CEPT ~. ‘ LFB'CON 'O'FESS JANOVE off-.Ph PR SM RA TATEQ agree PA .AND‘JDOGVMA 2RELATIONSHI D, BY {E is mm isfér-ithe D ORM 3.»... ‘ inhskxi 5.5.... 3:31.. a: . I’HES'I“ This is to certifg that the thesis entitled DUTIES PERFORMED BY PARAPROFESSIONALS AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF-CONCEPT AND DOGMATISM presented by ETHAN B. JANOVE has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhD degree in Educational Administration J/w/éb’» m Major professor ‘g Date u~ 3-70 ) i roles the ; aide: and anti 'r‘EIW ABSTRACT DUTIES PERFORMED BY PARAPROPESSIONALS AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF-CONCEPT AND DOGMATISM By Ethan B. Janove A three—phase study was conducted to determine the specific roles and duties aides were performing; to ascertain changes in the performance of duties by aides; to assess the sentiments of aides and teachers; and to examine the relevancy of self—concept l and dogmatism as important variables in the performance of specific duties by aides. A rationale was developed that was based in perceptual psychology and contended that aides would perform increasing numbers of teaching acts as a part of their duties. Phase I—-Survey of Ennded Prgposals Thirty—six Middle Cities school districts were involved. The roles, tasks, and duties of aides and teachers were described and prescribed differently in each school district. Phase II——Interviews Forty—nine interviews were conducted with superintendents, principals, trainers, teachers, and aides in seven selected, representative Middle Cities school districts. The presence, value, and positive effects of aides was stressed almost unani— mously. A definite trend toward teaching activities in the Performances of aides was noted. the ate 0011 it! E. Janove Phase III——0ur—mti fication Thirteen teams of one teacher and one aide employed in one elementary school in a Middle Cities Project constituted the sample used to ascertain whether aides performed the thirty-nine a) tasks identified as teacher only, b) learning reinforcement activities, 0) planning duties, d) self—assessment functions, and e) home counseling tasks; to determine the sentiments of the aides; and to examine the relevancy of self-concept and dogmatism. Aide performances and sentiments were correlated with the self—concepts and dogmatic attitudes of aides, teachers, and a team measure of self-concept and dogmatism. Multiple regression equations were developed correlating the three measures of self— concept with each dependent variable. Individual correlations were conducted. The same procedure was used with dogmatism. Alpha was set at .05 and the following research hypotheses were supported: Positive changes occurred in the self-concepts of the total group. Self—concept was negatively correlated with dogmatism for the total group of project personnel. Self—concept was negatively correlated with dogmatism for the group of aides. Aides with more positive self-concepts performed a greater freqUEncy of learning reinforcement activities than aides with lower self-concepts° A greater frequency of planning activities were performed by aides with high self—concepts, aides with teachers with high self-cones scores, t7 personnel 1 each at; eetiviti to cause hypothe: daily the he: scores TSCS a aides lendi a o :1 / E. Janove self-concepts, and aides or teams with high team self-concept scores, than planning activities performed by the respective personnel with lower self—concepts. The aides self-concepts and the team self-concept scores each attained a significant, positive correlation with planning activities. The small n, afforded unstable correlations and appeared to cause a loss of significance in multiple equations. Several hypotheses achieved the .20 level; some almost reached a statis— tically significant level in the opposite direction. Aides’ self—concept appeared to be more significant than the teachersT in some areas, but not all. Teachers' TSCS and RDS scores correlated in the unpredicted direction more often than TSCS and RDS scores of the aides. Planning Activities correlated most significantly with aides’ TSCS, and all activities in Planning were teacher only—- lending support to the rationale and contention of the study. Conclusion Although not unequivocably, the results indicated that aides were performing an increasing number of teaching duties and that self-concept deserved further investigation. DUTIES PERFORMED BY PARAPROIESSIONALS AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF-CONCEPT AND DOGMATISM by Ethan B. Janove A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY The College of Education 1970 ENTER 1. TAB LE O F CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Background. Problem . Purpose of Study. Hypotheses. . . Underlying Theory . . . . . . . . . . Progression of Teacher-Aide Events. Theory Summarized . . . . Definition of Terms . Summary and Overview. . II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . Paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . Growth of the Individual. Hierarchy of Needs. Self—Concept. . . . Dogmatism . . . . . . . . Summary of the Chapter. . . . . . III. PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY . . Design of the Study . . . . . Selection of Middle Cities Projects Phase One—-Surveys . . . . . Phase Two--Interviews . . . . . . . . . Phase Three-—Quantification of Performance. Hypotheses. . . . . . iii PAGE 10 12 16 17 I8 20 20 36 38 L10 51 59 61 61 61 62 63 66 7L1 h Eh’ N. All CHAPTER IV. V. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. . . . . . . . . Phase One—-Survey . . . . . . . . Phase Two—-Interviews . . . . . . Subjective Interpretation . . Question—by-Question Horizontal Vertical Analysis of Interviews Phase Three——Quantification of Aide Performance . . . . . . . . . . . Aide Performance of Duties. . . Teacher Only Tasks. . . . . . Analysis. Learning Reinforcement Activities . Planning Activities . . . . Self—Assessment Activities. Home Counseling Duties. . . . Sentiments. . . . . . . 0 Relevance of Self—Concept and Dogmatism . Hypotheses Related to Self—Concept. Hypotheses Related to Dogmatism . Summary and Discussion of Statistical Data and Statistical Significance . . Summary of Phase I--Survey. . . . . . Summary of Phase II——Interviews . Summary of Phase III-—Quantification. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS. . Phase I——Summary. . . . . . . . Phase I——Conc1usions. . . . . . . Phase II——Summary . . . . . . . . iv 0 PAGE 96 96 110 110 115 137 192 192 143 150 153 155 157 159 161 164 179 178 189 190 193 196 196 197 197 [RAPPER 313L100 PEPENDI CHAPTER PAGE V. Phase II--Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Phase III-—Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Phase III--Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Implications for Further Study. . . . . . . . 205 Meta—Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 APPENDICES 218 TABLE u.3 mu u.5 9.6 u.7 9.19 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 LIST OF TABLES Number of items in categories. . . . . . . . . Employment ratios of Middle City school districts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intended use of professional personnel . . . . . Academic specialists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paraprofessional roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . Has the role of the aide changed?. . . . . . . . Classification of responses to role changes. What changes are planned in the program next year c a o o . o o . o o . a o c . o o o . Q o How will the roles and number of aides change? Important categories in teacher aide relations . Categories mentioned in interviews . . . . . . . Teacher-only items——mean Scores 2.0 or less. . . Teacher—only items——mean scores 2.0 or less, excluding experts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teacher—only items——mean scores between 2.0 and Teacher-only items——mean scores between 2.0 and 2.5, except for expertS. . . . . . . . . . . . Learning reinforcement activities. . . . . . Planning activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-assessment activities . . . . . . . . . . Home counseling activities . . . . . . . Sentiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi PAGE 69 97 98 100 102 121 121 126 129 136 138 199 196 198 199 152 159 156 158 160 TABLE 11.20 .22 7 all. “it 1.28 TABLE PAGE Pre and post—test differences—~TSCS and RDS. . 162 Correlations between TSCS and RDS. . . . . . . 163 Correlations between TSCS and total responses. 165 Correlation between TSCS and learning reinforcement activities . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Correlation between TSCS and planning activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Correlations between TSCS and home counseling activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Correlations between TSCS and self-assessment activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Correlations between TSCS and positive feelings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Correlations between TSCS and similarity scores”, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Dogmatism correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Self-concept and dogmatism correlated with Categories.................. 180 186 Direction of correlations. . . . . . . . . . . h. hdr cot at recentlj schools teachet tcachc Bah th teachc until of 19 (a ma CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background Reference was made to teacher aides as early as 1807 when Dr. Andrew Bell published the results of a team teaching experi— nent at Egmore.l From the time of Dr. Bell's early study until recently, aides or volunteers have been used sparingly in the schools. So rare were aides that it was reported: "the first teacher aides were used in the early 1990‘s because qualified teachers were not available nor were the funds with which to pay them.”2 The Bay City Project in 1952 "began the modern teacher aide movement,”3 but the use of teacher aides was limited until the advent of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the Economic Opportunity Act.q In 1968 the Michigan leSislature provided funds to school districts ":9_rgggg§_pgflilf adult classroom ratios in schools."5 The law reimbursed eligible school districts for direct salary costs 0f PTOfESSional and Paraprofessional personnel. lW- The New England Educational Assessment Project (Providence, Rhode Island: November, 1967), p. 8. 2W Metropolitan Michigan, 1968): Educational Research Association (East Lansing, p. l 3 Ibid. 7. Teacher Aides in the Classroom, p. 5 Michigan, State School Aid Act of 1968, sec. 3. zloenced he use e with the ctassroc should 1 The in takes teseae Ships etude ttor 2 The Problem In Michigan the federal and state governments have in— fhmnced a major change in the education process by encouraging Hm use of paraprofessionals. Typical of the questions that arose wiflethe entrance of non—trained, non—certified adults in the classroom were, "specifically what can these aides do?" "What should they do?” and "What do they actually do?" Aides are being employed to improve school situations and to provide jobs for people in financially depressed areas. The increasing number of uncertified adults entering classrooms nukes the question of their duties more critical and calls for research as to their qualifications, training, and the relation— ships developed between aides and teachers and between aides and Students. Purpose of the Study It was the author's purpose in this study to add informa— tion to the growing body of knowledge related to paraprofessionals by answering the following questions. 1. What are the specific duties and tasks being performed by paraprofessionals? 2. Are paraprofessionals performing tasks that are con— sidered to be "teacher only” tasks? 3- What are the changes and/or trends in the role and duties of paraprofessionals? 9. What kind of emotions and attitudes are generated by the use of paraprofessionals? 3 5. Are self-concept and/or dogmatic attitudes important enough variables in the performance of duties by aides to warrant further research? This study was an attempt to determine the types of duties aides actually performed, problems that arose in the teacher/para— professional relationship, progressive changes in the role of the aide, and the possible relationship between self—concept and/or dogmatic attitudes and the performance of paraprofessional duties. There were three phases or aspects to the study: 1. A survey of the proposals of school districts funded under Section 3, 1968 Michigan School Aid Act. The survey identified the number of professional and paraprofessional people to be employed in Middle Cities Projects, the settings in which they would work, and the types of duties expected of the para— professionals. 2. Interviews with personnel associated with several funded districts. The interviews were carried out to identify the original duties aides performed, changes in these duties, problems involved, and aide characteristics deemed helpful. 3. An investigation of one Middle Cities project to determine if aides were performing tasks usually con— sidered to be "teacher only” tasks, and to see if aides were performing duties related to home counseling, learning reinforcement, self—assessment, and plannino. An assessment of the attitudes and feelings of the E a teachers and aides were included in the study. The duties were then correlated with self—concept and dogmatic attitudes to see if these variables were of significant relevance in the performance of aide duties to merit further research. Hypotheses Phase III, the investigation of one Middle Cities project was the only aspect of the study for which hypotheses were formed. 1. There would be positive changes during the course of the project in the self concepts of a. the total group of teachers and aides b. the teachers group C. the aides group 2. There would be negative changes during the course of the project in the dogmatic attitudes of a. the total group of teachers and aides b. the teachers group 1 c. the aides group 3. There would be negative correlations between the self—concepts and dogmatic attitudes of a. the total group of teachers and aides b. the teachers group c. the aides group 9. A greater frequency of acts related to the teaching process would be demonstrated by aides who a. indicated more positive self—concepts than aides who indicated less positive self—concepts —; fl 5 b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self- concepts 0. worked in teams with higher combined self—concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts. 5. A greater frequency of acts related to learning reinforcement activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self—concepts than aides who indicated less positive self—concepts b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self-concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts 0. worked in teams with higher combined self—concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self—concepts 5. A greater frequency of acts related to planning activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self-concepts than aides who indicated less positive self—concepts b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self- concepts c. worked in teams with higher combined self—concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts A greater frequency of acts related to home counseling duties would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self-concepts than aides who indicated less positive self-concepts the \ 6 worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts worked in teams with higher combined self-concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self—concepts 8. A greater frequency of acts related to self-assessment activi- ties would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self-concepts than aides who indicated less positive self—concepts worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts worked in teams with higher combined self—concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self—concepts 9. More positive feelings would be demonstrated by aides who a. 10. Closer whose a. indicated more positive self—concepts than aides who indicated less positive self—concepts worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts worked in teams with higher combined self—concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self—concepts similarities of perceptions would be found in teams aides indicated more positive self-concepts than teams whose aides indicated less positive self—concepts teachers indicated more positive self—concepts than teams whose teachers indicated less positive self—concepts —‘— l hgf hou] 7 c. combined self—concepts were higher than teams whose combined self-concepts were lower . A greater frequency of acts related to the teaching process would be demonstrated by aides who a. indicated less dogmatism than aides who indicated more dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated less dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated more dogmatism c. worked on teams with lower combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with higher combined dog— matism . A greater frequency of acts related to learning reinforcement activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated less dogmatism than aides who indicated more dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated less dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated more dogmatism c. worked on teams with lower combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with higher combined dogmatism A greater frequency of acts related to planning activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated less dogmatism than aides who indicated more dogmatism 8 b. worked with teachers who indicated less dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated more dogmatism c. worked on teams with lowar combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with higher combined dog- matism 19. A greater frequency of acts related to home counseling duties would be performed by aides who a. indicated less dogmatism than aides who indicated more dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated less dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated more dogmatism c. worked on teams with lower combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with higher combined dogmatism 15. A greater frequency of acts related to self—assessment activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated less dogmatism than aides who indicated more dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated less dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated more dogmatism c. worked on teams with lower combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with higher combined dog— matism ‘r o More 9 . More positive feelings would be demonstrated by aides who a. indicated less dogmatism than aides who indicated more dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated less dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated more dogmatism c. worked on teams with lower combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with higher combined dog— matism 7. Closer similarities of perceptions would be found in teams whose a. aides indicated less dogmatism than teams whose aides indicated more dogmatism b. teachers indicated less dogmatism than teams whose teachers indicated more dogmatism c. combined dogmatism was lower than teams with higher combined dogmatism This study began with a survey of the proposals of all Middle Cities projects to determine the number of aides and the duties they were expected to perform. Interviews were conducted in several of the project schools to determine the duties actually performed, and to assess the sentiments, feelings, and problems involved in the programs. The study concluded with a quantification of specific duties in one project, and a compari- son of the relationship between the duties of aides and self— concept and/or dogmatism. aides wt hthe n honing he nah none at of the and en teach 10 Underlying Theory The researcher’s major contention in this study was that ides would become more like teachers as they worked with teachers Tlthe projects. It seemed likely that aides would begin by per- orming duties that were primarily routine, clerical, and custodial 'n nature; but as they became more experienced they would undertake ore and more responsibilities and duties considered to be part f the teaching process——planning, tutoring, working with groups, nd conferring with parents. The contention that aides would behave similarly to eachers was based on two assumptions: 1. Aides perceive teachers as having higher status and achieving greater rewards through their performance of professional duties. 2. The values placed on activities such as working directly with students and/or parents, planning, and either introducing or reinforcing concepts are higher than those values associated with clerical, custodial, and routine duties. The contended trend from clerical duties to "teaching" duties stemmed from the investigator’s experience working with aides, and was based in the theoretical framework of perceptual psychology. Central to this study was the relationship between self- concept and the growth and development of the individual. The pattern of growth roughly parallels the hierarchy of needs des— cribed by McGregor, Maslow and other phenomenologists. While the term: consensu nth soc a ‘ nst he eetiete tnsteau notiva he 0 1 n h e h ll he terminology differs from writer to writer, there is general onsensus that basic needs are primarily physiological in nature ith social needs and egoistic needs following on a higher level. Another point of agreement is that lower level needs ust be satisfied before higher level needs are activated. Once atiated, the lower ordered needs no longer serve as motivators; 'nstead the activated unmet higher ordered needs become the otivators of behavior. McGregor describes the hierarchy thus: Human needs are organized in a series of levels—-a hierarchy of importance. At the lowest level, but preeminent in importance when they are thwarted, are the physiological needs. Man lives by bread alone, when there is no bread. Unless the circumstances are unusual, his needs for love, for status, for recognition are inoperative when his stomach has been empty for a while. But when he eats regularly and adequately, hunger ceases to be an important need. The sated man has hunger only in the sense that a full bottle has emptiness. The same is true of the other physiological needs of man--for rgst, exercise, shelter, protection from the elements. . . When the physiological needs are reasonably satisfied, needs at the next higher level begin to dominate man's behavior——to motivate him. These are safety needs, for protection against danger, threat, deprivation. Some people mistakenly refer to these as needs for security. However, unless man is in a dependent relationship where he fears arbitrary deprivation, he does not demand security. The need is for the ”fairest possible break." When he feels threatened or dependent, his greatest need is for protection, for security. When man‘s physiological needs are satisfied and he is no longer fearful about his physical welfare, his social needs become important motivators of his behavior. These are such needs as those for belonging, for association, for acceptance by one's fellows, for giving and receiving friendship and love. . . . lDouglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprigg (London: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960), p. 36. 21bid., p. 37. Above tin usually 2 satisfie nmageme and the} l. Tho res for 2. The to re Unlike indefe' have 1 Final are t neali devel that aspnoje crease A’high he” 1 tnate the c The] Dene uh, Above the social needs——in the sense that they do not usually become motivators until lower needs are reasonably satisfied--are the needs of greatest significance to nanagement and to man himself. They are the egoistic needs and they are of two kinds: 1. Those that relate to one’s self—esteem; needs for self- respect and self-confidence, for autonomy, for achievement, for competence, for knowledge. Those that relate to one’s reputation: needs for status, for recognition, for appreciation, for the deserved respect of onetafellows. Unlike the lower needs, these are rarely satisfied; man seeks indefinitely for more satisfaction If these needs once they have become important to him. . o o Pinally—-a capstone, as it were, on the hierarchy-~there are the needs for self—fulfillment. These are the needs for realizing one's own potentialities, for continued self— development, for being creative in the broadest sense of that term.2 The contention that aides would become more like teachers as projects continued was based on the idea that aides would in— crease in competence, satisfy lower level needs; be motivated by higher level needs; and therefore perform higher level acts, 1.e., teaching acts. Progression of Teacher—Aide Events The following progression of teacher-aide events illus— trates what generally occurs when teachers and aides work together; the order may vary but the components remain rather consistent. The progression parallels the need hierarchy. At times, the process is aborted when personality clashes occur, finances run out; or the prescription of rules prevents the successful 1 Ibid., p. 38. 2 Ibid., p. 39. anpletion of t general process hodiiierent : in the neciiic set c records, and 1 iii? Progress with their we aides began - learning sit Prescribed 1 aide_ Aid Richer." the proces: clerical, “‘59 of ti itacher p T bl Obsem the Ulisg developIT Sheep Smut“the henslw 13 pletion of the project. The four steps described outline a eral process which occurred over a period of five years in different schools studied. In the first school, aides were hired to perform a acific set of duties; they graded work sheets and tests, kept cords, and occasionally helped a student locate materials. As HE progressed, aides began to encourage children, to help them fliitheir work, and to answer their questions. Teachers and ides began to discuss individual children, and plan more effective earning situations for them. Thus, what started as a limited, rescribed role evolved into a partnership betwaen teacher and ride. Aides were employed in the second school "to assist the teacher." While the role was neither defined nor prescribed, the process was generally the same. Aides began by performing clerical, custodial, and routine tasks. At the end of the year “any of the aides were operating as team members with their teacher partners. The teacher—aide situations described above were made by observation. No attempt was made to organize, or systematize, the observations. However, they provided the impetus for the development of the theoretical model presented below. §E§g§_Qfle:-Teacher and Aide Confront Each Other The teacher and the aide usually enter the situation somewhat hesitant, fearful, and distrustful. Both are appre- hensive and often adopt defensive behavior mechanisms—-over- confidence, boastfulness, or on the other end of the continuum—- shyness. Regan gating hlmSElf situation?" i adequacy that The f usually sheepl help the ch involved for inrolverneuts aides find ' personal and against dar needs been In Students- listening Students ‘ To the a "higher" Teachers these t carpet, than we prGees linen : fi—j 19 hyness. Regardless of the behavior adopted, each seems to be sking himself "Am I really competent to cope with this new ituation?" It is the threat to their basic needs-~their adequacy that appears to motivate their behavior. The first assignments given to the aide by the teacher are usually simple, direct, and routine. "Correct these tests." 'Tmlp the children button their clothes." There is little risk involved for either the teacher or the aide in these initial involvements. Teachers find they can direct another adult, and aides find they can perform the tasks requested. Threats to personal adequacy are reduced. The safety needs, for protection against danger, threat, and deprivation are met, and the social reeds become motivators of behavior. §£age Two--Aides Given Wider Range of Duties In the second stages aides begin to work directly with students-—reinforcing the teachers’activities by encouraging, listening, and offering friendship and understanding to the students. New dimensions of their roles and abilities appear to the aides. They find they can perform the more difficult, "higher" tasks, and that their own intrinsic rewards are greater. Teachers also find that the aides are capable of carrying out these tasks, and more important, that the teachers’ authority, competence, effectiveness and professionalism are enhanced rather than weakened. Stage two apparently is the most critical stage in the process. Success or failure seem to be determined in this stage. When all goes well the satisfaction of the safety needs is IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII-ll--:::;__________ enforced, ant iied. Bonds 0 inch begins tc partnership. One d reorganize the associate; on but not thei infailure. ties for st; Stare Three The iage three the majori‘ wherein ea and under: “it apnea discovers and admin results 1 seems to their her Dion exDEI‘in 00118 ids and l 15 reinforced, and the higher level social needs begin to be satis— ified. Bonds of affection and mutual respect are developed. Each begins to recognize his own and the other’s potential in the partnership. One drawback in Step Two is that teacher or aide may recognize their 9wp_potential, but not the potential of their associate; or they may recognize the potential of the associate, but not their own. If this occurs, the project is likely to end in failure. Mutual acceptance and respect seem to be prerequis— ites for stage three. Stage Three--Team Formation The teacher and the aide begin to fhnction as a team in Stage three. While certain tasks are performed by one member, the majority are performed by both. Joint planning sessions wherein each member adds his or her peculiar knowledge, skill, and understandings occur frequently. Each is willing to try rmw approaches to the teaching-learning process. The teacher discovers new dimensions to her role-—diagnosing, prescribing, and administering. She discovers that freedom given to the aide results in greater self—professionalism rather than less; reason seems to become the determining criterion rather than authority. The aide also grows in competency. She discovers the joy associated with children's learning. She becomes more aware of her own potential and ability. She, too,is more willing to experiment. Often, this is the stage where aides begin to consider a return to school—~"I think I'd rather be a teacher, and I can become one." l i l ‘ r Stage Four-The Till As the tear their own ahilitie willing to rely on cover "1 can; my i includes children process. The cla friendly, and mor hstage four. i teacher and the “If: and free t The the Uptimum Progres Testioning the tam iice-bree adequity and a Miami Sucee ielt be’tter at The in status QUESQi team memo] up to include attent 10m a 16 Efinge Four—~The Enlly—PUnctioning Team As the teachers and the aides become more confident of lmir own abilities and of their partner's, they become more illing to rely on each other, and to try new ideas. They dis- cover "I can; my partner can; and students can." The team now hmfludes children and becomes more a part of the learning process. The classroom atmosphere becomes less rigid, more ikdendly, and more conducive to experimentation and learning in.stage four. Each member of the team (this includes the teadher and the aide) is safE, socially accepted, confident of self, and free to become a fhlly—functioning person. Theory Summarized The theoretical model presented was an over—generalized, optimum progression. It began with the teacher and the aide questioning their own adequacy. Simple instructions and simple tasks (ice-breakers) served to increase their feelings of adequacy and allowed them to test new behaviors. As they achieved success with new, and more difficult behaviors, they felt better about themselves and each other. The more confident both teacher and aide became, the less status conscious and the more open. A team developed. As the team functioned well for the teacher and the aide, it was opened Up to include the students. Children received more individual attention, and were more involved in the learning process. hide, Paraprofess i hously and shall r under Section 3, l addt/pupil ratio hhfltism and door taihty of persona of his opinions , opinions, the mor film is tha" lent], ECtions Performs These may be on W relate the Seho School or in t} the family, the tarts betWEen munSelor is a of the familie “fits to feed the conceptS P1. % and aides, 0] 17 Definitions of Terms Ankh Paraprofessional, and Teacher Aide shall be used synono— nmusly and shall refer to those uncertificated personnel employed tuner Section 3, 1968 (Michigan) School Aid Act to reduce the mhfliypupil ratio in classrooms. Mgmutism and dogmatic attitudes refer to an individual's cer- tainty of personal opinions. The more certain an individual is oftfis opinions, and the less willing or able to change the opinions, the more dogmatic. In Phase III of this study, dogmatism is that measured by the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, Form D. Duties, Tasks, and Activities are used synonomously and refer to actions performed by teachers and/or aides in their line of duty. These may be prescribed, prohibited, planned, or unplanned. Heme Counseling Duties are actions performed by aides that relate the school to the home. Included are conferences at school or in the home, concerning the student or other members of the family, the health and welfare of the family, and making con- tacts between the family and other social agencies. The home counselor is a non—certificated school person, who is a friend of the families. Lfiarning Reinforcement Activities are activities conducted by aides to facilitate understanding and mastery by the student of the concepts and skills presented by the teacher. Planning Activities are activities conducted by teachers, teachers and aides, or aides in order to determine curriculum presentations. Planning may be done on either long or short term basis. Melon} and M_ip__id] schools, school die Section 3, 1968 Sc' Self-Assessment Te can observe their and the Matrix de‘ laboratory, Inc. used practice. W is t the Way in which hvestigation se Tennessee Self-( \ Teacher Onl Tag hhhloon.l T" all W by aide Chapte the performanc PFOlEETS, The trends, Probl. concept and/o this three~p} Mun 18 Emotion 3 and Middle Cities refer to those cities in which the mflumfls, school districts, or projects received funding under Ebction 3, 1968 School Aid Act (Michigan). Selszssessment Techniques are ordered methods wherein teachers cmn observe their own behavior. Flander's Interaction Analysis and the Matrix developed by the Cooperative Educational Research laboratory, Inc. are two techniques. Video—taping is a commonly used practice. Self-Concept is the configuration an individual holds of himself; Tim way in which one looks at himself. In Phase III of this investigation self—concept is that which is measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Teacher Only Tasks were identified and defined in a study by IL A. Moon.l These duties were to be performed iny by teachers and not by aides. Summary and Overview Chapter I introduced the study which proposed to examine the performance of para—professionals employed in Middle Cities Projects. The actual duties paraprofessionals performed-~the trends, problems, and attitudes—~plus the relevancy of self— concept and/or dogmatism to their performance were the foci of this three-phase study. Phase One-~A survey of funded proposals to determine intents. M lR.A. Moon, "An Analysis of Teacher Tasks to Enable Identification of the Potential Use of.Auxiliary Personnel in the Instructional Process, (Ph. D. dissertation, Dept. of Education, Nfichigan State University, 1960), pp. 61—69. wan; serial and attitudes. Waltn ex and to determine 1 to aide performer“ Chapter I concept, and dogfi and design of SEC iron the Survey, rented. Chapter rendations, and interpretations 19 Idmse Two-~A series of interviews to determine trends, problems, and attitudes. Phase Three--An exploratory probe to quantify certain behaviors enfl.to determine the relevancy of self—concept and/or dogmatism to aide performance. Chapter II surveys the literature related to aides, self- concept, and dogmatism. Chapter III describes the methodology and design of each of the three phases. In Chapter IV results from the Survey, interviews, and the quantification are pre- sented. Chapter V summarizes the entire study, offers recom- nendations, and interpretations; and includes some "meta—data" interpretations and predictions. The main Tides of duties a or not The duries a duties more C] section Of this ( aides 01" parapro TYPES of duties cations, legal 5 States. The rat pession from 0 developed from that man was a and wants were nritings conce and dogmatism. A rev clearly indie 1.13 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The main intentions in this study were to determine the types of duties aides actually performed and to determine whether or not the duties performed changed from clerical, routine duties to duties more closely related to professional duties. The first section of this chapter reviewed literature related to teacher aides or paraprofessionals. Concentration was placed on the types of duties aides were performing, paraprofessional qualifi- cations, legal status, and the numbers employed in the United States. The rationale or theoretical basis of the intended pro— gression from clerical duties to professional—type duties was developed from perceptual psychology. Assumptions were made that man was a coping, striving animal whose needs, deSires, HHd Wants were based on a hierarchy of order. Reviewed were writings concerned with man's hierarchy of needs, self-concept, BUG dogmatism. Paraprofessionals A review of the literature pertaining to paraprofessionals Clearly indicated that: 1. An increasing number of teacher aides or paraprofes— sionals were being employed in public schools throughout the United States. 