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Michigan State University If: . This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF AN IMPLOSIVE-LIKE TECHNIQUE AND GROUP "RAP" SESSIONS IN TRAINING WHITE COUNSELING STUDENTS TO BE EFFECTIVE WHEN COUNSELING WITH BLACKS presented by Virgil L. January has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Education KM / AAA/52% Major professor Date 7-26—73 0-7 639 l l I l . ABSTRACT THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF AN IMPLOSIVE-LIKE TECHNIQUE AND GROUP "RAP" SESSIONS IN TRAINING WHITE COUNSELING STUDENTS TO BE EFFECTIVE WHEN COUNSELING WITH BLACKS BY Virgil L. January Due to the plethora of critical statements concern- ing the lack of effectiveness of white counselors when coun- seling with blacks, the purpose of this study was to deter- mine the effectiveness of a modified implosive technique in reducing the racially induced anxiety of white counselor trainees when counseling with blacks. The implosive-like treatment was compared with a "rap" session treatment and a control group. Effectiveness was determined by subsequent evaluations of the counselor trainees' effectiveness as rated by trained observers. Twelve white students enrolled in the master's de— gree level counseling program at Michigan State University during the winter term of 1973 were randomly assigned to the following treatments: implosive-like, group "rap" sessions Virgil L. January and an inactive control group. The treatments and an eval- uation session were intensively massed over a six day per- iod. The subjects were again evaluated one month later. Data for this study were gathered in four sessions. The first and second sessions preceded the presentation of the treatment variables and consisted of the completion of a fear inventory and a sociometric instrument by each sub- ject. The third and fourth data gathering sessions occurred after the treatment variables had been presented. The third session entailed two parts. First, two observers listened to audio—taped counseling interviews in which the subjects were required to counsel with a black, coached client. The observers independently rated each interview on a three- point empathy scale. Secondly, after these ratings were made, each observer independently rated the global perfor- mance of the subjects in terms of their ability to demon— strate concreteness, respect, and genuineness during the in- terview. The statements were rated on a three—point scale. The fourth session entailed a repetition of session three one month following the cessation of the treatment. Post- test measures were also taken on a sociometric instrument and a fear inventory. The research design selected was a modified pretest- posttest, control group design. To analyze and determine the statistical significance of the results, an ANOVA with Virgil L. January repeated measures, TrMethod of Multiple Comparisons and an Univariate and Multivariate ANOVA and ANCOVA were utilized. THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF AN IMPLOSIVE-LIKE TECHNIQUE AND GROUP "RAP" SESSIONS IN TRAINING WHITE COUNSELING STUDENTS TO BE EFFECTIVE WHEN COUNSELING WITH BLACKS BY Virgil LY January A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1973 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Locked in jail, within a jail, my mind is still free . . . . What if a person was so oriented that the loss of no material thing could cause him mental disorganization? This is the free agent. George Jackson, Soledad Brother ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . Need for the Study . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . Review of Literature . . . . . . . Inadequacies of White Counselors Implosive Therapy . . . . . . . ImplosiveFLike Treatment . . . . "Rap" Sessions . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . II. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . Treatment I . . . . . . . . . . Treatment II . . . . . . . . . . Treatment III . . . . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . Testable Hypotheses . . . . . . . Design and Statistical Analysis . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . Preliminary Data . . . . . . . . . Treatment Effects . . . . . . . . Exploratory Analyses . . . . . . . summary 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iii Page 25 26 26 3O 31 31 35 36 38 40 4O 41 45 51 Chapter IV. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . DiSCUSSiOn O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iv Page 52 52 54 56 58 63 Table 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.7 LIST OF TABLES Pearson productrmoment correlation coefficients for the determination of inter-rater reliabil— ity O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 Analysis of variance source table for I—L, "Rap," and Control groups . . . . . . . . . . . Simultaneous confidence intervals around dif- ferences between pairs of means for the I-L, Rap, and Control groups as determined by the Tukey method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observed cell means of the difference scores among the I-L, Rap, and Control groups . . . . Feratios for tests of multivariate and univari— ate ANOVAs of three difference scores and the first posttest of global and empathy ratings . F—ratios for tests of multivariate and univari- ate ANOVAs of three difference scores and the first posttest of global and empathy ratings . F—ratios for tests of multivariate and univari— ate ANOVAs of all difference scores for I-L, Rap, and Control groups . . . . . . . . . . . . F-ratios for tests of multivariate and univari— ate ANOVAs of all difference scores of I-L, Rap, and Control groups . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 41 43 44 46 47 48 49 50 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Black people in America have long suffered from a lack of quality educational opportunities and experiences. During slavery, laws were enacted which forbade the educa- ting of blacks in order to obviate possible slave insurrec- tions (Green, 1969). Following the Civil War, the educa- . tion of blacks was accomplished on a piecemeal basis. Schools were bombed and blacks were prevented from attend— ing schools. This pattern has been perpetuated via de jure and de facto segregationist policies throughout America. Though the Supreme Court decision of 1954 repudiated the "separate but equal" educational doctrine, schools through- out the U.S. are separated along racial lines. The acquisition of higher education is inextricably bound to the economic and social welfare of the black fam— ily and is therefore crucial in terms of black survival. Without higher education blacks do less well economically than whites. For example, Kruger (Green, 1969) reports that blacks with a high school education are paid less than whites with an elementary school education. Blacks are not able to attenuate this earnings gap until they are graduated from college. Even then, they earn less than white peers. It is not surprising that the efforts of black leaders and civil rights workers to improve the social and economic status of the black populace have chosen education as one of its primary targets. As blacks sought to improve their lot via