over-all shortage of food in the country. Under H t 11:3]; Mgfistgkies of Economic Affairs and Agriculture, or a on , spor Dari Indonesia Dalam Tahun 1951-1952 m K.-5’ no. 11, 1952’ Dh‘k‘rt‘, Indone'i‘, p. 193. ' 2'? favorable market conditions and import restrictions in 1951, the treasury showed a not gain, but with the decline in the price of rubber early in 1952, the estimated deficit for 1952 is placed between four and six billion rupiah (11.13. rupiah :3 1 dollar). The 19h5 Republic of Indonesia included only Java and Smnatra which became one of the sixteen states of the United States of Indonesia following the transfer of sovereignty in 1914.9. The present Republic of Indonesia is divided into provinces (states), kabupatens (districts or residencies), and wedanos or daerahs (sub-districts). The number of districts and sub-districts varies in the different provinces in proportion to the density of pOpu- lation and to some extent, according to the administrative difficulties caused by inadequate communications. Provinces with their capitals are listed below: North Sumatra - Medan Central Sumatra - Bukit Tinggi (Fort de Keck) South Smatra - Palembang West Java - Bandung Central Java - Semarang East Java and Madura - Surabaja, Java Kalimantanv - Bandjermasin Sulawesi - Makassar Moluccas - Ambon, Amboina Lessor Sunda Islands - Singinradjah, Bali 1ft! CHAPTER IV PRESENT POLITICAL AND SECURITY SITUATION It is impossible for any program for the improvement of agriculture or for any other portions of the Indonesian economy to be considered without giving attention to the political reaction throughout Indonesia and the security situation in the particular area concerned in the imple- mentation of specific projects. As might be expected from any nation recently freed of occupation by foreign armies and freed of colonial domination, there is an intense nationalistic feeling; indeed had it not been for such feeling, independence would have come much more slowly. Also, as might be expected in any country that has been subjected to more than seven years of occupation and revo- lution, lawless elements exist because of a desire to over- throw the government, because of religious fanaticism, because of desire for revenge against individuals, corpor- ations, or nationalities for real or imaginary mistreatment, because of economic conditions, andbecanse of the ease of robbery and pillage in comparison to the effort required to work for a living. All of these elements are present in Indonesia in one or more locations and vary in degree of seriousness and effect upon the development of the nation's vast resources of people, land, and minerals. The Round Table Conference agreement did not include a settlement of the control of Irian (western New Guinea). 29 According to Goldbergl the Indonesians reluctantly agreed at the conference to continuation of the status quo for Irian, i.e., toluporary control by the Netherlands, in order to attain agreement upon the more fundamental issues involved in the transfer of sovereignty. It was, however, agreed that negotiations would be reopened immediately following the closing of the conference with the objective of reaching a solution within a year. Because Irian was a part of the former Netherlands East Indies, the Indonesians have continuously maintained that it should be included in the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. While the primary desire of Indonesia for Irian is to completely eliminate all vestigo of colonialism and Dutch sovereignty from the area, there also exists a secondary reason -- the possible use of Irian by the Dutch to regain control of the Archipelago. In the opinion of some Indonesians one of the under- lying roasens for the dissolution of the United States of Indonesia was to eliminate the existence of governments in some of the states which were established by the Dutch during the post-war period and which, if not actually sub- serviont to the Dutch, were indebted to them for their power. When the unitary state was formed, a dissenting group pro- claimed tho Republic of the South Moluccas to be sovereign 1. Harry Goldberg, Forei Observers on the uestion 23.: West Irian, Ministry of TEFL-formation, Rem-1511c o3 Indo- nesIa, DJEEarta, undated, released 1952, p. 2. 00-- liq-'5: ,..,.v.l IN." I “once. so L..§L . .v‘ I. . «..., vn‘ " ‘ y '0‘. .‘ ‘ "'la _ fi ‘ v. . . r" C‘ .I ' . “e .‘ I ‘ "q. .V .J. ""- .'. ‘ 3‘. 30 and independent in spite of the expressed desire of its former representatives to participate in the new state. This dissenting group has opposed the government's efforts to establish law and order and as late as the summer of 1952 was of sufficient size that several battalions of the Indo- nesian Army were fighting against the Republic of South Holuccas on the eastern half of the island of Goran. This operation of the Army was declared complete and most of the troops moved to South Sultwesi in the fall of 1952. With the proximity of Goran to Irian, some Indonesians believe that the forces of the Republic of South Moluccas received assistance from Irian. This belief is supported at least in part by the statement of a Dutch national in Djakarta to the author that contributions are being made by private individuals in Holland for the Republic of South Moluccas. He also stated that there are Dutch citizens who expect to regain control of Indonesia when its government fails, but in this man's opinion the possibility of the Netherlands regaining control of Indonesia is wishful thinking. The Netherlands Parliament early in 1952 added fuel to the nationalistic fires of Indonesia by milaterally declaring Irian to be a part of the Dutch Dnion while Indonesian representatives were in The Hague, presumably negotiating the matter at the conference table. The more out-spoken elements of the political parties have advocated abrogation of the Netherlands-Indonesian Union, unilaterally II‘ e- .10 n ‘sv ;. v:— t... v.. ' loin. .' l .s e c.. . . .- I I a el‘ 31 if necessary, and Indonesian assumption of control in Irian, suggesting force if necessary. Discharge of all Dutch employees of the Indonesian government and exprOpriation of Dutch property were also mentioned in the press. However, the more conservative and realistic leaders, including those active in the government and those outside, have been able to restrain such actions with their counsel of first exhausting all possible peaceful means. Indonesians of all stations in society, of all religious faiths, and of all political parties are agreed, however, that eventu- ally Irian should become a part of the Indonesian Republic. The Dutch position concerning Irian is that the Papuan people who are the natives of Irian have nothing in common with the Indonesian people and that due to lack of edu- cation they are not qualified at this time to decide what type of government they should have, but that after sufficient time to pemit education, the people will be allowed to decide by plebiscite what form of government they desire. 'The Dutch further contend that Irian cannot be developed by the Republic of Indonesia because of the dearth of capital and technically qualified personnel, especially since the Indonesians must expend their greatest effort nearer their center of population in Java and Madura. From the standpoint of pure logic the Dutch contentions cannot be refuted since the Papuan people of Irian are a hybrid racel originating from Melanesian and Australoid 1. Kennedy, op. cit., p. 6. 32 ancestors, while other Indonesians are primarily of Malayan origin. Irian occupies approximately one-half of the world's second largest and least develOped island, and its pepu- lation is said to be the world's most primitive peeple. Irian is far moved from Indonesia's pepulation center. From the standpoint of available, qualified technical personnel, certainly the Dutch are by far better qualified at this time, but these questions may well be raised: For whose benefit will development be undertaken? How long before a plebiscite can be held? ' It is apparent that development of the 150,000 square miles of Irian's territory will progress slowly until the political discussions are concluded. Even without the political complications, the basic facts of logistics indicate slew progress as does previous experience of the Dutch in the East Indies. In almost three hundred and fifty years there was little development attributable .to the Dutch except on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Hadura and in a few coastal areas of some other islands. With improved transportation, progress should be possible at an accelerated rate, but adequate transportation is still non-existent in Indonesia and will be the subject of a later section. in early or easy solution of the Irian question does not appear likely. It will be extremely difficult, if at all possible, to obtain agreement between the dogmatic logic on one side of the conference table and I a J" . ‘. ... o. ..,'a '_ as .o -- “W "I' d..¢ rI -"‘ ... . .. 3.. wk. : ‘-el. . 36' an' ”a . . l"n...’ " "s. ‘ A? 5 § ‘i. ‘ P, J‘s x... 33 the fervor of nationalism on the other. The action of the Dutch government in October 1952, declaring they could see no reason for reopening negotiations on this question, confirms this opinion. i In contrast to the Irian question, no voice has been heard in Indonesia relative to Australian control of the eastern half of New Guinea, although recent indications that Australia favors Dutch control of Irian have not strong opposition in the Indonesian press. Furthermore, no question has been raised inregard to the 150 mile international Jungle bomdary between Irian and Australian New Guinea. Similarly, there is no problem about Portugose control of East Timer, whose 11,500 square miles is hardly more than a trading post, nor of British control of Sarawak and Brunei in British lorth Borneo, presumably because none of these was a part of the Netherlands East Indies. South Sulawesi is mother problem area for the Indo- nesian government because of activities of guerrilla bands. In the general vicinity of Hakassar numerous bands are active burning villages, murdering, robbing, and kidnapping. Many farmers have moved to the towns and cities in search of safety, thus lowering agricultural production and increasing the unemployment situation in the cities with its resultant increase in potty thievery and pilferage. In July 1952, two men were kidnapped on the highway between the Hakassar airport and the city, about fifteen miles away. On another road about ten miles from Hakassar a police informer was murdered. Such incidents were and still are quite common, and the Army and national Police have not yet been able to restore order. Before travel from one city to another is possible, one must have passes, and police inspection points for automobiles and personnel are located between most of the towns in an effort to control movement of weapons and stolen goods. Pilferage of rice passing through the Makassar port in June 1952, was esti- mated at 25 percent by the chief of the Government Food Distribution Agency for the area of Sulawesi and the Holuccas, and the captain of one ship wrote a letter to the port authorities stating that he could not be responsible for shortages of cargo in Hakassar or any other Indonesian port because of such conditions. A short time earlier a British sailor was murdered one night in the deck area, allegedly because he had stopped the theft of burlap bags during the day. Approximately 50 miles from Pare-Pare on the southwest coast of Sulawesi is the Sadang irrigation works. Before the war under the Netherlands East Indies, Government, a diversion dam was constructed on the Sadang River, which with its control structures, distribution canals, and two 1030 pumping installations (planned but not completed) would provide irrigation water for 155, 000 acres primarily for rice and corn. Construction was interrupted by the war, ,o 1‘ .. a ' 1 ‘_* (”‘1' ...-- ..e . .d esl“ .e. sp- ,‘ e oven 1 ’as. 1 . .e a mes ‘f‘e. Q. ..‘o.: 1. . ,e. . ‘- ~ I “no. .! eé.‘ “k is l ”a m I L, \"*. .I' 35 and the plans, topographic maps, and other data were 103*. The structures themselves have been damaged, but the exact extent is not known to provincial officials. While it is doubtful that there are enough surveyors and engineers to make the necessary surveys and to complete the plans for the repair and completion of the project, it is also question- able whether the work could be undertaken with safety for the surveying crews. A portion of the damage is said to have been repaired by the people of the area without any engineering supervision, but the real condition of the project is rather vague. One oddity of the security situation is the apparent laissez faire for officials of Pertanian (agriculture) who travel almost. at will through- out the area during daylight hours after checking with police and local officials so as to avoid "hotospots". In view of this apparent appreciation on the part of the guerrillas for the efforts of the Farmers' Agricultural Service (Djawatan Pertanian Rakjat) to help the people, one can only wonder whether the security problem would not be completely eliminated if a really strong, well organized, well directed program by all of the government services could be implemented. The remaining troublesome areas from the standpoint 01 security are the provinces of Central and West Java. In these two provinces and especially in West Java there are bands of thieves, guerrillas, and religious fanatics varying 36 from only a few men to the size of a regiment. About Novem- ber 1951. a battalion of the Indonesian Army rebelled and began guerrilla operations in Central Java. Since that time there have been numerous engagements, varying in intensity from light patrol actions to almost pitched battle, between this battalion and those of the Army or Mobile Brigade detachments of the National Police with the battalion suffering severe losses and being dispersed throw the mountains along the Central-West Java line. Another especially troubling element operating prin- cipally in West Java has been the Darul Islam group. This group is led by religious fanatics who would have Indonesia as a Hoslom state with all other religions excluded by law and force. This is a real problem group because, according to usual estimates, from seventy to eighty percent of all Indonesians are Hoslems. Action against the Darul Islam group presents a delicate problem because all-out action light be interpreted in some circles as persecution for religious reasons as opposed to the Constitution, which guarantees freedom of religion for all. In the press cements relative to the security situation one cannot fail to notice the frequent references to the possibility of foreign leadership in some of these guerrilla bands with two or three Dutchmen occasionally referred to by name. There is no indication, however, of any specific Communist influence. The extent of the difficulties caused by lack of security may be better visualised by examination 37 of statistics published in an English language newspaper in Djakartal. During the first .1: months of 1952 the total preperty damage from fire and looting was 12.h million rupiah, of which 8.6 million was in the first quarter and 3.8 million in the second. There were 3500 homes burned in the first quarter andl770 in the second. During the same period 850 peeple were murdered (320 first quarter, 530 the second quarter), 11,680 people robbed (6,914.0 first quarter, h,7h0 second quarter), 120 people kidnapped (60 each quarter), and 190 peeple assaulted (lhO first quarter, 50 second quarter). The above figures are from reported a incidents only, and the majority of these occurred in two residencies (Priangan and Rjirebon). No included in the above data are the umber of attacks upon police detachments which presumably might be to replenish supplies of weapons and ammuniton. In general, it is not possible to say that there is a definite pattern to the above attacks, although many of the people robbed, assaulted, kidnapped, or killed are the European personnel of the agricultural estates who are pre- dominately Dutch. It seems quite probable that this fact is true because such personnel are likely to have more money or valuables on hand than most Indonesians. Numerous pay-roll robberies have occurred as estate employees returned from banks in the cities. Host of the houses 1. Times of Indonesia West Java Sdcurit Co diti in 1952, sauna-m . , ’952. y n m burned have been in the small villages where a large per- centage of all buildings are constructed with wooden or bamboo pole frames, woven bamboo walls, and thatch roofs 3 all are highly inflammable and so closely spaced that once a fire starts, it is almost certain that the entire village will be destroyed, especially since fire fighting equipment is not available. Even in Djakarta a fire in August 1952, destroyed more than 800 homes and buildings in spite of efforts of the fire department. In sharp contrast to the troubled areas described above are the security conditions in the remainder of Indonesia. In Kalimantan, Sumatra, East Java, Hadura, and all the islands of the Lesser Sunda group, there is little concern over the safety because robberies or other crimes occur infrequently, and one may travel without danger throughout the day or night. The fact that it is not safe to travel at night in some parts of Central and South Sumatra, except possibly by automobile, because of tigers again illustrates the difficulty of making general state- ments relative to security or to any other subject for large areas of Indonesia. There is a general inter-mingling of the security, economic, and political situations in each area and for the nation as a whole in that where security is poor, production is below capabilities of the area and there is little confidence of the people in the government's ability I“ .ec. ‘l.tl in IN ..‘ I I. N T's. .T "m “s. 'I‘l“. :l ‘ \ N .- \L 39 to improve the general welfare. There is an increasing demand from several provinces for more autonomous authority and freedom of action in local matters and this recognition being generally expected by some provincial officials after general elections are held. Prime Minister WilOpo in a press conference on September 30, 1952, stated that general elections would probably be held in the first quarter of 1953, but with the mechanical difficulties of transporta- tion and communication coupled with the great difficulty of satisfactorily informing the illiterate masses of peeple, this was an optimistic prediction, a prediction impossible to fulfill because in June 1953, the preposed election law was still the subject of parliamentary debate. The lack of stability in economic affairs, in security, and in political affiliations is indicated most strongly by the number of cabinets that have been formed since President Sukarno' s Proclamation of Independence on August 17, 1914.5. In the five years prior to the formation of the unitary state on August 17, 1950, eleven different cabinets served; three have served since that time. The Constitution provides that the cabinet may be dismissed by the President or may be dissolved by a vote of no-confi- dome in Parliament. To date the President has not used his power because each cabinet has been dissolved after a vote of no-confidence by Parliament or has resigned before such a motion could be brought to a vote. While this. ,1 1+0 Parliamentary action indicates the intention of the leaders of the Republic to establish in years to come a true demo- cratic state, it is more strongly indicative of the politi- cal maneuvering between and within the various political parties. Such a change in cabinets occurred on February 23, 1952, when the Cabinet resigned under threat of a no- confidence vote in Parliament. While there were several sources of Parliament's dissatisfaction, there was also internal dissention within the entire cabinet. The final crisis stemmed from the secret negotiations on American assistance by the Hinister of Foreign Affairs with the Ambassador of the United States of America. According to Roth1 there was a general consensus of Opinion in Parlia- ment and in the Indonesian press that the agreement jeepardised the nation's independent foreign policy. Having just eliminated A the yoke of colonialism, the Indo- nesians are perhaps hyper-sensitive about any more foreign influence in their internal affairs than the Round Table Conference agreement left them with, and they are very definitely opposed to a fins alliance with either the East or West in the power politics of the world. Previous to the Foreign Minister's signing of the 'note of understanding" on assistanceto Indonesia under E t l. “Angewrlgogh, Izgonesian Government Crisis, Far as ern or A a rs Dorset St London Ma 1952 firm-:12:— "—-’ ” ’ y ’ the Mutual Security Agency, he had not opposition in the Cabinet and Parlianent on sending a representative to the Japanese Treaty Conference in San Francisco and the signing of the treaty. About the same time the note wassigned, it became apparent that discussions with the Japanese regarding reparations would be terminated without agree- nent, a condition which added to the dissatisfaction of Parliament and ease of the Cabinet with the foreign policy. An article entitled Difficulties of Cabinet Formation1 stated that the settlement of the Darul Islam question and the method of establishing local representative councils were among the most important domestic questions contribu- ting to the crisis. Initially critics demanded that the Minister of Foreign Affairs resign, and his resignation was submitted but was followed almost immediately by the resimation of the entire Cabinet in the face of opposition in Parliament that seemed strong enough to pass a vote of no-confidence. i'he Vice-President, however, stated that the Cabinet fell not because of parliamentary opposition but because of its own weakness. In spite of the fact that the Cabinet crisis was brought to a head by the Mutual Security Agency negotiations and the commitment made by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, on the night following the 1. Ministry of Information, Difficulties of Cabinet Formation Indonesian Affairs D akarta d . H”. 1952: W -—.—_...._’ j s In onesia, Feb. Cabinet's resignation the Government announced by radio that, since its legal representative had made a commitment, the terms of the commitment would be honored in order to maintain the international reputation of the nation. In view of the fact that the average life of cabinets is six months, it would seem that there could be no con- tinuity in goverment functions and services, but such an observation is not entirely true. Actually it would be more accurate to say that the average life of the cabinets has been five months with a period of approximately one month required for the formation of each new one, during which time the former Cabinet might continue to function. In each ministry the director of administration and oper- ations is the Secretary-General, and from this level down there are infrequent changes. For example, the Secretary- General in the Ministry of Agriculture has served under eleven cabinets. Just as in the United States Government, cabinet members often change, but department employees below the top echelon and the general public observe little change in basic policy for a considerable length of time. Certainly there may be exceptions if basic policy changes occur between successive cabinets, but as for continuity it would amount to the government employees observing new regulations and instructions. Another factor contributing towards effective continuity is that of retention of former ministers as advisers to the incoming cabinet. In several instances II ,5 ,b 1+3 ministers serving in the present cabinet have served as ministers in other cabinets, but perhaps in different ministries. A brief summary of the status of assistance from the United States should be given because it has received so much attention since January 1952. Soon after the new Cabinet took office on April 1;, 1952, it was announced that the agreement would be honored but that renegotiation efforts would begin immediately to obtain an agreement mutually acceptable and to eliminate the clause referring to military assistance which was unacceptable in Indonesian political circles. While these negotiations were con- tinuing in Washington and Djakarta, the United States Congress passed legislation transferring the assistance from the Mutual Security Agency to the Technical Cooper- ation Administration or Point Iv under the State Department. In September 1952, the Indonesian press announced that the Indonesian Ambassador in Hashington had reached an agree- ment in principle with the State Department for the annul- ment of the previous agreement and for Indonesia to receive assistance under the Technical Cooperation Administration with any military supplies or assistance to be received on a reimbursable basis without any commitment relating to the mutual security of the two nations. The agreement for Technical Cooperation Administration assistance was completed and approved by both governments January 10, 1953. It remains that the greatest problem of Indonesia, political or otherwise, is the educational level of the masses. Estimates usually state that ninety percent of the papulation are illiterate, and until this condition can be nteriall'y improved, democracy will advance slowly. The age old custom of deference to age and social position will for many years be reflected not only in elections but in every line of activity of the people. The former rajahs, eultans and village leaders, many of whom are nominally without rank in the present government, have automatically become the most influential citizens in their respective areas so that for. a long time it is likely that even with voting franchise the mass of peOple will have little real influence in the government. NL .v\ CHAPTER V EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND The lack of education is one of the greatest diffi- culties, if not the greatest difficulty, facing this young nation. In no field of endeavor are there enough qualified personnel to fill the needs; however, the Ministry of Education is undertaking bold steps to rectify this condition as soon as possible, but it will be many years before the educati onel system will approach an adequate Itandard, either quantitatively or qualitatively. The Ministry of Education estimates the Latin alphabet illiter- “,1 .3; 81,6 percent. There are many Indonesians who are able to read and write in Arabic or in their native langu- age but who have had no education in the languages which use the Latin alphabet. The prevalence of illiteracy presents an insurmountable obstacle for rapid progress, “relapment of resources, or even the dissemination of infomtion. In order to materially reduce illiteracy the Ministry of Education has initiated a mass educational program to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic to the adult population with classes being conducted in almost every village of the Archipelago. The efforts of the Ministry of Education in the anti-illiteracy campaign are ___ 1. Ministry of Information, Indonesia Today Education and Science, Djakarta, Indonesia, 1951, Leaflet, PP. LL6 supplemented by the work of religious and private enter- prises. The enrollment in these classes is estimated in the millions, but accurate statistics as to numbers or accomplishments are not available. The adult education program should result in a partially enlightened population which in turn should increase the efficiency of the regular institutions through improved attendance and efforts on the part of the students. Compulsory education through the elementary level is nominal at this time; enforcement in impossible because of lack of facilities and teachers. Of the ten million children of school ago only five million are now in school, but according to a statement given to the press by the Minister of Education in January 1953. it is expected that enough schools and teachers will be avail- able by 1960 to permit enforcement of the compulsory edu- cation law. In addition to the educational programs of the Min- istry of Education other ministries are conducting a large number of specialised schools and courses in an attempt to fill their own requirements for trained personnel and for the dissemination of information to the people. Some of these courses are short, part-time courses, while others are at the level of technical high schools. In addition to the training being conducted within Indonesia, all ministries are sending personnel abroad for technical training as fast as available personnel and finances permit. 1&7 While it is true that the Civil Service of the Nether- lands East Indies before World War II employed about thirty thousand Europeans and Eurasians and one hundred and eighty thousand Indonesians - the latter were principally in clerical positional. Typically they were trained to per- form tasks very limited in scepe and to follow an unvarying routine without necessarily understanding why the routine was established. From the statement of the Indonesian Ministry of Infomationz that only two hundred and forty Indonesians graduated from high school in 191w, 'it is evident that most of the indigenous personnel in the Nether- lands East Indies government had very limited. education. In the pre-war days an average of ten percent of the budget was allocated to education, but 88.6 percent of this amount was for the support of schools for European children3, which admitted only a small percentage of well-to-do Indo- nesian or other Asian children. A restrictive requirement for entrance in the high schools was knowledge of Dutch, the language of instruction in high schools which was not taught in the elementary schools attended by the Indonesian children. The inadequacy of pro-war schools is best illus- trated in the fact that seventy thousand students were turned away from village schools in 191:1 because of lack of space. 1. Kennedy, cp. cit., p. 51. 2. Ministry of Information, Indonesia Count Peo le Ih‘ansition and Future, Djakarta, Ina'o'nesia, I951, p. III. 3e too. 615. V. m\ The hierarchy of the pro-war Civil Service was in this order: the Governor-General, the provincial governors, the residents, and the controllersl, each of whom was responsible for the administration of respectively smaller areas. Candidates for positions of controller and above were selected from high school graduates in the East Indies or in Holland by an examining committee, and successful can- didates were sent to a Dutch miversity for five years on government fellowships. With this procedure it is obvious that, while legally it was possible for an Indonesian to compete for and to eventually attain high rank in the Civil Service, the law of averages made it virtually impossible to do so. The candidates selected were well qualified upon capletion of their education, which in addition to the usual subjects included special courses in the ethnology, history, law, and languages of the Archipelago. With the newly acquired independence the few well educated Indonesians and many leaders with inadequate education found themselves elevated to positions of great importance, for which in many cases they possessed insuf- ficient experience to perform the duties efficiently. These officials were further handicapped by the dearth of capable assistants to whom responsibility could be delegated to any appreciable degree, thus slowing down administration by over- loading those who filled the upper positions. h 1e KennOdy, op. 6115., Do 51. lei l+9 It is impossible for one to say whether the Indonesian Round Table Conference delegates anticipated the need for technically trained assistants in every branch of the government or whether they agreed to retain former civil servants in advisory capacities simply to facilitate con- summation of the agreement. In either case, however, it was agreed that the Civil Service contracts of many Dutch citizens would be continued, even including their former privileges, such as European leave every seventh year and retirement after twenty years with leave and travel time outside of Indonesia considered half-time. In addition to the former uployees, additional Dutch personnel wereemployed on contracts of two to three years to assist in almost every element of the government, and aliaost all were given the title of advisors. In many department where the Dutch personnel concerned have been Willing to accept the new status and to work with Indo~ nesians who now fill the responsible positions, the arrange- ment has been excellent. In other departments the results have been far from harmonious, either because the Indo- nesian hesitated to ask for advice or assistance from his adviser for fear it would prove him unqualified or because the adviser longed for the "good old days” when he was able to give directions rather than recommendations which today may be ignored. As contracts expire, many are not being renewed; othersarebeing renewed for shorter terms 3 some advisors are resigning because they feel that their SO capabilities are not properly utilized. Additional technical assistance in many fields is being obtained through contracts with vendors, especially in the machinery field, and through the technical assist- ance programs of the United Nations and of the United States of America. In December 1952, Indonesia became a partici- pating country in the Colombo Plan which provides mutual. technical assistance and training, primarily with the Asian Commonwealths of the British Eknpire. In sane tech- nical fields contracts are being awarded for equipment completely installed with technical personnel supplied by the vendor to train Indonesian personnel in its operation. Il'he assistance from the United States was administered by the Economic Cooperation Administration until January 1, 1952, by the Mutual Security Agency from January 1 - June 30, 1952, and by the Technical CoOperation Administration under the State Department after July 1, 1952. The total amount of technical assistance from the United Nations and from the United States is relatively small when compared to that being financed from Indonesia‘s own resources. In education as in meet other phases of the govern- ment, Indonesia is faced with two fundamental problems. The immediate concern is that education is in itself two- fold, in that the educational level of the mass of the people must be raised sufficiently to permit them to par- ticipate intelligently in the democratic processes of ‘8 51 government and simultaneously it must also furnish enough technically trained personnel to permit the government to provide minimum acceptable levels of efficiency in serving the people in communications, transportation, agriculture, and health. The second fundamental problem in education is the establishment of a system of elementary, secondary, and vocational trade schools, as well as institutions of higher learning, adequate to provide the future require- ments in all professions in order to pemit the improvement and expansion of agriculture and the development of basic industry which, in conjunction with the exploitation of human and natural resources, will enable Indonesia to sue- tain a balanced, stable econow. One of the multitude of problems confronting Indonesia has been and fora time will continue to be the absence of a common language. While the lingua franca of the Archi- pelago is basically Malay, the variations between various areas has made the two hundred spoken languages1 mutually unintelligible. Malay has been spread throughout the coastal areas by traders and fishermen, while the inland areas have developed languages of their own, but before the war Dutch was the official language. Indonesians the attended school beyond the primary level had to learn Dutch before being admitted because it was the language used for instructions. In the pre-war nationalistic period of the b; l. E. Pino Bahasa Indonesia J. B. Halters D akarta Indonelit, 1950g’pe 5. , , J , 52 1930‘s, the need for a common language gained considerable mortanoe and the Indonesian language, bahasa Icgdonesia, began to spread through the Archipelago. Its spread was accelerated by Japanese occupation laws which forbade the use of all languages except Japanese and Malay. Many Indonesians used Indonesian for the first time during the occupation, having previously used only their local dialects and Dutch. The provision that Indonesian was the official language was included as article thirty-six in the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia of August 17, 1916. Because the Dutch language is no longer a required subject in high schools, the new Indonesian language is a serious problem in the colleges and universities at the present time. Many. of the instructors have never used the Indonesian language before except for shopping in the markets and with servants and are unable to adequately explain technical subjects except in Dutch, and many students now. attending these schools have studied little or no Dutch. The problem is further complicated by the inadequate supply of textbooks, especially in science, except in Dutchror English. Often government officials revert to the Dutch language for technical discussions. English has been adopted as the basic foreign language and is required for all students beginning in the seventh year, which is the first year of junior high school. The approach to the problem of raising the educational 53 ‘0 level of the mass of the peeple is through private or gcvarnaent anti-illiteracy schools1 in every 939.2 (village), which are using books especially prepared for this purpose. In the field of general information, dissemination is accomplished through newspapers, moving pictures, mobile public address systems, and the government-owned radio stations. Because most of the pepulation in the villages is financially unable to subscribe to the newspapers, in most villages the Ministry of Information maintains bulletin boards on which newspapers and bulletins are posted. Elementary schools are being established as fast as possible with attendance for a minimum of three years, nominally compulsory. It is impossible to enforce the regulation at this time because in some areas there are inadequate school rooms and insufficient teachers even when using the American standard of fifty years ago that teachers must have progressed at least one or two grades beyond the one being taught. The basic approach is to establish the lower grades most rapidly with the higher grades to be added as soon as possible. Beyond the elementary schools the pattern is generally the same with schools being established as soon as facili- ties and teachers are available and in some cases before adequate facilities or well qualified teachers are available. l. i press release in May 1953 by the Ministry of Edn- cation stated that through the mass education program #5 percent of the population is no longer illiterate but did not define the degree of literacy thus attained. 5h The manner or approach indicates a feeling of the Indonesians that the establishment of an adequate system of schools must become a fact as soon as possible and that the facil- ities must be improved in the immediate future. The logic of this approach becomes apparent if one realizes that the graduates of inferior schools are better qualified for positions of responsibility than those who have had no opportunity for school attendance. The extent to which existing facilities are often used was seen in Medan (Aug. 1952) where the author inquired about classes being con- ducted in one school at night. The answer was to the effect that there was a morning school, an afternoon school, and a night school in.that building. The general objective of the elementary school is to provide for everyone a basic education which will include instruction in‘Indonesian, the provincial dialect, basic mathematics, history, and the arts and culture of Indonesia. Beyond the elementary school a student may enter either the high school or the vocational high school. The principal cmjective of the high school is preparation for college or university study, while the objective of the vocational tugh schools is to train an adequate supply of sub-pro- ftssional or skilled labor in various fields of endeavor. English is a required subject for all students who enter either type of high school. Comparable to the organization of American universities, 1'1 55 the Indonesian universities are divided into faculties (college!) for medicine, law, economics, engineering, agriculture, general sciences, and arts. it the present time there are two universities, the State University of Gadjah Madah with its six faculties in Djogjakarta, and the University of Indonesia with five of its faculties in Djakarta, two in Bogor, three in Bandung, two in Sourabaja and one in Macassar. The teaching staffs, of the two universities number more than four hundred but this number includes many part-time lecturers who hold other positions in the Government. For example, the Chief of the Irrigation Service of the Ministry of Public Works and Power also teaches irrigation at the faculties in Bandung, Begor, and Djogjakarta. In 1950 there were almost five thousand students enrolled in the various faculties, but the enrollment has materially increased at this time. The general outline being followed in the establish- sent of the Republic's education system is shown in Figure 2. 1‘) 56 .Eoumhm Henoapeospo no doapdawdswho Heaonow no Ecumeuu eupdfionom .N canmflm A.msa my Hoohom swam successossms mead ndmnocoz dawndphom neaoxom eaoonom Hoaoomm nonpo use Heaoaofiaoo NGHeA can madman maHH neaoxom AoeAh my Hoonom oenoanom oapuoSoQ amends neasm naaosom Ea a Hoonom mfifiaddha whonomoa sham nuaomom Huaeedm common unfionamnH he showed: .mnh m seamen mm .mah m huamaebanb poaudmaecanp n.ehh my sacrum swam condom mead nmmnodoz_ncaoxom A.mhh my Hoonom ream tonnes caspaem newneuoz.nsaoxem A.eah by Hoonom hhcenoaodu census asacxem a.uch my Hoohom nwam condom “essences mdpd edflfiooa ndHOXOm A.ehh my Hoonom swam tosses Huoacnooe «nausea panacea nsaoxom “wondrous h. ... 'Vl Ike w-ee us-. ‘ I «..., -‘o. '. I“" ‘*-...g {E- CHAPTER VI COMMUNICATIONS The combined area of islands, intervening seas, and straits is almost as great as the entire North American continent (Fig. 3). More than two hundred of the islands are inhabited; however, only about thirty-five are really large enough to be of agricultural or economic importance. This fact in itself presents another problem to the already burdened government because administration and services must be provided for small segments of the population in isolated areas where the volume of trade is insufficient for a self-supporting transportation system. Under three hundred and fifty years of Dutch colonial ahinistration, first by the Netherlands East Indies Company and later by the Netherlands Government, the greatest development was made on the islands of Java, Hadura, and in parts of Sumatra. Other islands that are well known but developed to a lesser degree are Kalimantan, Sulawesi, the groups known as the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Moluccas. Kalimantan is the new name for Indonesian Borneo, while Sulawesi is the Indonesian name for Celebes. Bali is probably the best known of the Lesser Sunda Islands which also include Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, Lombok, Timor, and others. In addition to its worldwide fame as a tourist attraction, Bali is also noted locally for its agricultm 58 use ..o.0 .nopwnanmwz .hmmspam seamedou: nopdpm woods: on» so Adpsdsdfia .sofipasaoch no access“: use so popdaadhopo sanedoan m H Mo hmepasoov o as: .m assess 59 because its 293.3 (native custom) method of distribution or irrigation water is well regulated throng: village councils and is known as the 3333 system. Because most Balinese are of the Hindu religion, there is no religious taboo against pork, and swine is one of the principal exports of the island, most of which is shipped to the cities of Java and to Singapore (Figs. it. 5). In the Holuccas, Halmahera is the largest island, but in the struggle between EurOpean powers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries for control of the area it was over- shadowed in inportance by the small islands of Tomato and Tidore. These small islands were the homes of the strongest sultans of the period, and it was through them that most efforts were made to control the spice trade. it Ambon on the small island of Amboina the Dutch deve10ped a fine harbor and naval base which must be well known to many Allied aviators from the number of'wrecked airplanes and hulls of sunken craft still visible on the island and in the bay. It is almost impossible for one unfamiliar with the Far East to visualize the problems, the equipment, or the difficulties of transportation within this archipelago. The range of transportation facilities is complete with the pikulan or shoulder pole used by men and with baskets carried on the heads by women at the primitive end of the scale and with four-motored transport planes at the other. 60 Figure h. Hog carried in a bamboo basket in Bali fl Figure 5. Inter-island steamer loaded with swine and cattle m- V..’.' Between these extremes are the two-wheeled carabao and bullock carts; horse carts; dug-out canoes; bicycles; 232- 15153 or three-wheeled pedi-cabs; motor cycles; both out- board and inboard motor boats, as well as paddle-wheel river steamers and sea-going sailing vessels; wood burning, coal burning, and electric trains; and all types of EurOpean and American automotive equipment. The farmer usually transports his small surplus of farm products to the my: (market) by pikulan (Fig. 6) or with his two-wheeled cart (Fig. 7) if he is wealthy enough to own a carabao or bullock. At the 22.52: much of the produce is sold directly to consumers, but some is purchased by traders who use trucks for moving the produce to the larger markets of the towns and cities. In the vegetable producingarea of Brastagi, south of Medan, an estimated daily average of thirty tons of vegetables is hauled by truck to Medan's port of Belawan for export to Singapore. In Kalimantan the first stage of the farm to market transportation more often than not is by dug-out or, to describe them more exactly, burned-out canoes. In Banjarmasin and Kuala Kapuas, as well as in many other places on Kalimantan and other islands, much of the trading is betwoen the small proas in which the produce of these Virtually roadless areas is brought to market (Figs. 8, 9). On Java, Madura, Bali, and Sumatra a system of roads was constructed before the war, but in 89110111 they are 62 Figure 6. Transportation of produce with pikulan \ ("him Figure 7. Transportation by means of ox-cart ...‘l 63 Figure 8. Canoes used to transport commodities to market in Kalimantan Figure 9. Small cargo boat on Musi River in South Sumatra a. ~__ 61; inadequate for the heavy post-war traffic and many areas remain isolated. Due to the lack of equipment, equipment Operators, maintenance and technical personnel, much of the direct war damage and the deterioration from lack of main- tenance during the occupation and post-war struggle for independence has not been repaired, or if so, on a temper-- ary basis. it several locations in Sumatra it is necessary for everyone except the driver to dismount from automobiles and walk across bridges which were damaged during the revolution and have been only partially repaired to date. On Flores, Sumba, and Sumbawa the rate of destruction of bridges by the annual floods of the rainy season has exceeded the ability of the Ministry of Public Works to replace them; therefore, most streams must be forded. During the dry-monsoon this necessity is of no particular consequence because many of the streams are dry and others are at low stage; however, a week after the beginning of the wet-monsoon in 1952 it was necessary to travel on Sum- bawa in a 1} ton truck because the streams were too deep for fording in automobiles and pickups. The problem of flood damage. to bridges is common throughout Indonesia, so canon that before the war the Government-owned railways kept pro-cut bridges to enable the prompt replacement of those bridges over Javanese streams which were most often alleged by floods. Figure 10 shows a highway bridge on a secondary road in West Central Sumatra which was damaged 65 Figure 10. Flood damaged bridge on secondary road in West Central Sumatra Figure lle Four lane highway near Djakarta 66 by floods early in 1951 but had not been repaired in July of 1952. Although traveling in jeeps, all the passengers had to dismount and walk across the bridge at the time of a visit to this area. On islands other than those previously referred to, roads are normally found in the most densely pepulated areas and connect the principal places of importance (P13. 11). Kalimantan has the least adequate system of roads of the major islands with a total mileage of only about one thousandl, of which approximately five hundred miles is in the vicinity of Bandjarmasin, approximately one hundred miles in the vicinity of Balikpapan, and approximately four hundred miles in the vicinity of Pontia- nak. Ho connecting roads betwoen these three pepulationn centers necessitates travel by ship or plane. There are regular flights between Bandjarmasin and Balikpapan, but Pontianak may only be reached via Djakarta and Palembang; for a provincial official to travel from the provincial capital at Bandjarmasin to Pontianak he must travel through at least two other provinces and perhaps four, depending Upon whether the first leg of his journey is directly to DJakarta or via Surabaja and Semarang. Via this air route ho may reach Pontianak in two days with an overnight stOp in Djakarta. The alternate choice of travel, by ship, _‘ 1. L. w. Hannibal, Peta Kalimantan, 1/2,§oo,ooo, Planning Division, Forestry Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Bogor, Indonesia, 1950. f! .4 6'? requires three to five days, but the infrequency of regu- larly scheduled vogayes normally makes this choice imprac- tical. The lack of roads in Kalimantan is forcefully reflected in the lack of correlation between its area and its road mileage. Although the island's 203,000 square miles is more than a fourth of the total land area, its one thousand miles of roads is only about one-fortieth of the 39,562 miles1 in the road network of the country. The only railroads are on Java and Sumatra and a ferry transports the railway cars from Marak, West Java, across the Sunda Strait to Tandjung Karang, South Sumatra. The railway system on Java connects the principal cities, and with recent imports of locomotives and coach or freight car chasses, the railroads are able to provide daily service. On Sumatra there are three areas with rail service, but without interconnections. The South Sumatra railway service operates from Tandjung Karang on the south coast to Palembang and thence inland to the northwest. 0n the west coast a cog-line connects Padang and Bukit Tinggi, and in the north a narrow-gage line runs from Medan to the Achin territory. The total length of rail lines is M610 milesz. Many estates have private narrow-gage railways for Plantation to processing plant transportation, but these are 01' no value to the public transportation system. k 1. Ministry of Information, Indonesia Today, Communi. cations, Djakarta, Indonesia, 1951. Leaflet, ’4- PP. 2. Loc. cit. r! 68 Intra-island, as well as inter-island, transportation is both by ship and air, while farm products and farm equipment ordinarily are transported by land or ship. Poultry products, vegetables, fruit, and flowers are regu- larly flown from Bandung to Djakarta and to Palembang in South Sumatra. 'l'able II shows the extent of air travel and transport for the Operations of the Garuda Indonesian Airways Jointly owned by the Indonesian government and by the Royal Dutch Airlines and Operated under the manage- nent of the Royal Dutch Airlines. Except for one flight per week to Manila, Philippine Islands, and one flight per week to Bangkok, Thailand, and almost daily service between Sumatra and Singapore, Malaya, all flights of this company are within Indonesia. Inter-island shipping is a virtual monOpoly operated by the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij (Royal Packet 6031131111?) under a government franchise, and this company in return for this concession must make regular calls at lany isolated ports that would otherwise by by-passed. In spite of the size of its fleet, which includes a total of 108 ships with a total registered tonnage of slightly more 11111: two hundred thousand tons1 , there is inadequate amDping. The Governor of Central Sumatra in December 1951 Itated that the only Indonesian cement factory at Padang 1. Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij, N.V., Disn- stre elin der N.V. Koninkli ke Paketvaart Maatscha voor Eat iaar EL War a, n onesia, NOV. 1 : PP. all" C O u... ,- ile'l I\\s 69 «manganese assaauso o ...muoo mm .uesupeoo m mousse dance .p o nonaaaad headmnaaoan SAM hp ud3.noapmao on» mean cH .s oo:.oea.:~ ooo.mmo.mm ooo.omm.mm passage was owamwsn ...ou. .. v . undo Hues .omasc osmoboa Hence 00m 00m rem newcomasa hon sedan Ga eoeepuao oweae>< 000.>om 000.m0~ 000.00N uoanaso naownouusa no possum mm.- mm.:~ R0.H> nonesuuusoa cano>om 000.0:0.NH 000.00H.HH 000.00H.0H uoHaEKdov oaaeeoh Hence ooo.mom.ma ooo.mmo.ma ooo.omm.da .Hpsasupa noaaaxdo» sauce ooo.oos.m ooo.mms.m ooo.:oo.m cacao ..Hes .saopon Haves :maawm memo: . m0m.0m . macaw ahead endopoa Hence Samoa omoa seems 1 Nm<22Dm ZOHB 1 "' ‘ 5m x P1 ‘ ,_ ' : .. ‘6 E a? I < ‘ a" - KA "‘ " ‘ . 5" ‘-:w': . "' * I. V : . N ' kaP-nonq m z ;. . Td Pondona ‘ ' ‘D . . ) . - i 1] Q v’ . t J_ ‘. - h A e r ) e \ SILITONI {rm "3 p ‘3‘ , .. .I'J’l‘t'"? ‘y 1 . n “we: 2'7} . .‘ i {4' ‘ i- J ‘ ' I ~ ué v a , l “ ‘4: .j 2.. L- 11W" 11' . ‘, /74‘ (r a, 1 ”FA / s ' pffi'u’mtst \ 1 . ‘ ‘71 K; mace ‘, 2&4..." mum 554 ° ' f ll ' i ‘ ' , e" _ _MHV_ _ A w ,_ 130- on '- ‘ '“i I Figure 12. Lisp showing 1‘0?2;.:‘3I1 c." s .l%3L ‘ gi'x‘gli stations of Table III (j +3. —. fie « ,t‘ w, ~' 1 nn-uv ~« (purse y inns. is. ,. ,s 40”,, 1 _. 10... D. e. an ..inistrg -:: Ir_:‘t;:':“-;;i =2, f 'vfi.:t:t*'z.‘ 10 “M . 4 T I Z .L. [I I 1. 7.: - v 1‘ ‘ ‘ / 'u ‘A . . .2? x 1‘ y~ / r :M .1 A, A. ~10; :‘I‘f‘ 3mm: re. :ukit l‘in'Wi .. Central Jazmin (541‘) formerly ;oz't w; Padanw '4 (44) D 3' min; i A; . ( : ant Inca]. S Luna'tra (175) .. “MW bombers of stations are numbers now ; onthly qaily maximum, all lines o are avera: A I'flOll'thlf/x maximum per 213. ' .1 2500.11 . O . , O ., o» 113 10 1»o:-J‘ 1'ng ‘1"; L71 2;)? 257 11.2 11.7 1w“, 7! column is ‘J. u {A 1 , -; A; oh 267 18.7 60 wfl;n uoop - g A- I oi . -“ - ‘ .. 1 I ‘ _ _ A“ a' - _ ‘ xx « WA -A 1 L-‘: ‘. _ .. .1 ‘ '- 7 L 1': ‘ zUV.C - ’ 1,9 as: 512 4075 - ‘ I31"; " 13;) 1‘14 140 2581 " " 4453 "' '- 191.1 — - 193 232 270 2474 "' - 170.3 - - 106 260 237 oi' annual mixixzmm, not obtained from monthly maximmns Continued C- l 7 “121';- ' :1 ‘ :‘AL; ' l .11: - D), .J ' x Z" ‘r" 31:"? H.111 1,), 1111:. 1:1' 1,"; }.< 111': (111.1. C} .- 11:421.}: 57001151 5. Ca: 3 r “" ' v . 't’ Iisu _'{;_,.;;, .4 u; _ ,. = ‘_; .Lfllfi.’ +3... :‘ .": .3 ;_ : l 1”,:1. 112.1011]. record. largest ‘v - ull7 7'1. H”. by. &;r _.;A y L, .y g; 1 ,. l,g;g. ggr, jet, goo. nuan Ed LLLPS record ."1- A I h E; 2.011rs -1 5116 41 _ a . 11 r 1 l 1 11 1(;, 1111 2” 2 . 1 1 ””~L ‘ - - j. . )6; r - _ i o l . 1 H 1‘. 1 . ' 1. '1"; .1 11. 17.; 1:, l 1.1 ’1 1;* - _ A ~ »- §. - 7 :1 7, 10 ** 1 5 175 13 xnlr‘ o — - r, 2 1 17 r :3; . 7 :01 .1. .230 - ~ J‘ ° ) ‘1‘ W( — ' l o 1 o l o l .1 1.-. 0 do '.1 ll. 1- ‘0‘ 17.0 170~ l :‘J'E _ - K1«/ - - , . , ~ , , 71 73 1 0 1., 226 215 l; “L 461‘; ‘ $5611 2 o . L 11.. 4' C. .11 :-‘ 1., 4‘ 1r. " v, « 11.0 1%: 21-11 UL'Q 551‘). _ — 14-‘hmilri - - L 17.; 1..1 12.4 11.: 1_.1 1.4 ;.5 5.5 7.1 v.1 12.7 15.9 15;.5 - - (337') - - fl 5 » 1 c. '- 2.1 .36 55 5-1 50 v1: 9;» SU— 171 14 Antck o, - a 41W 2 / )1. 247 15; 124 16; 111 107 169 306 195 2n65 - - an k8 — — 15.. 1,.M 1 .C 14.: '.u 5.5 /.. 5.3 6.2 11.6 10.. 20.0 143.9 ' ‘ (231) — _ c g, 7; 7; c1 ,1 .7 40 1. 4~ .1 5 94 1.1 250 221 15 ‘n',&r 62 — a 350 1:1 26 2:6 2:5 20: 162 125 102 166 24; 546 2552 - - Tillivon - — b 1:07 12.: 1a.; 1..0 1L.» 11.7 v. 6.7 b.8 11.2 16.4 21.0 159.0 ' (255 ) - - c 60 50 ;7 5: 06 ca 57 47 45 46 55 64 116 240 213 . 16 Pontianak 53 10 a 277 201 24: 275 222 2;: 164 204 225 365 39? 522 3180 - ‘ J. Kalimentan — - b 16.6 12.5 14.6 16.4 1509 10.0 10.1 11.9 15,5 19.1 20.7 18.8 182.9 - - (273} - - c 67 55 65 62 57 5: 55 57 59 74 75 6” 120 227 220 17 Sampit 40 — a 2b 262 275 24 254 200 35 111 1.2 194 244 270 262 - - S. Kalimantan - - b 1.0; 10.; 14.. 3.7 11.2 (.2 7.6 6.7 6,] 9.R 15.4 10.4 157.4 - - (295) - — c 55 67 62 7r ca 50 51 57 49 54 60 56 115 182 166 18 Muratewe 5‘ 100 a 512 304 546 526 261 222 155 145 175 258 515 537 5125 - - S. Kelimentan - — b 17.2 15.2 1703 15.4 14.3 p b 9.8 9.9 10.7 15.1 17.3 18.6 172.7 - - (297) - - c 5 75 76 75 65 an 49 47 55 72 68 65 121 206 200 19 Bandjarmasin 65 — a 5.5 256 502 217 156 145 90 82 100 129 216 511 2569 - - S. Kallmantan — - b 21.9 18.9 19.1 15.0 12.7 11.7 9.0 8.3 8.0 11.0 15.8 20.8 172.2 - - (315) - - c 57 60 65 54 45 41 52 27 40 59 52 58 95 242 153 20 galikpepan 45 10 a 200 174 251 209 232 195 151 162 140 155 168 207 2250 - - o(§:%§mantan - - b 14.0 12.7 14. 6 13.3 13.0 12.1 11.1 10.7 8.6 9.4 11.8 14.9 146.2 - - - c 52 45 59 56 53 54 52 51 52 48 49 53 116 231 194 2 . l :amarinda 36 O a 181 149 189 205 181 142 111 97 123 151 200 206 1955 - ‘ I Kalimantan — .. b 1308 1196 304 15.3 14.6 15.4 10.0 9.3 10.0 12.3 14.5 15.4- 155.6 - - (525) - - c 44 42 52 o 47 4o 36 34 4o 44 50 55 91 172 150 :Numbers of stations are numbers used in source reference *Monthly daily maximum, all lines o are average monthly maximum Per 24 hours, the annual mean column is average of annual maximum, not obtained from monthly maximums Continued n. '11 5 .1: r Lr< ”15 1:0 Lion {62:5 0: L5 1 1m vxivy<13 £1;F- Q), S 11-. '1, :. 24 1 rs (1"6 6) Tuximum Second ... ;; .nbicn r220rd :1 L Li w: “ “:J.,y- C .‘ . : 1 1n1“ innval record largest 1" "ft » o 1. " ’ . . C. "I. v . L13» H O J I a ()1 t . 4V. 5 C o L‘V‘Can :‘1 hcfll‘? record 24 hours 23 4020:; 4* 1:1: 5 :20 47; 4;: . , 571 54; 20: “21 1?; :6< :45 479 418% - - HOTEL. 3:18:9'1/81 - _ 1 22. ‘ l . l“. 1‘; .1 l .{ l,‘.€ 15.7 11.4; 11'. :0» l"'.\ 19.: 15).? - u- (522) - - c 9’ .p_ 2: 7r 6‘ 61 5: 49 SE 75 10v 150* 541 284 23 on ;212 45 25 a 2m; 15: 14, 117 11: 13: 101 95 :5 66 111 117 1454 - - . .Zinlr 1 51.11'114951 - — E“ 11.1 J0. .7 {.17 701'“. 1".:. 17.: 2).: f).'7 To 9.» 3‘5. " - (65;) — - C 14 ; SJ 5y _7 g ”3 4n 5¢ 31 4“ 43 115 252 200 24 Pare'yare 53 7 a 340 2fu 250 209 175 9? er 4c 4: 104 221 565 213: - - 5.1:.A3U19qy-esi ... - b 1.1.: 2014; 1:41 11.: 3._ '17" 5.1 3.7 5..) 8.5 11.0 13.1 112.L‘ __ _ (7“4) ‘ - C 7? “7 70 r: , ' 21 20 25 ;9 c; 85 152 25: 214 25 :a98558r 85 7 a 1. 551 -25 16“ . 6< 54 10 15 40 174 590 29KB - — 5.5.(55142451 " - a 2:.7 11.: 19.x 13. . :.5 5.7 1.7 1.7 4.. 11.6 21.7 155.0 - - (422; - — c 11; 51 27 5:1 :1 5 1c 6 3 15 55 104 150 260 221 25 ZjeEEPCRtO. 2” - 9 2‘7 1:9 15:1 7 , a1 74 45 15 10 12 45 195 1101 - - °° 2u12W631 ‘ ' b 12.4 9.0 2.; 5.5 5.1 7.. 5.5 0.: 0.7 1.5 5.5 9.5 65.0 - - (62“) - - c 64 57 :w‘ 25 52 52 2: 7 8 8 19 55 100 200 195 27 3091a“? . , 26 259" a 14~ 157 25: 135 242 205 174 192 194 164 205 175 2257 - - Ven353+ JulRWCSl - - b 12.4 11.7 15.7 17.7 16.5 15.9 15.5 5.5 15.8 12.7 14., 12.0 166.5 - - (”°7} ‘ ' C 39 43 49 55 46 40 1: 41 40 42 50 45 76 111 96 28 Ee?d&fi . 33 33 a 33 177 128 131 ; 7 194 120 62 25 17 69 171 1600 - — D'ZL7iUlawe3* ‘ b 5.: 2.2 13.3 11.9 5.4 122 8.0 6.6 2.7 2.2 6.1 11.7 125. - - U Q) ' ' C 42 50 49 50 52 52 42 20 12 8 26 50 95 206 144 29 iamlea 27 - a 198 190 197 126 126 126 105 65 40 56 54 155 1588 — - . _ _ 17 A . > ’ r ‘— walfliga “011103513 "' b 11. 1) 1",).0 13.8 J00 7.6 7.1 5.7 0.1,) 5.0 2.8 4.0 8.6 85.5 "' I- (‘*4) ~ - c 56 57 62 5 42 5; 59 27 17 15 25 45 104 170 159 50 fiObziinal 34 - a 172 179 200 221 256 226 181 129 144 141 160 152 2121 — - o(;9837nera - - b 12.4 12.1 15.1 15.9 16.0 14.5 11.6 9.9 9.7 10.9 12.6 12.1 148.8 _ - ~ - c 48 47 50 45 52 41 58 58 42 45 87 179 108 31 32 Sakata S. Halmahera (498f) Piroe W} Ceram (488) 0‘59 8 b c 111 7.8 32 343 15.6 64 104 7.4 37 377 14.1 79 a: . **Numbers of stations are numbers used in source reference Monthly daily max1mum, all lines 0 are average monthly maximum per 24 167 9.5 57 322 13.0 71 5 137 9.1 11.3 5 27 296 232 13.2 1100 69 49 51 201 11.4 42 8.9 40 225 6.9 55 118 8.2 26 136 8.6 41 103 30 115 8.4 30 134 8.7 30 155 12.0 42 240 134.8 53 1485 99.1 81 2763 255.5 117 283 hours, the annual mean column is avera;e of annual maximum, not obtained from monthly maximums Continued :Numbers of stations are numbers used in source reference *Monthly daily maximum, a].1 lines o are averayre monthly maximum per 24 hours, 1, ::1 Lo. '425 1“: lOF‘J:O“ Lear3 0‘ 413:0— 50“‘ 10:. l'-”-11 1:11 U3 3), La: ~ r212? 1w“: 11120 b), 501. per 24 hours (line c) fux1mum Second 0: 5.53113 r830: 3-1P Liqe 12 x1 :1; P 1 ~n i. ::;1111c 0:: 25.4 = 1 inch Amnu'l recora lu"_03t ;ect Lnn. cud. 1r. r. '3 ' m, J11g"1 , 32:7, 001. 97, ;ec. “can i :01rs record 24 nours 53 1en6r53 37 3 5 1? 17: 17» 2.7 .5: 746 1056 35; 336 1:1 35 119 452; - - >.(Cen;r21 1e — - 5 3.E 3.; 17.7 1».« 15.» 11.7 10. 17. 11.2 6.c 5.3 9.5 14’.l - - .4556)* - - c 44 50 -; ch 11 111 luv 11* 51 56 29 43 2€P** 62; 466 35 lajel1 37 - 5 21; 211 2:6 171 133 20; 171 123 60 4 73 196 1871 - - /uflfr7 - - b 1‘2. 14103 1L. 112:. lb.» llgu 3.6 7.5. 5.1) glob 6.: 14. 124.4 - '- ‘43.) - - 0 53 4: 53 35 i; 1n; 31 33 23 20 “7 55 67 565 274 35 26594 55 051 a 577 427 43: 376 25: 1:0 113 122 143 33 464 595 4068 - - “' :25? nga - - b 20. 17.5 14.4 17.1 14. 11.1 8.r 3.1 9.7 15.6 15.4 20.9 131 - - 3. zantwn) - - c 119 2: 97 91 Gr 55 35 40 :0 74 97 111 173 313 304 7 ,. ih‘ A r ,--\ U8 "a”in . 2° *J & uUl 01 351 '70 160 131 62 69 92 2:7 431 467 2962 - - 3- 2:?t3ua3? - - b 15.: 12. 6 14.3 11.0 7.6 0.; 4.0 4.0 4.6 10. 7 16.0 17.0 125.2 — - -«l ~2n92m) - - o 83 73 70 7» 57 52 27 27 34 60 105 90 149 283 236 37 Ejakar‘“ Observatory 63 23 a 303 233 210 147 11 96 63 42 66 111 142 204 1793 — - ”9:273364 . . 1 . ‘ - b 19.4 13.3 16.3 12 9.2 7.7 5.5 4.0 5.7 8.4 12.6 15-8 155-5 - " gormerly 2838v1a - c 65 7O 54 g 43 3% 50 2 29 41 42 54 109 286 195 38 ioéor (Formerl 63 995 a 422 391 39? 403 364 263 237 239 322 435 394 357 4230 - - vezzeiavat B11tenzor ) - - b 22.6 22.1 25,0 go 4 16.7 15,5 11.3 11.4 15.8 18.5 20.5 21.5 216.1 - ' 55 av13) - — c 5 68 70 73 52 70 7o 66 84 84 74 65 133 260 220 39 Véaniuns 63 2345 a 202 187 52 225 145 92 60 55 82 166 238 245 1949 - - ”silegaga - b 16.1 10.2 1703 15.7 10.7 8.1 5.2 4.5 6.3 11.4 16.3 17.0 143.8 _ _ - rean8er) — - c 43 42 55 51 40 29 25 24 30 41 46 50 81 172 130 40 fiakmdbahan 11 104 a 449 370 391 2F4 198 131 182 27 97 113 323 354 2839 - - .(ggnfial gave - - b 20.8 18.3 17.8 15.9 9.9 7.0 6.5 3.3 5.0 7.8 17.1 18.5 147.9 - - 3 erl on) - - c 80 77 103 61 56 37 39 14 42 34 64 69 114 167 163 41 - §°dgggg 1 J 47 2263 a 710 711 543 402 264 154 112 63 90 183 306 475 4013 - - \.(60_p::a1 493 ) ' ' b 33-7 22-9 22.8 19.7 14.9 10.1 7.0 4.7 6.3 13.2 18.6 22.0 185.9 _ - 0n5an - - c 119 127 86 82 57 46 36 24 32 41 63 87 166 319 285 42 K Sebg::::al Java 51 56 a 337 292 316 251 203 168 84 79 101 375 373 402 2981 - - - - - b (50_Banjumas) _ _ 20.4 17.9 19.1 16.6 12.2 9.4 7.0 5.7 8.4 15.7 19.5 20.7 172.6 - - c 79 61 63 61 68 52 28 32 30 94 83 83 138 252 218 45 K Sfdgzgt5230Java 65 219 a 399 335 363 256 141 115 49 32 52 183 315 421 2661 - - ~_‘._____- - c 86 67 72 66 42 42 21 15 24 61 76 81 134 250 247 the annual mean column is average of annual maximum, not obtained from monthly maximums Continued ( L (7) L" 1221' s 1:“ _~—‘ ”My.-- ’—_—- '1 /, .— _ 11: 111:1»; ', }, . 1,161 *1i:1 0) 230001111 “° recs. 1 .3 1 . 11;}, 13.; 233,-; 1021 Annual largest _. -u. r. ‘ g, g, ’11; w . 1112. 0v. cc. 1621 record ‘.___.- 24 hours 5: C. a .1: :7 I; 3 7' .: ;-f 11 ,1. -“ -,-. -1. 1 -; 1 2r. :1 34C 216 1 - 1 1”. 17.. 13.? 1C. .1 8.0 5.3 2.3 2.6 12.0 18.2 124.4 - — 1 7. 71 1:1. :11 1.1 11‘ 16 59 1'5 2 256 45 6 1. -1: ;. ;-;. 31.3; 1: 13 7 :1 -1 4 t- - 3 4. 7 2 23 26 2 2144 - ~ 13 17.7 1'1].( 17.1 1?. T1:) 5.7.:- u‘.‘\ 2.:3 3.1 12.9 15.5 12:07 - - 0 71 71 6 s, 51'- 311 40 26 20 24 35 64 106 190 46 5 11 254 34/. 253 19 2 144 10, 8/ 59 60 165 234 205 - - ‘5 213.3 9.3 113.. 15.4 11.4 6.2 5.0 4.6 4.6 13.: 20.0 150.2 - c 47 ' 0 75 50 71 46 24 30 50 64 111 121 47 63 a 256 211. 1.99 1151 90 64 30 .11: 19105 204 1373 - - b 15.5 15.4 12.7 31.6 60L ‘1.‘ 2.:1 1.6 1.5 7.3 13.4 90.5 '- - c 55 53 51 41 36 2; 5 13 11 38 50 89 162 48 62 a 3313 344 330 176 98 66 27 11 17 130 259 1831 - - b 13.1 17.: 16.7 1 ,. 6.3 4.5 2.0 1.0 1.1 7.6 14.4 101.8 - - c 61 66 .8 54 38 25 14 7 11 51 60 102 195 49 63 a 303 277 2135 223 129 80 34 21 30 193 59 1887 - b 18.0 16.6 16.7 12.. 