2. Favorable reactions to teacher aide programs were prevalent. 20 3, Little aides: view-l u_ A gre state 5. Not ( unan: ”\Tha Laurence tag to teacher a prove the autho he has sifted t Tunhers and Pa‘ hlhethe it as a rap idl there is littl Professional 1 Servey showed E iron the schc \ T Lau' Bantam Books h \Til &» 42:4 Lee A National t (Man, 1969) Lt out,H m 21 3. Little research has been conducted relevant to teacher aides, and the majority of that has been the inter- view-questionnaire survey type literature. 4. A great deal of confusion exists as to the legal status, qualifications, and duties of paraprofessionals. 5. Not only was the question ”What is a paraprofessional?" unanswered; but also unanswered was the question, ”What is a professional?" Laurence J. Peter may well have had the literature pertain- ing to teacher aides in mind when he said ". . . it may be to prove the author's competence by showing the mountain of dross he has sifted to win one nugget of truth."1 Npmbers and Favorable Reactions Whether labeled "an exploding development"2 or labeling it as a rapidly developing ”significant movement in education” there is little question as to the increased numbers of non- professional people being employed in schools. A New England survey showed that an increase of aides from 920 to 502 occurred from the school years ending l966-—67.LL The great influx was ¥ 1 Laurence J. Peter, The Peter Principle (New York: Bantam Books, 1969), p. 65. 2 William H. Johnson, ”Utilizing Teacher Aides," Clearing House. Lezzu (December, 1967), 229-233. 3Laurel N. Tanner and Daniel Tanner, "The Teacher Aide-- l National Study of Confusion," Educational Leadership, 26:8 (May, 1969), 765—769. QAIta M. Saunders, "The Use of Teacher Aides in Connecti~ rut," The Connecticut Teacher (November, 1967), pp. 30—31, 39. indicated by the ? nose operating ill 1 old.” Federal i at teacher aides tion Act and the sources of feder aides.2 The Tar issociation,Ur a' the influence 0 outlier oi aides The inn acceptance of acceptance ind The liter; were invol favorably here crit Project. \ 1 Do, w W 2 . Nat Slonal Stand Nationall can 3 Tan Lt at Teach Me EI‘ 5 Ge personnel. 22 indicated by the fact that ”nearly half the teacher aide programs now operating in large public schools are less than three years old."1 Federal funding was a large factor in the increased use of teacher aides. Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Educa— tion Act and the Office of Economic Opportunity were two common sources of federal funding by which school districts employed aides.2 The Tanners,3 The Metropolitan Educational Research Association,LL and the Bank Street College Reports,5 indicated the influence of the federal government on both the increasing number of aides, and for much of the related research. The increased number of aides demonstrated the growing acceptance of aide use. The recent literature confirmed the acceptance indicated by the growth. The literature of the 1950’s shows that the writers who were involved in some way with a teacher aide project were favorably impressed with such programs, while those who were critical were generally not connected with any such project. A striking change has occurred, however, in the l S. Kern Alexander, ”What Teacher Aides Can-~and Cannot—— D0," Nation’s Schools, 82:2 (August, 1968), 23—25, 96. 2 National Commission on Teacher Education and Profes- sional Standards. Auxiliary School Personnel (Washington, D. C.; . National Education Association, 1967), p. 9. 3Tanner and Tanner. LlMetropolitan Educational Research Association, A Look at Teacher Aides and Their Training (East Lansing: Michigan State University, June 1968). S Gerda W. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, Auxiliary School Personnel: Their Roles, Training, and Institutionalization. (New York: Bank Street College of Education, October, 1966). decade of the and welcome p A survey 1965 showed that it per cent consf districts were n: favorable opinio cited by Reissma aides doubled ai sunnarized the g literature when rather limited. fessionals is d has netgiltiVe, ”3 W Anders, of peSEamh C0 rial did not I tTOjects. The stated lihile The 0bj8ctivE as Cohtra \ 1 Met] $101131 Stand 3 Edllpat 101-11301) % 23 decade of the 60's. Aides seem to have become an acceptable and welcome part of the educational setting. A survey by the New York State Education Department in 1965 showed that out of 428 districts employing teacher aides, 93 per cent considered their experience favorable, twenty—six districts were neutral, and only four districts expressed un- favorable opinions. A project begun in Pittsburgh in 1960 was cited by Reissman and Pearl as being so successful the number of aides doubled after the first four years.2 Anderson adequately summarized the general attitude toward teacher aides and the literature when he said ”The research in this field has been rather limited. Most of the literature dealing with non—pro- fessionals is descriptive or testimonial, and almost none of it , 3 was negative." Reports and Research Anderson was not the only one to decry the limited amount of research conducted about teacher aides. The dearth of mate- rial did not restrain the various writers from supporting aide projects. The final evaluation report of the Bay City Project stated While there is regrettably little experimentally derived Objective data bearing upon quality of teaching in aided, as contrasted with non-aided classrooms, there is a 1 . . Metropolitan Education Research Assoc1ation, p. l _ 2National Commission on Teacher Education and Profes— Sional Standards, p. 15. 3 Robert H. Anderson, "Organizational Character of Education: Staff Utilization and Deployment,” Review of Educa— tional Research, 34;u (October, 196”), #59. M considerable 1 program and rs Research reports ‘ survey and percep designed, empiric spoke with the a' hut uniortunatel literature in te mm which tion. This ole idly in the sen llational Commie dards."2 NBA a1 bl Gertrude Nc Of her impress teachers and . Sheeting proj in LeXillgton \— BQT’EEn gitcfin 2 Standamga1 3 G Natitnal c: darts, NBA B ltaohel‘ AI: Hall, Inc 5 C 2H considerable body of evidence supporting the teacher aide program and related projects as a tool of administration. Research reports presented are almost exclusively the interview- survey and perception type reports, rather than experimentally designed, empirical type research. The majority of articles spoke with the authority usually derived from research reports, but unfortunately neglected the basic research. Typical of the literature in terms of its hortatory nature was Auxiliary School Personnel which was published by the National Education Associa- tion. This clear-cut, definitive, excellent guide was atypical only in the sense that it called itself "a statement by the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Stan— dards."2 NEA also published Teacher Aides at Work,3 a narrative by Gertrude Noar, a reporter. The pamphlet was a conglomeration of her impressions garnered from a cross-country tour talking to teachers and teacher aides. More formalized reports came from specific projects. Typical was the summation of teacher duties . , 5 1n Lexington and Missouri City.” The Bay City, the Wayne 1Central Michigan University, A Cooperative Study for the getter Utilization of Teacher Competencies. Final Evaluation Raport (MOunt Pleasant: Central Michigan University, 1958), p. 2H. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards. 3 . Gertrude Noar, Teacher Aides at Work (washington, D. C.: National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Stan— dards, NBA, 1967). H . Bryce Perkins, Getting_Better Results from Substitutes, Igacher.Aides, and Volunteers (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- thl, Inc., 1966). Central Michigan University. _‘— r-v ti ‘ chm,1 and The t conducted by agent the country. The tions. hrvevs __— The lite paraprofessional Connecticut,”3 1 School Principal dents, teachers Oi duties aides status were the The Ba Shiv of teach iricts and un: Economic Qppo \- . Arne M were. “MIC and N \ dimly, 363th 2 hi d The ‘ ES in the m 38a ll SSZ‘SSU S. S in - I 31X Sta 6 l 25 l 2 . “ . . . Junty, and The New England WGPRS exemplified research being onducted by agencies, organizations, and individuals throughout he country. The majority were surveys, interviews, and observa— :ions. Surveys The literature described surveys conducted in regard to paraprofessionals. Saunders' "The Use of Teacher Aides in 4 Connecticut,"3 Bills' Pennsylvania Survey, and the Secondary School Principals Survey5 were three such reports. Superinten— dents, teachers, and aides were surveyed in most projects. Type of duties aides perform, qualifications, training, and legal status were the most common concerns. The Bank Street College of Education led a nationwide study of teacher aides. A consortium of several school dis- tricts and universities comprised the study. The Office of 6 Economic Opportunity fhnded the project. Mainly a survey~ ¥ lArnold Glovinsky and Joseph P. Johns, Studying the antribution of the Paraprofessional and Planning_for Their Begruitment, Selection, Training, and Use in the Wayne County Byblic and Non-public Schools (Detroit: The Paraprofessional Study, September, 1968). 2 . The New England Educational Assessment PrOJect, Teacher Aides in the Classroom: A New England Study_(Providence: The Project, 1967). 3Saunders. uH. Stanley Bills, "How Do Teachers Feel About Parapro- ggssionals?" Pennsylvania School Journal, 117:9 (May: 1959), 2-55”. . Ira J. Singer, "Survey of Staff Utilization Practices in Six States,” National Association of Secondary School Princi— BfllS Bulletin, 46:270 (January, 1962), 1-13. 6 Bowman and Klopf. —— perception study, the empirical data been analyzed. the need for more vere gathered the Project.2 The re hichigan used ”in reports illustre different capac: legal status of necessary qualj and supported 1 W W Perha; from the confn Troiessionals Should do, A renal rise in theol‘e’tical . T Should m \ 1 a Pet 01 Elementa dUguStb 197 2" n C W 3T: 26 perception study, some empirical efforts were exerted. Much of the empirical data, tapes, grades, and records still have not been analyzed.1 The dearth of ”hard data" urgently pointed out the need for more rigorous types of research. Empirical data were gathered through a time and motion study in the Bay City Project.2 The report of an elementary school in Dearborn, Michigan used ”hard data" from children’s performance. The reports illustrated paraprofessionals were employed in many different capacities with wide ranges of activities. The legal status of aides differed from state to state, as did necessary qualifications. Almost all reports were positive and supported the use of aides. The Heart of the Problem-—Professiona1 versus Paraprofessional Perhaps the confusion obvious in the literature stemmed from the confusion in actual practice between what duties para— professionals actually can and do, and what duties only teachers should do. According to the Tanners, "Despite the almost pheno— menal rise in the number of teacher aides, there is still no theoretical basis for determining the kinds of tasks they should or should not perform.”3 It may be necessary to answer the lPersonal conversation, Dr. Richard Alexander, Professor of Elementary Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, AUgust, 1970, 2"One Way to Ease Teacher Shortage,” U. 8. News and World Re ort (May 11, 1956), pp. 52—53. 3Tanner and Tanner, p. 765. mestion of teache tasks for aides c; i Semi-Profession At first conhnse an alreae to the teaching ‘ that teachers, r. to as semi-profs Stahns less leg tion less estah ”f SPecialized had less antom lmiessional C LOrtie vita teacher sionalpv Etz: parapmfEssie T0 Th duties of did is the fBCt ' sional mp0 innature. ' and “Biases \ l 0r.An W Di iffective 1 W 27 question of teacher-only tasks before the question of appropriate tasks for aides can be answered. A Semi—Profession At first glance it appeared that Etzioni served only to confuse an already complicated situation when he chose to refer tn the teaching profession as a "semi-profession." He argued that teachers, nurses, and social workers could only be referred to as semi—professionals as their training was shorter, their status less legitimatized, their right to privileged communica- tion less established, and their fields afforded a minimum body of specialized knowledge. Also the members of the semi—professions had less autonomy from supervision or societal control than their professional counterparts.l Lortie’s chapter supported Etzioni and led to the question: "If a teacher is a semi—professional, what then is the paraprofes— sional?" Etzioni sharpened, rather than confused, the issues of paraprofessional versus professional. To Twist, the differences between duties of teachers and duties of aides has become clear. "Most important, we believe, is the fact that differentiation can now be made between profes— sional responsibilities and other duties which are sub-professional 2 in nature. . . " The Bank Street report disagreed with Twist, and represented the view of many by stressing the need for Amitai Etzioni, ed., The Semi-Professions and Their Organization (New York: The Free Press, 1969), p. 13. 2Dwight E. Twist, "Improving Instruction through Mere Effective Utilization of Certificated Personnel," Journal of Secondary Education, 43:1 (January, 1968), 32. reexamination of which might be pe teaching function plex and highly 1 by a teacher alo' "Profess defined by tasks delmeations of hole" that euab haven illustra duties ”such pg teacher.”2 Ga: ““011 defined tracher instm The M the Small per Prescribed d1 during freq : disses. C1 The [1001. Was 28 Ie—examination of the teaching function "To identify those duties which might be performed by non-professionals. . ." and "That teaChing functions be further examined to identify the more com— plex and highly professional function which should be performed by a teacher alone. . . ."1 "Professional" and "paraprofessional" most frequently were defined by tasks performed, rather than by certification. Specific delineations of paraprofessional duties usually provided a "loop— dude" that enabled aides to perform a wide variety of tasks. Garvey illustrated this when he added to his list of routine duties "such paraprofessional duties as may be assigned by the teacher."2 Garvey’s description coincided with Glovinsky's which defined the paraprofessional as one who did what the teacher instructed them to do.3 Dpties of Paraprofessionals The Minnesota State Department of Education represented the small percentage of agencies that limited aides to restricted, prescribed duties. Aides were allowed to supervise playgrounds during free play periods, but not during physical education Classes. Clerical, custodial, and routine tasks were prescribed. The door was left open fer the aide to perform a wide range of duties as she was "to take charge of a class in the absence of ¥ 1Bowman and Klopf, p. 7. 2James P. Garvey, Handbook for Paraprofessionals (Swarthmore, Pa.: A. C. Croft, Inc., 1968), p. 16. 3 Glovinsky and Johns, p. l. the teacher. "1 restricted, non- statenent that a basis in drill v Often aides per children what t hide Classificc A convn controversy wa nho classified that reports ( record-keepin Supervising t \ _ Minn hides a w Minna 29, ~ 2 . J ac M 3 n int We (flaunt Clem La “tense 5W; R931 Help l lhB-lfig‘ 5 6 Aide Pr 8 \0g 7 C \ 29 the teacher."1 One article contradicted itself by following its restricted, non—student contact list of aide duties with the statement that aides were working with children on a one—to—one basis in drill work, storytelling, creative writing, etc."2 Often aides performed the "non-teaching” function of teaching children what they had missed when absent.3 Aide Classification A convenient way to sidestep the teach, non—teach controversy was used by DeLara,Ll Herman,5 Carson,6 and Saunders,7 who classified aides as ”instructional" or "non—instructional." Nbst reports concurred on non—instructional duties such as record—keeping, averaging marks, and duplicating materials. Supervising the classroom when the teacher had to leave the 1Minnesota Department of Education, ”Using Teacher Aides," Minnesota Journal of Education, 96:3 (November, 1965), 29. 2 Jackson, Michigan Public Schools, A Dual Opportunity Educational Services Program: Utilizing TeachereAides in the Jackson, Michigan Public Schools. 3 Intermediate School District, County of Macomb, Teacher Aides or Para-Professionals, Statement and Description (Mount Clemens, Mich.: School District, April 6, 1967). Lane B. DeLara, "Teacher Aides in Junior High School," Elearing House, 92:” (December, 1967), 239—237. 5Wayne L. Herman, "Teacher Aides: How They Can Be of 5:31 Help," Grade Teacher, 89 (February, 1967), 102-103, ~169. 6 . School District of the City of Highland Park, Teacher Aide Program, Highland Park, Michigan. Saunders. "#71 3" room was non- inst 2 tthnesota. Some cla therein aides W to pursuit of ti the Chicago Pub: classification grade center ai center aides, c systems were no quently used c housekeeping a tional assist; M and. dealing with tlassificatic seiterate fum h we 5a 6 the N011. . 2112' COT 7 s' N lonal Sta 30 . . . l . . . room was non-instructional in New England but instructional in Minnesota. Some classification schemes discussed a career ladder wherein aides progress from non-instructional to instructional, then to pursuit of their own education and eventually become teachers.3 Ede Chicago Public School System” used a rather simple aide classification system. Aides were "high school aides, upper grade center aides, educational and vocational aides, guidance center aides, or elementary school aides."5 Other classification systems were more complicated. Patton typified the most fre- quently used classification-~clerical aides, library aides, housekeeping aides, non-instructional supervisors, and instruc— tional assistants.6 The NEA publication Auxiliary School Personnel added special talents in human relations skills 7 dealing with the communities. The most comprehensive detailed classification system was offered by Glovinsky with twenty—six separate fUnctions being performed in wayne County. These _ lIbid. 2Johnson, p. 230. 3Metropolitan Educational Research Association, p. 2%. LlFChicago Public Schools, Report of the Teacher Aide Committee (Chicago: Chicago Public Schools, October 17, 1967)° 51bid. 6L. Goebel Patton, "The Teacher and His Staff: Year of She Non—Conference," Illinois Education, 56:1 (September, 1957), ~22. 7 . National Commission on Teacher Education and Profes— 51onal Standards, p. 9. functions ranged reinforcement tas t_r_ehtl_s The trer. of more teaching was to include functions once teacher.” The have clearly b; as W No cle cut descripti( literature. “998. The DELETE“S stat of the aides Stlldents and range of (1111 the role an o 3L 0b fer An Mllntbia l Lt i 31 functions ranged from the classroom aide who performed teacher reinforcement tasks to the laboratory technician.1 We The trend definitely appeared to be toward performance of more teaching duties. Anderson stated that the general trend was to include in the domain of the aide ". . . a number of functions once regarded as the province of the fully certified teacher.” The Tanners announced, "All these functions which have clearly been the priority of the teacher are now classified as non-teaching duties by the NEA research checklist.”3 No clear—cut definition of paraprofessional nor a clear— cut description of paraprofessional was provided by the relevant literature. A definite trend was discussed toward more teaching duties. The trend is not surprising considered in light of DeLara’s statement that "there was a strong feeling on the part of the aides that they wanted to spend more time with the "u The wide students and less time on the clerical routine. range of duties and various roles fulfilled by aides has affected the role and the status of the teacher. lGlovinsky and Johns, pp. 15—17. 2Anderson, p. 959. 3Laurel N. Tanner and Daniel Tanner, ”Teacher Aide——A Job for Anyone in Ghetto Schools," The Record (Teachers College, Columbia University, 69:8 (May, 1968), 745. a DeLara, p. 236. "Tn )‘ pl. 1 h t Emerging Role of The effe< paraprofessional the auxiliary ma definite profess indicated that t Tformed, but the improved teachi classroom accoo aspects of a t nel.3 Eshense that it Was tt formal learnt] the aide to f, learning goal dieigllOSlng, l 0mmSElingj ( m“ of cont Accc WesSionaj SEQPElaries 32 Emerging Role of the Teacher The effect on the teaching profession by the advent of paraprofessionals was predicted by Johnson who said, "In fact, the auxiliary may enhance the possibility for developing more definite professional roles for the teacher."1 Other writers indicated that the changes would not be the specific tasks per— formed, but the nature of the tasks. Self-examination and improved teaching were two outcomes of having aides in the classroom according to Noar.2 Noar also spoke of the managerial aspects of a teacher's role when working with auxiliary person- nel.3 Esbensen concurred with the managerial role and concluded that it was the teacher who was responsible to arrange the formal learning environment, to analyze, prescribe, and direct the aide to fulfilling those duties necessary to fulfill the learning goals. Glovinsky described teacher activities to be diagnosing, prescribing, selecting, and presenting content, counseling, evaluating, and initiating.5 Only in the presenta— tion of content did he differ from Esbensen. According to Etzioni, one reason teachers strive to professional status was the desire to be something more than secretaries, sales girls, or office clerks.6 As teachers see 1 Johnson, p. 231. 2Noar, p. 28. 3Ibid. uThorwald Esbensen, "Should Teacher Aides Be More than Clerks? Phi Delta Kappan, 97:5 (January, 1966), 237. 5 Glovinsky and Johns, p. 8. 6 Etzioni, p. vi. L______________________________________ I h aides performing hill Perfom the and prescriberS- that an "anal-3’3i effect for some as collegial tif leadership rank realm—ear Qualif: and state to s uidely varied had laws affec lines, and tan lines, or pol performed by The ' Professional had its own has not clet ofPublic T School Persont with th 1 Schools , n 33 aides performing more and more professional duties, then teachers will perform the duties of team leaders, managers, diagnosticians, and prescribers. They have no way to go but up. Lortie stated that an ”analysis of schools where team teaching has been in effect for some years might reveal incipient professionalization as collegial ties replace isolation and team leaders occupy leadership rank within the teaching force."l Legal Status and Qualifications Qualifications of aides varied from district to district and state to state. The legal status of aides was even more widely varied than aide qualifications. Tanner showed ten states had laws affecting aide functions, eleven had policies and guide- lines, and twenty-nine states had no statutory provisions, guide— lines, or policies, for teacher aides. Many duties that could be performed by an aide in one state would be illegal in another.2 The Illinois legislature designated two types of para— professionals——teaching and non—teaching. Each classification had its own qualification requirements.3 Unfortunately, the law was not clear enough to many school people and the Superintendent of Public Instruction issued a clarifying statement stating that: School boards could utilize volunteer, non—certified personnel or employ non-certified personnel to assist with the instruction of pupils under the immediate lEtzioni, p. 93. 2 Tanner and Tanner, p. 767. 3 Lloyd L. Leonard, "Teacher Aides in Illinois Public Schools," Illinois Education, 57;u (December, 1968), 193. supervision to was directly tinny duties perfc dlegal in Minna: hieh School Dipl The most ahigh school d Clemens, Michig explicitly say need for highe‘ for aides was in Albion or 3 “Illinois, ( hours hEyond instruction. New Each attribute S t 34 supervision of a teacher holding a valid certificate who 1 was directly engaged in the teaching of the subject matter. rhny duties performed in Illinois by a teacher aide would be illegal in Minnesota.2 High School Diploma The most prevalent qualification for a teacher aide is a high school diploma; required in Kansas City, Kansas,3 Mt. 5 and suggested in Garvey's Clemens, Michigan,Ll Chicago, Illinois, lbndbook for Paraprofessionals,6 The Bank Street report did not explicitly say a high school education was necessary, but the need for higher education and two-year community college programs for aides was suggested.7 A high school diploma was not required in Albion or Jackson, Michigan, nor in many other communities. In Illinois, outside Chicago, a teacher aide must have thirty hours beyond a high school diploma if she is to assist in instruction. Pgrsonality Each list of qualifications discussed personality attributes that were necessary for aides. The lists were 1 . Ibid. 2 . . Minnesota Department of Education. 3 Donald Hair and Eugene Wolkey, A Plan for Differentiated §£§ffin2: A Case Study (Kansas City, Mo., 1968). u Intermediate School District, County of Macomb. 5Chicago Public Schools. 6Garvey. 7Bowman and Klopf. sioilar, and inc] teachers-warmth the NBA concurra that qUalificati job and that a s hctual Practice Bills Cl academic status were to he expe Bflls found jur aides ranged ii hoods where the tore indicated The wide range indicative of “We“ publ: % Most PEPSona1-SUbj TDuducted. t tionnaire ‘ ,1 on are Perf qualificatio \ l - Na tional Stan: 2 Bi 35 sindlar, and included those attributes usually prescribed for teachers——warmth, humor, kindness, interest in children, etc. The NBA concurred with.the usual list of attributes, but said that qualifications for a teacher aide should be related to the job and that a set list would not suffice.1 Actual Practice Bills conducted a survey in Pennsylvania to determine the academic status of the aides currently employed. His findings were to be expected from the wide range of qualifications. Bills found junior high dropouts and master degree holders; aides ranged in age from 16-65; and some lived in the neighbor— hoods where they worked, others did not.2 Nothing in the litera— ture indicated that Pennsylvania was unique in the use of aides. The wide range of aides employed in Pennsylvania is probably indicative of the wide range of aides employed elsewhere in American public schools. Summary of Aide Literature Most of the literature regarding teacher aides is the personal—subjective type reporting; little research has been conducted. Most research has been the survey-interview ques— tionnaire. Teacher aides are increasing, becoming more accepted, and are performing a wide range of duties. The legal status and qualifications are widely varied. Paraprofessionals appear to _¥ . 1National Commission on Teacher Education and Profes- Sional Standards. 2 Bills, p. 55”. have brought new bene alization of teachers @ Literature rl rationale, of the st chapter. The major endate teachers by pct_s while each proj related to three ass tspchology that undo 1. Man is l 2. Man's n 3. Man's s behavio Difficultie here also reviewed. the Striving Nature Modern pert inner nature or as good or at least n isPermitted to gt ditty." But convc denied, he undouht e“ _ lAbraham ' union ( ' the) p PEiIIceto. 36 ave brought new benefits to students and increased profession- lization of teachers. Growth of the Individual Literature related to the underlying philosophy, or ationale, of the study was reviewed in this section of the hapter. The major contention was that paraprofessionals would mmlate teachers by performing an increasing number of teaching cts while each project continued. The literature reviewed elated to three assertions from the field of perceptual Gychology that underlie the study: 1. Man is by nature a striving, coping animal 2. Man's needs are arranged in an hierarchical order 3. Man's self—concept is a major determinant of behavior, as is the degree of openness or closedness. Difficulties in measuring self—concept and dogmatism are also reviewed. the Striving Nature of Man Modern perceptual psychologists agree that man has an nner nature or self. Maslow said that as the inner nature was pod or at least neutral, it was better to encourage it. "If it s permitted to guide our life, we grow healthy, fruitful, and flppy." But conversely, "If the inner nature of the person is enied, he undoubtedly will become sick."l —; . lAbraham H. Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being, 2nd dltion (Princeton, N. J.: D. van Nostrand Company, Inc., .968), p, Lt. Antecedent ii of nan date back to l and Spinoza.l Accord Milli: the strivin affirmation is the E the constant strivii he stated‘the self, future, built up an secure for tomorrow whom, no enhance value, no degree 0: beings are by natu Maslow agr panting animal and faction except for another pops up t, “aSMTGTP-sor, who agreemem: "Man This is satisfie isuflfinding.”5 B 1\ Press, ioigfim 21a. 3 Arthur N (ew Y1 U: m"- ed, A. H ‘ Hamtt‘ and BI‘Ot SD 1 r Ou 37 Antecedent ideas concerning the striving inner nature f man date back to Aristotle, Leibnitz, St. Thomas Aquinas, nd Spinozag' According to Allport, ”Spinoza insisted that onatus, the striving toward self-preservation and self- ffirmation is the secret of all becoming."2 Combs discussed he constant striving of man toward enhancement of self when e stated'the self, therefore, has to be maintained in the future, built up and enhanced so that the individual féels secure for tomorrow, and since the future is uncertain and nknown, no enhancement of the individual's experience, personal value, no degree of self—actualization is ever enough. Human eings are by nature insatiable.”3 Maslow agreed with Combs when he stated "Man is a wanting animal and rarely reaches a state of complete satis— faction except for a short time. As one desire is satisfied, nother pops up to take its place."” In agreement with Maslow is McGregor, who used almost the same words to express the reement: "Man is a wanting animal——as soon as one of his ads is satisfied, another appears in its place. This process unending."5 further similarity and agreement was indicated lGordon Allport, Becoming (New Haven: Yale University 3, 1955). BIbid. , p. 13. 3 Arthur W. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior, 'd. (New YOrk: Harper and Row, 1959), p. 45. A. H) Maslow, Mbtivation and Personality (New York: and Brothers, 1959), p. 69. 5Douglas MbGregor, The HUman Side of Enterprise (New bGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960), p. 36. r-r‘ y. - yhenttaslow stated: alone-when there i: ohen there is plent lowest level, but p are the physiologic there is no bread.1 Hierarch of Needs ticGregor'S and l2 in the firs physiological neet safety needs; soc: self-esteem and t need for self-ful McGregor‘ haslow in his ma‘ uriters agreed Oi uhereas Maslow u he continued, th Less studied the cognitiy for underst; SYStem built lcnown are t' to simplici \\ Masloh 2 MQGI‘Ej 3 Ib\ld‘ Ur Maslc 38 when Maslow stated: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone--when there is no bread, but what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread. . . ." McGregor said "At the lowest level, but preeminent in importance when they are thwarted are the physiological needs. Man lives by bread alone when there is no bread."2 Hierarchy of Needs McGregor’s hierarchy of needs were described on pages 11 and 12 in the first chapter of this study. McGregor placed the physiological needs first, and then, in an ascending order, safety needs; social needs; two kinds of egoistic needs—~to one's selfLesteem and to one’s reputation; and at the very top, the need for self—fulfillment.3 MCGregor’s hierarchy is similar to the one discussed by daslow in his major work Motivation and Personalipy. Both riters agreed on the general structure of the hierarchy, iereas Maslow used the term self—actualization as his capstone. continued, though, by adding another group of needs: Less studied but knowable through common observation are the cognitive needs for sheer knowledge (curiosity) and for understanding (philosophical, theological, value system building, explanation need). Finally, least well known are the impulses to beauty, symmetry, and possibly to simplicity, completion, and order which we may call esthetic needs. The need to express, to act out, and to rotor completion that may be related to the esthetic need.u 1 Maslow, Mbtivation and Personality, p. 83. 