conven- tional means, mainly through the acquisition of education, they were thwarted and frustrated while working within the American system. As their failures increased it became ob- vious that the nonviolent posture advocated by black leaders was no longer a tenable one. This constant frustration led to a surge of black pride and the belief that violence would reconcile the black man's plight. Thus, with a new black awareness came the riots of the late 1960's. Following the alarm and concern generated by the violence of the aforementioned period many previously segre- gated institutions have opened their doors to blacks. As the number of educated blacks grows so does the number of heretofore closed employment opportunities. However, for most blacks the struggle has just begun. A great deal of attention has been focused on the need to achieve equal educational opportunities. When com- bined with the rise of black pride, the demands for programs of black studies and increased numbers of black counselors and related personnel are salient ones. The adequacy of the white majority in educational institutions to understand and serve black peoples has been rightly and seriously ques- tioned. The so—called helping professions such as counsel— ing, clinical psychology and social work have been severely criticized for having a White-Anglo-Saxon-Protestant orien- tation that has only a myopic View and a limited knowledge of the psychological, sociological, economic, and cultural behavior and environment of blacks. Indeed, many blacks question whether whites can provide the conditions for ef— fective assistance which blacks will accept. Whether this is an accurate statement or not is a question for empirical investigation. Need for the Study The attempts by blacks to achieve educational equal- ity have included demands for counselors of their own race. Black students in schools and universities have been criti- cal of the effectiveness of white counselors in providing them with appropriate services (Aragon and Ullibarri, 1971). Counselor effectiveness, as generally perceived by these students, refers to the type of relationship that the coun- selor establishes with the counselee and whether or not the counselee feels he was adequately helped. Blacks feel that white counselors are not as effective with minority group counselees as they are with white, middle—class counselees (Gardner, 1970; Burrell and Rayder, 1971). This perceived lack of effectiveness seems to emanate from their lack of understanding of black culture, their own prejudices and/or personal biases concerning blacks (Lewis, 1969; Vontress, 1970). When the possibility occurs that these factors will be perceived as lacking, this serves as a cue and, there— fore, is responsible for generating anxiety within white counselors as they interact with black counselees. This re- action is very similar to that of manifest phobic behavior, in that, once the cue has been perceived the resulting anx- iety may preclude the commission of subsequent related be- haviors (Bandura, 1969). Black students apparently perceive this anxiety, prejudice or lack of understanding. Conse— quently, they often distrust and disdain contacts with white counselors. They become alienated by these counselors as attempts are made to establish rapport (Lewis, 1969). Thus, this anxiety may become debilitating to the counselor; that is, it may reduce the counselor's effectiveness when coun— seling with black students. Given the present economic, political, and social environment, it is unlikely that a sufficient number of black counselors will be available in the near future to provide counseling services for blacks in need of such ser— vices. A need at this time, therefore, exists to determine if white counselors can be trained to work more effectively with black counselees. An important first step would be to establish supervisory and counselor training programs that would specifically reduce the racially induced anxiety of white counselor-trainees. This could facilitate the acqui- sition of skills that would make their counseling efforts as effective with black students as they are with white middle—class students. This study was an attempt to provide a training method that could reduce the racial anxiety of white train- ees and provide for the utilization of more efficacious counseling skills in terms of the trainees' interactions with black counselees. Purpose of the Study . The primary purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of two learning experiences upon assumed, ra— cially induced anxiety of white counselor trainees when counseling with black counselees. Specifically, the study was designed and implemented with the expectation that one of the two experiences would reduce such anxiety and enable white trainees to demonstrate certain skills when counsel- ing with black, coached clients. The treatment variables provided the subjects with an opportunity to participate in 10 implosive-like training sessions or two group "rap" sessions. The content of both treatment variables dealt with racial bias or prejudice toward blacks and the ways in which white counselor trainees might diminish or extinguish such attitudes or behaviors toward black counselees. The primary objective was to determine if either treatment would produce a significant effect upon the measures utilized to assess counselor effi- cacy, that is, efficacy as related to black clients. Review of Literature In this section the rationale for investigating the hypothesis posed for this study and the theoretical founda- tions of the treatment procedures will be reviewed. Four areas will be discussed. These are: 1. The alleged inadequacies of white counselors to counsel effectively with black counselees. 2. Implosive Therapy 3. Implosive-Like Treatment 4. "Rap" Groups Inadequacies of White Counselors Much has been written concerning the alleged inade- quacy of white counselors to counsel effectively with black students. Vontress (1970) postulated that white counselors values, perceptions, and attitudes intruded in the counsel- ing relationship and made it difficult or impossible to es- tablish positive rapport with black clients. The pervasive practice of labeling black students as disadvantaged, cul- turally deprived, or high—risk was cited as a further im- pediment to effective counseling. \ Tolson (1972) opined that many white counselors are shortsighted; that is, they see pggr and not child or adult; they see REESE and not man or woman. Moreover, such descriptive adjectives become so powerful that they control counselors' perceptions and limit their ability to apply what are assumed to be appropriate counseling techv niques. The counselors in question seem to relate to the cultural stereotypes associated with the adjectives, rather than to the humaneness of the counselee. Counselor preju- dice was also outlined as a hindrance to effective counsel- ing. Due to the cultural antecedants of their behavior which is rooted in racism and elitism, many white counsel- ors perpetuate prejudice. These counselors apparently have the need to perceive themselves as being better off than their clients, and thus it becomes more important for them to maintain the authority of the counselor rather