8.3 5.0 2.3 1.6 1.8 12.1 10.0 116.1 - - o 87 64 64 40 34 16 12 17 52 63 101 239 50 30 a 293 33:: 292 197 135 75 37 17 20 183 280 1959 - - b 13.4 15.4 13.3 7.8 5.3 2.8 1.6 0.9 0.8 7.6 11.0 81.4 - - c 60 2 59 56 46 34 22 8 10 57 72 109 149 51 63 a 234 233 191 105 75 51 16 6 5 58 160 1147 - - b 14.2 13.3 11.4 6.9 5.1 5.5 1.3 0.6 0.4 4.5 11.6 74.1 - - c 59 60 57 43 31 25 11 4 4 26 51 100 250 52 62 a 290 262 277 184 108 96 56 39 34 258 304 2029 - ' b 16.3 15.5 16.1 10.7 7.0 5.7 3.7 3.1 3.2 14.2 16.1 118.9 - - c 69 63 66 54 36 38 22 21 16 64 73 117 206 55 47 a 205 168 143 70 54 37 20 2 3 41 135 886 ~ - b 1505 15.6 11.4: 6.6 404? 5.1 1.4: 0.4 0.5 3.6 11.5 72.4 - - c 56 50 44 27 25 18 11 2 5 22 39 86 159 54 63 a 220 167 155 87 84 91 63 63 45 83 160 1285 - - b 13.4 12.1 11.4 7.2 7.0 6.2 5.2 5.2 3.9 6.9 11.0 94.7 - - c 57 48 47 57 34 35 27 30 22 31 48 99 251 M1 * Numbers of stations are numbers used in source reference Monthly daily maximum, all lines o are average monthly maximum per 24 hours, the annual mean column is average of annual maximum, not obtained from monthly maximums Continued LI 1 ‘1 * Numbers of stations are numbers used in source reference * . . . *Monthly daily max1mum, all lines o are average monthly maximum per 24 hours, the annual mean column is average ‘7 5” an. locatifin jeurs o- .1eva— 1w 45 r~i fall (linw a), A»: . 1.53 Klinw h), Lax. :0 24 ours L11 c) Xaximum Second "0" ;' s it- 7 rear". 37.11:; L.; 7, Lino. r1. ' 1‘ ji‘. 331111202611: 25.4 . 7 3 l in; 1 Annual record langst {but Jun. 9'. Let. 1gr. Kay Jul; xu'. '1:[. Lot. CV. .90. mean 24 hours rccora 24 hours 35 1.14.2141; 313‘ 1131:: s 4113 3:7 33121:, 13 30 25 2 10“ 236 391 2299 - - 3.8. Jam 4 - - 5 15.1 15.7 17.3 11.6 7.9 2.» 2.- 2.1.9 13.: 17.2 1231;; (113-;_es1.-1ci) - — c 20 73 0 55 40 17 11 15 3:1 48 80 111 175 167 56 14:51.51 25 16 a 265 221’; 211-1 170 9: 16 11 6 45 146 228 1498 - - 3.7;. Liadura - - b 19.:1 13.: 15.0 9.5 6.8 1.1 0.9 0.4 3.1 7.2 12.8 87.8 - - (Z-IJauura) - - c 66 51:. 53 53 3?. <1 7 4 23 44 52 95 180 150 57 845561.95 32 16 a 259 204 216 162 89 2610 9 40 103 228 1399 - ~ 3. 1fientr81 Idadura - - b 14.5 13.5 12.8 9.1 5.9 1.7 0.7 0.7 2.4 6.4 12.8 83.5 - - (lé-liadura) — — c 67 52 52 44 30 13 8 5 16 34 52 9 240 124 58 Liratengah 7 :13 a 485 172 150 161 81 29 12 0 17 90 159 1391 - - N. Central Hadura - - b l".7 9.7 9.1 7.8 4.8 1.9 0.9 0 1.5 6.1 lO.u 71.6 - ‘ (951—1146165) - - c 10‘ 55 54 56 32 1 2 7 0 13 34 52 106 296 114 59 Djepun 30 +65 a 30:1 272 264 213 117 23 9 21 32 148 234 1722 - - E. Central Madura — " - b 17.0 14.5 5.5 12.3 .5 2.0 1.2 0.7 2.1 8.2 14.4 102.5 - - (21-112adure.) - - c 68 68 62 56 33 13 6 16 13 49 48 109 280 200 60 I‘Tegara 58 26 a 226 197 192 131 95 57 70 63 151 181 216 1671 - - nest Bali - b 13.3 12.3 12.2 7.9 6.1 4.2 4.6 4.5 7.7 10.3 12.4 100.6 - - (457) — — c 58 55 51 48 37 22 31 31 56 61 57 116 248 165 61 Doeda 9 1712 a 423 294 291 252 353 413 182 184 295 353 293 2605 - - East Bali - - b 20.5 14.9 14.6 14.8 14.9 15.8 10.7 11.2 13.9 14.8 15.2 177.1 - - (444d) ~ - c 85 74 68 66 114 125 69 65 94 86 62 200 327 323 62 Ifarangasen 33 344 a 248 223 167 81 87 83 40 30 76 88 166 1383 - - b‘ast Bali - - b 12.1 11.1 10.7 6.3 6.3 4.5 2.8 2.6 4.7 5.9 9.3 82.3 - - (442) - - c 64 65 48 34 40 25 19 14 35 36 69 96 161 152 55 Den Paear 35 131 a 335 243 205 91 82 57 52 35 111 158 296 1737 - - S- Central Bali - - b 15.6 12.8 10.1 5.8 5.1 4.1 5.1 2.5 5.4 8.1 12.9 90.7 - - (445) - - c 79 58 54 38 42 25 25 20 46 54 69 115 292 245 54 KOPang 25 1164 a 260 214 198 117 67 53 47 25 94 193 290 1613 - - LDmbOk - -» b 16.0 13.1 11.8 7.0 4.8 3.0 2.5 2.1 4.9 9.2 15.5 94.0 - ~ (450) - - c 55 49 51 43 24 22 23 12 41 55 55 94 2.66 1.88 65 Taliwang 24 49 a 199 161 171 119 62 20 19 19 78 188 229 1524 - - “’1 Sumbawa - - b 11.0 10.5 11.6 7.8 4.6 1.4 1.6 1.6 5.3 11.9 13.8 83.9 - - (454) - - c 54 44 46 41 26 11 11 10 27 40 52 84 141 131 of annual maximum, not obtained from monthly maximums Continued Monthly daily maximum, all lines o are average monthly maximum per 24 - L. I II C if :-:; i 7 A“ , "V ’1 1399' on '16:er of 21:"!1- 5‘1 311‘th :' '1 “11 ‘ 1'.' L 1] , 6 1.11;" gs (13m L I , _ 63.. Maximum Second ,0. r- 5': 5-1.1 rear“: 1.; or. Lime -:, 2 4 9:1 6 1 1 :1‘1‘. ‘ rs 25.» '2'“ = 1 in“ [1:141:91 record largo-st _ "5 u: . a. 1'11". 1‘. ‘ ' 121v 311;" 1 . 1:: at. Lot. 33‘ . Dec. mCRn 24 3052-3 record ___.__ 24 hours 5" .1 “(3541' if: 66 n r 22:.1 2:54- 107 5'3 34 15 9 12 42 121 226 1407 - - \n‘:r'_:1 S‘mbawa — - b 4.4 12.6 12.3 6.1 3.1 1.{ 9.9 0.6 1.9 2.3 7.7 19.1 145.5 '- 5)* — — c 5:3. 62 3 1C 7 19 43 55 94" 144 125 57 7501-5 1;: 164 9 192 174 211 14" W 41 32 7 26 64 147’ 273 1354 - - 1;. 313109.741 - — b 11.4 19.“ 10.4 6.1 2.5 2., 1.1 0.9 1.4": 4.5 8.3 14.6 75.9 - - (4563) - — c 4:"; 4.? 43 39 13 1'1‘ 16 4 19 2O 45 54 68 96 8'8 53 71m; 61 0 a 22) 203 189 141 61 43 17 12 13 40 127 220 1286 - - L. 31511121775 - - o 5.3 14.5 13.1 6.5 5." 3., 1.6 1.6 1.4 4.0 9.3 14.7 91.6 - - (456) _ - c 49 45 45 46 27 15 9 5 7 15 39 49 79 219 174 5'3 Labuan Liaijo 24 3 9. 176 154 123 70 43 35 16 6 14 29 56 196 936 - - '4. Flores " "' 1: 10.]; 10.2 7.4 4.6 U00 2.]. 1.4 .5 1.2 2.9 5.1 11.0 60.1 "' '- (4535) — - c 54 45 3 36 19 19 9 4 9 13 23 53 80 zoo 122 70 Badjawu 31 4100‘ a 366 345 320 172 97 47 55 25 14 37 147 334 1945 - - .4". Central Flores - - b 19.0 16.8 15.9 9.6 6.3 4.2 4.1 1.7 1.7 5.5 9.2 16.2 108.4 -= - (465) - - c 69 69 67 54 37 21 16 13 8 16 46 61 121 276 184 71 nude 31 O a 131 149 155 94 D7 42 47 14 33 75 123 158 1138 - - S. Central Flores - - b 12.4 11.7 1.6 6.7 5.6 5.0 .3 2.4 3.1 5.5 7.4 11.6 87.3 - - (465 - - r 67 42 5 43 24 17 22 6 21 35 47 48 106 304 208 72 Kaumere 37 O a 178 166 144 89 45 28 18 7 7 27 78 167 954 - - 14'. Central Flores - - b 12.3 10.8 9.9 5.5 3.2 1.9 1.5 0.8 0.7 2.2 5.6 10.1 64.3 - - (467) - - c 51 52 45 4o 21 19 11 5 4 17 29 51 99 259 158 73 Larantuka 37 - a 249 219 199 102 44 34 18 6 5 32 99 189 1176 - - 5' Flores - " b 14.6 13.0 11.9 6.5 0.3 2.5 1.6 0.8 0.8 2.9 8.0 13.0 60.0 " '- (468) - - c 57 65 63 42 22 15 12 4 3 15 39 47 105 295 188 74 7161 Kabubak 30 1181 a. 298 292 317 156 98 51 33 33 37 59 201 320 1895 - - W. Sum‘ba - - b 16.8 1609’ 17.0 9.8 6.1 3.0 5.0 2.3 2.7 5.2 11.7 16.3 110.7 "' - (460) - - c 62 62 69 43 57 19 15 17 18 22 46 64 105 210 170 75 Lewa 6 1624 a 238 332 354 159 127 91 54 18 O 57 241 313 1984 - - Central Sumba - - b 20.0 19.7 17.0 8.2 5.5 5.5 3.8 1.4 0.0 4.5 12.8 20.3 118.7 - - (4600) - - o 55 7o 79 62 60 4o 22 15 o 27 71 54 113 152 130 M *, **Numbers of stations are numbers used in source reference hours, the annual mean column is average of annual maximum, not obtained from monthly maximums Continued 4 l ; _ -" ‘ 't’ 1“: — ~ _ 1‘ , ‘Ll L’ ‘, . L". 1 1 ,, '. 'C ‘ . — . H A ._ i‘ . u 7’ A . V < c~ - «L — . . ¥ . . . . J 4; _. J I‘ Lu-” _ ‘ 1;; l 1;", L L. J 7 - — 7 .1 .. l . , .1 Z“ ...l . \ 1 — u 1 i» ; 5;; , 17 77 E3» 1 a?) T ' C . 7‘: : f; ‘. , l 4 1 ~ w A. A. . - - l .A 1 . J.- .., . »0« -o o «‘0' (3-, _ _ - ‘ :7 3"; 7. A; ;_ A LAJ- -1- 1 '1; r7 ' L .' l 1' 1.. I. A I" A - CF - - 1 g 1. l .1 . - D —. A.~ 1. ll ‘1, l) .. _ ., N. ———....___ 7T , . . ~ , *um‘ibers of statlons are 11mnbers usea 1n source reference I- 1‘ 'r; V .n, V -_ .. 77. . . _ - . 1 - - ‘ «. . I‘Onthla’ duly mam—Mm, all 1111-63» 0 are u.vv:r&,;e monthly max3.:mm; per 21 :m1:;‘.:, 'Uhc «9111mm; mun column 15 xavcrssbe oi mnmal maxmnm, not obtwned irom monthly max1mums A I.‘ .1. .lq‘)4 ”tn, ' 89 in Indonesia1 was based partially upon their geographical distribution (Fig. 12) and partially upon their proximity to areas that will be discussed later in some detail rela- tive to particular agricultural engineering problems. In the section of his treatise on equatorial soils devoted to classifications of equatorial climates Mohr2 state's that methods of classification develOped by Kgppen and other climatologists are not applicable to the Indo- nesian Archipelago and suggests a method based upon rain- fall that establishes five classifications. with two sub- classifications. The controlling factors in this system are monthly evaporation and precipitation rates. From experimental studies at Bogor Moh‘n reported that evapor- ation rates vary between 2.56 inches in dry months and 3.35 inches per month during wet months. He then considered any month with less than 2.37 inches rainfall as dry months and those with more than 3.910- inches wet months. Those months With precipitation bottleen 2.37 and 3.914 inches were con- sidered as fringe months with their influence upon the soil forming processes and vegetation determined by the antecedent moisture content at the first of the month and the inten- sity of rainfall in the ensuing month. l. H. P. Berlage, Jr., Re enval in Indonesia (Rainfall 1nIndonesia) , Verhandelingen No. 37, Tie-pt. van Verkeer, Borgia andidijnwezen Heteorologische en GeOph siche Dienst Koninklijk en Heteorologisch Observatorium, 19 9. 2. MOhr, Op. cit., pp. 55’600 90 The figure groups considered by Mohr are outlined below: Group I. Group II e Group III. Group IVe GI'OIIp V e Continuously moist or wet with no single month having rainfall less than the minimum evaporation rate of 2.37 inches per month. This is further divided into those (I-a) with no single monthly average above 5.90 to 7.87 inches and those (I-b) with no single monthly average below 7.87 to ll.82 inches. Cinnates with no more than one dry month (less than 2.37 inches rainfall). Climates with a distinct dry season of two to three months. Climates with a distinct dry season of four to five months. Climates with a distinct dry season of six to eight months. Analysis of data from.2,h92 stations on Java and.Madura permitted.Mohr to prepare a climatological map for these islands, which located almost all areas under Groups I-A, Ibb, and II to be in the western half of Java. All areas in.Groups III. IV, and V are in East Jave and Madura. Narrow coastal fringes on Madura are identified as Group IV with approximately two-thirds of the island astride its longitudinal axis classified as Group III. Almost all of Sumatra has rainfall that falls under 91 Groups I and II, with Group II predominating south of the line from Palembang to Bengkulen and in the Batak highlands between Padang and Medan. The Achin area of North Sumatra falls into Group III because of the influence of the dry winds from the Asian Continent. The Riouw Archipelago, Bangka, Billiton, and Kalimantan are almost exclusively in Groups I-A and I-b, with the exception of: a small area east of Bandjermasin. This small area shows the influence of the dry east monsoon that has such a strong effect on the Lesser Sunda Islands, East Java, and Sulawesi. Sulawesi, approximately midway between Australia and Asia, has alternating wet and dry seasons with considerable local variations that place most of it in Groups III, IV, and V. The Lesser Sunda Islands are affected so strongly by the dry east monsoon that virtually no areas may be classi- fied as Group I, a few small areas as Group II, some areas as Group III, and most of the areas as Groups IV and V, with Group V predominating in the eastern islands. The information available from rather widely separated locations indicate that Groups I and II are the dominant groups in the Moluccas and in Irian. The tepography and precipitation of Indonesia are reflected in its rivers, which typically are narrow with a steep gradient in their upper reaches and wide and shallow as they approach the coastal areas. Only three 4'1 i" .a" . I ' IA... .1 * 1‘}- ‘a'. h ' ‘ ‘ c v ‘ ,‘Q 1 .ID (- p ‘. ‘qa. - 1': n. .- C. "-v G - j, ,3 ‘ s a. ' \ \ ., H ..4 . V a a""e I' .1‘ l . "vai- . .‘u 5'. 'J‘ 't ta‘ ‘ d I \‘g \ Indonesian rivers are navigable to any extent, the Musi in South Sumatra with sea-going vessels able to sail inland about sixty miles to Palembang, the Barito in South Kali- nantan which is navigable inland for about one hundred and fifty miles, and the Mahakam in East Kalimantan which is navigable inland about one hundred miles. Because almost all of the rivers have their headwaters in steep mountainous areas and originate in relatively small watersheds, they reflect heavy rainfall in flood crests very quickly and transport large boulders to their flatter slepes causing much damage to bridges. Hardly a week passes during which at least one flood is not reported in the newspapers. It is characteristic that the areas damaged by floods are usually a few acres and seldom as much as a thousand acres; however, many bridges are destroyed annually and the total damage to creps amounts to several million dollars. Because the streams originate in mountainous areas, many of which are covered with highly erodible volcanic ash, the silt loads of the streams are extremely heavy. Where it is possible to irrigate rice with the silt-laden water, it is considered very desirable because of the ‘e fertility of the ash which contains magnesium, potassium, , and phosphorus as well as other minerals. This concept is J A0 Wrong that clear water either from streams or wells is / generally considered unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes 93 in spite of the detrimental effect of silts originating in marly formations on the soil structure and upon the avail- ability of phosphate. The heavy silt load also contributes to the deposition of natural levees along the streams 3 therefore, over a period of time the stream beds tend to rise above the level of the adjacent coastal plains and increase the danger of floods and changing stream courses. In some swampy areas where rivers are interconnected, as in South Kalimantan and Southeast Sumatra, these levees have develOped large lakes which are dried only by evapor- ation near the end of the east monsoon. In the latter area this has led to a peculiar type of farming known locally as the $9295 culture which will be discussed later. The natural levees, together with tidal action in the vicinity of Kuala Kapuas in South Kalimantan and in the vicinity of Palembang in Southeast Sumatra, result in a hydrologic oddity affecting large areas. At Kuala Kapuas the difference between high and low tide is almost ten feet and at Palembang slightly more than six feet. At high tide the flow of the large interconnected rivers is blocked by the rising tide, with the result that the crest becomes higher than the natural levees and fills the basins enclosed by the levees between the confluences of the streams. As the tide recedes and the normal flow of the streams is again 40‘“er the coast, the crests fall below the levels of the basins, but the water is retained in the basins for lack 4““. .‘ . ..vu ‘e "If”. at- . ‘i 3' ..II' "5 .n ‘gpqifi a. ”in. . an a r' all-ii i I" .Fa: I L and H ‘, .3: l.- .. ‘: 2‘s. ‘ “W: i1 ‘- \i “r . -3! 1a. a.) '1 I II al- up 9A of Open drainage canals. Near the coastal areas there are various degrees of brackish water, but this effect does not reach very far inland. The discharge of the rivers is so large that the water filling the basins, except very near the coast, is the fresh backwater of the rivers. Large areas along Sumatra's east coast and in South Kalimantan which are potentially good agricultural areas have caused the Indonesian government to undertake the develOpment of polder development in the Kalimantan area to determine the feasibility of controlled drainage and irrigation through the use of levees, control gates, and pinps. The term polder has been added to the Indonesian language, at least on the island of Kalimantan, if not throughout the Archi- pelago, largely because of efforts of Ir. Dr. H. J. SchOpuys, Chief of the Agricultural Extension Service of Kalimantan until December 1952, who has prepared extensive general plans for the reclamation of more than a million acreas of lowlands in South Kalimantan. The term polder refers to an area protected from high waters by levees. The drain- age of polders is accomplished by the use of one-way valves or pumps and sometimes by the use of both. Because of ladang agriculture's tremendous influence upon the present vegetation of Indonesia, a description of this culture should preface any description of vegetation /for the benefit of the reader who is unfamiliar with Primitive agriculture in trepical regions. As it is used 95 in Indonesia the term ladang agriculture is used to describe a semi-nomadic type of farming carried on by the peeple of the sparsely pepulated areas with a minimum of tools and power, other than human, at their disposal. Under ladang culture the farmer cuts the trees or brush of an area and when the vegetation has dried sufficiently, it is burned. Because of the farmers' inability to control the fire large areas of forest and formerly cultivated fields are also burned. After burning, the fields are interplanted with corn, rice, or both among the stumps and logs with little or no further preparation (Fig. 13). The fields remain under cultivation for two or three years and are then left for native vegetation to return; however, the vegetation that is often best able to compete with the repeated burn. ings is slang-along grass (Imperata gylindrica P.B.), and the result has been that vast areas once covered with forest are now sgvmna (Fig. 111.). Ladang culture is so widespread that it is difficult to say whether the native vegetation in many areas was once forest or whether because cf soil and climatic conditions it has always been savanna. Because of a lack of forest lands, especially in the Lesser Sunda Islands and in some areas of Sumatra, the burning of §_1_a_n_g- ..alang fields as partial preparation for planting rice and corn is quite common. The ladang amounts to a primitive xrotation with land in crOps twa to three years and in grass or second growth forest for four to ten years. The time , n.--.. v 96 Land cleared by the ladan method Photo courtesy Ministry-3% Information, Djakarta. Figure 1h. Alan -a1an following ladang culture on South Kalimantan 97 land remains in forest depends upon the pepulation density and the need for land for food craps. General references to Indonesian soils usually make the broad statement that because of their volcanic origin they are very fertile. In the highly develOped agricultural areas of Java, Bali, Lombok, and some parts of Sumatra the general statement is well founded, but it is also misleading when one is thinking of the agricultural potential of the entire country. The pepulation distri- bution of Indonesia largely reflects the productivity of the soil under its local climatic conditions, and observa- tions about the national potential based upon the densely pepulated areas are comparable to the accuracy of such an estimate of the productivity of the United States after an inspection of only the corn belt. Such observations are often made by visitors after brief visits to Java, Bali, or parts of Sumatra, while soil scientists who have made more detailed studies even make a sharp differentiation between the potential of areas according to whether the volcanic influence is geologically recent or not, as well as other characteristics not readily discerned in casual observation. The soils develOped by the soil forming processes from recent volcanic ash are fertile and have good structure, while those from old volcanic ash are Anfertile as the result of excessive weathering. In view of the vast differences in the characteristics “a..- J'— 98 of the Archipelago, some of the principal characteristics of topography and soils will be given. These incomplete descriptions are based upon available literature in English and observations of the author on numerous field trips. The observations recorded here are necessarily superficial because most of the literature is in the Dutch language and also because the study of soils was in no case the primary purpose of the field trips. A field trip to the islands of Flores, Sumba, and Sumbawa was in the company of a soils scientist; therefore, the description of parts of these islands may be more detailed than their agricultural importance justifies. It is characteristic of all the islands of Indonesia, with the exception of Kalimantan, that along their longi- tudinal axes are ranges of mountains. The areas of highest rainfall are in the mountains where the rivers receive their heavy load of fertile silt for deposition either in the irrigated fields, the alluvial coastal plains, or the coastal swamps. There are few rivers that do not approxi- mately parallel the transverse axes of the islands; there- fore, the rivers are generally short and have small water- sheds. Because the watersheds of the streams are narrow and usually steep in the upper reaches, the intense tropical rains over small areas and of short duration in time are Quickly reflected in the floods so often reported in the lav-Hands. The morphology of the areas volcanic in origin 99 further accelerates the concentration of runoff so that the flood crests attain a miximum very quickly. The lava and subsequent mud flows (lahars) from the volcanoes left a gently sloping to steep mass of easily erodible material at the base of the volcanoes which was quickly dissected by erosion so that contours around the numerous noses protruding from the mountains have the shape of the flat- tened edge of giant morning glory blooms. Because of the numerous indentations in the tepography, runoff from any point quickly reaches a channel with the accelerated flow common to channel flow as compared with the shallow flow over large areas. Kalimantan is the exception to the general pattern of long narrow islands and also is exceptional in its lack of volcanic mountains. It does conform in that its highlands are in the central area; however, its topography is such that its general drainage pattern may be described as being radial. While floods are also common in Kalimantan, they are the result of the sustained rains of the wet monsoon in the areas of the interior and are normally of much longer duration than the floods that occur on the other islands. B. Particular Characteristics of Java It is only natural that, because approximately two- thirds of the Indonesian pepulation is concentrated on the 1....— J" 100 island of Java, because it was the island of principal economic importance in the Netherlands East Indies, and because seventy-seven percent of its land area has been cleared for cultivated crOps, there is more detailed infor- mation available relative to its soils as well as in every other respect than is available for the remainder of the country. Reconnaissance soil surveys have been made for all of Java and detailed soil surveys (scale 1/50,000) have been completed for large areas by the Institute for Soil Research of the General Agricultural EXperiment Station 1 has at Bogor. The mapping procedure according to Dames been based upon field discernable characteristics of the soil profiles which permitted grouping soil species under related soil types. The soil type compares with the series designation, while the species compares with the differ- entiation within series which is commonly used in the United.States. According to Dames, as well as other soil scientists, virtually nowhere in Java has the soil develOped from a single parent material, but everywhere there is the com- lsined.influence of volcanic activity and of aeolian or auxueous sedimentation. Soils maps have been prepared based 1xpon the field surveys supported by essential mineralogical, thsical, and chemical investigations to establish the I / 1. T. W. G. Dames, Some Notes on the Soil Survey of «T 831. Reprint from Commonwealth Burefii of 8011 So a TOGE- omtmication No. ’46, 1914.9. 6 pp. . Ina-.... J'- /‘ ...- 101 pedalogic characteristics of the various soils. The importance and extent of soils information already collected is indicated by the existence of approximately 2.5 million acres in Java known to be deficient in phosphate where the application of moderate amounts (100 to 200 lbs. per acre) of double superphosphate will increase rice yields from ten to fifty percent. The climate of Java is hot and humid, and with the exception of the cooler areas in the mountains the exper- ience of the Institute for Soil Research has indicated that differences in the soils are‘primarily due to differences in the parent materials and the tOpography rather than in ”13 minor climate variations. In the earlier reference (pp. 89-91) to Hohr's classification based upon amount and diatribution of rainfall, it is evident that the soils of Java hairs develOped under continuous leaching, although perhaps intermittent leaching with minor exceptions. The Institute has distinguished ten main soil groups (series) which 31‘s briefly described below. (1) . The volcanic ash-soils consist of unweathered ‘1' slightly weathered, elastic, andesitic, or basaltic f‘un‘la. Ash includes all loose volcanic products such ’3 dun: sand, gravel, and stones. As soil profiles have not develOped over these materials, the most important propwty other than mineralogical is texture so that this We 1‘ subdivided into ash-gravel, ash-sand, ash-dust, £4}: ‘- § 102 and ash-loam with further description as young, grey; slightly weathered, older, light yellow; or light brown ash soils. Chemically these soils are fertile except in nitrogen and are slightly acid to neutral. Green manure crops are always beneficial to these soils, and the coarse sands or gravels also need chemical fertilizer. The fine sands and loans constitute some of Java's most fertile soils. Hardpans are quite common just below the surface 01' this type of soils, but are generally beneficial in that they .reduce the water lost through percolation in both irrigated and rain dependent 3&9}. but such hardpans “1‘0 detrimental to sugar cane, tobacco, and non—irrigated clflbpg. (2). The lateritic soils are the brown and red soils an“ 11‘0- the standpoint of area are the most important typ" 01" Java. These soils are primarily develOped over the mdesitic and basaltic deposits from the volcanic “tint? of the Pliocene and the Quaternary Ages, but some c1°~°1tic and leucitic material is also present. Over “9 °lder volcanic materials there are also some lateritic Nils, Such as the tuff sandstones and breccias and other ’tu‘f‘ rich in basic materials. The brown and red lateritic 90113 hfive normally develOped under good drainage conditions and the Older the soil the more reddish the color if environ- ment ‘1 conditions, are equal. Often from a distance these .011. ‘ppear to be red but upon close examination are either .k v. ..V' 103 reddish brown or .a pure brown. In young brown soils con- cretiens are usually absent, but small yellowish-brown lateritic concretions may occur dispersed, and sometimes they form a true concretionary horizon. Such a horizon is by no means characteristic for this soil group and owes its formation to local internal drainage conditions. In the younger brown soils considerable mineral reserves are Present, while in the old red lateritic soils no mineral reserves are present. In the young, brown soils, because of impregnation of 3°11 particles with iron hydroxide, some granulation has °°°urred so that the sand fraction is usually 20 to 30 percent; however, the older the soil the larger the amount of the clay fraction. The old red lateritic soils usually h ‘70 more than 70 percent clay and less than 5 percent sand. Hi th POdologic age the pH reaction of the soil changes 11°“ “lightly acid (pH 6.5) to very strongly acid (pH u.5). 'l'h , ° ymuIgor soils are rich in available phosphate, potash, 1 ins, “Id magnesium, but the older soils are deficient in th .'° mil‘brients. Since the phosphate content of the old la “Id-tie soils is soluble in a 25 percent solution of HCl, t j 1' Prosumed that the phosphate has reacted with iron or “mm“?! to form resistant compounds. The lateritic soils an . 13 3°°d physical preperties with favorable conditions of utter 1nOvement and aeration, show little shrinkage or crack- ing "11°11 dry, and are slightly sticlw when wet. Both the .‘ Wu..- -1- 1014. young and the old lateritic soils are good agricultural soils, but the older soils require the addition of fertili- gers to make them productive. The chemical analyses of soil at the Institute showed the SiOZ/AIZOB ratio to vary between 2.2 and 2.9 while the Sioz/Al203 Fe203 varied from 1.5 to 1.9. X-ray analysis proved the clay mineral to be kaolinite. The base-exchange capacity ranges from 10 to 20 m.e. per 100 grams. While these soil types are classed as lateritic, true laterite 8011s have been sporadically found on Java. I (3). The mountain soil type1 lies between a true POdzol and a brown-earth and develOps under conditions of high moisture and moderate temperatures where abundant humus accumulation occurs. In this type of soil, as it °°°u~P8 on Java, there is no distinct differentiation b°meen the eluvial and the illuvial zones, and its most characteristic feature apart from the 10 to 30 percent °°nt°nt of humus in the tap soil is the degree of granu- lation due to the impregnation of the particles with iron hymn-d6 and humus and to the absence of concretions or htrdpma. These soils are extremely to strongly acid (pH 14.0 t° 5.5), but under good management are satisfactory for ea 5 v ' ”free, cinchona, and vegetable crOps. The continuous N Dames has recently preposed that this soil type be to as the humic brown soils because sometimes they found in the coastal plains under specific con- f parent material, climate, and vegetation. 1 are lls ditionaoo (I /' 105 leaching by water with a high humus content results in a brownish to black tepsoil and a yellow-brown subsoil that is subject, after clearing of forest and exposure to the sun and wind, to severe erosion unless due attention is given to the preservation of humus. (h). The margalite soils are usually black or gray but are sometimes yellow; these soils typically have develOped over “”1; and lime containing shales. They are very heavy, become very sticky when wet, are subject to severe cracking when dry, and contain concretions of iron ”id manganese throughout the profile. Calcareous con- °r°tions occur both in the tepsoil and in a white calcareous horizon in the subsoil at a depth of three to five feet. 3°118 of this type also develOp over lime-containing tuffs Ind “1‘0 sometimes found over volcanic tuffs. As the lime 3011139111? of the parent material decreases, there is a decrease in “1° calcareous concretions which lead to the distinction beta.” the lime-margalites and the tuff-margalites which 11‘s Weakly acid (pH 6.0 to 6.5). The mechanical analysis of “1' Soil type shows it to be similar to the lateritics fin “"3 cuntent of sand, silt, and clay, while chemical ’nfllysig shows the Sioz/AlZOB-FeZOB to always be above 2.5. ‘1‘” ° (’1‘? mineral belongs to the montmorillinite type which ”mluns the difference between this soil and that of the 1ste1~1t1c tn”. (5) o The limestone soils (terra rossa) occur in the 106 crystalline-limestone areas which have a M landscape, and in these areas the soil has develOped a reddish-brown surface. The accumulation of aeolian deposits has been an important influence in the develOpment of these soils. There are also some black limestone soils on Java, but these usually occur over earthy limestone materials. (6). The marsh soils occur in river-flooded areas or near the coast in the presence of a high water table. The to138011 is usually a black or grayish humus loam or clay, w115-16 the subsoil is paler in color and shows yellow or brO‘m mottling or streaks. These soils are acid (pH 1.4..5 t° 500), sticky when wet, and tending to crack when dry; 1mass chuactorigtics, however, are not as marked as with m ”Sflitic types of soils. The chemical preperties of the 3°11“ Vlry in accordance with the parent materials, but usuuly these soils are well adapted to irrigated 1'1“ field" (7) . The quarts soils are a group of soil species that have a large content of particles in the 50-100 micron range 8nd “n related to the red-yellow podzolic soils. Typical “mph“ may have a content of ninety percent Of quartz 311* "1th traces of zircon and tourmaline, but the single grain ’tm‘m‘u‘o that occurs in the absence of any clay fraction 1.3 “1° Principal characteristic of the type. Differences 1n th’ parent material may result in acid lateritic soils 01' llkaling margalitic soils, both of which are poor in plant nutrients and therefore require heavy fertilization 107 for adequate production levels. (8). Bleached earth as a soil type occurs in the western part of Java over dacitic tuffs, and here white loans with iron-manganese concretions are found. At various depths there occurs a hardpan with a high content of silica, iron, aluminum, and manganese which in turn overlies a stratum of clay. The soils are strongly bleached by con- tinuous leaching and in some respects resemble pedzoli- lution, but it is unlikely that acid humus was present in the leaching process. These acid soils are so poor in Plant nutrients that they have little agricultural value ”id have probably develOped as ground-water laterites. (9). Peat soils of the entrephic and of the topogen- Con. 1SYpes occur in relatively large areas of Java. Polakl describes the peat develOpment of the Rawa (marsh) Pening he” Samarang, where floating masses of peat soils are 8601.1de by bamboo poles and are cultivated in rice. De- tuled Study of this particular area showed that at one tn” 1‘3 was an upland forest, subsequently covered with 7‘31ch materials. These volcanic materials blocked the Wings and thus established a swan:p where trembling ”'1“! develOped floating grass mats at the edges of the etable islands and land spits. Because of the effects of Bi 1'1 “8 Water and wind, the grass mats break off and become x 3011:“ B. Polak, Construction and Ori in of the Floating 3;? Of the Rawa Penin Central Java , Con-Er. Gen. A r. SE“. 3mm, Eager, In onesia, 51, 11 pp. g 108 floating masses of peat soils covered with water grasses and sedges and are capable of supporting some agriculture. The influence of rising and falling water levels in breaking off the grass mats was accentuated in 1916 when a dam constructed across the Tuntang River to conserve wet mon- soon rainfall for dry monsoon irrigation caused a variation of three to six feet betwaen the annual high and low water levels. The formation of peat soils under the water of alkaline reaction (pH 7.5 to 8.5),is, according to Polak, in contrast to Mohr's Opinion that peat soils cannot develOp in an alkaline milieu because the bacterial activity Would prevent the accumulation of plant material. Polak1 States that in the trepics tepogenous peat is formed when fitagnant and not too deep water is present, because it (shacks aerobic conversion of plant material regardless of \he acidity or alkalinity of the water. (10). Sedimentary soils include all recent river, coastal, and lacustrine deposits where distinct soil profiles have not yet develOped and usually where sedimen- tation is still occurring. Because a large portion of the sediment originates from the volcanic ash deposits of the mountains, these soils, usually productive, are a mixture of the silts, clays, and-sometimes the fine sands transported by the rivers at flood stage. —— 1. Ibid., p. 10. 109 C. Particular Characteristics of Sumatra As previously stated, the mountain chains of Burma extend through Sumatra in the Barisan Mountains, which may be described as the dominant source of all soil forming materials of this island which is the world's fifth. largest island. Mohr's already oft-quoted treatisel is the primary source of information relative to the soils of Sumatra as virtually no other English literature has been available. Basic information about the geological history, the soils, and climate from the literature is supplemented by comments and illustrations of the author's more than five weeks of travelling over the island at various times. The Barisan Mountains extend almost the full length of the island in two ridges with scattered intermontane valleys and plateaus that vary in size from a few acres to many thousand acres. The ridges themselves have many high peaks of volcanic origin, a few of which approach 10,000 feet in elevation and are connected by Permacarbonate sedimentary rocks as well as by frequent outcrOps of granite intermingled with Pretertiary, Tertiary, and Quaternary rocks, which are often mixed with or overlaid by volcanic efflata of all ages. On Sinatra's northeast coast there is a wide piedmont separated from the coastal swamp by a coastal plain varying 1. Mohr, 0p. cit., pp. 1416-5511. passim. 110 from a few miles to more than a hundred miles in width. At the north in the Achin territory and in the south in the area known as the Lampongs, the Barisan Mountains fade out, the piedmont and the coastal plains extending around both extremities to the west coast. In many areas along the west coast the mountains extend to the Indian Ocean so that the area of arable land west of the mountains is small and agricultural develOpment has been relatively unimportant. The extend of the low-lying lands to the east of the moun- tains is perhaps most evident in Mohr'slvestimate that ho to 60 percent of the island lies at an elevation of less than three hundred meters. In the Achin territory of North Sumatra, the valleys have develOped fertile soils from the sedimentary volcanic saterials, while the processes of erosion have exceeded the rate of soil formation in the mountains to such an extent that many of the sloping lands perhaps have never even supported a forest cover. Over most of the mountain lands, rain forest has existed and even in 1933 it was estimated that 62 percent of the area was still in forest. Between the savannas of alang-alang grass and the rain forest, pine (E92! Merkussi) has grown in large areas and has been protected by the peeple for its production of resin and turpentine. Under the alang-alang grass black earths have 1. Ibid, p. 316. 111 develOped but usually are not as fertile as the alluvial plains nearer the coast where the pepulation has concen- trated its efforts in the production of rice and cepra. The coastal plains of Achin have been modified in their l tepography and usually have been benefitted in their fertil- :‘ ity by the lahars from the volcanoes of the area. The northern part of Achin suffers a dry season under the influence of the winds from Asia (Stations 1,2; Table III), and it is in this area that rubber and oil palm have become important. On the sandy river levees in the south- west part of Achin, the pepper (§__i_p_e_r_ Nigrum) has been most successful. The mangrove swamps have furnished both tannin and firewood for the pepulation. The Batak Highlands occupy the highlands of the central portion of North Sumatra, and Lake Toba is roughly the center of this area. Granite is the principal type of the older rocks, but characteristically the old rocks within an area of eight thousand square miles around Lake Toba / were covered by liparitic tuffs to depths varying from 6 20 inches to 160 feet either from volcanic action at Lake Toba or nearby. Southwest of the lake, erosion has again uncovered the older rocks and between the lake and Medan, especially in the Km Plateau, subsequent volcanic action has covered the liparitic tuffs with ash and dacitic material. The Karo Plateau is a gently rolling, hummecked area at a“ an elevation of 3000 to 3500 feet. It is well dissected by 1‘; 112 streams which have cut deep channels in the easily eroded :material. Since little water is available fer the irri- gation of the plateau, most of it is savanna except in the relatively small valleys. Because of the altitude the climate is warm but not hot, and with the high rainfall (Station 3; Table III) the soils develOped are usually a sandy or fine sandy loam, reddish-yellow lixivium of medium fertility. Commercial fertilizers have commonly been used in this area for some years in order to obtain satisfactory yields of the vegetables produced for export to Singapore. The high plateau also exists in a more broken form west of Lake Toba towards Sibolga where there is almost a continuous expanse of savanna until the descent to the coast begins west of Turungtun. The valleys and the lake plain are irrigated and as usual the principal crOp is rice. On the west there is an abrupt drOp from the plateau tO‘thfi coast with a very narrow coastal plain where coconuts and rubber share the position of greatest importance with rice. 0n the steep slapes leading to the coast farmers' rubber'occupies a large percentage of the area. The land is cleared with fire and axe for dry rice, which is generally followed by cassava and interplanted with rubber seedlings. After'the cassava is harvested, the rubber becomes the principal specie in the second growth forest that returns to cover the slepes which, from.a conservation viewpoint, should never have been cleared. Perhaps the reader may be one! I I. L. \‘ '. a, ‘ e‘a \. .. Q‘ ‘ . i- “I 'C 4 .e ‘ .7 .:, .1 ‘A .. \ a" S -. u ‘i. A 113 better able to realize the ruggedness of this terrain if he can visualize the Turungtun-Sibolga gravelled road which ‘has few places wide enough for two cars to meet and which descends about 10,000 feet in a distance of 30 miles. In one fivedmile section of this road the author counted one hundred thirty-nine curves -- not the simple elements of compound curves but an average of thirty-eight distinct changes of direction per mile. “The reason for this par- ticular observation was the author's inability to understand the local dialect of the pick-up truck chauffeur, to see out of the cut on the high side of the road, to see into the valley on the low side of the road, and to read or make notes because of the roughness of the road. East of the Batak Highlands the transition from the plateau to the piedmont is also quite steep; however, the main roads on this side of Sumatra are very good. In this area there has been some tea and coffee, but the field craps of Sumatra's East Coast deserve the credit for its agri- cul tural fame . Sumatra's East Coast is the name usually given to a small part of the northeast coast in the vicinity of Medan. This area.first gained its prominence from the peculiar combination of soils, climate, and original type of vege- tation which proved to be ideal for the production of the highly regarded Sumatra wrapper tobacco used in cigars. The elevations of the area vary from sea level to 6500 feet, 1‘ 1124 but most of the area is relatively low. Mohr has classified the soils of the area in six general classifications ranging from variegated infertile loams develOped under subaqueous weathering, through better sandy lixivums, reddish in color, which overlie liparitic tuffs, and to the best soils of the area which are the black dust soils develOped from the youngest lahars over pale yellow subsoils. The latter type of soil has proven most satisfactory for the wrapper tobacco and because of its success has led to the establishment of many plantations in the vicinity. This area was sparsely pepulated at the time the agrarian law was passed in 1870 and many tobacco estates were established. As the production of tobacco on soils other than the black dust soils proved uneconomical, other export crOps such as rubber, tea, oil palm, sisal, abaca, and some coconuts were planted. It is perhaps worthy of note at this point to state that the tobacco rotation of this area is one of the oddest rotations in the world, in that the forest is cleared and a‘ crap of tobacco is planted. After the harvest the land is permitted to return to the forest growth to restore the humus condition of the soil to its original condition or as near to such a condition as is economically feasible. The land is again cleared and planted w in tobacco after seven to ten years, a sufficient length of 3 time under the existing climatic and soil conditions to develOp a second growth forest of considerable density. Only 115 under conditions of large concessions, cheap labor, and a crap of extremely high value could such a system of culture exist. The limited scape of the arable lands of Sumatra's west coast was mentioned in connection with the Batak Highlands. The restricted area of land available for cul- tivation along the west coast extends southward through Bengkulen. The climate of the coastal area is continuously wet (Stations 6,7,8,9,12; Table III), while the intermontane areas usually have a relatively mild dry season of two to three months from July to September. The older rocks of the area are those of the Permocarboniferous block folds apparent in the two ridges of the Barisan Mountains and include granite with mica schists and quartzite or clay slates and quartzitic masses in the western ridge or gray limestone‘in the eastern ridge. In both ridges the rocks are covered to varying depths by breccias, conglomerates, pumice, and other volcanic efflata. The mountains and hills are infertile, but the valleys and the limited alluvial plains are very fertile. As the volcanic material from one period of volcanic actions covers previous deposits before the previous deposits have had any Opportunity to weather and develOp a soil profile, weathering in the earlier deposits is virtually stepped except for minor leaching Mohanges the content of silicic acid, and under the overburden consolidation occurs to a minor degree in the 116 formation of the tuffs. One of the largest and most famous masses of tuff of the country is the Agum tuff in the vicinity of Bukit Tinggi. The Karabouwengat Canyon (Fig. 15) at Bukit Tingi is the result of geological erosion by the river flowing through it. The semi-consolidated tuff is more subject to erosion than the soils that have deleped over it with their vegetative cover. Undercutting is a continuous pro- duct of every flood 30 that bank caving is a frequent occurrence. Because the minerals of the tuffs have not been subject to continuous leaching through the ages, the deposits of this material in the flood plains of the streams result in a fertile soil. The fertile soils of the valleys and flood plains constitute the principal lands of value in West Sumatra. The mountains are still covered with mixed trepical rain forest which has not been exploited to any appreciable degree because of mixed nature of the forest and the absence of routes of communications. As in the case throughout Indonesia, rice is the most important crap ; however, in the vicinity of Bukit Tinggi the pro- duction of vegetables receives considerable attention also, and although not of major importance to the country, in particular areas sugar cane is a major local crep. As the areas of arable land are usually adequate only for the needs of the local pepulation, estate agriculture has never attained the importance here that it has on the East Coast. Figure 15. Karabouwengat canyon in West Central Sumatra Figure 16. Galam poles used with iron wood in den construction on Kalimantan 117 118 The South Sumatra mountains are a continuation of the conditions prevalent on the west coast to the area of the Lampongs. Much of the area is so steep that no great develOpment of agriculture could be expected even if the mountain soils had develOped to a reasonable level of fertility. It is true that in the mountains of Java and Bali the farmers' agriculture has had its greatest advance- ment, but the develOpment in these areas was under pepu- lation pressure unknown to Sumatra and with labor so cheap that its cost was negligible, whereas today labor costs thirty toninety cents per day without the rice that is usually furnished. As has often been stated before about other areas, those soils that have been rejuvenated by young volcanic ash or which because of topography can be irrigated from streams rising in young volcanic areas lend themselves most readily to the rice culture of the farmer. In the South Sumatra.Mountain area in the vicinity of the younger volcanoes and at elevations above 2950 feet, some estates have been established.primarily for tea and coffee. The eastern part of the Lampongs and the lowlands of Easternmost and Central Sumatra can be considered as one soils province, in that this area encompassing almost one- half of'the total area of Sumatra lies below the elevation of 325 feet. All of the soils of the area are sedimentary with those adjacent to the coast having been deposited first as marine sediments and later having been lifted above the 119 sea level and with the remainder of the area further inland having originated from terrigenous sediments. The lowland area of Sumatra consists of ten drainage basins of the principal streams which flow generally to the . northeast with their headwaters in the Barisan Mountains. The area lying northwest of the Djambi River has its origin in the Pretertiary and Tertiary rocks of the Barison Moun- tains, and the rivers have therefore deposited infertile sediments, from which only infertile soils could develOp. The area, though not dry from the standpoint of rainfall in local areas, has develOped a steppe type of vegetation because of the thn winds descending from the mountains during the west monsoon. Some relatively large areas of infertile peat soils have develOped within the area, but no agriculture of importance has become established on the peat soils. The area is sparsely pepulated with forest products and rubber furnishing the primary source of income. Southwest of the Djambi River the fertility increases as the sedimentary parent material has originated in volcanic efflata. Further south the volcanic activity has been more recent and the soils that have develOped from this material have been more fertile. The influence of the thn winds also decreases towards the south as the height of the Barisan Mountains, that the westerly winds must cross, decreases. The area from the Djambi River to the south was probably originally covered by trepical high forest 120 which.has been destroyed by the 152335 culture of the peeple. In all of this area of Sumatra near the coast, there are the natural levees of coarse material along the river banks with gradations to the finer sediments towards the center of the interspaces between the streams. At flood stage the lowlands are covered with waters which cannot drain with the recession of the floods, and these areas are dried only by evaporation. It is in these areas, especially in the vicinity of the Moesi, Oegan, and the Komering Rivers south of Palembang, where lgbgk culture, previously referred to, has develOped. The Lampongs is the name given to the southernmost portion of Sumatra adjacent to the Sunda Strait and the Krakatau volcano. In the eruption of 1883 previously referred to, most of the Lampongs was covered witthrakatau ash, and the subsequent erosion from the slepes and the decomposition in the valleys have develOped some fertile and some infertile soils. In this area as a result of the ladang culture the principal vegetation is alang-alang grass. When one travels through this area by train from Palembank to Telok Betong, it is difficult not to have a feeling of depression from looking at the vast plains of this virtually worthless grass and the scraggly second growth forest that has been able to reestablish itself on the steeper, poorer slepes, so low in fertility that the farmers do not often‘burn them for dry rice or corn culture. Occasionally 121 along the railroad or the highways it is possible to see well kept plantings of oil palm or rubber of agricultural estates. The areas which have been irrigated have sufficient productivity to maintain a fairly high level of agriculture, but as with the estates these areas are the exception and not the general rule. The Lampongs is an area of mixed success and failure of the pro-war efforts of the Netherlands Indies Government at colonization of the Outer Islands. The principal source of income of the small farmer prior to the war was from the production of pepper, but the gardens were destroyed during the Japanese occupation and have not yet been reestabliShed. D. Particular Characteristics of Kalimantan Somewhat detailed information for the tidal swamps of South Kalimentan is reported by C. L. van‘Wijk1 as a result of‘the pro-war interest of the Netherlands East Indies Government in this area as a potential location for colon- ization for Javanese farmers. In his survey van Wijk found that it was necessary to combine usualy reconnais- sance soil survey techniques with a vegetative survey because of the inaccessibility of many areas of the swamps. In addition to collecting samples of soil and ground water 1. C. L. van Wijk, Soil Surve of the Tidal Swam s of Borneo in Connection with the A ricultfirET—PossIEiIItIes,-_' Egntr. can. Igr. Res. Sta. No. $23, Bogor, Tndonesia, I551. PP. 122 for laboratory analyses, van'Wijk located the boundaries of various types of vegetation associated with different conditions of water and soil. These boundaries were sub- sequently checked for accuracy through the use of aerial photographs. The tidal swarnps of South Kalimantan cover an area of approximately 2.5 million acres between the Barito River at the east and the Mentajo River at the west and extend inland.from ten to one hundred miles. The entire area is an alluvial coastal plain divided into a number of smaller plains by the north-south ridges between the major rivers of the area. Van Wijk quotes several geolo- gists to the effect that this coastal plain is a.relic of the Sunda peneplain which after the Pleistocene period was submerged and later filled by sedimentation from.the Tertiary and Pretertiary formations of Central Kalimantan. The sedimentation kept pace with the rate of subsidence of the land, filling the tidal basin with silt upon which a ha10phytic vegetation became established. The vegetation accelerated the accumulation of silt and with the erratic currents resulted in the heterogeneous deposits of the area. A marine transgression occurred after the Pleistocene period and resulted in the interconnection of major streams through estuaries in their lower reaches. During the rainy season the rivers overflow their banks almost continuously with the deposition of the coarser 123 particles of sand along the banks and the deposition of the finer silts and clays between the rivers and adjacent to the coast. Near the coast this condition is accentuated by the high tide which also causes the rivers to overflow in.the swamps. Perpendicular to the course of the rivers there is a gradation of silt particle size with the coarse particles near the stream banks and the finer particles midway between the rivers, which results in very faint slepes away from.the streams towards the center of the swamps. The discharge of the rivers is so great that the brackish water line is only five miles inland in spite of the high tide. The tidal phenomenon, together with the t0pography, results in the lowlands between the rivers being continuously covered with water as the overflow into the basins at high tide is trapped by the natural levees at low tide so that the areas cannot drain. About 1885 the Serapat Canal between the Barito and the Kapuas Rivers and the Kelampan Canal between the Kapuas and the Kehajan Rivers were excavated by hand to provide better channels of communication and trade. These canals were enlarged by the use of dredges from 1925 to 1930 and are navigable at high tide by motor boats, such as cabin cruisers, but at low tide by small canoes only. These canals have demonstrated that the lower areas of the swamps can be drained at low tide by gravity if drainage channels are out through the natural levees. Because of the tidal 12h influence in the lowlands, the floods during the rainy season are of little importance except for their influence upon the silt load of the streams, but the plains further inland to the north and east along the upper Barito and the Negara Rivers are covered during the rainy season from a few inches to several feet. The original vegetation of these areas was trees and plants that could exist in the soft, acid, anaerobic con- dition of the soil'but with their roots in the mineral sediments. Trees with aerial and stilt roots were common but are not prominent at this time. As the layers of plant detritus developed but, due to water-logged con- dition, did not decompose completely, the peat soils were formed and were influenced by the continuous deposition of mineral substances from the sub-soils. With the development of the peat soils the type of vegetation gradually changed to that which could exist entirely from the organic layers since their roots could.no longer pene- trate to the mineral sub-soil and had to subsist in an increasingly acidified organic medium with a decreasing supply'of bases. The swamp vegetation has to a considerable degree been pumhed back into continuously wet areas by the repeated fires that occur during the dry season -- the uncontrolled burning by the farmers in the ladang type of culture. The swamp forest is replaced by grassy reeds and sedges or 125 dense galam (Melaleuca leucadendron) forests. The galam trees have no commercial vlaue but are used as fire wood and to a small degree in pole type construction (Fig. 16). The initial stages of revegetation are sedges (Cyperaceae), reeds (ghragmites karka), and ferns which still cover large areas, but the predominant vegetation or the secondary forests is the fire resistant galam with the type of under- growth governed by the frequency of recurrence of fires. The effect of the fires is most prominent along the natural levees which vary in.width from.a few hundred feet to as much as a mile because the levees are not continuously inundated. These levees are also the primary places of settlement of the pepulation both along the rivers and along the canals on the artificial levees because the levees are the driest places to construct homes and also are on the roads of water, for in this area there are no highways and travel and transportation is either by dug-out canoe, by foot or on bicycle alongside the stremms. The principal characteristic of the alluvium common to all areas is the almost complete absence of soil par- ticles larger than 0.05 mm. The sand fractions for the large part are old quartz and iron concretions with the percentage of sand decreasing and the percentage of iron concretions increasing from.the western part of the swamps towards the east due to the difference of the inland.mcun- tains which are the source of the silt. The Barito River 126 rises in the Meratus Mountains where there are many intrus- tions of basic rock including peridotite, gabbro, diabase, and andesite. The rivers farther to the west have their headwaters in the Schwaner Mountains, built up primarily from granites and other acid eruptive rocks but also including a considerable area of Tertiary hills of quartz sandstones. As a source of plant nutrients these minerals have little value. The profile of the levee soils is characterized, according to van'WiJk1 by a grey-brown, somewhat humus, plastic silty clay or clay top soil to a depth of 10 to 30 cm overlying a grey or rusty brown veined, stickly clay subsoil poor in humus. Many of the levees have been cleared for cultivation of rice or other food creps but, when yields decrease due to the exhaustion of humus content, have been planted in ribber. The levee soils are not suited to the Bandjarese type of rice culture described later in the section on various types of rice culture. The swamP soils have a layer of peat soil varying from 60 to 80 inches in depth under inundated conditions. The properties of the swamp soils depend almost entirely upon the percentage of organic content which varies from five percent to almost one hundred percent. Analyses of swamp susples show that the percentage2 of readily oxidizable 10 Ibide, p. 16. 2. Ibide, p. 20. If 127 organic matter varies inversely with the total percentage present. In samples having only 0-5 percent organic content. 7h percent is readily oxidizable, while in samples having 60-100 percent total organic content, only 28 percent is readily oxidizable. The swampy subsoil is very sticky when wet, very hard when dry, and virtually impermeable except through channels remaining after the decomposition of roots, and while tending to limit movement of air and water through the soil, it is favorable for the Bandjarese method of cultivation referred to above. The soil condition that will necessitate the most careful control of methods and of culture of irrigation and of drainage is the presence of a bluish grey, very acid clay found at an average depth of hO inches in the eastern area. The clays, according to analyses reported by'van'WiJk1 have a high content of water soluble sulphate ($03) with a strongly acid reaction (pH 1.7 to 3.2). This acid condition seams to indicate that the clay was the surface layer of the marine Barito Basin exposed to the brackish water influences of the Pleistocene Age as a true tidal marsh and that the surface layer was later sealed by a clay deposition and, after having been sealed, underwent chemical and anaerobic reactions that produced the present toxic condition. The toxicity of this soil is attributed not only to its high acidity but also to the 1. Ibide, pe 270 v-z- Ho...- ..1. ' i .. u a A u‘ ‘- “1.. ”‘5'. .I l[‘ 3 '- .u , ‘. ‘l ‘w 3. . ‘ ‘I \ 6 . w . a . \ -\ ‘; . d\ b I i . N ‘\ x . . t . ‘.. ;‘ Q .\ u 128 presence of basic ferric sulphate and possibly to traces of toxic aluminum sulphate. Instances have been reported where this acid clay was plowed up into the tepsoil and the rice crOp for that year was a failure. Other instances have been reported where levees were constructed of the acid clay, and as rain water ran from it into adjacent areas, the vegetation was seriously retarded in its growth, if not killed completely. Along such levees observations indicate that after the levees have been exposed to the ‘weathering forces for a few years the toxic elements are :mo longer a serious detriment to most plants. Plans for extending the area of land under cultivation contemplate the excavation of drainage canals, construction of levees to control tide and irrigation waters, and the use of irrigation for rice culture. Because the toxic condition of the soil is known, adequate precautions can be taken to insure that drainage water from a toxic area is not used for irrigation in another area and to insure that ample irrigation water will be applied in all areas to prevent the toxic salts from being brought to the tepsoil by capillary movement of the subsoil water. Since the land will be planted to such crOps as corn or peanuts between crepe of rice, it is likely that some toxic salts will be i”Wight towards the surface by capillary movement of soil “it”. To prevent the upward movement of salts from be- ‘Mmung serious, the ground water level must be accurately 129 regulated by controlled drainage and by the application of water in excess of irrigation requirements to flush any salts that may have been elevated through capillary action while the fields are in non-irrigated crOps. Plans to utilize fresh water from the rivers for irrigation offer both the advantage of higher oxygen content and the absence of any traces of the toxic ferric or aluminum sulphates present in the surface water of the swarms. At the edges of the tidal swamps of South Kalimantan rise the foothills of the interior mountains. Kennedy1 has compared the island of Kalimantan to a low-crowned hat with its low mountains in the interior surrounded by gently leping foothills and coastal plains. Because the interior mountains have not seen any volcanic action since the Tertiary Age, the minerals which contribute to fertile soils have been completely weathered and the soils are infertile due to the excessive leaching from the high rain- £111 and continuously moist soil conditions. Beyond the edges of the swamps the sparse pepulation has carried on 1_aQa_n_g culture until large areas are now covered with alang-alang grass as a result of the recurrent burning. Under the conditions of moisture in Kalimantan any areas of alang-alang can be definitely attributed to the effect of ladang, whereas some of the areas in the Lesser Sunda Islands may be attributed to the climate. The original 1e Kennedy, Ope Cite, p. 160 130 vegetation of all of the interior of Kalimantan was trepical rain forest with many valuable Species of trees as well as rattan and other secondary forestry products which have been scarcely touched for exploitation. The interior areas do not offer the agricultural: possibilities of other areas of Indonesia, but as the forests are cleared, an extensive type of agriculture with grasslands and livestock playing a major part may be practical. The uniformity of Kalimantan's climate, even to the extent of not having any mountains high enough to materially affect the temperatures of large areas, implies that any differences in the soils must originate from the parent materials and the rate of their weathering. The weathering processes vary only with relation of the parent materials to the water, i.e., aerial weathering under a continuous leaching process or sub-aqueous weathering under continuous leaching in the absence of air.1 The principal soil forming locks of Kalimantan and their products are the sandstones of the Tertiary and other geologic ages which result in a silicious, sandy, red-yellow podzolic soils; the clay shales which gradually become a heavy, sticky clay; the marine‘marls which form a flocculated clay subject to con- siderable shrinkage or swelling with changes in moisture content of medium fertility but which are difficult to 1. MOhP, Op. Cite, pe 3870 131 cultivate; the granites and quartz poryphyries in the western part which weather into yellow, brown, or red lixivium with iron oxide; and the granites of the Kapuas watershed, which is deeply weathered and has formed a yellowish-brown lateritic soil. According to the summary of Mohr1 the soils of Kali- mantan are best adapted to extensive types of agriculture, including forest products, because of the natural poverty of the soil of most of the areas. In a comparison with the Netherlands Mohr observed that agriculture in the Nether- lands did not develOp until after its industry, commerce, and shipping had develOped to a sufficient degree to support the establishment of an expensive type of agri- culture in a naturally infertile area and that perhaps this should be expected for Kalimantan also and that its develOp- nmnt probably would not be seen by his generation. The rmtural resources that are present for exploitation are those of the forest, the soils having ceramic qualities, and the minerals which include iron and petroleum. In addition some diamonds are found in South Kalimantan and as previously mentioned there is some gold in the western part. Because of the island's remote location and the problems of transportation, its development can never pro- ceed at an accelerated rate even with the application of modern techniques. 