2 McGregor, p. 36. 3Ibid., p. 39. u Maslow, Motivation and Personality, p. 2. Another frat offered by Adorno a The forces 0f P wishes, emOtior to another in l of gratificatit which interaCt patterns. The needs to avoid integration wi Murray 6195 crdied two. Comb: needs to one. "' for adegpacy. "2 C ". . . that great we are continual: to cope with lif by Condos as a th in all cultures The dif' uuuprehensive e heated by Maslc Could be consti 0n the usual 1: ”I‘ll fundament \ W 1'1‘ [New York- . H: 39 Another framework for understanding human behavior was ‘ offered by Adorno and others in The Authoritarian Personality. The forces of personality are primarily needs (drives, wishes, emotional impulses) which vary from one individual to another in their quality, their intensity, their mode of gratification and the objects of their attachment and which interact with other needs in harmonious or conflicting patterns. There are primitive emotional needs, there are needs to avoid punishment and to keep the good will of the social group. There are needs to maintain harmony and integration within the self. MUrray described twenty~eight basic needs. Freud des- cribed two. Combs went from an original list of forty basic needs to one. "we can define man’s basic need then as a need 2 for adequacy." Combs further defined man's basic need as '2 . . that,great driving, striving force in each of us by which we are continually seeking to make ourselves ever more adequate tpicope with life."3 This concept of human behavior was offered by Combs as a theory "broad enough to include all human behavior in all cultures at all times and at any age."u The difficulty indicated by Combs in developing a theory omprehensive enough to predict human behavior was also illus- ated by Maslow when he talked about developing a theory which 11d be constructed on fhndamental goals or needs, rather than the usual type of listings of drives. Maslow said,"It is / fUndamental goals that remain constant through all the I.— T. W..Adorno, et a1., The Authoritarian Personality YOrk: Harper and Brothers, 1960), p. 5. 2 Combs and Snygg,_p. 49. 3 Ibid., p. 46. 4 Ibid., p. 53. i floor that a dynamic hing."1 in her maj notivational theor her conclusion was exist that would " wish to explain." attempt to unders Disagreement occu used to describe and Rogers;3 "se ization" by Masl need. All agree more than what and theories wa Self—Concept Between thinking of, I lMaslo 2Ruth sity of Nebras Assor wags—B. (Washington, Association, HO flux that a dynamic approach forces upon psychological theor— izing.”l In her major work The Self-Concept, Wiley reviewed motivational theories and research efforts related to self-concept. Her conclusion was that adequate motivational construct did not exist that would ”account for all the kinds of behavior they wish to explain."2 Each theory or description of needs was an attempt to understand and to predict man‘s behavior more adequately. Disagreement occurred as to the number of needs and the terminology USEd to describe needs. "Fully functioning" was used by Kelly and Rogers;3 ”self—fulfillment” by McGregor;u and "self—actual— ization" by Maslow;5 as the term used to designate man's highest need. All agreed that man is continually striving to become more than what he is at the moment. Central to all descriptions and theories was the concept of self. Self—Concept Between the times that James said, "Whatever I may be thinking of, I am always at the same time more or less aware of lMaslow, Motivation and Personality, p. 71. 2Ruth C. Wiley, The Self—Concept (Lincoln, Neb.: Univer— Sity of Nebraska Press, 1961), p. 318. 3Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming: A New Focus for Education (waShingtOD, D. C.: The A.S.C.D. of the National Education Association, 1962). u McGregor, p. 39. 5Maslow, Toward a P5 cholo of Bein , p. 3. i magi, of my persor self and ego, F cwacept of ego fro of strenuous posit the state of affai tivists. They [the phe unashamedly a implied ancil actualization involvement, elaborations a slight flav Regardle acorn from which The Enc clo edia theorists and re was the most i understanding ti Combs 8' said, "The phen represents our reality; and e to prove high] 1 Will (50., 1920) , E 2 All] 31131 ”are millan , 19 6‘ 5C0 H1 ygglf, of my personal existence,"1 and the recent emergence of elf and ego, Freud unintentionally preserved ”. . . the oncept of ego from total obliteration throughout two generations If strenuous positivism."2 Allport's subtle statement summarized be state of affairs of both the phenomenologists and the posi— :ivists. TMEBICthe phenomenologists] have reintroduced self and ego unashamedly and, as if to make up for lost time, have implied ancillary concepts such as self-image, self— actualization, self—affirmation, phenomenal ego, e o- involvement, ego-striving and many other hyphenated elaborations which to experimental positgvism still have a slight flavor of scientific obscenity. Regardless of terminology, the concept of self is the acorn from which the oak of perceptual psychology has grown. The Encyclopedia of Educational Research stated that a number of theorists and research persons held the View that self-concept was the most important single human attribute, and "the key to understanding the behavior of any single person.” Combs supported the concept of self as the core when he said, TTThe phenomenal self with the self—concept as its core, I‘EPI‘esents our fundamental frame of reference, our anchor to reality; and even an unsatisfactory self-organization is likely to prove highly stable and resistant to change.” 1William James, Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and (30,, 1920). p. 176. 2 Allport, p. 37. 3Ibid. LlEncyclopedia of Educational Research (New York: Mac— miller» 1960). p. 9. 5 Combs and Snygg, p. 130. l I l T i Rogers defi The self-concep organized confi admissible to - as the percept the percepts a and to the env perceived as a goals and idea negative vale Rogers in explained "how so for them to serve that the unconsci The individual c structure, whose ences.3 Maslow hurtan being whic characterist ics . will come out as and proper expe: is definitely n Althoug definitions of rather than ki "I", unique at 1c. J Mifflin, 19 51 21b ic‘ 31sec: Ihi H2 Rogers defined self—concept in the following manner: The self—concept or self—structure nay be thought of as an organized configuration of perceptions of the self which are admissible to awareness. It is composed of such elements as the perceptions of one's characteristics and abilities, the percepts and concepts of the self in relation to others and to the environment. The value qualities which are perceived as associated with experiences and objects and goals and ideals which are perceived as having positive or negative valence.l Rogers indicated awareness of the unconscious when he explained "how some concepts need not be present in consciousness for them to serve as guiding principles. . . ."2 Kelly stated that the unconscious self was a continuum with the conscious self. The individual consisted of a self, with a unique, biological structure, whose development was strongly influenced by experi— ences.3 Maslow investigated the intrinsic inner nature of the human being which consists both of unique and species—wide characteristics. The inner nature has a will toward growth and will come out as a drive toward self—actualization if given love and proper experience. "Although it may be good or neutral, it is definitely not evil.”” Although minor differences appeared in the various definitions of self, the differences were differences of degree rather than kind. Essentially each writer agreed to an individual "I", unique and general; who will grow, develop, and strive to M c. J Rogers, Flipnt Centered Therapy (Boston: Houghton— Mifflin, 1951), p. 137. 21bid., p. 498. BASCD, p. 9. ulbid-a pp. 35—37. i exist on a more sat ‘ . ahlv a function of Behavior as a Func The relati illustrated by Kel had positive View adequate to the t ailequate became a cent of self, so innnun "1 R think more posit themselves are m behavior of heal positive self—i of the nature 0 Kerensk: ability to leari ability as acqu Rogers comments llbid. 2Roger 3 Masll ”Vasi Academic Achi tation , Wayne H3 exist on a more satisfactory level; and the growth is inextric— ably a function of self and its relationship with others. Behavior as a Function of Self—Concept The relationship between self—concept and behavior was illustrated by Kelly who stated that fully functioning people had positive views of themselves, and thought of themselves as adequate to the task. The person who thought of himself as being adequate became adequate. Kelly continued: ”An inadequate con— cept of self, so prominent in our culture, is crippling to the individual.”1 Rogers said that as therapy progresses people think more positively of themselves, and their perceptions of themselves are more accurate.2 Maslow suggested that the behavior of healthy, self—actualizing individuals (who have positive self-images) be studied if we are to understand more of the nature of man, motivation, and personality.3 Kerensky stated that "the functional limits of one‘s ability to learn are determined by his self-conception of his ability as acquired through interaction with significant others,"u Rogers commented, "to recognize that when a person's views of llbig., p. 10. 2Rogers, p. 137. 3Maslow, Motivation and Personality. LLVasil M. Kerensky, "Reported Self—Concept in Relation to Academic Achievement in an Inner-City Setting" (Doctoral disser~ tation, Wayne State University, 1966), p. 1. i 1 himself change, his \, reseamh was conduc \ on behavior. The ' the person's self- aceepting, and cap ate likely to per intent of others esteem,"2 was a r Hatfield teaching and the himself.3 Watte success.Ll Korma high ability voc esteem individua than predicted lGardner sonality: Prim and Sons, Inc. , 2 Cl ov is Chandler Publis 3A. B. of Student Tea (October, 1961 L*wni: Self-Concepts Development , 5A. 15 Relationship Choice," in}; 65-67} 2 . nu ."1 Much imself change, his behavior changes accordingly. esearch was conducted to affirm the importance of the self—concept n_behavior. The direction of the hypotheses was that the higher he person's self—concept or self-esteem, the more adequate, ccepting, and capable they were. T’People with low self—esteem re likely to perceive more selectively and to interpret the intent of others less correctly than people with high self— esteem,”2 was a representative sample of the research. Hatfield found a relationship between successful student teaching and the adequacy of feelings that the student had about himself.3 Wattenberg found self—concept predictive in meeting success.LL Korman found children with high self—esteem picked high ability vocations° Korman further said that high self— esteem individuals predicted success, achieved success, and then predicted more difficult successes which were achieved.5 lGardner Lindsey and Calvin S. Hall, Theories of Per— sonalitv: Primary Sources and Research (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965), p. #71. 2Clovis R. Shephard, Small Groups (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 196H),p. 62. 3A. B. Hatfield, "Experimental Study of the Self-Concept of Student Teachers," Journal of Educational Research, 55 (October, 1961), 87789m LLWilliam W. Wattenberg and Clare Clifford, "Relation of Self—Concepts to Beginning Achievement in Reading,” Child Development, 35 (1964), pp. H6l—H67. 5A. K. Korman, "Self—esteem as a Moderator of the Relationship between Self—Perceived Abilities and Vocational Choice,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 51 (February, 1967), 65r67. L. F ! in w Although ml accuracy of the thl self-esteem, the m results. Wiley re concept, self—aohi status, and many I conducted since p1 to change her con 0n the whole trends to be good deal of contradictiot tendency for in short, thy disappointin 0f effort wh Even thc contentions of 5 My it. In fat hmol‘tance of S P W How an heaSQribes to individual's p pl“Tides the i PeoDle are m1 uulnm James \ lWile 2Tomi H5 Although much of the research tends to indicate the accuracy of the theories related to positive self-concept and self-esteem, the majority of studies do not issue definite results. Wiley reviewed study after study related to self— concept, self-achievement, level of aspiration, socio—economic status, and many other studies related to self—concept. Studies conducted since publication of The Self—Concept have done little to change her conclusion: On the whole we have found that there are enough positive trends to be tantalizing. On the other hand, there is a good deal of ambiguity in the results, considerable apparent contradiction among the findings of various studies, and a tendency for different methods to produce different results. In short, the total accumulation of substantive findings is disappointing, especially in proportion to the great amount of effort which obviously has been expended. Even though research does not confirm the theoretical contentions of self as a determiner of behavior, it does not deny it. In fact, the theories and research indicate the importance of self—concept on behavior and on perceptions. Perceptions of Reality How an individual interprets an event, and the meaning he ascribes to it is a combination of both the event and the individual's perception of himself. Combs said, "the self provides the frame of reference from which all else is observed. 2 People are not really fat unless they are fatter than we.” William James stated "That whilst part of what we perceive comes ____‘________________ lWiley, p. 317. 2Combs and Snygg, p. 195. rsr.‘ \“ ‘ _. I , through our senses it may be the lamp then two people wi interpretations ft perceptions, a thf people were descr housemates Combs dea he stated that ”I the restrictive l individual‘s exp became less accu became more rig: requirements. "3 in the assimila Rokeach stresse Then he said, ‘ STstem has per ideological, o Rokeach‘s asse d pel‘SOnD the \ l Jame H6 through our senses from the obiect before us, another part (and it may be the larggr part) always comes out of our own mind."1 When two people witness the same event, two separate, distinct interpretations follow. As a result of the differences in perceptions, a third party may well wonder if the first two people were describing the same event. Threat, Perception, and Behavior Combs dealt with the negative effects of threat at length. He stated that ”perhaps most destructive to human personality is the restrictive effect upon perception brought about by the individual's experience of threat,”2 and ”one's perceptions became less accurate as a result of threat and also that behavior became more rigid, and therefore less adaptable to the changing requirements."3 Rogers asserted that rigidity and difficulty in the assimilation of new experiences resulted from threat.LL Rokeach stressed the importance of an individual‘s belief system when he said, ". . . the findings suggest that a personsT belief system has pervasive effects on different spheres of activity—- ideological, conceptual, perceptual, and esthetic."5 Therefore, Rokeach’s assertion that "the more threatening a situation is to a person, the more closed his belief system will tend to lJames, Psychology, p. 329. 2 Combs, p. 170. 3Ibid. , p. 171. LLRogers, p. 390. 5Milton Rokeach, The Qpen and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1960), p. 288. become,"1 indicate omhehavior. Kelly, Rog threat, its negat: inadequate concep' the less harm, an emces threat. PC the opposite is 1 w Research broad contentior off than closedr smell and taste accurate and ex minded People? minded college closedminded c scams} Kem Standing with COUnSElOI‘S . r \ l as 2ASCI Ma r1 (DEC Emb E I‘, ll LL13 H , Pa SDiffereneeS 58:6 ( L ”7 become,"1 indicated that threat may well have a permanent effect on behavior. Kelly, Rogers, and Maslow discussed the importance of threat, its negative effects, and its relation to adequate or inadequate concepts of self.2 The more adequate the self-concept, the less harm, and in fact, the less often an individual experi~ ences threat. For the person with an inadequate self—concept, the opposite is true. Research Research conducted in this area tends to support the broad contention that openminded people were generally better off than closedminded people. Kaplan and Singer found that the smell and taste perceptions of openminded people were more accurate and extensive than those sense perceptions of closed— minded people.3 Restle, Andrews, and Rokeach found that open— minded college students looked for principles, whereas the closedminded college students looked more to authorities as sources.LL Kemp found openminded counselors to be more under- standing with better integrated personalities than closedminded counselors. The openminded ones showed less anxiety but the 1 Ibid., p. 377. 2ASCD. 3Martin F. Kaplan and Ervin Singer, "Dogmatism and Sensory Alienation," ournal of Consultin Ps cholo , 27:6 (December, 1963), 486—91. LLFrank Restle, Martha Andrews, and Milton Rokeach, "Differences Between Open and Closed—Minded Subjects or Learning— Set and Oddity Problems," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol— Qgis 68:6 (June, 1964), 648—65”. ""1 mi'T l . closedminded counse that the closedmint Much of th to authoritarianis and Balinsky2 and afforded non-conej did indicate the mess; however, or null hypotheses ; lished used "tent when he said, "C persuasive 51,931 Phrases were Often used the desired lev does not TEalli mess, it did i diScuSSed by W self~concept° \ l Counselors; u 155—157. 2A n BIEJCWEQH Abi§£ [SEDtETTberD Rob BEhHViQI‘5 n ,I u p H8 closedminded counselors adjusted more quickly. Kemp concluded that the closedminded counselors did what they were told.1 Much of the research did not confirm hypotheses related to authoritarianism, anxiety, and closedmindedness. Dispenzieri and Balinsky2 and Bostrum3 each illustrated research that afforded non—conclusive results. Most of the literature reported did indicate the superiority of openmindedness over closedminded— ness; however, only a small percentage of articles accepting the null hypotheses are ever published; and those which were pub- lished used "tended to," and "generally” as typified by Bostrum when he said, "Closedminded persons tended to agree with the persuasive speaker more than do openminded.”Llr T? Phrases such as "tended," "came close to, or "approached" were often used by writers when their hypotheses did not achieve the desired level of significance. Although much of the research does not really affirm the superiority of openness over closed— ness, it did indicate the same type of ”tantalizing trends” discussed by Wiley in regard to the research conducted related to self-concept° 1C. J. Kemp, ”Influence of Dogmatism on the Training of Counselors,” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 9 (Summer, 1962), 155-157. 2Angelo Dispenzieri and Benjamin Balinsky, ”Relationship Between Ability to Acquire Interviewing Skills and Authoritarian— ism and Manifest Anxiety," Personnel and Guidance Journal, H2;1 (September, 1963), HO-H2. 3 . . . Robert N. Bostrum, ”Dogmatism, Rigidity, and Rating Behavior," The Speech Teacher, 13:H (November, 196H), 283-287. l1LIbid., p. 287. Self-Concept, Perot Within the is the positive re more accurate per( adequate the self- used the term "tu ability to concer my be necessary ha diminishing “Tits position self-conceptn; 2 Titeeptions of q diminishing of ROgers‘ individuals} l toward SQlf—ac enhanCement of of the indiViC‘ object of beh; salf' Seemin \ l Cont 2 m an H ASC Silas 6C0} H9 Self—Conggpt, Perception, and Openness Within the theoretical framework of perceptual psychology is the positive relationship between self—concept and greater, more accurate perceptions of environmental stimuli-—the more adequate the self—concept, the more open to stimuli. Combs used the term "tunnel vision” to describe an individual's ability to concentrate on specific phenomena. Tunnel vision may be necessary and effective at times, but it always results in a diminishing of the perceptual field or less openness.l Combs’ position was that "perceptions are organized around the self-concept”;2 behavior was the "product of the individual’s perceptions of himself and his perceptions of the situation in which he is involved”; and that threat usually resulted in a diminishing of the perceptual field.3 Rogersr and Kelly’s adequate and fully functioning individuals,LL Maslow's B and D motivations and the striving toward self—actualization,5 and CombsT 'one basic need toward enhancement of the self 6 indicated their belief in the unity of the individual and in the consistency of behavior. The object of behavior was the preservation and enhancement of the self. Seemingly inconsistent behavior could be traced back to lCombs and Snygg, p. 169° 2Ibid., p. 1H6. 3Ibid., p. HHO. ”ASCD 5Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being. 6Combs and Snygg. F'i"[ v < the preservation 0 perceive; and COUV perceive . Openness, Doom: ati: Rokeach, . behavior from the system. Rokeach as congruent and one summary of h aided in the for definitely favor Closed systems, been shown to b. relatively e105 iural nature of indifferent s} (the Spheres 0. but beneath th Something in c The m( Mid by the Etonomiea and fibroid and c “1‘ 'Suirit,v \ 1 Role 2n 50 the preservation of self. The more open, the more one would perceive; and Conversely, the more closed, the less one would perceive. Cpenness, Dogmatism, and Authoritarianism Rokeach, Adorno, and Frenkel—Brunswick examined man’s behavior from the point of view of his ideological belief system. Rokeach spoke of belief and non—belief systems as well as congruent and incongruent systems within individuals. In one summary of his research he described five variables that aided in the formation of new belief systems. Each variable definitely favored individuals with open systems over those with closed systems. "Again, those with relatively open systems have been shown to be better off in this respect than those with relatively closed systems."1 Rokeach also discussed the struc— tural nature of man and how one’s belief system affected behavior in different spheres of activity, which "on the surface, they (the spheres of activity) are indeed different types of behavior; but beneath the surface (genotypically) they seemed to have something in common."2 The monumental work The Authoritarian Personality was guided by the thought or hypothesis: "that the political, economic, and social convictions of an individual often form a broad and coherent pattern as if bound together by a 'mentality’ 0r ’spirit,’ and that this pattern is an expression of deep lying ¥ lRokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, p. 287. 2Ibid., p. 288. trends in his P91“1 maintained the 0V but like Rokeach structure may not as well as consi: the constituent 1 ways."2 The auth rigid, constrict then of their on was narrow and ‘ tionally correc The phe 0“ Pel‘ception, ability Of an I frenkel-Brunsw 311th inconsi 0V9? Closednes and closed 5y, dostatism and Ham Rokee a) a a. \ 51 trends in his personality."1 Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick and others maintained the overall structure or cohesiveness of the individual, but like Rokeach they provided for inconsistent behavior. "The structure may not be integrated, it may contain contradictions as well as consistencies, but it is organized in the sense that the constituent parts are related, in psychologically meaningful ways."2 The authoritarian personalities were described as being rigid, constricted, and rejecting of everything that reminded them of their own repressed impulses. Their range of experience was narrow and "as if they can experience only the one conven— tionally correct attitude or emotion in any given situation."3 The phenomenologists spoke of self-concept, its effect on perception, the multiple effect on behavior, and the prefer- ability of an open perceptual field over a closed one. Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick and Rokeach spoke of belief systems, person— ality, inconsistent behavior, and the preferability of openness over closedness. Similarity of preference and concern with open and closed systems led to a review of literature related to dogmatism and other related variables. DOgmgtism Rokeach defined dogmatism as: a) a relatively closed cognitive organization of beliefs and disbeliefs about reality; 1 Adorno, et al., p. 1. 2Ibid., p. 965. 3 Ibid., p. 965-966. Pr] t, -. 1,) organized a authority \ of intoler: he went on to sta systems and disbe in The en and C the extent to wh: 3 closed;. . . .” Reseich Pannes a among junior his to dogmatism. : favorable the s questioned the People searched information eh. System."5 The. trevalutmion \ l Miltt W 211a 3 Roke I H Donut 13' E l . Ed Sill m National S Earl R fidEQESSion 5 (OQtObe 6 ‘ u 52 b) organized around a central set of beliefs about absolute authority which in turn provides a framework for pattgrns of intolerance and qualified tolerance toward others. He went on to state that a closed system was one where belief systems and disbelief systems were isolated in a great degree. In The gpen and Closed Mind Rokeach stated, "dogmatism, then, is the extent to which an individual's belief system is open and/or closedg. . . ."3 Research Pannes attempted to relate self—concept and dogmatism among junior high school students by relating self-acceptance to dogmatism. Surprised by results which indicated "the more favorable the self-image, the more closed the mind,"LL Pannes questioned the sample. Long and Ziller found that dogmatic people searched less and saw less "by limiting the intake of information the dogmatic individual maintains his conceptual system."5 They concluded that when the mind closes "changes or re-evaluation of the self—concept may be avoided."6 Research lMilton Rokeach, "The Nature and Meaning of Dogmatism,” Epychological Review, 61:319 (May, 195H), 195. 21bid. 3Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, p. 57. LlE. D. Pannes, "Relationship Between SelfeAcceptance and Dogmatism in Junior—Senior High School Students," The Journal of Educational Sociology, 36 (May, 1963), H21. 5Barbara H. Long and Robert C. Ziller, "Dogmatism and Predecessional Information Search," Journal of Applied Psychology, H925 (October, 1965), 377. 6 Ibid. in the area confli dogmatism to auth to self-conceP’C - Rokeach C stating that dog‘ the total system within a system. ualized and absi organization of ahigher order to change. ”2 Pearl : cism and self-w chough his r Q(mt—Pt change and reduced ed hinted to pi were more rig individuals n \ l ROKI 2 Rol< 3 bis . Dav % Lt Journal Mi: % 53 in the area conflicted, and much of it attempted to relate dogmatism to authoritarianism, rigidity, ethnocentricism, and to self-concept. Rigidity . Rokeach distinguished between dogmatism and rigidity by stating that dogmatism was a ”system variable, characteristic of the total system. Rigidity was characteristic of the elements within a system.’Tl He stated that dogmatism was more intellect— ualized and abstract than rigidity and referred to total cognitive organization of ideas and beliefs. ”Thus dogmatism is seen as a higher order and more complexly organized form of resistance to change."2 Pearl investigated the relationship between ethnocentri- cism and self-concept in a VA hospital with twelve patients. Although his results were not conclusive, it appeared that self— Concept changes occurred with greatEr degrees of self awareness and reduced ethnocentricism.3 Ethnocentricism was found to be related to rigidity by Rokeach. He found that prejudiced subjects were more rigid than non—prejudiced subjects and that ethnocentric . . . . H individuals were more rigid than non—ethnocentric indiViduals. lRokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, p. 286. 2Rokeach, "The Nature and Meaning of Dogmatism," p. 196. 3David Pearl, ”Ethnocentricism and Self-Concept,” Journal Of Social Psychology, HO:1 (August, 195H), 137-1H7° LLMilton Rokeach, "Mental Rigidity and Ethnocentricism,” Journal of Abnormal and Soci l P H3 (JUlY9 lgu8), 277- hwthoritarianism Research c has like "genera buedheless, the mneuthoritarian Hunoand others limited, inexperi bheoverall resr heshuy; non- udrate judgemp Scodel and freed deirpeers to 1 were, in fact, iarianism ware bodett and be HThe wc demonstrated a 01‘ donatism ,. \ l Adorn Alvip W Alvl ‘ lions lit the tail‘an n wing S “2% [Ute ‘ 531 t: on ‘10an w 5n Authoritarianism Research concerned with authoritarianism is replete with terms like ”generally" and "tend to," and "seemed to indicate.” Nevertheless, the research does indicate the preferability of non—authoritarian individuals over authoritarian individuals. Adorno and others found the authoritarian personality to be rigid, limited, inexperienced, and narrow.1 Scodel and Mussen found, "the overall results generally support the major hypothesis of the study: non—authoritarian individuals do in fact make more accurate judgements about authoritarians than authoritarians."2 Scodel and Freedman found that authoritarians tended to estimate their peers to be more like themselves, whether or not the peers were, in fact, like themselves. People who were low in authori— tarianism were not uniform.3 Similar findings were found by Crockett and Meidinger.u "The work of Frenkel-Brunswick, Rokeach, and others demonstrated a significant relationship between authoritarianism or dogmatism respectively and anxiety."5 Hart and Brown were not lAdorno, et al. 2Alvin Scodel and Paul Mussen, ”Social Perceptions of Authoritarians and nonauthoritarians,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Ps cholo , H8:2 (April, 1953), 183. 3Alvin Scodel and Maria In Freedman, ”Additional Observe: tions in the Social Perceptions of Authoritarians and Nonauthori- tarians," Journal of Abnormal and Social Ps cholo 5 5221 (January, 1956). 92—95. uW. H. Crockett and Thomas Meidinger, ”Authoritarianism 1 of Abnormal and Social and Interpersonal Perception," Journa RSI/Mgr. 53:3 (November, 195W, ." own, "Dogmatism as ement of Students,” 967), H29—H37. 5Sister M. Maxine Hart and Marjory Br Related to Accuracy—-a Student Teacher’s Judg Journal of Teacher Education, 182H (Wlnters able to achieve sf medium dogmatic S' the and almost a The findi authoritarianism, “tantalizing trem and fanaticism we either dogmatic Hibiguity, and c fibgwatism was sy Each was a manii from self-aware] huthoritarianis Several esteem, ethnoce relationship 0: obvious or str Several confli that most of t self~acceptam bttween dogma- Perez teaching Woul \ 1 Rap: 2 Will 3 Ibi \ 55 able to achieve significant findings between high, low, and medium dogmatic students and accuracy. The findings were posi- tive and almost achieved numerical significance. The findings of research related to dogmatism, rigidity, authoritarianism, and ethnocentricism appeared to be another "tantalizing trend." Kaplan and Singer reported that dogmatism and fanaticism were closely related and individuals who were either dogmatic or fanatic, rigid, incapable of tolerating ambiguity, and closedminded. According to Kaplan and Singer, dogmatism was synonymous with closedmindedness and rigidity. Each was a manifestation of psycho-pathology and which detracted from self—awareness. Authoritarianism and Self—Esteem Several investigators have attempted to correlate self- esteem, ethnocentricism, authoritarianism and dogmatism. ”The relationship of such studies to self—concept theory is not obvious or straightforward," according to Wiley, who reported several conflicting results.2 On the whole, Wiley did state that most of the findings did show a positive correlation between self-acceptance and acceptance of others; a negative correlation 3 bEtween dogmatism and self-acceptance. Perez assumed that a teacher's attitude toward team teaching would be inversely related to authoritarianism. He used 1Kaplan and Singer, pp. H87—H88. 2Wiley, p. 2H0. 3Ibid., p. 2H3. the California F- Except for middle negative correlat Findings dogmatism were it generally suppor' difficulty lay i methodology; and Elusiveness of \ The amb: bfley, stem fro: 05 the theories research in a n Planned PFOgran Pointed out, "( is 955T to near: the instrument Scorin Said that the tendencies", ( FQSPurses all Of authoritar \ l . Jose ion in T (NOVEth but u3: 3 2 Wile 3 ASC] 56 the California F—scale to test this hypothesis on 378 teachers. Except for middle-year teachers, Perez did find a significant, negative correlation. Findings on research related to self—concept and to dogmatism were inconclusive, even though most of the findings generally supported the theoretical constructs. Part of the difficulty lay in the constructs themselves; part in the research methodology; and part in the elusiveness of the variables. Elusiveness of Variables The ambiguous and conflicting findings, according to Wiley, stem from the lack of proper scientific characteristics of the theories; difficulties in formulating well-grounded research in a new area; conducted research was not part of a planned program; and avoidable methodological flaws.2 Rogers pointed out, "Openness to experience is not a construct which is easy to measure with our present instruments. . . ."3 Both the instruments and the constructs presented problems. Scoring existing instruments was one problem. Peabody said that the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale set up "agreement response tendencies", contained ambiguous terms, and uni—directional responses all of which invalidated the instrument. "The prdblems 0f authoritarianism and response bias are complex, and it is 1Joseph F. Perez, "Authoritarianism and Teamwork Dis— position in Teacher Personality," Peabody Journal of Education, H3:3 (November, 1965), 21H—222. 2 Wiley, p. 323. 3 ASCD, p. 25. understandable th that are likely t suggested a way c by born and Giddr stated by Rokeac' Tostim found psy change their mie are consistent I has claimed for interest in vie Rokeach While dogmatisr variable; Ma m 0f se rule may be Secure PEOple leaders-"H A features of c respect to me thinking cou' \ l r , D93 135," PS‘LQI“ Hat struct Valit W 3Fr OlOEiQal Mi main 23:2 H Me 57 understandable that they have often been considered in terms that are likely to be too simple and categorical."l Peabody suggested a way of scoring the instrument which was attempted by Korn and Gidden, who found that the construct validity stated by Rokeach was supported using Peabody’s scoring method.2 Costin found psychology students learned principles but didn't change their misconceptions in human beings. ”These findings are consistent with the kind of construct validity which Rokeach has claimed for the dogmatism scale. They are of special interest in view of Peabody's recent criticism."3 Rokeach’s construct validity appeared to be maintained, while dogmatism and self—concept still appear to be multi-faceted variables. Maslow discussed different outcomes of personality as products of security levels and levels of self—esteem. ”Insecure people may be retiring, withdrawing, or hostile and aggressive. Secure people can be either humble or proud, followers or leaders."u Adorno mentioned some very low scorers who had features of compulsiveness, paranoid obsessions, and who "with respect to many of our variables, especially rigidity and total thinking could hardly be distinguished from some of our high Dean Peabody, ”Authoritarianism Scales and Response Bias,” Psychological Bulletin, 65:1 (January, 1966), 20. 