than to provide adequate services. Try as they might, it is impos- sible for these counselors not to communicate their atti- tudes to counselees via scorn, paternalism, fawning over- compensation, or distorted understanding of black thought and feeling. The message received by the counselee is one of condescension resulting in ineffective counseling fraught with distrust or hostility being exhibited by the client. Tolson's comments echo those of Lewis (1969). Lewis posited that it is possible for a counselor of one race to effectively counsel with a client of another race. This, however, must be prefaced by an examination of his own thinking, attitudes, and feelings toward people of different racial or ethnic backgrounds. Furthermore, it is important that the counselor understand his own culture in relationship to that of the culturally different counselee. If the counselor does not acquire such knowledge and under- standing, or if he does not exhibit them satisfactorily, the counselee will certainly perceive his inadequacy. This is especially true for white counselors who work with black counselees. Russell (1970) states that black students distrust white counselors because they fail to treat black counselees as individuals. He reports that this failure to consider the individuality of each counselee is due to the counsel- ors' adherence to their stereotypic beliefs concerning blacks; that is, white counselors tend to see all black stu— dents as one from an amorphous black blob with the same abilities, aptitudes and limitations. He stresses that counselors must be trained to be aware of the cultural an— tecedents of their clients (e.g., language, diet, costuming, social patterns, and ethics) and the potential or kinetic behavior evidenced as a function of these cultural anteced- ents. Counselor encapsulation is also seen as a barrier and hazard in counseling. According to Johnson and Vestermark (1970): the encapsulated counselor covers himself over with the beliefs, values, attitudes and concepts that keep in- tact his security, that protects him from the necessity to change, that cause him to be rigid, and that inter— fere with his perception of people and things as they really are. To value only that which is valued by the middlerclass in today's society, for example, is en- capsulation (p. 33). These writers further state that encapsulation is evidenced in many varieties. It is blatant and subtle. It is con- scious and unconscious and it is present in the form of a lack of awareness on the counselors' behalf. Encapsulation involves tunnel-vision, ivory—towerism, dogmatism, egocenw tricism, and prejudice. The lack of understanding constel~ lated around cultural differences are little understood not because of the differences specifically, but because they are a function of encapsulation and the personal beliefs, values and attitudes entwined therein. They quote (p. 34) the following comment of Wrenn concerning the components of encapsulation and their effects upon counselor and counselee: There is evidence that these cannot be concealed from the client. What counselors consider as important is communicated in all sorts of ways. This may color the way he sees the client and the client's problem. There has been much criticism concerning current counselor education programs. Due to the fact that most counselor-educators are white, they are seen by blacks as training their students to be carbon copies of themselves. Gunnings (1971) states that if the counselor-educator is of 10 a different racial or cultural background, he cannot ade— quately train his students to work with blacks. Sikes (1971) stated that traditional counseling psychology curri- cula are deficient in meeting the needs of those people who wish (or will be required) to work in the black community. These curricula are deficient because they do not attend to the black experience nor do they attend to the eradication of white racism. Many white counselors may, in fact, be considered culturally deprived if they are required to func- tion within the black community (or counsel with black stu- dents) without the requisite skills (Bell, 1971). Moreover, if he was trained in a traditional counselor-education pro- gram, the probability that he will be perceived as cultur— ally deprived by his black constituents is very high. The aforementioned comments by Gunnings, Sikes, and Bell were directed toward counselor-educators who will be responsible for the tutelage of black counselor—trainees specifically. However, the comments are profound in the sense that the majority of counselor-trainees are white, and because of increased black enrollment in previously white institutions, they may be required to counsel blacks. It must be encumbent upon counselor-educators to imbue all of their charges with the skills necessary to effectively counsel blacks. If this can be inculcated into counseling curricula, then black as well as white trainees will bene— fit. ll Empirical studies investigating the efficacy of white counselors who work with black counselees is sparse indeed. However, one study inspected black and white stu— dents' reactions to white counselors (Burrell and Rayder, 1971). The experimenters randomly selected 50 high school seniors to participate in the study. The students were asked to react to twelve attitudinal type items (e.g., counselor contribution/help in planning classes, establish- ing vocational goals, and establishing positive relation- ships with teachers). There were specific items that were concerned with how the student felt about the ease with which he worked with the counselor and if he felt he was accepted by the counselor. The students rated each item on a 5 point scale. A Chi—square test was used to determine if the fre- quency of the responses between the black and white students would be significant. The results indicated significant differences between: 1. all black students' scores versus all white stu- dents' scores 2. the scores of black males versus those of white males 3. the scores of black females versus those of white females. It was concluded that blacks consistently rated white coun- selors lower than whites and they perceived the counselors 12 as ineffectual in terms of helping resolve their educational, vocational, and personal concerns. The experimenters also concluded that white counselors lack the training and exper- ience necessary to work with blacks and inferred that their judgment is impaired by racial bias and preconceived stereo- types. These behaviors are believed to be responsible for mutual distrust and hostility that forestall efficacy in counseling. In an earlier study, Milliken and Paterson (1967) utilized the Bogardus Ethnic Distance Scale, the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, and the Counselor Effectiveness Scale to determine the relationship between counselor efficacy and prejudice/discrimination. The authors hypothesized that counselors have a professional obligation to be empathetic, understanding, friendly, tolerant, accepting and respectful. Since minority group members (blacks) are allegedly skilled at detecting signs of prejudice, the experimenters opted to use them to evaluate the efficacy of white counselor-trainees. The entire counseling