1' Ibide, p. LLOZe 132 E. Particular Characteristics of Sulawesi As was true in attempting to briefly describe the soils of Sumatra, brevity can be obtained only at the expense of detail, for the Island extends from 20 north latitude to approximately 6° south latitude. While its equatorial position tends to minimize the influence of the monsoons, this fact is offset to considerable degree in many areas because of the high mountains which accentuate or nullify the winds' ability to cause rainfall. The characteristics of the soil are also varied, in that the parent material varies from.recent volcanic efflata to Pretertiary and Tertiary granites and limestones, as well as the marine deposits evident in many of the coastal areas. In.Minehasa, the northern part of Sulawesi, most of the parent material of the soil is of volcanic origin. The soils, according to Mohrl, are embryonal ash to red or brownish red lixivium.which has not yet weathered sufficiently to develOp the characteristics of the later- itic soils which may be expected eventually. The rainfall is such that drouth is unknown (Station 22; Table III), and the absence of s10pes or plains has probably contributed to the prominence of coconuts as the principal crop. Some rice is planted and small areas have been irrigated, but the export of cepra and import of food is the typical agricultural 1. Ibid., p. 316. 133 pattern. The pepulation is, for Sulawesi, fairly dense, but the cepra eXport has always supported the prosperity of the peOple. To the west and south of Minehasa lies the northern neck of Sulawesi with its mountains composed of rocks of all ages. The high mountains cause major variations in rainfall (Station 23; Table III), but in all areas the soils are subject to continuous but perhaps intermittent leaching. In addition to the red or brownish soils found in.Minehasa, there are also some of the black earths of calcareous origin. Deforestation is a common result of the ladang, and although there is some irrigated rice, the rugged terrain has made corn and cassava the more important cultivated crOps while COpra, kapok, and forest products are of considerable importance. Local officials state that erosion is such a problem that the few harbors of the area have'been seriously affected by silting. According to Mohr, in Central Sulawesi the parent materials are metamorphosed shales, graywackes, limestones, and sandstones with some serpentine and periodite. The tepography of high.mountains and small valleys results in wide variations in rainfall, and here is found the driest place in Indonesia, according to available records. At Paloe the annual rainfall averages only 21.5 inches, and the xerophytic vegetation is comparable to that of the arid areas of the United States. In general, Central Sulawesi 13b is still heavily forested and its agriculture is of little importance. 0n the peninsula extending to the northeast from Central Sulawesi not only basic, igneous rocks and volcanic tuffs, but also tuffaceous marls, are present. The agri- culture of the semi-nomadic tribes is almost entirely 122325 so that a large portion of their livelihood is from the forest and from their goat herds. As has been noted about the other areas which are very mountainous, the rainfall here also varies widely in short distances. In the southeastern peninsula of Sulawesi there are rocks of many types and ages including crystalline schists, paleOgenic limestone, marl shales, and claystones, Neocene sandstones, marls, clay shales and coral limestone. The climate is characterized by a short wet monsoon of rela- tively high intensity (Stations 24,25; Table III) and by long seasons of drouth, the duration of which increases from north to south. Some of the mountain peaks have elevations of 6500 to 9700 feet, and at these altitudes a.temperate climate exists. In this sparsely pOpulated area there has been little develOpment of the agriculture, although unpublished reports1 show areas totalling almost 250,000 acres in the vicinity of Kendari where the soils and climate together with possibilities of irrigation l. S. Bone, Transmigration Plan for Demobilized Per- sonnel, Djawatan Pertanian Rakjat, PrOpinsi Sulawesi, Oct. 23’ 1950s Unpublished Report, LI. pp. ‘ 13S should.make land settlement projects successful. The southwest peninsula of Sulawesi is often referred to as the Toradjo lands in the northern part and the Macassar area in the south, the latter including the historic area of the Sultan of Goa. The soil forming rocks are a mixture of the Pretertiary schists and granites as well as limestone with some miners slate containing traces of capper and in many areas are influenced by the andesitic effusives of the volcanoes. This portion of. Sulawesi is so strongly affected by the dry east monsoon that the products of thermal weathering along the south coast have been transported by wind to the plain of Goa near Macassar. Djeneponto is one of the driest locations in Indonesia according to records (Station 26; Table III). In the mountainous areas coffee Arabica has been especially successful between the elevations of 2600 and 5200 feet. The principal areas of population concentration and agricultural develOpment have been on the fertile sedi- mentary soils of the alluvial plains along the coast and in.the limdted areas of the mountain valleys. Rice is the principal crap of the rainy season, but in areas where irrigation is not yet possible, corn is planted and the latter is also planted over large areas in the dry monsoon. Many years ago the Buginese pe0p1e of Southwest Sulawesi were famous as sailors, traders, and pirates, and even today much.inter-island trade throughout the Archipelago is carried 136 in the sailing praos of these peeple. The picturesque landscape of the piedmont adjacent to the south coast, covered with xerOphytic shrubs and sparse grass with the bare tuffs and limestones of the mountain blocks a few miles inland, is broken by trees only along the streams (Fig. 17). The areas of the Sadang and the Bila irrigation projects, which were planned and initiated before the war, are located in the central portion of the southwest penin- sula south of the lake region. The location of these projects is within itself indicative of the general fertil- ity of the area as no such projects were undertaken by the Netherlands Indies Government if there was insufficient evidence of success. Other indications of the productivity of the area are the annual export of corn and rice to other areas of Indonesia andeohr's table based upon 1930 census figures showing pOpulation densities varying from 151 peOple per square mile in.the area of Pare-Pare to a high of 288 per square mile in the vicinity of Macassar excluding the city itself. Rising in the mountains there are numerous streams which flow throughout the year so that fer the future develOpment of the area there are many opportunities of extending the areas of the low lying plains. F. Particular Characteristics of the Lesser Sunda Islands The Lesser Sunda Islands include Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Figure 18. 137 South Sulawesi landscape showing coastal plains with mountains in background Ravine showing geological and acceler- ated erosion in volcanic material of Central Bali 138 Flores, Sumba, and Timor as the largest and most important islands of the group, but in addition there are many smaller islands between and adjacent to these principal ones. Because of favorable factors of soils, climate, and p0pu- lation Bali and Lombok are by far the most important for the agricultural economy of Indonesia with a surplus of grain and livestock for export to food deficient areas and also some coffee and other export crops. Sumbawa has little export other than a small amount of livestock, and Flores has some cepra and a small amount of coffee. Sumba is well known for the high quality of its sandalwood ponies and also exports cattle and carabao. Timor is unable to claim credit for any agricultural production above its own needs and generally'must import some food annually. Bali, except for the limestone areas of the northwest and the southern peninsula, is of volcanic origin with the parent material of its soils predominately andesites and basalts influenced to some degree by pumice stone. The northern coast has three plains, while the south coast is almost a continuous plain from east to west. The interior of the island is very mountainous with few valleys or plateaus of appreciable size. The coastal areas suffer moderate droughts each year with the most severe drought occurring in the north. In the interior there is no dis- tinct dry season which is reflected in the large number of streams flowing out of the mountains especially to the south 139 coast. The streams have cut deep ravines (Fig. 18) through the easily eroded material and have exposed the soft tuffs which are quarried and used by the Balinese in the ornamental sculpture work that adorns their many Hindu-temples. The soils generally are a grayish brown, but in areas not recently covered by volcanic material they are weathered more and have acquired a reddish brown hue. The central area is covered by forest except where replaced by agri- culture, but to the east where the dry monsoon is more pronounced, a park landscape of grass with a few scattered trees is present. In the vicinity of Karang Asem in the southeast the present landscape is sparse grass with very few trees on the slopes with the valleys in cultivation (Fig. 19). These uplands have little value in that there is too little grass even for good range lands and forest cover cannot reestablish itself naturally. The soils have develOped under a continuous process of leaching except perhaps in this southeastern area. The tepography of Lombok is such that it may be com- pared roughly with a stock saddle -- the pommel to the north and cantle to the south. The horn of the saddle is truly represented by Mount Rindjani with its elevation of 12,000 feet, which according to Mohr1 is at such a height that even in the absence of any further volcanic activity ___ l. Mohr, Op. cit., p. 215. 1&0 Figure 19. Irrigated valley in Southeast Bali with savanna on slopes \ ‘n I" ‘el. ‘LL 1. Figure 20. Termite hill on poorly drained area of Sumbawa no forest or even shrub growth can ever develOp. The southern mountains or the cantle of the saddle appear from the air to be completely forested, completely without roads, and completely uninhabited. The mountains drOp into the Indian Ocean on the south in a continuous series of bluffs which are not even the site of the fishing villages so common throughout the Archipelago. The seat of the saddle in Central Lombok extends from coast to coast, and its irrigated fields really present a 1 describes the beautifyl panorama from the air. Mohr western half of this plain which rises to a height of 165 feet as being coarse ash from the volcanoes to the north- east. The ash has only partially weathered and is still very porous and of’medium fertility. Since this portion of the plain is irrigated with mountain.waters, rice production is at a rather high level. The soils of the eastern half of the area are described as being a heavy black clay, ‘ extremely plastic when wet and subject to the formation of hard clods and deep cracks when dry. This black soil has develOped under intermittent leaching because of the severe eastern monsoon; with ample irrigation it is of medium pro- ductivity; without irrigation it is virtually worthless. These soils, which are referred to locally as tgngh‘mglit, are comparable to the adobe soils of the western United States. 10 Ibide, p. 217a 1&2 On the islands west of Lombok the influence of the dry east monsoon becomes more and more pronounced; the soils are weathered to a lesser degree, and the xerOphytic vegetation becomes more and more pronounced. The result of the combination of these factors is a more primitive type of agriculture, and since the economy of Indonesia is based upon its agriculture, the islands lying to the southeast are the most primitive and least develOped in all respects. Sumbawa is the first island to the east where the influence of the dry monsoon is severe for five to six months (Stations 65-68; Table III). From the standpoint of climatological study these four stations are inadequate, but at the same time they are located in the only areas where agriculture has attained any semblance of permanence. From the appearance of the vegetation viewed from.the air, there is more ample rainfall in the mountainous areas along the south coast of the island and forest cover has long been established, but in contrast to the Greater Sunda Islands, where evergreen trees are the general rule, many deciduous trees are visible. In 1815 Mount Tambora eruptedl and covered all of the island to a depth of at least one and one-half feet with gravel which is now mixed with other volcanic materials. The leping lands of Sumbawa are practically all covered with gravel, stone, or boulders. Underlying the partially 1. Ibid., p. 220. 143 developed lateritic soils are limestones, calcareous tuffs, and some marl. In the small valleys along the north coast the heavy black soils predominate, and where irrigation water is available, there is the appearance of relatively high prosperity among the peeple. Along the road which follows the north coast very closely, there are large areas of calcareous limestones of marine formation on which there is little semblance of any type of soil. Because of the long dry season and the small watersheds of the rivers there are very few streams which flow through- out the year, but the stone strewn stream beds are mute evidence of the intensity of the wet monsoon floods. In most of the valleys mentioned above the presence of large termite mounds are indicative of heavy clay, poorly drained subsoils (Fig. 20). The principal crOps are rice and corn in the valleys and pigeon peas on the slepes with production of the latter sufficient for a small amount to be exported. The pigeon peas are the product of ladang culture. The grass and shrub vegetation of the lepes is burned prior to the end of the dry season and the peas are broadcast without any further preparation. The corn and rice are given much better attention, although in the eastern part of the island some of the rice land preparation is accomplished by driving caraboas around in the fields after they have been flooded; however, according to local officials, wooden 1141; plows with steel points and wooden barrows are gradually replacing the use of livestock alone. There are a few coconut trees along the stream beds and scattered through the valleys, but these are for local consumption. Only one estate has been develOped on the island, and it is said to consist of approximately 1250 acres of coffee arabica in the central mountains. Livestock, in excess of the demand of the island, graze many of the mountain slapes and are exported in small quantities to Sulawesi and Java; however, this expert will not materially increase until consumer commodities are available in sufficient quantities to offset the pride of ownership of the cattle. The percentage of areas with fertile soils capable of being irrigated seems to decrease in the Lesser Sundas in preportion to the distance one travels from Java. The landscape of Bali has long been world famous for its terraced slepes and its productivity. Lombok, while not having worldwide fame, is well known in Indonesia for its productive plain in the center of the island. Sumbawa has small .r... of irrigated fields in the west, in the central portion, and slightly more in the eastern residency of Bima. Flores shows a continuation of this decrease, especially in the eastern half through which the author has travelled. The area of irrigated land on Flores is negligible because the combination of its steep t0pography and the ILLS almost complete absence of year round streams has made the establishment of irrigation a more difficult task than the primitive peeple have been able to cope with. Because of the recent activity of its numerous volcanoes with their andesitic and basaltic effusives and ash, the fertility of the few plains and gentle slepes offer a greater potential than do the soils of Sumbawa. Fourteen of the volcanoes are still classed as active with the most recent eruption that of the Laki-Laki volcano near Hokeng in East Flores. This eruption was mostly ash and lasted about an hour. Flores is similar to Sumbawa in that much of its terrain is very mountainous, and it is doubtful whether more than five percent of its land area can ever be satisfactorily develOped or utilized for cultivated crOps. This low estimate is based upon the observations of a soils specialist of the Soils Research Institute and the author after travelling from.BadJawa in Central Flores to Larantuka near the eastern end of the island. If there were adequate water, no doubt the slopes of many of the mountains would acquire the terraced appearance of Bali and Java, but in the absence of adequate water the labor requirement for such work cannot be justified. Mohr1 made the observation that Flores is so steep that if the sea should rise as much as 325 feet its total area would not be materially changed. Along the coast the depth of the sea increases 1e Ibide, p. 230e ¥ - 114.6 rapidly, so much thatin spite of the sediment transported by the streams during the rainy season no large alluvial plains have develOped over large areas. The climate of Flores differs from most of the other islands in that much of it lies at elevations greater than 3250 feet and is therefore cool, but the lowlands along the north coast east and west from Maumere are arid and hot. The dry winds of the east monsoon pass over the highlands and lose the greatest portion of their moisture before reaching the north coast so that the severe dry season continues until the end of November (Station 723 Table III). In the vicinity of Hammers during the dry leason strong winds rise in the morning and continue until dusk. Wind erosion is of considerable importance because Virtually all of the forest cover of the slopes has been destroyed by the ladang farming of the peeple. The lowland 7°86taticn is xerOphytic shrubs and sparse grass which in october seems to have lost all semblance of life. There ‘1‘0 coconuts in the watercourses which are usually dry °n the surface, but water is obtained from the shallow W011; which are often dug in the channels. In the absence or v6Setative cover on the mountains, accelerated erosion has become a serious problem, and according to the Radjah or l“I‘ll-linen the hydrologic cycle has changed in his lifetime in that. because of the excessive runoff, infiltration has the 1'90.an during the wet monsoon and many small streams flint; Mama. ..~ 1‘.me - -—-—.«-—-s—'- - .....~—u\ - 0 fl‘., - ...—~—-.r -..fi...,_... . s. . _. 1h? and wells, where there was formerly water throughout the year, are now dry early in the dry monsoon. As one leaves the lowlands he cannot fail to have something of a feeling of depression upon viewing the stony, boulder covered slepes with their shallow soils which offer little Opportunity for agricultural develOpment. Because of the nature of the parent material, the streams have develOped steep ravines through the geologic ages, and the fertile valleys found on many of the other islands are non-existent. Even more worthless in appearance than the stony volcanic slepes are the crustaceous limestone deposits along the south coast east and west of Ende and Glong the road crossing from the north to the south coast ‘8 one travels from Maumere to Larantuka. These areas consist primarily of crustaceous limestone with some 1'Ollsils, and little soil worthy of the name has develOped. From the combination of soils, climate, the ladang culture or the peeple, and the tradition of burning some of the 81"sflllands while hunting (deer and other game, the naturally w.“ forests of Flores have been almost completely destroyed. There are a few areas on Flores which are in sharp °°ntrast to the adverse observations above. Lying east or B‘ldjawa in Central Flores are the rolling plateaus of L°1° Ind Molanusa. The surface soils of these areas are YOung, fertile, humic brown soils that are a deep brown, umoat black, color, on which good yields of unirrigated 1 _. Mom JGMJ‘K . ..w tm‘dw - 1&3 rice and corn are obtained. Because of their elevation - these areas have a less severe dry season, and the grass on the slepes furnishes more or less adequate range for livestock. The major problem of the area, however, is the lack of year-round water supply both for the people and livestock. At Pudjanala and Molanuza inspection of the soil showed that the almost black fine sandy loam extended to a depth of thirty to forty inches above a reddish-brown subsoil with considerable clay and some concretions. It is on these soils that the Catholic Mission of the Order 01 the Divine Word previously referred to has established its most successful agricultural enterprises. 0n the north coast of Flores lies one of its few alluvial plains. The river empties into a bay protected by coral reefs and what were formerly two small islands which are now connected to the mainlandl. The total area 01' the Mbai plain built up by the alluvial deposits of the Air 313;; 13 approximately 22,500 acres, of which 10,500 1 acres in saline and will require very accurately controlled 1] 11'I‘Zlgation and drainage before it can be farmed satisfac- I t”z’l'ily. The Sissa rises in areas of volcanic origin and the "’11! of the plain are of adequate fertility to maintain pr°duction at high levels with irrigation during the wet mo n30°11, but because there is a high concentration of sulfates \_ 1. M. van der Voort, F. w. J. van Be, and H. A. Jens, Soil Surve of the Mbai Plain, Contr Gen A __ e 0 gr ‘ Sta. No. I211, ficgor, Indonesia, I§Sl, 29 pp. . “I ‘ ‘___ .. _ V. ._,._-_.-, 114.9 in the river water during the dry monsoon, it will not be satisfactory for irrigation water at this time. At the present time the plain is sparsely pepulated with most of the pe0ple living near the foothills. There is little farming except on the terrace soils that have a high moisture retentivity because of clay content. The saline soils are poorly covered with ha10phytic shrubs, and the non-saline soils have xerophytic shrubs including cactus which cannot be burned for ladang and are used for grazing lands but are of little value because of the long dry season. There was no rain in this area during the first ten months of 1952. Scattered throughout the area are many lontar palms from which the people collect the nectar of the blooms as a beverage (Fig. 21). This nectar may be consumed fresh, but more often it is allowed to ferment and is consumed '1 as a beer or is distilled in primitive stills to make an i alcoholic beverage known as 21351. Plans for the construc- tion of a diversion dam in the Air Sissa have been pre- pared and location stakes set for the structure. In the rolling hill lands between Mbai and Badjawa there are many small fields fenced either with rock and sod or with 1amtoro (Leucaena glauca) and dadap (Erythrina sp.) which form a thick living fence against roving animals, do meSticated and wild. As previously mentioned, the \ the Pl. @393 is a beverage from the nectar of the bloom of 0,. bail ra palm. The nectar is collected in bamboo tubes (113131)“: ets from the palm leaves and femented into beer or ‘ led to make a rather strong alcoholic liquor. _ New. and» 3; m”w_ ' '0’“. ""'~ ‘ 0 150 '.. J" .I 3;; s .‘z ‘ R O Figure 21. Bamboo tubes used for collecting nectar from ralmyra palms Figure 22. Month of underground river near Usikebubak, Sumba ,1 2 . [A {J ‘ ,4 151 principal hindrance to an increase in livestock is the shortage of water. The topography is well adapted to the construction ‘of a large number of stock watering ponds but no information is available as to the permeability of the soils, and any undertaking should initially be on a limited experimental scale. Although there is some dry rice planted in this area, the principal field creps are corn and cassava; bananas are the most important of the fruits. It is in this area that one may see bamboo forests covering several hundred acres in a block with the bamboo four to eight inches in diameter and with individual clumps measuring ten to fifteen feet in diameter. The bamboo attains heights of twonty to thirty feet, and the Shade is so dense that all other vegetation is eliminated. Although used in large quantities by the peOple, it seems to have no commercial value. In the western third of the island, from Maumere to Larantuka, there are five or six areas which the combin- at31011 of soils, tepography, and available water offer 3°°d possibilities for agriculture. In two of these areas, "3 HOkeng and Nangahale, the Catholic Mission has enter- priaOs. Hokeng lies in the center of the island at an 016"ation of about 2000 feet, and here the Mission of the Order of the Divine Word has more than 250 acres in coffee robu\sta_ which has done very well, but the experimental planting of kapok as a shade crap has proved to be ‘= (Hr; «é. m-€;mw ‘ 4" ‘A— amen“ * O ...- 152 unsatisfactory. The shade has not been adequate for the coffee, and the competition between the kapok, coffee, and cover craps has made the kapok yields too low to be profit- able. At the present time the kapok is being replaced by Algizzia stipu_1._e_._§g._. At Nangahale since the war the Mission has acquired the concession of a former estate and in this coastal area over five hundred acres is in coconut palms for cepra which will be expanded to about 1250 acres. The remaining areas are new subject to inefficient _l_a_d_e;n_g culture of the people with corn, cassava, and rice being of the most importance, but there is a small amount of cotton produced and used locally. Related to and perhaps a contributing factor to the Primitiveness of the island is the high incidence of malaria among the people. In the three areas of Konga, Mannere, and Geliting the incidence, according to a survey 1' °Ported by the resident public health physician in 1911.7, "38 88 percent. In the vicinity of Konga there is a level plain of 1000 to 1250 acres partially irrigated by primitive 1r rigation methods, but the fertile sandy loam overlying °‘ hefivy subsoil is only cultivated in part by the people. ' It "is also reported that in this area some elephantisis Occurs. The debilitating effects of these diseases,as "611 as yaws, are certain to have retarded the develOpment or the area. To the south of Flores across the Sumba Strait lies W“; ‘M -e\ me .. ' ‘MI- *I I I 153 the smaller island of Sumba which differs from the northern islands of the Lesser Sundas in many respects. While Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok, and Bali derive their principal soil characteristics from recent volcanic materials, the volcanic activity in the history of Sumba is of a much earlier age. The statement of Mohrl that Sumba is covered with marls and limestones north of its long axis, while in the south igneous rocks are thrust upwards through the sedimentary rocks in the southern half as mountains is substantiated by observations. The highest eruptive moun- tains are surrounded by marly marine tuffs, tuff marls, and calcareous marls except at the south. Although eruptive materials are present over most of the island, they have contribued little to the formation of fertile soils as they are principally from the Neocene Age and the weather- II1316 minerals have already leached out. The primary source 01’ soil forming material for Sumba has been the marls which, however, are not true marls, for they originated from m“Pine deposits of calcium carbonate of organic origin mixed with volcanic material. Because of the prevalence of limestone formations a 1‘1‘80 portion of Sumba has a M type of landscape. ““313 the s everal impressive features of the landscape ‘1th the road from Maingapoe to Waikebubak and on to the we '13 coast are the many valleys, both large and small, from \ a 1. Mohr, Op. cit., p. 2&6. "'I '_ A “ma-WWW ~ ' M-m ”W ‘k 151+ which there is no surface drainage. Many of these small valleys have a natural drainage well at the lowest point where cave-ins have occurred following the solution of the calcareous formations below the surface. In some valleys streams rise, flow for a distance, and then disappear beneath the surface, while in other areas underground rivers emerge from the mountain side. Figure 22 shows the emer- gence of an underground river near Waikeboebak which had a discharge estimated to be approximately 500 cubic feet per second at the end of the dry season of 1952. The limestone formations of Sumba which Mohrl preferred to call tuffaceous limestones are stratified to a marked degree and though generally horizontal are warped in many placed. The horizontal strata (Fig. 23) exposed on the hillsides give the appearance of terraced fields from the air-before one has seen them on the ground. The outstand- ing example of stratified layers is perhaps fifteen miles east of Waingapu where between the low plateau and the coastal plain there is a distinct shelf some fifty to “0 hundred feet in width and at least five miles in length. According to available rainfall records there is no “‘90 on Sumba with less than thirty inches annual rain- rail11. but at Melolo three-fourths of this falls in the six- month rainy season, and it is worthy of note that the "°1“-Se monthly rainfall is just over one inch in the months \_ 1. Ibide, pa 2H9. ... . . . 4.4%---.‘K ‘_ ‘ “.-. 155 Landscape on Sumba showing strati- ' L" Figure 23. fication of rock I .. ‘ <‘_~ I“ ~ . I ..- a Figure 2h. Lewapaku plain, Sumba ( 156 of May and November and one-half inch or less from June through October (Station 76; Table III). While the dry season is more severe at Waingapu than at other places of record, the same pattern holds true. Under a climatic condition such as this the normal develOpment of black earth from the parent material of marl would be expected and is true except as modified by erosion. On most of the slopes of Sumba the partially develOped soils are a grayish black, while in the valleys where alluvium has been deposited by water or wind the soils are black. The plains of Lewa- paku and Anak Alang on the road between Waingapu and Wai- kebubak are almost as black as soot. The Lewapaku plain (Fig. 2h) at an elevation of about 2000 feet covers an area of approximately 15,000 acres with topsoil twolve to twenty inches deep,which varies from clay loam to clay, over calcareous marl. Internel drainage of the area is not good; there are several areas where surface drainage simply fills small lakes which usually evaporate in the dry season. The plain of Anak Alang (Fig. 25) has an area of approximately 20,000 acres, and in general its soils are more fertile than those of Lewapaku. The soils have develOped from mixed marly and tuff materials deposited upon the underlying marly limestones of the plain and have weathered under marshy conditions. 1 From limited observations Dames states that the principle l. T. W. G. Dames, Personal Communication, May 20, 1953. ‘5," '-'- ‘45."- 157 Land preparation with steel bottom plow on Anak Kalang Plain, Sumba Figure 25. Sumba Gil ai relief in coastal area of or Figure 26. 158 soil type appears to consist of fifteen to twenty inches of black, mimic, crumbly, silty learn topsoil underlain by ‘ a reddish-brown, compact, moderately permeable lateritic, clay subsoil at about thirty inches grading into a brownish- . yellow clay containing a few iron-manganese concretions and r? in turn grading into a yellowish-white plastic sticky clay I with strong yellowish-red mottling. In the sunken areas 3“ the same tepsoil is underlain by a yellowish-brown clay, with many bluish-black iron-manganese concretions, which ‘ hardens upon exposure to the air into a steel-like hardpan. This true "laterite" layer usually is about. six inches in al'i-&u;~ J. ‘M thickness but in places may be much thicker and often occurs at very shallow depths. This concretionary layer is under- lain by a yellowish-white, strongly yellowish-red mottled, Very coalpact and stiff, plastic and sticky, impervious clay. It appears that this soil preperly should be classified as ‘1 ground-water laterite under the classifications of the ..t“ Snell.)- 1W . --.-..- PM Great Soils Groups as used in the United States. About five miles west of Waikebubak is the smaller plain of Waikelowo with an area of approximately 2500 acres through which the underground river previously referred to nm“ after it emerges from the mountain. There is also anther smaller stream with year-round flow in this plain. The soils of the Waikelowo plain are similar to thee of “Mk Along, but the agriculture has been further developed 4 as ‘ result of the presence of these two streams which 159 provide water for the primitive irrigation systems develOped by the peOple to irrigate about 1500 acres for rice culture. The above plains are the only areas of appreciable size that are really well adapted to cultivated crOps along the one road from Waingapu to the western end of the island, a straight line distance of about one hundred miles but one hundred and fifty or more with the meanderings of the road through the mountains. There are other areas which are cultivated and where the fertility is reasonably high, but without exception these areas lie in the small valleys because the soils on the slepes are so shallow and infertile. [£0.25 culture is practiced by the peeple on the slopes, and here as in Flores one finds land prepared with sharpened Sticks used as dibble bars. After the grass has been burned Off, the land is turned over in large lumps and left until there is rain; after it rains, rice is planted between the lumpfi and corn on tap of them. Small holes are made in “19 lullps or between them with a small stick where the '°9d8 are planted and covered by hand. Along the west coast of Sumba is the coastal plain of K°dio The width of this plain varies from about a mile to as much as ten miles, and the soil is a gray black sandy 1°91“ Of very low fertility. There are no streams -- only a re" small springs at the foot of the hills from which the inter disappears into the sand; there are a few wells from Wh 1°11 the small population is able to obtain water. 160 East. of Waingapu alternating red and black limestone soils have develOped where the surface is not completely covered by crystalline limestone. 0n the flatter slopes there are soils to a depth of four to six inches and in low places to a depth of two feet or more, but as on the rest of Sumba lowlands only along the watercourses are there any trees. In the mountains of the interior areas there are forests, but it is very doubtful whether much of Sumba has ever had a closed forest cover. On both the limestone capped plains, the limestone soils are erodible to a high degree and vertical erosion appears to be a serious Problem in that large areas have acquired a Gilgai micro- relief. In Figure 26 the Gilgai landscape is shown as it Occurs a few miles west of Melolo on the north coast. One could almost imagine that some giant size basin lister had been used for the conservation of water and the prevention 01’ erosion, but the landscape actually is the result of Vertical erosion through the drainage wells which are in the bottom of each low place. The depressions are twenty t° Wonty-five feet in diameter; near the center of each ther. is a small hole four to six inches in diameter through which drainage and erosion take place. In the background 11°“? the coast are the Palmyra palms (Borassus flabellifer) that lppear throughout the Lesser Sundas where there 1‘ 11“autull'icient moisture for coconuts. Around the eastern end of Sumba lies the coastal plain ‘_ —P__l ... _ “a! V,’ ‘ ‘ J‘LdflgiW‘ “ ‘ ..._, *K ‘ . -.- h -‘. 161 of Mangili which varies from two to five miles in width and is ten or twelve miles in length. The soil of this area is black clay loam to a depth of Welve to twenty inches underlain by a reddish-brown compacted subsoil. Although this is one of the few areas of Sumba where year round streams are present, the plain is not severely dissected. From a small technical irrigation system Put-tally completed prior to the war, approximately five ; hundred acres are now being irrigated. It is possible that ‘ this area could be enlarged by fifty percent; however, the Population is not able to cultivate more land. Between aft/4g,“ : ‘0' ‘7‘“ the Mangili plain and Melolo are more hills covered with the crystalline limestone where the soils are alternating red and black with no appreciable depth except in the few 10" places that occur. Near the home of the Radjah of R911ch there is a small valley (Fig. 27). in which there are many coconut trees and small irrigated rice fields, «camalw _ .--—‘-_m but otherwise the landscape is a desolate waste of sparse xemphytic shrubs, trees, and grass wherever this vegetation is able to exist upon the thin soils between the crystalline limestone rocks. The only natural vegetation of value is the Cayeput of the eucalyptus family (Melaleuca leucodendra), the resin or which yields an oil of medicinal value and the bark or which not only yields some tannin but because of its fibrous nature is used in the caulking of small praos . by the native fishermen. , g 162 Figure 27. Irrigated valley near the home of the Radjah of Rendeh, Sumba 163 The few small gardens of the people are develOped by removing enough stones from the surface to construct stone fences around the small fields and to enable the peeple to farm betwaen the rocks that remain. The statement of the North Georgia farmer who said that he could prepare his field of Madison gravelly loam soil, plant, and cultivate the crOp without seeing the soil beneath the gravel cover could certainly be used in describing the stony surface condition of these soils. The principal craps are corn, cassava, beans, and small amounts of dry rice because of insufficient moisture for the latter. Before concluding the discussion of the Sumba soils and vegetation, it is in order to mention the livestock Production which is related to the soils and climate. Just as in the limestone soils of Kentucky and Tennessee the grasses seem to be especially desirable for horses, so are t=he grasses of Sumba. At least both locations have long bBen famous for their fine horses, the Thoroughbreds from Kentucky and the Sandalwood ponies from Sumba. These 81mm horses, which actually are the pony size typical 01" Far Eastern horses, may almost be described as miniature Pillominoes, wiry, strong, and highly prized throughout Indonesia. There are many herds of horses moving over the I‘Ocky hills in search of grass and water tended by their I‘Zlerce looking herdsmen. There are also many herds of fine An801 (Brahma) type cattle and caraboa. The latter are 1 stun-2‘“ —< m...” sad-...;- I \v, A ' —¢* ,3 16L]. highly prized by the peOple who, after killing them for their ceremonial feasts, use the horns for door steps or ornaments on their houses. At the home of the Radjah of Rendeh a pair of caraboa horns from a bull which died at the age of twenty-three had a spread from tip to tip of 128 inches. The walls of his house were from caraboa hide stretched between the wooden framing. Throughout the coastal area of Sumba the Palmyra palm is common and is the source of a large portion of the necessities of life of the natives. The leaves are used to make vessels for carrying water or Egg; and also are split into narrow strips for weaving into hats, baskets, and other household items or decorations. The coarse fiber from between the sheath of the leaf and the trunk of the palm furnishes the material for thatch roofs and also for rcpes. Although the nuts from the Palmyra palm are of much poorer quality than the coconut palm, they aSLso provide a beverage and the meat is sometimes a source of vegetable oil for cooking. The easternmost island of Indonesia of appreciable aize (excluding Irian) is the island of Timor. For its also this island, according to Mohr1 , is derived from a greater diversity of rocks than most of the islands of the Archipelago. This is indeed a broad statement when it is 10 1401115 Op. Gite, pe 2600 a . ‘.&1:.’t .‘p 1‘ II .4- 54m ‘ m- 165 ) apparent from other islands of the Lesser Sunda group that any of them would make remarkable geological laboratories. Material of all ages is available for study to one who travels along the few roads and the changes from one age to another age are often so abrupt that, unless close attention is given to formations and morphology along the L'U‘e‘...‘. \. road, the change is complete before one is conscious of a.“ the transition. Timor has lowlands along its longitudinal axis with mountainous land to the south and higher moun- - ‘M tainous land to the north of its axis. W.“ e. w There has been no volcanic activity since time prior .I'.4~; to the Tertiary age, and the lack of volcanic ash together with its climate has rendered the soils of Timor far less fertile than those of the other islands of the country. Since the longitudinal axis of Timor lies perpendicular “mum to the direction of the southeasterly winds of the dry 3 IllOnsoons, much of its area is marked by long dry seasons t °r six to eight months. Kupang in the southeast of the H island lies behind high terrain so that during the east morisoon only dry winds descend on it. Less than 25 percent I: or the island's annual rainfall (55 to 60 inches) occurs in the six to seven months' period April - October (Stations 77.78; Table III). In the processes of soil formation there has been considerable influence from both the erosive forces 01' the water and of the wind. Another influence of climate 01’ Timor has been the natural savanna landscape of many of 166 the lower areas where trees could not compete with the grasses. Under the grasses many large areas of black or red earth soils have develOped especially over the crystal- line deposits of limestone originally deposited under the sea. The travels of the author on Timor have been limited to the vicinity of Kupang and were near the end of the dry Inonsoon when the area appears as a desert. At this season‘ of'the year a few fields are being prepared for the planting of‘corn or rice with the beginning of the wet monsoon, but Inost of the area is covered with the crustaceous limestone and alternating red or black fine textured soil. The vege- ‘tation primarily is that of sparse xerOphytic grasses and Shrubs with a few of the Palmyra palms in the lowest places ‘flhere the most subterranian moisture is available. The mount of limestone present is best told, perhaps, by saying 'hhnt an area of one to two acres can be partially cleared ‘Jf stone if the stone is utilized for the construction of rences three to four feet in height around the fields from which the stone was removed. In the higher regions of more moisture and lower temper- atures forest cover has existed, but it has never been the 'trOpical rain forest. It is on Timor, as well as on some Of the other islands of the Lesser Sundas, that sandalwood has long been sought. This valuable wood has almost d13- appeared and at the present time can be cut and exported $flf" “, ‘M LII V 167 -&'LWJ. -‘n-q- jog... ‘5 . v - '—- a only with special licenses from the government. Some of the areas with better climatic conditions have develOped more fertile soils, but the possible agricultural develOp- ment is greatly restricted by the relatively poor soils and the lack of good water supplies throughout the year. '37 3' {3 s3 1.! - i; The primary craps of the area are corn, cassava, and rice. The greatest agricultural develOpment has been in livestock production but this has, perhaps, been materially retarded by the absence of transport vessels which would permit the livestock to be sold elsewhere. G. Particular Characteristics of the Moluccas From the standpoint of size, Halmahera, Burn, and Ceram are the most .important islands of the Moluccas, but traditionally the smaller islands of Ternate, Tidore, and Anlboins. have dominated the trade and government throughout ‘- ”re. i' history. Detailed information on the soils of the islands 13 not available, but the climate is definitely equatorial and continuously moist (Stations 29-3h; Table III). The , Season of the most rainfall varies from one island to amother and even from the northern half to the southern half of some of the islands and is controlled by the location Of a particular area with reference to the mountains and the directiOn of the prevailing winds. The soils1 of Amboina, Buru, and Ceram are not influenced \ 1. Ibid., pp. 296-305. Pw.m.‘-4.~m M‘ .v . a... 168 by young volcanic material but have their origin from old igneous rocks and from uplifted marine sediments which include coral. The Bands Islands, lying between Ceram and Irian, on the other hand are almost completely of young volcanic origin except on the smaller islands and along the low coastal areas of the larger islands which are covered with coral. Almost all of the soil on Halmahera, to the north of the above named islands, has originated from old basic eruptives, although Opposite the islands of Tomato and Tidore and across the base of the Northwest Peninsula there are old tuffs and at the northern extremity younger volcanic efflata is the parent material. Because of the high rainfall through the year and the Sparse pepulation, the natural rain forests have not been destroyed by the ladang culture of the people; in fact, the continuously moist conditions of the forest seem to have prevented ladgg by remaining too wet to permit c>1earing with fire. The high forest contd ns many trees lllore than a hundred feet in height, and it is under these that the cloves and nutmeg trees have flourished. The low Press are the native habitat of the sago palm, the principal BOurce of starchy food of the Moluccas, which with fish and vegetables constitutes the principal diet. Even the Vegetables are primarily from the wild plants, not the customary garden vegetables of other areas. 1: :1 ‘.“- (“MW-o “0*“...‘m ->-4—-‘.\ 1 I an“ CHAPTER VIII DEVELOPMENT OF INDONESIAN AGRICULTURE Indonesian agriculture is difficult to describe in general terms, for every locality has its variations of adat or ancient customs pertaining to crOps planted, to ownership or tenure rights, to methods of tilling the soil, and in the cultural level of the people themselves. Most ( literature about the agriculture of the Archipelago refers to the dual eoonomay with the foreign owned estates estab- lished for the production of agricultural commodities for (fa ::.. ‘ ‘Nk Ozport and thenative farmer practicing a subsistence type of agriculture. The native farmer and his family usually c>111tivate about two acres on Java, Madura, and Bali and a lilttle more in the Outer Provinces, whereas the concessions 01‘ the estates on Java are measured in hundreds of acres a 33%le 5’«lid in the Outer Provinces in units of thousands or even ten thousands of acres. The largest areas of estate con- cessions are on Sumatra, with Java second and Kalimantan -‘v.>““~ ,. ,4 I - - . third. The area of concessions in other islands is very Small. The farmers' agriculture is characterized by a minimum investment in tools and almost always is a very primitive type of farming, while that of the estates is heavily °fipitalized and is conducted by well trained agricultural lcientists and other technical personnel but with a mixture 170 of primitive and modern techniques in the field. The tanner usually possesses neither adequate storage facil- ities nor even simple processing equipment, while the estates have whatever facilities are necessary to process their products for market or export. Prior to the Twentieth Century the estates produced almost all of the agricultural commodities for export, but a marked change is recorded by Kennedy1 showing the per- centage of agricultural exports produced by farmers in 1898 to be 10 percent, in 1913 an percent, in 1930 31 per- cent, and in 1937 A6 percent. Data from reports published show that this trend has continued since the war; in 1950 66 percent of agricultural exports were the products of farmersz. Certain export commodities have typically been produced 'by'farmers while others have been restricted to the estates. Tmhe limiting factors of adaptability of export commodities lfor farmer production appear to be the capital investment Ibequired for production and processing, the time required ‘Defore a return is possible, and the amount of technical kzmmledge and supervision necessary for the production of ‘Droduct. The pro-war figures of Kennedy showed sugar, palm Oil, and quinine to be entirely the products of the large estates, while the farmers produced all of the pepper, 98 L 10 Kennedy, Ops Cite, p. 61s 2. John E. Metcalf, The A ricultural Economy of Indo- nesia, Agr. Monograph No. IS, . .D.A., Was ng on{_I952, PP- ! 4“": fl 4“...“ -—-' macaw ,. ton-15*-” “I ‘ A -——~4——...\ e' ...-e. . {J {I 171 percent of the cOpra, 80 percent of the tapioca, 70 percent of the coffee, but only 23 percent of the rubber, 15 percent of the tea, and 8 percent of the tobacco. In 1950 the rubber estates produced 25.8 percent of the rubber exported and in 1951 26.7 percent based on weightl, but the per- centage of value of exported rubber was 27.6 percent in 1950 and 32.5 percent in 1951 as the average grade of the estate rubber is better than that of the farmers due to loetter processing facilities and techniques. When the Portugese traders lost control of the East 31ndies to the Dutch at the beginning of the Seventeenth (:entury, the primary interest of the EurOpean countries teas in the ”Spice Islands" or the Moluccas. The Dutch influence was under the United East India Company which initially was interested only in trading monOpolies in the Archipelagoa. The Portugese had formerly maintained their hmadquarters in the Moluccas but were forced by the Dutch t0 shift their trading base to Macassar where they remained until 1667. Since that time Portugese influence has been neEligible in the area except that they still possess the eaStern half of the island of Timor. Because of its favor- able location on shipping routes the East India Company established its headquarters in West Java, and under its Netherlands charter had a monOpoly on all trade in Asia. \ 1. Ministries of Economic Affairs and Agriculture, -..E_ Ekonomi, op. cit. p. 193. 2. VIe Eke, op. cit., pp. 3105-1h5. ‘ -J—) a {v sf‘E!!!l!£::::2§fllllllg:Pfi “1 .4;- 'fl. ’WH‘“ . 'V t'. 1 £1: 172 In 1610 Jan Pieterzoon Coon was appointed Governor-General of the Company, and in 1619 his trOOps burned Jacatra and upon its reconstruction renamed it Batavia. Shortly after the burning of J acatra the Chinese introduced sugar cane, and sugar production soon reached a millions pounds per year. About 1630 the gradual change of the Company's interest from trade to agriculture began and could have been influ- enced by the inability of the pOpulation of the Moluccas to repay crep-advances, after which the Company confiscated the preperty and reduced the peOple to slavery; however, it seems reasonable to assume that the Company merchants real- ized the potential productivity of the fertile soils and the warm climate. In order to maintain their position in the Moluccas, the Company paid the Sultan an annual allow- ance for his support of their claims. The general policy adOpted by the Company was to recognize any local ruler who could maintain control of his people and to support him in I‘e’curn for concessions including a monOpoly of trade. By about 1680 all major Indonesian states had disintegrated because of Dutch naval superiority, and Company control beMme the principal authority, although there were many l°°al rulers who neither recognized this authority nor . gminted the desired trading concessions. Distributed “moat throughout Nusantara are references by Vlekke to the Company's support of various local rulers against the 1.1113398 of their neighboring states. The support of the 4d “a ..Aa. ‘3‘}. . .. ...‘. ""slm, a. " «A 173 Company either in the form of munitions, trOOps, or perhaps both was given in return for trading monOpolies, and very often the local ruler found that through such concessions he had lost control of his own territory when the inter- tribal conflict was over. The policy of granting allowances to the radjahs and sultans to insure their acquiescence to the Company became more and more the standard practice, but in spite of this policy Dutch influence did not pene- trate Achin in North Sumatra or the island of Bali until By the process of not renewing the Company charter the fietherlands Indies Government came into existence in 1799, and the above method of controlling the country through native rulers had become the accepted procedure the beginning of the Twentieth Century. 6; Gum.was continued.. At the time of the surrender of the ‘ -W‘V' Cempany' charter the Netherlands government paid the stock- holders one hundred and thirty-four million guilders for \- ad“ their prOperty holdings. Incident to the indirect rule through native rulers, the Company and later the government ‘1‘!“- ~45..— f011ml the Eastern concept of the mler owning everything within his domain convenient to their goal of increasing trade, in that they were enabled to sell lands or to grant .' °°ncessions to corporations with sufficient capital to est‘a‘blish plantations from which there could be no immediate .-~ -c~.'._ :- aturn or to establish factories 'for the processing of c r°ps that could be produced both on the lands of concession .l — ‘ L; 17M or on the lands of the farmers of the vicinity. The con- cept of everything being the preperty of the ruling authority also enabled the collection of land-rents in lieu of preperty taxes, sometimes in money but more generally in portions of the creps varying from 25 to 50 percent. This concept also enabled the government to assign quotas of commodities for eXport which the local rulers must deliver in return for the support of the government. Today land tenure and prOperty ownership in Indonesia perhaps have more facets than any other problem confronting the government and the farmers. Many of the tenure problems are the result of the combination of 3933;, the policies of the Netherlands East Indies Government, and to a minor degree the policies of Sir Thomas Raffles, who was the British Governor General from 1811 to 1816 after an OXpe- dition of the British East India Company under Lord Minto defeated the Dutch and established administrative units in Malacca (Malaya), Bengkulen (SM. Sumatra), Java, and the Meluccas. In 1813 Raffles issued a decree which formalized the concept of complete ownership of all lands by the 8°Vernment. Excerpts from the decree stated that, "The G"Vernment lands will be let generally to the Heads of Villages, . . . They will re-let these lands to the culti- v84301's, under certain restrictions, at such a rate as shall 1101; be appressive, and all tenants under Government will be pl"°1=ected in their just rightse 80 10118 33 they 511111 (‘ f‘ ,Q 175 continue to perform their correspondent engagements faith- fully."1 Soon after the Dutch came to Indonesia, coffee was introduced and its culture was encouraged over the Archi- pelago. Within about twelve years after its introduction production reached twelve million pounds annually and was 80 profitable that the peeple were increasing areas under c“Jilture beyond the requirements of the Company for eacport to Eur0pe. Areas for coffee production were restricted, 1nd because even under fixed prices it appeared to the COInpany officials that the peeple were becoming too rich, Various practices were resorted to in order to increase the Company's profit in the export trade or to enrich the Officials themselves. One such practice was to require the delivery of "mountain piculs" of 225 pounds while paying for‘Batavian piculs" of 12S poundsz. The difference in “Sight was equivalent to the loss of weight in transit, so 1me officials claimed. This was during the period that as a 1‘esult of illicit trading officials of the company were able to return to Holland after a twelve to fifteen year per'1od with several hundred thousand guilders. Thus it is unlikely that the Company received all the profits of such sharp trading practices. Under the restricted plantings allowed and the \ 1. Ibide, p0 1820 20 Ibide, p. 182. 176 unfavoraule marketing system the peeple lost interest in coffee production. In order to maintain the eXport trade, the Company ordered the regents or local rulers to deliver fixed amounts of coffee and assigned supervisors to the various territories to insure compliance with the order. The supervisors became known as "coffee sergeants" and were the real beginning of the civil service of the Netherlands Indies Government. Coffee soon became a Company enter- prise and later was continued as a government enterprise which was not completely abolished until 1917. ' With the return of the Dutch to Indonesia in 1817, under conditions of a treaty with the British, a department of agriculture, arts and education was established. The first head of this department was Professor Gaspar Reinwardt, a Prussian botanist who had emigrated to Holland and thence to the East Indies. Professor Reinwardt was responsible for the establishment of the Botanical Gardens of Buiten— - zorg (Bogor) for the collection of trepical flora from throughout the Archipelago and other trepical areas of the world. The gardens became world renowned and for many years have maintained facilities for visiting scientists f1“om all over the world to come for study and work in “ddition to exchanging scientific information through the medis of publications. The primary objective of the gardens was to collect plant material and through the processes of aelection or breeding to make available these which could b° Produced profitably for eJcport. 177 Among the importations through the Botanical Gardens have been the oil palm from Africa about 181:,8 , chinchona for quinine in 1852, assam tea in 1873, and the £13123 Brasiliensis, a specie of rubber, from Brazil in 1883. Approximately thirty-five years of selection and breeding were necessary before quinine became important to the economy of the area and the same was true for rubber. The latter did not expand appreciably until after the first World War as shown in the production figure for 19114. of only 7500 tonsl, while in 1951 the total expert was 756.933 tone. The agriculture of the Indonesian farmer has always been and still is directed at the simple objective of pro- ducing sufficient food for his family. While rice is the primary food crap and most attention has been given to its production because of soiland climatic conditions, it is not the most important crap in all parts of the country. There are three areas with respect to primary food creps. The western part of the Archipelago, including Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi with approximately eighty POrcent (80%) of the total pepulation, composes the rice ma. Many areas in the southeastern section or Lesser 3unda Islands rely upon corn as their principal crep, because their severe dry season provides inadequate moisture \ 1. Ibid., p. 2914,. w 2. Ministries of'Economic’Affairs and Agriculture, % Ekonomi, Op. cit., p. 193. «fl —'-—-1 —— ‘— —— — #9" x_ 178 for even one crOp of rice annually in some areas. Bali and Lombok are the exception to this generalization, but corn is far more important on these two islands and in East Java than in the areas to the west. Corn is also an important crap in South Sulawesi where a surplus is avail- able for export to deficit food areas of other islands. The Moluccas have often been described as the area with a sage economy because there the sage palm is a source of most of the essentials of life except for proteins and vitamins. From an attempt to rationalize the reasons for the dual economy present in Indonesian agriculture, it is apparent that EurOpeans have develOped a commercial type of agriculture with capital gain as its primary objective, whereas the agriculture develOped by the indigenous pepu. lation.has had production of enough food for the farmer and'his family as its primary and often its only objective. The requirements for living in the trepical climate are simple when compared to the temperate zme. The essential requirement of shelter is protection from the Pain except at the higher altitudes where the nights are cool. Shmilarly, clothing is unimportant from.the stand- POint of protection from the weather. There is little necessity for production or storage of food or feed creps where planting, cultivation, and harvesting may be con- curTent operations throughout the year as is the case in “my areas; on the other hand, the humid climate and high 179 temperatures make the storage of foods and feeds very difficult except for short periods of time. Fruits and vegetables, either cultivated or wild, can be available throughout the year and may be supplemented by fish from the streams, lakes, and sea and by the game from the forests, with the result that peeple who are satisfied with a minimum level of subsistence only have to produce a minimum of field creps in order to sustain life. In the absence of consumer commodities, the result of a lack of industrial develOpment and a lack of communications, there has been little incentive for the farmers to strive for greater pro- duction. , It is inpossible to say whether the lack of develOp- ment of more extensive agriculture or intensive agriculture in the Outer Provinces may be attributed to the above factors or whether they should be attributed to the inability of the farmer to cultivate larger areas because of the rapid encroachment of trepical vegetation on fields that have been c33Leared for cultivation. On Java the intensive agriculture that exists in undoubtedly the result of the increase in population; in 1860 the pepulation of Java and Madura was Placed at only five millio fifty million peeple. It seems that the most plausible n1, while the current estimates are refit8011 for a farm family to cultivate no more than two to three acres in the Outer Provinces is that in areas of ample \ 1. Vlekke, op. cit., p. 320. 180 rainfall no more than this amount can be kept clear by the farmer and his family with their primitive tools, and in areas having a severe dry monsoon no more than this amount can be adequately prepared for planting to permit crop growth under favorable conditions. As previously stated, farmers enjoyed rights of land tenure rather than the Western concept of ownership in fee simple. Raffles' formal statement in 1813 was, in fact, only a measure that legalized an existing system and was not modified further until theAgrarian Law of 1870 was issued prohibiting anyone except Indonesians from owning landl. In view of the general concept that the Government owned all lands, the above regulation appears unnecessary, but when one realizes that the rights of occupation and use in many areas amounted to ownership by consent of the local government, that such ownership was of sufficient Strength that the right of tenure could be passed on by inheritance, and that it could be mortgaged or sold, then t‘vhe need of the regulation is apparent. The preceding Statement is true in some areas, but in others upon the death of a farmer his land is returned to the control of the village for redistribution among the inhabitants of the Village on the basis of need and ability to cultivate. Because of the subsistence level of farming, the farmers have always lived on the margin of emergency need for money k 10 Ibidh, p. 287. 