2 Harold A. Korn and Norman 8. Gidden, "Scoring and Con— struct Validity of the Dogmatism Scale," Educational and Psych- ological Measurement, 20:H (Winter, 196H), 867—87H. 3 Frank Costin, "Dogmatism and the Retention of Psych— OlOgical Misconceptions," Educational and Psychological Measure— EEEE: 28:2 (Summer, 1968), 533. H . Maslow, Motivation and Personality, p. 53. l extremes. " Coni in theory, weakne and ambiguities : Self-Concept ver Kerensky himself whereas As they may be ( "regarding meas instruments . "2 person believed aperson said a introspection ; causation in m We tradition In m f01‘ using sel: adequate symb Personal adeq Confirmed, m1 Possible to 1 “ding We I‘El make app rop r \ lAdc 2 Km 3 o A1“ 0111‘s on, "T, LlCo 58 l . . extremes." Conflicting results appeared to come from weaknesses in theory, weaknesses in methodology, inconsistencies in humans, and ambiguities in reporting methods. Self—Concept versus Self-Report Kerensky said that self—concept is the way a person sees himself whereas the self—report is what he says about himself. As they may be quite different, Kerensky raised questions "regarding measuring phenomena of self with paper and pencil instruments.”2 Combs stated that the self-concept was what a person believed about himself, whereas the self—report was what a person said about himself. T'Self—report is essentially an introspection and is no more acceptable as direct evidence of causation in modern phenomenological psychology than in earlier, more traditional schools of thought."3 In Individual Behavior Combs discussed the qualifications for using self—report——clarity of subject’s awareness, lack of adequate symbols, social expectancy, cooperation, threat and personal adequacy, and change in the field organization° Combs continued, "In spite of these difficulties, however, it is possible to use the subject‘s own description of events, pro- Viding we remain keenly aware of the possibilities of error and make appropriate corrections."LL Maslow said it more simply, lAdorno, et al., p. 772. 2 Kerensky, p. 138. 3 Arthur W. Combs, Daniel W. Soper, and Clifford C. Courson, "The Measurement of Self—Concept and Self-Report," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 23:3 (Autumn, l963), nan, LLCombs and Snygg, p. ”53. ”Fortunately, hov no reason in the me have a better Research Combs ap would be trainec' trained intervie children's self- Parker found me when the ohild‘ was preserved, , ~ . 3 nere Similar, Confli< question is st Again, it be Predict by indioes W Main Man The 1 tether El ides \ l Masl 2 Com‘t 3 J am : 3 (Autumn Ll Wil 59 "Fortunately, however, we can ask the human being and there is no reason in the world why we should refrain from doing so until 1 we have a better source of data." Research Combs appeared to imply that the better source of data would be trained observers. He cited one study where eighteen trained interviewers found no significant relationships between children‘s self-reports and their inferred self-concepts.2 Parker found nearly the same results with a group of children when the child's anonymity was not preserved. When anonymity was preserved, the self-reports and the inferred self—concepts were similar.3 Parker’s findings conflicted with Combs‘. Conflicting research results were not new° Wiley’s question is still unanswered: Again, it remains to be demonstrated whether behavior can i be predicted more efficiently by objective measures than by indices of the phenomenal self, or whether adding objective measures to self-concept measures improved the predictions one could make from either type of measure alAne.“ Summary of the Chapter The literature reviewed in this chapter was related to teacher aides and to the growth of the individual. The number lMaslow, Toward a Psychology of Being, p. 22. 2Combs, Soper, and Courson, p. 495. 3 James Parker, "The Relationship of Self—Report to Inferred Self-Concept," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 26:3 (Autumn, 1966), 691—700. LLWiley, p. 320. (Italics added) of teacher aides federal and statl hides have been strictly clerica teaming process duties was indi< opinion-type re: The sec of literature I are arranged ir reviewed that ; Litera‘ Sh’S’tems, autho reviewed. The self-concept 2 related to Se: centricism, S flieting and the thEOI‘ies dear-WC re: t0 the 1mm“ ith 0f the y The QUHCEpt, am theol‘ies su- valuable, a WES de fin it 60 of teacher aides has grown rapidly. Additional funding from the federal and state governments partially led to this growth. Aides have been found to perform a myriad of tasks ranging from strictly clerical tasks to tasks closely related to the teaching— learning process. A trend toward performance of more teaching duties was indicated. Most of the conducted research was opinion—type research, rather than rigorous, empirical research. The second portion of the chapter was devoted to a review of literature related to man as a conative animal whose needs are arranged in a hierarchical order. Theory and research were reviewed that related to self, self-concept, and perception. Literature related to dogmatism, open and closed belief systems, authoritarianism, ethnocentricity and rigidity was reviewed. Theory and research related to both variables—- self—concept and dogmatism were reviewed. Research findings related to self—concept, dogmatism, authoritarianism, ethno— centricism, self—esteem and self—acceptance presented con- flicting and non—conclusive results. Trends toward support of the theories were evident. Literature discussing the lack of clear—cut results indicated that these results were partly due to the incompleteness of the theoretical constructs, the complex— ity of the variables, and flaws in research design and methodology. The state of the literature regarding teacher aides, self— concept, and dogmatism is encouraging in the sense that the theories supporting the three variables appear to be sound, valuable, and good, but discouraging in the sense that so little was definite. F #1 1' ." This im Phase I- the settings in were expected t professionals t Phase l dents, princip: hiddle Cities 1 Phase motions of a1” tion on the re in the perforh The r rapidly thror aifies fer Se. “My recentl hide Tango 0 time and ex; The SamPle for . l. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY Desigp_of the Study This investigation consisted of three phases: Phase I—-A survey of Middle Cities proposals to determine the settings in which aides were to be employed, the duties they were expected to perform, and the number of paraprofessionals and professionals that were to be employed. Phase II—-A series of interviews with school superinten- dents, principals, trainers, teachers, and aides involved in Middle Citiesprojects° Phase III--A quantification of specific behaviors and emotions of aides. Also included was a preliminary investiga— tion on the relevancy of self—concept and/or dogmatic attitudes in the performance of aide duties. Selection of Middle Cities Prpjects The number of schools employing aides has been growing rapidly throughout the country. Some schools have been using aides for several years, others began utilizing their services only recently. A sample of schools was sought that offered a wide range of aide duties and yet was similar enough in project time and experience to produce comparable results. The Middle Cities Projects were selected as the general SamPle for the following reasons: 1. Each project was begun in the school year 1968—69, which created a comparatively equal length of time. 61 2. allt StatE of a< 3_ Each deta prOj urbe cit: 5, The wor cul Snmle Limitati All set vantaged child] clusions was 8' nmrhmitieS‘ project seemed inability. In ore Furesenting Personnel, b0 rdes were st emectations 0P treads duh 62 All the projects were initiated as a result of the State Aid Act and have as their purpose the reduction of adult/pupil ratios in the classroom. Each project had written a proposal specifying in detail the aims, goals, and objectives of the project. 4. All districts were located in Michigan and included urban and rural areas, as well as large and small cities. 5. The projects were similar in the sense that they worked with students who were economically or culturally deprived. Sample Limitations All schools were located in Michigan and served disad- vantaged children. While the possibility of generalizing con- clusions was severely restricted, the accessibility of data, the opportunities to conduct interviews and to work in depth in one project seemed to offset the disadvantage of restricted general— izability° raw In order to develop baseline data, thirty~seven proposals representing forty-eight schools were surveyed. The number of personnel, both professional and paraprofessional, and their roles were studied. Data gathered indicated the antecedent expectations of the projects, and served as indicators of change or trends during the course of the projects. One stant differences appe proposals told t Some schools lis not. Some schoc others did not. several schools Thus, a do give indicat iessionals, the to perform, an the aides. Re ortinu Meth A non- data, Trends, of the survey: Inter trainers3 tea aides Perforr treads, and : mm AQQE part of Mic} SUQQQSSful . t 63 Limitations One standard form was used for all proposals, but great differences appeared in organization, detail, and style. Some proposals told the exact number of schools; others did not. Some schools listed the specific duties of the aides; others did not. Some schools reported changes in their plans immediately; others did not. Some districts wrote one proposal that included several schools; others wrote one proposal for each school. Thus, although the figures reported are not exact, they do give indications of ratios between paraprofessionals and pro— fessionals, the types of roles teachers and aides were expected to perform, and a description of many of the specific duties of the aides. Morting Method A non—statistical, narrative fOrm was used to report the data. Trends, indications, and intentions were the objectives of the surveys. Phase Two-—Interviews Interviews were conducted with superintendents, principals, trainers, teachers, and aides to determine the types of tasks aides performed, the changes in these tasks, and the problems, trends, and significant components of teacher—aide relationships. §§lecting the Sample School Districts Accessibility limited the school districts to the southern part of Michigan. Schools within the districts were to reflect successful and unsuccessful projects. The school sample was to include large at the Middle Citir A list i of Middle Citie section. WM Letters (appendix A) w. the districts ElPloy aides a ho districts Projects agait tiva, w Each grow with serving indh a minimum, arm HOOpy of the from the Str was most in 1. 2. 6H include large and small schools as to provide a cross section of the Middle Cities schools. A list of ten districts was certified by the Coordinator of Middle Cities Projects as representing the desired cross section. Permission to Conduct Interviews Letters requesting permission to conduct interviews (appendix A) were sent to the ten school districts. Eight of the districts responded favorably, but one of the eight did not employ aides and was eliminated from the interviewing procedure. Two districts did not respond. The Coordinator of Middle Cities Projects again stated that these eight districts were representa- tive. Structure of the Interview Each interviewee was assured that his remarks would be grouped with the statements of others for reporting, thus pre- serving individual anonymity. Interviews were open-ended with a minimum amount of structure. Each.person interviewed received a copy of the following questions, but were encouraged to deviate from the structure and to talk about the things that they felt were most important. I. Has the role of the aide changed during the project? 2. What changes are planned in the program next year? 3. How do you think the role and numbers of aides will change in the next five to ten years? FT" ". ya u, Plea begi 5. Have ti. Wha' Abbrev: the interviews following the Times and Nunt A tote SUperintenden' teachers, and Period. lute minutes in l; The . difeetecd the The buflding Within the l randomly as aides, filth Pfineipal. W Th' inter'ViewS 65 4. Please describe the attitudes of the personnel at the beginning of the project and now. 5. Have your personal feelings changed? 6. What appear to be the major factors leading to successful use of aides? 7. What appear to be the major factors inhibiting successful use of aides? Abbreviated notes and some direct quotes were taken during the interviews. Usually additional comments were added immediately following the interview. Times and Number of Interviews A total of forty-nine interviews were conducted. Pour superintendents, seven principals, three trainers, eighteen teachers, and seventeen aides were interviewed over a five-day period. Interviews ranged from fifteen minutes to forty-five minutes in length. The average time was twenty—five minutes. The letter giving permission to conduct interviews directed the interviewer to the superintendent or to a principal. The building principal arranged the interviewing procedures within the building. Usually, the interviewer was allowed to randomly ask permission for an interview from the teachers and aides, although in some cases the order was prescribed by the principal. Rgporting PrOCedures Three approaches were used to analyze the data from the interviews: F71 hfz 1. LEE over-all reactil attempt was mad or personnel. 2. .l examined all re 3. [11> significant f i or not aides ' tasks; to ass cover if aide Planning, an Part of Phas above catego A d! Order to ga aide bEhavi PPOther. p of "PFOfes: hrs. The beCame the l. 66 l. A gestalt of the relationship of the interviewer's over—all reactions to the sum total of the interviews. No attempt was made to distinguish among schools, school districts, or personnel. 2. A horizontal, question—by—question analysis Which examined all responses to the same questions. 3. A vertical analysis that attempted to elicit the significant findings of each interview. Phase Three——Quantification of Performance The objectives for Phase III were to determine whether or not aides were performing tasks identified as teacher only tasks; to assess aides' feelings about their work; and to dis- cover if aides were performing home counseling, self-assessment, planning, and learning reinforcement activities. The second part of Phase III correlated self—concept and dogmatism to the above categories. Selection of Sample School A decision was made to sacrifice generalizability in order to gain control of the dependent variables. Certain aide behaviors were objectives in one district, but taboos in another. A questionnaire broad enough to measure a totality Of'"professional" behavior by the aide would have been too long. Therefore, one school, located in southern Michigan became the sample population for the following reasons: 1. Project goals included a broad range of activities for aides without usual restrictions. P-vyvn int W83 Limitations Genera increased the , correlations .' dogmatism and as an explora inconsistent W Three Tennessee Sej and an Aide Teacher Only Thir that had bee Playpens Stx Moo of PeOple.- \l Educationgg \ . 2A1 mfleapol: 3 R (M 67 2. Cooperation was assured. 3. Opportunities to administer instruments, conduct interviews, and observe teacher and aide behavior was provided. H. Aides and teachers were paired into teams. Limitations Generalizability was lost, and the small number of teams increased the difficulty of obtaining statistically significant correlations.1 Because the correlations between self-concept, dogmatism and the performance of duties by aides was intended as an exploratory study, the small number of teams was not inconsistent with accepted practice.2 Instruments Utilized Three instruments were administered in the study--The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Rokeach Dogmatism Scale—-Porm D, and an Aide Questionnaire which was developed for this study. Teacher Only Tasks Thirty—nine items on the Aide Questionnaire were tasks that had been identified as appropriate for teachers only in a Previous study conducted by R..A. Moon.3 Moon submitted a list of duties to five separate groups of people--aides, teachers, principals, college teachers, and ¥ 1 Jum Nunnally, "The Place of Statistics in Psychology,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20: H (Winter, 1960),6 2Arnold M. Rose, Theory and Method in the Social Sciences (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959), p. 310. 3 R. Arden Moon, pp. 61—69. Moon st of people--aid( nationally knox duty on a five particular dut Thirty for aides by i thirty-nine i' the mean scor Group 1 consi 2.0 or less. scores of 2.( rated the itl group mean 5 fifteen item except for t bide Questix All were inelud items, ques aides Perfc Planning 5 of aides w. E sex/en Educ aboVe Cats Vague, am] 68 Moon submitted a list of duties to five separate groups of people—-aides, teachers, principals, college teachers, and nationally known experts. Each person was asked to rate each duty on a five—point scale, the lower ratings indicated that the particular duty was appropriate only for the teacher. Thirty—nine duties were considered to be inappropriate for aides by the five groups involved in Moon‘s study. These thirty—nine items were separated into four categories based on the mean scores each item received from each group of respondents. Group 1 consisted of nine tasks which had group mean scores of 2.0 or less. Group 2 consisted of nine items with group mean scores of 2.0 or less, except for the group of experts who rated the items higher. Group 3 consisted of six items whose group mean scores were between 2.0 and 2.5. Group 4 consisted of fifteen items with group mean scores between 2.0 and 2.5, except for the group of experts who rated the items higher. Aide Questionnaire All thirty—nine teacher only tasks identified by Moon were included in the new instrument. In addition to Moon’s items, questions were developed to determine whether or not aides performed duties in the areas of learning reinforcement, planning, self-assessment, and home counseling. The sentiments of aides were also assessed. Item Validity.-—All items were submitted to a panel of seven educators, who classified each item according to the above categories. The panel indicated those items that were vague, ambiguous, inappropriate, or fitted no category well, Items on which deleted from ti thirty-nine tee summary of the Oneal; included seven Moon's teacher category by tl ties consiste: in the other indicates the the final for Table 3.l.--l -——— ‘h. items k“— Total Items in Each Categozvy Teacher-om. items in Each Cate- EPPy \ Sc \' tEam‘ TE‘ \ 1 RES A Pdfl I 69 Items on which less than five of the seven experts agreed were deleted from the final questionnaire if they were not one of the thirty-nine teacher—only items. Appendix B gives an item by item summary of the experts' ratings. Qrganization.--The final form of the questionnaire included seventy-nine items randomly arranged.l Sixteen of Moon's teacher-only items were not assigned to any specific category by the seven experts. Learning reinforcement activi— ties consisted of twenty different items; the number of items in the other cagegories ranged from nine to fourteen. Table 3.1 indicates the number of items in each category. Appendix C shows the final form of the questionnaire. Table 3.l.—-Number of items in categories. Teacher Only Learning Self Home (Non-cate- Reinforce— Plan— Assess- Counsel~Peel~ __ Items gorizedl_ ment ning ment ing. ings Totgl Total Items in Each Category 16 20 14 9 9 ll 79 Teacher~Only Items in Each Cate~ gory 16 7 14 0 2 O 39 —__ Scoring.—-Team scores were computed for each teacher-aide team. Team scores were the arithmetic means of each team's responses by category——learning reinforcement, planning, home __ Allen L. Edwards, Experimental Desigp in Psychological Research (3rd ed., New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1968), p0 3920 counseling, sel score was deriv It was assumed realistic freql teacher's percx m were computed points when he identically ti teacher and t' Seldom; Seldo two points . (Never-Often; ponses two e The higher t of the teach were then cc Tenne3see St The as the TSCS conePets. Concept so; The test 0 this iPVes measure 01 \ . 1‘ Ville, Q 7O counseling, self—assessment, and sentiments. A total performance score was derived that represented a summation of all categories. It was assumed that the derived mean score would reflect a more realistic frequency of behavior than either the aide's or teacher's perceptions individually. Team SimilaritypScores.--Similarity or discrepancy scores were computed by awarding a teacher-paraprofessional team three points when both the teacher and the paraprofessional responded identically to an item on the Aide Questionnaire. When the teacher and the aide responded in adjacent columns (Never- Seldom; Seldom-Often; or Often-Very Often) the team received two points. A one-column disparity between the two responses (Never-Often; Seldom—Very Often) received one point, and res— ponses two columns apart (Never-Very Often) received no points. The higher the team similarity score, the closer the perceptions of the teacher and the aide-partner. Team similarity scores were then correlated with self-concept and dogmatism scores. Tennessee Self—Concept Scale The Tennessee Self—Concept Scale (hereafter referred to as the TSCS), was selected as the instrument to measure self~ concepts. The TSCS was developed to meet the need for a self— Concept scale that was widely applicable and well-standardized.l The test consists of several categories, but for the purpose of this investigation the "Total Positive Score" was used as the measure of self-concept. —‘ . 1William H. Pitts, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Nash— Ville: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1965), p. l. r“, fl Titalflee on the Coun self esteem selves, fee have confic' with low at themselves and unhappj selves. Reliab tained on a tn 2 was .92. Pii version of the areliability Valid procedures an assumed as ea M10118 agreemex Groups was it Patient grou warm 1 Personal Pro The New EXPEI‘iments 71 Total P Score. This is the most important single score on the Counseling Porm. It reflects the overall level of self esteem. Persons with high scores tend to like them- selves, feel that they are persons of value and worth, have confidence in themselves, and act accordingly. People with low scores are doubtful about their own worth; see . themselves as undesirable; often feel anxious, depressed,‘ and unhappy; and have little faith or confidence in them- selves. Reliability.--The reliability coefficient that was ob- tained on a two-week.test-retest basis with sixty college students 2 was .92. Pitts cited a Congdon study that used a shortened version of the TSCS with psychiatric patients and "still obtained a reliability coefficient of .88 for the Total Positive Score."3 Validity.--Pitts discussed four kinds of validation procedures and related them to the TSCS. Content validity_was assumed as each item had been included only if there was unani— mous agreement among a panel of judges. Discrimination Between Groups was indicated by differences between patient and non- patient groups and even within patient groups. The TSCS was correlated with other measures, including the MMPI and Edwards Personal Preference Scale, as well as others. The last kind of validity procedure Pitts discussed was Personalitnyhanges Under Particular Conditions. The TSCS did reflect predicted changes in self—concepts in a series of experiments. Thus, the four kinds of validity procedures consti- tuted evidence that indicated the validity of the TSCS.LL lIbid., p. 2. 2 Ibid., p. in. 31bid., p. 15. 4 Ibid., pp. 17-30. Rokeach Dogrratz' The Roi to as the RDS, attitudes on t Form D of the numerical scon items, and ne‘ item. Theref went as open. Mi; reliability ( On a test-re .91 was obta considered 1 that the D05 items that ‘ to be unrel W A 1 the Rug “‘19 Quest and Riders of the aid \ l 2 72 Rokeach Dogmatism Scale The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, Form D, hereafter referred to as the RDS, was employed to determine changes in dogmatic attitudes on the part of the paraprofessionals and the teachers. Pbrm D of the RDS consisted of sixty-six items with positive numerical scores assigned to responses that agreed with the items, and negative values assigned to disagreement with the item. Therefore, "agreement was scored as closed, and disagree— ment as open." Reliability.-~Porm D of the RDS achieved the highest reliability coefficient of the various forms of the scale. On a test-retest basis, involving 137 cases, a reliability of .91 was obtained. Rokeach stated, "These reliabilities are considered to be quite satisfactory, especially when we remember that the Dogmatism Scale contains quite a strange collection of items that cover a lot of territory and appear on the surface to be unrelated to each other."2 Administration of Instruments A pre-test, post-test design was used for the TSCS and the RDS. Pre—tests were given in March, 1969; post—tests and Aide Questionnaire were administered in May, 1969. Teachers and aides were instructed to fill out the questionnaire in terms of the aide's performance. _‘ lRokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, p. 73. 2Ibid., p. 90. fl Combined Team S Comb ine multiplying the the teacher-pan scores, in ace Rgporting Proc Phase 1. D: 1 Question One The formance of thEir work. by team soc teachers! ( rePorted , QuestiOn T Tl “hens. 0. \ 1 Re“ faintQ 73 rhined Team Scores Combined team scores for self-concept were derived by ltiplying the TSCS score of the aide with the TSCS score of a teacher—partner. The same procedure was applied to the RDS ores, in accord with the procedure described by Lee J. Cronbach.l pprting Procedures Phase III was an attempt to answer two basic questions: 1. Did paraprofessionals actually perform teacher-only, learning reinforcement, planning, home counseling, and self-assessment activities; and how did the aides feel about their work? 2. Were self—concept and dogmatism relevant variables in the performance of the categorized duties by the paraprofessionals? iestion One The intent of question one was to determine the per— brmance of aides in specific areas and their feelings about eir work. No statistical approach was employed. Responses team scores, (the mean scores of each teacheruaide team) achers' cumulative scores and aide cumulative scores were ported. Comparisons were made of each set of scores. bestion Two The intent of the second question was to determine hether or not self-concept and dogmatism were variables relevant 1Lee J. Cronbach, "Intelligence? Creativity? A Parsimonious einterpretation of the Wallach-Kogan Data," American Education esearch Journal, 5:u (November, 1 68), ”91—512. @1211 to warra relating self-t the decision ti research was b the strict rul likelihood of M in this stud RDS. Baken w: often further was set at .0 tum Ques‘ changes in s ShiPs betwee between 3te duties by a5 total Perfo- 1“Pimforceme SalJf-assess ing hvoonn form) then filth. Alp thm11th it p v t 7H Egb;to warrant further research. Hypotheses were developed -ating self—concept and dogmatism to each of the categories; a decision to recommend or not to recommend more rigorous search was based on a gestalt of the findings rather than on a strict rules of statistical acceptance or rejection. The S(T.A, pr) H : S(T.A, p0)= S(T.A, pr) Legend: S = Self-concept scores T = Of teachers A = Of aides T.A = Of teachers and aides combined Pr H Pre-test P0 = Post-test Hypothesis 1b: Aides would indicate more positive self— concepts at the conclusion of the project than at its inception. H1: S(A, po)>S(A, pr) HO: S(A, P0): S(A, Pr) Hypothesis 1c: Teachers would indicate more positive self-concepts at the conclusion of the project than at its inception. H1: S(T, po)>S(Ta pr) HO: S(T. pel= S(T. pr) , Hypothesis 2a: Teachers and aides would indicate a reduction in dogmatic attitudes at the conclusion of the project. Hl: D(T.A, po) P(A.T2) 1! HO: P(A.Tl) = P(A T2) Hypothesis Md: Aides who worked in teams with more positive combined self—concept scores would achieve higher total performance scores than aides who worked in teams with less positive combined self-concept scores. H P(A.Cl)7P(A.C2) 1: HO: P(A.Cl) = P(A.C2) "‘9‘ij . niacin ity so with t aides would activi WOPklI workh H H T I Legen MEN woulc aeti COHC sel rei Iit] bi 80 Hypothesis 5a: The combined learning reinforcement activ- ity scores of aides with high self—concepts, aides working with teacher—partners who had high self—concepts, and aides working in teams with high combined self-concepts would be greater than the combined learning reinforcement activity scores of aides with low self—concepts, aides working with teachers with low self-concepts, and aides working in teams with low self—concept scores. H1: L(Al)+L(A.Tl)+L(A.Cl):>IAA2)+L(A.T2)+L(A.C2) HO: L(Al)+LA.Tl))+L(A.Cl) = L(A2)+L(A.T2)+L(A.C2) Legend: L = Learning reinforcement activity scores Hypothesis 5b: Aides with more positive self—concepts would perform acts related to learning reinforcement activities more frequently than aides with low self— concepts. Hl: L (Al) > L (A2) HO: L(Al) = L(A2) Hypothesis Sc: Aides working with teachers with higher self—concepts would perform acts related to learning reinforcement activities more frequently than aides working with teachers with low self—concept scores. Hl: L(A.Tl) :> L(A.T2) HO: L(A.Tl) = L(A.T2) Hypothesis 5d: Aides working in teams with higher com— bined self—concept scores would perform acts related to pawl \\ .-"’ l . learni aides SCOI‘E: flypgj high high high eond sel: sel com Le W( 81 learning reinforcement activities more frequently than aides working in teams with lower self-concept combination scores. H : L(A.Cl)> L(A.C2) 1 HO: L(A.Cl) = L(A.C2) Hypothesis 6a: Planning activity scores of aides with high self-concepts, aides working with teachers with high self—concepts, and aides working in teams with high combined self—concepts would be greater than the combined planning activity scores of aides with low self—concepts, aides working with teachers with low self-concepts, and aides working in teams with low combined self-concepts. H1: B (Al) +B (A.Tl) +B (A. C1) > B (A2) +B (A.T2) +B (A. C2) HO: B(Al)+B(A.Tl)+B(A.Cl) = B(A2)+B(A.T2)+B(A.C2) Legend: B = Planning activity scores Hypothesis 6b: Aides with more positive self—concepts would perform acts related to planning activities more frequently than aides with low self—concepts. H1: B(Al) >B(A2) HO: B(Al) = B(A2) Hypothesis 6c: Aides working with teachers with high self-concept scores would perform acts related to Planning activities more frequently than aides working with teachers with low self-concept scores. Hyp oi bine< plan: aid tea tea the sel 82 H1: B(A.Tl) > B(A.T2) HO: B(A.Tl) = B(A.T2) Hypothesis 6d: Aides working in teams with higher com- bined self-concept scores would perform acts related to planning activities more frequently than aides working in teams with lower self—concept combined scores. Hl: B(A.Cl) > B(A.C2) HO: B(A.Cl) = B(A.C2) Hypothesis 7a: The combined home counselor scores of aides with high self-concepts, aides working with teachers with high self—concepts, and aides working in teams with high combined self—concepts would be greater than the combined home counselor scores of aides with low self-concepts, aides working with teachers with low self— concepts, and aides working in teams with low combined self—concepts. H1: H0: H(Al)+H(A.Tl)+H(A.Cl) = H(A2)+H(A.T2)+H(A.C2) H(Al)+H(A.Tl)+H(A.Cl) > H(A2)+H(A.T2)+H(A.C2) Legend: H = Home counseling scores Hypothesis 7b: Aides with more positive self—concepts would perform acts related to home counseling duties more frequently than aides with low self—concepts. H1: H0: H(Al) = H(A2) H(Al) > H(A2) ——-—" Hypot self— eouns teaot Em bine home in 1 aid ere wi 83 Hypothesis 7c: Aides working with teachers with higher self-concept scores would perform acts related to home counseling duties more frequently than aides working with teachers with low self-concept scores. H : H(A.Tl) > H(A.T2) 1 HO: H(A.Tl) = H(A.T2) Hypothesis 7d: Aides working in teams with higher com— bined self-concept scores would perform acts related to home counseling duties more frequently than aides working in teams with lower self-concept combined scores. H : H(A.Cl) > H(A.C2) l H : H(A.Cl) = H(A.C2) O HypothesisSa: The combined self—assessment scores of aides with high self-concepts, aides working with teach- ers with high self—concepts, and aides working in teams with high combined self-concepts would be greater than the combined self—assessment scores of aides with low self—concepts, aides working with teachers with low self-concepts, and aides working in teams with low combined self-concepts. H : I(Al)+I(A.Tl)+I(A.Cl) > I(A2)+I(A.T2)+I(A.C2) 1 HO: I(Al)+I(A.Tl)+I(A.Cl) = I(A2)+I(A.T2)+I(A.C2) Legend: I = Self~assessment scores V‘, self ESSE wit} 153; 84 Hypothesis 8b: Aides with more positive self-concepts would perform acts related to self-assessment activities more frequently than aides with lower self-concept scores. H1: I(Al) >I(A2) H0: I(Al) =I(A2) Hypothesis 8c: Aides working with teachers with higher self—concept scores would perform acts related to self— assessment activities more frequently than aides working with teachers with low self-concept scores. H1: I (A.Tl) > I (A.T2) HO: I(A.Tl) = I.