class (NDEA class of 1963-64) at Purdue University served as the subjects in this study. Each of the students was assigned one extra client during his prac- ticum. One week prior to "counseling" each trainee completed the Bogardus Ethnic Distance Scale. All the subjects were naive. The subjects then counseled with a black counselee who was coached to give certain responses. After each inter— view the clients completed a sixteen item Counselor l3 Effectiveness Scale. The scale was designed to take two measures. First, the scale was designed to determine rat— ings of counselor effectiveness. Second, a composite rat— ing of counselees' feelings toward the counselor would be made by the subjects. A Mananhitney U Test was utilized to test the differences on ranks of dogmatism and ethnic distance scores between "good" and "poor" counselors (ac— cording to their performance as counselors). Four separate U's were computed for each of the prejudice measures (one for global, one for composite, and one for each of two eval— uators). The experimenters hypothesized that "good" coun- ‘ selors would have lower rankings of prejudice and dogmatism. Results indicated: 1. "good" counselors were lower on four of five ethnic distance scales 2. "poor" counselors were lower on three of four dogmatism scales. The only significant difference was between "good" and "poor" counselors when these categories were defined by the super- visors' composite score. Only one of the eight analyses supported the hypotheses at a significant level. Obviously, the results did not support the hypothesis that counselors would be empathic, understanding, friendly and tolerant be- cause they were professionally obligated to do so. The ex— perimenters suggested that the study did demonstrate that 14 minority group members were skilled at detecting prejudice and that white counselors have difficulty counseling black students. Milliken and Paterson recommended counselor at— titudes be changed through counselor education programs which allow increased contact with blacks during training. Finally, Gardner (1970) investigated how selected personal characteristics of counselors are related to their effectiveness as seen by black college students. Eight counselors each interviewed six different students. At the end of each interview the counselees completed the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Func- tioning Questionnaire. Audiotaped recordings of the inter- views were rated by two judges (professional counselors) who used the Interpersonal Processes Scales. One of the more important findings of this study was that white coun- selors did not function as well as their black counterparts. This was due to the perceived inability of white counselors to exhibit the core dimensions of empathy, respect, genuine- ness and concreteness. The inability to provide the core dimensions of counseling is basically the same criticism that has been posited by authors previously cited in this review of the literature. In summary, white counselors, because of stereo- typic ideas and cultural biases, are unable to counsel black students as effectively as they would with white, middle- class clients. 15 Implosive Therapy Mowrer (1960) has stated that an organism can be in- duced to respond emotionally to an originally "neutral" stim— ulus by pairing the "neutral" stimulus with an aversive stim- ulus. For example, an organism can be presented with a tone (neutral stimulus) that in no way induces that organism to exhibit specific behaviors. If the tone is subsequently paired with a noxious or aversive stimulus (an electric shock) then the organism will soon learn to associate the two stimuli. Consequently, if the tone is again presented in the absence of the shock, the organism will respond to the tone with varifiable changes in heart rate, blood sugar, and skin resistance. These physiological changes can be given the general label of fear or anxiety. The stimulus which elicits anxiety can be thought of as a danger signal, warning or cue. Such cues, therefore, are motivators of be- havior, which if effective, reduce or eliminate the fear state and reinforce avoidance behavior. In the development of implosion as a psychothera- peutic technique, Stampfl and Levis (1967a, p. 24) report that: past specific experiences of punishment and pain confer strong anxiety reactions to initially neutral stimuli. These eXperiences are represented neurally, and the neural engram (memory, image) may be considered as pos- sessing the potential to function as a stimulus. The imagery, thoughts, or other stimuli associated with the past eXperiences of pain will be avoided and whatever 16 action or mechanism which prevents them from recurring will be learned and maintained on the basis of anxiety reduction. They go on to state (1967a, p. 24): the question which may be then raised is simply how best the therapist might proceed to diVest the anxietyv eliciting stimuli of their potential. Fundamental to the unfolding of this theory is the concept of extinction. Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. In other words, the conditioned stimulus followed by nonre- inforcement eventually leads to the extinction or cessation of the emotional or behavioral responses. Solomon, Kamin, Wynne (1953) posit that the best way to produce extinction would be to elicit an intense emotional reaction in the presence of the conditioned stimulus. This would closely approximate the original acquisition situation except that the unconditioned stimulus would be absent; the result being a decremental effect upon the magnitude of the physiological and emotional changes of the organism. Stampfl and Levis (1967a) subsequently proffered the following axioms of implosion: l. "extinction of a learned emotional response pro- ceeds with greatest rapidity when the organism is exposed to stimulus conditions most closely approaching those which were originally associ- ated with painful stimulation (p. 24)." 2. "the more clearly a S perceives anxiety-eliciting stimuli when followed by nonreinforcement, the more rapid the extinction of the emotional re— sponse will be (p. 25)." 17 3. "the fundamental hypothesis is that a sufficient condition for the extinction of anxiety is to represent, reinstate, or symbolically reproduce the stimuli (cues) to which the anxiety response has been conditioned, in the absence of primary reinforcement (p. 25)." 