181 or food, and because most of the retail trade, small industry, and.money-1ending has been and still is in the hands of the Chinese element of the pepulation, without the law the Chinese would have become large landlords. Because of the lack of collateral other than the land, the Indonesian farmer has been a poor credit risk, a con- dition which has enabled the money-lenders to charge such exhorbitant rates of interest as four to five hundred per- cent. However, because of the Indonesian sense of honor towards the repayment of debts once he became indebted, the farmer could never repay even a small debt and would not risk dishonor by refusing to pay the interest. This condition led to a circumvention of the law through the granting of a long-term lease to the money-lender in return for the cancellation of the debt, a device which actually enabled a farmer to become a tenant on his own land. Such leases were subject to review and cancellation by the Government unless certain minimum cenditions were met, but again the sense of honor would often prevent the farmer from reporting the actual conditions of the lease to the Government. In the highlands of West Central Sumatra where the Minangkabau tribes live, there exists a matriarchal system of preperty ownership>and inheritance. Control of property passes from the mother to the oldest daughter who must dis- tribute the income among the other daughters as long as 182 they live in the family house. When a daughter marries, the husband comes to live with her family and to assist in working the family land. Upon the occasion of a marriage another room is constructed for the new family; as long as the daughter lives on the preperty, she shares in the income; the preperty itself is not divided. If the daughter and her husband move away, then she forfeits all preperty rights, and the income is distributed among the daughters who remain. . In Sumatra the right of occupation after land has been cleared is generally recognized, and since the first World War a class of land owners with large holdings compared with other Indonesian land owners has, develOped. The ladang type of culture has typically been followed west of Palem- bang and north to Djambi. With the increased importance of rubber after the first World War the farmers began Planting rubber trees in their ladang fields with the Second or third crOp of rice. The fields were then per- mitted to return to brush and secondary forest vegetation, but the rubber trees could survive and grow at a slow rate. After a period of ten to twenty years the trees were large enough to tap, and the planters began either to collect the latex individually or to permit less enterprising individuals to make the collection on shares, usually without clearing the underbrush. The amount of rubber harvested throughout Sumatra from small holdings is 183 dependent upon the price of rubber with relation to the price of rice. When the laborers or the farmers are able to earn enough money by working rubber to buy more rice than they can produce in their dry fields, they collect the latex; however, when the differential between the two changes materially, rubber is allowed to rest while the peeple work in their ladang. InfiKalimantan while travelling by boat through the swamps, the author occasionally saw a large tree near the streams, each with several beehives hanging from the limbs. Some of these trees were more than four feet in diameter at the base and were one hundred feet or more in.height. Up the side of each "bee tree" was a ladder made by putting wooden page into the trees and fastening rattan to the pegs. Inquiry about these trees brought the answer that they were owned by the first man to find them and put a ladder up the trunk, and after ownership is once established it is passed on from father to son. Similarly, the right of ownership of land is established in this area by clearing land and placing it under cultivation. The chief of a village on the Kahajan River cleared an area of 75 acres between 1930 and 1935 near the river and constructed a levee around it for protection against the tidal backwaters and thus became, for this area, a large land owner. Although the land, because of inadequate irrigation, was not well adapted to rice culture as originally intended, its cultivation 18h in cassava and other food crOps is permitting a son to attend college in Holland. Many others have followed this same practice of planting rubber following $29225 rice culture with the result that at the last accurate census of 1936-1937 there were 209,997 acres1 in small rubber plantings. In contrast to Sumatra where there are many large rubber estates, in South Kalimantan which is the location of the largest rubber plantings of Kalimantan there are only three estates and one of these was estab- lished by the Government. There is such a marked contrast in the rubber plantings of the farmers and those of the estates throughout Indo- nesia that one does not need to inquire as to whom.a particular planting belongs. The plantings of the estates with their 120 trees per acre are either clean of.under- brush and clean cultivated, or the land is covered with a leguminous green.manure crOp for the control of erosion and soil improvement. In contrast to the orchard-like appearance of the estates' rubber plantings those of the farmers look like an untended woodlot with their closely spaced 360 to hOO trees per acre, and the ground is so completely covered with underbrush that even passage on feet through the plantings is difficult. The difference in cultivation and attention to the rubber plantings is Itflected in the difference in the yields as the average —_ l. H. J. SchOpuys, Personal Communication, Nov. 1951. 185 estate yield is in the 1100 to 1300 pounds per acre per year range while that of the small-holder is usually below 650 pounds per acre. The quality of the latex from the estates is also generally higher than that of the farmers because of the absence of trash from the underbrush and the :mrmal use of metal collecting cups in lieu of the half- coconut shells often used by the farmers. Differences in the quality of rubber are also due to differences in pro- cessing techniques and equdpment that will be discussed more in detail later. In.Kalimantan's inland territory, sparsely occupied by the Dyak tribes, little agriculture has develOped, and consequently the literature says little about land tenure or ownership. The Dyak tribes are described as hunters, fishermen, and traders with the tribe having communal lights to large areas and living in long-houses with enough rooms for every family of the tribe. In addition to the normal use of fish traps and nets as found through- out Indonesia, the Dyak peeple also use derris roots to facilitate taking large quantities of fish for drying. The derris roots, when thrown into the water, stun the fish and cause them to rise to the surface and float down- stream where they are netted by men wading in the shallow streams or waiting in dug-out canoes in deeper waters. While this method of fishing is against the law, the Govern- ment is not yet able to enforce the law. 186 In Sulawesi, in the Moluccas, and in the Lesser Sunda Islands most of the lands have in recent centuries been claimed by the sultans and radjahs; however, as the influence of the Netherlands Indies Government in these areas increased, the local rulers often retained only relatively limited lands for their own use but also received annual allowances from the government. The lands were usually and in some places still are rented by these local rulers to the peOple for one-fourth to one-half of the crOp. Because of the necessity of at least a period of transition frmm the ancient rule, the present Government has given the sultans and radjahs the title of Suapradjah with some administrative authority. The amount of authority and influence in the present day conditions seems to depend entirely upon the individuals who now occupy these positions. Same seem.to have a great deal of influence and authority while that of others is nominal, whereas under the pre-war government they had almost complete autonomous authority within their territories. Throughout Indonesia there is the strong influence of communal prOperty rights and community effort in the prim- itive agriculture of the farmers. In the traditional con- cept the area surrounding a village or $332 is the prOperty of the 3232’ and the areas for cultivation are allocated under the‘gggt of the particular section. In South Sumatra one finds the Marga, or village chief, with the authority 187 to allocate lands and such allocations are recognized for long periods of time; the same authority is reposed in the village council on Java; on Flores the allocation is made by the Tuan Besar who is a village elder but usually not the village chief. 0n Bali the communal system has perhaps attained its highest develOpment with the control in the hands of the village council which reallocates land annually according to the needs of the individual and the community. Because of the steep, rugged mountainous terrain of Bali it has been impractical for the farmers to construct the necessary irrigation canals individually. The tra- ditional communal life of the Balinese resulted in the fonmation of many 22255 or agricultural c00peratives that function as water control boards supervising the construc- tion and maintenance of irrigation works and the equitable distribution of available water. Covarrubias1 describes these objectives of each.gugg§: to insure that each farmer will receive enough water for his crOps, to police the dams and channels effectively so that strangers may not divert water, to settle diaputes, and to attend to the communal rice festivals. The 33335 had become the village authority for all matters pertaining to agriculture even before the Netherlands Indies Government subdued the Balinese early in the Twentieth Century, and it is through the subak that l. Covarrubias, 0p. cit., pp. 70-87. 188 the various services of the new government are working today for the further improvement of Balinese agriculture. The _s_1_g._b__a_k_ Operates under the direction of a group of elected headmen who conduct meetings, see that decisions and rules are carried out, impose fines and penalties, act as treasurers of the organization, and keep written records of the membership and proceedings. The officers of the 331295 receive no pay but may receive extra allowances of water for their fields. Every man who owns rice fields must become a member of the M and, while he may pay others to actually perform his portion of the labor of construction or repairs of irrigation systems, he must be present when important repairs are made. At the shrine of tgricultural dieties in the rice fields the subak meets once a month or more often if necessary, and decisions are reached by a majority vote of the members who are subject to fines for absences which cannot be justified. The control of the _s_u_t_)_a_k_ over the agriculture of its area even extends into the land tenure conditions because if the cOOperative decides that a man holds more land than is beneficial to the community, then he must share the yields of the land with non-landowners who are assigned by the 1933.5 to assist in its cultivation. The Balinese from _a_d_a_t_ and religion observe many ceremonies and festivals. These customs are also present in the subak. where refresh- ments are served after each meeting, or if the subak is 189 very prosperous, the meeting is followed by a banquet. Because rice is the important food crop of Indonesia, it is only natural that irrigation has been develOped to a very high degree, and throughout the Archipelago the density of the pOpulation and the visible prOSperity of pe0ple is in direct prOportion to the availability of water and the develOpment of irrigation. Although irrigation systems are primarily develOped for the benefit of rice crOps, supplemental crOps such as beans,’ corn, sweet potatoes, and peanuts are often grown with the benefit of some irri- gation, especially in those areas where the streams do not provide adequate supplies of water for rice during the dry monsoon. Gravity irrigation by diversion from the streams is almost the universal rule with irrigation by pumping found only in a few locations, and most of these are on_ the lands of the sugar estates in Central and East Java. Previously East Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and South Sulawesi have been referred to as the area of Indo- nesia in which corn attains its most important position as a.food and forage crOp. The importance of corn in these islands as a food crOp does not indicate that the peOple, because of any differences from.those of Western Indonesia in their dietary habits, find corn more delectable than rice; instead, it is a reflection of the four months! rainy season and the following eight months' dry monsoon that in some areas leaves almost a desert condition in its wake 190 and prevents large-scale rice production. In these areas of an extended dry season the houses of the peOple are the poorest, the gardens of the kampongg the most sparse, the fields the least develOped, and the pe0ple themselves the poorest in appearance of all of Indonesia seen by the author. It is not attributable to any ethnological or other difference except the fact that there is insufficient water to support any well develOped culture of peOple or agriculture until modern science can tap undeveloped groundwater supplies or adapt dry farming techniques to improve conditions. The agriculture of the islands of Sumbawa, Flores, and Sumba is the most primitive that the author has seen. The culture of crOps with the broad hoe is generally con- sidered to date back at least five hundred years, but preparation of land prior to planting with sharpened sticks is common on these three islands, eSpecially on Flores and Sumba. It is questionable as to what age in history stick preparation of land should be placed. The usual method of land preparation is that towards the end of the dry season the alangralang grass is burned off and the land is turned by using sharpened sticks as dibbles (Fig. 28). As the men and women work together, three or more peOple line up and punch the sharpened poles into the soil at fifteen to eighteen inch intervals, and When the dibbles have pene- trated to a depth of about twelve inches, the soil is prized 191 Figure 28. Land preparation with dibble sticks on Flores Figure 29. Poor condition of the soil after megawattsgasses-saw 192 over in lumps generally six by twelve by thirty inches in size and is left in the resultant rough condition (Fig. 29), until the rainy season begins when rice or corn or both are planted. The rain tends to dissolve the lumps of very heavy soil, and in areas where the rainy season is usually of sufficient duration for a rice crOp to mature, rice seed is planted; if the usual length of rainy season is too short for rice to mature, then corn is planted, but it is not uncommon to see rice growing between the clods and corn on t0p of them, The planting is accomplished by the simple but labor requiring technique of punching with sticks small holes in the soil where the seed are placed and then covering the seed by hand. The work of punching the holes is usually the work of the men, while placing the seed and covering them is the work of the women and children. There are several basic factors contributing to the lack of develOpment of agriculture in these southeastern islands. As described previously in the discussion of the soils and climate of the Archipelago, few soils of high fertility have develOped because of the nature of the parent material, the tOpOgraphy of the land, and the unfavorable climate. The semi-nomadic tribes have been dependent upon their livestock plus the fruits,xregetables, and game of the forest for their livelihood. Even today as one rides along the roads, it is common to see the men carrying their bows and arrows or spears with which to kill deer, wild boar, 193 or other game. During the rainy season many of the streams which rise in the mountains disappear before reaching the coast, and only a few small streams have a year round flow. The peOple are still animistic in their religion; only in relatively recent years has it been safe for outsiders, whether Western or Eastern peOples, to enter and attempt to introduce any change. Land preparation with sticks was observed on Flores and Sumba in 1952 when there were large numbers of cattle, horses, and water buffalo grazing on nearby grasslands, and while a few cattle or buffalo are used for plowing, the majority of peOple do not know how to use animal power in their work. Furthermore, it was stated that the peOple do not want to own livestock for their draft power or their monetary value if sold but only for the social standing they acquire through the ownership. Those who own numbers of livestock are con- sidered the leading citizens and in payment for the communal effort of the village in preparing land, in planting or harvesting a crap, or in the observance of marriages, funerals, and other festive occasions give feasts for the surrounding countryside for which many cattle or buffalo are slaughtered, but much of the meat is wasted because of inability to store it for future use. In the eastern islands, as in other parts of Indonesia, horses are used for riding, for pack animals, or for pulling small carts; never are they used for plowing or for the 191; cultivation of crOps. Because of the lack of roads horses are ridden or used as pack animals much more commonly than in the more develOped islands. On each of the islands of Sumba, Flores, and Sumbawa there is a main road running generally east and west, from end to end, but there are no roads worthy of the name from north to south, and areas a.short distance away from the axial roads are inaccessible except by foot or on horseback. The problems of trans- portation coupled with the numerous languages of the islands which are often mutually unintelligible have served as a major hindrance in the develOpment of the islands as have the tribal wars which continue even today in the more remote areas. Under the conditions on the eastern islands corn has become the staple crop and is usually planted at the beginning of the wet season. The varieties used are the dwarf varieties that mature in ninety to one hundred days with a yield usually estimated at nine to twelve bushels per acre. From Bali and.Lombok there is a small surplus of rice and corn in addition to some cepra, coffee, cattle, swine, and all-spice produced for export to other islands and abroad. From Sumbawa and Sumba only livestock is exported in measurable quantities, and from Flores there is some capra production in the vicinity of Ende on the south coast andnear Maumere on the north coast. From both of these last named towns ships of the Koninklijke 19S Paketvaart Maatschappij call at three to four weeks' intervals and about 1000 tons of cOpra are exported to Surabaja and'Macassar monthly. Livestock is exported from Sumba as permitted by shipping space; late in 1952 the allocation of shipping Space was 800 animal units per month with the small horse as the basic unit. A carabao was considered as 1.? animal units, while a cow (Brahma type) was considered as l.h animal units. 0n Flores the Catholic missionaries of the Order of the DivineWord1 are attempting to introduce agricultural improvements as demonstrations for the peOple while at the same time producing the food and feed crOps required for the Mission establishments. There are an estimated 150 missionaries on Flores who maintain churches, elementary schools, trade schools for woodwork, metal work, and printing, and their religious seminaries. At the school and seminary at Todabelu a dairy herd of Friesian type cattle provides a portion of the milk and cheese needed at this and other establishments, and there is also a herd of swine of the Hampshire and Chester White breeds. The sires of these herds are used for breeding with the native livestock of the peOple and should result in improvement, in a limited area, within a few years. At Ruteng, Todabelu,- Maumere, and Hokeng the Mission has develOped fields for the production of food crOps such as corn, cassava, sweet 1. Father J. C. Van Doormaal, Personal Communication, NOV. 22, 1952. 196 potatoes, and beans and on the high lands of Todabelu is producing a small quantity of wheat. For the purposes of demonstration and for supplementing the income of the Mission, there are 50 acres of coffee arabica at Todabelu and 285 acres of coffee robusta at Hokeng. In addition to these predwar planting, since the war the Mission has taken over the concession of a former estate at Nangahale and now has approximately 500 acres in coconuts for cOpra. In the area of Todabelu the Mission, in addition to farming its own land, is renting additional land from the peOple by one of two methods. The Mission uses the land of the peOple and after a period of ten years is to return the land in adequately shaded, bearing coffee. By this method the Mission has the clear use of the land for three to four years, at which time 1amtoro and $5323 must be planted, but crOps may be planted between these tree plant- ings until the end of the sixth year, at which time the coffee is planted. The second method by which the Mission rents land is by the preparation of the land with a tractor and disc harrow; for payment the Mission plants and culti- vates one-half of the prepared area for its own use. In addition to using tractors for their own use and in payment for the preparation of rented lands, the Mission is doing some custom work for the peOple at the rate of $5.00 per acre at Todabelu and $3.35 per acre in the vicinity of Hokeng and Nangahale where the soils are lighter. It is 197 also worthy of note that the Radjah of Maumere has purchased a small tractor of German manufacture (30 brake HP) and is preparing land in the vicinity for $3.35 per acre where one plowing and one harrowing seem adequate on the light soils. Related to the inability of the people to cultivate more land on Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, and Timor is the necessity of constructing fences around the cultivated fields of prevent damage by both domestic and wild animals. Formerly most of the fences were constructed from bamboo or the saplings from the burned over ladang, but at the encouragement of the agricultural advisors and missionaries most of the fences are now from 1amtoro and 93922 planted as close together as possible to establish permanent living fences strong enough to keep out the wild boar and wild carabao, as well as the domesticated stock. It was estimated by Father Van Doonmal and others that there were 30,000 banteng or wild carabao on Flores alone in 1952. In some of the very rocky areas such as are seen in the vicinity of Melilo in East Sumoa, the fields are partially cleared of the cavernous limestone which is used for fence construction. In a few areas fences of sod and stone are used. Previously reference has been made to the sago economy of the Moluccas. The climate of the Moluccas (Stations 29- 3k; Table III) results in trOpical rain forest almost 198 throughout the islands, and as the income from Species grown in the forest has usually provided income for the purchase of food and other essentials from other islands, there has been little inclination to improve agriculture. There also seems to be a general disinclination towards the difficult field work of farming with primitive tools according to comments of several Ambonese acquaintances of the author. Perhaps this lack of desire for farming was accentuated by the high regard of the Dutch for the Ambonese peOple as mercenary tr00ps and the position of rank and respect that many of them attained in the Nether- lands Indies Army. Because of“the remoteness of the Moluccas from the rest of Indonesia and its importance as a naval base, the Moslem influence was never strong; most of the peOple are Christians or Animists with most of the Ambonese especially professing the Christian faith. One Ambonese described his peOple as excellent soldiers, excellent preachers, and excellent teachers but very poor farmers. Under the existing conditions the peOple of the Moluccas have always relied upon the sago palm and fish as the principal food items in their diet. In addition to its value as a source of food the heavy stems of the saga palm fronds furnish a very satisfactory building material commonly used for the walls of native homes, and the coarse fiberwwhich grows between the fronds and the trunk is the traditional material used in the thatched roofs of the area. 199 Because of its exemplification of the area adat, the economy of its use, and its availability, the sago palm material was used in the construction of the office of the Governor of the Moluccas and his administrative assistants in Ambon as shown in Figures 30 and 31. The only other area of Indonesia where the sago palm has ever been of appreciable importance has been on the small islands lying off the coast of West Central Sumatra. On these islands the sago palm has also been the most important source of food except for fish and has also furnished the principal material of construction. If one attempts to summarize the develOpment of Indo- nesian agriculture to its present stage, he can only say that it remains a study in contrasts. Some areas have progressed along with agricultural science so that pro- duction and processing methods are among the most modern in the world, except for the substitution of animal and man power for machinery because of the relatively high cost of machinery in the Archipelago, while other areas have made virtually no advancement in the past five hundred years. All stages of develOpment are found between these extremes; it is only fromthe favorable conditions of climate and soils that the pOpulation has been able to produce enough food to prevent visible famine. The possibility of improvement of Indonesia's present agriculture, with few exceptions, offers almost unlimited Opportunities for Figure 30. Sago palm frond ribs used as vertical siding in wall construction in Pro- vincial Administrative Office Building in Ambon Figure 31. Indigenous type of home constructed of sage material on Amboina 201 increases in production so that many years will be required before the potential productivity of the country is approached. CHAPTER Ix PRINCIPAL FOOD CROPS A. General Agronomic Factors In the econonw of the Indonesian farmer, in the economy of the nation, and in the diet and traditions of the peOple, the crap of greatest importance is rice. It is almost impossible for a person from the United States to realize that a subsistence food crOp can have such importance. The Primary goal of the Indonesian farmer is the production of enough rice for himself and family in contrast to the con- °opt of the farmer in the United States who usually con- siders food production incidental to the production of commodities for market. It is also very difficult for one from the United States to become accustomed to any one food being of such importance in the diet of even a few peeple, much less the major constituent in the diet of the entire Population which equals approximately half that of the United States. The annual per capita consumption of rice in Indonesia 1' Slightly less than two hundred pounds compared to only 311 pounds per capita in the United States. In the typical Indonesian diet bread and potatoes are almost completely ‘bflnt but rice is eaten at every meal. Rice is prepared in May ways; however, boiled or steamed rice is normally “Wed at noon and in the evening and fried rice - boiled 203 rice fried in coconut oil with soya sauce and other season- ings - is most common at the morning meal. Perhaps the Indonesian attitude towards rice is best described in the expression 293.32 M n_a_s_i_._, b_9_1_1_._zm £215.13 , which translated literally means ”if I have not yet eaten rice, I have not yet eaten". The above remarks should not be interpreted to mean that the Indonesian peOple eat nothing except rice, although this is alm03t true with the poorest people; with rice a variety of meats, fish, and vegetables is served, all of which are very hot from the use of red pepper. The annual requirement of rice in Indonesia is esti- mated at 7.7 million short tons, of which approximately 10 percent was imported in 1952. As a percentage factor this does not seem great, but when one considers that this 10 percent represents an expenditure of approximately 115.0 million dollars or equivalent in foreign exchange, its importance to the national economy is apparent. Because statistics of the above magnitudes are difficult to visualize, perhaps it is advisable to give the require- ments of a family and to compare the requirements of a family with the productive capacity of a farm family. A young official of the Ministry of Agriculture stated that he usually purchased 115 to 135 Pounds of rice per month, the exact mount varying with the number of guests eating with him during the month. In this household there are the official, his wife, three small children, the mother-in-law, 20h and two servants. This household, which is about average in size, requires approximately two-thirds of a ton of rice per year -- the production of 1.75 acres of irrigated rice or 3.5 acres of upland rice. ‘When the area required to produce the food for a family is compared with the area cultivated by a farm family, it is obvious then that the average farm.family is barely able to produce enough rice for its own needs. On Java and Madura the average farming unit is 1.75 acres, while in the Outer Provinces the farming unit varies from 2.5 to 5.0 acres. On Java and Madura there are less than 1.25 acres of irrigated land per farming unit and.in the Outer Provinces much less. The existing conditions were very aptly described by another official of the Ministry of Agriculture when he stated that the average farming unit was too small to pro- vide an adequate standard of living but too large to permit starvation. If weather conditions are favorable, if flood damage is not serious, and if rodents, insects, or diseases are average, the farmer is able to produce enough food for himself and family. If any of these factors affecting pro- duction are unfavorable, there is an inadequate food supply which increases the farmers' susceptibility to borrow money or rice from the money lenders whose usurious rates of interest make repayment almost impossible. The import- ance of traditional feasts in honor of religious occasions 205 or events of special importance in the family life have often prevented farmers from accumulating any surplus, and it is often the case that they are the direct cause for borrowing. Under the above circumstances the economic condition of the farm family is directly related to the production of rice wherever the combination of climate, topography, and soils permits its culture. In the less desirable areas, from the Indonesian viewpoint, where rice production is not practical in the dry-monsoon because of the lack of irrigation water and in the areas where rice production is very limited even in the wet monsoon, secondary food crOps such as cassava, corn, peanuts, soybeans, and pigeon peas gain importance. The Indonesians leave little doubt when discussing food craps that these craps are of secondary importance and will receive attention only when rice culture is impractical. In a few small areas adjacent to the large cities or harbors, vegetable and fruit production is of major in- portence. Except in these areas where good markets exist, fruit production is primarily for home consumption and along with vegetable production receives little attention. The vegetables usually eaten by the fam peOple come from the leaves, shoots, and tubers of the native flora more often than from cultivated gardens; however, many of the vegetables commonly known in the United States are found in the markets of .11 the cities. 1 206 Fruit production is habitual around the home of almost every Indonesian farmer, and from the fruit trees shading the farm yard there is an almost constant supply of bananas, papaya, coconuts, and the breadfuits. In addition to these there are areas where pineapple, citrus fruits, mangosteen, rambutan, and salak are cultivated for home use and also provide a surplus for the market. In a few areas adjacent to the large cities fruit is produced primarily for market, but in the overall agricultural economy these areas are far behind the rice producing areas in importance. The extent of areas cultivated in the principle food craps and the total yields are given in Table IV. B. Rice Most of the rice of Indonesia is grown during the wet or west monsoon when the requirement for irrigation water is at a minimum. ‘In those areas where there is adequate water available from the streams for irrigation, rice is often planted without regard for season and it is possible to produce five crOps in two years. Because there are few areas where the water supply is adequate for all the culti- vated land to be irrigated, other crOps are planted on some of the sawah, especially during the dry monsoon. It has been stated by Van De Goorl that, because of the heavy l. G. A. W. Van De Goor, Rice Cultivation in Indo- nesia, Gen. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bogor, Indonesia, Mimeographed, 6 pp. ' 207 Jae?» 00.3 use: on» 00.33 haopseflwoaaos .Ho doom madam no canon a." a." .33.: seam 2: ..eop pace. ooo.a as ease»..m .ueaes coo?” a.“ «and .N .mmma eonsosoz .spaaeafio .eaaeapaos asaaoseoSoa .mmea qaaeaesom‘aaeasaa .ofiapoom .m ”men .a man meo.a mom oeo.H mam ~mo.a Hem coo. emu oeo.H .qaoewom owm mmo mew mam sew amp amw ems emu sue .sea..a ~se.a mom oma.fl mam mmm.a eem mam.a gem oss.a mam causes .m mea.o moo.m omo.o omm.~ owe.» o~:.m oom.m mmm.m mmo.oa oom.~ assumes emo.m oma.m NH¢.~ omm.~ o:o.m oasis momsm oeo.~ mea.m oeo.m ance mam.a oo:.m He:.H oea.n mem.H ooo.m esmsa mem.m 1mm use ease .ooam omn.ma omm.ma smo.ma owo.ma ‘omm.ma oom.ma ome.oa omo.ma oeo.o ome.o a.saa ..oam macaw send 6.3.; . wood macaw s93. macaw send noaoaw Noon: no.8 Amommmwpuol mmma Amos owma odes 1i "g whomo Goom AduHOZHmm ho QHmHH Q24 35: H >H man. {e 208 rainfall of the wet monsoon, most of the plant nutrients have been leached from the tepsoil and lie below the roots of most annual plants. To this condition he attributed the develOpment of the system of under water preparation of the soil that is common throughout the monsoon areas of the Far East. This method of preparation puddles the topsoil and tends to minimize further leaching and has proven to be the most satisfactory method of land prepar- ation for rice. In order to maintain the puddled condition of the soil throughout the growing season, the farmer must have large quantities of water either from rainfall or from irrigation. Irrigated rice fields are classified by their source of water which may be from the technical irrigation systems, from the primitive irrigation systems, from rainfall only, or from rainfall and residual flood waters as in the l_e_b_a_§ culture. In the areas of the technical irrigation systems, the concrete diversion dams, weirs, sluices, and other control structures as well designed in accordance with hydrologic data available, and very detailed irrigation schedules are followed. For example, the total area of an irrigation system often is divided into three or four parts. it the beginning of the wet monsoon the first subdivision will receive enough water to permit preparation and planting of its nursery beds and to start preparation of its fields before other subdivisions. As the rainfall increases, some 209 water is supplied to the second subdivision for its nursery beds and fields; after transplanting is completed in the first subdivision, its allocation of water is reduced so that the allocation to other areas may be increased to permit the establishment of nursery beds and the prepar- ation of the soil for transplanting. On some soils the requirement of water for the preparation.amounts to as much as 30 percent of the total required. Rice fields are classified asIEgggh if they are irri- gated from.either primitive or technical irrigation systems, rain‘ggggh’(ggggh tadahan) if dependent upon rainfall, or dry fields (ladggg or tegalan) if unterraced and unirrigated. The irrigated fields are terraced with bench type terraces with.the horizontal and the vertical spacings dependent upon the slepe of the land. The terrace ridges are usually no more than a foot in width and are of sufficient height to retain water above them to a depth of perhaps six inches, seldom more and often less. The area between terraces has, through trial and error of many years of cultivation, been leveled by the use of broad hoes and hand labor. In some of the mountainous areas the vertical wall of the terrace bank is as high as, or higher than the width of the level area above. This condition is especially true on Java and Bali where the density of population has made it necessary to cultivate every possible square foot of land; indeed, some of the terraces have little more than one square yard 210 of land above them for cultivation but these are cared for just as meticulously as the larger areas (Figure 32). The upland or dry rice fields are not terraced, nor has any attempt usually been made to contour planting for moisture conservation or erosion control. Until recently all terracing has been done only for water control, and any erosion control that resulted has been incidental. In general, all terracing has been accomplished, as stated above, by trial and error with water indicating errors of judgement. Surveys are uncommon and there are no recommen- dations available for the spacing of terraces. The farmer constructs the benches by digging the soil away from.the upper side of the horizontal area and moving it to the lower side with his broad hoe; after the area is flooded, further digging and earthmoving by hand make the necessary changes as shown by the water level. The irrigated fields are usually prepared for trans- planting While saturated or more often while under water. In fields where irrigation is possible, the fields are flooded before plowing; on the rain dependent fields the preparation is delayed until after the wet monsoon has begun. The fields are alternately plowed and harrowed if the farmer owns livestock, or they are dug thoroughly two or three times with the broad hoe if the farmer must prepare his fields without animal power. The plow used is normally made locally from wood, although iron points are common in 211 Figure 32. Cattle and wooden harrow used for under- water preparation of small terrace area for rice ”if“: \f’ :3k?’1‘u5 I 5 --. a n”; d- Q‘Qa- '34“, - u Figure 33. Dry land preparation with oxen and tapered cylinder wooden plow bottom 212 many areas. The plow bottom.may be only a tapered wooden cylinder (Figure 33), usually about four inches in diameter and two feet long with the taper from about the midpoint, or it may have almost the same shape as the conventional steel bottom.moldboard plow (Figure 3h) so common on American farms. A few steel bottom.plows are made in Indonesia, and a few have been imported annually for many years but their use has never been widespread. The shape of the bottoms is such that little turning of the soil is accomplished; rather there is a lateral pushing action resulting in heavy draft even when plowing at very shallow depths. Carabao or cattle are the draft animals used in the fields; the many small horses are used only as pack animals or to pull carts on the roads. In a few areas, particularly on the islands of Sumba and Sumbawa, land preparation is accomplished by restricting herds of carabao or cattle to the flooded fields and driving them.around until the vegetation is trampled into the mud and the soil is well puddled. After having been plowed, the land is usually harrowed under water to break up the clods and to smooth the surface prior to transplanting. The harrow commonly consists of a single cross beam from which wooden pegs extend downward six to eight inches (Figure 32), but a few steel harrows of the same general type are used. The beam.extends to the rear about two feet and is used alternately as a lever, 213 Figure 3h. Dry land preparation with steel pointed plow bottom Figure 35. Blacksmiths making a tajak in Negara, Kalimantan shOp 211; with which the Operator lifts the harrow to pass over the mud that piles up in front of the beam or on which he applies his weight to obtain greater penetration. If the famer must prepare his land with a hoe, after he has dug his way through the field, he goes over it again either with the hoe or with a heavy stick and breaks up the clods. In answer to the author's questions, farmers and agricultural workers throughout Indonesia indicate that land is usually plowed and harrowed three times before the ,preparation is considered adequate. The same is true for dry land when livestock is used. More often, however, the famer cultivating the non-irrigated soils does not own livestock and must prepare the land with the hoe. When land is prepared with the hoe, the digging is usually preceded by fire to eliminate as much of the vegetation as possible; the land is then dug up and the clods are broken either with the hoe or a stick. In the areas where the shifting or ladang culture is comon there often is no preparation of the soil after burning but on Sumba, Flores, and Sumbawa the dibble sticks are commonly used in preparing the land for rice or corn. In the vicinity of Bandjarmasin, Kalimantan the Band- 'Jarese peeple who do not own cattle or carabao use the 2135 (Figure 35) in the preparation of their ladgg. fields. The 3.9.13.5 is a scythe shaped implement with a handle about 3.5 feet long; it is peculiar in that its cutting edge is 215 on.the convex side of its curving blade. In order to pre- pare their grassy, organic soils, they do not turn the soil but simply loosen the surface by cutting the grass with the ta ak. The grass is cut one to two inches below the surface of the soil and is removed for compost; the soil receives no further preparation prior to being planted in dry rice, corn, or other crops. Swamp rice culture is also found in the Bandjarese territory. In parts of this area large tracts of land are flooded annually throughout the west monsoon. In these areas the variety of rice used is one that will withstand numerous transplantings and requires about eight months to mature. After being started in nurseries, the rice is transplanted in areas of shallow water and.is subsequently transplanted several times as the flood.waters recede in the east monsoon. The number of transplantings for this variety of rice is regulated by the recession rate of the flood waters; usually it is moved three to four times before reaching maturity, and although the labor requirement is great, this culture is common and is indicative of the Indonesian farmers' desire to produce rice wherever possible. The labor required for land preparation varies from about forty manéhours and eighty animal-hours per acre for the preparation of flooded fields to about four hundred.man- hours per acre for the hoe preparation where alang-alang (Igerata czlindrica) must be destroyed. No estimates are 216 available for the labor required for the stick culture. For irrigated rice, seed are planted in nursery beds and generally are transplanted to the fields at the age of six to seven weeks. In the areas of the lgbgk culture of South Sumatra the nursery beds may be a mixture of soil and stable compost six to eight inches in depth on a floating bamboo raft, or they may be on a high terrace bank along the river. All nursery beds are located so that they may receive adequate water, and many in South Kalimantan are on the banks of the canals and rivers where they can be watered daily. Under the ladang culture the seed are usually planted directly in the field in small holes Opened with a stick used as a punch. The seed are carefully placed in the holes and covered by hand. Where the ladang follows forest growth, there often is no prepar- ation of the seed bed. In this type of ladang (Figure 36) and in the stick culture of Sumba and Flores corn is often interplanted with rice. Behind the forest the interplanting of rice and corn follows no definite pattern, but where land is prepared with sticks, corn is planted on top of the huge clods while rice is planted in the low places between the clods. Balinese rice culture differs from.other Indonesian rice culture; it is muoh.more closely associated with the Hindu religion. Before work is begun in the rice fields, a small amount of water is brought from the holy sources 217 Figure 36. Mixed planting of rice and corn in ladang on Kalimantan Figure 37. Community rice harvest on Bali 218 of the mountains, and after a feast at the 22255 shrine the holy water is sprinkled over the fields and into the common irrigation supply canal so that all of the lands and waters will be blessed. Afterwards nursery plots are prepared and planted with due observance for the preper day selected from a religious calendar, and during the six weeks before the plants are ready for transplanting, the fields are plowed and.harrowed with livestock and wooden implements. At the time of transplanting the owner must plant the first nine plants according to a fixed pattern in the upper left hand corner of the field as he faces the highest mountains in the area -- the residence of the gods. The remaining plants are set in the fields at a spacing of a hand span, sometimes by the farmer's family and at other times through communal effort; if the planting is done by communal effort, the owner usually pays for the labor'by giving a feast for all of those assisting. The feast is accompanied by offerings and is supposed to further insure good yields. Offerings are also made soon after transplanting to prevent damage from insects, diseases, and mice; after seven weeks, more offerings are prepared for the feast day of the crep. Again at the time the crap is maturing or, according to the Balinese, is pregnantI, offerings are made and still more elaborate offerings are prepared at the time of and after the harvest. l. Covarrubias, 0p. cit., p. 77. 219 In contrast to lack of cultivation of rice and other small grains in the United States, all rice in this country is cultivated, or it is more accurate to say that it is weeded from two to four times. In.limited areas push type cultivators are used, and these stir the soil to a minor degree and submerge the weeds. Most of the weeding is entirely a hand and foot procedure. Usually the women and children go through the field pulling the largest, most harmful weeds and pile them on the terrace banks, but the small weeds are buried in the mud by the simple expedient of mashing them down.with the feet. As the rice begins to flower, scarecrows usually appear, and shortly thereafter a small shelter on bamboo stilts is erected. 'The shelters consist of a floor of bamboo strips protected from the sun and rain by a thatch roof and usually are no larger than six feet square. From the shelter a network of strings runs over the fields to many bamboo poles, and from.the strings are dried palm fronds or any other material which will rattle when moved. From the time the grain reaches the dough stage, someone is in the shelter during daylight hours watching for birds; when the birds appear, the strings are pulled and the birds frightened away. Rice harvest time in Indonesia is festival tame and also the time for what may be considered a share-thedwealth plan. The harvest is generally a community affair (Figure 37) with the peeple of the village assisting in the harvest and 220 receiving a share, varying according to various local customs from one-fifth to one-eighth, of what they harvest in.payment for their work. Because of the irregular times at which the crOps are planted in many areas, this is a means of lengthening the harvest period as part of their crOp is harvested every few days over a long period of time as a result of trading labor. Because of this method of harvesting and of paying for labor, the rice produced is distributed through the village and minimizes the need for large storage structures, and the work of spreading the grain in the sun daily until dry enough for storage is well distributed among the peeple of the village. The inefficient method of harvesting has another social aspect that may cause difficulty in the introduction of more efficient methods of harvesting. In every village there are landless laborers who normally receive most of their wages in rice and who probably would form that class of people who in other countries would be dependent upon some form of relief. After the harvest they are permitted and are expected to become the gleaners who go over the fields looking for the stalks of grain that are left, accidentally or deliberately. Through this scavenging type of harvest these peOple are saving food that would otherwise be wasted, and as they obtain it through their own efforts, there is no stigma of charity attached to it. In the author's travels throughout most of the Archipelago 221 the ani-ani knives have been the only tools used in rice harvest (Figure 38). The sickle is sometimes used to harvest rice straw after the grain has been cut, and it is reported that the sickle is used for rice harvest in North.Sumatra and in North Sulawesi with considerable saving of labor, but the use of the sickle is not yet widespread. In spite of the skill of the peOple in the use of the ani-ani knife the amount of labor required for the rice harvest is great. After observing the rice harvest on Bali and inquiring of the farmers the time required, the author calculated the labor to be hOO to 600 man-hours per acre, not including the labor to carry the‘pggi to the village approximately a halfdmile from the field. In dis- cussions with agricultural officials since making the above calculations, they considered this a reasonable estimate of the harvest labor required. After the rice is harvested and carried to the village, it is spread in the sun to dry, daily for periods up to three weeks. It is the work of the women to carry the grain from the house and to spread it on the road shoulders, on open grassy places, on the bannisters and abutments of bridges, or in the yards in order that it may dry. It is the work of the children to see that birds and chickens do not eat the rice. It is quite common to see mats woven from swamp grasses placed on the ground to prevent the loss of grains of rice but use of mats is not universal. The 222 Figure 38. Ani-ani knife used for harvesting rice .4 ill I _ a .t " ii )1; , 3 a k Figure 39. Traditional Minangkabau, Sumatra type rice lumbung 223 rice is ordinarily left in the 222$ form and is pounded out to meet the daily needs of the family. When the rice is dry enough to remain in storage con- tinuously, it is placed in grain bins or lumbungs. The lumbung usually has a wooden frame but it may be of bamboo. Its floor normally is from split pieces of the large bamboo, while the walls are woven from thinner strips of bamboo and the roof is of thatched material. Throughout most of Indonesia the shape of the lumbung is that of an inverted truncated pyramid (Figure 39), but in the Batak Highlands circular bins (Figure hO) from.woven bamboo are common. In the Batak Highlands it is also common for rice to be threshed'before storage as rough rice or 2&3i.5222’ Mechanized rice production as it is known in the United States is unknown in Indonesia. However, in 1950 and 1951 the Deli Corporation (N.V. Deli Maatschape) with Indonesian headquarters at Medan, North Sumatra, undertook mechanized rice production on a lhmited scale and in a desultory manner but with results which, while not indicative of great success, cannot be considered a total failure. The primary interest of this corporation is in the production of the famous Sumatra wrapper tobacco which demands a premium on.the world.market, but the Corporation also has large con- cessions producing rubber, sisal, and-palm.oil. The pro- duction and processing of agricultural products by the Corporation requires hundreds of laborers who, under present Fi gure ’40 e Cylindrical rice lumbung woven from bamboo Figure #1. Corn stored on bamboo rack on Bali 22h- 225 Government regulations, must be sold rice by the Corporation at a fixed price, usually below that of rice in the free market. The amount of rice that a laborer is entitled to purchase from the Corporation is prOportionate to the size of his family and amounts to an invisible wage paid by the employer and, where hundreds of employees are involved, amounts to a considerable expense. Because of its require- ments for rice and the fact that North Sumatra since the war has been a rice deficient area, making the expenses and supplies dependent upon imports highly variable both in quantity and price, the Corporation initiated a project for completely mechanized rice production in 1950. In 1950 the land preparation, seeding, and a part of the cultivation.were accomplished with machinery, but the harvest was by hand because the two combines ordered for the purpose did not arrive until November 1951. The initial operation which was only on a few acres was said to be reasonably successful, but the second year's Operations were successful in areas of new plantings but were partial to complete failures on areas which were in.rice the previous year. Land preparation was accomplished with plows and harrows; seeding was performed with a 7 x 1? grain drill with alternate tubes plugged so that the drill planted nine rows at fourteen-inch intervals. The rice was cultivated three times with diamond points and sweeps on tractor'mounted cultivators on a portion of the area but only twice in other 226 portions because of too much rainfall at the time the crOp was small enough to permit cultivation. In the area of the second year planting the crOp was a failure because Of competition from weeds except on 15 acres which were weeded by hand, an Operation which required about four:man-days per acre. On the 165 acres planted in rice for the first time the competition from weeds was not such a serious problem. This area similarly was cultivated three times where weather permitted, but higher yields probably would have been Obtained had the weeds in.the rows been eradicated either by hand or by machinery. In spite Of the fact that oil palm.seedlings were planted in this area and.made it impossible to plant two foot strips at twenty-five foot intervals, the estimated milled rice yield Of 1680 pounds per acre exceeded the average upland rice yield of 1100 pounds per acre for Indonesia. This area was fertilized at the rate of 180 pounds of double superphosphate per acre, another factor contributing to the high yield probably was the better than average seed bed preparation. In the absence of experimental design adapted to statistical analysis, any specific conclusions are conjecture only, but the cost Of production of approxi- mately nine cents per pounds, roughly the equivalent of free market price, indicates the economic feasibility of mechanized rice production even though the initial cost of machinery is roughly twice that in the United States and 227 the cost of machinery maintenance probably is in the same prOportion because of the cost of delivery and the import duties which must be paid upon entry into Indonesia. Limited observations in relation to this mechanized rice production indicate that, before mechanized rice production can progress very far, experimental work must be conducted to Obtain varieties Of rice adapted to mechan- ical culture and harvesting, and techniques of utilizing existing machinery or new machinery must be develOped for Indonesian soil and climatic conditions. One of the greatest problems, if not the greatest problem, in the field Operation will be the elimination of the weeds in the rows, but this may be overcome by the use Of rotary hoes, rod weeders, blockers, or perhaps by chemicals. If the field Operations are successful, then will come the problem of adequately drying and storing the rough rice -- the same problem encountered by the farmers of the United States with the increased use of mechanical harvesters for rice, corn, and other grain crOps. It would appear rela- tively easy to transplant American rice drying and storage methods and equipment to Indonesia, but here again one would be faced with the cost of transporting equipment half way around the world and the absence of qualified personnel to set it up and Operate it on arrival. This develOpment, as is true with many others, must progress slowly until qualified personnel can be trained within Indonesia to fulfill most of the country's need. 228 0. Corn The culture of corn on.most Of the islands of Indonesia has advanced little, if any, in the past five hundred years; indeed, in some areas the only possible advancement that could be claimed since the introduction of the crOp through various routes from the Americas is the substitution of hoes or knoves made Of iron instead of bone or stone, and as stated in the description of rice culture, hoes and knives are not yet used in some parts of Flores and Sumba. Corn is a secondary food crOp throughout the Archipelago and is planted only when conditions are unfavorable for rice production, and under these conditions it is of less importance than cassava from the standpoint of quantity _produced. In 1952 on Java and.Madura, 5,h67,500 acres1 of corn were harvested, on which the yields are variously estimated from seven to eleven bushels per acre according to the report of Melhus and Jackson?,‘but with a reported total yield Of 1,985,500 short tonal. The estimated area and yields for 1953 are 7,500,000 acres and 2,200,000 short tons. Except in East Java and Madura, corn is usually planted during the dry monsoon where irrigation facilities are insufficient to permit rice production, but in these areas l. Soetijo, Op. cit., p. 3&3. 2. Irving W. Helhus and Robert I. Jackson, Corn Pro- duction in Indonesia, Gen. Agr. Exp. Sta., BOgor, Indonesia, Mimeographed, p. 7. 229 it is often planted during the wet monsoon because there is insufficient rainfall for rice even at this time. Because of the severity and length of the dry monsoon in the Lesser Sunda Islands and South Sulawesi, corn is of more importance than elsewhere; however, specific infor- mation as to areas planted are not available in published statistics. In all of the Outer Provinces, however, the ratio of rice to corn is approximately 2.0 to 1.0 as com- pared with a ratio of 2.5 to 1.0 for Java and Madura. On irrigated fields corn Often follows rice during the dry monsoon, and there still remains enough time for a cover crOp of weeds or a planted green manure crOp to grow before time to prepare the land for rice again because the var- ieties of corn planted are the dwarf type which mature in 80 to 120 days with the varieties which mature in less than 100 days more common. The average ear of corn is about 1*}- inches in diameter and h to 6 inches in length; the dwarf varieties have smaller ears than most Of the sweet corn grown in the United States. In the vicinity of Asembagus in East Java, where corn is planted in the wet monsoon on unirrigated fields, the practice is to plant the corn as soon as there is enough moisture to permit germination and as soon as the amp is mature to replant. It is stated that in this area the first crOp averages seven to nine bushels per acre and the second crcp less than six bushels per acre if the dry monsoon does 230 not begin too soon, in which case the crap is a total failure. Land preparation for corn is at best inadequate in that the soil is plowed to a depth of no more than three inches when the farmer has livestock. More commonly the surface of the soil is disturbed with a hoe just enough to kill the weeds and the seed is planted. Fertilizers are seldom.used, and turning under of leguminous cover crOps occurs only in rare instances. In.most of the corn observed one gets the impression that the farmer planted more seed than necessary in order to insure a good stand and did not bother to remove the excess plants when most Of the seed had germinated. Commonly the cultivation Of corn is restricted to its being hoed once or twice to eliminate the weeds, or the weeds may simply be removed by hand pulling. In various parts of the country the corn harvest varies from the time the grain reaches the milk stage until it is well dried. In the milk stage it is used as a fresh vegetable hut normally is mixed with other vegetables at the time of cooking; fried corn and corn on the cob are not Indonesian foods. ‘When dry it may be pounded into a coarse corn.meal but is more commonly mixed with rice or other foods in lieu of being considered as a food in its own right. In.some areas the husk is valued as a wrapper for tobacco, as a substitute for cigarette papers, and in other areas the ear shoots are harvested before the grain develOps and are used as a vegetable. A gruel or porridge 231 of corn.meal and grated coconut is common in some areas, while in others rice and corn meal are common; the percentage of each is dependent upon the relative prices. Corn harvesting is completely a hand Operation, and even if there were not such an abundance of labor available, the low yields would prohibit the use of machinery for economic reasons. After the corn is harvested, the leaves and sometimes the stalks are used for livestock, but the use of corn as a grain feed is entirely accidental and unintentional. When the mature grain is harvested, there are two general storage practices. The first, which is especially common in Sulawesi and the Lesser Sunda Islands, is to tie the ears together at the butt either with strips of the husk or with thin slivers of bamboo and to hang the ears on a bamboo rack (Figure kl) or to tie the string of ears around a tree (Figure h2); the second.method is to smoke the ears either with or without prior boiling in water with sugar so as to have a dried corn.which still is protected by the husk. The Open storage of corn on racks leaves much to be desired. Inspection of racks on Sulawesi, Bali, Sumba, and Java in 1952 showed between one-third and one-half of the racks to be damaged by weevils, and where there was any weevil damage, it was virtually 100 percent. There were no cases of mild to medium.damage; the racks were either free of weevils or were completely infested. Figure h2. Corn tied around coconut tree for storage on Sumba Figure #3. Cassava root display at East Java fair 232 233 D. Cassava Cassava (Manihot) or as generally better known in the United States, tapioca, which is a processed form of the cassava starch, is a root crOp planted throughout the trepical regions of the world for direct consumption as food or for processing into edible or industrial starch products. The wide distribution of this crOp is a tribute to its adaptability to a wide variety of soil types and moisture conditions. As would be expected, the yields from cassava are much higher under favorable moisture conditions and on fertile soils, but it will produce a greater bulk of food under poor conditions than almost any other trOp- ical food plant. In addition to its adaptability to various conditions affecting production, it is useful as a fresh vegetable, as a delicacy somewhat similar to potato chips when sliced thin and fried, or as a starchy flour to be used with rice, in sauces, or in soups when pulverized by pounding or grating. In addition to these uses of the roots, its leaves, which have a.high content of protein as well as some vitamins, have been used as green vegetables by the Javanese peOple for several generations. In area planted, cassava is the third most important food crOp, but in total production it is first when only weight is considered. In 1952 the reported areal of rice, 1e SOOtijO, Op. Cite, p. 3h3e (Q 231+ corn, and cassava were respectively 16.57 million acres, 8.0 million acres, and 2.58 million acres. The total pro- duction in short tons of these crOps in 1952 was rice 7.06 million, corn 3.05 million, and cassava 9.05 million. Prior to World War II the demand for cassava starch made it a crap attractive to estate agriculture, and in 1939 there were 39 estates producing cassava themselves1 and 130 more that were buying cassava from farmers for processing. The capacity of the processing plants was only about 10 percent of the total estimated production. In l937-hl the United States alone imported from Java in various tapioca products, the equivalent of l.h.million tons2 of fresh cassava roots annually. Cassava is exported as crude maniac (gaplek), as coarse or fine meal (manioc farina), as flakes and siftings, or as refuse (ggpgg)3. Prior to consumption as food the hydrocyanic acid content of some varieties of cassava tubers must be removed by repeated washing to avoid a toxic effect“. Land preparation for cassava consists of plowing the soil or turning it with hoes to a depth of three to five inches, after which time it is bedded in rows spaced about three feet apart. Planting.may occur at any time of the l. J. H. Boeke, The Evolution 23 the Netherlands Indies Econggy, Institute of FacifIc Relations, New York, I9E6, p. e 2. Metoalf, Op. Cite, 1). 