(A.T2) Hypothesis 8d: Aides working in teams with higher com- bined self—concept scores would perform acts related to self-assessment activities more frequently than would aides working in teams with lower self-concept combined scores. H: I(A.Cl) >I(A.C2) 1 HO: I(A.Cl) = I(A.C2) Hypothesis 9a: The combined positive sentiment scores of aides with high self-concepts, aides working with teachers with high self—concepts, and aides working in teams with high combined self—concepts would be greater than the combined positive sentiment scores of aides with low self-concepts, aides working with teachers with low self—concepts, and aides working in teams with low combined self concepts. Finn“ Le gen Hypo”: wmdé less m posi sem POS 85 H1: P(Al)+P(A.Tl)+P(A.Cl) > B(A2)+B(A.T2)+B(A.C2) HO: P(Al)+P(A.Tl)+P(A.Cl) = P(A2)+P(A.T2)+F(A_C2) Legend: = positive sentiment scores Hypothesis 9b: Aides with more positive self-concepts would indicate more positive sentiments than aides with less positive self—concepts. H1: B(Al) > P(A2) HO: B(Al) = I—‘(A2) Hypothesis 90: Aides working with teachers with more positive self—concept scores would indicate more positive sentiments than aides working with teachers with less positive self—concept scores. Th} P(A.Tl) :> P(A.T2) HO: I—‘(A.Tl) = F(A.T2) Hypothesis 9d: Aides working in teams with higher com— bined self—concept scores would indicate more positive sentiments than aides working in teams with less positive combined self—concept scores. H1: H0: F(A.Cl) = P(A,C2) P(A.Cl) > P(A.C2) Hypothesis 10a: The combined team similarity scores from teams with aides who had high self—concepts, from teams with teachers with high self—concepts, and teams with high combined self~concepts scores would be greater than the combined team similarity scores from teams with aides with self- Legs Hm have aide 11H ha :1: W 86 aides who had low self—concepts, teams with teachers with low self-concepts, and teams with low combined self—concept scores. H1: B(Al) +E‘(Tl) +13 ((1) > E(A2)+E(T2)+E(C2) HO: B(Al)+E (Tl)+E (c1) = E(A2)+B(T2)+E(C2) Legend: E = Team similarity scores Hypothesis lOb: Teams with high similarity scores would have aides who had more positive self-concepts than the aides from teams with low similarity scores. H1: B(Al) > B(AZ) HO: B(Al) = B(A2) Hypothesis lOc: Teams with high similarity scores would have teachers who had more positive self~concepts than the teachers from teams with low similarity scores. Hl: B(Tl) > B(TZ) HO: B(Tl) = B(T2) Hypothesis 10d: Teams with high similarity scores would have higher self-concept combination scores than teams with low similarity scores. H1: B(Cl) > B(C2) HO: B(Cl) = B(CZ) Hypothesis lla: The combined total performance scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than Iraq l'f : the e high high combf Lege line the 87 the combined total performance scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high combined dogmatism scores. Hl: P (A3) +P (A.T3) +P (A. C3) > P (ALL) +P (A.TUr) +P (A. C”) HO: P(A3)+P(A.T3)+P(A.C3) = P(AH)+P(A.TH)+P(A.CH) Legend: 3 = Low dogmatism score H = High dogmatism score Hypothesis llb: Aides who indicated low dogmatic atti- tudes would have higher combined total performance scores than aides who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. Hl: P (A3) > P (ALL) HO: P(A3) = P(AH) Hypothesis llc: Aides who worked with teachers who indi— cated low dogmatic attitudes would have higher combined total performance scores than aides who worked with teachers with high dogmatic attitudes. H : P(A.T3) >P(A.Tl+) 1 HO: P(A.T3) = P(A.TLD HYPothesis lld: Aides who worked in teams with low dog- matic combined scores would have higher combined total performance scores than aides who worked in teams With high dogmatic combined scores. H1: P(A.C3)> P(A.CLL) HO: P(A.C3) = P(A.CUr) '71 “1' Hypg aoti aide and won] ment aid and EH tm 88 Hypothesis 12a: The combined learning reinforcement activity scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than the combined learning reinforce— ment activity scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high combined dogmatism scores. H : L(A3)+L(A.T3)+L(A.C3):>I(AH)+L(A.TH)+L(A.CH) 1 HO: L(A3)+L(A.T3)+L(A.C3) = L(ALL)+L(A.TLL)+L(A.CH) Hypothesis 12b: Aides who indicated low dogmatic atti— tudes would perform more acts related to learning rein- forcement activities than aides with high dogmatic atti- tudes. H1: L(A3)>L(ALI) Ha Lmfi =LmM Hypothesis 12c: Aides who worked with teachers who had low dogmatic attitudes would perform more acts related to learning reinforcement activities than aides who worked with teachers with high dogmatic attitudes. H: L(A.T3)>L(A.TL¥) 1 HO: L(A.T3) = L(A.TLL) Hypothesis 12d: Aides who worked in teams with low dOgmatic combined scores would perform more acts related to learning reinforcement activities than ijWT""( aide SCOI‘ Hill tea wfl th< do dc P1: 89 aides who worked in teams with high dogmatic combined scores. H1: L(A.C3) > L(A.Cu) HO: L(A.C3) = L(A.CM) Hypothesis 13a: The combined planning activity scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than the combined planning activity scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high com- bined dogmatism scores. H : B(A3)+B(A.T3)+B(A.C3) >B(ALL)+B(A.TLI)+B(A.CLL) 1 HO: B(A3)+B(A.T3)+B(A,C3) = B(AH)+B(A.TH)+B(A CH) Hypothesis 13b: Aides who indicated low dogmatic atti— tudes would perform more acts related to planning activities than would aides who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. H1: B (A3) > B(ALL) HO: B(A3) = B(AH) Hypothesis 13c: Aides who worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatic attitudes would perform more acts related to planning activities than would aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. inns dogr rel: 11H wi wi 90 H1: H0: B(A.T3) = B(A.TLL) B(A.T3)>B(A.TH) Hypothesis 13d: Aides who worked in teams with low dogmatic combination scores would perform more acts related to planning activities than aides who worked in teams with high dogmatic combination scores. H: B(A.C3) > B(A.CH) 1 HO: B(A.C3) = B(A.Cu) Hypothesis lHa: The combined counseling scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than the com— bined home counseling scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high combined dogmatism scores. H1: H0: H(A3)+H(A.T3)+H(A.C3) = H(ALL)+H(A.TH)+H(A,CUr) H(A3)+H (A.T3) +H (211:3) > H(ALT)+H(A.TLT)+H(A.CLT) HypOthesis lub: Aides who indicated low dogmatic atti— tudes would perform more acts related to home counseling duties than would aides who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. H1: H(A3) > H(ALL) HO: H(A3) = H(AH) gypgj indic acts aide dogn 91 Hypothesis luc: Aides who worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatic attitudes would perform more acts related to home counseling activities than would aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. H : H(A.T3) > H(A.TH) 1 HO: H(A.T3) = H(A.TLL) Hypothesis lud: Aides who worked in teams with low dogmatic combination scores would perform more acts related to home counseling duties than aides who worked in teams with high dogmatic combination scores. H1: H(A.C3) > H(A.CL+) H: H(A.C3) = H(A.CLT) O Hypothesis 15a: The combined self—assessment scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than the combined self-assessment activity scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high combined dogmatism scores. H : I(A3)+I(A.T3)+I(A.C‘3) >I(ALL)+I(A.TLL)+I(A.CLL) 1 HO: I(A3)+I(A.T3)+I(A.C3) = I(ALL)+I~(A.TLL)+I(A.CLL) Hypothesis 15b: Aides who indicated low dogmatic atti— tudes would perform more acts related to self-assessment aetii atti' m oats rel: WOI‘ PE \M 12!: 92 activities than would aides who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. H1: H0: I(A3) = I(AH) I (A3) > I (An) Hypothesis 15c: Aides who worked with teachers who indi- cated low dogmatic attitudes would perform more acts related to self—assessment activities than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatic atti— tudes. H1: H0: I(A.T3) = I(A.TH) I(A.T3) >I(A.Tn) Hypothesis 15d: .Aides who worked in teams with low dogmatic attitude scores would perform more acts related to self—assessment activities than aides who worked in teams with high dogmatic attitude scores. H: I(A.C3) >I(A.CLl) 1 H: I(A.C3) = MACH) O Hypothesis 16a: The combined positive sentiment scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than the combined positive sentiment scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high combined dogmatism scores. "Hr" HA woui ind In: 93 H : F(A3)+P(A.T3)+F(A.C3) >F(AH)+F(A.TH)+P(A.CH) HO: P(A3)+P(A.T3)+P(A.C3) = F(AH)+P(A.TH)+F(A.CH) Hypothesis 16b: Aides who indicated low dogmatic attitudes would demonstrate more positive sentiments than aides who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. H1: P(A3) > P(ALL) HO: P(A3) = PTA”) Hypothesis 160: Aides who worked with teachers who indi- cated low dogmatic attitudes would demonstrate more positive sentiments than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatic attitudes. H : P(A.T3) > P(A.TLl) 1 HO: F(A.T3) = ETA.TH) Hypothesis 16d: Aides who worked in teams with low dog— matic attitude scores would demonstrate more positive sentiments than aides who worked in teams with high dogmatic attitude scores. H1: P(A.C3) > P(A.C'+) HO: PTA.C3) = P(A.CH) Hypothesis 17a: The combined team similarity scores of aides with low dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with low dogmatism scores? and aides from teams with low combined dogmatism scores would be greater than the combined team similarity scores of aides with high dogmatism scores, aides working with teachers with comb: m haw 011 III: 9% with high dogmatism scores, and aides from teams with high combined dogmatism scores. H1: E(A3)+E (T3) +E(C3) > H(AH)+E (Tn) +13 (cu) HO: E(A3)+E(T3)+B(C3) = H(AH)+E(TH)+B(CH) Hypothesis l7b: Teams with high similarity scores would have aides who had lower dogmatic attitudes than the aides on teams with low similarity scores. H1: E(A3) > B(Au) HO: B(A3) = B(AH) Hypothesis l7c: Teams with high similarity scores would have teachers who have lower dogmatic attitudes than teachers on teams with low similarity scores. Hl: B(T3) > B(TLI) H : B(T3) = MT”) 0 HYDothesis l7d: Teams with high similarity scores would have lower dogmatic combination scores than teams with low similarity scores. H1: B(C3) > B(CH) HO: B(C3) = B(CH) _tatistical Methodology Hypotheses la, lb, lc, 2a, 2b, and 2c were investigated 1 for differences between two means. fi 1Helen M. Walker and Joseph Lev, Statistical Inferengg (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1953), p. 153. Whit?” Mult La, 53, 63: 17a. Pearso potheses 3a, four througl Pos correlation Ana 1y 5 95 Multiple regression analyses were computed for hypotheses Ha, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a, 9a, 103, lla, 12a, 13a, lua, 15a, 16a, and 17a. Pearson r, correlation coefficients were computed for hy- potheses 3a, 3b, 3c, and for each of the b, c, d, series from four through seventeen. Post-test scores from the TSCS and RDS were used in all correlations. 2Michigan State Computer Programs for Multiple Regression Analysis and Pearson r correlations. ' 'hc7"“‘” I Eael cussed sepa: according t hired as a aides were of intervie problems a‘. t0 quantif' also to te i performanc D: sented th Schools w 0f the p) diStrict: Although cate abs illustr; between dutieg CHAPTER.IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Each of the three phases of the investigation was dis— cussed separately. Phase I attenpted to develop base-line data according to the numbers of paraprofessionals and professionals hired as a result of a Middle Cities project, and the duties aides were expected to perform. Phase II consisted of a series of interviews to determine aide duties, trends, feelings, and problems arising from use of teacher aides. Phase III attempted to quantify specific behaviors of aides and their feelings, and also to test the relevancy of self-concept and dogmatism to the performance of aide duties and sentiments. Phase I—-Survpy Data from the forty-three funded proposals which repre- sented thirty—six school districts and forty-eight individual schools were examined. Many changes were made during the course of the projects that were not changed in the proposals. Some districts employed more people than intended, others less. Although the data generated from these proposals did not indi~ cate absolutes, it did indicate actual intentions, and did illustrate the approximate number of personnel employed, ratios between paraprofessional and professional, and the various duties expected of aides. 96 An fie Middle ( paraprofess were non-ce m1 professione paraprofes: dHtrict t ofthe Sch aides, alt hire aides more aide: districts Hamm Table n.) § ltol 2H1 5H1 \ T0tals \ All dis Eieht 1 Total Personnel A total number of 1,086.8 people were to be employed in the Middle Cities Projects. Slightly more than 67 per cent were paraprofessionals. Two out of every three people to be employed were non—certified personnel. Only six of the school districts intended to hire more professionals than paraprofessionals. One of the six was hiring paraprofessionals under a Title III ESEA grant, and was the only district to state that no aides were to be hired under Section 3 of the School Aid Act. One district originally planned to hire aides, although not as many aides as professionals, but did not hire aides during the project. Most districts planned to hire more aides than teachers and twenty—three out of the thirty districts intended to employ paraprofessionals over professionals at a rate of at least two to one. Table H.l——Bmployment ratios of Middle City school districts. Districts Employing Districts Employing Betiost More Paraprofessionals More Professionals 1 to l 7 2 2 to l 15 2 5 to l 8 2 Totals 30 6 *Ratios approximated to nearest whole numbers. All districts were to employ some professionals under the act. Eight planned employment ratios of paraprofessionals over professional of ten to or Roles of Pr Var would reduc 0f the 3148. the act, 1: of profess the employ administra Table ““2, \- K \ Regular C Regular E SDecial ( Academic CounSelo In-Servj ddminist \ Totals \ REELIlai Ware t‘ 98 professionals at a rate of five to one, two districts at a rate of ten to one, and fifteen districts at a rate of two to one. Roles of Professionals Various ways were found by which professional personnel would reduce adult-pupil ratios in the Middle City schools. lOf the 3H8.3 full—time professional people to be employed under the act, 18% were to be used in regular classrooms. Other uses of professionals would include establishment of special classes, the employment of guidance counselors, academic specialists, administrators and in-service personnel. Table H.2.-—Intended use of professional personnel. _i, Role Personnel Per Cent* Regular Classroom Teacher 18% 53 Regular Classroom Teachers "Floaters" 50 14 Special Classroom Teachers 5 1 Academic Specialists 69.8 20 Counselors 15.5 H In~Service l7 5 Administration 7 2 Totals 348.3 99* k *Rounded to two places. Regular Classroom Teachers and "Floaters" Approximately two—thirds of the professional personnel were to be employed in regular classrooms. Slightly more than . “I three out oi classroom te from class “ ance direct four teache Rotating pe with studer tunities tt ualized as who would ‘ generalist rotating E Special C l he establ created i be ampleE Stated w‘. 01Work graded Q ACademir aligned Ware 6_ Center bined 1 99 three out of four professionals were to be assigned as regular classroom teachers. Pifty teachers would "float" or rotate from class to class or team to team in order to provide assist— ance directly to pupils. One district planned to employ twenty- four teachers to rotate with regular classroom teachers. Rotating personnel would provide more direct teacher contact with students and would also provide the regular teacher oppor— tunities to engage in planning, small group process, and individ- ualized activities. One district was to employ five teachers who would work.only with small groups of children. Nine generalists and seventeen specialists were included in the rotating group of fifty teachers. Special Classroom Teachers In addition to the 184 regular classrooms that were to be established, three to five additional classrooms were to be created for children with special problems. One teacher was to be employed for each of these rooms. In two cases it was not stated whether teachers were to develop social adjustment classes, or work as guidance counselors among several classes. Two un- graded classrooms and one "crisis" class were to be established. Academic Specialists The second largest use of professionals was to be closely aligned with regular teaching duties. Included as specialists were 6.5 librarians, sixteen reading teachers, and three learning— center teachers. Physical education, music, and art areas com— bined to constitute 36.3 or more than one-half of the people MVP?” employed in center-lab01 Table [Li—- ____——-—- __'——-—— Rol Reading Science Math Physical Er Music Art Library Home Ecom Dramatics Learning \ Totals \ TWO schor Counseloc leln‘a’llfilge group oi of 001m: affEQti. FeSpOns employed in this category. 100 The only goal stated for the learning center-laboratories was the individualization of instruction. Table H.3.—-Academic specialists. Roles Personnel Per Cent Reading 16 23 Science 2.5 4 Math 3 H Physical Education 13.7 20 Music 12.6 18 Art 10 14 Library 6.5 9 Home Economics .5 l Dramatics 2 3 Learning Laboratories 3 4 Totals 69.8 100 ‘ Two schools listed a half—time science—math teacher. Counselors—~Affective Domain Two speech teachers, one teacher of English as a foreign language, and four "non-academic” teachers were included in the group of 15.5 counselors. The main criterion for the inclusion of counselors was provision of services to students in the affective domain rather than the cognitive. One half-time teacher-counselor would have the specific responsibility of creating a better "self—image" for Negroes. The l5.5 Pe' non-cogniti‘ the total p Tn-Service A 1 as in-serv would illu he a langu for in-sei be a teacl under the All seven rather th Administi ( assistan' tribed d) lil‘Sepvi lrators Profess: Pample be hire humm- OVer m The re 101 The 15.5 people who were to be primarily concerned with the non—cognitive areas represented less than 55 per cent of all the total professionals to be employed. In-Service Personnel A total of seventeen people were to be employed to work as in—service personnel for the Middle Cities Projects. Pour would illustrate materials and methods to teachers, one was to be a language arts in-service specialist, six teacher-counselors for in—service purposes were to be hired, and one person was to be a teacher evaluator. The remaining five were to be hired under the general label "in-service" with no specified duties. All seventeen professionals were to work.with fellow teachers, rather than students. Administration Closely related to in—service personnel were the seven assistant principals to be employed under the project. Des- cribed duties varied from straight administrative tasks through in—service, and working directly with children. The adminis— trators represented less than. 5 per‘cent of the total professionals. Paraprofessional Roles Twice as many paraprofessionals as professionals were to be hired for the Middle Cities Projects-~738.5 in all. Six hundred eleven of these paraprofessionals representing slightly over 80 per cent were to be employed in regular classrooms. The remainder of the aides were to work in special classes, conduct non- develop sch< were to be « roles, and sionals. Table 11.11.- Regular Cl Special Cl Ron-Class: ln-Servic School-Cc ”Clll‘iousl \ Totals \ SRacial rooms — -1 rooms , Childrg mien: a Phys an aic~ 102 conduct non-classroom duties, perform in-service functions, and develop school-community relations. Several paraprofessionals were to be employed in roles commonly considered as professional roles, and therefore were considered as "curious" paraprofes- sionals. Table H.H.—-Paraprofessional Roles. Roles Personnel Per Cent Regular Classroom 611 83 Special Classes 19 2 Non-Classroom Duties 12 2 In—Service 3H 5 School—Community Relations ”5.5 6 "Curious" l7 2 Totals 738.5 100 Special Classes Four of the eighteen aides were to be assigned to class— rooms--two to special education rooms, and two to ungraded class- rooms. Ten aides were to be assigned to teachers who worked with children from several classes; five aides were assigned to lib— rarians; two to reading teachers, and one each to a math teacher, a Physical education teacher, and a learning center instructor. Three social workers and one nurse were each to be a551gned an aide. Ron-Classrot Sevz in lunchroo time bookke three cases total numbe or about 1 in-Service An paraprofe: project p‘ assistant would tal service j mg duti School-( the hem 01‘ the PTObler rosin, “Gian hood . T 103 Non—Classroom Duties Seven of the paraprofessionals were to be hired to work in lunchrooms and cafeterias, two schools planned to use half- time bookkeepers, and one aide would be a hall supervisor. In three cases, adies would take attendance. This brought the total number of aides to be employed in this area to twelve, or about 1 per cent. In-Service Approximately 5 per cent of the people employed as paraprofessionals were to be used for in—service duties. One ‘project presented a plan that included two trainers, five assistant trainers, and twenty trainees. Two nursery aides would take care of the children of the trainees. The other six paraprofessionals to be hired as in- service personnel would be assigned both secretarial and train— ing duties. School-Community Relations Home counselors were to serve as liaison persons between the home and the school. Home counselors were to assist students, or the families of students in both school and non—school related problems. Twenty-two and one half full-time paraprofessional positions were listed in the prOposals. Closely related to the home counselors were the six neighborhood agents who were to work with children and neighbor— hood adults on community problems. Two connnunitY‘S and to invc the progran In the commun m cla drama, chc science, 3 "Eur ious " Q periormir academic hvo soci to be en indicate rather a that in: Team Parapn ind lea Many c Milo: 10% Two paraprofessionals were to perform the duties of community-school directors, to organize extended day programs, and to involve citizens in the development and participation of the programs. In the extended day programs that were established by the community school directors, thirteen paraprofessionals taught classes and two worked as homemakers. Other aides taught drama, chorus, art, music appreciation, knitting, embroidering, science, gym, and arts and crafts. ’Turious" Categories of Paraprofessionals Seventeen people were to be employed as paraprofessionals performing tasks usually considered to be professional. Pour academic consultants, five continuing-substitutes, four nurses, two social workers, a speech therapist and a psychologist were to be employed as paraprofessionals. None of the proposals indicated that the people to be enployed were to be aides rather than to perform primary roles. The conclusion was drawn that funding affected role definition. Paraprofessional Duties Guidelines for Middle Cities Projects did not say that paraprofessional duties had to be described specifically, and indicated only a broad range of activities expected of aides. Many of the proposals did not list any specific duties; other proposals were explicit. Working wit Par with childr The majorii work direc I_n terms to d more than numeral i1 activitie: [31: appe Reading ( teaching ment ava: small gr tasks ai necessax Used to Hhall) c] Singing Childm Writing I Study a rials . Out st and le 105 Working with Children Paraprofessional duties that include working directly with children constituted the widest range of duties for aides. The majority of the paraprofessionals to be employed were to work directly with children. Instructional.--Many proposals appeared to use different terms to describe the same duties. Whenever a duty was mentioned more than once, the total number of listings is indicated by a numeral in parentheses. "Engages in learning reinforcement activities" (3), and "assists teacher in instructional duties" (8), appear to call for the same types of behaviors from aides. Reading (7), language (3), math (5), science (2), tutors (3), teaching foreign-born children English, making the next assign— ment available, informing children what they missed (3), and small group instruction (7), were illustrative of the varied tasks aides were expected to perform, the wide range of skills necessary to perform the tasks, and the diversity of language used to describe similar tasks. Further illustrations were "help children use programmed materials, instruct groups in singing and art, explain directions to children, instruct children in health and hygiene practices, assist students in writing, choose library books with children, help children study their lessons, help children find materials, bring mate— rials to children, play games with children, help children act out stories, read to children, explain rules, tell stories, and lead show and tell." -. l,’ S_op area of soc otskills e Tasks lists children, : Hsource p: behavior p grams; int children 1 developing socialize clothing; Hsources C viding sv Vise lum work (2) activitj tOllets (3) . N< l‘lOI‘king and rot “attire . sional in he 106 Social and Emotional.--Duties expected of aides in the area of social and emotional development necessitated a range of skills as broad as that required for instructional duties. Tasks listed were: working with low achievers (2); counseling children, individually and in small groups; serving as a resource person for children; working with children with behavior problems; setting up individual career planning pro- grams; interesting children; settling arguments; listening to children (3); talking with children (2); encouraging children; developing positive self—images in children; helping children socialize; acting as models for children (2); helping with clothing; establishing rapport; rewarding youngsters; finding resources for problem children. Sgpervisory.-—Under the general description of pro— viding supervision, aides were to escort children (A), super~ vise lunchrooms (9), supervise recreation (5), correct seat- work (2), monitor study groups, supervise extra-curricular activities, accompany field trips (5), monitor cloakroom and toilets (2), supervise hallways, and supervise "activities" (3). No proposal explained or defined the term supervise. Working with Professionals In each category aides were expected to perform clerical and routine duties, as well as duties of a more professional nature. Many duties like "classifying books" could be profes— sional or non—professional. Working with Teachers.—-Aides were expected to engage in team work.with their teacher—partner (2), assist teacher with specie day with t6 plan goals the teache‘ assessment tedmiques w_g process, < children , an work aides wer p aides in to ”help duties w health 5 and worl In addi various SUQial worker aidES duet g llopkil Eorie 107 with special groups, attend meetings with teacher, evaluate the day with teacher, give feedback to the teacher about children, plan goals (3), plan trips, operationalize goals, consult with the teacher, evaluate the teacher-aide program, engage in self- assessment activities, interpret behavior, identify behavior techniques, and work on alternate behaviors. Workingpwith Librarians.——In the library aides were to process, catalog, and classify books. Other aides would help children learn how to use the library, tell stories to children, and work with small groups of children in the library. Two aides were to perform library duties. Working with (or as) Nurses.-—The duties requested of aides in the health area ranged from "performing nursing duties" to "helping children prepare for physical exams" (2). Other duties were developing health education programs (3), providing health services (3), weighing children (3), teaching nutrition and working with parents in the health—nutrition areas (3). In addition the aides were to collect data and to perform various tasks as described by the teachers. Working with Social Workers.--Duties for aides in the social work field included "escorting children to the social worker" and "providing some therapy." Other social worker aides were to tutor, accumulate data, keep records, and con— duct group sessions. Working with Materials A great deal of overlap existed between the two cate— gories listed below. Many duties listed as office duties would be or would be P‘ C_l to "take a illustrate duties we] ing out mi routine d (2), chec bulletin preparing Suppleme' fflms m Childrer home fol less Va while t binning Office llbl‘kin neigifi bette‘ The f Werkj 108 would be carried out in the classroom and many classroom duties would be performed in the office. Classroom Duties.--The divergence of skills necessary to "take anecdotal records of children" and "check supplies" illustrated the wide range of duties performed by aides. Other duties were correcting workbooks, correcting papers (13), pass— ing out materials, taking notes at meetings, clerical and routine duties (2), general room organization (3), housekeeping (2), checking equipment, preparing materials (w), preparing bulletin boards (5), operating audio-visual equipment (6), preparing and running dittos, preparing displays (2), providing supplementary texts, writing assignments on the board, ordering films, mounting pictures, preparing charts, record keeping of children (10), collecting money (5), and taking attendance with home follow-up (6). Office Duties.——Duties within the office areas were no less varied. One aide would "develop a record keeping system," while two aides would merely file. Other duties listed were running stencils (3), general office (2), typing, operating office machines (3), and arranging for the use of materials. Working Among Home, School, and Neighborhood Many aides were to be hired to serve as home counselors, neighborhood agents, or to provide services that would develop better relationships among the home, school, and neighborhood. The following duties have been separated into four categories: working with parents, children, agencies, and the neighborhood. w m responsibil Other duti! to work wi parents, i between ti home visit healthful H in this 5 included with chil escortin resp ons i aides W( referra find ho PElath JAvert, to tea groups the m Schpo hoI‘ho the C 109 Working_with Parents.--Some aides were to be given the responsibility of training neighborhood adults to become aides. Other duties that dealt directly with parents of students were to work with parents of troublesome children, counsel with parents, inform parents of available help, act as an intermediary between the school and parents, conduct parent conferences, make home visits, develop volunteers, show parents how to prepare more healthful food, and communicate informally with parents. Working with Children.--Paraprofessional duties included in this section pertained to "non—classroom" related duties. Included were checking attendance and follow—up (2), working with children who have problems, taking sick children home, escorting children, supervising the safety patrol and instilling responsibility in children. Workingywith Agencies.--Two proposals mentioned that aides would make home and agency calls, one specified making referrals to agencies, and one mentioned surveying agencies to find how to make referrals. Working in the Neighborhood.-—The role of the school in relation to the community appeared to be one of increasing importance. Aides were expected to chair neighborhood groups to teach parents the function of the school, organize parent groups, work.with the community school director, "tie in with the community," serve as liaison between the community and the school (5), develop better relations between school and neigh- borhood (l), assist families new to the neighborhood, bring the community together, show parents how to plan and prepare F'TTv"T“"" meals (2): in home ma practical II principal: aides (17‘ determine the dutie of aides aide rele Subjectii naire it view. and inf; Views, reactio TElated dldes ] leami. Hides 110 Heals (2), discuss with.parents the role of parents, instruct in home management, discuss the care of children, and teach the practical skills of life. Phase II--Interviews Interviews were conducted with superintendents (H), principals (7), coordinator-trainers (3), teachers (18), and aides (17). The purpose of these forty—nine interviews was to determine the types of duties aides were performing, changes in the duties, planned or desired changes in the projects, feelings of aides and teachers, and essential characteristics of teacher- aide relations. The data was analyzed in three ways: (1) a subjective gestalt of all interviews, (2) a horizontal question— naire item analysis, and (3) a vertical analysis of each inter- View. pBubjective Interpretation The following series of statements represent conclusions and inferences drawn shortly after the completion of all inter— views. The statements represent overall interpretations and reactions, which were derived on a subjective—gestalt basis. 1. Paraprofessionals were performing many tasks directly related to the teaching~learning process. 2. In almost every situation, as the projects progressed, aides performed a greater number of tasks related to the teaching- learning process. 3. Pre-service and in—service training for teachers and aides was highly desirable. Ll, Prc to be more effe 5. We: for teachers a1 6. Fli attributes in 7. Fr two-way basis 8. Te toward mutual person. 9. ii a "boss-works 10, T final set the Ronsihle for ll. I friction beta 12. '. the ’EEachera 13. Project. l4. 15, HuroaSed e6 aideg, 16 SldePation 111 H. Projects that employed coordinators or trainers seem to be more effective than projects that did not. 5. Well defined, clear—cut expectations were important for teachers and aides. 6. Flexibility, cooperation, and respect were necessary attributes in teachers and aides. 7. Free communication between teacher and aide on a two—way basis was essential. 8. Teachers and aides needed an attitude or inclination toward mutual respect, understanding, and acceptance of the other person. 9. A team approach appeared to be more satisfactory than a "boss—worker” situation. 10. The administration primarily represented by the prin— cipal set the tone for the project and was almost directly res- ponsible for its success or failure. 11. Discipline of students was a frequent source of friction between teachers and aides. 12. The largest detriment to successful projects was the teacher, who felt threatened by the presence of an aide. 13. Over aggressive aides were detrimental to the Project. 14. Finances were of great concern. 15. One effect of a teacher aide program appeared to be increased education, ambition, and general upgrading of the aides. 16. The neighborhood and parents were given more con- Sideration and involvement as a result of teacher aide programs. l7. Tl the effects of 18. I' to accept the varied the typ positive the g the sentiment Discussion The 0‘ that teacher . including tas learning proe Their own abi PEPTOI'med by Certain Spec: were not devv Father Were Routine Dutj In E Qleicical dut felt Capabl. Teacher saiv dongs, but afford to 1 aide in the 112 17. The majority of the interviewees did not mention the effects of the program on children. 