4. "in the implosive procedure, the emphasis is not upon the acceptance of interpretations, but rather upon the extinction of anxiety-evoking CS (cues) which provide both motivational and rein- forcing properties for perpetuating the patients' symptoms (avoidance responses). It is irrelevant whether or not the patient "understood" or "ac— cepted" the significance of these cues (p. 26)." The procedure to be followed entails: 1. Conducting interviews 2. Development of the Avoidance Serial Cue Hierarchy, 3. Ascertaining the symptom contingent cues (spe- cific conditions) 4. Hypothesized sequential cues (remainder of stim— ulus complex that are extinguished). In a brief and concise statement, implosive therapy is de- scribed in the following manner: To summarize — the first objective of the implosive pro- cedure is to have the patient imagine and verbalize those important symptom-contingent cues which although possessing high-anxiety—eliciting value, are believed to be relatively low on the person's ASCH. These cues are chosen from the real-life experiences of the patient in which objects or situations are known to have high- anxiety-eliciting value as in specific traumatic situa- tions, material produced in dreams, or symbolism of a psychoanalytic nature such as snakes, spiders, wolves, or other objects or animals thought to have stimulus generalization properties (symbolically meaningful to the patient). As each theme is worked through and ex- tinguished, hypothesized cues believed to be higher on 18 the ASCH are introduced. This procedure is continued until all the areas desired to be worked through are ex- tinguished (Stampfl and Levis, 1967a, p. 26). Rihani (1972) summarized a number of studies using implosion (Meyer, 1966; Hogan, 1966; Hogan and Kirchner, 1967; Levis and Carrera, 1967; and Fazio, 1970) and reported that the results of these investigations indicate that imv plosion was indeed effective in extinguishing phobic behav- iors and anxiety. Rihani also summarized a number of stud- ies that compared the efficacy of implosive therapy and sys- tematic desensitization (Willis and Edwards, 1969; Rachman, 1965; Barrett, 1969; DeMoor, 1970; Mealiea and Nawas, 1971; Boulougouris, Marks and Marset, 1971). The results of these studies indicate that both implosive therapy and systematic desensitization are equally effective in reducing/extinguish— ing anxiety and a variety of phobic behaviors. However, the experimenters reported that implosion was more efficient than systematic desensitization for short-term treatment and that systematic desensitization may be preferable for long-term treatment. Generally, both treatments were superior to con- ventional therapy or to no treatment control group. Studies reported since Rihani's review reflect the effort of some experimenters to determine the status of im- plosion as a useful therapeutic tool. Ayer (1972) has re— viewed the literature concerning implosive therapy since its development by Stampfl. He states that, generally, the out— comes of prior experimentation are inconclusive or ambiguous. 19 He lists several areas that need much more rigorous inves- tigation. l. 10. These are: The central theoretical issues of implosive ther- apy are not dealt with when this therapy is ap- plied in clinical situations. Implosion may or may not be an effective and en- during therapeutic technique. The range of application is not determined. Implosion is a form of extinction but its rela— tionship to other behavioral/learning theory ap- proaches is not clearly visible. There is a possibility of some residual fear, therefore, physiological data is needed. Sound empirical investigations are needed to de— termine optimal length and frequency of sessions More data is needed concerning possible side ef- fects. Therapist values must be investigated, i:e., in- terest, enthusiasm, expectancy, modeling effects, suggestion effects, etc. Generality or specificity of treatment is not de- termined. Research is needed to determine whether changes can be accounted for in terms of the Stampfl model. 20 Frankel (1972) cites a number of problems found in the literature concerning implosive therapy. The problems are: The recruitment and definition of phobic subjects of many investigations can be challenged. This creates a "credibility gap" in that experiments usually involve college students who were alleged snake, rat, or spider phobics. Using such a pop- ulation it is difficult to generalize to a popu- lation of people that actually manifest debilita- tive phobic behaviors and are not easily accessi— ble. There is little data on therapist performance. There is an opportunity for experimenter bias to affect data, i.e., experimenter communication with subjects. Conceptual and methodological problems are re- flected in the data that can be explained by means other than the effectiveness of implosion, i.e., imagery could involve rehearsal time for subjects in the experimental group and not for subjects in the control group. Data may be weakened due to the strength of the criterion and the possibili- ties of the subjects having initially weak avoid- ance responses. 21 Frankel adds a final precautionary note. He suggests that it may be possible (via covert sensitization) to create new phobias and increase fear or unexpected behavior by associ- ating intense anxiety with formerly neutral cues. Frankel, therefore, calls for a thorough investigation of cognitive processes which mediate human behavior. Mylar and Clement (1972), Crowe, Marks, Agras, and Lietenberg (1972), and Everaerd, Rijken, and Emmelkamp (1973) all reported that chauvinism or prejudice are acquired and manifested behaviorally, in much the same way that phobic re- actions are acquired and manifested. If this is so, then it should be possible to extinguish a phobic-like (avoidance) response as one would extinguish a phobic response. Bandura (1969) outlined a procedure, implosion, that seemed to be ex- tremely effective in extinguishing phobic behavior. The objective in treating phobias is to remove the reinforcing contingencies associated with the conditioned stimulus via the unconditioned stimulus; or, to extinguish the debilitating anxiety of the client so that he may be able to commit an act formerly precluded by his extreme anxiety. If racial prejudice or chauvinism represents an analog of phobic behavior then the inference can be made that if the anxiety concerning interactions with blacks can be extin- guished then those who have not effectively committed cer- tain positive acts, relative to blacks, will be able to do so. What this investigator suggests is that it is the 22 anxiety felt by white counselors toward blacks as well as a lack of knowledge, that prevents them from establishing an effective counseling relationship with black clients. There- fore, as a function of their training, prospective counsel- ors would benefit greatly if they were helped to extinguish their racially induced anxiety. ImplosiverLike Treatment The treatment variable in this study was entitled "implosiverlike" to designate a procedural departure from classical implosive treatment as developed by Stampfl and Levis. This procedure is consonant with the writing of Bernstein and Paul (1971) who state that many studies util- ize nomenclature for inherent treatments that do not reflect the actual nature of the treatment, hence implosive—like will be used in deference to implosion. With the above rationale in mind, the implosive—like treatment will entail the presentation of a standardized hierarchy, via audio—tape, to the subjects. However, the treatment will otherwise closely follow the implosive pro- cess as originally developed by Stampfl and Lewis. "Rap" Sessions There appears to be no special theoretical antece- dents from which "rap" sessions are derived. They repre- sented an attempt to provide the cognitive input of a seminar 23 and the dynamism of group counseling in order to provide subjects with information and an opportunity to discuss these topics while interacting with other group members (Lewis, 1969; Locke, 1969?”Sue and Sue, 1972; Tolson, 