1+6. i. Boeke, Op. Oitg, pe 770 . U. S. War Dept. Medical and Sanitagy Data on Java THMED, 102, Washington, l9EE, p. 13. ‘-_ , 235 year and is accomplished by setting out cuttings of the canes from other fields at two to three foot intervals in the rows. Little cultivation is required as the plants are soon tall enough and covered with ample foliage to effectively shade the soil and prevent any substantial weed growth. At any time after the cassava has been growing for three months or more, the roots may be dug for use as a vegetable, but the normal growing season is eight to ten.months. However, most cassava is planted about the end of the rainy monsoon and is harvested near the end of the next wet monsoon. When dug, the clusters of roots are comparable to a cluster of sweet potatoes except that the roots are very much elongatedt Most of the roots are no more than two to three inches in diameter at the thickest point but are often as much as ten to fifteen inches in length (Figure h3). ‘When stored for home consumption the roots, either whole or quartered, are placed in the Open until dry and are then stored in a dry place until ready for use. The roots may be processed for food by pounding them with a wooden pestle in the same mortar used for rice and then pick out the coarse fragments of peelings from the dry flour but the roots are often pulverized by grating. E. Horticultural CrOps The distribution of the pOpulation of Indonesia has 236 retarded the develOpment of horticultural crOps as the major agricultural enterprise except in a few relatively small areas. The pattern of pOpulation distribution has changed slightly in recent years, but it is estimated that at least 75 percent of the pOpulation still live in the rural villages from whence the farmers walk to their fields. Each village, or kggpong, is literally a mixed orchard containing several kinds of fruit cared for primarily for home consumption. The fruits most commonly observed are papaya, banana, mango, orange, grapefruit, rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum, L.), and jack-fruit (Attocarpus integra, Thund. Merr.). In addition to these fruits coconut palms and kapok trees are very common. Under the mixed orchard of the farmyard it is quite common to see cassava, taro, or some other plant which may be used as a vegetable. Beans, peanuts, and cassava are grown as secondary crOps after rice, or where irrigation is impossible, may become the principle crOps. These crOps are used as fresh vegetables, but they may be also used in other forms after they are fully mature. The so-called EurOpean type vegetables such as cabbage, white potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, and squash are found in areas adjacent to those cities where the soils and climate are favorable. Near every major city there is a small area where the pro- duction of vegetables, fruits, and flowers is the primary type of farming. Because most of the cities are in the lowland areas along the coasts, most of the vegetable 237 producing areas are in the mountains nearby at elevations above one thousand feet where the climate is more favor- able; this practice is especially true for potatoes, cabbage, and tomatoes which do not produce well at the lower altitudes. Current statistical information on the production is not available, and it is doubtful whether the true importance of horticultural crOps will ever be known because most of them are produced for home consumption and the amount con- sumed is largely dependent upon.the supply available. The Netherlands Indies Government conducted surveys prior to 1930 which, while outdated, give some idea Of the fruit production on Java. Ochse1 and his colleagues estimated the total area in the kampongs of.Java and.Madura at 5.2 million acres in 1925; to say that this area is the villages is synonymous with saying that this area is in mixed orchards (Figure uh) as the houses are spaced between the fruit trees but the houses usually are so small that the spacing of the trees is not greatly affected by their presence. It was estimated according tO Ochse;,by the Central Bureau of Statistics that in the period of 1925-30 a total of 28,000 short tons of fruit was brought into Djakarta annually by various means of transportation. Because the t1. g.FJ.1Ochs§ with R. C. Bakhuizen Van Den Brink, Frui s an ru t Cu ture in the Dutch East Indies G. Kolff and 50., BatavIa (DjakartET'Indonesia,_l9319 PP. l-188. 238 Figure uh. iMiscellaneous fruit trees surrounding kgmpong in Central Java Figure hS. Fruit market in Djakarta 239 estimated pOpulation of the city today is at least four times as large as before the war, the volume must be far greater. Fruits and vegetables are brought into the city daily on pikulans, on bicycles, in‘bgglgkg, in carts, in trucks, and by rail. Most Of the produce transported by rail is hauled as the free luggage of the third class passengers who transport their produce from the farm to the railway station and later from the railway station to the market with the pikulans. The same system of marketing fresh fruits and vegetables is visible in all of the cities, a system which.makes little if any use of grading and one which makes no use of packaging and wrapping except for the use of very loosely woven containers of thin bamboo strips that are substituted for paper bags. Because all paper is imported, it is so expensive that paper bags and wrapping paper are seldom seen except in the best stores; if wrapping paper is used at all, it usually is Old newspaper. Fruits and vegetables are not ordinarily sold in grocery stores as is common in America; instead they are sold in the pasars (Figure h5) either by the farmers who have brought their produce to the market or by mmall traders who often are of Chinese ancestry. The marketing process is time consuming, both for the traders and for the purchasers, because the various fruits and vegetables are at different parts of a.market or even in different markets and no single trader has a complete selection; therefore, it is necessary 2&0 for the purchaser to go to a different trading stall for each item desired. With few exceptions, there are no fixed prices for produce in Indonesia -- the same condition common in.other parts of the Middle East and the Far East. The sale of every item is accomplished after a period of bar- gaining over the final price to be paid; the process usually begins with the "asking price” of the trader followed by an Offer from.the would-be purchaser that usually is only 25 to 35 percent of the ”asking price”. After a period of discussion a compromise may be reached; whether it is near the ”asking price" or the I'Offering price" depends primarily upon the individual bargaining abilities of the trader and Of the purchaser and secondarily upon the instantaneous situation of supply and demand. If one is purchasing several units of a particular fruit or vege- table, the usual bargaining technique is tO obtain the best possible price on a single unit and then to bargain again for the total price to be paid for more than one unit. The relation.between the ”asking price" and the final selling price is often a good index of the patience of the purchaser; if one has the patience to wait for a long time over the few 322 Of the price, it is possible to buy at relatively low prices, but if the purchaser is in a.hurry, then the price will be relatively high. The hmportance of bargaining is, perhqas, best illustrated by the fact that foreigners, especially Americans, until they have been in the country 2141 for a long time, often pay up to two or three times the price for fruit and vegetables paid by Indonesians. From the standpoint of the farmer or trader who thus sells the fruit or vegetables, this process of bargaining holds the volume Of an individual's sales to a.minimum. From the standpoint of the consumer there is a great loss Of time in the purchase of even the minimum.requirements for daily needs. Because Of the absence of refrigeration in the homes of all except the very wealthy, perishables must be purchased in small quantities, a practice accentu- ating the time required for the purchase Of the requirements of even a small household. The prOpagation of most of the fruit trees of Indonesia is from seed, although the Horticultural Division of the Farmers' Agricultural Service maintains a number of nurseries where the selected varieties of the best fruits are prOpa- gated through cuttings, by grafting, or by budding. Commercial nurseries are of little importance except for ornamental plants in.the vicinity of the larger cities. The Horticultural Division is establishing a number Of new nurseries so that in the future, planting stocks of the better varieties of fruit will be available to the farmers. Bananas are one of the exceptions to the above statement because the normal prOpagation of this fruit is by trans- planting suckers that emerge from the base of Old plants. Because fruit culture is generally for home consumption 3+2 and is a secondary farm enterprise, little attention is given to disease and insect control. Rigid spray schedules common in other parts Of the world are vitually unknown here, but even so there seems to be little evidence Of insect damage in the fruit purchased in the markets. Trees which become diseased are simply removed and replaced by others which are bearing fruit in a short time. Commercial vegetable production, in the few areas where it is important, seems to have attracted or to have develOped a more progressive group of farmers who use compost and nitrogenous fertilizer regularly and who commonly spray or dust their crOps for the control of insects and diseases. Production is almost continuous throughout the year, and after a small plot is harvested, it is ahmost immediately prepared and replanted in another crOp. The Agriculture and Fishery leaflet of the Ministry of Information; names six locations on Java and one in Sumatra where commercial vegetable production is a.major enterprise. In addition to these areas enough vegetables and fruits are produced on Bali to be a regular export item to Java and even to Singapore. The principle vegetables Of importance -- cabbage, Chinese cabbage, lettuce, beets, beans, carrots, spinach, tomatoes, white potatoes, and sweet potatoes -- are usually in good supply in the markets Of the cities. Except for 1. Ministry of Information, Indonesia Today, Agri- culture and Fishery, Djakarta, 1951, Leaflet, pp. 1-h. 2&3 white potatoes, onions, and tomatoes the size of Indonesia's vegetables compares favorably with those of other parts of the world, but the tomatoes, onions, and white potatoes generally are very small and the tomatoes especially are rather bland. Because of ecological factors the white potatoes produced are not considered satisfactory for seed, and it is necessary to import seed potatoes from EurOpe. Sweet potato culture presents a contrast to the familiar American culture. The Indonesian farmer finds the practice of placing potatoes in a bed and removing slips from the bed for transplanting to the fields to be an unnecessary procedure. Many American farmers transplant and later use vine cuttings from fields after sufficient growth has develOped, but the Indonesian farmer is able to remove vines from the previous crOp to enable further plantings. 0n Sumbawa where the production of sweet potatoes is being introduced and encouraged by the Agricultural Extension Service, the author observed in November 1952 a truck load of vine cuttings being transported from one village to another about forty miles away. The Horticultural Division of the Fhrmers' Agricultural Service, as previously stated, is Operating nurseries for fruit trees in the various provinces. Also the numerous demonstration and seed farms of the Agricultural Service are introducing new vegetables, conducting experiments to 21m improve varieties of vegetables already in local use, and making experimental plantings of tree crOps such as cacao, cloves, nutmeg, and coconut in those areas where there is no demand for vegetable and fruits except for farm con. sumption. Most of the emphasis on commercial vegetable production is concentrated near the major population centers, and the work with horticultural tree craps is more common on the Outer Islands. The limitation that transportation facilities places upon the distance perish- able produce can be transported to market dictates the principle interest of many of the demonstration gardens. In Figures as and h? are shown some of the demonstration gardens of the Service concerned with horticultural crOps. F. Peanuts, Soybeans, and Pigeon Peas Peanuts, soybeans, and pigeon peas are the remaining food creps of importance to the Indonesian farmer; however, lombok or chili pepper is certainly worthy of mention, for and Indonesian meal is incomplete when some of the food is not so highly seasoned that one unaccustomed to it cannot eat without consuming much liquid. Peanuts are commonly eaten as roasted or actually fried nuts, but they are also used in other forms -- the most notable of which is the peanut sauce often served with gate, the tasty bits of meat spitted.cn small pieces of bamboo and barbecued over charcoal 2&5 Figure ho. Horticultural Garden of the Farmers' Agricultural Service on Amboina ~ Figure #7. Cacao, Pagaaa, and citrus trees in Hortic ur Garden on Sulawesi 246 pots. The basting sauce for the EEEE is also generously seasoned with lombok, and the meat is dipped in the sauce and eaten directly from the bamboo spit. Peanuts are cultivated throughout the Archipelago with almost every farmer planting small patches in the dry mon- soon after rice or in.unirrigated fields, either alone or interplanted.with corn or other crOps. They are also often planted in rows between cassava, and because the peanuts mature in three to four months while the cassava requires eight to ten months, this crOpping practice permits a greater utilization of the small areas of land that the farmer is able to cultivate with his limited animal power and primitive tools. The most recent estimates of the areas and production of peanuts are shown in Table IV. Soybeans, along with pigeon peas, are the most common sources of bean sprouts which are so common in the Indo- nesian diet, either in lieu of or mixed with other vege- tables and often served with 5322 and peanut sauce. Soy- beans are sometimes broadcast but more commonly are planted in rows and cultivated because their primary value is for food production, and their value for forage or for soil building is secondary. In contrast to the careful attention given peanuts, soybeans, and other crOps there is little attention given to pigeon peas, especially in the Lesser Sunda Islands where they have the greatest importance. Pigeon peas are often sown.broadcast on rice stubble 2h? and receive no cultivation. In areas of ladang culture the brush is often burned off at the end of the dry monsoon, the peas are broadcast with no further attempt at soil preparation, and they are covered only by dragging brush over the field, if they are covered at all. No further attention is given the crap until the peas are ready for picking. Under this type of culture officials of the Farmers' Agricultural Service estimated the yield on Sumbawa at 250 to 300 pounds per acre in 1952. Ge $830 The sago palm.(Metroxylon), Figure AB, is indigenous to the swampy areas of Indonesia, but only in the Moluccas and a few other areas of less meortance has this tree been of material use to the people except for the use of its fronds as a thatching material. In the Moluccas the sago palm has not only furnished materials of construction but has also produced one of the staple foods of the area, a food which is the insurance of the peeple against famine because of its availability and at the same time perhaps one of the factors that has retarded the develOpment of agriculture in this island group because the people have always been aware of the fact that if no other food was available they could out another palm.tree. The normal habitat of this tree is in the swamps, and it seams to make little difference whether the water be 2&8 Figure hfl. Young sago palm tree in edge of Amboina swamp Figure h9. Selected cacao seed tree near Ambon 2&9 fresh or slightly brackish. The usual culture is simply the wild growth of the trees in the swamps, but they are said to be planted and cultivated in a few small areas of the islands. When cultivated the palms are planted with l8-foot spacings or at the rate of 160 trees per acre. Under this favorable spacing they will produce legs 12 inches in diameter and 20 feet in length in six to seven years, while ten to twelve years are required to attain the same size under the competitive conditions of the swamps. The pulp of the sago palm is processed to obtain a flour used in cakes, breads, soups, and puddings. While to one accustomed to wheat flour it is not a delicacy, the food prepared from this flour can be very good. One type of bread that is highly regarded by the fishermen and the hunters of the area, as well as by warriors of former times, is prepared by pressing the sago flour into cast- iron.molds previously heated until almost red.hot so that the biscuits will cook without further heat. The usual size of these biscuits is 1% x 2 x 3 inches. These biscuits will keep for long periods of time and are eaten after being moistened with either salt or fresh water, or they are often dunked in coffee or tea and are eaten either hot or cold. The carbohydrate value of sago flour is approximately 65 percent that of rice, but proteins and vitamins are almost completely absent. Because of this fact there is 250 said to be a serious nutritional deficiency in the diet of the peeple, for the principal source of animal protein available is fish and since the war the supply of fish has been inadequate to fill the needs of the peOple. CHAPTER X PRINCIPAL EXPORT CROPS A. General Conditions of Commercial CrOp Production In contrast to the develOpment of food crOp production which has been the result of necessity, the production of export crOps for Indonesia is the result of the extensive efforts of the Netherlands East Indies Company and later the Netherlands Indies Government to produce raw agri- cultural products for the shipping and industrial interests of the Netherlands and for world markets. While the first crep, sugar cane, was introduced by the Chinese, soon afterwards began the continuing efforts of the Company and the Government to introduce additional crOps adapted to the country and suitable for export, efforts which did not step until the Dutch lost control to the Japanese in 19M. ‘ Many of the crops which were introduced were not well adapted initially and required extensive research before commercial production could be attempted. It was more than thirty years from the time the rubber trees were imported before commercial rubber production became important; a combination of low yielding varieties and world market conditions kept rubber production at a low level prior to 'World'War I. Cinchona, from the bark of which quinine sulphate is extracted, was unsuccessful until high yielding 252 varieties with their climatic limitations were determined through research extending from 18521 until about 1875. According to statistics from the Netherlands Indies Government prior to the Japanese occupation, the estates Operated 70h percent of the cultivated lands of Java and Maduraz, but with post-war increases in farmers' agricul- ture and the loss of lands by the estates, the percentage controlled by the estates has decreased. As has been stated earlier, the peeple have given more attention to commercial craps since the beginning of the Twentieth Century so that today the bulk of the exports are from the farmers. While certain craps such as oil palm, sisal, wrapper tobacco, and sugar have been primarily produced by large, well equipped estates with adequate technical personnel, other export craps such as kapok, cepra, pepper, and var- ious spices have always remained products of the farmers. There are other crOps with characteristics that permit profitable production either on the small, primitive scale of the farmer or on the vast, well organized scale of the estates. The coconut occupies a special place in Indonesian agriculture because of its importance as a source of cooking 611. Even though the Moslem religion prohibits the use of pork, it is likely that coconut oil has always been the 1e Vlekke, Op. Cit., p. 277. 2. 80013130, Ope Cite, pe 3370 253 principal cooking oil because of its availability. In the Outer Provinces, especially in the northern part of Sula- wesi, production of coconuts for cepra for export trade is of major importance. Tobacco, pepper, and sugar cane are the only field creps of importance produced by farmers primarily for the market. Most of the tobacco produced for market by farmers is concentrated in.East Java and Madura, although tobacco for home use or for the local market may be seen through- out the Archipelago. Most of the commercial production of sugar cane is in East Java, but there is some in Central Java and a small amount in West Central Sumatra. In most other areas sugar for local or home use is from the £533 palm. Red pepper is also found throughout the Archipelago but is produced primarily for home use or is consumed by the local market. The commercial production of black and white pepper is concentrated in South Sumatra and on the islands of Bangka and Billiton. Prior to the war this area produced 75 percent of the world supplyl, but many of the gardens were destroyed during the Japanese occupation and production is still far below the pre-war level. Both black and white pepper are from the same plant, the color being dependent upon the time of harvesting the pads. The principal tree crepe, besides fruit tree creps, which receive attention from farmers are kapok in almost 1. Metcalf, cp. cit., pp. 78-79. 251+ all areas, tea on Java and Sumatra, coffee on Bali, Java, and Sumatra, rubber on Sumatra and.Kalimantan, and cloves and nutmeg in the Moluccas. Generally, except for the spices in the Moluccas, attention given to the tree crops is of secondary importance to rice, and the amount of these creps harvested is sometimes determined by the relation between.the market price of the product and the price and availability of rice on the local markets of the various areas. B. Cacao The cultivation of cacao (Theebroma‘ggggg) has never occupied an.important position in the eXport creps of Inde- nesia, but at the present time the Farmers' Agricultural Service is encouraging the planting of cacao by farmers through the distribution of seedlings from high producing stock. At the various seed farms of the Service nurseries, seeds from high producing trees are planted and the one year old seedlings are sold to farmers at prices below the actual cost of production; however, the nurseries are Operated as a part of the training schools for the mantris of the Service, and preperly a portion of the cost should be charged to the training of better qualified employees of the Service. The cacao tree is like the coffee plant, at least for several years, in that it requires moderate shade and the 255 .22952 and albizzia trees are commonly used. In cacao groves the shade trees may be gradually eliminated as the cacao trees attain sufficient size to provide adequate shade for the young stub limbs extending from the trunk and from the older limbs of the tree on which the fruit is borne (Figure #9); however, when kapok is the shade tree it remains. When the cacao plants actually attain the size of trees after ten to fifteen years, they are able to provide their own shade; the shade trees are no longer essential to protect the seed pods from the sun. C. Cinchona About 1850 the cinchona tree, from whose bark quinine sulphate is extracted, was introduced in the Netherlands East Indies from South America through the efforts of the Government to introduce plants of commercial importance in world trade, and after many disappointing experiments the selection of varieties producing high yielding barks was possible. The importance of this product is the result of its value as a malaria prephylaxis, which prior to the develOpment of synthetic drugs permitted the Cinchona Producers' Association to control the world market. Prior to the war 90 percent of the world's supply came from Java;, and even this was concentrated infiWest Java where there were alkaline soils between the elevations of h,000 and 6,000 feet 1e Ibide, Do 770 256 which permitted production Of trees with high yielding barks, 5 to 6 percent quinine sulphate. Because the cinchona tree is so limited in its range of permissable climatic and soil conditions and because the trees must grow for four to six years before any harvest is possible, its culture has remained primarily an estate Operation. The decreasing hmportance Of quinine in the world is indicated in the average export of 12,325 short tens of bark and 187 tons of quinine during the period 1935-39 and by the statement of the Chief of the Government Agricul- tural Estates in.March 1953 that only 10 percent of the 1952 production Of 605 tons was exported because of the falling demand. Because quinine sulphate is being dis- placed by synthetic drugs, the more than h0,000 acres formerly in this crOp will probably be replanted in coffee or tea, especially in view of the fact that many of the plantings were secondary Operations of estates whose primary Objective was the production of tea or other crops. D. Coffee The cultivation Of coffee in Indonesia was initiated about 1700 under the sponsorship of Nicolas Witsen;, the burgomaster Of Amsterdam and a member of the Board of Directors of the East Indies Company, and was sO well 10 Hakka, Ope Cite, pp. 179-180e 257 adapted that after the initial distribution for planting, about 1707, coffee production reached the twelve million pound level in a period of only twelve years. The plant introduced was 9, Arabica, which has been generally replaced by g. Robusta because of the greater resistance of the latter to the leaf diseasesI, but according to agricultural officials Arabica is still preferred for planting at ele- vations above approximately 3,000 feet. Coffee requires well drained soils Of medium to high fertility, seventy inches or more annual rainfall which is evenly distributed, and.moderate to dense shade. The shade necessary for coffee is commonly Obtained by planting.dg§gp or albizzia, both of which are fast growing trees, and if planted three to four years before the coffee plants are set out, will provide the necessary shade. Coffee begins yielding light creps after three years and reaches its maximum.production level after six to seven years. On estates systematic pruning schedules are followed in order that the size of the coffee plant will remain small enough to facilitate harvesting, but in the plantings of the farmers little attention is given to the plant except for picking the beans. Coffee beans are borne in clusters along the branches of the plant and when mature are handpicked for processing. -5_ 1. Metcalf, Op. cit., pp. 70-71. 258 Prior to marketing, the outer pulp of the coffee bean and the inner lining, similar to that of a peanut, must be removed and the bean dried. As prepared for the market the coffee bean is a light green color with little aroma, the familiar aroma and dark color being the result of the final processing for consumption. 1 in In.the period 1934-38 there were 283,525 acres coffee on h29 estates producing an average of 61,050 tons Of coffee from the 258,607 acres Old enough to be in pro- duction. The average export from Indonesia during this same period was 92,h00 tons, of which h2 percent came from the estates and 58 percent from the farmers. In l9h8 the expert was only 2,200 tons and in 1950 this had increased to 15,h00, but only 155 estates had been able to resume production Of the damage both to the coffee plants and to processing facilities either through direct damage or through neglect. According to Metcalfa, 20 percent of the production is being smuggled to Singapore at the present time, a fact that would indicate that production has been reestablished to a greater degree than the above figures indicate. Ee COpra Because of the consumption of fresh coconuts by the farm peeple, the sale Of fresh coconuts in the local markets, __.A 10 SOBtiJO, Ops Cite, p. 359. 2. Hetcalf, Op. Cite, po 71. 259 and the individual processing of coconut meat for cooking Oil, the real value of this crOp to the agricultural economy of Indonesia can never be accurately estimated. Even the importance of the crOp for export as cepra cannot be deter- mined because Of the free trading or smuggling that takes place between East Sumatra and West Kalimantan with Singa- pore and between North Sulawesi and the Philippines. In addition to the coconut's value for its meat or its Oil, the number of coconuts used for coconut milk as a beverage might well be Of sufficient magnitude to affect the overall picture. In contrast to the coconut milk well known to Americans from their imported coconuts, milk which is slightly . tart and tends to have a laxative effect, the coconut milk or the coconut water, as it is known in Indonesia, is a refreshing beverage that is always cool and perfectly safe to drink, in contrast to water which generally is unsafe to drink unless boiled or chemically purified. Indonesians make coconut milk by pouring water on grated coconut and letting it stand for a short-time before squeezing. The pressed coconut meat is discarded and the coconut milk is used as a substitute for cow's milk in cooking. Coconut production, either for cepra or for local con- sumption, is primarily a product Of the farmers who, after supplying their own requirements for fresh coconut meat to mix with vegetables and.meats for cooking and for home processing for cooking Oils, husk and dry the remaining 260 coconuts for sale to the COpra Foundation. In addition to being the sole exporting agent, the Foundation also purchases cepra for resale to the domestic Oil mills in the amount of slightly more than 110,000 short tens annually for the pro- duction of margarine and soap. The estimates Of production of coconut palms vary from 25 to 100 nuts per year, the lowest being from the poorly cared for trees of some farmers and the highest being from the few estates where geod.management and fertilization practices are followed. The normal harvesting method is for a laborer to climb the trees, using notches out in the trunk as steps and carrying with him a machete, with which he cuts out the nuts that are mature. The farmers fellow no regular schedule, but the estates harvest the nuts at regular intervals. A variation from the normal harvesting procedure is used to a limited degree in.West Central Sumatra where medium sized.monkeys are trained to climb the trees and pitch the mature coconuts to the ground (Figure 50). ‘While it is said that the Owner can indicate by signals which nuts are to be picked, it seems likely that the mature nuts are easier for the monkey to pluck from the cluster. The trainer controls the monkey by voice and.hand signals and by the rOpe leash. Under this system the trainer or owner of the monkey receives a share of the coconuts for services rendered. On Java the demand for fresh coconuts is so great that the production of cepra is negli- gible; however, in the other areas where there is adequate, 261 Figure 50. Monkey trained to harvest coconuts, West Central Sumatra a. tea: sl/ '4 “‘«Efizma Figure 51. Coconut nursery in Central Sumatra 262 evenly distributed rainfall cepra is of more importance except, at altitudes greater than 3000 feet where the coconut palm is not adapted. Coconuts are prOpagated by seed; the unhusked nuts are hung in the shade and allowed to sprout; then the nuts are half buried in nurseries until ready to transplant into holes approximately three feet square and three feet deep which are half filled with compost and tepsoil prior to transplanting; additional soil is worked into the hole as the palm grows. The Farmers Agricultural Service is encour- aging farmers to select seed nuts from high producing trees and by way Of demonstration of good nursery practices has small nurseries (Figure 51) as a part of the demonstration seed farms at several locations. The export of cepra increased from.321,655 short tons in 1950 to a total Of 577,531 short tons in 19511, an increase which placed the export approximately 11,000 tons higher than the 1935-1939 averagez. The recovery of this export trade reflects to a considerable degree the influence of the farmers' ability to carry on normal production as the farmers produce 95 percent Of the cepra in contrast to some Of the other creps which are predominately estate creps. The recovery of the export trade is also indicative of the negligible amount Of equipment necessary for cepra 1. Kantor Pusat Statistik, Ichtisar Bulanan Statistik (Monthly Survey), Djakarta, July I552, p. IE. 2. Metcalf, Ops Cite, pe 66. 263 processing because other expert products have been hampered both by the deteriorated condition Of pre-war equipment and the difficulty of replacement. F. Fiber Creps Sisal (£5212 sisalina) is the principle hard fiber pro- duced in Indonesia. Just prior to the war approximately one-third of the world's production of this crOp was concen- trated on Java and Sumatral. Other fiber creps planted in the Archipelago include abaca (Eggs textilis), cantala (£5212 cantala), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), and ramie (Boehmeria pizza). Fiber production has typically been an estate enterprise, and almost the entire production has always been exported as raw fiber in the absence Of textile and cordage mills. A small amount of cotton has been produced by the peeple of the Eastern Islands, but cotton has never been of appreciable importance. In East Java and in the Lesser Sunda Islands there is a small amount of cotton but it is ginned, spun, and handewoven by the producers. Sisal and abaca are normally prOpagated by transplanting the suckers which emerge from the base of the mature plants. These suckers emerge after the plant is three years or more in age, and transplanting to nurseries or directly to the 1. Ibide, DO 730 26h fields may be Observed in the vicinity of Medan, where the Sumatra fiber production is concentrated. The procedure followed is primarily controlled by the time of the year the suckers emerge and whether the fields for final plantings are ready for transplanting. The long sword-like leaves from planting stock which has been in nurseries for a year or more may be harvested earlier than these from suckers directly planted in the fields, but the cost of the extra labor offsets the advantage Of the earlier harvest after transplanting to such a degree that estate managers believe that there is little economic difference. Roselle and ramie are prOpagated by transplanting rhyzomes from.astab- lished plantings; after planting, the stand of both increases from the root systems, and both must be grown in a stand of sufficient thickness to cause erect growth with few limbs. If there are many limbs on the plants, the length and quality of the fibers are much lower than with erect, sparsely limbed plants. In all Of the fiber plants the weight Of marketable fiber is only 2 to 6 percent of the weight of the material harvested. The fiber must be separated from the bark and gummy binder or leaf pulp by decortication. The farmer accomplishes the decorticatien by placing the material in water and permitting it to rot until the waste material can be hand-scraped from the fiber and the fibers combed. 0n the estates the decerticatien processes are accomplished 265 partially by hand and partially with machinery. In 1952 the Ministry of Agriculture, in cOOperation with the Small Industry Division of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, began a program Of experimental expansion in planting ramie. Under this program the Farmers' Agricultural Service will be responsible for the establishment of experi- mental plantings Of ramie in all parts of the Archipelago where the soil and climatic factors are favorable. The Small Industry Division will be responsible for obtaining the minimum amounts of machinery and establishing facilities for decortication of the fiber produced and in addition will be responsible for arranging the sale or barter of the partially processed fiber. It is important that this or other fibers adapted for use in textiles and in cordage be develOped to meet the domestic needs of Indonesia. Because ramie is suitable for both textiles and cordage and apparently is also well adapted to the climate and soils of some parts of the islands, it was selected for the concen- trated effort to increase fiber production. One of the greatest cordage needs of Indonesia at this time is for fishing nets and other fishing accessories in both the in- land and the sea fisheries industries. Ramie fiber is especially well adapted for these uses because it has a high tensile strength and is unaffected by repeated wetting and drying common to fishing equipment. 266 Ge Kapok The kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra) is well adapted to the casual attention received by any plant or crOp in Indonesia except rice or other food creps. Its tapered trunk and sparse limbs, perpendicular to the trunk, are characteristic of the Javanese landscape and to a lesser degree that of the other islands. The seed pods Of this tree yield a silky, cotton-like, short staple fiber which has long been valued for its buoyancy and its preperties of insulation, either for heat or sound. It is said that this fiber will support thirty times its own weightl, and for this reason it has been commonly used as the packing material for life- preservers. Domestic use of the fiber is for padding in the better furniture and also for mattresses. In addition to the fiber the pods yield seeds, from which approximately 2h.percent edible Oil may be extracted. The tree has an Odd appearance (Figure 52), in that its tapered trunk may reach a height Of fifty feet or more; the branches are sparsely spaced along the trunk and extend as almost true perpendiculars to the trunk and give the tree something of a scare-crow appearance, especially in the dry monsoon when there are virtually no leaves on the tree. The trees are normally scattered through the kampengs at irregular intervals, and only in exceptional cases are _— 1. Ibid., p. 76. 267 Figure 52. Kapok trees along river bank in Djakarta Figure 53. Grove of oil palm trees in Northeast Sumatra 268 there any kapok groves. Prior to the war, according to Metcalf, there were only about h0,000 acres in estate plantings where the spacing was ten trees per acre, although the export indicated that solid plantings of nearly one-half million acres would have been required to obtain the estimated production. Shmilarly, the Almanak Pertanian1 shows the area in production in 1950 to be only 16,300 acres with a total yield of only 1196 short tons Of fiber and 2081 tons of seed, while the expert was reported at 8800 tons of fiber only. Only 17 percent of the expert was attributed to estates, with the bulk Of production coming from the unreported, scattered plantings of the farmers, for which accurate area estimates cannot be made. The sparseness of the limbs of the trees is indicated by the experience Of the Catholic Mission on Flores where the attempt to use kapok to provide the shade necessary for g, Robusta has proven unsatisfactory. On the Mission's Hokeng estate albizzia is being interplanted under the kapok; the coffee is being severely pruned; when the albizzia attains sufficient size, the kapok will be out except for enough to provide the Mission's need for its own use. This attempt by the Mission to utilize kapok trees for shade for coffee is a marked departure from the general rule of the kapok trees being scattered through the kampongs. 1. Soetijo, Op. cit., p. 366. 269 Kapok trees are Often found on the terraces between the rice fields where their lack of shade probably eliminates any visible effect on the adjacent creps. While it is probable that there is competition for plant nutrients between the trees and the adjacent creps, in the presence Of ample water supplies for irrigated fields the results of such competition is not apparent. Harvesting consists simply of shaking the tree so that the pods fall Off, or they may be knocked to the ground with a bamboo pole; in either case the pods must be harvested before they Open on the trees or the fiber will be scattered by the wind. Processing consists of removing the fiber from the seed by hand or with simple ginning devices and.drying the fiber in the sun. The value of this crOp in the world market Of the future is jeepardized by the increased use of glass wool and other synthetic fibers that may necessitate its replacement by fruits and other creps in order to supply the increasing domestic demand for these products. In addition to the value of the kapok fiber, the seed of the kapok is valued as another souce of vegetable Oil, and since the seed accounts for approximately 30 percent of the total yield, this is a factor of considerable importance. The seed, when processed, yield about 25 percent Of their weight as oil, or of the total production Of the kapok tree 50 percent is fiber, 12.5 percent is Oil, and 37.5 percent is seed cake, cake that should have a high protein content and a 270 source Of high protein concentrate for livestock. The Oil palm was brought to Indonesia from Africa1 in 18h8, but the first oil palm plantations were not estab- lished until l9lh. From l9lh until 1939 the Oil palm industry expanded so rapidly that Indonesian production of 308,900 short tens of Oil and Oil palm kernels2 placed it second in production only to Africa with 2h percent of the total world production and no percent of the total production entering world trade3. It was estimated that the pro-war area in Oil palm was 260,000 acres with 183,000 in production, but the latter had decreased in 19h8 to 85,h99. In 1950 the industry had reestablished production on lh8,260 acres, and the expert was only 50 percent Of the preawar figure according to Metcalf, but from the figures Of Soetijou approximately 185,000 acres were in production in 1950. The palm tree bears eight to twelve clusters of nuts annually (Figures 53 and 5h); the Oil is Obtained from the pulp surrounding the nut; the kernels are obtained by cracking the nuts. The palm kernel yields a different type Of oil, also valuable, but few Of the kernels are processed in.Indo- nesia. The palm.oil is used primarily for the production of 1. VlOkkO, Op. Cit., p. 276. 2. Mint Inf.; Indonesia Today, Exports. Djakarta, 1951, 1361171013, pp. 1‘“. 30 Matcuf, Op. Cite, pe 68. h. Soetijo, Op. cit., p. 365. 271 Figure 5A. Clusters of 011 palm nuts Figure 55. Sugar cane tied together to prevent wind damage in wet monsoon 272 soaps and margarines, and approximately 10 percent Of the 1950 production was used domestically. Most of the oil palm plantings have been.made on new land cleared either from secondary forest or from glgng: £1555 grass. Deep plowing and harrowing are considered necessary, and other creps are often interplanted until the sixty trees per acre have attained sufficient size to com- pletely shade the ground. The seedlings are started in nurseries and are transplanted with no allowance for thinning. The clusters of nuts require five to seven months to mature after the fruit is formed, but oil palm production is similar to the coconut palm production in that the trees bloom and bear throughout the year. The clusters of nuts are cut from the trees with machetes and are tranSported to the mills by ox-cart, truck, and narrow-gauge railways. Because of the lapse of time from the establishment of Oil palm groves until the trees reach maturity and because of the equipment and technical skills necessary for processing of the product, Oil palms have remained completely in the hands of estates. This condition was undoubtedly affected to some degree by the location of many of the estates in sparsely settled areas where the indig- enous pOpulation concerned with agriculture was so small that it possessed little capability of undertaking additional creps, creps which would have of necessity been sold to the estates for processing as is the case with tea. Cn 273 I. Rubber The rubber industry in Indonesia is a Twentieth Century develOpment. H2133 Brasiliensis was planted in the Botan- ical Gardens at Bogor in 18831, but in 19lh the production had reached only 8250 short tons. However, between 1883 and l9lh.the Netherlands East Indies Government and the associations Of privately owned estates had conducted sufficient basic research in rubber culture to enable the rapid eXpansion under the existing favorable world market conditions. The characteristics Of the tree itself were very favorable to its widespread planting. Rubber trees grow well over a wide raige of soil conditions provided there is adequate, evenly distributed rainfall. The principle soil requirement is that of good drainage, a requirement which normally prevents any competition between this crOp and rice because rubber generally is planted on sleping terrain where irrigation is not practical. The fertility level of the soil makes little difference in the productivity of the rubber tree. Only on a few low-lying, heavy clay soils of South Sumatra has there been any measurable response to the use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and a few areas on Java have proven phosphate fertilizers to be beneficial. The rubber plantations maintained by the estates look llike well kept parks; no underbrush is visible, although k 1e Vlekke, Ope Cite, p. 2914.. 27h some estates maintain green manure creps under the rubber trees, while others follow a clean cultivation routine that does not even leave visible weed growth. There are two definite schools of thought on the clean cultivation versus green manure crOp practices, with the exponents of the former claiming that the clean cultivation reduces the fire hazard and eliminates competition Of the trees with other plants for soil moisture and plant nutrients. The group which favors the green manure crOp under the trees claims that the loss of rainfall by runoff is decreased, that erosion is de- creased, and that the green manure creps maintain the fertility of the soil and enable sustained production at a higher level. Neither claim is adequately substantiated by experimental data. On same of the plantations under either type of culture, catch-basins are used to prevent erosion on sloping lands and to increase percolation of rainfall into the soil. 0n the estates rigid tapping schedules are followed after trees are brought into production six to nine years after planting; the tappers make a new cut on the tapping face every other day. The cut is made with a special knife with a Uhshaped tip on the blade which enables the tapper to remove a strip of bark only about a sixteenth of an inch thick. The tapping face is started as high on the tree as the tapper can reach, and he makes a diagonal out about half the circumference of the tree. At the bottom Of the 275 out he places a small cup to catch the half-pint Of latex usually Obtained. Aluminum cups are preferred but others are used, and many Of the farmers even use half-coconut shells. The tapping is done only in the early morning hours as experience has shown the yield of latex to be higher at this time, and the collection begins about the middle of the morning. As the cups are collected, the latex is poured into larger containers, and the cups are rinsed in a bucket of water carried by the collector. One tapper is able to tap three to four hundred trees during the above hours or is able to cover an area of two to five acres, depending upon the spacing of the trees and the tepography. Spacings of approximately twenty feet were formerly used on the estates, but at the present time the trend is towards fifteen foot spacings. When one considers the labor that is required for the cultivation, tapping, collecting, transportation to the processing plant, and Operation of the plant, it is apparent that much labor is required. The field manager Of a'West Java estate estimated that a total Of 1250 to 1500 laborers was required on the estate which has 5000 acres in pro- duction and another 1500 acres in its concession area being cleared of second-growth forest for planting. The average daily production Of this estate in the fall of 1952 was 5.0 short tons. Initially the rubber industry was develOped only by 276 the estates, but this condition changed as the farmers Observed the success Of the estates and obtained not only the technical knowledge necessary for rubber production but also planting stock from the high yielding trees prOpagated from.aeed or clones. In 1938 the farmers produced h? percent Of the rubber; in 19h8 their share of the total production had increased to 6k percent, and in 1950 to 76 percentl. The expansion Of the planted areas of the farmers has been continuous over the past three decades, but the above production data do not present the complete story. The farmers' primary interest is food production until the price of rubber becomes high enough, in relation to rice, that the income from rubber and the availability of food in the local markets make food production unnecessary. Late in 1950 the price of rubber rose to nearly one dollar per pound so that many farmers neglected other creps and harvested latex. In 1951 when.the price of rubber declined simul- taneously with a rise in the price Of rice, the production of rubber ceased its rapid climb when the farmers gave more attention to food production, an indication that a balance had been reached for the most profitable employ- ment Of labor. A portion of the rubber exported as farmers' rubber should preperly be classified as estate rubber because undetermined amounts of estate rubber have either been stolen from the estates which have resumed Operations 1. Ministry of Information, Exports, Op. cit. 277 or have been.harvested by farmers who have illegally taken possession of former estate plantings. Illegal occupation Of estate lands and the theft of crOps by the indigenous pOpulation.have been a serious problem confronting estates since the war, especially estates producing sugar and rubber because these crOps can be processed along with the farmers' own production and detection is very difficult. Some rubber estates in Central and West Java have been unable to resume Operations, or if so, on a reduced scale because Of poor security conditions, and some production of these estates has been harvested and sold as farmers' production. The illegal occupation of concessions by the peeple also poses a serious problem for the Government because the peeple desire some Of the estate lands for their own use and thereby resentment towards the Government is created if the peeple are evicted. The estate production efficiency is lowered if they are permitted to remain. Some rubber has always been.smuggled out of Indonesia, especially from the east coast Of Sumatra to Singapore. A comparison Of the export figures released by the Indonesian Ministry of Information1 and those reported by Metcalfz, (Based upon reports of the Secretariat Of the International Rubber Study Group, London) shows that the legal experts in 1. Ibid. 2. Metcalf, Op. cit., p. 55. 278 1938 were 95 percent of the total; in l9h8, only 65 percent; in.l9h9, 95 percent; and in 1950, 92 percent. The high per- centage of smuggling in l9u8 is easy to explain. Some of the leaders Of the Indonesian struggle for independence were in the rubber producing areas Of South Sumatra; because Of the difficulties of communication it was simpler for these leaders to arrange for rubber to be smuggled to Singapore for the hard currency necessary to finance their struggle than to Obtain the necessary money in any other manner since the Dutch'bridgeheads and Dutch naval vessels con- trolled the shipping from the major ports. J. Sugar Cane The production Of sugar cane for processing into sugar was introduced by the Chinese in the vicinity of Djakarta early in the Seventeenth Centuryl. Because Of favorable factors of climate and soils and the agrarian policy Of the Netherlands East Indies Government, the sugar industry finally became concentrated in the provinces of East and Central Java where there were about 125 modern sugar mills with an annual capacity of about two million tons of raw sugar, all of which was not used because of voluntary limitation effected through the sugar producers' organization at the time of the Japanese invasion in l9h2. During the Japanese occupation some of the mills were con- verted to industrial alcohol production; others were wholly l. Vlekke, Op. cit., p. 1&5. 279 or partially dismantled and shipped to Japan; the remainder were Operated at only partial capacity because some land was planted to food creps in lieu of sugar cane. Under the scorched earth policy of the Indonesian peeple in Opposing the Dutch "police actions" approximately 60 of these mills were destroyed and only h5 mills are now in Operation. Some of the reamining mills could be rehabil- itated and placed in Operation, but as most of them are owned by foreign capital, rehabilitation is proceeding very slowly because of the lack of definite Government policy as to the conditions under which foreign capital may be invested in the new Republic, the dearth of capital of many Of the corporations, the lack of general security in some areas, particularly Central Java, and the difficulties of obtaining sufficient labor for the field Operations of sugar cane production in some areas. The mills that Oper- ated in 1951-52 have been faced with thefts of cane from the fields, destruction Of cane in the fields by fire, and labor strikes. A few mills in.East Java have been able to Operate with a net profit, but most of the mills, according to the newspapers, have Operated with deficits. The general basis of Operations of the sugar mills and the estates has been as follows. The corporation owns land outright from grants of the Netherlands East Indies Government prior to the enactment of the Agrarian.Law of 1870, or they were the holders Of long term concessions under terms Of the 280 law. The land owned or leased by the corporations with few exceptions was 2500 acres or less and Often no more than 125 to 250 acres -- enough land to permit the establishment of the mill with its accompanying repair sheps, power plants, and living quarters for the supervisory personnel. Most land actually used for sugar cane production was and is rented from the individual farmers Of the villages, as dictated by the local customs of land tenure and ownership, under terms of contracts approved by the Government. The rental contracts are approved by the Government provided the rent is according to regulations and provided the frequency of renting the land will permit the farmer to plant a food crOp at least once in three years. The minimum rent permitted by the Government in East Java in 1952 was $52.60 per acre. Under this system a farmer may rent land to the estate and then work as a laborer for the estate in the production of cane on his own land; it is a common practice for the rent to be paid in advance in a lump sum at the time the rental agreement is concluded, but the money is not budgeted by the farmer to take care of his needs during the period for which the land is rented. Sugar cane culture as practiced in Central and East Java under estate management requires vast amounts of labor, but no exact data are available. The canes are normally planted over a three months' period, extending from about the last month of the dry monsoon through the first two (i 281 months of the rainy monsoon. Land preparation begins early in the dry monsoon and is accomplished entirely by hand. The soil is worked with Spades and broad hoes in such a way that trenches about ten inches wide and twenty inches deep are spaced at three and one-half to five feet intervals with wider and deeper trenches, as required for drainage or irrigation, every thirty to fifty feet and are connected by laterals at about the same spacing. The plant or seed cane is planted in the bottom of the trenches and is barely covered; as the new growth emerges, soil is worked to the plants with each Of the three to five cultivations so that when cane is about a year Old it is growing on tep of beds about twelve to fifteen inches in height. The cane is planted at approximately the beginning of one wet monsoon, grows through the following dry and wet monsoons, and is then.harvested after a growing season of fourteen to sixteen months. The estates are generally considered to have the use Of the land for eighteen months for each crop. During the dry monsoon, which occurs in the middle of the growing season, the sugar cane is irrigated as needed, either from diversion systems or with pumps, normally the former. In the course of the cultivation ammonium phos- phate or ammonium sulfate is applied as side dressing two to three times with the total application approximating 180 pounds per acre. A practice gaining in pOpularity is that of stripping 282 the dead leaves from the bottom of the stalks and tying two rows Of cane together (Figure 55) to prevent wind damage to the cane fields. This practice is being used during the second wet monsoon when the cane has attained a height of ten feet or more and is subject to severe lodging even from relatively light winds because the soil is very Often saturated at this time. Most of the dead leaves are drOpped to the ground between the rows of cane, but some are used by the peeple as thatching material, although it is very short lived. It seems to be most commonly used for tem- porary shelters Often constructed for wedding parties and other feasting occasions. Prior to harvest time the estates lay temporary narrow gauge railroads from their permanent mainlines to the fields Ito be harvested. Because the land isreturned to the farmers for at least one food crOp after each crOp of cane, it is more economical to return the spur tracks to the mill yard after each harvest and the relay the spurs when needed than to have permanent tracks to all of the fields rented over a period of years. The main lines are permanent. The cane is harvested by hand with the laborers using the Indonesian version Of a machete to cut the cane just below ' ground level. At the same time the cane is tepped and stripped so that only the bare stalk goes to the mill. The cane is carried on the shoulders of the laborers to the small railway carts on the nearest temporary spur or sometimes 283 on the permanent tracks. Often the small carts on the temporary spurs are pulled to the permanent tracks by bullocks because the temporary spurs are on such grades that the small locomotives cannot negotiate the grades or are on such soft soil that the locomotives, in spite of their small size, cannot move on the spurs. Since the war some mills have not been able to replace or repair their locomotives and are using animals to pull the rail carts to the mills. The average yield Obtained by the intensive attention to the crOp as described above is about 80 short tons per acre or approximately three times the average yield Obtained in the Louisiana sugar cane area. The sucrose content Of the cane is reported as averaging 13 percent, which is slightly higher than the Louisiana average. The direct comparison with Louisiana production is not a true comparison in.that Louisiana cane has only a ten months' growing season and usually three creps are produced from a single planting, whereas in Central and East Java the growing season is fifteen.months and each crOp is the product Of a new planting. Detailed studies supported by statistical data not available for Central and East Java at this time would be necessary to reduce such a comparison to a common denom- inator of cost per pound of raw sugar which in the final analysis is the only comparable factor of the divergent systems. 28h An important factor in the Javanese sugar industry has been the research work conducted by the Preefstation Oost Java (East Java Experiment Station) established at Pasuruan on the northeast coast of Java by the Netherlands East Indies Government and supported jointly by the govern- ment and the sugar industry. It was from this station that the POJ varieties were imported to the United States in the 1920's, when the spread of the mosaic disease threatened the destruction of the cane sugar industry in the United States. The research conducted by this station has led to the high levels Of productivity of Javanese cane and its important position in the world sugar market prior to Werld War II. In contrast to the highly develOped sugar industry of the estates with production for expert its primary Objective, there has been the sugar industry Of the farmers with pro- duction for domestic consumption by the low income mass of the pOpulation. The production of export sugar has been entirely from sugar cane as is true with the bulk of the sugar for domestic consumption; however, from the standpoint szmany individuals and from the standpoint of distribution throughout the Archipelago, the production of palm sugar is more widespread. In contrast to the export sugar in- dustry, the farmers' sugar industry has develOped with far less productivity and efficiency but in such a manner that according to Indonesian averages a class of relatively 285 wealthy Indonesian peOple has resulted. The principle develOpment of the farmers' sugar industry has been in East Java, where a large number of farmers have planted their land in sugar cane in preference to renting the land to the estates. While the culture follows the same general pattern of the estates' culture, the use of fertilizer is uncommon and the farmers have not been able to develOp their own irrigation systems. It is also probable that the land is not as well prepared and the cultivation not so carefully performed as on the fields of the estates where the supervision is by the scientifically trained personnel who have adequate appreciation of careful cultivation and are interested in obtaining maximum yields because the estates usually give a bonus from the profits earned. .As a result of these factors the yields obtained by the farmers are only half of those on the estates and range between 38 and 55 short tons per acre. In the vicinity of Lawang, a village 15 miles west of Bukit Tinggi in West Central Sumatra, the culture of sugar cane presents a sharp contrast to that seen anywhere else in Indonesia. This area is situated at an elevation of about 6300 feet and is only 25:miles from the Indian Ocean. The area is mountainous with insufficient areas which can be irrigated by diversion to fulfill the needs of the peeple for food production and for land to work. Primitive irri- gation systems have diverted the available water supply as 286 high up the lepes as possible for the irrigation of rice, and the slepes above the rice fields are planted in sugar cane. It is estimated that many of the lepes are 100 percent (hSO) and a few are even steeper than this. The chocolate colored, porous t0psoil is about two feet in depth and overlies a slightly basic liparitic tuffl. While the tOpsoil is resistant to erosion, the tuff is not and is the material which permitted the formation of the Karbauwengat Canyon near Bukit Tinggi, one of the scenic attractions of the area. The soil is of volcanic origin, is or relatively high fertility, and has a good structure. The rainfall of this area is approximately 175 inches per year (Station 9; Table III), and there are no distinct wet or dry seasons so that there is adequate moisture throughout the year for sugar cane. The sugar cane of this area is planted in permanent plantings on the steep s10pes above the rice'fields. One farmer stated that his field had been producing cane since before the war; another stated that his father had planted the cane many years ago; however, local officials stated that replantings usually occurred at intervals of ten to twenty years. The cane is grown in 15 to 18 inch rows without interval between the stalks and is harvested by cutting thirty to forty stalks, enough for a pan of Juice, two or three times per week. In a cluster of cane stalks, l. Mohr, 0p. cit., p. 418. 287 all are out except one which is left to maintain a live root until new shoots have put out and then the "seed" stalk is also removed. The thirty to forty stalks are carried by the farmer to one of the estimated 250 wooden rollered mills in the vicinity for crushing and to make sugar the juice is evaporated in a circular iron pan over a stone and.mud furnace. Local officials estimated that there were about four thousand families producing sugar cane by the above methods in this area with a total area of 5000 acres in cane with annual production of approximately 2000 tons. The cane is transported to the four local markets of the area in small baskets on the women's heads, on the shoulder poles of the men, and occasionally in animal drawn carts. In the markets most of the sugar is purchased by Chinese traders who haul it by truck to Bukit Tinggi and to Padang for resale. The Chinese traders bring to the area the estimated six tons of rice required monthly above local production, as well as textiles and other essential oom- modities. K. Tea Culture In an estensive treatise on the history of tea culture throughout the world, Ukers1 states that tea plants were 1. William H. Ukers, All About Tea Volume I The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co. New Y rE l , - conttd.. 