18. It appeared that the more willing the teacher was to accept the aide as a competent, capable person, the more varied the types of tasks performed by the aide, and the more positive the general classroom atmosphere and the more positive the sentiment of both parties appeared to be. Discussion The overall reaction was to confirm the major thesis that teacher aides were performing a great variety of tasks, including tasks that were directly involved in the teaching- learning process. The more secure a teacher and aide were in their own ability, the greater the variety of tasks that were performed by the aide, and the more operative the team function. Certain specific incidents helped form the conclusions, which were not developed as a series of independent statements, but rather were formed as an overall set of reactions to both positive and negative comments. Routine Duties In a few instances aides were limited to routine type clerical duties, and in all instances except one, the aide felt capable of doing more ”teaching." In one instance, the teacher said, "Perhaps she could perform more teaching—type duties, but as long as I am involved in bargaining, I cannot afford to let her perform other than clerical chores.” The aide in that situation agreed that her role was to perform clerical dut ie: with children Expectations a Clear- the kind of 36 project. The the expectati was developed The handbook guidelines a1 Some discipline c‘ did discipli teacher want Were unhapm children. '_ appeared to AdmT'Jiistra’c The Project. 1- tI‘aineps s' the” sure Where the aides, tea Compatibl. 113 clerical duties, but she added that she occasionally did work with children individually and in small groups. Expectations and Discipline Clear-cut role expectations afforded teachers and aides the kind of security that was needed at the beginning of the project. The clarity of expectations was more important than the expectations themselves. One trainer said that a handbook was developed solely to provide security for teachers and aides. The handbook stated each team should feel free to change the guidelines at any point. Some teachers complained because the aide would not discipline children, other teachers objected because the aide did discipline children. Some aides complained because the teacher wanted them to discipline children, while other aides were unhappy because the teachers would not let them discipline children. Teacher—aide understanding, respect, and expectations appeared to be the vital factors in the area of discipline. Administration The attitude of the administrators set the tone for each project. All administrators, superintendents, principals, and trainers stated they favored the idea of teacher aides, but their support ranged from mild to enthusiastic. In projects where the principal was perceived as being very positive to aides, teachers and aides appeared to be more cooperative and compatible than in buildings where the principal support appeared to be moderate. The attitudes of teachers and aides ”hf?” . . toward central their building aides appeared and abilities . demonstration coordinators 1 teachers and 1 Selection Where their own tee Situations w] cases aides . aide; both 3 III-Service One Program Was training du TEacher and have pager SPEQifiQ d5 and aides. building d high lEVel Pr adVantage( pl‘Ojeet' 11H toward central administration often reflected the attitude of their building principal. The presence of a coordinator for aides appeared to be of immense value in terms of project skills and abilities. Aides and teachers saw the coordinators as a demonstration of project support by the administration. The coordinators usually provided on-site assistance to both teachers and aides. Selection Where teachers and aides who were involved in forming their own teams, the project was more successful than in situations where aides were assigned to teachers. In two cases aides were assigned to teachers who did not request an aide; both situations were unsuccessful. In~Service One principal who was totally committed to the aide program was totally opposed to pre—service and in—service training during the first year. His point of view was the teacher and the aide should "work things out together," and have in-service training during the second year to deal with specific difficulties and problems suggested by the teachers and aides. Many of the aides and teachers in this particular building disagreed with the principal openly, signifying a high level of trust and respect. Pre—service and in-service sessions, while definitely advantageous, were not sufficient to insure success of the project. One particular building conducted a good pre-service and in-service cribed as faVO dent among the Threatened Tea The te pp classroom" over-aggressi more projects at the preset Children and Chil- structure of child-direct and implied Ben: the Persona Spoke of th teachers. fittEd subs Ea Sheraton Classified developed p1‘inelp'al 115 and in~service program, but the situation could not be des- cribed as favorable since a high level of mistrust was evi— dent among the school personnel. Threatened Teachers and Aggressive Aides The teacher who felt threatened typically said, "It's my classroom" or "I think she's spying." Some aides appeared over-aggressive; however, the general impression was that more projects were damaged by teachers who felt threatened at the presence of an aide than by over—aggressive aides. Children and Aides Children were rarely mentioned in the interviews. The structure of the interview may have led to the sparcity of child—directed comments. The tone of almost all was positive and implied benefits to the children. Benefits also came to the aides. Many aides expressed the personal satisfaction in their role. A number of aides spoke of their interest in returning to school to become teachers. Several teachers also felt that aides had bene- fitted substantially. Qpestion—bygguestion Horizontal Analysis Each of the eight interview questions was analyzed separately. Remarks and comments made by interviewees were classified under questionnaire items within categories developed. Remarks were also grouped by superintendents, Principals, coordinators, teachers, and aides. The pt which a quantf obliterating 1 While the is genera, specific is due ma diversifi ness, fle features reasons 1' tion witl Question One- aide changed Toward Teach The 0f the aide in performir than was pej included ac- Uf children leaching pr Enough infc had not bee the“? dEfii Ni: Three of t thel‘e had Started or made wEre : \ l. l 116 The purpose for categories was to afford a framework in which a quantification system could be developed, withoutn obliterating the versatility of the comments. While the importance of the interview as source material is generally agreed upon in the social sciences, there are specific difficulties in evaluating such material. This is due mainly to the fact that interview material is highly diversified and unstructured. At the same time, the rich- ness, flexibility, and spontaneity of this material are the features which constitute its major asset. . . . For these reasons it was decided to attempt some kind of quantifica— tion within groups. . . .1 Question One-~Has the role of the aide changed during the project? Toward Teaching The vast majority of respondents agreed that the role of the aide had changed, and that the change involved the aide in performing a wider variety of tasks at the project conclusion than was performed at the beginning of the projects. New tasks included activities such as planning, working with small groups of children, and other tasks more closely identified with the teaching process. One superintendent said that he didn’t have enough information to answer the question, nine people said there had not been changes in the role, and thirty—nine people said there definitely had been changes. Nine people responded there had been very little change. Three of the four teachers and two of the four aides who said there had been little change said that it was because the aide started out teaching and continued to do so. Typical remarks made were: "Prom beginning to end she acted as a reading lAdorno, p. 292. teacher." "Tl"- “R‘e shared ree Two a: routine dutie: upset because children. Th taking attend doing bulleti to specialist One teacher 1 aide's role clerical tas with them. aide doesn't One she said, "1 Constantly at first, It I"ESPondents Westion, T0 total 1', resPendent of teacher Tl the teach ll7 teacher.” ”There were no changes. They can teach and they do." "We shared responsibility from the very beginning." Two aides who were primarily involved with clerical or routine duties said their roles had not changed. One of them was upset because of this, and said that she preferred working with children. The other aide said her duties were restricted to taking attendance, filling out permission slips, running dittos, doing bulletin boards, preparing A—V materials, taking children to specialists, and doing some work with reading and math groups. One teacher who stated that there had been no change wanted the aide‘s role limited and said, "The aide should be limited to clerical tasks. Teachers shouldn't have shared their authority with them. Aides should rarely work with children. You see the aide doesn’t really want it." One teacher expressed the view of most respondents when she said, "She started out just with clerical duties, but has constantly moved to teaching duties. If I had known her abilities at first, my kids would be better readers today!" Almost all respondents discussed the types of duties in answer to this question. Duties ranged from the very limited routine tasks to total involvement with the teaching process. Several of the respondents discussed some attitudes, feelings, and perceptions of teachers as well as aides. Emotional Climate Three out of the four superintendents interviewed remarked about frustrations, attitudes, and feelings. One felt the teacher needed to find limits for the aides or frustration “(K would occur. were held bacl much. A diffs to become par' people; how t' all became mo One c confidence 0: the ability i much closer in most of t principal se Problems wii who conside some teache stand it wt Si) climate of \villingnes led to mor mainly of about neg; the child cues from that aide 1. l 118 would occur. He warned of bad situations where competent aides were held back, and less competent aides were expected to do too much. A different superintendent discussed how the aides pushed to become part of the whole process; how they wanted to assist people; how the feelings of aides and teachers improved; and how all became more responsive to the students. One coordinator and two principals spoke of the increased confidence of the aides and the increased respect by teachers for the ability of the aides. The coordinator said, "Aides have come much closer to their teachers. They have actually become partners (in most of the cases." Speaking of the increased closeness, one principal said, ”Occasionally this general trend has caused problems with those teachers who were not involved. The ones who considered the aide as a servant.” The other principal felt some teachers were not suited to have aides because "they couldn’t stand it when pupils related to another person." Six teachers and seven aides discussed the emotional climate of the situations. The teachersT remarks centered on willingness to try new things, confidence, and how mutual respect led to more initiative on the parts of the aides. Aides spoke mainly of how much they enjoyed their jobs. Two aides talked about negative attitudes; both aides wanted to do more work with the children. One teacher pointed out that aides "picked up cues from the children” that the teacher missed. Consensus was that aides improved the classroom atmosphere. PT tha—r‘ ' In-SEI‘VlCE Tr: Train sessions were one, Remarks tions-good e Communicatior Rema expectations teachers and Three of sev 0f seventeer plained tha‘ the aide re often rever and the prj Place when "My childre answers _ " Additional On mom and c 01"cated p] Noble,“ tl the 10mg ITlatecl n Selectior In-Service Training Training needs, including pre—service and in—service sessions were mentioned by seven people when answering question one. Remarks made ranged from the need for training to evalua- tions——good and bad-~of existing training programs. Communications Remarks that indicated or related team functions, role expectations, and responses concerning communication between teachers and aides were included in the communication category. Three of seven principals, nine of eighteen teachers, and six of seventeen aides responded in this category. One aide com— plained that neither she nor her teacher knew what the role of the aide really was. Another aide said she and her teacher very often reversed roles and worked interchangeably. The teachers and the principals agreed that a more effective situation took place when these team functions existed. One teacher said, "My children feel they can go to either of us and get immediate answers." Additional Problems One principal raised the problem of space--in the class— room and out. "The additional fifty aides into this building created problems in the parking lot and the cafeteria. One problem that arose was whether or not the aides could go into the lounge." One superintendent told of difficulties when aides related negative happenings back in the neighborhood. Better selection methods were necessary according to one principal as .“.( W "some aides t write.” One and cooperat: Group Compar Each wide range 0 process. Al some indivic' duties shoul Supt with the em or the coor indicated t a EOOd worl referred t( “105’: conce: uTlderstand 00mmunicat W E; DOSed, or attempt w deSiI‘Ed Q 120 "some aides hired were actually incompetent and unable to read or write." One teacher stressed the need for administrative support ‘and cooperation. Group Comparisons Each group agreed that teacher aides were performing a wide range of duties closely related to the teaching-learning ‘process. All groups agree that aides were being involved, and some individuals felt the only limits on a paraprofessional's duties should be the aide's ability. Superintendents, teachers, and aides were more concerned with the emotional climate of the classroom than the principals or the coordinators, in this particular instance. Consensus indicated that the climate in the classroom was improved when a good working relationship was attained. Negative remarks referred to aide frustration. The teachers were the group most concerned with communications, teamwork, and mutual understanding. Nine out of the eighteen teachers discussed communications. Question Two—~What Changes Are Planned in Next Year's Program? Each respondent was asked to identify planned, pro— posed, or desired changes in the program. In the analysis, no attempt was made to distinguish between planned, proposed, or desired changes. IIII_—— Tale A.5.--H hsponses Yes No Totals Table ALE, K \ fleet-rd Teaching duties PEI“ formed by aides Non~teachi duties onl EmOtional Qlimate Training commLmiQa tion Problems \ 121 Table 4.5.--Has the role of the aide changed? School Personnel Responding Superin- Coord— Responses tendents Principals inators Teachers Aides Yes 3 7 3 14 13 No 0 0 0 4 4 l 0 0 0 0 Totals 4 7 3 l8 l7 Table 4.6.~-Classification of responses to role changes. School Personnel Responding Superin- Coord- Category tendents Principals inators Teachers Aides Totals Teaching duties per— formed by aides 3 7 3 17 15 45 Non-teaching duties only 0 0 0 l 2 3 Emotional climate 3 2 l 6 7 19 Training 1 2 l 3 0 7 Communica- tion 0 3 0 9 6 l8 Extraneous problems 1 2 0 1 0 4 _ were” .4 Training Major around traini programs were principals, < should he on found that t aides,” expr The Forty-two ll of training on three ar formal juni Duties M0 were SUgge geared to for the a; machines5 ”A f0I'mal teflching) and langi e indicate, identifi Peril~01 were i 122 Training Major changes planned in future programs centered around training——pre—service and in-service. Most training programs were intended for teachers and aides, although two principals, one teacher, and one aide felt training programs should be only for the aides. The principal who said, "We found that the teachers needed the training as badly as the aides," expressed the view of most interviewees. The entire group of aides discussed the need for training. Forty—two individuals in all stressed the need for various types of training. The remarks about training were usually focused on three areas——duties, role expectations, and communications. Formal junior college courses were also requested. Duties Most comments concerned with the role or duties of aides were suggestions for training programs. In—serVice was to be . n . geared to specific duties and personal improvement. In—serv1ce for the aide should include information on how to use the VT machines, general teaching techniques, grooming, language, etc. "A formal in—service, primarily for aides who want to do some teaching, would consist of subjects like modern math, reading, and language arts." Several comments that were not related to training indicated changes in the duties of the aides. Remarks usually identified Whether the aide's role was to be more clerical or Pupil-oriented in nature. Clerical type remarks from teachers were: "Fewer aides, more clerical workers. If I had a full—time aide, 1 Wild in teams, but reduce the at same number : with two or ' At 1 sional roles the presence threatened. ‘ more respon: reflecting ' will have m year aides work more i Conununicat 1m Pequested COvenunical inter‘Per: resTonden exDressed Said that l ‘lQPkShop; a’Etitude Said, a“ deal wit 123 aide, I would have her do busy work;" ". . . teachers would be in teams, but aides would still do clerical work;” and "we would reduce the number of aides in the upper grades, but keep the same number in the lower grades. Upper grade aides would work with two or three teachers.” At least one aide remarked that restricted paraprofes- sional roles were a result of teachers that felt threatened by the presence of an aide. "Some of the teachers are too threatened.” Attitudes and remarks indicating plans to delegate more responsibility and teaching duties outnumbered comments reflecting plans to restrict the aides. ”Next year my aide will have more responsibility." One principal predicted, ”Next year aides will have more freedom and responsibility. They’ll work more with children——especially in reading." Communications Improved communications between teachers and aides were requested by thirty—one individuals. Remarks included in the communications category referred to better understanding, inter—personal relationships, and group discussions. Every respondent who spoke of the need for better communications eXpressed a desire for a formalized training program. No one said that better understanding would occur naturally. Attitudes generally indicated that communications workshops should be conducted for both teachers and aides. The attitude of the aides was conveyed by one paraprofessional who said, "We need a workshop with the teachers to learn how to deal with each other." Teachers spoke of a series of meetings ”where we cal and role p18? consultants ferred teach problems. S sessions for Expectations Clo was the are would feel principal 5 much as the the proper iii-service aides. Me wil we'll Progre non—t} handle define ll teachers "The teac Want ping the 1um We neod "Some k1 needed t 124 "where we can hash things out.” Trainers spoke of group dynamics and role playing; and two superintendents planned to bring in consultants to lead role playing situations. One teacher pre— ferred teacher—only meetings to discuss the interpersonal problems. Several individuals wanted some separate workshop sessions for specific functions. Expectations Closely related to the need for improved communications was the area designated as expectations. Threatened teachers would feel better if they knew what was expected of aides. One principal said, ”We found that teachers needed in-service as much as the aides. They needed to know how to use and develop the proper roles.‘T One trainer planned to devote most of the in-service program to role expectations for both teachers and aides. We will have an in—service program for teachers where we’ll define the role of the aide. The total in—service program will be for both teachers and aides. Even the non—threatened and secure teachers need to learn how to handle aides. Both groups, alone and together, will define the roles. . . . Uncertainty was expressed by the aide who thought that teachers and aides agreed that aides could do more instruction. "The teachers really weren't sure. We knew the teachers didn't want playground duty.” The teachers agreed with the aides on the importance of knowing what was to be expected. "One thing we need is a clearer definition of the teacher and the aide.‘T "Some kind of orientation--half separate, half together is needed to deal with expectations at all levels.” (ET-v7.1” 1 ‘ The i . 1 Many responc I through tra: tioned only improvement typified th What we and ale is plat cribing service courses total : paraprt Other 1 relati Community Se hood. MOS Understané 10031 pro} to become of diffic' about the Group Com '1 } with the than the one inst; Commie 125 The above categories were closely related to each other. Many respondents spoke of changes in duties or roles, but effected through training opportunities. Although some individuals men— tioned only one or two categories, most discussed the need for improvement in three or four. One superintendent's comment typified the inclusiveness of most responses: What we need to do is to focus on the aide in the community and also how to develop team membership. A summer workshop is planned describing how the plan is going to work and des— cribing the appropriate roles for aides. Some kind of pre— service is needed, especially for the teacher. Off~campus courses by Wayne State University will be part of the total in—service. There will be course opportunities for paraprofessionals in a career ladder type of sequence. Other courses will be Afro—American culture and the relationship of the aide to the community. Community Involvement Seven individuals raised concerns about the neighbor- hood. Most remarks were directed toward developing better understanding between the school and the community. "Discuss local problems--both neighborhood people and staff." "We need to become more sensitive to target areas." One principal told of difficulties when aides carried too much privileged information about the school into the neighborhood. Group Comparisons Teachers, aides, and coordinators were more concerned with the need for better personal relations and communications than the groups of principals and superintendents. Except for one instance, training was mentioned most often, with duties and communications next most frequently mentioned. Table [Hr-V fi’fl- Categories Training Duties Commun iea- tions Expecta- tions Community aNl Additional Mo and three "the State tmo SuPer: bECome in‘ and one a Students would not said, "I need it,‘ 0 . % teaeher 126 Table H.7.-—What changes are planned in the program next year? Respondents Indicating Category Superin- Coord— tendents Principals inators Teachers Aides Totals Categories (%1? (7) (3] (18) (171_ Training 2 7 3 13 17 H2 Duties 2 H 2 13 10 31 Communica- tions 2 3 2 1H 9 31 Expecta- tions 2 4 l 8 10 25 Community 2 1 2 0 2 7 aNumerals in parentheses indicate total number interviewed. Add it ional Cons iderat ions Money was a consideration raised by one superintendent and three aides. Comments about governmental changes, such as "the state department of education will change," were made by two superintendents and two aides. The need for the teacher to become involved in the hiring was mentioned by one principal and one aide. One advantage in the aide program was that students felt free to confide information to aides that they would not tell the teacher. One aide spoke for many when she said, "I hope the program is increased, because our students need it." QEestion Three——Do You Think the Role and Number of Aides will Changggin the Next Five Years? There was almost unanimous agreement that the number of teacher aides would increase in the next five years. Only six "71'7”” respondents 1 One aide and might reduce the possibil restrict the to reduce c] Funding In 1 who were co and an addi adequate fl mentioned : More Profe It much more children, the role ( The In much nurse definite They teae] Glas: They cler idea Three te 127 respondents were not sure that the number of aides would increase. One aide and four teachers thought limited amounts of money might reduce the number of aides. One superintendent mentioned the possibility that the Michigan Education Association might restrict the number of aides through the association's struggles to reduce class size. Ennding In addition to the four teachers and aide mentioned above who were concerned with funds, three principals, one coordinator, and an additional aide voiced concern over the availability of adequate funding. Approximately 20 per cent of the interviewees mentioned funding concerns. More Professionalized Roles It was the general consensus that the aide would become much more involved with teaching activities, direct work with children, and a great deal more teaming. Only one aide thought the role of the aide would remain generally the same. They can’t really be The role of the aide will grow. They'll be more like a much more now without a degree. nurse's aide——a teacher's aide. All superintendents, principals, and trainers indicated a iefinite move toward professionalism in the role. They will become teachers; they will take on part of the teaching duties; they will be like a second teacher in the classroom. They'll become an extension of the teacher, not just for clerical or routine duties, but they will use their own ideas. tree teachers and one aide neglected to respond to changes in the role. V pondents sa: duties. Increased T The training e) There \ colleg scienc will h group school Mc oi aides, college p‘ They' UPWEI“ 5‘ par There cler: stati increasa tEachers ThEl more ‘ he11 tic: crn ins tEa The 128 the role. With the exception of one aide mentioned, all res— pondents said the changes would be toward more professional duties. Increased Training and Career Ladder The increased professionalization depended on increased training experiences. There will be a program for the classroom aide in the junior college next fall——human growth and development, library science, A-V instruction. Pre-training is necessary and will be concentrated on understanding children and small group instruction, A-V and office machinery. Nursery school aides will become trained and they will increase. Most frequently respondents discussed different classes of aides, career ladders, and the possibility of two-year junior college programs toward certification: They’ll have two—year certification by 1970. It‘s really upward—bound, a career ladder, the top will be the teacher, a paraprofessional below her, and then an aide. There will be a differentiated classification of aides—~ clericaL and teaching associates who will have more status. There must be in—service for both. One coordinator discussed the possible effects of the increased professionalization of aides on the future roles of teachers: There will be more and more of them performing more and more responsibilities. The title paraprofessional will help. The teacher will become an administrator, diagnos— tician. She’ll delegate authority and write the pres— criptions. There will be two types of aides, clerical and instructional. Instructional aides will reinforce the teacher's work, and work with individuals and small groups The general ftnd will have to pick up the cost. .' "i r"! / Table LLB." é— Categories Total Respondents Increased n of aides Uncertain a numbers of Funding concerns More profe: sionalized Increased and career developmen Group COTTI Ti increased N0 S‘UPeri All the s cussed it Of aides training subject thE need militia Qipalsb he in in 129 Table 4.8.—-How will the roles and number of aides change? Respondents Indicating Category Categories Superin- Coord— Total tendents Principals inators Teachers Aides Respondents (LL)— (7) (BL (18) L17) Increased numbers of aides 3 7 3 l4 l6 Uncertain as to numbers of aides l O O 4 1 Funding concerns 0 3 l 4 2 More profes— sionalized roles 4 7 3 15 15 Increased training and career ladder development 4 4 7 4 6 Group Comparisons Table 4.3 indicated the unanimity of agreement as to the increased numbers and the professionalized roles of the aides. No superintendent mentioned concern about future funding problems. All the superintendents, and more than half of the principals dis— cussed increased training, and the career ladder for advancement of aides. Less than half of the teachers and aides mentioned training. Although only one of the trainers brought up the subject of training, here all were concerned and expressed both the need for future training and educational advancement oppor— tunities. People in administrative roles, superintendents, prin— cipals, and trainers were more concerned with the need for future training than were teachers or aides. new were duestion Fin Thee dealt with ' he personn stated that said their groups of I Starte( There, Growth of A stfll exr There are responden stressed DPOjects_ I left‘ n aides di Thei ' re Canses ( thWat, by SuPe 130 Question Pour——Please Describe the Attitudes of the Personnel at the Beginning of the Project and Now Question Pive——Have Your Personal Feelings Changed? These two questions were reported together as they both dealt with the feelings, attitudes, and general perceptions of the personnel. The vast majority of the people interviewed stated that their feelings were very positive. Many respondents said their warm feelings were not unanimous; there were small groups of people who still did resent teacher aides. Started out skeptical and feel extremely good about it now. There are still mixed feelings. Aides like to help kids. Growth of Positive Attitudes A few respondents mentioned that some "hard feelings" still existed between teachers and aides. "Overall, it's good. There are a few isolated people who still cause trouble." Each respondent who mentioned the existence of some negative feelings stressed that the majority of people felt very good about the projects. Most comments indicated that much of the hostility had left. ”. . . but the resentment was displaced because the aides did such a bang—up job." "Now the exact opposite is true. They're really for it.” Causes of Friction The most frequently mentioned causes of friction were threat, insecurity, and lack of knowledge about the role. The majority of the difficulty was attributed to teachers, by superintendents, coordinators, aides and the teachers themselves. A superinteni aide. They were too ins it H A CT Tea teacher that is teacher weak te nobody release really Th teacher in the View c The a: a liti use d hated our 0 lot 0 of tt henea I thi attre want that clas seer don‘ with Communii fairly attenda t0 cons and to 131 A superintendent said, "Some of the teachers didn‘t want an aide. They were either over—rating the aide or actually they were too insecure. Can’t really push them. Still some against it. TT A coordinator said: Teachers found it hard to work with another adult. Many teachers were strained, negative. A small portion of them that is. Teachers were insecure. teacher didn't project these attitudes at all. The stronger master It was the weak teacher who was fearful. We had to reassure them that nobody was peeking. Aides were exuberant. Tension is released together, we’re working together now, and it's really going better. The most important element or problem mentioned was iteacher insecurity or fear of the aide. One teacher expressed the view of many with the following summation. The aides helped us do a professional job. Some of us were a little skeptical, reserved, couldn't see how we could use them. We were the great God in the classroom and hated to relinquish our power. Now we're all sorry about our original negative attitude and feel much better. A lot of the teachers have negative attitudes about it. One of them doesn’t even talk to me. Some feel the aides are beneath them and that they shouldn’t associate with them. I think it’s insecurity. Some of the kids might be more attracted to the aides than the teacher; some teachers want to be the whole show. Some teachers think this means that the administration is saying that they can't do the classroom work by themselves. Teachers feel it is a secretary. There was a small group of teachers who really don't understand what it's about and they're just not with it. Community Parent and community involvement were commented upon fairly frequently. One principal attributed the increased PTA attendance to the teacher aide program. Aides often were able to communicate to the parents what the school was really doing and to increase good feelings about the school. Aides reporting to the commu things home- One person r nation to b Group Comps The feelings, e and aides. grams, saw culties, a aides were other groe cm W m Factors 1 \ T Seven we exPlicit tion of imDortar Personal D€rsona Effect: lEthe: i“divi 132 to the community also did create new problems. “Aides carry things home——we need some school-community relations work." One person mentioned how the aide was just gathering up infor- mation to be used against the school. Group Comparisons There were no major differences between the attitudes, feelings, and perceptions of superintendents, principals, teachers, and aides. Almost unanimously people were for teacher aide pro- grams, saw problems, blamed the teachers for most of the diffi— culties, and said not everybody was satisfied. The group of aides were less critical of teachersT insecurity than any of the other groups. Question Six--What Are the Factors Leading :9 Successful Use of.Aides? Question Seven--What Appear to Be the Major Factors Inhibiting Successful Use of.Aides? Many respondents said that their answers to question seven were the opposites of question six. Others, while less explicit, gave comments that were quite opposite. The combina- tion of the two questions provided a composite of factors deemed important to teacher—aide relationships. Personality Characteristics Every person interviewed, except one aide, discussed personality characteristics that either improved or harmed the effectiveness of aides. There was a general consensus that teachers and aides needed to be warm, sensitive, sincere individuals who were able to accept and respect the other person and the stue nothing can "Pride, sel best perfor ”The teache hurt," and aides.” S referred t She must t ness and i be organi: training. Training I were more pals, m stated, istics , their p( first; " ShOUld receivg and mes on the 0f hum 133 and the student. "Teacher acceptance-~if they don't accept, nothing can save it." "Respect as an adult." "Acceptance." "Pride, self—respect, dignity, sensitivity, commitment to best performance." Many remarks were directed to teachers: "The teacher needs to be well—organized," "threatened teachers hurt,” and the "teachers need to be mature and accept the aides." Some comments referred directly to the aides, but most referred to aides and teachers. "The aide must like children. She must have certain abilities, a certain amount of aggressive— ness and initiative. She can't be blah. The teacher needs to be organized. Teacher should have strong ideas. Both need training." Training Most people emphasized that personality characteristics were more important than training. Ten teachers, three princi— pals, two superintendents, two aides, and no coordinators so stated. The coordinators answers stressed personality character- istics, human relations. In~service was an integral part of their position. "Inadequate pre~planning;” "The programs must be planned first;" "Teachers and aides weren't prepared;” and "Aides should be trained to handle classroom control" were frequently received comments. Some remarks referred to techniques, skills, and methods of working with children, but greater understanding on the part of teachers and aides and greater work in the area of human relations was stressed. Cummnicatie The aide; the n an the nee most import ofthe aide lack of 001 ofthe tea must get t and aides One coordi The teache he follow The teach 0r a fail aide, to her farce the skil lET the able to teachers mentiom Group C as heir PSI‘Som Skills 134 Communications and Role Expectation The need for communication between the teacher and the aide; the need for understanding both roles and expectations; and the need to accept, respect, and cooperate were cited as the most important ingredients that would lead to successful use of the aides. Much of the difficulty that arose came from the lack of communication and understanding between the two members of the team. "Teacher and principal selected the aides. Really must get the teachers involved." "Better perceptions by teacher and aides of each other's role and functions were necessary." One coordinator developed guidelines just to give people security. The teachers and aides were told that the guidelines should not be followed rigidly, but to let roles develop between the team. The teacher had the responsibility to make the project a success or a failure. The teacher who was able to work well with the aide, to accept her, to let her try new things, and to encourage her fared well. "Mature teacher who is unafraid will utilize the skills of the aide and will be willing to take the risk to let the aide teach reading or math." When teachers were not able to do this, projects were not very successful. The teacher's ability to work with another adult was frequently mentioned as a factor needing improvement. Group Comparisons The aides were the only group who did not stress training as being particularly important. Training was related more to personality characteristics or human relations than to technical skills. The importance of a positive personality, warm, accepting, ‘ f and understa aides were r groups. The the success was the mar an aide wa: the only 0' cant. Personalit Pl personali Was invol Teacher :‘ Aide: avoie busy‘ impo COHnunit Cited he were re tYpica] borhom Haeded 135 and understanding was agreed upon by all groups. Teachers and aides were more concerned with personality clashes than the other groups. The teacher was seen as having the responsibility for the success of the relationship by all groups. The teacher was the manager of the situation and her skill in working with an aide was vital. Two principals and two superior students were the only ones to mention community as being particularly signifi- "cant. Personality Match and Selection Process Personality clashes often led to trouble. "Their personalities must match." Difficulty was avoided if the teacher was involved in the selection of the aide. "Really must get the teacher involved." Aides should be interviewed by the teacher. This would avoid personality conflicts-~like if she's a loud mouth, busybody, not accomplishing anything. Compatability is important. Community The problem of aides relating back to the community was cited by one superintendent. Positive effects in the community were reported more frequently than were negative effects. The typical reaction was expressed by: "Hired aides from the neigh- borhood who wanted to work, who belonged in the area and who needed to work. This was important." Table 4.9.