1970). This was the format for the "rap" group sessions held as a part of the treatment procedures of the present investiga- tion. As with other types of group procedures, little def- inition research has been reported (Anderson, 1969). Hypotheses Since the purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of the treatment variables in reducing ra- cially induced anxiety in white counselors thereby render- ing their counseling activities more effective with clients that assumedly elicit this anxiety, it is necessary to as- sess the difference if any, between the treatment variables. With the aforementioned purpose in mind and for sta— tistical treatment of the data, null hypotheses were assumed that stated no differences would be found between the treat- ments in reducing racially-induced anxiety, or in increasing the ability of the subjects to exhibit the counseling skills necessary to be rated as effective when counseling with coached black clients. However, based on the research found in the review of the professional literature and the expec- tations of the experimenter, the following hypotheses are posited: 24 l. The implosive-like group will manifest less anx- iety than the "rap" sessions group and the inac— tive control group as measured by a fear inven- tory. 2. The implosive—like group will include more blacks in a sociogram than the "rap" and inactive con- trol groups. 3. Subjects from the implosive—like group will be rated as more effective counselors than the "rap" sessions group as measured by performance ratings. 4. Subjects receiving the implosive-like treatment will be rated as more effective counselors than the subjects in the control group as measured by performance ratings. Overview In Chapter II, the experimental subjects, treatments, instrumentation, and procedures are described. Testable hy- potheses are stated as are the research design, statistical procedures, and significance levels. In Chapter III, the data analysis and subsequent results are reported. Finally, Chapter IV includes a discussion of the results, conclusions, and a summary of the study and the implications of the study for further investigation or contributions to the field of counselor education. CHAPTER II EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY In this section the research design for the inves— tigation and testing of the hypotheses examined in this study will be discussed. In addition, the procedures used by the investigator in carrying out the study will be de- scribed. Subjects A White students enrolled in the master's degree level counseling program at Michigan State University, during the winter term of 1973, were the target population of this study. Of the twenty—two white students who initially vol- unteered twelve elected to be subjects of this study. Ten of the twenty—two students dropped out of the study due to scheduling conflicts with their course work. The experimental subjects consisted of twelve coun— selor trainees. Included in this number were eight females and four males with ages ranging from twenty-two to forty- two years, a median age of twenty-four years, and a mean age of 25.64 years. 25 26 Ten subjects had received baccalaurate degrees from institutions within the state of Michigan; two had received their degrees from institutions outside the state of Michi— gan. Nine subjects were educated in the field of elementary and secondary education in a variety of major areas. Three subjects received preparation in sociology or psychology. Eight subjects reported no previous teaching or other prev fessional work experience. Four subjects reported having had teaching and/or professional work experience of two years or less. Treatments Treatment I The subjects randomly assigned to this group under- went two one-half hour training sessions in imagery train— ing. The training sessions, given prior to eight implosive- like sessions, were designed to give the subjects practice in imagining neutral scenes; thereby ensuring adequate imag- inal participation during the presentation of the implosive— like sessions. Following the imagery training sessions each subject was individually presented with eight, one-half hour, audio- taped implosive-like sessions spanning four consecutive days. The entire treatment, inclusive of the training sessions, was intensively massed over a five day, one hour per day span of time. Research conducted by Dua (1972) indicated 27 that massing systematic desensitization over a short time period (five days) would be more efficacious (producing the desired behavioral change) than treatments spanning a longer time interval of fifteen days. A number of authors (Boulougouris, J. C., Marks, I. M., and Marset, P., 1971; Cooke, G., 1968; Hogan, R. A., and Kirchner, J. H., 1967; Mealiea, W. L., and Nawas, N. M., 1971) have reported empir- ically that they found implosion superior to systematic de— sensitization in terms of economy of therapy time and over- all efficacy. Thus, theoretically and practically, the massing of an implosive treatment should prove to be more effective than spreading the treatment over a longer time period. The implosiverlike tapes were developed using input from three sources: 1. results from a fear inventory (Appendix A). 2. criticisms proffered by counselors who have in- vestigated the effect of white counselors upon black counselees. 3. results from a pilot study. First, the fear inventories were scored and the items that were chosen with both the greatest frequency and highest scores were selected as content areas to be devel- oped for the tapes. For example, if a subject indicated that he/she would be extremely anxious about being alone in a black neighborhood, content was recorded on the tapes to 28 simulate that fearful situation. Secondly, many educators have been critical of the efficacy of white counselors when counseling with blacks. These criticisms indicated that black counselors View white counselors with disdain because they are ignorant of the life—style of these students, are racially biased, and/or do not exhibit concreteness, gen- uineness, respect or empathy. Scenes were developed to elicit anxiety from the subjects based on the preceding criticisms. Finally results from a pilot study indicated the sequence in which the tapes were presented to subjects. The tapes were one-half hour in length. The first five minutes of each tape were used to prepare the subjects for the implosive content. The last five minutes were used to prepare the subjects for their exit from the sessions. Each tape, and the items on each tape, were in an ascending hierarchy in terms of the anxiety they were designed to elicit. The least powerful tape (item) to be presented was first; the most powerful tape (item) to be preSented was last. Two black actors, one male and one female, verbalized his/her role as if he/she were in a counseling session. A white narrator exhorted the subject to respond to the acer- bic statements of the actor in a helpful manner. The nar- rator provided cues as to what type response should be made (i.e., empathic, concrete, etc.). A short segment folloWs that will elucidate the aforementioned procedures: Narrator (N): Actor (A): A: 29 Thank you for your cooperation and attendance during these