3u1-373. ’ ° ' 935’ pp' 109 132’ [3 x1 288 growing as ornamental plants in the gardens of Cleyer, a German doctor and naturalist, and also in the gardens of Camphuljs, the Governor General, about 169h. It was not until Von Siebold obtained seed and plant material from Japan about 182h and Jacobson obtained seed, processing materials, and skilled laborers from China in 18321, that the commercial possibilities of tea on the islands of Java and Sumatra began to develOp. Earlier experimental work on Bogor had produced indifferent results except for a few samples of high quality tea. Prior to 1860 tea culture was an enterprise of the government only; however, after this time private planters entered the business, and with the import of A2353 tea from India and.with the introduction of new processing techniques and equipment tea culture flourished. The establishment of tea processing plants required large investments and also technically trained personnel for the Operation and therefore remained in the hands of the estate type of agriculture in the early years. The principle expansion remained on Java until after 1900, when experimental plantings on.Sumatra in the vicinity of both Medan and Palembang proved successful. As the estates led the way and demonstrated the methods of tea production, native farmers in adjacent areas began to establish their own gardens adjacent to the gardens of the estates as the 1. Vlekke, Op. 0113., pe 275. 289 factories of the estates furnished a ready market for the 1 the eXpansion production of the farmers. According to Ukers of tea plantings continued, and in 1927, 210,000 acres on 269 estates on Java, 31,000 acres on 26 estates on Sumatra, and 63,000 acres of farmers' gardens were planted in tea with a total production of more than 50,000 tons annually. In 1950, Almanak Pertanianz showed 200,000 acres to be planted in tea with 165,000 in production, 6h percent of which was on estates. In 1951, the eXport of this product had reached h9,87l short tons3. Tea is a shrub or tree of the Theaceae family and in the trepical climate of Indonesia is found only above ele- vations of approximately one thousand feet. Perhaps the most restrictive characteristic of the Agggm tea commonly grown in Indonesia is its requirement for a cool, humid atmosphere with evenly distributed rainfall. The use of shade trees is common in gardens between the elevations of one and four thousand feet, but above four thousand feet shade trees are unnecessary. Successful tea gardens are found on soils ranging from sandy loams to clay lemma, but a high.humus content is necessary. Leguminous plants for ground cover and erosion resisting hedges have been used for'many years, and it has been proven eXperimentally that increased yields are obtained through this culture. 1. Ukers, 0p. cit., p. 126. 2. Soetijo, Op. cit., p. 339. 3. Kantor Pusat Statistik, op. cit., p. 16. —-‘.‘.l_h___l 290 Tea is usually started in nurseries from seed and transplanted to the fields at the age of one and one-half to two years. Some gardens have been started, however, by direct seeding in the fields. Because tea is always planted in the mountainous areas, it is found only on relatively steep lepes, and the control of erosion has been recognized as one of the major problems in sustained high levels of production. In addition to the leguminous plants used for ground cover and soil improvement, as well as for erosion control, small basins between alternate rows are also used. These basins which are approximately on the contour are usually from six to eight inches in width, about fifteen inches deep, and about ten feet in length and increase the retentive capacity of the fields so that runoff is minimized while percolation is increased. These basins have proven satisfactory on the more porous soils but tend to result in insufficient aeration on the heavier soils, especially where there is an impermeable strata near the surface. The tea plants are usually planted in five foot rows with three to four foot spacing in the rows. In order to prevent wind damage, it is often necessary to plant wind- breaks along the roads, as well as shade trees within the gardens. The trees and plants most commonly used for ground cover, hedges, and shade or windbreak are, in respective order, Indigo endacephylla, Laucaena glauca, and Egythrina lithosperma. 291 Tea production from land preparation to the processing plant is almost entirely a hand Operation, and even in the plant, suitable machinery for the grading or sorting is not yet available, although the processing as a whole is a mechanized, scientifically controlled Operation. The har- vesting or plucking, as it is termed, is usually a hand Operation with the laborers going over the gardens every eight to fourteen days throughout the year. The shrubs are lightly pruned periodically at intervals of one to three years as necessary, depending upon local conditions of soils, climate, age Of the shrubs, and to a smaller eXtent to the personal preference of the owner or manager; heavier prunings are made at less frequent intervals. The objectives of pruning are to maintain plants within reason- able size limits, to facilitate plucking, and also to make available a sufficient number of young shoots to maintain a high level of production. Because growth is continuous throughout the year, plucking and pruning are continuous on the large plantings Of the estates but are not as regular on the smaller areas of the peOple. Schedules are arranged for both to provide a uniform labor force with full employ- ment. The plucking is normally accomplished by the women and children, while the pruning, because it is heavier work, is done by the mean. In plucking, the laborer ordinarily pinches out the bud.and from one to three leaves but sometimes takes out a 292 rather long stem so that each plucking is a very light pruning. Various types of knives have been develOped to permit the coarser stems and leaves to be cut and separated from the buds and the smaller leaves which are Of higher quality. The Sperata knife was develOped on the Sperata estate near Bandung,'West Java and is described by Ukerl as a sharp V-shaped cutter into which the stems are pressed with the larger stems falling into a carrying sack and the smaller parts being placed in the slendang or shawl in the usual manner. This knife is said to have been enthusiastic- ally accepted by the planters in a time Of high prices when the plumking was heavy, but it is no longer used to any great extent except in the high gardens where finer leaves are found. If the distance is not too great, the harvest is usually carried to the tea factory by the plucker, using either the slendang or the light baskets found in some areas. If the gardens are too far from the factories, then the pluckers carry the leaves to the nearest road where they can be collected and transported by horse or cattle-drawn carts. There is virtually no hauling in the gardens because of the prohibitive lepes. Prior to the war it is said that some cableways were Operated, but because Of cannibalization Of parts and lack of maintenance or replacements these are almost non-existent today. 10 Ukers, Op. Cite, pe 360e 293 Le Teak Teak (Tectona gagggis) is a native tree of Indonesia, and teakwood is commonly considered the best lumber avail- able for construction. It is Often used as the framing material for buildings and is also used in all types of furniture, but it is most highly valued as a ship building material. While technically classified as a hardwood because it is a deciduous tree, teakwood is easy to work and actually is so soft that nails have little holding power. Because of the natural Oils of teakwood it is not susceptible to damage from termites or from marine borers, and these character- istics account for its value as a construction material. In appearance the teak tree is somewhat similar to the cottonwood tree; its leaves are almost round and range from six to sixteen inches in diameter. If the tree grows where there is plenty Of room, it is inclined to be limby; however, where it grows in a thick stand, the lower limbs prune themselves very quickly so that long straight poles or longs are Obtained. There are two types Of teak culture in Indonesia; in both the seedlings are produced in nurseries where they grow in very thick stands for two tO four years prior to transplanting. In the Government owned forests where the objective is lumber production, the trees are planted with about ten by ten foot spacing, and between the-rows 1amtoro, 291+ a leguminous shrub, is usually planted for erosion control. Under the normal conditions Of high temperatures and rain- fall no appreciable mulch cover develOps under the teak trees; on the contrary the leaves fall at the beginning of the dry monsoon and are so large that they do not lie closely and constitute a major fire hazard. The leaf-fall from one year decomposes and disappears in the course of the following wet monsoon. The 1amtoro seed is planted directly in the teak forests without interval in the rows so that it becomes an erosion resisting hedge. The 1amtoro foliage is sometimes cut as green feed for livestock and the small beans are occasionally used for food. The Forestry Service Of the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the management of the Government teak forests and follows a careful program of selective cutting until the trees are nature. The process Of selective cutting, with the trees of poorest quality being removed at five to ten year intervals, gradually produces a forest which has little appearance that it was once planted in regular rows. The wood removed from the forests in the process is sold as firewood or may be utilized for low grade lumber. The tOp grade teak lumber is obtained from the selected trees which.mature at the age of fifty to seventy- five years. On the Sumatra east coast is found the second type of teak culture, which is a supporting enterprise Of the tobacco 29S estates. The tobacco in this area is air dried in large sheds covered with thatched roofs. The framing of the sheds not only supports the vast roof area but also supports the tremendous weight of tobacco hung in the sheds for curing. Teak poles are the best material found by the tobacco estates for the framing members of the sheds because they are thin, strong, resistant to termite damage, and economical. The tobacco estates formerly were able to produce their own teak poles in groves where the trees were planted at inter- vals Of no more than six feet. In such plantings the teak tree will attain a height of thirty to forty feet with a breast-height-diameter of no more than six inches. Some tobacco estate personnel have expressed their anxiety over a shortage of teak poles for the next few years. Formerly, the estates planted their teak groves as road borders so that tranSportation of the poles would be easy, however, these road borders are now often being occupied by squatters who cut the teak trees for firewood. At the present time plantings in the more remote areas of the estate holdings are being made, areas not so attractive to the squatters, but until these areas are ready for harvest, there may be a shortage Of poles for the curing sheds. M. Tobacco It is thought that tobacco was introduced in Asia by the Portugese and reached Indonesia late in the Sixteenth 296 Centuryl but had no importance other than for domestic consumption until about 1870. Prior to 1870 there was a small amount of tobacco eXported from Central and East Java, but since the establishment of the Sumatra wrapper'leaf industry in the vicinity of Medan on the northeast coast of Sumatra, this area has been the largest source Of tobacco for export. The total production of Java and Madura is greater than that of Sumatra, but most of the Java and.Madura tobacco is used for domestic production of cigarettes. In addition to domestic cigarette consumption the Indonesian peOple use large quantities Of tobacco for chewing. Tobacco consumed in this manner is not the pro- cessed plug type used in the United States but normally is shredded tobacco which the peOple mix with betel nuts (£5233 catechu), gambler (Uncaria gambier) leaves, and Often with lime in a mixture known locally as 53332. In.ggggh, tobacco and gambier leaves or tobacco and betel nuts are commonly used but the complete mixture is preferred. The mixture of these materials dyes the lips and gums a vivid red ordinarily attributed to the betel nut but due at least in part to the gambier leaves. Formally EEEQE was used by almost all Indo- nesians, but today its use is not common among the educated peOple. There are three distinct types of tobacco culture in Indonesia. In the Deli area in the vicinity of Medan,- le Vlekke, Ope Cite, pp. 275-276. 297 production is concentrated in the seven companies which controlled concessions of h8 estates before the war, on which the Sumatra wrapper leaf tobacco was and is producedl. In this area a total Of over two million acres was in estate concessions, but tobacco was never planted on.more than two to three percent in any one year. A large part of the area was in other estate crOps and the remainder held in reserve. 0n Java the so-called estates might be more accurately describedas processing corporations which con- tracted with farmers to produce tobacco for them and fur- nished the seed or plants for the farmer to use in his fields. Some Of the Java estates also hold land on long term leases, but these lands must be returned to the peOple for food crOp production when not planted in tobacco under conditions similar to those of the sugar estates. Tobacco production by farmers is common throughout the country, but with the exception of Central and East Java and Madura, little of this tobacco finds its way past the local market. In Java and.Madura the farmers produced 77,000 short tons annually prior to the war and the 1950-51 pro- duction was 27,500 tons. A portion of this is sold to the estates for processing, but an increasing number of COOPBrb atively owned barns for air drying and forflue curing, as well as auction barns, are being constructed by the farmers. 1e Metcalf, Op. Gite, p. 59e 298 The Sumatra wrapper tobacco is grown normally in an eight-year rotation of one year in tobacco followed by seven years fallow, during which time the fields are covered by second growth forest. In some cases the land may be planted in rice or another food crOp by the estate laborers before native vegetation is permitted to take over. In the early days of the tobacco estates most of the land clearing for tobacco followed the native pattern of land clearing with fire and ax, but the soils were much better prepared prior to tobacco planting than by the peOple for their food crOps. Prior to the war because of a general shortage of labor in the Deli area the estates began.mechanizing their land preparation, a trend which has been continued since the war because Of the increased cost of labor and labor troubles. The present practice is to remove the largest trees and pile them by means of bulldozers and root-rakes until dry enough to burn. The piled trees, brush and smaller vegetation are then burned, and after the land is plowed to a depth of twelve to twenty inches by the use of the largest types Of crawler tractors and heavy disc plows, it is harrowed two or three times prior to transplanting. The tobacco plants are started in nurseries and are transplanted by hand and also generally cultivated by hand, although a few row crOp tractors are being used for cultivation by some estates. 299 The emphasis in the Sumatra wrapper tobacco industry has always been on the production of premium grades of tobacco. The agricultural scientists state that this par- ticular type of tobacco can only be produced upon freshly cleared lixivium temporarily enriched by the humus residue from.forest growth. Because of the abundance Of fertile soils in this area and the concessions that could be obtained from the Netherlands Indies Government, the estates could follow this crOpping practice without difficulty. The estates maintain soils laboratories and.have specialists in agronomy and soils whose knowledge Of tobacco and soils enables fertilization for the highest economical production. Fertilizers must be used with extreme caution, however, to maintain the quality Of the tobacco. In.the immediate future the estates must modify their crOpping system or’must reduce the area planted in tobacco. The pOpulation Of the area has increased to such an extent that instead of the pro-warsurplus of food crOps there is a deficit so that there is an increased demand for land for the peOple to cultivate for food crOps. There is also a demand from the peOple to the Indonesian Government for the cancellation of estate concessions and the return of at least a portion of these lands to the peOple. As stated in the section on rubber production, the Government is in a very difficult pOsition Of having to effect a compromise between the demands of the pOpulation while trying to honor 300 the concessions Of the estates granted by the Netherlands Indies Government which the Indonesian Government is Obli- gated to honor under the terms of the Round Table Conference. In 1952 a compromise was arranged under which at the last report almost h00,000 acres Of former estates concessions were given up by the estates for distribution among the peOple. In this compromise agreement most of the lands given up by the estates were actually already illegally occupied by the peOple so that the estates were in effect giving up land over which they no longer had control and which the Government authorities could not return to the estates. In the compromise agreement, however, some transfers Of squatters from lands retained by the estates was necessary, and.even.though.the Government through its social welfare service paid the farmers for the loss of their crOps, the resettlement became the source of more trouble. Some 35 miles south of Medan in March 1953, When the Government attempted to force the removal of squatters by the destruc- tion Of the bamboo houses with a bull-dozer, police pro- tection was necessary for the tractor Operator and in the riot that followed five fanners were killed. According to newspaper reports the five farmers were actually Chinese who had entered the country illegally from.Malaya, but for the politicians and newspapers Opposed to the Government it was another basis for outbursts against foreign capital. 301 In contrast to the Sumatra tobacco culture the Java estates and the commercial tobacco producers among the small farmers Of Java and Madura utilize land which remains in continuous cultivation. Tobacco is not usually planted in the same field more than every second or third year; in the interim period corn, cassava, potatoes, peanuts, and green manure crOps are planted. Rice is also planted between the tobacco crOps, but the other crOps are more common because of limited rainfall and irrigation facilities, especially in East Java and on Madura. Fertilizers are used by the estates, but their use by the farmers is the exception rather than the general rule. In the dry monsoon the tobacco is irrigated when rainfall is inadequate if at all feasible, even though water must be carried in primitive buckets for considerable distances as is shown in Figure 56. With few exceptions the land preparation for tobacco on Java and‘Madura is accomplished by the use of animal-drawn plows and harrows. Some land is prepared by the use of the heavy hoe only, and a small amount Of land is prepared by means of tractor power on the estates. The men ordinarily prepare the land, and the tranSplanting from the nursery beds and the cultivation Of the crOp is the work Of the women and children. Throughout Indonesia tobacco production by farmers, except as described above, is secondary to food production and receives little attention. A few tobacco plants may be 302 Figure 56. Watering tobacco with Palmyra palm leaf container on Madura Figure 57. Bamboo scaffolding 302 Figure 56. Watering tobacco with Palmyra palm leaf container on Madura Figure 57. Bamboo scaffolding 303 planted at scattered intervals through a field planted in some other crOp, or a few plants may be planted in the edge of a field or near the farm houses. Except on Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Lombok few farmers plant little more than enough tobacco for the use of their families for home-made cigarettes or in'ggggh, but if there is a small excess it is usually shredded, dried, and sold in the local market. The Java estates tobacco includes some wrapper, filler, and binder tobacco, but the largest prOportion of tobacco production other than the Deli area is either krosok or kggf tobacco. Prior to the war some krosok and Egg; tobacco was exported, but to conserve foreign exchange that would be used to purchase Virginia and other types of tobacco for blending with other tobaccos in the domestic cigarette industry, the import of these tobaccos has been restricted and.the export Of the krosok and.kg££ prohibited. The domestic cigarette industry produces two types of cigarettes, the conventional machine rolled cigarettes which are common throughout the world and the kretek which is peculiar to Indonesia. The kretek is tapered, and when smoked.makes a pOpping sound because cloves have been mixed with the tobacco. It is to this sound that Indonesians attribute the name kretek, and it is because of the strong clove aroma that many peOple prefer this cigarette. . t l . t t . ' . . -- .- ’ e - a -' ‘0- C I e __ , ----i- t o.- " ‘ l 301; N. Miscellaneous Tree CrOps The products Of the trees and shrubs previously dis- cussed normally are the products of cultivation and careful attention. The products of the trees discussed in this section are normally Obtained by the exploitation Of the natural resources of the forests Of the country and require little, if any, attention from the inhabitants other than the effort of harvesting, some processing, and removal to communication routes so that they may be marketed. Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and clove (Eugenia fragrans) are trees native to the Moluccas and are the principle source Of the products for which the Archipelago received its ancient name Of the "Spice Islands". The trees grow under the cover of the trOpical rain forest and reach the height of fifty feet or more. The clove tree yields two products; the clove itself is the dried base of the flower bud, but the more valuable product is the flower itself. Both the blooms and the cloves are picked and air dried prior to marketing with the price per unit Of weight of the dried flowers being approximately twice that of the cloves. The flowers eventually find their way to the perfume industry, while the cloves more Often are used in foods or pharmaceu- ticals. As indicated by its name, the nutmeg is the nut of the tree and in appearance is similar to the hickory nut Of 305 North America. Because the outer hull Of the nut is dry at the time Of harvest, no drying or other treatment is necessary prior to marketing. While the nutmeg and clove trees are native to the Moluccas and prOpagate themselves naturally, they are Often started in nurseries and later transplanted to the forests. Through the activities Of the Farmers' Agricultural Service they are being planted in other areas of Indonesia besides the Moluccas at this time. Throughout the Archipelago there are many species Of eucalyptus which yield an oil valued very highly by the peOple for its medicinal prOperties. When used externally, the Oil is described as having a heat-producing effect and is the home remedy for colds, neuralgia and muscular aches used in a manner similar to the mustard poultice so common in the southern part of the United States a few years ago. In addition to the oil some varieties Of eucalyptus, which are similar in appearance to the sycamore tree in that its bark peels Off leaving a white under bark exposed, yield a fibrous bark which is highly valued by the native boat builders as a caulking material. The bark is pounded, treated with a gum, and used for caulking between the boards added to the sides Of the dugout canoes in order to obtain sufficient freeboard for use in the Open seas. There are many types of trees throughout the country which yield valuable resins and gums, but the greatest 306 concentration of these is in North Sumatra where turpentine, camphor, dammar, and 32321 are produced, the latter two being products of Agathis 3133. Dammar is the resin harvested by tapping, while 33221 is obtained from stumps. This area has long been noted for its gums which from ancient ages were valued very highly throughout the Far East for their fra- grance. Pine (£1233 merkussi) has been planted by the Forestry Service in its reforestation and afforestation efforts in North Sumatra which are being continued. Sufficient quantities of pine are already available to prO- vide the raw material for a paper industry when the hydro- electric potential Of the area is develOped to provide the necessary power. In the meantime the Government Agricul- tural Estates is already working 92,500 acres Of pine forest for turpentine productionl. Two other products from the forests Of Indonesia are cinnamon and tannin. While the former comes from Cinnamon Cassia, the latter is from the bark Of several species of trees. Both are harvested in the same manner, although their end use is quite different; the trees are cut when they have a diameter of about two inches, and the bark is stripped from the trunk, after which it is sun dried and marketed. The barks which yield tannin usually are put through an extraction process and the resultant tannic acid l. Saksono Prawirohardjo, Sekedar Mangenai Organisasi Dan Usaha Pusat Perkebunan Negara, Almanak Pertanian, (R. Soetijo, Editor), Kementerian Pertanian, I952, pp. 303-316. 307 is available to the leather industry. ‘While tannin may be Obtained from the bark of many trees, the mangrove is one of the most productive. This tree grows in the tidal swamps of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi -- the principal sources of the product. Rattan is another product of the forests and is found principally in the lowland forests of Kalimantan and Sula- wesi. After it is made into furniture, it has the appear- ance Of bamboo when in reality it is of the palm family of the genera Calamus or Daemonorqps, and in the forests it virtually covers the trees as it climbs over them. The process Of harvesting this palm is to cut the vine at the ground and wait until the plant is almost dry so that the many thorns on the vines may be knocked Off along the leaves as the vines are pulled from the trees. In this condition the rattan is reasonably flexible and.may be folded into large bundles. The individual pieces of rattan are Often 75 to 100 feet in length, and the size varies from one- eighth inch in diameter to as much as two inches. When rattan is dry, it is rather stiff but may be bent after heating with a flow torch so that it is readily shaped for all types of furniture frames; after cooling, it again becomes stiff and will retain its shape to form an attractive furniture frame that is well adapted to the climate and conditions Of the trOpics. In the rain forests of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi 308 are found the iron wood (Eusiderocylon Zwageri) trees, a source Of much valuable timber of construction but one which must be used locally because of limited transportation facilities and the expense of moving it to other areas on a large scale. The texture Of the wood is so coarse that it cannot be finished with the smoothness required for furniture, although it is so dense that the green logs or lumber will barely float. Although the iron wood lumber is worthy of its name when seasoned, it can be processed satisfactorily when green, and because of its resistance to fungi and to insects it is very highly valued for the framing Of houses, as a roofing material, and for the heavy timbers Of bridges and dams. Under water its life is unknown and even as a roofing material it will last for generations. While travelling on Kalimantan a government official pointed out a house constructed by his great- grandfather, on which the original iron wood shingle roof was apparently in perfect condition. In the forests of Sulawesi the macaramba or Macassar ebony (Diospyros) is found, and the value of this wood is such that in Spite of the difficulties of transportation it finds its way into the trade channels of the world. This is not the true black ebony of Asia and Africa but is mottled with streaks of reddish brown similar in appearance to the mottling of some types Of asphalt tile flooring material 309 commonly used in America. Because of its denseness and fine grain this wood is valued for the fine finish it can be given, and it is used for furniture, panelling, and other fine wood work. In highly polished panelling it has the appearance of a strange kind of marble at a casual glance, and only upon very close examination can one be sure that it is wood. In a strict botanical classification bamboo should be classified as a grass, but from the standpoint Of its characteristics of growth and from the standpoint Of its utilization, the Indonesian bamboo may be prOperly dis- cussed among the miscellaneous forest products. Bamboo is the most important construction.material for the peOple outside of the cities, and it is alSO used to a considerable extent even in the sO-called Western type construction, either for scaffolding during construction or repair (Figure 57) or for walls or ceilings in the finished building; in the latter cases the woven bamboo is usually either painted, or papered and then painted. Bamboo also is a source Of food; the young bamboo shoots are used as a vegetable and, while not so attractive to peOple unaccustomed to them, are considered a delicacy by'those who have acquired a taste for them. By far the most important uses of bamboo, however, are in the fulfill- ment Of the daily needs of the peOple. As a material of construction the only tOOl that is needed to utilize the 310 bamboo is a sharp, heavy knife, and it is likely that the workability of the material, as well as its availability, accounts for its importance in trepical living. Bamboo requires no particular attention; it may be planted in the kampongs to provide the needs of the local peOple, but more commonly it is a native plant found along the banks of streams, and in some areas it has crowded out less adapted vegetation so that there are literally forests of bamboo. To the average American who has known only the small species Of bamboo that are good for fishing poles or the slightly larger species that are used as ornamental screen plantings, the species of bamboo that are as much as six to eight inches in diameter and which attain heights up to fifty feet will remain a curiosity. The smaller species of bamboo furnish the material for the pikulans or carrying poles; the larger Species furnish the framing material for buildings; all sizes, when split into small, thin strips, furnish the material for beds, floors, wallsor screens, for simple tools, and for weaving into containers of all conceivable types and shapes. The fact that paper is scarce and expensive makes the use of loosely woven containers from thin strips of bamboo more economical than the use Of paper bags. The simple dwellings and all of the furniture of the rural pOpulation are often constructed entirely from bamboo with the exception of the thatch roof which is normally from the leaves Of one of the 311 palms. The many uses of bamboo are indicative that the Indonesian peeple have, Just as other peeples of the world, adapted their customs to their environment because of the economics involved in the supply and demand, in the ease of working with available tools, and in the effective life of various materials of construction. CHAPTER XI THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE The schematic diagram of the organization1 of the Ministry of Agriculture in Figure 58 shows the principal sub-divisions of the Ministry2 in April 1953. The general organization is very similar to the organization inherited from the Netherlands Indies Government, but the process of reorganization is an almost continuous process as the Indo- nesians gain eXperience and modify sub-divisions or change functions to meet current problems and capabilities. The grouping of most of the sub-divisions under general headings of Agricultural Services and Research Agencies should not be interpreted to mean that these groups constitute a major sub-division when in fact the head of each Division, Service, or research agency is generally directly reaponsible to the Secretary-General, although there is nominally a coordination plan. The Minister of Agriculture is the executive head of the Ministry and is responsible for the coordination of agricultural activities in relation to the overall pregram of the government as established by the Cabinet. In the promulgation of the government program the Minister is l. Tandiono Manoe, Peraturan Menteri Pertanian, Kemen— terian Pertanian, Djakarta, 1951, Mimeograph, pp. 1-17. 2. Re Soetijc, Op. Cit.. pp. 69-92. 313 mmDFJDOEOd. no >mhm_z=2 no ZOE.=o.:m_c_Eu< ._ Btoaoauem .2230 .3353 5.833. 39.23. 3.52313 cot—EEEEE 32235.: 5335 Boo...— .3335 «323 30.50 aeoaam 3:5 53>:— agate—om .EBSutoi 5.355: 22.322 5:3:me 9:56... 95 _eaaarautod 20.5.5260 one... .Eoficoa .8239... < 3:3 .825 a 7.3... _ 44mm2mo . >mqpmmomm, wmahnzwhmod mwkm.z_2 31h responsible, with the other members of the Cabinet, to Parliament and to the President. If the Cabinet is a coalition cabinet, the Minister is also reSponsible to his political party for the implementation of the party object- ives in agriculture and in other fields as established at the time the overall program of the Cabinet is develOped. OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY-GENERAL. The Secretary-General is the principal administrative officer of the Ministry of Agriculture and conducts the routine affairs of the Ministry within the limitations of the general policies established by the Minister. FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL RELATIONS DIVISION. The Foreign Agricultural Relations Division maintains contact with agricultural agencies of other governments and collects information pertinent to the agricultural economy of Indo- nesia, especially information about the world market as the supply and demand affect Indonesian export commodities. One section is responsible for making all arrangements for Indonesian personnel to go abroad for training in the agricultural and closely related sciences. This same section is the office of the Ministry which is responsible for the detailed arrangements related to economic or tech- nical assistance from abroad from the United States, through the Technical COOperation Administration, from the United Nations through its several agencies, and from the nations 315 of the British Commonwealth through the Colombo Plan. LEGAL DIVISION. The Legal Division of the Ministry has two principal sections, one for the promulgation of regulations pertaining to foreign agricultural relations and the second for domestic regulations. In addition to these activities the Division is the legal advisory agency of the Ministry on matters pertaining to existing or pending legislation. SUPPLY DIVISION. The Supply Division also reflects the influence of the agricultural eXport-industrial import economy of Indonesia in its division into sections for domestic purchases and for purchases from abroad. Although . this agency may sometimes contract with vendors for necessary commodities, its principal function is to process the requisitions of the various agencies for transmittal to the Government Central Purchase Bureau. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OFFICE. The most important function of the Office of Agricultural Education is, perhaps, the Operation of the six agricultural high schools estab- lished and maintained by the Ministry of Agriculture, three located on Java, two on Sumatra, and One on Sulawesi. While resident directors are responsible for the daily operation and administration of these schools, the above office is reSponsible for the establishment of curricula 316 and regulations, for the employment and assignment of teachers, and for the general supervision of the schools. These agricultural high schools have no direct relations with the Ministry of Education and other organizations which may be concerned with agricultural education. In the last named function there is also a responsibility for cOOperation with local government or private agencies which conduct any courses in agriculture. Based upon a study of the curricula of the agricultural high schools, the author feels that students successfully completing the curricula have the equivalent theoretical training of students completing junior agricultural colleges in the United States, even though they have attended school for only twelve years and their ability to apply this training is deficient because of their lack of farm back- ground and the dearth of practical training in the schools. As an example, the theory of surveying as taught includes the use of transits with an allocation of eighty hours for the course, of which only about fifteen hours are laboratory practice. This is ordinarily considered a sephomore course in engineering colleges of the United States, with the theory being covered in fifty to sixty hours of classroom work and with approximately an equal amount of time required 'in field practice. The surveying course normally taught as a scphomore course for students in the agricultural college curricula, except forestry, in the United States does not 317 ordinarily go beyond the use of the engineer's level. Although the general educational system of Indonesia has been discussed in an earlier section and the schematic diagram of Figure 2 shows the relationship of the agricul- tural high schools in the general system, it should be commented upon again at this point. These high schools are considered technical trade schools to teach agricul- ture as a vocation rather than being considered as prepara- tory for entrance in the agricultural colleges. It is normally eXpected that students who plan to attend college will attend the general high schools, even though they may plan to study agriculture. The agricultural high schools are considered as the completion of a man's formal education, and most of the graduates go directly into the Ministry of Agriculture, but some are employed by the estates; very few are able or inclined to undertake farming as a business except for the negligible minority whose families have enough land to permit a son to join the family enterprise. Very few of the students in either the agricultural high schools or colleges have ever actually worked in the fields. This system still follows that which was established by the Netherlands Indies Government, and it was apparently designed for the purpose of supplying the sub-professional employees to assist the Dutch Agricultural College trained employees of the Government and of the estates with little idea that these high school graduates would eventually fill the 318 positions of more responsibility for which more advanced training was necessary. The system has already been modified to some degree and probably will be changed even more in the next few years. School attendance is encouraged through a large number of scholarships from the Government, and there are also some grants awarded by private enter- prise. Attendance is further encouraged by the reduction of fees per student if more than one student from a farm family is enrolled. Excluding the agricultural high schools and the agricultural faculties (colleges) of the two universities, there are a total of 28 different courses1 taught by the various sub-divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture. Most of these courses are the responsibility of the various Services, and they vary from two to four hours per week of the six months' courses for farmers taught by the Farmers' Agricultural Service in 800 different places to the four-year course in sea fisheries conducted by the Sea Fisheries Service in one location only. The Agricultural Education Office is the coordinating office for the educa- tional offices of the Ministry and.must try to correlate all such training with the capabilities and facilities of Ministry with those of the Ministry of Education so that there is as little unnecessary duplication as is feasible at this time. 1. Ibid.. pp. 1094127. 319 FARMERS' MOVEMENT BUREAU. The objective of this bureau is to encourage and assist the farmers of the country in the solution of their own problems through individual and community effort. ‘While to a certain degree this objective is identical with the overall objective of the Ministry of Agriculture, this bureau is specifically concerned with the education of the peeple and with the problem of assisting any farmers' group in organizing, whether the objective be for production, consumer, credit cOOperatives, or any other worthwhile purpose. Thirty-two farmers' organizations are listed in Almanak Pertanian 195313 some are national organizations with branches in almost every province, while a few are local organizations. LAND UTILIZATION BUREAU. The Land Utilization Bureau was established to collect available information upon which to formulate basic concepts of rational land use with con- servation of the soil resources of the nation to be the first and most important consideration. A number of agri- cultural officials have expressed the Opinion that this bureau will become the Soil Conservation Service of Indo- nesia and will be patterned after that service of the United States. Others have expressed the hOpe that this bureau become a research and advisory board to provide the basic doctrine of prOper land utilization with the implementation of such doctrines to remain the responsibility of other lo Ibide, pp. 129-1390 320 agencies which already have large numbers Of men working in the field throughout the Archipelago. Until this time (1953) the Bureau has directed the conduct of a number of small research projects, including some of the small watershed type, and has collected portions Of other research work applicable to develOping initial concepts of how soil erosion control work should be initiated on a large scale. GOVERNMENT AGRICULTURAL ESTATES. The Pusat Perkebunan Negara or Government Agricultural Estates is in effect a Governmented owned corporation charged with the management 1 that were the Government and Operation Of the 22 estates agricultural enterprises before the war and the 18 estates which were owned by enemy nationals or corporations and were confiscated by the Government after the war. One phase of the Operation of this organization is the management of the 22 estates for profit; the second phase is the develOpment and rehabilitation of the confiscated estates or the develOpment Of new enterprises on Government owned lands. The 22 estates are producing rubber, tea, cOpra, resins, and palm Oil, while the new develOpments will also produce pulpwood and rice. Because Of the large scale use of field machinery and processing equipment, the Government Agricultural Estates are directly concerned with more different applicatiOns Of agricultural engineering than any other agency and will therefore be discussed more fully l. Saksono, Op. cit., pp. 308-309. 321 in a later section. AGRICULTURAL ESTATES CONTROLLED BY THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA. In the area of Surakarta, Central Java the agency, Agricultural Estates Controlled by the Republic Of Indonesia, is responsible for the management of the estates producing sugar, tea, coffee, rubber, and hard fibers. AGRICULTURAL SERVICES. The preceding discussion of divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture has been concerned with the divisions responsible for the policies and the administration of the Ministry. The above divisions have few direct contacts with the peOple; however, they support the Operations Of the Services and Institutes which conduct the necessary research and disseminate the information to the farmers through their various action programs. The Services and Institutes are autonomous or semi-autonomous but are organized so that with the coordination within groups and between groups an effective implementation of programs is possible. As shown in Figure 58 there are groups of services in five major fields: Farmers; Agricul- ture, Estate Agriculture, Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Forestry. There is some duplication of efforts because of these lines of division, but cOOperation and coordination are facilitated by the personal acquaintance and mutual respect between the principal Officers Of all Of the services as a result of their having completed the same agricultural 322 high school at Bogor, the only agricultural high school in Indonesia until just prior to the war. The Agricultural Faculty (college) at Bogor was not Operative long enough before the war for anyone to graduate; the only personnel of the Ministry with college degrees are the very few who were able to attend'Wageningen Agricultural Faculty in Holland. Because there are now six agricultural high schools and two agricultural faculties, this close personal relation— ship will disappear as the present Officials retire. FARMERS' AGRICULTURAL SERVICE. Although not included in the title Djawatan Pertanian Rakjat, this Service includes the Indonesian equivalent Of the Agricultural Extension Service of the United States and has frequently been called by this name in English. As shown in Figure 59 the organi- zation of the Extension Service extends further than its American counterpart and has employees at the sub-district (3 to 5 villages) level rather than stOpping at the county level as in the American organization. The principal differences in the two systems are the absence of specialists on the staff Of the Chief of the Service and on the staffs Of the Provincial Inspectors (Directors) and the absence of home economics extension work as such. The lack Of specialists may be attributed primarily to the lack of trained personnel whose duties may be so limited that they can become specialists and secondarily to the agricultural Education system which, patterned after the EurOpean system, 323 CHOI F . . . S ecial Administrative SERWCEL _ _ _ AgrE’cultural DIVISIon Development Section If I l 1 Cultural Market Agricultural Publications Practices Crops Training and Reports Division Division Divismn Section F I l Horticultural Mechanization Farmers Sugar Division Division Research and [ Development Division Horticultural _ . Experimental Mechanization Equtpment Station School Development Provincial l— ----- 1- Director ——————— I 1 ns actor I L Land, Horticultural Development Farmers Su ar Experimental EgUIPMGM O velopmen _ Gardens acts on Demonstration In - Service I Elementary Training Agricultural Ogurses Schools 'mprmd Saw District Dry l—md Production Chief Experiment Forms Forms . Market Crop Sub-District Horticultural Nursuries Chief Nurseries simian Center Leader Training Courses FIGURE 59. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ORGANIZATION OF FARMERS' AGRICULTURAL SERVICE. 321i does not permit any appreciable degree of specialization at levels below the equivalent of work for the Master Of Science degree. However, by virtue of experience some Of the personnel have been and are becoming Specialists, but usually their duties are of a general nature. It is likely that as personnel becomes available from the enlarged educational program, more sub-divisions will be formed in the Service just as the Horticultural Division was formed under the Netherlands Indies Government, the Mechanization Division in 1951, and the Division of Export CrOps in 1950. The Training Division Of the Service is responsible for the organization and the supervision of training courses established by the Service, courses given for farm youth and adult farm peOple and in-service-training for employees of the Service. The duration of these courses varies from one to two hours weekly for the adult farmer courses for three to six months to full time courses for a period of one year in the mantri courses. The Objective of the extension phase of the Farmers' Agricultural Service is exactly the same as in the United States: tO carry educational programs to the rural pOpulation through non-resident instruction to permit the improvement of farmers' agriculture and therefore improve the welfare Of the majority Of the Indonesian pOpulation. The media utilized are also the same, although the Indonesian extension worker must rely more on visual aids and field demonstrations 325 than upon bulletins because of the low literacy level of the rural peOple. 'Hhile home economics is not such a distinct part of the Service, some instruction is conducted for the farm women and girls by the extension workers especially directed at the preparation and serving of food to provide a better balanced diet. The inadequacy of commercial channels of supply for improved seeds, fertilizer, and tools has made it necessary for the Extension Service to serve as a distribution and retail outlet for essential commodities. In some areas these essential commodities would not otherwise be avail- able, bnt in others the lack Of competition between retail merchants has resulted in exorbitant prices. This function of the Service has also made it possible to introduce fertilizers at prices subsidized by the government into areas where they had not previously been used. The same procedure has been used for some new or improved hmplements. A major problem faced by the Service, as with every other agency of the Government dealing with the residents of rural areas, is the lack of transportation, Similarly, the need of damonstration farms is multiplied by the farmers' inability to visit farms beyond walking distance. The average farm being at most two or three acres, the large number of farmers makes it impractical for the Service to attempt to provide transportation to carry farmers to demonstrations located farther away. 326 Because of the wide variety of conditions found in the different provinces, the methods Of conducting the program of the Extension Service vary, but there are three phases of the overall program that are common to all provinces. In every province the Service has, and is establishing more every year, Bglgi Pendidikan 5221223522 Qggg (Village Education Center), Seed Farms, and Dry Land Demonstration Farms. Table V shows the number of establishments in Operation, and the number under construction in March 1953, and the total number to be established under present plans. The Village Education Center consists of five to ten acres of demonstration fields and a building which has a room for meetings or classes and another room for diaplay Of model farms, farm implements, samples of seed, and fertilizers. Usually there are also office space and living quarters for the mantri in charge Of the Center. These Centers are established primarily for agricultural- extension work but are also used by other agencies Of the Government in other extension programs. The mantri conducts courses for girls, boys, women (Figure 60), and.men in various subjects as required to meet local needs. The architecture Of the Centers is adapted from that of local customs as shown in Figure 61. Surrounding the Centers are small demonstration fields for various crOps and practices with the most attention normally being given to irrigated rice production. Small --.— 327 TABLE V EDUCATION CENTERS, SEED FARMS, AND DEMONSTRATION FARMS OF DJAWATAN PERTANIAN RAKJATl Complete Under con- Total Jan. 1, 1952 struction planned 1953 Education Centers 167 78 1,1;00a b Seed Farms 216 7 220 Dry Land Demonstration ‘ Farms 115 - 250 1. Radar Marwani, Personal Communication, June 9, 1953. a. Number approximate, Objective one in each district. b. Includes 103 farms establiShed before the war, 113 new farms. 328 NH“ IlIIlIH‘JII Figure 60. Women's class in Central Java village education center Figure 61. Central Sumatra village education center with Minangkabau design 329 plots are planted to several varieties Of locally adapted rice; within the varieties the practices are varied SO that the peOple of the community may see the advantages Of the best varieties and practices. The Centers not only serve as educational and demonstration centers but also are used as sales outlets for the seed, fertilizers, and implements handled by the Service. Local variations in the Operations of the Centers occur to meet local requirements; for example, near Madiun, East Java the Center Operates a small motor driven cane crushing mill and has evaporating pans so that the farmers of the area may bring their sugar cane to the Center, grind it, and.make their own sugar. The mill is Operated by men employed by the Center for that purpose, but the evaporation is done by the farmers under the super- vision Of the mantri. This Operation is self-perpetuating in that the farmers give the Center one-sixth of their brown sugar as payment for the use Of the equipment. This function of the Center bears a close similarity to some of the community canning centers Operated in the United States, in connection with the Smith-Hughes Vocational Agricultural Education Program in rural high schools. The seed farms Operated by the Service serve as field increase plots for improved varieties Of seed develOped at the agricultural experiment stations. These farms are strategically located so that eventually there will be a I". ...i— .~ .- .....- 330 seed farm for each 25,000 acres of crap land. The program of distribution of improved varieties of crOps will Operate as follows: Seed of varieties which prove their value at the experiment stations will be distributed to the seed farms for planting and will be tested under the local soil and climatic conditions; the seed of varieties which are locally adapted will then be sold to farmers who agree to produce crOps for seed; these farmers will repay the seed advanced by the seed farm in.kind and sell their remaining production to farmers in their vicinity and the seed farm will also sell the seed repaid by the seed producers to other farmers in the vicinity. When the program is in full Operation, itis expected that all farmers will be able to have seed of improved varieties, usually only two years from the breeder and in all cases only three years from the breeder. The Dry Land Demonstration Farms are being established throughout the country in areas where lack of irrigation facilities have retarded agricultural develOpment. These farms are usually from ten to fifteen acres in size, the size that is considered necessary to permit a sedentary agriculture to be established. These farms are Operated as family units under the supervision Of a mantri; food crOps, upland rice, corn, cassava, sweet potatoes, peanuts, and beans are planted in rotation with green manure crOps in order to control erosion and to maintain soil fertility. 331 In this program, as with all others, there are var- iations to meet local needs and conditions; for example, on the island Of Sumba the Service has Obtained the cOOper- ation of twelve families in the establishment of a model village where improved methods of dry farming and improved housing are being demonstrated. In this area there are many small villages high in the hills with little attention given to crOp cultivation. The peOple tend their livestock on Open range and depend upon small areas under ladang culture for corn, cassava, and the small amount of rice that they are able to produce. It is in this area that land preparation is Often accomplished with dibble sticks in Spite of the fact that cattle may be grazing in an ad- jacent area. The twelve families of the village work cOOperatively under the supervision Ofa mantri with time allocated for field work, care of livestock, and other daily chores. The men work together using their cattle as draft animals for plowing and harrowing the fields. Although the field work is performed cOOperatively, individual ownership of the land, crOps, livestock, and homes is recognized. The establishment of this village was made possible through the efforts Of the Farmers' Agricultural Service, the Animal Husbandry Service, and the Radjah who allocated 125 acres of land for the use of the village. The Division of Mechanization Of the Farmers' Agricul- tural Service is reSponSible for the Operation of a program 332 of land develOpment with machinery which will accelerate the establishment of sedentary agriculture in the sparsely pOpulated areas of the Outer Provinces and increase food production on Java through better, and more timely land preparation. The Division also serves in an advisory capacity to other agencies Of the Ministry of Agriculture on problems pertaining to agricultural machinery and to the Central Import Office when that Office receives requests for licenses for the import of agricultural machinery. Since July 1952 the Division has Operated a school for instruction in the Operation and maintenance of tractors and machinery for personnel who will subsequently be assigned to pools of equipment for field Operations. In December 1952 an American agricultural engineer was assigned as technical assistant for the school to assist in the instruction and the direction Of the school under a cOOper- ative project with the Technical COOperation Administration. The Horticultural Division Of the Farmers' Agricultural Service iS responsible for making available to the Service information on the production of fruits and vegetables and is also responsible for the Operation of the Horticultural EXperiment Station, at Pasar Minggu, ten miles south Of Djakarta. In addition to the experimental field work normally expected at such an experiment station, the Division is also charged with the reSponSibility for conducting research in the preparation and processing of food. From the EXperiment 333 Station the Division distributes planting stock for sale to farmers through the Service and also provides material for the nurseries of the Service throughout the country. The Horticultural EXperiment Station was established in 1921 and now has slightly more than two hundred acres in plantings of various fruits and vegetables. The Division Of Export CrOps has the reSponSibility of providing to the Service information relative to the production of farmers of crOps primarily intended for export, such as coffee, tea, pepper, ramie, rosella, and others, with the exception Of rubber. Almost invariably these crOps must undergo some processing prior to marketing or domestic consumption, and in plans for production this Division must maintain close liaison with the Division Of Small Industries Of the Ministry of EcOnomic Affairs. An example of the function of this Division is illustrated in its participation in the initiation in 1952 of a program to expand the production Of ramie. This crOp is valued for its strong fibers, eSpecially useful for twine which the Indonesian fishing industry needs in large quantities, but it may also be used in textiles. The production Of this crOp on a commercial scale would help to fill Indonesian requirements and would also provide the raw material for a new industry to contribute to the country's need for industrial develOpment. The Division prepared plans for the distri- bution Of root stock for planting on an experimental basis r.- ,fl II 331+ in fields Of two to ten acres and diapersed it through all the provinces where information on soils and climate indicated probable success for the crOp. The available root stock was from the branch experiment stations of the General Agricultural Experiment Station and from residual plantings near Medan during the years of the Japanese occu- pation. Simultaneous with the preparation for the distri- bution and experimental plantings, the Division cOOperated with the Small Industry Division to insure that the fiber produced could be processed sufficiently to permitits barter for completely processed fibers from other countries already engaged in ramie processing until facilities for the complete processing can be installed in Indonesia. The Documentation Division has as its principal function the publication Of the monthly magazine Madjallah Indonesia with its articles primarily Of interest to the Extension Service. In addition to this principal function the Division also assists various staff members with the publication Of timely bulletins and with the preparation Of articles for publications besides Madjallah Indonesia. The Records Division, as indicated by its name, main- tains the records for the Service and tabulates and summar- izes the reports received from the provincial Offices. An important staff officer in the Service, although his position is nominally a temporary one, is the representa- tive of the Government Agricultural DevelOpment Plan. ‘While 335 this Officer does not head a division, he is the liaison officer between the Service and the Planning Section of the Ministry for the execution of the Special'Welfare Plan of the Government. This plan was originally conceived as a three year plan and is being extended one year at a time as its Objectives are unattained and further objectives are established. As a program established for emergency rehabilitation Of the country, the‘Welfare Plan has an independent budget, from which the various ministries and services may receive funds, in addition to their normal budget, for Special projects which are considered abnormal to the functions. FARMERS' RUBBER SERVICE. The Farmers' Rubber Service, like the Farmers' Agricultural Service, does not include extension in its name, Djawatan EEESE.