- ____———-—- __,_F———' Categories Personalitj , character— role expec tions Personalii matches istics Cmmnnica- tions and I Training Selection process COmmIm ity l ‘\ Self-Cone i attribut a great it the s is the m i Good one | than in i Princip “If eit i bus ines 136 Table 4.9.--Important categories in teacher-aide relations. i L Respondents Indicating Category Superin- Categories tendents Principals Trainers Teachers Aides Totals Personality character— istics 4 7 3 18 16 48 Communica- tions and role expecta— tions 2 5 2 12 14 35 Personality matches 1 3 2 9 9 24 Training 2 3 . 0 10 2 l7 Selection process 3 3 0 3 2 11 Community 2 2 0 0 O 4 Self-Concept and Dogmatism A11 respondents thought self-concept to be a desirable attribute in teachers and aides. "We talked about self—concept a great deal. Part of the crux of the whole program. Without it the students are nowhere." "The selfeconcept of the pupil is the whole focus; therefore, the aide or the teacher must have good ones." "Self-concept in the teacher is much more important than in the aide. Both people must be open." Dogmatism was seen as a negative attitude although one Principal and one aide stressed the need "not to be wishy—washy." "If either the teacher or the aide is narrow, they have no business being here." "Dogmatism can be detrimental." Sel aide indie; Self-c enough proble enough the te import abilii T problems signifiee determine area. T, examined 0f inter m resPons but she ' mentior nine t: Had a I Princi Tuentl E? r-r [5. hEcom 137 Self—concept and dogmatism appeared closely related. One aide indicated this relationship. Self—concept is extremely important, a person must be strong enough to be able to go talk to the person and iron out their problems. People should be open, but frankly I wasn't open enough. Need to be able to express and to see things that the teacher doesn't. Self—concept in both is extremely important. One aide lost all confidence in herself and her ability and quit. Vertical Analysis of Interviews The horizontal analysis described above omitted some problems raised during the interviews and did not bring out the significance of others. All interviews were re-examined to determine whether or not the interviewee mentioned a specific area. Table 4.10 shows the areas for which each interview was examined. It also shows the number of responses by each group of interviewees. Administrative Support The categories were listed in the order of frequency of response. Numerical frequency was an indicator of importance, but should not be taken as an absolute. The least frequently mentioned category is administrative support, mentioned only nine times, but almost always mentioned in a negative context. Had a lack of administrative support been demonstrated by many principals, the category would have been mentioned more fre— quently. Duties All people interviewed said that the teacher aides had become, and would continue to become, more like teachers as time Table 4.10. ”4’ Categories Duties Training Threatenei teachers . Role expe I tions Respect e acceptane { i l Team function I Personal I characte istics Communi< tion Career ladders Nnghbc hood 1 Dncmj Fundin Over EGGPEE ! aides PGI‘SQ] Satis facti Admin tiva \ 138 Table 4.10.——Categories mentioned in interviews. Respondents Indicating Category Aides Totals Superin— Coord— Categories tendents Principals inators Teachers Duties 4 7 3 18 Training 4 7 3 l7 Threatened teachers 4 5 3 12 Role expecta- tionS' 3 3 3 11 Respect and acceptance 2 5 3 9 Team functions 3 6 2 ll Personality character— istics 3 4 0 ll Communica- tion 0 4 3 9 Career ladders 4 4 2 7 Neighbor— hood 3 3 O 6 Discipline O 3 O 5 Funding 2 2 l 6 Over aggressive aides D 2 0 3 Personal satis— faction O 2 O 1 Administra- thm mmpmfi 2 2 O 2 17 17 12 12 12 10 ll 49 48 36 32 31 3O 27 26 23 19 16 16 l4 l4 ,' fluff-”Jr“ went on. C aide would I clerical. attendance materials, reading at T gory. RE and junie I that tra: the aide upgradin teacher one left Practic nurse, to schc Threate the su most c I that ; aide Dupa mentj aides 139 went on. One aide and one teacher said that the role of the aide would not become more like a teacher but would remain clerical.l Although the aide mentioned routine duties such as attendance, permission slips, dittos, bulletin boards, A-V materials, etc., she did say she would be doing some work with reading and math groups. Training and Career Ladder Training was the next most frequently mentioned cate— gory. Remarks stressed the need for in—service, pre—service, and junior college courses for aides. All five groups stated that training had to be provided for the teacher as well as for the aide. The career ladder, personal improvements, and general upgrading for the aides through training, would continue. One teacher stated she was working with her third aide. The first one left because she got a better job, the second one took a practical nursing course in the evenings and became a practical nurse, and the third aide was presently thinking of returning to school. Threatened Teachers The threatened teacher category was mentioned by all of the superintendents, all the coordinators, most of the principals, most of the teachers, and many of the aides. The groups agreed that it was the teacher's responsibility to make the teacher— aide relationship successfhl, but that her training did not Prepare her to do it. Fourteen people, most of whom were aides, mentioned that difficulty came from the over—aggressiveness of aides. —; ‘ VTLF“”V’— 1: Role Expec Th was stress did a larg felt the I than the should be be free e Team Fun I ‘ the aide : mentione \ worker 1 the tea] and dir did 11in betweer diffici Pew Wanna} T160635 maJ'or tEach 140 Role Expectations The need for clear expectations of the role of the aide was stressed repeatedly. All the coordinators mentioned it as did a large majority of teachers and aides. Teachers and aides felt the clarity of expectations for aides was more important than the actual expectations themselves. Definite guidelines should be treated as guidelines; and the aide and teacher must be free enough to change the guidelines. Team Functions and Communication In order to be able to make the changes, teachers and the aides should function as a team. Of the thirty people who mentioned team functions, only one, an aide, thought a boss- worker relationship was preferred. A necessary condition of the team function is the need for communication——open, honest, and direct. All the coordinators stressed communications as did nine teachers and ten aides. A lack of communication between the teacher and aide was the major factor leading to difficult situations. Personality Characteristics Mutual respect, acceptance, organizational ability, warmth, maturity, and a sense of humor were also listed as necessary ingredients to a good working relationship. No major differences were made between characteristics for teachers or characteristics for aides. cinder '. In appeared. freely in informatic the effect able to ce teachers 1 a much he to their economic out that and that 5 girls, we coming 01 l five tea deeper p 30mg tea the ehil did admj teachem 141 Community Increased awareness and concern for the neighborhood appeared. Although some problems arose where aides talked too freely in the community, or where aides were "gathering up information" to be used against the school later, by and large, the effect of aides on the community was positive. Aides were able to communicate with parents on a personal level where teachers and school principals were not. Aides were able to gain a much better understanding of teachers and to communicate this to their fellow parents. In one school located in a low socio- economic neighborhood an aide said that she was amazed to find out that the teachers really worked hard. The aide's perception and that of her neighbors was observing "these pretty young girls, well—dressed going into the building looking fresh and coming out the same way." Discipline Discipline was mentioned as a problem by eight aides and five teachers. Discipline, however, was felt to be part of a deeper problem related to role expectations and communication. Some teachers complained that their aides would not discipline the children, while other teachers objected because their aides did administer discipline. Some aides complained that the teachers wanted them to discipline children, and other aides were unhappy because teachers didn't want them to discipline children. Finances One that the a was whethe hire more uncertain, money shm m E satisfact back to v ableg" "‘ children aides as foci; 1“Elated 0f aide self~g by aid Hides 142 Finances One respondent remarked that originally, teachers thought that the aide program was a waste of money. Presently the concern was whether or not there would be enough money available to hire more aides in the future. The availability of funds was uncertain, but no uncertainty existed as to whether or not the money should be used for aides. Personal Satisfaction Eleven aides digressed to speak of their own personal satisfactions. "I’ve loved every minute of it and would come back to work on a voluntary basis if there is no money avail- able;” T’It is such a wonderful experience, learning with the children.” The aide program has done a great deal for the aides as well as for the children. Phase III——Ouantification of Aide Performance The third phase of the investigation had two major foci: To attempt to quantify specific aide behaviors that were related to the teaching process, and to assess the sentiments of aides. To test, at an exploratory level, the relationship of self—concept and dogmatism to the performance of teaching tasks by aides. Aide Performance of Duties Four areas of aide behavior plus the sentiments of the aides were investigated. In addition to sentiments the areas of pares—eseale . fig: behavior w ‘Tearniflg "self-asse A to measur Each item aide-part eiiszrali to "Neve: Teacher- duties t five gm scale, I Nationa and aid as teac accomp] Items group , GPOUp tasks \ discu hives 143 behavior were "teacher only tasks," "planning activities," "learning reinforcement duties," "home counseling duties," and "self-assessment." A seventy—nine item Aide Questionnairel was developed to measure the frequency of behaviors performed by the aide. Each item identified a specific act or feeling. Teachers and aide-partners each completed a questionnaire in terms of the aide-partner's performance and attitude. Responses were limited to "Never," "Seldom," "Often," and "Very Often." Teacher-Only Tasks In an earlier study Moon2 identified four groups of duties that should be performed only by teachers. Moon asked five groups of people to rank a series of items on a five—point scale, with the low numerals representing teacher~only duties. Nationally known experts, college teachers, principals, teachers and aides comprised each group. Thirty-nine items were identified as teacher-only tasks. Differentiation among the items was accomplished by the use of group mean scores for each item. Items in the fourth group had higher mean scores than any other group, but all items in the group were teacher-only tasks. Group l——Mean Scores of 2.0 or Less Data in Table 4.11 indicate agreement on teacher only _ tasks between aides and teachers in the project, and respondents 1 The full development of the Aide Questionnaire was discussed in Chapter III. Moon's study was discussed in Chapter III of this investigation. Ihllllllllllllr"' Table 4.11 __—_————-' __._-——— It AB-Done s< ning of f ulum Si-Introd concept t Il-Consti bl-Set c1 subjecti 63-Condu conferen in regar pline 19-Carr: in toga: iveness 9-Cond Confere in re ga Perform 79-Inte find ing 75'Aidi tion 0 dent t \ Total Pet C \ 144 Table 4.11. Teacher—only items--mean scores 2.0 or less. Teachers Aides Item Na 8 0 v0 N s 0 v0 48—Done semester plan- ning of formal curric- ulum 11 O 1 1 11 2 0 l 53—Introduced a math concept to a class 7 3 1 2 8 4 2 0 71-Constructed tests 10 9 3 O 6 6 2 O 61—Set criteria for a subjective test 10 2 1 O 11 1 2 0 63-Conducted parent conferences at school in regard to disci— pline 9 2 2 O 12 2 O O 19=Carried on research in regard to the effect- iveness of a program 6 4 2 l 7 5 2 O 9~Conducted parent conferences at school in regard to academic performances 10 O 2 1 10 3 1 O 79—Interpreted research findings 8 2 3 O 10 3 l O 75—Aided in the evalua- tion of intern or stu— dent teachers 11 0 1 1 11 O 2 1 Total Responses 82 13 16 6 86 - 26 12 2 Per Centb .71 .11 .1u .05 .68 .21 .10 .01 aN—Never, S—Seldom, O—Often, VO-Very Often bRounded to two places. to Moon's only tasks i were sacre ‘ the teache l aides on a Subject performed ' I duties tI ences af‘ in the " raported conferer quest 101 ‘ Group T Table L in that I ‘ iT1 Tab ProjeQ i teache ‘ 1.12 . inclue mure Table that were 145 to Moon's questionnaire. Project aides did not perform teacher only taSks frequently. Items with mean scores of 2.0 or less were sacrosanct to teachers, yet each task was reported by either the teachers or the aides as being performed by a minimum of two aides on an "often—very often" basis. Item 6l——”Set Criteria for a Subjective Test" was the only item reported by teachers as performed by only one aide on an "often-very often" basis. Aides perceived a lower frequency of performance of duties than did the teachers. Item 63—-"Conducted Parent Confer- ences after School in Regard to Discipline"-—had no responses in the "often-very often" column of the aides, but two teachers reported that their aides conducted or participated in parent conferences regarding discipline. One teacher added to the questionnaire, "in conjunction with me.” Group Two——Mean Scores of 2.0 or Less, Excluding Experts Aides’ activities that related to items included in Table 4.12 were consistent with the opinions of Moon's groups in that the items were teacher—only tasks. The first six items in Table 4.12 reflect a lower frequency of occurrence by the project aides than the last three tasks. The perceptions of teachers and aides were similar. The group of items in Table 4.12 were performed more frequently by project aides than items included in Table 4.11. The ”Often—very often” columns received more responses in this set of nine items than items included in Table 4.11. Project teachers and aides agreed with Moon’s groups that items with mean scores of 2.0 or 1ess-—experts excluded, were primarily teacher—only tasks, but less teacher—only than Table 4.12 fi- Ite SIT-Done uI 25-Initia‘ tions in i of the su bh-Done d for a suit uous) IT-Develt in instri methodoli 27-Initi curricul 78-Chose material term has 69‘3618! Present and leg 35-Chos motiyat 7~Cons Scales \ Total PEP Ce \ r1. 146 Table 4.12.—~Teacher-only items-—mean scores 2.0 or less, excluding experts. Teachers Aides Item Na 3 0 v0 N s 0 v0 30—Done unit planning 10 l 1 1 8 3 2 1 25—Initiated innova— tions in the structure of the subject matter 6 4 2 l 9 l 3 l 64—Done daily planning for a subject (contin— uous) 7 3 2 l 7 l 5 l 74-Developed innovations in instructional methodology 6 5 2 0 11 2 0 1 27-Initiated major curriculum change 11 l l O 10 2 2 O 78—Chosen instructional materials on a long— term basis 9 3 l O 8 5 1 O 69—Selected methods of presenting materials and lessons 6 3 3 l 5 4 3 2 35-Chosen appropriate motivational techniques 2 5 5 1 4 5 4 1 7—Constructed grading scales 2 2 8 l 5 1 5 3 Total Responses 59 27 25 6 67 24 25 10 Per Centb .50 .23 .21 .05 .53 .19 .20 .08 aN—Never, S—Seldom, O—Often, VO—Very Often bRounded to two places. items rece Most of ti half of ti Gram Thr I TSper ce performer groups 01 teacher- almost h basis. ”Enforce teacher in item having basis. teache and "v formed some n 147 items receiving mean scores of 2.0 from all of Moon's groups. Most of the items in the second group were performed by nearly half of the aides at least once. Group Three——Mean Scores between 2.0 and 2.5 Forty-seven per cent of the teachers‘ responses and 45 per cent of the aides’ responses indicated that project aides performed tasks in group three more frequently than tasks in groups one or two, but that group three duties were primarily teacher—only. Three items (44, 39, and 12) were performed by almost half of the paraprofessionals on an ”often—very often" basis. Item 44 "Set Discipline Expectations” and Item 39 ”Enforced Classroom Discipline" actually had a majority of bggh teacher and aide responses in the ”often—very often" columns. The "never" columns contained a majority of responses in items 6, 45, and 46. Three or four aides were reported as having performed items 6, 45, and 46 on an "Often—very often" basis. More than fifty—five per cent of the responses of teachers and aides in group three were in the ”seldom," "often" and "very often" columns. More than half of the aides per- formed the teacher—only items of group three—~some infrequently, some more frequently. War-7"” " Table 4.15 _——_———- ’— Ite TT-Set di expectati TS-Writte materials 6-Group after di been mad 39-Enfor discipli lZ-Made ments Tb-Givei basis 0 test wh have be \ Total F PET Cer \ Group Except in gm the " toach howe TEer aides 148 Table 4.13.-—Teacher-on1y items--mean scores between 2.0 and 2.5. Teachers Aides Items N8 s 0 v0 N s 0 v0 44-Set discipline expectations 2 2 8 1 5 1 5 3 45-Written programmed materials 9 1 2 1 8 2 4 O 6-Grouped pupils after diagnosis has been made 8 2 3 O 10 1 l 2 39-Enforced classroom discipline 0 2 7 4 O 2 7 5 12-Made up daily assign- ments 6 2 3 2 5 2 5 2 46-Given grades on the basis of a subjective test when the criteria have been set 8 U 4 l 8 2 4 0 Total Responses 33 9 27 9 36 IO 26 12 Per Centb .42 .12 .35 .12 .u3 .12 .31 .1u aN-Never, S-Seldom, O—Often, VO—Very Often. bRounded to two places. Group Four--Mean Scores between 2.0 and 2.5, Except for Experts The percentage of responses in the "never" column is lower in group four than in any other group. The combined results of the "never" and "seldom" columns constitute 50 per cent of the teachersT responses and 54 per cent of the aides. Item 70 "Made home visitations to become aware of home needs" was the only item receiving a majority of "never" responses from both teachers and aides. Table 4.14 Item lS-Ordere tional ai Sb-Develc tional ai D-Planne in one 31 T-Chosei material: day has i SS-Estab room rou 77-Enfor 21-Diagm ing difi 73-Prese tion of problem: 3Li'lntre lesson SS-Taug lesson 57-Cond Ship cl 52-Cour iDdivie 22~Admj T0 evai SUhjeQ- Url-Eva Citize 70-uaa T0 bec home 1' \ T0tal PET O \ 149 Table 4.14.-—Teacher-only items--mean scores between 2.0 and 2.5, except for experts. Teachers Aides Items Na 3 0 v0 N s 0 v0 13-Ordered instruc— tional aids 5 3 4 l 6 3 4 l 56—Developed instruc- tional aids 3 6 3 1 5 4 3 2 29-P1anned for one day in one subject area 5 4 2 2 6 4 2 2 4—Chosen instructional materials on a day—to— day basis 4 6 2 3 6 2 3 55-Established class— room routine 4 4 l 4 2 7 l 77-Enf0rced discipline 0 1 6 6 O l 7 5 21—Diagnosed minor learn— ing difficulties 2 7 3 2 2 8 2 73-Prescribed for correc— tion of minor learning problems 2 7 3 1 5 3 5 1 34—Introduced a reading lesson 0 5 1 4 2 7 1 59—Taught an art lesson 5 4 3 1 4 4 4 2 57-Conducted a penman— ship class 6 2 5 O 5 7 2 O 52—Counseled with 2 O 9 2 2 4 5 3 individual pupils 22-Administered tests to evaluate in a subject area 8 l 4 2 7 l 42—Evaluated the citizenship of a pupil 2 70-Made home visitations to become aware of home needs 10 1 2 0 l3 1 0 0 Total Responses 55 43 73 24 66 49 69 26 Per Centb .28 .22 .37 .12 .31 .23 .33 .12 aN—Never. S—Seldom, O-Often, VO-Very Often. bRounded to two places. A: inany 0t project p Moon's gr fonned g1 Learning with ind were des Included conducti and aide tasks 0 of the columns WEI‘E 0L bighes‘ from t‘ by the Peceiv the "r "lntre muSiQ very by th 150 Aides performed group four tasks more often than tasks in any other group. Group four tasks were considered by the project personnel to be less teacher—only in nature than did Moon’s groups. Approximately 70 per cent of the aides per- formed group four tasks at least on a "seldom" basis. Learning Reinforcement Activities Activities where the paraprofessional worked directly with individuals or groups of students in learning situations were designated as learning reinforcement activities (LRA). Included as LRA activities were activities which ranged from conducting a drill lesson to introducing a new concept. Teachers and aides perceived more than half the aides as performing LRA tasks on an "often—very often" basis. More than 70 per cent of the teachers' responses were in the "seldom—often—very often" columns, while more than 75 per cent of the aides’ responses were out of the "never" column. Item 38 "Conducted a for-fun music class” received the highest amount of "nevers” by the teachers and the second highest from the aides. Items 34 and 53 received seven "never” responses by the teachers. Items 34, 38, and 53 were the only duties receiving more than half of the responses of the teachers in the ”never" column. Only two of the twenty activities, Item 53 ”Introducing math concepts" and Item 38 "Conducted a for—fun music class" were performed by less than four aides on an "often- very often” frequency, which indicated a high degree of performance by the aides in this category. The the teache: Items 38 a: "Short Ter and Item 6 tasks. Th the ”otter percentage I1 number of a reading the lesso responses than the approxima an "otter to math \ teachers "Introdu. "nevep-s activiti fre quent 8901: ion were no.1 ducted i the tea 151 The aides were more restrictive in their responses than the teachers to LRA activities. Aides agreed with teachers that Items 38 and 53 were performed infrequently, but added Item ”1 "Short Term Field Trips, " Item 57 "Conducted penmanship classes" and Item 67 ”Instructed a P. E. Lesson” as infrequently performed tasks. The cumulative percentage of the aidesr responses in the "often-very often" columns was slightly lower than the percentage of the teachers in the "often—very often columns." Item 2” "Conducted reading groups'T received a greater number of "often—very often" responses than Item 3H ”Introduced a reading lesson," indicating that teachers usually introduced the lesson and the aides followed through. The teachers' responses supported the "teacher only" aspect of Item 34 more than the responses of aides. Teachers and aides agreed that approximately half of the aides introduced reading lessons on an "often-very often" frequency. The three items pertaining to math (14, 53, and 72) indicated the same general approach-- teachers introducing and aides following through. Item 53 "Introduced a math concept to a class" had more responses in the "never—seldom’categories than either of the other two math activities. Aides were reported as ”introducing" concepts more frequently in reading than in math. LRA activities were intended to represent a wide cross— Section of duties related to learning reinforcement. Many items were not applicable to particular grade levels. Item 57 ”Con— ducted a Penmanship Class” would hardly be conducted by either the teacher or the aide in kindergarten classes. The total Frlh"?’”""' ‘ l msponses cate most learning Table H.Z __——— __———- It B-Condi class lH-Condi math fa lG-Cond period l7-C0nc direct 23-Tutl in sub ZH-Con groups 34*lnl lessor 36-D0 helpi 37~Ca SPell 33‘C( musi( 39*3 diSc hl-c tern 00m ind M3. ing 152 responses in the "often—very often" columns of Table 4.15 indi- cate most aides performed a wide variety of tasks related to learning reinforcement. Table 4.15.——Learning reinforcement activities. Teachers Aides Items Na 3 0 v0 N s 0 v0 8—Conducted a reading class 3 l 5 4 3 l 4 6 l4-Conducted drill on math facts 2 3 5 3 3 3 6 2 lB-Conducted opening period of day 2 5 3 3 l 4 7 2 17—Conducted supervised direct study time 0 0 9 4 l 3 7 3 23—Tutored individuals in subject areas 0 0 8 5 2 0 5 7 24—Conducted reading groups 3 l 5 4 3 1 6 4 34*Introduced a reading lesson 7 O 5 l 4 2 7 l 36—Done desk—to—desk helping of students 0 1 4 8 O O 4 10 37—Carried out a spelling drill 5 2 4 2 3 5 3 3 38—Conducted a for-fun music class 3 l O 7 6 l O 39*Enforced classroom discipline 0 2 7 4 O 2 7 5 4l—Carried out short— term field trips in connection with class instruction 5 4 2 2 6 6 2 O 43—Conducted a spell— 5 2 5 l 5 4 l 4 ing class Table 4.: ____—-—- __————- I _— 52*Couns individt 53*lntrt concept 57*Cond ship cl ‘ 59*Taug lesson 67-lnsi lesson 72-Wor on dri additi 77*Eni \ Total Per 0 \ ast PEsp ADD] tad 153 Table 4.15.—-Continued Teachers Aides Items N8 S 0 V0 N S 0 V0 52*Counseled with individual pupils 2 O 9 2 2 4 5 3 53*Introduced a math concept to a class 7 3 l 2 8 4 2 0 57*Conducted a penman— ship class 6 2 5 0 5 7 2 0 59*Taught an art lesson 5 4 3 l 4 4 4 2 67-Instructed a P.E. lesson 6 3 4 O 6 6 2 0 72—Worked with a group on drill on basic addition facts 6 2 2 3 2 3 8 l 77*Enforced discipline 0 l 5 7 O 1 8 5 Total Responses 73 39 92 56 65 66 91 58 Per Centb .28 .15 .35 .22 .23 .24 .32 .21 aN—Never, S—Seldom, O—Often, VO—Very Often. bRounded to two places. *Identified as teacher—only task. Planning Activities i Each planning activity (PA) had previously been identified as teacher—only by Moon. Slightly more than 50 per cent of the responses of teachers and aides were in the T'never" column. Approximately one half of the aides performed a variety of these tasks. Frnpfir———«v' Table 4. I. 4*Chose material day basi 7*Const scales 12*Made assignme 29*Planr in one E 30*Done 35*Chose motivat: 48*Done HMgof ulum 56*Deve tion ai 51*Set SUblect L 54*Done for a s 69*Sele Present and let - 71*Cons i 74*Deve tions j methOdl 73*Cho materi term-b \ TQ‘tal P9P Ce \ 154 Table 4.16.—-Planning activities. Teachers Aides Items Na 3 0 v0 N s 0 v0 4*Chosen instructional materials on a day—to- day basis 2 4 5 2 3 6 2 3 7*Constructed grading scales 7 2 4 O 11 l 1 1 12*Made up daily assignments 6 2 3 2 5 2 5 2 29*Planned for one day in one subject area 5 3 3 2 6 4 2 2 30*Done unit planning 10 l l l 8 3 2 1 35*Chosen appropriate motivational techniques 2 5 5 1 4 5 4 l 48*Done semester plan- ning of formal curric— ulum 11 O l l 11 2 0 1 56*Developed instruc- tion aids 3 6 3 1 5 4 3 2 61*Set criteria for a subjective test 10 2 l 0 ll 1 2 D 64*Done daily planning for a subject continuous 7 3 2 1 7 l 5 l 69*Selected methods of presenting materials and lessons 6 3 3 l 4 5 3 2 71*Constructed tests 10 O 3 O 6 6 2 0 74*Developed innova— tions in instructional methodology 6 5 2 0 ll 2 0 1 78*Chosen instructional materials on a long— term-basis 9 3 l 0 8 5 l 0 Total Responses 94 39 37 l2 100 47 32 17 Per Centb .52 .21 .20 .07 .51 .24 .16 .09 aN—Never, S—Seldom, O—Often, VO—Very Often. bRounded to two places. *Task identified as "teacher—only" I being in unit plat curricul Item 71 ‘ in inst: materiai teacher \ teacher . of test materie Self-A: to inv I The aj teache I cmmh Resea t0 ha enabl the 1 the 1 recs that QUE] 155 Certain tasks appeared to be uniformly conceived as being in the province of the teacher only. Item 30 ”Has done unit planning," Item 48 ”Has done semester planning of formal curriculum," Item 61 "Set criteria for subjective tests," Item 71 "Constructed tests," Item 74 "Developed innovations in instructional methodology," and Item 78 ”Chose instructional materials on a long-term basis," were reported by aides and teachers as being infrequently performed. PA done primarily by teachers were the long—term type of planning and the development of tests. Aides were more involved in finding instructional materials and planning daily or short-term assignments. Self—Assessment Activities One of the unique aspects of the project was the attempt to involve aides in a series of self—assessment activities (SAS). The aides were trained to act as observers and recorders of teacher behavior. The paraprofessionals were also trained to complete the matrix developed by the Cooperative Educational Research Laboratory, Incorporated (CERLI). The objective was to have the teachers and aides work together as a team to enable the teachers to make more accurate interpretations of the teacher behavior. Table 4.17 illustrated the responses to the self—assessment items. The "never" columns of both teachers and aides responses received less than 40 per cent of the total responses indicating that most aides did perform duties in this area, even if infre— quently. The activity with the most responses in the "often— Table 4.1 __——-—' __.—-—' It< S-Used 1 assessme to help lD-Initi with my thought change 5 actions Edna with he‘ ways sh effecti il-Sugg teacher ment te assista ”U—Beei teache: I0 mp 49 ~13 is or fai conduc SO-Dis the “kg with] 51~In with thong goals S4~Pj CERL] \ Tota: Per 1 \ 156 Table 4.17.-—Self-assessment activities. Teachers Aides Items Na 3 0. v0 N _ s 0. v0 5-Used other self- assessment techniques to help my teacher 4 5 3 1 4 6 2 2 lO-Initiated discussions with my teacher where I thought she should change some of her actions 8 3 2 O 10 4 O 0 18-Discussed children with her and suggested ways she could be more effective 1 3 3 6 l 2 7 4 31-Suggested to my teacher other assess- ment techniques for her assistance 6 2 5 O 4 7 3 O 40-Been asked by the teacher for suggestions to improve her teaching 5 4 3 1 6 4 4 0 49—Discussed the success or failure of teacher conducted lessons 7 4 2 0 6 6 2 0 SO-Discussed results of the teacher's matrix with her 4 6 3 0 5 7 2 O 51-Initiated discussions with my teacher where I thought she should change goals 8 5 0 0 10 4 O 0 S4-Pilled out the CERLI matrix 3 6 2 2 2 9 2 l Total Responses 46 38 23 10 48 49 22 7 Per Centb .39 .32 .20 .08 .38 .39 .18 .06 aN—Never, S-Seldom, O—Often, VO-Véry Often. bRounded to two places. very ofti about ch objectiw majoritp the lars marked ' (10 and assessn ment te use otl the ait often-' assess 1% heme. calls Schooj of th forms of ti the ; "LiS‘ stud 157 very often" columns was Item 18 which pertained to discussions about children. Item 54 ”Filled out the CERLI matrix" was a specific objective of the project. The matrix was filled out by the majority of the aides. The "Seldom" columns of Item 54 received the largest number of responses, but four teachers and three aides marked the "often-very often" columns. Two items concerned with aide initiation of discussion (10 and 51) indicated most aides did not initiate teacher assessment conversations. A few aides did suggest other assess- ment techniques to the teachers (Item 31). Peur aides did not use other techniques (Item 5) according to the teachers and to the aides. The 60 per cent of the responses in the "seldom— often-very often" columns demonstrate that the practice of self— assessment had taken place. Home Counseling Duties The role of the paraprofessional as a liaison person between the school and home included duties such as making house calls, meeting with parents at school, and discussing family, school, or community problems. Table 4.18 indicates the responses of the teachers and aides to the home counseling activities per— formed by aides. The high percentage of responses in the "never” columns of the teachers and the aides indicated that the objective of the aides serving as home counselors was not met. Item 32 "Listened to problems and troubles of the families of our students" and Item 66 "Worked on my own time as home-school ‘ w”F""' Table 4.1 __._———- __.————— Ite 32—Liste1 and troul fmnilies dents 47-Been some con agency, etc.) it SS-Cond1 conferei to comm 60-Cond confere regard Progres 52~Acte Office] 63"“ch confer in reg Pline Bfi-Wor time a liaisc 70*Mat t0 her needs 75-C0 Conic in re ~..