sessions. It is very important that you try hard to imagine the presented scenes and experience any accompanying emo- tion. Please don't hold back. Let your emo- tions flow freely. Now, close your eyes and keep them closed until the end of this ses- sion. It will be very helpful for you to imagine these scenes as vividly as possible. I want you actually to live through the pre- sented scenes. If you experience emotion and make responses as directed, you will be accru- ing skills necessary to make you an effective counselor with any student that you encounter in your future as a counselor. In order for this training to be successful, you must try very hard to imagine the scenes, experience the emotions, and make verbal and non-verbal responses when asked for, or, where you feel you need to respond. Make sure your eyes are closed and imagine the following scene: You are a counselor, you are sitting in your office. Look around your office and see your bookshelf; See papers on your desk; See people passing your window; You're feeling uneasy because you have an ap- pointment with a black student. Suddenly your door swings open and there is the biggest, blackest, shiniest nigger you have ever seen! He is so black you can't stand it! You want to run but you can't. Haven't you ever seen a black man? Look at my black face . . . Look at my big, black, flat nose. Look at my eyes . . . . watch them roll. Look at my thick black lips. Look at my fuzzy, nappy hair. Now look at my eyes, look at the hate in my eyes. O.K., counselor, don't look away. Look at that big black nigger. You've never seen any- thing so black. There is so much black it scares the shit out of you. What are you going to say to this man? How are you going to help him? 30 A: Come on Honky, feel my face — you won't get black on your hands. TOUCH IT! Feel my nose! Feel my kinky hair! Come on! Feel my big black Afro! Touch my black skin. Touch my blackness. Kiss my black face! Can you do that? NO . . . then kiss my black ass. N: Can you do that? Can you touch him? Go ahead! Reach out _ touch him. Show him you're not afraid to touch him. N: (at end of session) Thank you for your par? ticipation. Please keep your eyes closed.‘ I will count to five. At five, I want you to open your eyes, look around the room. O.K. one, two, three, four, five. Open your eyes. Everything is as it was when you entered this room. Nothing has changed. When you are ready, remove the headsets and you may leave the room. Thank you. Treatment II The subjects randomly assigned to this group under- went two, two and onerhalf hour "rap" sessions during the same five day period as the group who experienced the implosive-like treatment. Therefore, both treatment groups received the same number of hours of treatment within the same period of time. The sessions were co-led by two blacks, one male and one female, enrolled in counselor training pro- grams at Michigan State University. Both leaders had eXper- ience as students and as counselors and were, therefore, in the unique positions of being able to speak to the questions of racism in counseling. The co-leaders directed discussion and gave informational input concerning the area of black culture, racism and prejudice and how counselors might use this information to ameliorate their counseling techniques, (111:1... .211] $193.. 31 procedures and behavior in regards to increasing their effi- cacy with black clientele. As per criticisms cited in the review of literature, this treatment was established to at- tenuate the informational gap of white counselor trainees concerning blacks. Treatment.III The inactive control group was composed of randomly assigned students from the same training program. No cone tact was made with this group except for pretesting, post- testing and evaluation. Procedures Twenty—five students volunteered to participate in this study. All students were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups. However, only the results of the performance of the twelve white counselor trainees are reported in depth. Pretesting, in the form of a sociogram (Appendix B) and a fear inventory, (Appendix A) was administered one month prior to the commencement of the study. The fear in- ventory was utilized to determine if the subjects would in- dicate any anxiety based on the stimulus situations presented. Six white subjects were identified who had mean scores on all the items which were above a rating of three indicating that they were highly fearful of being thrust into the 32 hypothetical situations represented on the fear inventory. Six white subjects were also identified who had mean scores on all the items which were below a rating of three indica- ting that they were on the lower end of the fear spectrum. Thus, high and low scoring subjects were identified. The experimenter then randomly assigned them to the three treat— ment groups. A sociogram was administered in order to ascertain the number of blacks (in the same class) that would be in— cluded in or excluded from a small group situation by their white peers. This would give further evidence regarding the proximity the white students felt they wanted the blaCks to them. During the study, each subject in the active treat- ment groups was presented with five hours of implosive-like treatment or five hours participation in the "rap" sessions. Evaluation was accomplished following the cessation of the last implosive-like session. Each volunteer was required to counsel with a black, coached client for a ten minute period. The four black role players were trained for a to- tal of three hours. During this time they practiced their respective roles so that there would be little or no varia- tion between their performances. Also, the role players practiced allowing subjects ample time to respond to their statements. Each session was audio-taped and two observers independently rated the counselors' performance in terms of 33 empathy statements and a global rating of respect, concrete- ness and genuineness. After an interval of one month following the origi- nal evaluation, a sociogram and fear inventory were adminis- tered. A second behavioral measure was also obtained. That is, each subject underwent a five minute role played coun- seling interview. This evaluation was shorter than in the first evaluation session because the experimenter wanted to ascertain whether the behavior changes that occurred, evi- denced in the first evaluation, had persisted. Therefore, five minutes was ample time to determine the level of that persistence. The same two observers independently rated the counselors' performance on the same dimensions and in the same manner as in the first evaluation session. Instruments Assessment of subjects' level of fear was measured by using a modified version of the Fear Inventory developed by Wolpe and Lang (1964). The shortened version consisted of twenty-two items dealing specifically with anxiety elic- iting situations involving blacks. The subjects were re- quired to rate each of the situations on a scale ranging from 1 = doesn't bother at all to 5 = bothers very much. Secondly, a sociometric instrument was developed by the investigator and required that the subjects chose (list 34 the names of) three peers whom they would