§2§1§E' but one of the functions Of the Service is that Of a rubber extension service for the rubber producers. The organization of this Service is Similar to that Of the FarmerS' Agricultural Service with the exception that there are many areas in which there are no plantings Of rubber by farmers and the Rubber Service has no representatives in these areas. The Service is concerned with the dissemination Of information on rubber production and processing to enable the farmer to produce the highest quality rubber possible with the limited facilities usually available and through the develOpment of 336 cOOperatives to increase the quantity and quality Of processing installations in order to further improve the quality of rubber produced. The Farmers' Rubber Service, just as the Farmers' Agricultural Service, has found that the farmers are unable to purchase the commodities needed through commercial trade channels and has therefore been forced to become a distribution agency for the staple commodities Of the trade which include alum and formic acid as coagulants, coagulation pans, and rubber mangles (rollers), with which the coagulated latex can be pressed into sheet rubber to be either air dried or dried in smoke houses. The need for smoke houses has compelled the Service to include corrugated galvanized iron in its supply of commodities for sale to the farmers. Because a higher prOportion of farmers with rubber often live in relatively remote, and sparsely pOpulated areas, the lack of tranSportation is a far more serious problem for this Service to overcome than for the Agricul- tural Service. In some areas of Sumatra and in most Of Kalimantan where there are rubber producers, the only trans- portation is by small boats, usually dug-out canoes; how- ever, recently outboard motors have been used in larger quantities because of the favorable world prices for rubber in 1950-51. The effectiveness of the work Of the Service in the vicinity of Sibolga on Sumatra's west cost is a) 337 reflected in the closing of two Chinese owned rubber remilling plants in 1952.. These plants formerly were able to buy sufficient slab rubber, the lowest grade and the only grade that the farmers could produce without equipment, and remillit to produce blanket rubber for export. The price Spread between these different qualities of rubber is sufficient that such a plant can Operate profitably if the supply Of slab rubber is adequate to permit the plant to Operate near capacity. AS the farmers were able to obtain coagulants, coagulating pans, and rubber mangles from the Service and through normal trade channels, they began making Sheet rubber in lieu of slab rubber. Although it was still necessary for most of the Sheet rubber to be air dried, some was smoked, but with the decrease in the availability of slab rubber the remilling plants were no longer able to Operate profitably because the Sheet rubber can be exported without further processing and the price Spread between the Sheet and the remilled rubber would not enable profitable Operation of the plants. SEA FISHERIES SERVICE. The name Of the Sea Fisheries Service is indicative Of its function but not the broad scape of its activities. The dual Objective Of the Service is to enable Indonesian fishermen to provide more fish to Offset the general food deficit Of the country and more specifically to offset the deficiency of animal protein in 338 the average Indonesian diet. It is expected that by 1960 the per capita annual consumption of fish will climb from the present estimate of eight pounds to twenty pounds or more because Of the increased availability from the work Of the Sea Fisheries and the Inland Fisheries Services. The Fishing Technology Division of the Service is responsible for the dissemination of knowledge of improved fishing gear and techniques to the sea fishing industry. The Biological Division is compiling information about the various fishing waters and conducting fishing on an experi- mental basis in undevelOped areas. This information will include data on Species of fish in the various areas and other basic data necessary for the improvement and expansion of the industry in the vast seas of the Archipelago. The Fishing Vessel Design Division Operates a number of boat yards for building vessels adapted to Indonesian conditions and fishing techniques and also for the main- tenance of the fishing fleet. The activities of this Division include the construction of motorized vessels able to Operate in larger areas with greater efficiency than the native sailing praOS, which while colorful do not enable the production Of fish the waters are capable of supporting. The Sea Fisheries Foundation in the domestic industry is assisting in the formation of fishing cOOperatives and the Operation of auction sheds to enable fishing crews to 339 purchase and Operate motorized vessels, to receive a greater share of the profits Of their work, and to enable the efficient sale and prompt diSposal Of the fish. In the international arena this Foundation is reSponSible for the preparation of international agreements pertaining to fishing and representatives of the Foundation are present at the negotiations of such agreements. The auction sheds Operated by the Foundation or under its sponsorship are self-supporting; a percentage Of the receipts of all sales is retained to cover the overhead and other costs incidental to the business. Supporting Operations of the Service include the dis- tribution and sale of supplies, the construction of ice plants, and the Operation of carrier vessels. The first of these Supporting Operations has been in effect for many years, but the ice plants and the carrier vessels have not yet passed the planning stage. ANIMAL INDUSTRY SERVICE. Although the literal trans- lation Of DjawataniKehawanEE is Livestock Service, the references to this Service in English are usually to the Veterinary Service for many Of the officials of the Service are veterinarians. The Objective of the Service is to improve and to increase the amount Of livestock available in Indonesia, both for draft animals and for food. In the accomplishment of these broad objectives the Service has 3A0 a general livestock extension program, an animal breeding program, and a quarantine program. The general livestock extension program furnishes information to farmers relative to prOper management of livestock and includes investigation Of animal diseases and their treatment. The latter is eSpecially true when diseases have the prospect of becoming epidemic in prOpor- tions. The Service also is Operating a livestock loan program on the island of Sumba which, because of its unique char- acter, deserves brief description. This loan program is exceptional in that cattle and goats are loaned to farmers who have not previously owned livestock and under the terms of the written loan contract are repaid in kind after a period Of two to five years. At the inception of the pro- gram, which is handling only cattle and goats, a unit Of livestock consisted Of one male and ten female animals which were loaned to the farmer to care for under the supervision of the mantris of the Service. The farmer who Obtained the livestock agreed tO repay the livestock within a period Of five years in one year old animals to be selected from his herd by the Officials of the Service. In addition to the number borrowed, the farmer must also pay three animals as interest and prior to the full repayment of the loan cannot kill or sell any animals without consent Of the Service. hp .. 5 314.1 This restriction not only encourages farmers to repay the loan as quickly as possible but also permits the Service to effectively carry out an improvement program by giving permission for the farmers to kill or sell the least desirable animals. In November 1952, the Chief of the Service on Sumba stated that there were 175 such loan con- tracts in effect but that under new contracts a livestock unit is only five females and one male with a three years' time limitation for the loan to be repaid with only one additional head required for interest. In addition to the above program on Sumba, the Service is cOOperating with the FarmerS' Agricultural Service to furnish livestock for a mantri course. In the course the men are learning to use the cattle as draft animals with plows and harrows and at the same timeare training the cattle. When a mantri is later assigned to work in a village, the cattle will also be sent to the village to enable the mantri to conduct demonstrations in this rela- tively advanced technique. The Veterinary Service also Operates quarantine stations at the various ports where the export or import of livestock is important. Livestock must remain in quar- antine for two weeks prior to export, and during this period they are inSpected by the veterinarians and receive any innoculations necessary. If the livestock are held in the pens of the Service, feed must be furnished by the owner, but routine attention is by employees of the Service. 3&2 The livestock and poultry improvement program Of the Service is Spread throughout most of the Archipelago but is still in the initial stages of implementation in most areas. The establishment of poultry hatcheries seems to have made the greatest progress, and at the breeding centers there are small flocks Of various red and white breeds, as well as the Austrolorps. In the future the best adapted of these breeds will be crossed with local breeds for a general improvement of both egg and meat production. In.West Central Sumatra there is considerable interest in the introduction of Arabian blood lines to increase the size of the local horses. This prOgram was started prior to the war and is again receiving much attention, and there are now a total of twelve Arabians at the breeding center east of Bukit Tinggi. Five of these twelve, three stallions and two mares, were imported in 1952 while the remainder are the best locally available horses with some Arabian blood. Mares raised at this station will be kept for further breeding, but the stallions will be placed in the villages of the area for periods of three to five years, after which they will be moved to other villages to avoid too much inbreeding. At its various establishments the Service also is conducting SXperimental plantings of various pasture grasses. There are no improved pastures in Indonesia, and before livestock production can attain its prOper relationship in the agricultural develOpment of the Sparsely pOpulated areas 3A3 of the Outer Islands, information must be available to permit the production and perhaps the conservation of adequate supplies of feed. At the present time the amount of native grass available during the dry season is a controlling factor in the production possible. FOREST SERVICE. The Forestry Service is responsible for the management and eXploitation of the Government owned forest lands which include not only the planted teak forests of Java but also many areas of virgin forests on the other islands. The reforestation of denuded areas where erosion has become a serious problem, eSpecially on Java where the remaining forest cover1 on 23 percent of the island's area is considered to be the absolute minimum to maintain a balance of the hydrologic cycle, is of major importance in the considerations Of the Service. Although exploitation Of some of the fOrests of the Outer Islands is in the advanced planning stage, the principal activity of the Service in these areas has been the attempt to control the promiscuous destruction Of forests by the ladang culture of the farmers. To carry out its functions the Service has the following divisions: Planning, Commerce and Industry, Technical Affairs, Information and Education, and the Institute for Forestry Research. The last named division not only is concerned with production but also is conducting research l. Metcalf, Op. cit., p. 1h. I) 3% studies in the utilization of forest products. AGRICULTURAL ESTATES SERVICE. The primary function of this service is to represent the Government in the field of large scale agricultural enterprises producing commodities for the export. This Service must maintain accurate records concerning all phases of estate agricultural enterprises and must enforce the regulations of the Government pertaining to their Operations. In order to perform its functions, the Service must know the ownership of the enterprises, the status of world markets for the various products, and the current levels of production of the estates and also Of farmers producing competitive commodities. As a result of the direct damage from the war and the "police actions", the lack of routine maintenance, the lack of replacement of machinery or parts of machines, and the removal of machinery or the conversion of plants by the Japanese, both field machinery and processing equipment of the estates were in poor condition when the present Govern- ment came into being. One of the functions of the Estates Service is to assist the estates in obtaining the foreign exchange necessary for the import of essential supplies for rehabilitation and routine Operation. The Service also has the reSponSibility for seeing that the foreign exchange thus Obtained is expended in according to regulations. Also included in the responsibilities in the financial field 3A5 is that of furnishing the Minister of Finance with data necessary for the establishment of rates for export duties on estate crOps. Although the above functions of the Service are par- tially of an emergency nature and others are normal, recurrent functions, the greatest problem perhaps is to return foreign Owned estates to their owners and with other agencies of the Government to arrive at a policy for the renewal of leases as they expire. AS previously stated, the Agrarian Law of 1870 provided that the normal lease for estates would be seventy-five years which, of course, means that the earliest leases have recently eXpired and that many others will expire in the next few years. At the present time the managements of the estates are in such a position that they risk any additional investment if the remaining time Of the lease is insufficient to permit amortization; however, in many cases, if additional investment is not risked, the efficiency of Operation will decrease so that the estates cannot Operate profitably. Related to this same problem in several areas is the clamor of the peOple for the land of the estates and in others actual occupancy Of the land by indigenous peOple. Until a definite policy can be established and effectively administered, this will continue to be one of the most difficult problems of this Service as well as that of several other agencies. 3A6 The Estates Service is also charged with the reSponSi- bility of establishing prices to be paid by the estate pro- cessing plants for the raw products of farmers, eSpecially tea and quinine. In this problem the Service must try to obtain agreement between the farmers and the estates that will allow the estate a fair margin of profit for the services performed but at the same time will give the pro- ducer a fair price for the raw material. The final responsibility of the Service is of a catch- all nature in that they are authorized to undertake research pertaining to cultural techniques, to processing techniques, and to the marketing of export commodities eSpecially as these may enhance the export position of the indigenous producer. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AGENCIES. The Agricultural Research Agencies are reSponSible for the conduct of funda- mental, and applied research with particular reference to those areas of applied research which are beneficial to indigenous agriculture. The functions of this Service are carried out through the Central Agricultural EXperiment Station at Bogor and through its various branches in other parts of Indonesia. The develOpment of new varieties of crOps adapted to indigenous agriculture, eSpecially rice and corn, determining fertilizer requirements of various crOps under different conditions of soils and climate, and 3A7 the relationship of fresh-water fish production to rice production with irrigation waters under definite rotation plans are illustrative of the SOOpe of work undertaken by this Service. The systematic survey of the soils of areas under consideration for particular projects, as well as the routine analyses of soils to add to the basic knowledge of the soil resources of the country, is the reSponSibility of one division of the Central Agricultural Experiment Station, and the technique of controlling plant diseases and insects is the responsibility of another division. NATURAL SCIENCE RESEARCH SERVICE. While the principal function of the Natural Science Research Service is to conduct fundamental research in trOpical botany with Special attention to plants of importance to Indonesia either as ornamentals or for their possible economic importance, its secondary responsibility, for which it is better known, is the maintenance of the world famous botanical gardens in Bogor. As previously described.§g§gg.flgy§ Indonesia or Buitenzorg Botanical Gardens as they were formerly known, occupy an area of more than Six hundred acres in Bogor and have one Of the largest varieties Of trOpical flora adapted to low altitudes of any botanical garden in the world. It is through these gardens that oil palm, quinine, and rubber have been introduced to Indonesia from their native habitats of West Africa, Honduras, and Brazil. 3M8 INSTITUTES. The semi-autonomous institutes for General Livestock, Livestock Diseases Research, and Inland Fishery Research conduct research in their respective fields as indicated by their names and work in close coordination with the Central Agricultural EXperiment Station and the respective Services concerned with applications of research in the same reSpective fields. FOUNDATIONS. The Food Supply Foundation is reSponSible for the administration of the Government prOgram of food supply and distribution. This agency issues regulations which are necessary for the execution of the prOgram and controls the import or GXpOPt of food, the purchase of food supplies from surplus producing areas within Indonesia, and the distribution and sale of foods to the deficiency areas. Under these provisions regulations limiting the amount of rice that can be milled or can be held by an individual or company without license are promulgated to prevent hoarding for sale at times of short supply. The method of price control is to release rice from Government owned stocks for sale at fixed prices whenever local upward price trends become apparent. This Foundation was originally in the Ministry of Agriculture and maintains close liaison with the Ministry of Agriculture, although it is now in the Ministry of Economic Affairs. The COpra Foundation is an autonomous semi-private, 349 semi-Government agency which is the sole exporting agency for COpra and which was established to stabilize price fluctuations and at the same time to guarantee prices which would enable production at a profit. Representatives of both the Ministry of Agriculture and of the Ministry of Economic Affairs are on the Board of Directors of the Foundation. The Clove Foundation was established in 1952 in a similar manner to the Cepra Foundation for the purpose of regulating the price and supply of cloves available to the kretek cigarette industry of Indonesia. Because the regular supply of cloves for the industry affects such a large group of laborers, the continuous Operation of the industry is of major importance to the economy of the peeple in the areas adjacent to the cigarette factories. The Government is also concerned with the maintenance of a stable market for the cloves because of its influence on the economy of the Moluccas, the major clove producing area. The Foundation for Indonesian Agricultural Estates was established for the specific purpose of Operating the agricultural estates formerly owned by the Susuhunan and the Mangkunegaran Governments of Central Java. .Prior to World'War II these two governments were the semi-autonomous princedoms of the two royal fanilies which ruled according to ancient customs and rights and with little, if any, inter- ference from the Netherlands Indies Government. After the 350 war these preperties became the prOperty of the new Govern- ment, and the Foundation was established for the management of the enterprises which included sugar mills and rubber processing plants amont others. While the enterprises will be conducted with full consideration for their commercial value, it is also intended that they will develOp a sound pattern of cOOperation between capital, labor, and manage- ment and also a basis of COOperation between estate type enterprises and the farmers in the vicinity of the estates -- a yardstick, so to Speak -- for the many privately owned estates. At the end of 1952 the Foundation had progressed little beyond the planning stage, and information is not available as to the exact method of Operation that is being followed. For the coordination of the services rendered to all phases Of agriculture through the various agencies of the Ministry of Agriculture, there are three general groups. The Chief of the Farmers' Agricultural Service is charged with the reSponSibility Of coordinating the activities of the Farmers' Agricultural Service, the Agricultural Research Agencies, Agricultural Education, Farmers' Rubber Service, and the Inland Fisheries Service. The Chief of the Estates Service is charged with the responsibility of coordination of the Agricultural Estates Service, the Government Agricul- tural Estates, the Agricultural Estates controlled by the Republic of Indonesia, and the Indonesian Native Agricultural 351 Estates Foundation. The Chief Of the Animal Industry Service is charged with the reSponSibility of coordinating the activities of the Animal Industry Service, the Institute for General Livestock, and the Institute for Livestock Disease Research. CHAPTER XII IRRIGATION AND EROSION CONTROL A. Irrigation The develOpment Of irrigation is the same study in contrasts that is found in all other phases of Indonesian agriculture. There are the primitive irrigation systems develOped by the farmers, as individuals or through community effort, systems which have been develOped and extended by successive generations without benefit of engineering design or survey. There are also the technical irrigation systems designed by the irrigation engineers Of the Netherlands Indies Government, systems which have been designed with due consideration given to the hydrologic and structural details, as well as to the economic feasibility of such systems. Occasionally one sees, in articles about Indonesia and other Far Eastern countries, statements that the primitive irrigation systems and the bench terraces that have been constructed by successive generations of farmers are so perfect that engineers with transits could not improve the layout and design of these systems. From the standpoint of scenic beauty such statements are correct; it makes no difference in the appearance of an irrigation channel whether its grade is 0.1 or 3.0 percent, but from the 353 standpoint of diverting water from a stream to the highest possible elevation on the side of a hill, the difference is Of basic importance. While water is satisfactory as a measuring gauge for leveling the area between terraces, especially those terraces with very small areas, almost invariably upon close inepection the supply channels appear to have steeper grades than are essential. If these channels were surveyed with minimum grades, water would be discharged at higher elevations, and the irrigated fields could extend further up the hill or mountain sides; however, in some instances such surveys would be of no value because the available water is insufficient for more land than is already irrigated. The Indonesian Government has continued the general concept of the Netherlands Indies Government's basic policy in regard to irrigation, a concept which in principle is not conducive to maximum efficiency of irrigation because there is no direct charge for water used. Under this condition the Indonesian farmer, when possible, uses more water than is necessary for his rice fields just as the Louisiana rice farmer who pays 20 percent of his production to the pumping company for water uses more than is necessary for his rice fields. There is more justification for the Indonesian farmer who receives water from.atreams origin- ating in volcanic ash, water which has been shown by chanical analyses to have enough plant nutrients to have beneficial 351+ effects on the yield, than there is on the part of the Louisiana farmer whose only concern for the chemical content of the water is that it does not carry a high enough salt content to be toxic to the rice. This inherent weakness in the irrigation policy is minimized by the mantris of the Irrigation Division of the Ministry of Public Works and Power, who actually supervise the final distribution of the water from the technical systems. The irrigation policy has given the Irrigation Division Of the Ministry the responsibility for the design, survey, and construction of the diversion structures, the primary and the secondary channels, and all regulating and dis- tribution structure to the tertiary or field distribution channels. The tertiary channels are designed and surveyed by the Irrigation Division, but the actual construction is the responsibility Of the village and is performed cOOper- atively by the farmers, usually under the supervision of the irrigation.mantris. The field supply ditches are con- structed and maintained by the individual farmers, and the responsibility of the tertiary channel maintenance is the village responsibility; similarly, the Irrigation Division maintains that part of13he irrigation system constructed by it. The policy of the Netherlands Indies Government was to make an economic survey for each prOposed irrigation system; 355 if through the increased land rents or taxes payable to the Government the construction costs Of a project could be amortized in a reasonable length of time, approval for the initiation of the project was given. The income from the project was based upon the rental charges which were on a sliding scale with irrigated rice lands at the tOp of the scale and tegalans at the bottom Of the scale. The greatest difficulty of the Indonesian Government in the continuation Of the policy as stated above is the shortage Of personnel with engineering training to plan, design, survey, and supervise the construction of irrigation projects. In some areas the general security situation has delayed available personnel from performing their duties effectively, and several large projects initiated prior to the war remain incomplete. Illustrative of the difficulties confronting the provincial officials are the conditions in the provinces Of South Sumatra and Sulawesi in 1951 and 1952 at the time of short visits to these areas by the author. In the provincial office of the Ministry of Public Works and Power in South Sumatra there were two graduate engineers; one was the Provincial Engineer, while the second was his assistant in charge of construction and.maintenance of public buildings. The assistant engineer for irrigation was a young man who had finished the technical high school, approximately equivalent to junior college in.America, and who had had about five years' practical experience in [C 356 irrigation work. In this province the principal irrigation projects prior to the war were those in the colonization project areas. In the Belitang project area the diversion structure on the Komering River (Figure 62) has a design capacity of approximately 1300 cubic feet per second during the normal river stages of the wet monsoon from November until May. The main diversion canal is approximately 15 feet deep with a bottom width Of 15 feet and a tOp width of about no feet and is five miles in length from the river to the project area. The primary canal and the control structures for the secondary channels were completed prior to the war, but only enough secondary canals were completed to permit the irri- gation of 10,000 acres or about 10 percent of the potential Of the system. The primary canal, for lack of maintenance from l9hl-SO, was in poor condition because of bank caving, silting, and the growth of weeds in the channel, conditions indicative of the need for considerable work to enable the extension and the efficient utilization of the system. Another irrigation project of comparable size to the Belitang area is near Metro, where the Argoguruh Dam (Figure 63) on the Sekampong River also has a design capacity of about 1300 cubit feet per second and diverts water through the ten mile primary channel to the main control structure where some of the water could be delivered to the secondary canals for distribution to the fields and excess water could 357 Figure 62. Control structure on Belit irrigation project in South Sumatra Figure 63. Argoguruh Dam on Sekampong River in South Sumatra 358 be diverted to the Batanghari River. It was stated by irrigation Officials that eventually the capacity of the Argoguruh Dam would be increased by raising the crest of the weir so that another irrigation project twenty miles downstream on the Batanghari River could be established in the Roemi area. In contrast to the free inlet structure on the Komering River, the Argoguruh Dam is a diversion dam and can be used throughout the year. The total area Of irrigated fields in South Sumatra in 1951 was given as ' 65,000 acres with an additional 115,000 acres under the $3225 culture. In the province Of Sulawesi there are two graduate engineers in the provincial services of the Ministry of Public Works and Power, one in the capitol at Macassar and the second in North Sulawesi. Here as in the other provinces the Public Works engineers are assisted by practical engineers, men of elementary or perhaps high school educa- tion who have learned the basic elements of engineering by working under the supervision of the Dutch engineers Of pre- war days. ‘While there have been many good engineers through- out the world who have never attended college, it must be remembered that under the Dutch professional personnel, little effort was made to train Indonesian personnel except for routine work and even then only the techniques were ‘ taught, not the basic principles which would give personnel an understanding of the reasons for a technique. The difficulties of extending the irrigation systems Of f‘ 1‘ 359 Sulawesi have been.magnified to a considerable degree by the conditions Of security, sapecially in the vicinity of the Sadang project east of Pare-Pare in the southwestern leg of the island. This project was designed and initiated prior to the war and will have, when completed, an area of about 150,000 acres under irrigation. During the unsettled years all of the basic data and surveys for the completion of this project were lost or destroyed. The lack Of engin- eers makes it very difficult to make the additional field surveys necessary to obtain the data for redesigning the system, but even if there were engineers available, it would only be under the laissez-faire between the Army and the dissident forces that would enable such a survey to be made. The farmers ofthe area are said to have made some temporary repairs for parts of the project and to have done some work on the extension of the channels without benefit of surveys, but the complete details of the project appear rather vague, a condition that can be remedied only by the presence of’more engineers and less fighting between the Army and the guerillas. The provinces of South Sumatra and Sulawesi have been cited only to illustrate the dearth Of well qualified per- sonnel; other provinces are in little better position, if any better. These remarks should not be interpreted as being derogatory towards the personnel of the Irrigation Service. The scOpe of existing irrigation systems is so 360 great that even a minimum degree of supervision of the Operation and maintenance of these systems is physically impossible because of the limited personnel and the diffi- culties of travel and communication. Perhaps the outstanding example of an official having too many assignments is the chief engineer of the Irrigation Service who, in addition to this primary responsibility, is a special lecturer in irrigation, teaching courses in irrigation engineering at university level in three institutions in three cities besides Djakarta where the central irrigation office is located. The personnel situation is disheartening when the few engineers graduating are attracted to private employment by salaries two to three times more than those allowed.by the Government for single men; there is less difference in the case of married.men because of family allowances. In areas where primitive irrigation systems have been constructed by the villages or by individuals there have sometimes been contributions of materials or design and layout by the Government either through the Division of Irrigation or through the Farmers' Agricultural Service. Because the Ministry of Public Works and Power has been so overtaxed with the necessity Of repairing roads and bridges, of constructing new buildings, and of repairing and con- structing power plants and power distribution systems, the Farmers' Agricultural Service has played a far greater role 361 in the repair, maintenance, and construction of primitive irrigation works than in former years. In the technical irrigation systems the distribution of water has been regulated in accordance with the design Of the systems and according to very exact schedules based upon the quantity of water available, eSpecially in areas of limited supply. Under the primitive systems the right of prior claim is followed, and as probably is common throughout the world, arguments over the use of water are sometimes very bitter. Under the communal control of Bali one of the grounds for a farmer to be banned from his village is the use of more water than he is entitled to at the eXpense of some other member Of the village. Figure on shows the result Of an argument over water from an irri- gation canal in North Central Sumatra. The irrigation canals shown leading around the mountainside were said to be h.5 miles in length. The upper channel was constructed by two brothers who later had an argument either about the quantities to which they were entitled or as to which one should have the water at a certain time. The argument became so embittered that one of the brothers dug the lower canal for his exclusive use and did not speak to his brother again during their lifetime. Because vitually all of the irrigation systems are dependent upon diversion from streams and are without 362 Figure 6k. Mountainside irrigation ditches in North Sumatra Figure 65. Bucket on bamboo pole for irrigation from open pit in East Java 363 reservoirs, the amount Of water available is dependent upon the stream flow. Because the watersheds are relatively small, the water supply is quickly and.materially affected by variations in the rainfall. The Bengawen Solo River in East Central Java has the largest watershed of any river on the island (5970 sq. mi.l). Irrigation systems are designed upon the basis Of hydrologic data collected by the Meteorological and GeOphysical Service of the Govern- ment which also predicts the beginning of the wet monsoon each year. The area irrigated from a particular structure is sub-divided, and water is furnished to the sub-divisions for nursery beds, for land preparation, and for growing rice according to rigid schedules in order that maximum efficiency of irrigation may be Obtained. The order in which the sub-divisions receive their first irrigation I water each year also follows a definite schedule. Many of the systems do not provide sufficient water for irrigation of all areas in rice during the dry monsoon; some are for the wet monsoon only. ‘Where there is some water during the dry monsoon, its distribution follows the same general pattern with the sub-district having advance notice that there will be enough water for a given prOportion of irri- gated and dry crOps for the season provided normal rainfall occurs. l. J. H. De Haan, Adequate Water and.Land Use, O.S.R. News, Bureau of’Land Utilization, Oct. 1950, Djakarta, pp. 2-10e f", 36h In the mountainous areas of Java where there is adequate rainfall for irrigation Of most Of the rice fields through- out the year, the same maximum efficiency in the use of water is obtained by the successive distribution of water to sub-districts to meet their maximum requirements for land preparation and at the time of tranSplanting, after ‘which the requirement drOps during the growing season so that the quantity of water for that sub-district may be reduced and more water given to another. This system of ‘water rotation results in another landscape picture that is difficult for one accustomed to the temperate climates with definite seasons where all fields of one crOp are at approximately the same stage of maturity. For example, within an area of no more than one or two acres one may see the greenish yellow carpet of rice in nurseries await- ing tranSplanting, one area being plowed and harrowed in preparation for planting, another small area with rice just past the yellowish stage that follows transplanting, another terrace knee high and in bloom, and still another with the rice turned to the greenish gold of maturity indicating the time for sharpening of the ani-ani knives for the harvest. The best available estimate of areas of the total extent of irrigated lands in Indonesia is shown in Table VI. In this table no differentiation is made between the lands irrigated by technical irrigation and primitive irrigation 365 o.mae.a m.mHH mme.oa ma:.oa nausea 'ee 0.- " Ie' Queen-HOS 060.” m.m mmo coo nonmauH spasm. acumen m.mwm 1mm m: :0» 30.23% 03? Q3 can in capesfiaaa o.mm~. m.ea mam 0mm «museum mile m.m oem£ mmma , asses: e5 25:. «moanedanmcoo , pomoaoaa Amman” a.“ onOHQSOOV mmoa nmoar incense: nonpofipmeoo Seep eonswflfl semen: Has: Eu“ lffli demEOQZH 2H ZOHHRGHmmH ho EBNM H> mqmda 366 systems or those areas dependent upon rainfall. While a more accurate breakdown would be desirable, it is almost, if not completely, impossible for the Irrigation Division to Obtain complete, accurate reports from the provincial Officials just as is the case with some of the services in the Ministry Of Agriculture, a condition which is the result of two principle factors. The major factor probably is the lack Of qualified personnel in the provincial offices Of the various services, but the semi-independence of the provincial services from the ministries is also a contribut- ing factor. The officials of the provincial services, while technically reSponSible to the various ministries, are administratively responsible to the provincial governors and to the provincial councils; therefore, there is the tendency to render promptly reports which.will be of immed- iate benefit to the provincial services and the parallel tendency Of delaying reports which might be unfavorable to the provinces. During 19h0 and 1950-52 the average yield Of irrigated rice on Java and Madura was 0.97 short tons per acre and on the other island 0.89 short tons per acre, while the yield Of 222$.5252 or dry rice was O.h5 short tonal. These yields are in terms of Egg; and are approximately twice the equivalent value of head rice. The difference in the yields 1e Soetijo, Op. Cite, p. 3u3e 367 of irrigated and non-irrigated rice is indicative of the importance of extending the area under irrigation as soon as possible as a part of the Government program of adequate domestic food production. In Table VI is also shown the additional area to be irrigated by the end of 1955 for the Aprojects now under construction and the area of additional projects under consideration but on which construction has not yet been initiated. The use of reservoirs to store water from the wet monsoon rains to use for irrigation during the dry monsoon or their value to assure ample water at the end of the wet monsoon have never been common in Indonesia, nor were dual purpose power and irrigation projects undertaken before the ‘war. The total capacity of the reservoirs constructed by the Netherlands Indies Government (Table VII) was sufficient for the irrigation of no more than about 50,000 to 60,000 acres, less than 1 percent of the irrigated area of Java and Madura. Farmers have used waduks or small reservoirs to a limited degree in East Java, but elsewhere in the Archipelago they are seldom seen. The combination of climate and tOpography accounts for the absence of reservoirs for irrigation and the absence of industrial develOpment, together with the inability of the greatest percentage of the indigenous pOpulation to afford electricity in their homes, minimized the demand for hydro-electric develOpment. 368 adaaopnoaom .paoaoa asaaouaH «coasOm .mmda Haaa4 .HmswaaaH nsflwwm .swmnoa can EfiEfi adenoaoxaop .eoaom no unusuaonp :a one atone neea< a a ooo.mem.a “nuance .ma as :.mem ooo.mm:.~ weeps «pawn .NH oe e.HHm ooa.moo- Assume .HH nozom one GoapwwHaQH oe s.mo omm.:e qsnufipena .OH oe m.ema owe.:e mensefifia .o doaposapmcoo seen: :.me o::.mm «seam .m emoa e.mm :mm.aa aoeem spam .e odes o.mm ope.m: sadness: .o :2; «.ms mos; flashes...“ .m 82 name mmozi 25m masses .s mmaa a.sma oaa.m meoesoo .m mmma a.saa o::.~m asnpum .m egos o.mm oom.~ usponeaem .H ammo soapewaanH soapoHaSoo poem ad poem once :a no meow and Mo nnwaom huuosduo owaaOpm oadz .oz <>mmmmm ZOHademmH HH> mqmecause the importers have an allowance of foreign exchange for the import of introductory items without having to submit detailed lists for approval, a limited amount of equipment can be imported without prior approval. It would be rather easy to criticize the import of unadapted machinery but considered from the viewpoint of eXperience gained the peOple, the importers, and the Officials, it is not so serious, although in individual cases it becomes eXpensive experience. Demonstrations are already proving that garden tractors are not satisfactory for the use under Indonesian conditions. If the tractors are of sufficient size to perform field work, even in small fields, then they are so heavy that the small men cannot handle them. The same difficulty is also present in the utilization of larger tractors; it is im- possible for men who average about 63 to 65 inches in height and about 110 to 125 pounds in weight to easily handle tractors designed for EurOpeans or Americans who average five to eight inches more in height and fifty to seventy pounds more in weight. Basically the same difficulties are confronted in the use of garden tractors by larger men, but in the United States the garden type tractors have found a profitable market in the demand for them for the lighter jobs of cultivation and grass cutting. 390 B. Relationship of Mechanical Equipment to Land DevelOpment The Indonesian farmer works under conditions which favor rapid growth of vegetation and which, therefore, tend to reduce to a minimum the area which he is able to cultivate. These conditions of continuously warm weather, ample rain- fall, and soils of medium to high fertility make it diffi- cult for the farmer to cultivate more than enough land to permit a bare subsistence Of the farm family. The pOpulation pressure on Java has further reduced the area cultivated to about 1.75 acres, while the natural factors in the Outer Provinces have kept the area from exceeding three or four acres. Irrigated rice fields are the basis of secentary agriculture in Indonesia. The national preference for rice as the principal staple food and the ability Of the farmer to maintain irrigated fields at a high level of productivity, in contrast to the rapid decline Of production on dry fields, have materially contributed to the importance of the irri- gated fields. The alternate flooding and draining of the irrigated fields, together with the close attention given to the rice culture, prevent weeds and grasses from becoming a serious problem in the production of the rice crOp which requires approximately six hundred man hours per acre. In areas where there is adequate water available for irrigation, the seasonal requirements of labor are of secondary importance because planting and harvesting take place side by side throughout the year and minimize any 391 seasonal requirements. In areas of inadequate water supply the time of land preparation and the time of harvesting are seasons Of high labor requirements and tend to reduce the total area that a family can cultivate. The land must be prepared in time for the crOp growing season to coincide with the wet monsoon; therefore, the harvest season approxi- mately coincides with the beginning Of the dry monsoon. The labor requirement for the preparation Of new land for cultivation from slang-slang savanna is approximately 160 man hours per acre; if land cleared from forest were ade- quately prepared, the labor requirement would be even higher but usually it is not as well prepared as that reclaimed from slang-slang savanna. The rapidity with which the grass or second growth shrub and forest tend to reestablish them- selves among the standing stumps and fallen, half burned logs limits the area which can be cultivated by the farmers without the increased use of improved tools and either animal or mechanical power. If the farmers were able to utilize leguminous green manure crOps in rotations on the dry fields, it would be possible to maintain the productive level of the soil; simultaneously, the growth of the legumes would, through competition and shading, eliminate to a large degree the return of the alanggalang grass and the shrub growth. With primitive tools and limited animal power the farmers are unable to adequately plow or otherwise incorporate green 392 manure crOps into the soil to enable planting the next crOp. Because of the limited capabilities of the farmer, the area cultivated per family in the Outer Provinces has been little larger than that on Java where the restricting factor is the availability of land. The tragedy of this limitation is that it has led to the acceptance of an area of five to seven acres as the standard size farm even in areas where there is plenty of land for clearing. The term tragedy is used to describe this condition because in the absence of irrigation intensive agriculture seems impractical and the agriculture must progress towards a more extensive type of culture, and under these conditions the farmer who is allocated no more than five to seven acres is limited to a type of farming which under favorable seasons will produce enough food for his family and under adverse rainfall con- ditions will not even produce an adequate food supply. In order to permit the develOpment of agriculture above the subsistence level, it is desirable that the farmers have available at least enough power to permit the plowing under of leguminous green manure crOps in order to obtain adequate, timely preparation for subsequent crOps. The desired quality of work cannot be obtained from the use of cattle and carabao as draft animals; the nature Of the work makes the use of tractors with harrows and plows advan- tageous, and the nature Of the soils generally dictates the use Of disc plows. The educational and financial level Of 393 the farmer, as well as his economic position, make it un- economical, if not impossible, for the use of even small tractors by individual farmers to become commonplace. There are three methods of being undertaken to various degrees at the present time by which the farmers of Indo- nesia will be able to benefit from the increased utilization of tractors and machinery in the near future. The Govern- ment is establishing pools of land develOpment equipment to accomplish the initial clearing and land preparation; the farmers will repay the Government for the cost of equipment Operation. The land develOpment equipment pools are being Operated by the Mechanization Division Of the Farmers' Agricultural Service, but in addition the Biro Reconstruction Nasional and the Corps Tjadangan Nasional are establishing resettlement projects for the rehabili- tation for former military personnel who have had previous experience as farmers and wish to settle in new locations. The Biro Reconstruction Nasional is responsible for assist- ance to the irregular soldiers who fought against the Dutch “police actions" between 1945 and 19h9, while the Corps Tjadangan Nasional is reSponSible for assistance to demo- bilized personnel of the regular armed forces. The Trans- migration Service of the Ministry of Social Affairs is also concerned with mechanization and land develOpment projects as they are related to the Opening of new areas or the 39h extension of former colonization project areas for trans- migration or resettlement of farmers from crowded areas, primarily on Java, to the Sparsely pOpulated areas of the Outer Provinces. The programs of these agencies are inde- pendent, and because of the vast areas in which they may Operate, there has been little conflict of interests to date in spite of the minor degree of coordination that exists. The second method by which the farmers may benefit from the increased use of mechanical power is through the private ownership of tractors and machinery by enterprising indi- viduals who will perform work in the community on a custom basis. While there are only a few tractors Operating under this system at the present time, those that are available are finding plenty of work in their respective areas. One small unit near Medan in North Sumatra charged $7.00 per acre for plowing initially, and gradually raised the rate to $17.50 per acre when the demand exceeded the capabilities of the unit. At this rate, except for inefficient Operation, the unit should be completely amortized and return a net profit to the owners in about two years, but even at this high rate the farmers were still having work done at approxi- mately half the cost of the same work if done with hired labor using changkols. The third method of utilizing tractors and machinery 395 for the benefit of the farmers is that of cooperatively owned equipment by the farmers or villages. This method has not been effectively utilized to date, although the M2353 or village chief Of a South Sumatra village near Palembang ordered two small tractors to be turned over to his village for the cooperative use of the farmers upon the delivery. It seems probable that after the initial Operations of the Government programs to Open new land for the farmers have Operated for a time, these programs will not only demonstrate the uses of machinery but will also leave behind in each a number Of men experienced in the Operation and maintenance of machinery who will be able to obtain and Operate machinery, either individually for custom work or cOOperatively for their mutual benefit. C. Program of Division of Mechanization The Mechanization Division Of the Farmers' Agricultural Service is establishing Operating units or pools of tractors and machinery for the Opening of new land for farmers in all of the Outer Provinces except Kalimantan and will Operate equipment in the three provinces Of Java to enable the timely preparation of rain dependent rice fields for rice production and upland fields for supplemental food crOps. The basic equipmentcf each Operating pool is six track- type tractors of 55 to 65 horsepower and four wheel-type 396 tractors of 25 to hO horsepower. Disc plows and harrows are the standard equipment for each tractor, and at least one tractor in each pool is equipped with a bull-dozer and at least one is equipped with a winch. At the headquarters Of each pool will be established an adequately equipped maintenance shOp for the maintenance of the tractors and machinery. Each pool which is located in areas where roads will permit the use of a semi-trailer for tranSporting the tractors and.machinery will be so equipped, but in other areas it will be necessary to drive the tractors over the roads; in some areas the controlling factors will be the bridges, while in others hairpin turns on narrow raods will make the use of the trailers impractical. The pools are being located in sparsely pOpulated areas Of the Outer Provinces where there are large areas to be placed in cultivation which cannot be reclaimed from the slangealang grass or from the second growth forest by the farmers with their primitive methods Of Operation. Initially the clearing and preparation of new lands will be for the benefit Of the farmers of the particular areas, but as the work progresses, it is expected that because Of the greater Opportunity peOple will more from other areas, either volun- tarily or through assistance from the Transmigration Service. It is a paradox that even in the Sparsely pOpulated Outer Provinces there are areas where the pOpulation has become so dense that actual shortages of land exist but the peOple 397 seldom move because of the difficulty of Opening new lands beyond walking distance from their homes. In South Sumatra the presence of tigers is a deterring factor to any tendency on the part Of individuals to move away from the villages. It is believed that there will be dispersal of the villages to a greater degree if large enough blocks of land are cleared so that the danger from tigers will be minimized. After the land is prepared by plowing, harrowing, and clearing of trees where necessary, it will be distributed among the farmers who will plant and cultivate food crOps by means of traditional methods and equipment. It is logical that the accomplishment of the initial heavy work Iof clearing and initial preparation will enable the farmers to keep larger areas in cultivation; they will thereby be enabled to utilize better crOp rotations in order to maintain fertility at reasonable levels. In some areas the lands to be prepared are Government owned lands, while in others they are lands to which the peOple, either as individuals or through community ownership, have acquired certain tenure rights. The program is being received with enthusiasm by the peOple; in Middle Sumatra the peOple of one area who had acquired tenure rights through generations of ladang culture voluntarily agreed to relinquish their rights to the land to be cleared in a large block so that it could be redistributed in a manner which would permit the consoli- dation of scattered fields into single units of sufficient 398 size for a farm family to cultivate with more efficiency. The pools located in the provinces of Java have a different Objective; there is little arable land which is not in cultivation, but there are thousands of acres cultivated as ggwgh tadahan or irrigated fields dependent upon the retention Of rainfall during the wet monsoon for rice culture. Because of the nature of the soils and also because of the fields having been worked when wet in previous years, these fields are so hard during the dry monsoon that the farmers cannot begin preparation either with the changkol or with animal-drawn plows and harrows until the rainy season has begun. Because the preparation Of the land requires six weeks to two months, the wet monsoon is about one-third over at the time of planting. The rice does not mature then until the wet monsoon is almost over; it is so late that there Often is insufficient moisture for the crOp to mature under favorable conditions; therefore, the yields are materially reduced. The plans for the equipment on Java are to prepare the land of the sgggh tadahan areas before the beginning of the wet monsoon'so that the planting dates and harvesting dates may be advanced at least a month and possibly six weeks. Because rice maturing earlier in the season will mature under more favorable moisture conditions, is is estimated that the yields will be at least 50 percent greater. In order to insure the year round utilization of equipment, 399 land will be prepared for the planting of secondary food crOps except during the last half of the dry monsoon. The plan for the use of wheel and crawler tractors together in pools with a ratio of four wheel-type to six crawlerrtype tractors was determined by the Indonesian Government based upon the limited eXperience of the estates and the recommendations of the various machinery manu- facturers. It seemed logical that there should be more of the heavy units for the initial clearing and plowing than of the lighter units for the subsequent harrowing and plowing. Limited eXperience to date, April 1953, has not yet proven whether this is the desirable balance or not, but there are indications that perhaps wheel-type tractors in the 25 to 30 horsepower class may be preferable to the larger tractors because of the physical limitations of the tractor Operators. Because of very limited experience prior to the purchase of tractors for use in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the need for tractors to arrive simul- taneously on four Of the islands, it was deemed necessary to order smaller tractors with kerosene burning motors for this province. Maintenance facilities do not exist on any of these islands; maintenance personnel, as well as Operators, must be trained. The areas of initial Operations have no vegetation more formidable than grasses other than alang-alagg grass as the severe dry monsoon retards vegetative growth. The use of the smaller types of tractors will minimize too the need for large stocks of Spare parts on each island; the smaller items most commonly needed can be stocked on each island, but others may be stocked in a central point for delivery by air freight on the weekly planes as necessary. The use of the smaller tractors will also facilitate the moving of equipment from one area to another over the roads; most movement will be over the roads where the bridges are inadequate for heavy trucks or trailers. At the time the implementation of the program began in 1952, it we realized that a program of training would be necessary to provide supervisory, Operating, and maintenance personnel for the efficient utilization of the equipment. In order to fulfill this need, the Mechanization Division established a school at Pasar Minggu near Djakarta with the primary objective of training supervisory personnel for the pools. After receiving training at the school, these men completing the course would conduct training for Operating personnel as a part of the field Operations. Although in the original planning for the establishment of the school the training of maintenance personnel was contemplated, this type of training has been beyond the initial limitations Of personnel and equipment available for instructions, and at least for some time it will be necessary to obtain maintenance personnel from the technical high schools and from automotive repair shOps. h01 The duration Of the courses at the school is approxi- mately three months with the emphasis on practical Oper- ation and preventive maintenance with a minimum of theoretical training. In addition to training personnel for the immed- iate needs Of the Mechanization Division, the school is admitting employees from other Government agencies, such as the Biro Reconstruction Nasional and the Corps Tjadangan Nasional and in the future will also provide training for the general benefit of the Ministry of Agriculture and for individuals besides government employees. It has been suggested that graduates Of the agricultural high schools and colleges, upon starting work for the Farmers' Agricul- tural Service, will be sent to the school for practical training in the use of farm power and machinery before being assigned to their permanent duties. D. American Assistance The concept Of the bold program to utilize tractors and machinery for the benefit of the farmers originated in the Ministry Of Agriculture; the general framework and scOpe Of Operations were outlined and invitations to submit bids were issued on some Of the equipment prior to the arrival of an agricultural engineer with the Special Technical and Economic Mission to Indonesia. As previously referred to, . this Mission was initially under the adninistration of the Economic COOperation Administration; later it was transferred to the Mutual Security Agency and subsequently to the 402 Technical COOperation Administration. Discussions about the program early in 1952 develOped into mutual agreement that the Indonesian Government had budgeted enough funds for the purChase of capital equipment and that the most benefit from the available United States funds could be derived from the eXpenditure of these funds for technical assistance and training. To implement this type of assist- ance, two projects were develOped before the end of the fiscal year 1952. The first project provided that lu.Indonesians would be sent to the United States for approximately eight months' training in the Operation and maintenance of tractors and machinery with as much related training in surveying, soils, soil conservation, and other pertinenet subject matter as possible. The Indonesian Government paid the cost of tranSportation to and from the United States and other incidental expenses, while the United States paid the cost of the training and travel within the United States and provided the trainees with a per diem allowance adequate to care for their living expenses while in the United States. The Food and Agriculture Division of the Mutual Security Agency contracted with the California Polytechnic Institute at San Luis ObiSpO, California for its Department of Agri- cultural Engineering to arrange a special six months' course of instruction especially designed to meet the needs of the trainees and adapted to their lack of previous mechanical #03 experience. Because of the transfer of the Mission in Indonesia from the Mutual Security Agency to the Technical COOperation Administration the implementation of the pro- gram for the traineesvvas under the supervision of the Office Of Foreign Agricultural Relations (changed to Foreign Agricultural Service in 1953) of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. Upon the termination of their training in California, the trainees travelled through the southern part of the United States spending four weeks in Texas and two weeks in Florida Observing various projects where land clearing, soil conservation, and irrigation Operations were utilizing different types of machinery. After their return to Indo- nesia in March 1953. the men were assigned to the areas where their knowledge could be utilized in the machinery Operation program. Two men were assigned to the school at Pasar Minggu to conduct instruction, but one has the secondary duty of general supervision of the field Operations of the equipment working in.West Java. The second project develOped under the 1952 program obligated funds for ten American technicians to work with the machinery program in Indonesia for one year and also provided a small amount of money for the purchase of text books and other miscellaneous needs Of the school. The first American technician for this project, an agricultural engineer, arrived in Indonesia in November 1952 to serve as not advisor to the school director and to assist in the instruction. Because of the lack of qualified Indonesian personnel prior the the return of the trainees from the United States, it was necessary for this technician to conduct most of the instruction of the December 1952 to March 1953 course taught at the school, and in Spite of alnguage difficulties the fifteen men who completed the course learned the basic principles of motors and machinery and acquired sufficient skills tO permit them to safely Operate and perform pre- ventive maintenance for tractors, harrows, plows, listers, and bull-dozers. Subsequent courses taught by Indonesian instructors assisted by the American agricultural engineer should be even more effective. It is planned that American assistance will be continued at this school until there are enough well trained Indonesians to continue its Operation without loss of efficiency. The nature of the duties of the remaining technicians under the technical assistance project of 1952 are as follows: one maintenance instructor and shOp foreman for the school at Pasar Minggu, four field Operation super- visors and four field maintenance foremen to work with the land develOpment equipment pools which are using American manufactured equipment. It was included in the terms of the purchase contracts that distributors; Of EurOpean manufactured equipment would furnish technicians for a year to assist in training Indonesian personnel to prOperly Operate this equipment after its delivery. 