__ Total PEP ( \ 158 Table 4.18.—-Home counseling activities. Teachers Aides Items Na 3 0 v0 N ‘gs 0 v0 32-Listened to problems and troubles of the families of our stu- dents 2 6 4 1 2 6 5 1 47-Been able to make some contacts (social agency, health work, etc.) for families 9 3 l O 10 4 O D 58—Conducted parent conferences in regard to community problems 12 l O 60—Conducted parent conferences in homes in regard to academic progress 10 62—Acted as a truant officer ll 2 O 63*-Conducted parent conferences at school in regard to disci— pline 9 66-Worked on my own time as a home~school liaison person 5 2 70*Made home visitations to become aware of home needs 10 1 2 0 13 l O O 76-Conducted parent conferences in homes in regard to discipline 12 l 0 0 13 1 O 0 Total Responses 80 20 13 4 92 22 8 4 Per Centb .68 .17 .11 .03 .73 .18 .06 .03 * a N—Never, S-Seldom, 0-Often, VO-Very Often. b Rounded to two places. *Task identified as "teacher—only" liaison 1 often" c was SEED "often-v Sentimer between feelings ad pan often"¢ positiv I operate and Ite lll‘sem- PaPport was in( the ait Work w: their ~ succes friend more f the ”C for t} thBir 159 liaison person" received more responses in the "often—very often" columns than did the remainder of activities. No activity was seen as being performed by the majority of aides on an "often—very often" basis. Sentiments One intent of the project was to develop a team operation between each teacher and aide partner, and to develop positive feelings among the entire staff. Responses from both teachers and paraprofessionals were predominantly in the "often—very often" columns which implied the project maintained a high, positive degree of warmth and friendliness. Item 1 "Pelt that my teacher was a partner and we operated as a team," Item 11 "wanted to change teacher partner," and Item 33, "Pelt closer to my teacher partner than to the in-service people" were included to determine the degree of rapport between the aides and the teacher partners. Item 33 was included as a high degree of rapport was established between the aides and the in~service people before the aides began to work with their teachers. The development of stronger ties with their teachers than with the in—service people illustrated the successful accomplishment of the development of team feelings and friendly attitudes. The aides responded in the "often-very often" columns more frequently than the teachers. The combined percentage in the "often—very often" columns for the aides was 97 per cent and for the teachers 87 per cent. Teachers were more hesitant to say their aides felt positive about the project than were the aides. .w . Table 4.l li l-Felt ' was a pa' operated Z-Thoug teachers paraproi 3-Felt likes me 11bwant. teacher year 15-Foun PTOgran ZO-Beli childre because with t] 26-h... encour me to 0f tas 28-Fel aide r 33~Iel teach the I 6S-Fe respe W0rke 68~Re \ Tota: Per I \ tabl "0ft l60 Table 4.19.—-Sentiments. Teachers Aides Items Na 8 0 v0 N s 0 v0 1—Felt that my teacher was a partner and we operated as a team 0 O 5 8 O O 5 9 2—Thought that all teachers should have a paraprofessional 1 l 5 6 O O 2 l2 3—Pelt that my teacher likes me as a person 0 O 5 8 O O 3 ll llbWanted to change teacher-partner next year 0 O 1 12 1 O 1 12 15-Pound the in—service program very helpful 1 2 4 6 l O 5 8 20—Believed that the children gained much because of my working with the class 1 0 6 6 O O 7 7 26—Thought my teacher encouraged and permitted me to try a wide variety of tasks 1 l 7 4 O O 5 9 28-Eelt I want to be an aide next year 33—Pe1t closer to my teacher-partner than to the in-service people 2 1 5 5 l l 9 3 65—Felt that my teacher respects me as a fellow worker 2 O 3 8 O O 5 9 68-Really enjoyed my job 1 O 2 10 O 0‘ l 13 Total Responses ll 6 47 79 3 l 45 105 Per CentC .08 .04 .33 .55 .02 .01 .29 .68 aN—Never, S—Seldom, O-Often, VO-Very Often bResponses reversed in order to be consistent with rest of table, i.e., a "Never” response was scored as "very Often" and "Often" was scored as "Seldom," etc. CRounded to two places. Both grou team oper throughor relevanc to aide Hypothes and dogr the mea: hypothe Multipl hypothe null fr below. HO: R 440i Correi Hypot (1b) , thell but 161 Both groups agree that aides perceived the development of good team operations and aides maintained high positive attitudes throughout the project. Relevance of Self-Concept and Dogmatism A series of hypotheses was developed to determine the relevance of self-concept and dogmatism to aide sentiments and to aide performance of duties related to the teaching process. Hypotheses l and 2, which dealt with changes in self-concept and dogmatism were tested by determining differences between the means. Hypotheses 3a, 3b, 3c, and all other b, c, d hypotheses (4-17) were tested with Pearson r correlations. Mu1tiple regression analyses were conducted on the series of hypotheses from 4 through 17. All hypotheses were tested in the null form, but were written in research form in the analyses below. Hypotheses 4 through 17 were tested in the form: H : R = O. Hypotheses l, 2, and 3 Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 measured changes in and the correlation of self-concept and dogmatism. Hypotheses la, 1b, and 1c The total group of teachers and aides (Hla), the aides (lb), and the teachers ch) would indicate positive changes in their self—concept scores during the project. Positive changes in the total group scores were indicated, but positive changes were not indicated in either sub-group, at"?! ’ teachers ( lb and lc T aides att The group that ach The comb signific Table 4. —.—. _ Type Pe Teacher Aides Total 1 \ been the indi eac‘~ H2a 162 teachers or aides. Hypothesis 1a was retained and hypotheses lb and 1c were rejected. The change in the self—concept scores of the group of aides attained a level of statistical significance beyond .20. The group of teachers indicated changes in self-concept scores that achieved statistical significance beyond the .10 level. The combined scores of both groups reached a level of st significance beyond .05. atistical Table 4.20.——Pre and postutest differences--TSCSa and RDSb. Type Personnel TSCS RDS N t—value N t-value Teachers 13 l.37lC 8 —.957 Aides 13 1.041‘51 12 -.09L1 Total personnel 26 1.7478 20 -.733 aTSCS——Tennessee Self—Concept Scale bRDS-~Rokeach Dogmatism Scale C'p < .05 dp< .05 ep < .05 Hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c The total group of tea chers and aides combined (H2a), the group of aides (H2b), and the group of teachers (H2c) would indicate reduction in dogmatic at titudes during the projects. Hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c were rejected as tHv each were below a significance lev alues from e1 of .05. H2a, H2b, and H2c each were negative. The t—values from m_-' FT- “3:;I. I hpotheses Thu 08b), and tions betw TI of aides 1 the null l was not r .Ul was a hia was I was reje( and the ' Table ll. \ \_ m Teacher: Aides Total P ~_______ H 0th form nUll PEgpe 163 Hypotheses 3a, 3b, and 3c The total group of teachers and aides (H3a), the aides (H3b), and the teachers (H3a) would indicate negative correla- tions between self—concept scores and dogmatism scores. The correlation between the RDS and TSCS for the group of aides reached a level of significance beyond the .005 level; the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was not rejected. A level of statistical significance beyond .01 was attained for the null hypothesis H33, and therefore H3a was rejected and the alternative was not rejected. H30 was rejected due to the low correlation between the RDS scores and the TSCS scores of the teachers. Table 4.2l.--Corre1ations between TSCS and RDSa Correlation Type Personnel N Coefficients Teachers 9 -.291 Aides 1o -. 721b Total Personnel 23 --.4911C —_ aPost—tests only bp < .005 Cp< .01 Hypotheses 4—17 The following series of hypotheses are stated in literary form. For testing, each hypothesis was expressed and tested in null form, as described in Chapter Three (R.= O). A multiple I'ez's’ression analysis was performed on each set of hypotheses(a): 1 and aide and dogma' were hmothese 4. A gre woul< a. “411 f< H4d al: aides Statis in res and u Varia Signj / smalj mult BQQQ 164 and aide (b), teacher (c), and team (d), measures of self—concept and dogmatism were individually correlated within each set. Hypotheses Related to Self-Concept Hypotheses 4a, 4b, 4c, and 4d 4. A greater frequency of acts related to the teaching process would be demonstrated by aides who a. indicated more positive self—concepts than aides who indicated less positive self-concepts b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self-concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self- concepts c. worked in teams with higher combined self-concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts A significance level of .078 was attained for H43, in null form, which was not rejected. The null forms of H4c and H4d also were not rejected. The self—concept scores of the aides correlated with the combined total scores at a level of statistical significance beyond the .05 level; H4b was retained in research or alternate form. Discussion.--The multiple regression equation is additive, and usually reflects a level of significance greater than any one variable. The lower significance of H4a (p (.10) compared to the Significance of H4b (P‘<.05) appeared to be a function of the 1 small number of pairs of teachers and aides (13). Although the multiple regression equation (H4a) increased the amount of accountable variation compared with that of the simple correlation Ll... (H4b) the able vari: required cance of which was of the c Table 4. Test Measures Multipll Aide TS Teacher Team TS \ Combin QUIIQE than and aids did Sig the 165 (H4b) the degrees of freedom of the error term, and the account— able variation term, resulted in affecting lower P values than required for statistical significance. The statistical signifi- cance of the multiple correlation was determined from an P value which was computed from a larger denominator than the denominator of the corresponding t value derived for the simple correlation. Table 4.22.-—Corre1ations between TSCS and total responses. Test Combinedab Aide Total Teacher~ Measures Total Responses Responses Total Responses Multiple R .716d .336 .714d Aide TSCS .520C .208 .532C Teacher TSCS .023 -.085 .094 Team TSCS .334 .057 .398d aHypotheses 4a, 4b, 4c, and 4d were tested using the Combined Total Responses. bN = 13 Cp <.05 dp(.10 The teachers reported that aides with more positive self— concepts did conduct more activities listed on the questionnaire than aides with less positive self-concepts. no significant correlation between the aidesT performance of duties and the teachers' self-concept scores. The self—concepts of the aides played a larger part in the performance of these duties than did the teachers' self-concept, according to the teachers. No Significant correlations were developed between the responses of the aides and the TSCS scores. The teachers reported Hypothese 5. A gm acti a. signifi I and H56 with t} reject: Table I § Test h \ hide T Teache Team '. hdth \ LRAR 166 Hypotheses 5a, 5b, 5c, and 5d 5. A greater frequency of acts related to learning reinforcement activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self-concepts than aides who indicated less positive self~concepts. b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self-concepts ’than aides who worked with teachers with lower self- concepts c. worked in teams with higher combined self-concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts Not rejected because insufficient levels of statistical significance were attained were the null hypotheses H5a, H5c, and H5d. Aides self—concept scores correlated significantly with the learning reinforcement activities (LRA) and led to the rejection of the null form of H5b. Table 4.23.--Correlations between TSCS and learning reinforcement activities. Combined LRAab Aide LRA Teacher LRA Test Measures Responses Responses Responses Aide TSCS .599(:1 .260 .695C Teacher TSCS .024 —.022 .059 Team TSCS .364 .130 .450d Multiple R .605 .261 .710C aHypotheses 5a, b, c, and d were tested with Combined LRA Responses. bN = 13 pairs Cp 4.01 dp ( .05 63p ( .10 D concepts TSCS 5001 the mult: appeared on page with hot response of the ; than th‘ by aide concept self-cc LRA be1 self-e: Hypoth 6. A WC 167 Discussion.--Significant correlations between the self- concepts of the aides and the combined LRA scores, and between TSCS scores of aides and LRA scores of teachers were lost when the multiple equations were computed. The low number of pairs appeared to be the cause of the loss of significance as discussed on page 164. The aidesT self-concept scores correlated significantly with both the team LRA responses and with the teacher LRA responses, but not with the aide LRA responses. The self-concept of the aides was reported by the teachers to be more important than the teachers’ self—concepts in the performance of LRA duties by aides. The teachers said that aides with more positive self— concepts performed more LRA duties than did aides with lower self-concepts. Aides reported no differences in performance of LRA between aides with high self—concepts, and aides with low self-concepts. Hypotheses 6a, 6b, 6c, and 6d 6. A greater frequency of acts related to planning activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self~concepts than aides who indicated less positive selfuconcepts b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self-concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts (3 worked in teams with higher combined self—concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts T to aide I of the St a signif the only H50. Al previous that a 1 relatio in the rejeete (p (.05 team s| % indiea l freque that t i rSlat: varia level ' Signj i atta: Stat I 00?} 3001 168 The hypothesis relating selfvconcept scores of teachers to aide performance of’planning tasks (H6c) was the only hypothesis of the set that did not attain statistical significance, although a significance level beyond .10 was attained for H6c. Therefore, the only null hypothesis in the series that was not rejected was H5c. All items included as planning activities were items previously identified as teacher—only duties. The decision to retain alternate H6a which hypothesized that a greater frequency of acts would be performed by aides in relation to positive self—concepts was based on evidence indicated in the positive correlations in H6b, c, and d. The tested H6a was rejected as a non-zero relationship appeared to be indicated (p4(,05) between planning activities and aides, teachers, and team self—concepts. The positive correlations in 6b, c, and d indicated that more positive self—concepts were related to greater frequency of performance by aides in planning activities, and that the non-zero relationship in H6a was developed by the positive relationship between self—concept and frequency of performance. Discussion.—-The multiple equation accounted for greater variance than did any individual correlation. The significance level attained in the multiple equation H5a was lower than the significance level reached in H5d. The team TSCS score (H5d) attained a statistical significance greater than .01, while the multiple equation (H5a) attained a level of 0.13. The loss of statistical significance was attributed to the small N. The correlations between the teachers' responses and self—concept scores reflected a loss of significance also. leeh.2 Test Meas Multiple Aide TSC Teacher Team TSC team sg .10 we: oorrel and ai hEtwee omhh W 1th i HSTot 7- A h 169 Table H.2u.-—Correlations between TSCS and planning activities. Combined PAab Aide PA Teacher PA Test Measures Responses Responses Responses Multiple -R - .82LTd .398 .689 Aide TSCS .57ud .293 .0638 Teacher TSCS .388e .100 .355. Team TSCS .666C .295 .572d aH6a, b, c, and d were tested with Combined PA Responses b N=13 Cp 4..01 d'p 4,.05 9194.10 The combined PA correlated most significantly with the team self—concept score. A correlation significance greater than .10 was computed between the combined PA and teacher TSCS; a correlation significant greater than .05 between combined PA and aide TSCS; and a correlation significance greater than .01 between combined PA and team TSCS. The correlation between combined PA and team TSCS was higher (.666) than the correlation with aide TSCS (.574) or Teacher TSCS (.388). Hypotheses 7a, 7b, 7C3 7d 7. A greater frequency of acts related to home counseling duties would be performed by aides who a. indicated more positive self—concepts than aides who indicated less positive self-concepts Table LT Test Ms Multip Aide T Teaehe \ Re sp 0] 00m equa Canc HYIM 170 b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self-concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self- concepts c. worked in teams with higher combined self-concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self—concepts No null hypotheses in series 7 were rejected. Table H.25.--Correlations between TSCS and home counseling activities. Combinedagb Aide Teacher Home Counseling Home Counseling Home Counseling Test Measures Responses Responses Responses Multiple R .7LL6C .63A .655 Aide TSCS —.100 -.157 -.023 Teacher TSCS -.372 —.H70 -.138 gH7a, b, c, and d were tested by using Combined HC Responses. 13N: 13 Cp 4(.10 Discussion.——Aide TSCS, teacher TSCS, and team TSCS each correlated negatively, although insignificantly, with combined HCA, aide HCA, and teacher NCA respectively. The multiple equation (7a) almost attained a level of statistical signifi— cance, but it appeared to be in the opposite question. Hypotheses 8a, 8b, 8c, and 8d 8. A greater frequency of acts related to self-assessment activities would be performed by aides Who v“ '5 ’ hypothe Table l 171 a. indicated more positive self-concepts than aides who indicated less positive self-concepts b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts c. worked in teams with higher combined self-concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts No statistical significance was attained. No null hypotheses were rejected. Table 4.26.--Correlations between TSCS and self—assessment activities. Combinedab Aide Teacher Self— Self- Self- Assessment Assessment Assessment Test Measures Responses Responses Responses Multiple R .329 .324 .524 Aide TSCS .077 -.285 .356 Teacher TSCS —.031 —.102 .040 Team TSCS .029 —.244 .250 aH8a, b, c, and d were tested by using Combined Self— Assessment Responses. bN = 13 Hypotheses 9a, 9b, 9c, and 9d 9. More positive feelings would be demonstrated by aides who 3. indicated more positive self-concepts than aides who indicated less positive self—concepts H.- __. 1 theses 1 Table 4 _ ‘— t—a (D m r-l‘ tee Multipl Aide TE Teache' Team T \ Respor tiVe and i Pepe aide Were aide 172 b. worked with teachers who indicated higher self—concepts than aides who worked with teachers with lower self— concepts c. worked in teams with higher combined self-concepts than aides who worked in teams with lower self-concepts No statistical significance was attained; no null hypo- theses were rejected. Table 4.27.--Corre1ations between TSCS and positive feelings. Combined PI-a‘b Aide PF Teacher PF Test Measures Responses Responses Responses Multiple R .717d .828C .630 Aide TSCS .3u5 .275 .311 Teacher TSCS —.430d -.772 -.209 Team TSCS ~.1uu -.L+79C .021 aH9a, b, c, and d were tested by using Combined PF Responses. b N = 13 Cp <..05 dp < .10 Discussion.—~The aides and the teachers indicated nega- tive correlations between the self—concept of the teacher—partner and the positive feelings of the aides; and the teachers and aides rEPOrted positive correlations between the self—concepts of the aides and the aides positive feelings. None of the correlations were statistically significant except that of teacher TSCS and aide PF responses (p‘(.01). Tl fell betw scores an respectii hypothea 10. C10 800“ 101 800' 173 The correlation coefficients of the Team TSCS scores fell between the correlation coefficients of the aide TSCS scores and teacher TSCS scores in hypotheses 9b, 9c, and 9d respectively. Hypotheses 10a, 10b, 10c, and 10d 10. Closer similarities of perceptions would be found in teams whose a. aides indicated more positive self—concepts than teams whose aides indicated less positive self-concepts b, teachers indicated more positive self—concepts than teams whose teachers indicated less positive self— concepts c. combined self-concepts were higher than teams whose combined self—concepts were lower No statistical significance was attained; no null hypo- theses were rejected. Table 4.28.--Correlations between TSCS and similarity scores. ¥ Aide Teacher Interaction . I_§t Measures TSCS TSCS TSCS Mulpiple r Total Similarity Scores —.141 -.288 —.320 .324 Discussion.--The lack of positive, significant correlations in the series of H10 led to the conclusion that the self-concept scores of the teachers, the aides, and their team scores were not important variables in the determination of the development of similar r scores we counselil correlat! No stati of the e Hypothes and dis Hypothe 11. A WI 174 similar responses between a teacher and aide partner. Similarity scores were developed for learning reinforcement, planning, home counseling, self—assessment, and positive feelings, and were correlated with the self—concepts of teachers, aides, and teams. No statistical significance at the .05 level was attained in any of the correlations. Hypotheses Related to Dogmatism The group of hypotheses involving dogmatism are reported and discussed together. Hypotheses 11—17 11. A greater frequency of acts related to the teaching process would be demonstrated by aides who a. indicated low dogmatism than aides who indicated high dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatism c. worked on teams with low combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with high combined dogmatism 12. A greater frequency of acts related to learning reinforcement activities would be performed by aides who 8. indicated low dogmatism than aides who indicated high dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatism fig}, 13. W01 13. 14. 15. _c. worked on teams with low combined dogmatism than aides 175 c. worked on teams with low combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with high combined dogmatism A greater frequency of acts related to planning activities would be performed by aides who a. indicated low dogmatism than aides who indicated high dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatism who worked on teams with high combined dogmatism A greater frequency of acts related to home counseling duties would be performed by aides who a. indicated low dogmatism than aides who indicated high dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dogmatism c. worked on teams with low combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with high combined dogmatism A greater frequency of acts related to self-assessment activities would be performed by aides who 3. indicated low dogmatism than aides who indicated high dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dog— matism Mor 16. hypoi hypo” all Lear l 176 c. worked on teams with low combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with high combined dogmatism 16. More positive feelings would be demonstrated by aides who 3. indicated low dogmatism than aides who indicated high dogmatism b. worked with teachers who indicated low dogmatism than aides who worked with teachers who indicated high dog- matism c. worked on teams with low combined dogmatism than aides who worked on teams with high combined dogmatism 17. Closer similarities of perceptions would be found in teams whose a. aides indicated low dogmatism than teams whose aides indicated high dogmatism ' b. teachers indicated low dogmatism than teams whose teachers indicated high dogmatism c. combined dogmatism was low than teams with high combined dogmatism Statistical significance was not attained in any of the hypotheses related to dogmatism. The entire group of null hypotheses, from H11 to H17 was not rejected. Discussion.~—The correlations computed with the aides RDS all were negative, except the similarity score which was .005. Learning reinforcement activities correlated with aide RDS at a significance greater than .10, and a significance level greater than .20 was obtained between aide RDS and total scores, positive feelings, home counseling, and planning. Table 4.2 Test Measures Multiple Aides' 1 Teacher: Teams‘ and to Two cc than . level score Score .362. aide ! P881 When eoej tea Sim 177 Table 4.29.-—Dogmatism correlations. Posi- Home Self Learning Test Totala tive Counsel-Assess-Plan-Rein- Simi- Measures Scores Feelings ing_, ment ning forcemept larity Multiple r’s .582 .659 .613 .399 .536 .648 .340 Aides' RDS -.u92C --.u99C -.356C —.22A -.3530 -.569b .005 Teachers' RDS .362C .600b .588b ~.197 .386C .090 —.206 Teams' RDS .060 .3u0C .u03C ~-.359C .165 -.282C 9.251 8N = 9 bp <_.10 C19 <-20 Positive correlations were obtained between teachers RDS and total scores, positive feelings, home counseling, and planning. Two correlations, HC and PF reached a significance level greater than .10 and two correlations, TS and P, reached significance levels beyond .20. The correlation coefficient between team RDS and total score was .060; the correlation between Aides RDS and total score was —.492; and between teacher RDS and total score was .362. The team RDS correlation coefficient came between the aide RDS and teacher RDS correlation coefficients with Positive Feelings, Home Counseling, Planning, and Learning Reinforcement. When correlated with self—assessment the team RDS correlation coefficient was stronger than the correlation coefficients of teacher RDS and aide RDS, both of which were negative. In Similarity Scores the team RDS correlation was stronger than Pr=rp,.——~ee—~~* ‘ the aide teacher aides' multipl related The 001 correla which v signif respons r of . betwee beyond teache The sn Signii Dosit aQtiv 178 the aide RDS or teacher RDS. The aide RDS was .005 and the teacher -.206. Multiple regression analyses were conducted for the aides' responses and for the responses of the teachers. A multiple r of .885 was computed between the dependent variables related to dogmatism and aide responses to positive feelings. The correlation of .885 was significant at .041. A simple correlation between aide RDS and aide PF responses was -.845 which was significant beyond .01. A positive correlation, significantly beyond .05, was computed between teacher PF responses and teacher RDS. Teacher responses to Home Counseling generated a multiple r of .836 which was significant at .089. The simple correlation between teacher HC responses and teacher RDS was .812, significant beyond .01. The direction was positive indicating more dogmatic teachers were the partners whose aides performed more HC tasks. The small number of cases appeared to account for the loss of significance between the multiple R and the simple r. Summary and Discussion of Statistical Data and Statistical Significance The total group of teachers and aides together reported positive changes in self-concepts, and negative correlations between self—concepts and dogmatism. The self—concepts of the aides were significantly, positively correlated with the total performance, planning activities, and learning reinforcement activities of the aides. tical si self-con concept with pl; multipl simple the mu] the .0! level; were i were t correl unite the t a fee Small Sign of d seli 0105 179 The only multiple regression equation to achieve statis- tical significance pertained to planning activities and the self—concepts of the aides, teachers, and teams. The team self- concept and the aide self—concept each correlated significantly with planning activities. Data from Table 4.30 indicate that in several cases multiple regression equations achieved less significance than simple correlations derived from respective variables within the multiple equation; five hypotheses achieved significance at the .05 levels, nine at the .10 level, and sixteen at the .20 level; of the thirty hypotheses achieving beyond the .20, twelve were in the unpredicted direction; team correlations usually were between the respective aide correlations, and teacher correlations, but not always; and aide correlations were more uniformly in predicted directions of the hypotheses, than were the teacher correlations. The size of the sample may have been a factor in some of the above. Small Sample Study The major purpose was not to determine statistical significance between self—concept, dogmatism and the performance of duties by paraprofessionals, but to determine Whether or not se1f~concept and dogmatism were related to aide performance closely enough to warrant further, more rigorous study. The use of small sample studies has been supported by Nunnally,l Rose,2 __‘ lNunnally, "The Place of Statistics in Psychology." 2Arnold M. Rose, Theory and Method in the Social Sciences (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954). Table 4. Test Measures Aide TS( Teacher Team TS Multipl TSCS Aide RI Teachei Team R Multip RDS \ and c Stud; I‘igo‘ are (Nev 180 Table 4.30.--Se1f-concepta and dogmatismb correlated with categories. —r I —‘fi Posi— Home Self Learning Test Total tive Counsel-Assess-Plan- Rein— Simi- Measures Scores Feelings ing ment ning forcement larity Aide TSCS .520d .3u5f -.100 .077 .57U.d .599e -.1u1 Teacher TSCS .023 -.u30e -.372f -.031 .388e .02u -.288f Team TSCS .33uf -.1uu -.3u3f .029 .666d .364f -.320f Mfltfider TSCS .716e .717e .757e .329 .824d .605 .324 Aide RDS -.u92f —.w99f -.356f 9.22u ~.353f -.569e .005 Teacher RDS .362f .6008 .588e —.197 .386f .090 -.206 Team RDS .060 .3u0f .403f -.359f .165 -.282f -.251 Multiple r RDS .582 .659 .613 .399 .536 .648 .3u0 8N = 13 bN = 9 C1p (.05 ED 4..10 fp 4 .20 and others who generally state that the purpose of small sample studies is to determine the relevant factors, and to develop more rigorous study.l Correlations determined in small sample studies are unstable and the convictions of conclusions are limited. ‘ 1G. D. McGrath, et al., Educational Research Methods (New York: The Ronald Press, 1963). M— if Statisti of accep and .05 thinking results. opinion: of stat diff icu sampled if a la hpothe small.‘ cannot sample than a Signii self-c cance. the c Stati \ (New Rese: 181 Statistical Significance The question of statistical significance, and the level of acceptance is unsettled in the literature. While the .01 and .05 levels are generally used, "There is a newer trend of thinking that advocates reporting significance levels of all results."1 Kerlinger points out some of the conflicting opinions and offers a list of articles related to the question of statistical significance.2 Statistical significance is more difficult to attain for studies using small N's than in larger sampled studies. The null hypothesis is almost always rejected if a large enough N is used. Nunnally said, ". . . if the null hypothesis is not rejected, it is usually because the N is too small."3 Conversely, correlations attained with small samples cannot have achieved significance through the largeness of sample size, and "thus one can be more confident with a small N than a large N."Ll An example of the relative ease of attaining significance with a larger N occurred when the gains in the self-concepts of the teachers did not attain statistical signifi- cance, nor did the gain in the self—concepts of the aides, yet the combination of the two groups of scores did measure a statistically significant increase. 1 ‘Pred N. Kerlinger, foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964), p. 154. 21hid.. p. 155. 3Nunnally, p. 643. u David Baken, "The Test of Significance in Psychological Research," Psychological Bulletin, 66:6 (December, 1966), 429. l “W“ multiple determir suggeste be used The bee Wis rea the Loss 0: leads the va cance multr east The a lated Score Pesh Simi high the Bas Cal 182 Several writers have suggested that replication1 or multiple corroboration2 are more reliable, valid methods for determining the acceptance or rejection of hypotheses. Baken suggested that more viable methods for determining conclusions be used when he said: The argument is rather that the test of significance has been carrying too much of the burden of scientific inference. Wise and ingenious investigators can find their way to reasonable conclugions from data because and in spite of the1r procedures. Loss of Significance in Multiple r's The additive nature of multiple regression analyses leads to the expectance of accounting for a greater'portion of the variance, and the likelihood of greater statistical signifi- cance than correlations between respective elements of the multiple equations. In each instance in Table 4.30 the multiple equations did account for more of the variance than any component. The aide TSCS attained a higher significance level when corre- lated with Total Scores, than did the Mu1tiple TSCS with Total Scores. Other multiples losing significance were related to Positive Feelings, Planning, Learning Reinforcement, and Similarity. Home Counseling was the only area in which a higher significance was achieved—-all sub-correlations were in the opposite direction than predicted. The loss of significance _ Murray Sidman, Tactics of Scientific Research (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960). 2David T. Lykken, "Statistical Significance in Psychologi— cal Research," Psychologipal Bulletin, 70:3(September, 1968), 151—159. 3 Baken, p. 423. ‘t ”7......” L.__.1- appeared accounts the incr degrees error t: account changes samples Signiff self-c achiev team 5 and ti level. Plann only dut ie Signj Lear] Sign teag Sig-r 183 appeared to be a result of the small N. While the amount of accountable variance was increased by the multiple equations, the increase was not sufficient to offset the reduction in degrees of freedom in the error term, which increased the error term, and the increase in degrees of freedom in the accountable term, which decrease the accountable term. The changes in denominators affect small samples more than large samples. Significance Achieved Planning activities correlated more significantly with self-concept than any other variable. The multiple analysis achieved a level of significance greater than .05 as did the team self—concept; .01 was surpassed by the aide self-concept, and the teachers’ self—concept attained better than the .10 level. Every item of the questionnaire that was included in the planning category was previously identified as being a teacher— only task. No other category was exclusively teacher-only duties; no other multiple equation achieved statistical significance. The self—concept scores of the aides correlated with Learning Reinforcement Activities, and with the Total Scores at significance levels greater than .05. The self—concepts of the teachers and the team scores never achieved a .05 level of Significance with any category. W7 p ( .20 were re and the cussior levels variabl inform total TSCS 1 affeci mflth achie negat g corre i nega1 impo: even of a ReVe sel: the P b 184 pl