405 E. Government Agricultural Estates The Pusat Perkebunan Negara or Government Agricultural Estates is the Operating agency for all government estates, and on the various estates there are many varying degrees of mechanization and many different types of machinery used in processing the commodities in preparation for marketing. The principal estate of interest because of its mechanized field Operations is the Lho' Sukon estate north of Medan in the province of North Sumatra. Prior to the war this was a privately owned estate engaged in the production and processing Of fiber crOps; however, during the war and sub- sequent "pplice actions" the houses, other buildings, and processing equipment were destroyed, and after the war the estate concession was in the hands of the Government. In addition to the poor condition of the estate buildings the fields had returned to shrub vegetation, and the irrigation system and the roads had become useless for lack of main- tenance so that any further use of the estate required complete rehabilitation. In addition to Operating estates for the production of agricultural commodities for domestic consumption and for export, the Government Agricultural Estates has the reapon- sibility for the conduct of eXperimental enterprises to determine their applicability for other estates. Because of this aSpect of the organization and the need for increased 406 food production, Lho' Sukon was selected as the location for the develOpment of an estate engaged in completely mechanized production of rice. The estate can eventually have 25,000 acres in production of rice or other crOps under climatic and soil conditions that favor the production of two rice crOps per year. In 1952 rehabilitation began on the estate -- restoration Of living quarters for the super- visory personnel, construction of shOps and storage sheds for machinery, repair of roads, repair of the irrigation system, and the clearing and preparation of the fields to enable planting rice on approximately 1,000 acres in August 1953 to be harvested in December 1953 or January 1954. Mechanized rice production on Lho' Sukon will prove whether or not rice can be profitably produced with modern :machinery and.methods under Indonesian conditions. If rice production proves profitable under these conditions, it may be expected that similar estates will be established in other sparsely pOpulated areas, eSpecially in Sumatra, Kali- mantan, and Sulawesi. In these provinces there are millions Of acres of arable land not cultivated or, if so, under the careless ladang culture which scarcely touches the potential yield. In the initial Operation of the estate it is planned that the land preparation, seeding, and harvesting of the crOp will be accomplished with machinery. EXperimental work will be conducted to determine the feasibility of cultivation with machinery and to determine the most economical methods no? of cultivation, whether by machinery, by hand, or by a combination of the two and, if the latter, how much of each. Pending proof of the overall economy of the enter- prise, it is planned that the first crOp will be Spread on the concrete floors of the former estate processing plants for drying. If the initial Operations indicate success, drying equipment and improved type storage bins will be installed for the processing of subsequent crOps. F. Land Drainage and Reclamation Included in the undevelOped natural resources of Indonesia are the low lying lands of Kalimantan and Sumatra. While there are other areas of swamp lands, they are rela- tively unimportant because they are small in comparison with the swamp areas of these two provinces. Plans for the reclamation of 2,000,000 acres in the next fifteen years have been made in South Kalimantan, and work has been init- iated on the first 1,000,000 acres. There is a total of 5,000,000 acres of low land in this area, but before plans can be made for the eXpansion of the reclaimed area, detailed hydrological data must be available to permit further planning to be coordinated with plans for flood control. On the east coast of Sumatra there is an additional area of at least 10,000,000 acres of low land, much of which has high potential agricultural value. The plan for reclamation of the low land of South u08 Kalimantan is patterned after the reclamation projects in the Netherlands, such as that of the Zuider Zee and other polder projects. A polder is an area of land protected from high waters of floods or tides by dikes, and to provide internal drainage, drainage canals must lead to automatic valves through the dikes or to pumping installations. Because the primary objective of land reclamation on Kalimantan is for irrigated rice production, the polders must be constructed so that excess water may be drained during the wet monsoon and additional water supplied during the dry monsoon; however, stations 18 and 19 of Table III indicate that there are only three months in the year that irrigation would be necessary. There are three distinct types of lowlands in South Kalimantan where polders have been planned. South of the capitol city of Bandjarmasin are the tidal swamps, areas where the land between the interconnected streams are flooded once daily from the river back-waters at high tides which are almost ten feet above the level of low tide. In these areas levees will prevent the flooding of the land at high tide and control gates or valves will permit drainage at low tide. The same system of valves may be used to enable gravity irrigation as necessary from the flood tide waters throughout the year, but in the Opinion Of Dr. SchOpuys, who has prepared the polder plans, the gravity drainage and the gravity irrigation will be insufficient and pumps must be u09 installed to insure quick drainage or adequate water for irrigation. The Kelahien polder area is approximately 150 miles inland on the Barito River. At this location the difference between the high tide and low tide is only eight inches and is of no consequence as the river banks are ten to twelve feet above the water level during the dry monsoon, but this area is subject to flooding because of the sustained runoff from the river's headwaters during the wet monsoon. In this area levees must be constructed to protect fields from the flood waters, and although the high waters will permit irrigation by gravity approximately six months each year, irrigation during the dry monsoon must be accomplished entirely through the use of pumps. In the vicinity of Negara, fifty miles northeast of .Bandjarmasin, the swamp area is characterized by the sedges and grasses typical of areas which have such continuously high water tables that shrubs and trees have never become 'established. This area is not subject to major influence from the tides but is covered to much greater depths during the wet monsoon than during the dry monsoon. The control of water in this area will require pumps for drainage through- out the year and for some irrigation during the dry monsoon, 'but irrigation can be accomplished largely through gravity .flow during the wet monsoon. The swamp area of this tyne varies in width from ten to twenty miles and is approxi- mately 85 miles in length. Small areas that the farmers have been able to reclaim and cultivate have given excellent results, but the area under cultivation is so small that the average size farm is little, if any, larger than the average Java farm. For all of South Kalimantan SchOpuys1 estimates that the pOpulation of 1.2 million cultivates only 375,000 acres. The initial work necessary in each of the areas will be the excavation of straight canals for surface drainage, some of which will be entirely new channels but others will replace the meandering channels of the natural streams. Because the principal means of tranSportation of the farmers of the area is by small boat or dug-out canoes, these straight channels will immediately become the roads for the farmers to travel to new lands which are to be reclaimed. Simultaneous with the excavation of the primary and secondary channels will be the construction of levees with the spoil material of the channels. From 1950 until the present time the clearing of the right of way for the channels and the levees and the initial excavation have been accomplished by hand because of the lack of equipment in order to eXpedite the use of equipment upon its arrival. 0n channels started with hand labor (Figure 68) a berm of approximately twenty 1. H. J. SchOpuys, Regional DevelOpment Corporation Polderplan Kalimantan, Djakarta, Feb. 8, 1953, Mimeograph, pp. 1‘70 Figure 68. Farmer carrying mud from channel across berm to levee in Mantaran Polder, South Kalimantan ‘ Figure 69. Grass swamp area within area of Alabio Polder, South Kalimantan ,Q 1412 feet is left between the channel and the levee to provide solid footing for a dragline to be used later for enlarging the main canals and the levees. Initially the channels have been excavated to a depth of about three feet and will be subsequently excavated to depths of six to ten feet through the use of draglines or dredges. Under the leadership of the InSpector of the Farmers' Agricultural Service for Kalimantan the farmers of South Kalimantan organized COOperative polder organizations for the develOpment of small sections of the individual polders. Under agreement with the Farmers' Agricultural Service and the provincial government the farmers were to pay into these organizations “$314.28 per acre with the remainder of the estimated cost of $70.00 per acre to be paid by the Government. At the time Of the author's visit to the area in 1951 the farmers were paying their contribution to the associations either in cash from the income of the rubber gardens at the rate of $351.75 per month or were receiving a wage credit for labor on the canals and levees which was of general benefit to the project. The actual clearing of the land that the farmer would be allocated under this system was the responsibility of the farmer who would cut the trees and shrubs and, when they were dry enough, dispose of them by fire. It was reported that the farmers could contract for as much as 12.5 acres under this system. Most of the work to date has been accomplished on three #13 polder areas, one in each of the three distinct terrain conditions. The southernmost of these is the Mantaren Folder with an area of about 5,750 acres on the east bank of the Kahajan River and south of the Kelampan Canal. The initial excavation of the canals around the polder had almost been completed in October 1951, and the surface drainage resulting from the small canals had permitted the clearing and planting of a few acres in rice and cassava at that time. The principal type of trees to be cleared in the Mantaran polder are gglgm, most of which are six to eight inches in diameter. The Kelahien Polder of 12,500 acres in the flood swamps of the Barito River 150 miles upstream is covered with mixed trOpical rain forest with many of the trees 18 inches and larger in diameter. In this area there is high ground about h.5 miles to the east of the river and the northern project boundary is a straight line from the river to the high ground. The right Of way for this main levee had been cleared in November 1951, but only a small amount of excava- tion had been accomplished at that time. The Alabio Polder of 17,500 acres lies to the north- east Of Negara in the grass swamp area (Figure 69). Work on this polder was initiated prior to the war, and in 1951 the levee surrounding it for protection from the river flood waters was complete. This levee, which has a total length of about 16 miles, was constructed with a tOp width of ten mu to twelve feet and also serves as a road; the levee height varies from about four feet to about eight feet. Gravity control structures were completed for this polder but are not completely satisfactory in that drainage is inadequate during the rainy season. The precipitation within the area is in excess of crOp requirements, and without pumps to facilitate drainage the lowest areas cannot be cultivated, _and crOps planted in the areas of intermediate elevation are usually damaged seriously two years out of three so that farming within the polder still more or less follows the ladang culture. Within the Alabio Polder area the canals for drainage and for irrigation have not yet been constructed and probably will not be until the pumps are installed to guarantee the control of the water level. It is estimated that the pumping requirements for this polder will consist of three installations primarily for drainage, each with a capacity of 30 cubic feet per second and two reversible installations each with a capacity of no cubic feet per second. All pumps will Operate against maximum elevation heads of about nine feet. The estimated cost of purchasing and installing the pumps is $300,000 or slightly more than $17.00 per acre, but the value of the potential rice production of the area is approximately one million dollars per year. If the cost of the land reclamation for the project, other than the pump installation costs, does not exceed the estimate of $70.00 1415 per acre previously referred to, the total cost of the polder develOpment will be approximately $1,700,000, and if 20 percent of the cost is paid by the farmers for land tenure rights, the remainder would be amortized without interest in about 25 years from the 5 percent income tax paid by the farmers of this area. In addition to the relatively large polder projects referred to above, plans have been made and work has been initiated on 25 smaller areas, such as the Ampukung Polder which was completed in 1951. The Ampukung Polder in the grass swamp area was favored by its relatively high eleva- tion so that it was subject to flooding to depths of no more than one to two feet. In 1951 a levee no more than three feet in height with a 1.5 foot tOp width and one to one side lepes was constructed through the COOperation of the farmers of the area and the Farmers' Agricultural Service. The Service contributed $2,200 with which to pay the farmers for the cost of their labor calculated at one-half the usual daily wage rate for labor in the area; no materials were necessary for this polder. Because the area was not subject to flood damage in the wet monsoon of 1951, the rice crOp matured without flood damage with a yield estimated at 880 pounds per acre. Local officials stated that the income tax paid by the farmers of this area from the income of the crOp would be about $3,600, income to the government that would have been reduced at least ul6 80 percent had the levee not been constructed. The improvement in existing irrigated rice fields and the develOpment of new irrigated rice fields totalling more than two million acres have been planned for completion over a fifteen year period to begin in 195u- The purchase of dredges, draglines, boats, barges, landing craft, tractors and allied machinery, and the construction and equipping of maintenance shOps, and the training of personnel that have already been accomplished are exploratory and preparatory for the real develOpment effort to begin in 195k. It is with considerable personal pride that the author notes in the latest information of the Polderplan Kalimantan that the establishment of three land-grant schools is included as a definite part of the program. The land grants of 1,250 acres, 7,500 acres, and 10,000 acres will be for the establishment and Operation of three agricultural schools as vocational schools and agricultural colleges. While the officials of Kalimantan recognized the need of educational institutions to support the agricultural develOpment pro- gram, it is almost certain that the allocation of these large tracts of land to be dedicated to the establishment and support of the institutions may be traced to discussions of the officials with the author and two members of the agricultural staff of the Economic COOperation Administration Mission to Indonesia in October 1951 and to subsequent dis- cussions by the staff members with officials of the Central #17 Government. A statistical summary of the work that has been planned towards the agricultural develOpment of Kali- mantan from l95h to 1968 is given in Table VIII. The method of obtaining the staff of technically trained personnel, engineers, pedologists, surveyors, machinery Operation and maintenance Specialists, agricul- tural economists and others will, in the Opinion of the author, lead to many difficulties both from the standpoint of recruitment of personnel and in the actual develOpment of a well balanced team when the Specialists can be assembled. Under present policy personnel from several countries are being recruited on an individual basis under contracts varying in length and other details which to date include the Netherlands, Switzerland, and France. The SCOpe and nature of the work will require a high degree of understanding and COOperation.among the staff, and to the author it seems highly probable that technicians who have been educated in different countries have acquired experience in different approaches as the correct method of solving particular prob- lems. Undoubtedly there are several acceptable methods for the solution of many of the proglems that will arise in the polder develOpment, but it is doubtful whether an inter- national staff can agree and cOOperate to effectively carry out any one solution. This personnel problem may be even more acute than seems likely at a casual glance because of the severe shortage of technical Indonesian personnel to actually make final decisions that certain procedures will be ,used. m .oauH .aa .vonaenmooadz .HH .paano .mmoH .om .noa .ssuaasaasm suaaaouaom soapaaoaaoo psosaoaobeo ausoawom .uhsaonom .h .m mmo.o Ho.o :¢.o es.o eaoo unosaoaopoe sopuaapuo 0» noapostoaa disuse demeanoafi ends» Odadm Annuaaoe no neoaaawsv 0.:ia 0.0: m.eo H.wm nodposvonn vendoaoqa discus o5aa> . Anson phone unadusOnp .ondn Hmoav 0.0HN.H o.mom o.@om 0.9Hn uaowh ooan nmsoa Hdfiqad woudoaoaH . finches HO nonunionav m.N:e.H o.m~m m.m¢p Oomhm «macaw cows copawaahw So: no aos< . . finches HO uncensonuv 0.00M mohm mohm Ooth UO>OHQEH adHOHM ooah wfiduuflflo HO “cud . Annafiaoe no aeoaaaasv o.aHN o.m> woio 3.0: ohdpaonomwo Hapou coveadunm unsoh quash «mach obfih 0>HH 0>HH Q Hence sauna uncoom anaah uuasnoa uopaaapno no chapduao Km zmm mmaqom ho mBHmmzmm 92¢ wamoo HHH> mam<9 I. LL19 A deficiency that is recognized by the personnel currently working in the polder develOpment program is the initiation of work with inadequate design for various engineering structures and with inadequate supervision for the actual work in progress. For example, information is lacking as to the angle of stability of the various types of soils that will be in the channel banks and will be used in the levees. The supporting capacity of the soil and its tend- ency to flow into the channels under the pressure of the levees have not been investigated. Flood routing studies have not been made to determine the effect of channel restriction on the flood crests, and although the area jpresently included in the develOpment plans covers less tflnan one-half of the entire swamp area, hydrologists should cuertainly be among the early arrivals of the personnel. Or1 a visit to the area in October 1951, the author Observed :falnners excavating canals by hand and carrying the excavated rnaiuerial to the levee banks in the Mantaren Felder. The site of the levee base had not been cleared to a firm base 111 Inany locations, and often there had been no effort to remove stumps, roots, or organic matter from the levee line; :111 ifact, in a few places the farmers were actually using peat material in the levees. It is obvious that levees constructed in such a manner will be a constant source of trouble through excessive settling, bank caving, and seepage until corrected. While the determination of the officials amithe peOple to work for the improvement of existing con- dflflbns is commendable, the wisdom of undertaking projects ewn11arger than those previously referred to with inade- mufim preliminary surveys and design is, to say the least, questionable. Governor Moerdjani of the Province of Kalimantan and representatives from the PeOple's Councils (district representative bodies) are attempting to improve the overall program of develOpment of Kalimantan1 through the medium of requesting the Central Government to authorize the formation of a semi-autonomous organization to direct not only the agricultural develOpment through the polder plans 'but also the develOpment of other phases of the economy, ixnxluding forest and mineral resources. It is their recommendation.that this organization be generally patterned afdner the Tennessee Valley Authority and provided with a bruiget adequate to permit the develOpment of more complete plxxns and Specifications and the employment of such individ- zzalxs or companies as may be necessary for the implementation <9f"the plans. It seems likely that the work can be expe- dited if contracts can be negotiated with engineering con- tracting corporations to execute the preliminary survey 911Cl design phases of the develOpment and at least the com- pletion of the initial projects. 1. Djawatan Penerangan PrOpinsi Kalimantan, Pembukaan Kalimantan, Bandjarmasin, Dec. 1951, pp. 1-28. LL21 From limited observations in the Barito River water- shed, it is in many reSpects comparable to the American elementary school history book descriptions of the lower Mississippi Valley of the early Nineteenth Century. The tranSportation of the area is by water, the soils generally are fertile, the forests above the tidal swamp offer many valuable products to be eXploited when there is transpor- tation, and in the interior of the great island there are mineral resources for future develOpment. Even the legend- ary paddle wheel steamers are still Operating on the river. CHAPTER XIV PROCESSING OF FARMERS' PRODUCTS A. General Conditions The description of processing techniques of agricul- tural products and equipment which follows is restricted to those of the small farmer. This restriction has been necessary because of lack of time to study the industrial type Operations of the estate processing plants and, at least to some degree, is desirable because the complexity of the Specialized processing techniques of many of these plants removes them from the general field of agricultural engineering. Because of the importance of processing the :food.crOps produced by the farmer and the increasing import- aane of processing the farmers' production of agricultural ccnnmodities for export, improved applications of engineering 111 either farm processing equipment or in small processing plants offer the greatest possibility of general benefit tc> the rural economy of Indonesia. The processing of commodities by the farmer, either 113:? home consumption or for market, is characterized by the use of primitive techniques and by the minimum possible investment in equipment, just as is true in field production techniques and equipment previously described. The process... ing techniques and equipment cannot fail to further impress #23 the observer that the typical economy of the Indonesian farmer is a subsistence and barter economy with a minimum requirement for the consumer commodities considered essential to a minimum standard of living in some parts of the world. The processing of products for home consumption is normally considered the work of the women and children except for a few processes in which the labor is so heavy that it must be accomplished by the men. Processing is further characterized by being continuous with the amount processed at one time being determined by the daily food requirements of the family or the weekly requirements for material necessary for barter for the few commodities that cannot ‘be produced at home. B. Rice Processing Indonesia consumes approximately eight million tons of Ixice annually. Based upon the estimated pOpulation distri- tn1tion, 70 percent engaged in agriculture, it may be esti- znajsed that about five million tons are consumed annually by -ttue farmers, almost all of which is processed on the farm. The five to ten percent of the total rice requirement that A is imported is milled rice which, with the rice processed .111 'the more than five hundred rice mills on Java, furnishes the rice consumed by the urban pOpulation. Only in rice deficient areas and on some of the agricultural estates do (+214 the farmers or the farm laborers normally consume milled rice. In the deficient areas the rice distributed through the Food Distribution Foundation of the Government normally is milled rice, and the estates often purchase milled rice for distribution to their labor. After rice has been harvested with the ani-ani knives, it is carried to the farmer's home, and daily thereafter the women and children place the bundles in Open places for drying until the moisture content is low enough to permit safe storage in the lumbung. The period of drying is, of course, dependent upon the season but usually is no Inore than three weeks. The bunches of padi are placed on grassy'SpotS, road shoulders, bridge bannisters and abut- Inents; sometimes the padi is placed on soft woven mats to Ixrevent the loss of even a few grains. It is the job of tflae children to guard the rice while it is drying to protect 11: from birds, ducks, chickens and animals that with few exceptions are never penned. If, after the harvest, the farmer needs money for taxes, clothing, salt, or other essentials, enough 2.2511. is disposed of either through sale (pr-‘barter to Obtain these essentials. The remainder of the rice crOp is placed in the lumbung until used by the family. Daily the farm women remove enough rice from storage _fuaz‘ the food requirements Of the family. The 222i is placed in a wooden mortar and pounded with a bamboo or a wooden pestle until the straw and husk are sufficiently loosened 'H LL25 mnpermit winnowing. The mortar usually is a log with a long channel cut in the Side of it, and the pg§i_is placed hione end of the channel and gradually moved to the other end. Some of the straw is thrown out as the pounding pro- gresses so that only the rice and chaff remain at the end of the process. In some areas the mortar is cut in the end of a log instead of in the side. The kind of mortar and pestle is usually determined by local custom with various types of wood or bamboo being preferred in the different localities. In some areas the mortars are in almost every farmyard, while in other areas the women gather at the community mortars (Figure 70) in the morning for their daily rice pounding so that the processing takes on the aspect of a social gathering. The pestle usually is made from a heavy wood, but in a few areas some of the giant types of bamboo are used. 'If from wood, the pestle is about six feet in length and is tapered from about four inches in diameter on each end to a.«diameter of about two inches in the center. The pestle 143 half-thrown, half-drOpped with a rhythmic motion as the tvcunen.change hands between strokes and produces the sound ()1? a drummers' chorus when several women are working in a grOUp. After the rice is pounded, it is placed on shallow, slightly concave, circular trays woven of bamboo for winnowing. (Elle; women winnow the rice by pitching it into the air with a .. Il’Iltli. [‘7 . 426 Women of Central Sumatra village pounding rice Figure 700 Undershot water wheel for North Sumatra rice pounding mill Figure 71. 427 slight angle towards themselves so that the tray can be brought a little closer to the body to catch the heavy grain while the chaff and straw, which are lighter, travel a shorter horizontal distance and fall to the ground beyond the tray. Two exceptions to the usual rice pounding and winnow- ing methods have been Observed by the author; while there may be others, these are worthy of mention. In North and Central Cumatra there are many water driven rice pounding mills similar to that shown in Figures 71 and 72. The undershot water wheel is fastened to the end of the wooden shaft from which extend the wooden studs that mechanically lift the wooden pestles which, falling under their own weight, pound the pad . The other notable exception to the usual techniques was observed in South Kalimantan where the peOple use hand turned fanning mills for the separation of the grain and the chaff. While the above method of processing rice is eXpensive from the standpoint of labor consurmtion, there has been one material benefit to the pOpulation from the poor job of milling that is obtained. Beri-beri and other vitamin deficiency diseases are almost completely absent among the rural pOpulation whose principal food is pounded rice. This bene 1ft is attributed by health authorities.1 to the presence of a large percentage Of bran on the rice prepared by l. U. S. War Dept., Op. cit., p. 30. h28 Figure 72. Interior of North Sumatra rice pounding mill showing wooden shaft and studs for lifting wooden hammers Ififigare 73. Foot driven grater in small Central Sumatra coconut Oil mill with grated coconut meat on floor #29 pounding. The rice prepared in this manner has a reddish cast and retains a bran flavor when cooked, but this flavor is not particularly objectionable when the rice is served with several vegetables, fish and perhaps chicken or other meat, all of which are highly seasoned with red pepper. C. Corn and Cassava Processing Although corn and cassava are, exclusive of rice, the most important food crOps of Indonesia, the processing of these products is of very minor consideration to the farmer. The essential elements of the processing of these two com- Inodities for home consumption are drying and pulverizing. lflhile before the war the equivalent of more than a million ‘tons of Cassava roots was exported annually to the United EStates, the processing was accomplished entirely by estates firom their own production Often supplemented by the purchase cxf raw products from the farmers for processing only. After the corn is harvested, it is air dried by con- tainuous eXposure as.it is either tied over bamboo racks or around trees, a system which also provides a means of storage (Figures I41 and 112). Cassava, on the other hand, requires more preliminary treatment. The roots are peeled, (atlt in.pieces, and placed in the sun to dry; small roots are quartered and large roots are usually Split in eighths. The final processing of corn and cassava is accomplished (+30 with the same mortar and pestle used for pounding rice. Cassava meal is often grated instead of pounded. The finished product is a coarse meal used for bread, pudding, and thickening for soups, and it is sometimes mixed with The rice to make this preferred staple food last longer. cassava meal, commonly referred to as aa 1ek, is screened to remove the coarsest particles. D. Coconut Oil and COpra Processing ‘ The comparative ease with which coconut oil for cooking Inay be obtained is perhaps typical of the various factors vfliich make living in the trOpics at a subsistence level nnich easier than in more adverse climates. When the meat of? the fresh coconut is grated, warm or hot water added, axud the mixture squeezed between the hands and boiled in 911 Open pot until the water has evaporated, the residual oiLL obtained is of sufficiently high quality that it may t>eu'used for almost any type Of cooking. Coconuts processed :irx this Simple manner yield between five and eight quarts per hundred coconuts or, expressed in terms of yield per coconut tree, this would amount to about three to four (ZIJELrtS per tree annually. Although families which normally (351:1 afford to purchase oil for cooking in the markets do 53c3, during the Japanese occupation.many Indonesians found it necessary to revert to this simple method of Obtaining oil because the price of the limited supplies available in title? markets was so high that they were unable to purchase LL31 A Small processing plant Observed in Operation near Bukit Tinggi, Central Sumatra was producing about thirty gallons of oil daily for the nearby markets with the simplest of equipment. As shown in Figures 73 through 78, the equip- ment consisted of graters, a roller type press, burlap cloth used for wrapping the grated meat prior to pressing, and two fifty gallon steel drums placed over homemade brick fireplaces. The building was small, without lights, and although the principal framing members were of wood, most of the structure was made from bamboo and the roof was thatch. The market value of the daily production of the small plant was approximately sixty dollars per day, while the cost of production was about forty dollars per day. The figures are estimates of the author but are based upon local information as to the cost of labor and the price of coconuts in the area at the time of the observation in July 1952. The graters were of especial interest because they crumbine the versatility of bamboo with steel to make an effective machine. The half-egg shaped cutter head, while cxf wood, had six saw-toothed steel blades attached to it terrich cut the soft meat from the half coconuts when they tcexre pressed against the rotating head. The cutter head was affixed to a wooden shaft which in turn was mounted in two wooden bearings near the tOp of two wooden stakes set 1&1 the tamped earth floor. About six feet to one side of . at, l :11 IEEI #32 Figure 7A. Side View of graters in Operation Figure 75. Grated coconut meat being rolled in burlap for pressing I433 Figure 76. Burlap wrapped meat being fed through wooden geared roller mill Figure 77. Coconut oil and water are removed from container beneath mill with dipper I. IiJfEIII 431+ Figure 78. Coconut oil is cooked in iron drums without spigots Figure 79. Coconut husk being removed by striking on a sharp steel spike #35 the mounted cutter head, a piece Of heavy bamboo was driven into the ground; two feet above the ground the bamboo was Split so that, when bent towards the cutter one strip of bamboo could pass between the posts below the cutter shaft while the second strip of bamboo was above the cutter shaft; a thong was tied between the two strips of bamboo and wrapped around the cutter shaft to provide a means Of rotating the shaft. The Operator used the lower strip Of bamboo as a pedal and simultaneous with pressing the pedal downward with his foot he pressed a half coconut against the cutter head to Obtain the grating effect; after the downward stroke, pressure of the coconut against the cutter head was reduced and the resilience Of the bent bamboo returned the pedal to its starting position. The three graters working in the plant would grate approximately one thousand nuts per seven hour day. After the coconut meat was grated it was rolled in a burlap clOth and passed between the two wooden press rollers of the wooden geared roller mill. The pressure between the rollers was adjusted by the use Of wedges on the upper bearings of the rollers. The cloth wrapped meat was passed between the rollers a total Of five times; between each pressing the cloth roll was tightened and water added to the meat to increase the amount Of Oil extracted. The mixture of Oil and water collected below the press was then p1 aced in one of the two fifty gallon drums for evaporation; LL36 while evaporating the water, the Oil was partially cooked and eliminated the possibility Of its souring within a few days. The by—product Of the plant, the pressed coconut nmat, is utilized as high protein livestock feed with the greatest part Of it being fed to chickens and hogs. COpra production and processing is Of little importance on Java; the production Of coconuts on this densely pOpu- lated island is consumed fresh or utilized as a source Of cooking Oil; the consumption Of fresh coconuts here includes those used almost everyday in the Indonesian cooking. In the Outer Provinces and eSpecially in those where there is a sparse pOpulation and a marked dry season, as is true in Dflxrth Sumatra, North Sulawesi and in the Lesser Sunda Irilands, OOpra is Of major importance in the local economy. The processing Of the coconuts for cOpra consists Of :crenuoving the meat from the nut and drying it either in the anal or in kilns until the moisture content is low enough to permit storage and shipment without loss through fungi formation. The outer husk of the coconut is removed by hand, a laborer hits the coconut against a sharpened iron spike (Figure 79) set firmly in the ground which cuts Off large pieces of the outer husk. The inner shells of the coconut are cracked or Split on the same steel Spike and the meat removed for drying. Sun-dried COpra is preferred because it; is Of higher quality than that Obtained by kiln drying; however, it should be noted that the kiln-dried COpra is #37 produced by a combination Of heat and smoke, not the smmle application of heat. The sun drying Of cOpra (Figure &M requires about five days if the weather is favorable but may require as much as ten days if there is rain accompanied by periods Of high relative humidity. The COpra, usually on racks or flats, is placed under framework with hinged sections of thatch, or individual sections Of thatch roofing material may be placed over the framework to protect the COpra from heavy rains. If inclement weather delays the drying, the quality Of the COpra is reduced. A small amount of the by-products of COpra production, the outer husk and the inner shell, is utilized, but the ggreatest percentage presents a problem of diaposal. The cnxter husk may be retted in brackish water to permit the extraction Of coir, a coarse fiber used for matting and =scnnetimes for rOpes if no great tensile strength is required, hurt nmme commonly it is used a fuel, eSpecially if the COpra :is. kiln dried. The inner shell is utilized for cups, buttons, or other utensils or ornaments and can also be nmaxie into charcoal valuable for filtration purposes. Rubber :faixtners who are unable to purchase aluminum collecting cups often use the inner shell as cups for their latex collection. E. Sugar Processing The contrast in production techniques between the mills 438 . . ' .- ‘2 a. - ' ‘ )e 2“ A ‘-....' a y '~ ‘ - "' "J .‘R‘ '5‘.‘ ,."x -‘ 3‘: 3...? /'-. been: . «- -as-~*“«; may Figure 80. COpra spread on flats for sun- drying in Bali Figure 81. Small wooden sugar mill Operated in South Sumatra by manpower LL39 of the sugar estates and the mills Of the farmers is as great as the contrast in production techniques previously described. Just as the greatest develOpment Of the large sugar industry has been concentrated in Central and East Java, the greatest advancement in techniques and equipment Of the farmers for the production of lower grades Of sugar for domestic consumption are to be found in these areas also. Another important source Of sugar for consumption by the rural pOpulation of the Outer Provinces is from the several varieties of palm whose cut blooms yield enough "sugar water" to permit processing. The usual technique of processing palm sugar perhaps :requires less equipment than for any other type‘of sugar. Edie blooms are cut and either a bamboo tube or a liquid txight basket made from a palm leaf is hung beneath the blnoom to collect the nectar. If the nectar is to be used Ier sugar and not a beverage, it is placed in a shallow £3811 over a fire and cooked until evaporation makes it very -tkiick. While it is still hot, the thick liquid is poured :111to coconut half-shells or into wooden molds to solidify. JLITter the cakes harden, they are removed from the molds either for marketing in the local w or for storage for home use. Small quantities Of sugar cane are grown by farmers -tkiz%oughout the Archipelago, but only on Sumatra and Java 11ers. the author seen it utilized for processing into sugar. - - A - - “..-; - The most primitive equipment Observed was in Sumatra where two-roll crushing mills made entirely Of wood and Operated either with man-power or animal-power were in use in 1951 and 1952. On these mills (Figure 81) above the crushing part Of the rollers was a wooden support and bearing; above the bearing were two helical gears cut from the same pieces of wood as the crushing rollers and above one gear was a stub shaft to which was attached the drive pole for men or animals to apply the Operating force. It is in observing the Operation Of these primitive mills that one gains an insight into the disregard for labor that is typical Of Indonesia. The cane is fed between the rollers ‘by'one person, initially one stalk at the time; as it passes loetween the rollers, a second person pulls the stalk clear (If the rollers and places it by the mill where the first person can reach it so that it may be fed through the Im>11ers again. After the first pass through the rollers, 'tnno or more stalks are fed through the mill simultaneously ‘tc) insure enough pressure to extract more juice. The stalks are usually passed through the mill about five times before ceJctraction is considered complete, and the bagasse is placed :ir1 the sun to dry so that it may be used as fuel for the evaporation. The native ingenuity of the peOple is illus- trated both in the carved helical gears and in the method (91’ :lubrication. The gears are lubricated by the simple expedient Of placing an Oil bearing nut the size Of a pecan behween the gear teeth sO that the crushed nut becomes a semi-solid lubricant replenished as necessary by the insertion of another nut. In Central and East Java the use Of steel or cast iron crushing mills with two or three rollers is common, and gasoline or diesel motors up to 15 horsepower are quite commonly used. Even with these improved types of mills (Figure 82) the cane is normally fed through the rollers one or two stalks at a time and is usually returned for the second crushing, after which the bagasse is placed in the yard for drying prior to use as fuel. The pans used for evaporation are circular iron or steel pans, about thirty inches in diameter and about eight to ten inches in depth. A}; the Sumatra mills Observed, where only one pan was used Ier evaporation, a basket woven of bamboo, about six inches snualler in diameter than the pan in diameter and 18 inches 111 height, was placed in the pan to prevent the foaming syrup from running over the side of the pan while boiling xriggorously. The foaming juice boils up through the loosely tecrven.basket, and upon cooling from eXposure to the air, it Ifljlls back down the outside Of the bamboo basket into the hot gyaua. After the juice has boiled for about four hours, a .srneill amount Of a saturated solution Of lime is added to the condensed juice as a crystallization catalyst. When the ;jnu1c:e is judged to have been evaporated sufficiently, it is poured into molds while hot or it is allowed to partially Figure 82. Horizontal roller power driven sugar mill in East Java Figure 83. Circular iron inserts used to prevent juice foaming out of pan M3 «ml and is forced through a coarse screen to obtain a gnanulated brown sugar for the local market. At the small processing plants using the iron or steel mills, several evaporating pans, usually six or seven, are mounted over a single furnace. The fire box is under the first two or three pans and the evaporation begins in these pans which, Of course, are the hottest. As the cooking prOgresses, the syrup is moved away from the fire by pro- gressive dipping and pouring to successive pans. Circular inserts Of woven bamboo or of iron are placed in the three or four hottest evaporating pans to prevent the juice from boiling over; the juice boils over the tOp of the insert, and.runs down.the sides and back into the pans through the lxaosely‘woven bamboo or through perforations in the case (If the iron inserts (Figure 83). In these mills one percent byr volume of a saturated solution of lime is added to the jiiice at the time it is poured into the second pan. A Intunber Of small plants Operating in East Java were using from two to twelve furnaces, each with six or seven pans, 813 that continuous production was achieved. At these plants when the evaporation was completed, the <>zfiystallizing syrup was placed in man-powered agitators, a Inotzating bar Of wood or iron with downward teeth protruding tvfichh just cleared the bottom of the pan about five feet ;Lr1 diameter and eight inches in depth. In the agitators ob served, there were also two rows of teeth sticking upward 141:4 firm the bottom Of the pans which were alternately Spaced vdth the teeth attached to the rotating bar. The hot sugar was placed in these agitators and stirred continuously until cool to prevent the formation Of hard lumps and was then placed on a screen with 0.25 inch mesh (Figure 8h) for the final processing. These small mills,vahich are estimated to Obtain a 10 percent yield from the cane processed, are inefficient when compared to the large factories Of the estates which Obtain measured yields Of 13 percent and more. However, the present economic position Of such mills is reflected in the success Of the farmer near Besuki, East Java, who began with a cattle drawn mill and one furnace after the war. At the present {mime this particular plant has a ls-horsepower diesel motor (triving a three roll, horizontal steel crushing mill, and 122 furnaces in Operation. Prior to the 1953 grinding semason the capapcity Of the plant was to be doubled by the iristallation Of a second.motor-driven crusher and the con- :stxruction Of additional furnaces to make its total capacity ()1? 1,000 pounds of sugar per hour. The owner stated that tafith.the enlarged capacity he eXpected to be able to process 13k1e cane production Of about 125 acres in 1953. Some Of the (saune was the farmer's individual crOp, some was purchased 1?:rcxm other farmers, and some cane was processed for a part (31? the sugar produced. Because Of the lack Of storage facilities, as well as ' ‘ LI-LLS Figure 8A. Screening brown sugar in East Java Figure 85. Sago pulp being loosened from trunk with bamboo cudgel mm the lack Of capital to permit farmers to hold their sugar until after the grinding season is finished, most of the brown sugar is sold directly from the mill to Chinese traders Of the cities. The Chinese traders Often contract for the production from the small mills and even furnish the bags or other containers for the sugar. In 1952 the price at the mill during the grinding season was h.h cents per pound, but it was eXpected that the price would advance to 8 to 10 cents per pound in the local markets after the season was finished. F. Sago Processing The production Of sago flour has remained a very prim- itive process because, according to local Officials in the areas where it is Of importance, it has always been and even today is considered an emergency food to be used when the supply of rice is inadequate. This actually is almost a.<3ontinuing emergency in the Moluccas where because Of inadequate rice production and Of inadequate shipping to Inadnntain ample supplies, there seldom is enough rice for the peOple and away from the few small cities the situation is probably exaggerated even more. The method Of processing Observed on the island Of Ambon in 1952 and said by local Officials to be typical was being accomplished by four men. The palm had been cut, stripped of its fronds, moved near a stream, Split into two It‘ll I‘ILIIIIII,(w MA? hares and left with the flat sides Of the logs up. At cmposite ends of a half log two men began pounding (Figure {EH the fibrous, pulpy center of the log. The cudgel used by the men consisted of a bamboo cutting shank with a short iron handle. The bamboo was Of the large variety, about four inches in diameter, and the leading edge was cut with an angle so that it struck the log with an angle between 15 and 30 degrees. The contact Of the cudgel with the log produced a combination cutting and pounding action which cut the fibers and flour from the mass Of the log and at the same time tended to loosen the flour from the mass in the bottom Of the holes which quickly develOped in the soft log. As the leading edge Of the cudgel became dull, it was sharpened by cutting the blunted end Of the bamboo. The two men pounding were able to keep enough material Iloosened in the logs so that the third man Of the group vvas kept busy carrying this material to the place of sieving a1: a stream about fifty yards distant. The sieve used in tflae wet sieving Of sago flour is made from the heavy shank Of a frond from the tree. The shank Of the frond may be ocnnpared to the layered construction Of an automobile tire; thus woven cord Of the tire is represented in the netted coarse veins of the frond, while the rubber filler and 'tzwead may be compared to the gummy substance of the leaf. frkue sieve is prepared by separating one ply of the netted veins and scraping the gummy material from it without uu8 mmtroying the net, leaving a pliable screen of slightly mmdler mesh than ordinary fly-screen. The width of the :hmnds near the base, the part used for the sieve, usually is at least 12 inches. The material pounded from the logs is placed in the frond and mixed with water dipped from the stream. The frond is mounted with a lepe towards the sieve and the end of the sieving section attached to a bent bamboo pole with a thong to assist the man (Figure 86) in the agitation of the material and to hold the end of the sieve high to pre- vent waste when the man turns loose to dip more water from the stream. The flour is half-washed, half-forced through the sieve by hand and pours over a woven bamboo screen which stOps any fiber that may have been splashed over the sieve. The flour-laden water then flows into a settling basin; in tflie particular case observed, the settling basin was a Chngout canor placed at a slight angle so that the overflow unis at the far end of the canoe. Most of the flour settled onus quickly, but some is of such fineness that the water is said to remain milky in color for about a week. The log shown in Figure 85 was about 15 inches in Ctiauneter and approximately 30 feet in length. The workmen estimated that it would yield approximately five hundred pounds of flour and that approximately two weeks would be required to remove all the flour from the log. The fiber Inenuaved from the log in obtaining the flour is of such short hh9 Figure 86. Sago flour being washed through screen made from frond Figure 87 o Farmer's rubber processing shed and equipment in Central Sumatra ‘W 919' 2;»! _, ’3’ " ' 5M5 ’ “'5‘ 450 length and is so coarse that it is considered worthless; it is simply thrown out on the bank of the stream or into ‘flw water with no effort for its conservation or utilization. After the flour settles out of suSpension, it is placed on woven straw mats for air drying. When partially dry, it may be cooked as previously described, or the drying may continue until the flour can be packaged for storage or for marketing. The usual storage is woven bamboo baskets lines with banana leaves. G. Rubber Processing The farmers' processing of rubber utilizes small quan- tities of relatively simple equipment. In the simplest 'processing method the latex is collected, poured into con- ‘tainers, and permitted to coagulate to form slabs with or vwithout the benefit of coagulating agents; in the most pnrimitive processing the containers are holes in the ground, Emit the rubber produced under such conditions has little Vtfilue because of the poor quality which partially is the Imasult of very slow coagulation and partially because of tile presence of dirt and other foreign material. The <3cuagulating agents normally used are alum and formic acid, loLrt dilute solutions of sulphuric acid are also used to a. lesser degree. The coagulating agents are normally pur- cliased.through trade channels, but the formic acid is some— 13ixnes obtained by crushing certain Species of ants in water. ' t u! L ,I. ...-{i . 1‘40 ‘\. . ‘ \ a ‘\\.v \ \ i . it‘ll? I.» / “. z \‘i‘ii r ‘ LL50 lagth and is so coarse that it is considered worthless; itis simply thrown out on the bank of the stream or into amiwater with no effort for its conservation or utilization. After the flour settles out of suSpension, it is placed on.woven straw mats for air drying. When partially dry, it may be cooked as previously described, or the drying may continue until the flour can be packaged for storage or for marketing. The usual storage is woven bamboo baskets lines with banana leaves. G. Rubber Processing The farmers' processing of rubber utilizes small quan- tities of relatively simple equipment. In the simplest processing method the latex is collected, poured into con- ‘tainers, and permitted to coagulate to form slabs with or Ivithout the benefit of coagulating agents; in the most pnrimitive processing the containers are holes in the ground, tnxt the rubber produced under such conditions has little veilue because of the poor quality which partially is the zwssult of very slow coagulation and partially because of the presence of dirt and other foreign material. The coagulating agents normally used are alum and formic acid, but dilute solutions of sulphuric acid are also used to a.Ilesser degree. The coagulating agents are normally pur- chased through trade channels, but the formic acid is some- ‘biJnes obtained by crushing certain Species of ants in water. \ - , . L " . ,'~ * r Warren on a]. has 6!!!- \ " L- :50 nwv'ufi viqmie 81 . .' ' ~ ‘ : b I at": G'iffl'lé an rial»: 'Iedsl , ‘ . :‘s; It I‘.,"."t‘v': 6110.1? 91?.1 1833‘ ‘ . , i . ' i . 2“ W 'J 4:" min: we'lda aevw \ 3“.” -;"“' I ‘ r , , five: at Memos ed "I! "a ; 'i1_;:" .Ix'm': eunldnoo r ‘ ‘ _, ,~- «12:» fr _ . x" .. L‘L’M‘F fur—w ed". gainers”. '10‘1 13 . ilk . .a V":‘.[ Bream: win 80‘ -,"‘ O ..‘ ' t 01.1 I . " ~1 . gin": -' ' ,u , “f:,1.:ft'.;: lrgemfiq': 6:?" av j r . ,v .zrrv f'rciun‘: €L~r U: ’;:.[e=.l,rm.[o'1 ‘io 8‘1’.‘ —. : -' lever“ ‘2; cosiz‘r'. {if xcfim‘ and Lenten 5:11:59 ,_ 'U 1'.— -j A , ~ ‘; gr g hr,” (x: 51:13}?!er bun v.51 V l: at .' ‘ If. :_.: \.1‘;*‘:;f'. ’3:!‘:I:,‘wf.rf'»-soo '5’) illened 0133 3 ..' >‘- v _ I 5‘ K \ ‘Lrqu; ed: :1): ::,-;—i;:: rug weenie-Enos and gnizaeoc‘zq 6"” . ‘i E ‘ it“ eicsj-i 9,-3.3 rmoidibuoo moor, «strut nccubo'zq qeddit'x 0‘ ‘ . z ‘. ' ' I? ' Em..- rzi vihni‘a'mq 121m»: 21:?! [any “zooq 911': “to 583130“ ’. 5.1.2 -aw 4‘ - , .(’ . p ‘ 11:; em sum igszflldtz-tq nus rgoheinzmoo woia 116' 1° :- I J! ,1 § rd? .iai'xedsm rrgie'zo’! merino fume Ssib ‘10 99‘!" D l._,.;:. .111 9' “fin”: rm: MIL“ we beau Iviirmnon 33503.6 3131” ‘v. 03 been 0151*! an bias oi'wdqiuz 'Io aaokduloa 0:31;; qu ‘1“!qu 5'18 "”19?” Entifilfl‘aeco 011’! T .66‘18‘443 .6303 31 221.20 air-an“: em: and ,aiemedo .311. 158 “1‘7““. 5.- ‘ esteeqa disease aard‘emaiitd M ’ ' -’ * - . . ,l '3‘. '3' Ii 93,”. 1° v .1 ‘41:, ‘1'431'2— .r 451 Coagulating pans are the first major improvement mkmted by the rubber producing farmers. The pans recommended maconducive to the production of the highest quality of slab rubber are made from aluminum but galvanized iron pans are also quite commonly used because they are less eXpensive. The pans are about four inches deep, ten inches wide and sixteen inches in length. If the farmers' processing stOps with the production of slab rubber, it is sold directly or through traders to the remilling plants where the slabs are further processed to produce blanket rubber. It is profitable for the farmers to carry the processing at least one or two phases beyond the production of slab rubber. With simple equipment the next stage of rubber pro- cessing is that of pressing the slabs into thin sheets. ‘After‘the latex has coagulated into slabs, the slabs are soaked.in water to obtain the desired degree of workability and the slab is then passed through rubber mangles or Infillers so that it is pressed into sheets about 18 inches wide, 0.25 inch thick, and 14. feet in length. Each mangle liars three cast iron or steel rollers and is hand Operated. Iflsuagies are normally used in pairs with smooth rollers on 'ttus first mangle and ribbed or corrugated.rollers on the second mangle so that the finished sheets have a cross checked surface that accelerates the final drying. The asixnple equipment of a farm processing shed is shown in Figures 87 and 88. 4‘!“ Figure 88. Small rubber processing shed with aluminum coagulating pans in South Sumatra Figure 89. Sheet rubber in Open for air drying in Central Sumatra LL52 JIM ,\ _ . Lu Pun-(i We: ... V mnbg‘*wi _ , f , 7 _.,77 _ (+53 After the rubber is pressed into sheets with the mangles, it is dried by hanging over racks in the Open for five to eight days (Figure 89) or it is dried in smoke houses (Figure 90). If other factors such as cleanliness and the type of coagulating agents are equal, the smoked sheet rubber is of higher quality and consequently sells at a higher price. This difference is attributed to the disinfectant characteristics of the smoke which retards the develOpment of fungi in the rubber. The drying time in the smoke houses varies from 2h to h8 hours, a variation sometimes due to the amount of rubber to be dried before marke t day . H. Tea Processing The processing of tea is not normally carried out by :falnners but by the tea estates which not only process the production of their own tea plantations but also purchase tesa.:from the farmers for processing. The tea produced by the farmers and sold to the estates amounts to approximately .35 percent of the total production. VJhen the tea is brought to the processing plant, it is placed on shallow trays in a room with controlled ventil- ation for sixteen to eighteen hours while it wilts and loses thirty to fifty percent of its weight from evaporation of the water from its leaves. The wilting rooms present many combinations of natural and forced ventilation depending ‘I‘b.n I. .13 hp, ll...- 45h Figure 90. Model of improved type of rubber smoke house in Central Sumatra Figure 91. Kerf tobacco being shredded by hand prior to sun drying (+55 upon the availability and cost of power in the particular location. After the tea has wilted, it is placed in machines for rolling, machines which consist of a receptacle above a table with a pressure control above the receptacle, and either the receptacle, the table or, in double action machines, both the receptacle and the table have an oscill- atory motion in a horizontal plane. The rolling effect is best visualized when compared with the motion of the hands when one rolls a ball of wet soil or other material between the hands. The tea is usually rolled two or three times with increasing pressure each time, and the finer tea is removed after each rolling. From the rollers the tea goes to a roll breaker, in arnpearance a modified cylinder disc seed cleaner or a com- 'biJiation shaking sieve and fan type seed cleaner, which ‘bxweaks up the balls of tea and separates some of the stems :frmnn the leaves. In this condition the leaves have been partially dried and partially crushed so that the Juices (31"t11e leaves ferment in a period of 1.5 to h.5 hours. In order to insure uniform fermenting, the tea is Spread in tNflC) tn) three inch layers on flat trays or on the floor in rooms where the relative humidity is maintained near 100 Enarwzeirt. After fermentation, the tea is passed through dryers, the most modern of these are continuous conveyor type machines, with forced draft of air maintained at approximately 200° F. v;:\- v. LL55 upon the availability and cost of power in the particular location. After the tea has wilted, it is placed in machines for rolling, machines which consist of a receptacle above a table with a pressure control above the receptacle, and either the receptacle, the table or, in double action machines, both the receptacle and the table have an oscill- atory motion in a horizontal plane. The rolling effect is best visualized when compared with the motion of the hands when one rolls a ball of wet soil or other material between the hands. The tea is usually rolled two or three times with increasing pressure each time, and the finer tea is removed after each rolling. From the rollers the tea goes to a roll breaker, in appearance a modified cylinder disc seed cleaner or a com- bination Shaking sieve and fan type seed cleaner, which breaks up the balls of tea and separates some of the stems from the leaves. In this condition the leaves have been partially dried and partially crushed so that the juices (DI‘ ttie leaves ferment in a period of 1.5 to h.5 hours. In are protected by a screen to prevent any garmet from <3cnning in direct contact with the bulb to prevent damage to ‘bkie articles and to eliminate any fire hazard. In the rural LL75 areas of Indonesia electricity is almost completely absent, and even in the urban areas so little electricity is avail- able that homes are usually restricted in both the number of watts that may be used at any time and the monthly consumption. Single dwelling units often are permitted no more than three to five hundred watts demand load by means of a circuit breaker and are limited to three to six hundred kilowatt hours per month. Perhaps it is because of the absence of a reasonably well educated, reasonably well paid stratum among the Indo- nesian peOple, a stratum which finds it necessary to do ,most of their own work in the house and yard in order to .live reasonably well, that little attention has been given to the arrangements of rooms or to the construction of labor leaving facilities in the homes. It is typical that every Ijudonesian household headed by a salaried worker will have zit least one and more often two or three servants who do nubst of the cooking and the laundry and look after the cklildren. In the farm homes servants are uncommon, but tuecause of the size and limited facilities no attention -tc) labor saving arrangements is possible. The poorest farm llcnmes have only woven straw mats placed on the floor for Iaeads, no chairs or tables, two or three charcoal pots, and ‘blle same number of cooking utensils. The first indication ()1? an improved level of living is the addition of bamboo LL76 gflatforms for beds and then the addition of a small table mmifour chairs to provide a place for the man to receive guests. The wealthier farmers have wooden or iron beds, kapok filled mattresses, mosquito nets, and other furniture which make a more comfortable living possible. C. Water Supply and Sanitation The rural water supply of Indonesia is either from running streams or wells; the former is the most common except in those areas where year-round streams are few in number because of the severe drouths of the east monsoon as is the case in Sulawesi and most of the Lesser Sunda Water systems are found only in the urban areas, Islands. and these are inadequate because of the phenomenal growth of the cities since the war and the lack of routine main- 'tenance‘and expansion during the period from l9hl to 1950. 'Phe efforts of the division within the Ministry of Public kharks and Power reSponSible for the installation, Operation, ennd maintenance of public water systems have been hampered by the lack of funds in their budget. It is safe to say that the only rural supplies of Iflxnning water are the few that divert the flow of water from a spring or small stream through pipes to the farm kicunes. In a very few instances second-hand pipe has been seilvaged from industrial and estate plants and used for ‘triis purpose, but almost all of the few systems utilize LL77 large bamboo. In some cases the internode sections of the bamboo have been knocked out with thin wooden.poles, while in others the side of the bamboo have been cut out so that the internodes could be cut out with a knife. Where the internodes are knocked out, a continuous pipe is made by driving the small end of one bamboo tube into the large end of the next piece. Such joints, while in- adequate for high pressure, will permit a family water supply to flow without excessive losses at the joints. When the sides of the bamboo are cut out, it is then used as an Open channel and losses at the joints are prevented by using enough overlap at the joints to prevent excessive losses. In some few cases with either method the joints are caulked with mud, but these are the exception rather thanvthe rule. While there is a degree of flexibility in 'the bamboo pipes for abrupt changes in direction, holes arencut in the sides of the bamboo so that other pieces Inay be-fitted into the holes at whatever angles are ruecessary (Figure 97). Even though there are a large number of bamboo pipe systems, by far the greatest majority of the Indonesian FHBOple go to the streams for bathing, for diSposal of body *wwastes, and for their laundry. It is very common to observe ‘berthing, brushing of teeth, washing of clothes, washing of v13gfitables, and defacating taking place within a few feet (31' each other along most of the streams, eSpecially in the 478 densely pOpulated areas of Java and to a lesser degree on the other islands. Because under this system most Of the normal demands of water for daily household needs are met by using the water at its source, it is necessary to carry only the small remaining requirements for cooking, dish 'washing, and drinking from the stream to the house by means of earthen pots, five-gallon tin cans, or other containers such as bamboo tubes, gourds, or other natural containers. The above statements apply to the lower income group Of the Indonesian pOpulation, but it should be remembered that the low income group includes by far the largest pro- portion of the pOpulation. The Indonesian peOple with ‘better than average education who are financially able to afford the eXpense install bathing and sanitary facilities :in their homes with the sewage from the water closet ciraining into a cess pool and all other waste water being ciisposed of by Open canals. The typical indoor bathroom tuas a tile floor and a storage tank in one corner; there 143 no bathtub and seldom a shower and it is necessary for cuie to bathe by using a dip-bucket to pour water over him- :yelrf. The dip-bucket usually is of about one-half gallon czagnacity and has a round wooden handle across and just below the tOp Of the bucket. There are many outdoor bath- ]?cnanas located near the wells, but the bathing procedure 113 'tkle same whether in a river, an indoor, or outdoor bathroom. The outdoor bathroom usually is screened from ’4-79 the public view by a wall of woven bamboo about h.5 feet in height, shoulder high or a little more for the average sized Indonesian, and there is a half barrel or other container to store the water for bathing. The almost universal use of boiled water, tea, or coffee for drinking probably reduced the incidence of water- borne diseases, but Opinion is divided as to the probable importance of the rivers as sources of skin diseases and infections. Unless there is a natural immunity develOped from the bathing twice daily that is habitual, it seems likely that accurate statistics would reveal a high inci- dence of skin diseases and infections attributable to the use Of river water under such disreputable looking circum- stances. Wherever wells are used, it is almost universal that the water is drawn by buckets attached to a rOpe and drawn 11p hand-over-hand. Occasionally one may see a shallow well vfliere a long lever with a bucket on one end is used (Figure 963), but the use of even pitcher-type pumps is seldom observed. Although there are many locations in Indonesia where the use Of hydraulic rams would be practical, except Iwox= the difficulty of procuring pipe, officials queried about their use have never seen them used. D. Livestock Shelter The most common type of livestock shelter is a small #80 Figure 98. South Sulawesi well with pole and bucket for drawing water L_,, , all f, i, ,_V i.— Figure 99. Traditional type of Sumbanese house with cattle pen in center and platform around pen for living area hfil wooden pen covered with a thatch roof for the farmers' carabao, cattle, or horses, but almost without exception swine, goats, sheep, and chickens are kept in the farmyard but without shelter. More Often no shelter is provided for any of the animals, and they are tied to stakes or trees in the farmyard during the night. During the day the larger animals, if not being used, are herded from one grassy Spot to another by the farm boys. It is con- sidered necessary for carabao to have access to water holes twice daily or more, and cattle and horses are also taken into the streams and washed. In sharp contrast to the above general statement is the typical livestock shelter provided on the island of Sumba. While in other areas livestock pens, where used, are near the house, the Sumbanese house is built around ‘the cattle pen (Figure 99). The principal part Of the roof cxovers the cattle pen, and the human living area of the kuyuse is covered by the surrounding shed roof. The purpose V a . I l — . _ . . . _ rx . r . . « Pa VII L N 0 E S "U M “U «HIM D. .