most like to in- clude in a group learning experience. Also, each subject was required to list the names of three peers they would most like not to be included in their group. The rationale for the use of this sociometric device was that the number of black students not selected would be greater than those included in the group experience. The sociogram, therefore, would be an index of the avoidance behavior of the white students relative to blacks. Thirdly, trained observers independently rated each subject as a function of his participation in counseling sessions with coached clients on two different occasions. The raters were a senior professor and an advanced graduate student in counseling. The raters did not know the students and did not know what treatments the subjects were receiving. The observer's ratings were accomplished via counting the number of empathic statements the counselor made during the interview and consequently rating each statement. Each statement was rated on a three-point scale, i.e., 1 = taking away from feelings of the client; 2 = on target with the clients' feelings; 3 = additive statements which facilitate the clients' discussion of their feelings. Also, the ob- servers made global ratings of the counselors' ability to demonstrate concreteness, respect, and genuineness.' The ratings were accomplished in a procedure consonant with the 35 findings of Carkhuff (1969) in which he elucidates the core dimensions of counselor effectiveness. Pilot Study Validity information concerning the anxiety elicit— ing power of the audio-taped implosive—like sessions was gathered on a group of five, white, counselor trainees in the advanced stages of their doctoral studies. Four males and one female listened to the tapes under experimental con- ditions. There was, however, one departure from the regular experimental routine; each subject listened, independently, to the tapes while connected to an audio galvanic skin re- sponse (GSR) apparatus. It should be noted that the GSR equipment was not capable of producing a quantitative re— sponse. All volunteers were asked to sit quietly while the GSR device was calibrated. Once the threshold was deter- mined (reaching an aural null) the taped implosive-like ses— sions were presented. All subjects demonstrated a great deal of reactivity to the tapes. That is, a loud shrill noise was transmitted from the GSR each time the subject felt anxious. At no time during these sessions, however, did the subjects not feel a modicum of anxiety (there was always sound being transmitted from the GSR). After each trial session the subjects were asked to rank-order the tapes on a most to least continuum in terms of the amount of anxiety elicited by each tape. The subjects stated that F . t‘i‘.iJfiA-#.Lnfllru1l'ir3 I r... 36 all the tapes did, in fact, elicit anxiety. Their comments and rank-ordering were consonant with the degree of anxiety as measured by the audio GSR. Considering the preceding in- dications, the tapes did elicit anxiety as expected. The ranking further provided a presentational sequence to be used during this study. Testable Hypotheses In order to determine whether there was a differen- tial effect of the treatment via the measures utilized, it was necessary to ascertain that differences existed after treatment between the experimental and control groups. To investigate these relationships the following hypotheses were constructed: 1. There will be no difference between the three groups on the empathy and global ratings of the performance of subjects during simulated counsel— ing interviews. 2. There will be no significant reduction of fear, as reflected by scores on a fear inventory, in any of the three groups. 3. The number of blacks included in the sociogram after the treatments will not be higher than the number of blacks included in the sociograms be— fore the treatments. 37 4. The number of blacks excluded from the small groups in the sociogram after the treatments will not be less than the number of blacks ex— cluded before the treatments. 5. Low fear subjects will not be rated higher than high fear subjects on the empathic and global ratings of counseling performance. Design and Statistical Analysis The research design selected is a modified pretest— posttest, control group design as suggested by Campbell and Stanley follows: Key: (1966). This design is graphically represented as R 01 X1 04 07 . . . . 010 R 02 X2 05 08 . . . 011 R 03 (X3) 06 09 . . 012 R = Randomization 01,02,03 = Pretests (Sociogram, Fear Inventory) 04'05’06 = Posttests (Sociogram, Fear Inventory) 07 .012= Posttests (Global and Empathy Ratings) Xl,X2 = Experimental Treatments (X3) = Inactive Control To properly analyze and determine the statistical signifi- cance of the results a two-way analysis of variance technique 38 was utilized. The Tukey-Method of Multiple Comparisons was used to establish confidence intervals and delineate and* significance by contrasting group means across all treat— ments. To obviate the possibility of losing precision, the univariate and multivariate analysis of variance and covar- iance (version 4) was employed. The research model is graphically depicted below: Fear I-L R C HI M1 L0 HI M2 L0 M HI 3 L0 Key: I-L = Implosive-Like Treatment R = "Rap" Treatment C = Inactive Control M1 = Measure 1 (Sociogram) M2 = Global Rating of Performance M3 = Empathy Rating Summary All subjects were assigned to one of three treat- ment variables: 1. Implosive-like (IL) treatment in which the sub- jects were asked to imagine and respond to scenes presented by means of audio-tape. 39 2. "Rap" sessions in which tWo co-leaders presented information and directed discussion concerning the counselors' roles (attitudes, behavior) to~ ward blacks. 3. Inactive control. Pre- and posttesting on sociogram and fear inventor ries was accomplished. Further, each subject had two inter- views with coached clients after which the audio-tape record- ings of those sessions were rated independently by two ob- servers. A two—way analysis of variance with repeated mea- sures was used to test for differential effects of the treat— ments and control group. To determine any significant dif- ferences between groups, the Tukey Method of Multiple Compar- isons was utilized. Also, a univariate and multivariate an- alysis of variance and covariance was used to gain informa- tion possibly attributed to a loss of precision. It was hy— pothesized that the implosive-like subjects would receive higher ratings than the "rap" group subjects or the control subjects. CHAPTER III ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The statistical analyses for this investigation were calculated at the Michigan State University Computer Center on the Control Data 6500 computer. The data re- ported below were generated by an analysis of variance (ANOVA) program developed by Jennrich (1965) and univariate and multivariate analysis of variance and covariance pro- grams developed by Finn (1968). Preliminary Data Two of the principal dependent variables used to evaluate the effects of this experiment were a rating of empathy and a global rating of concreteness, genuineness, and respect. These ratings were made by two independent observers in terms of responses given by the subjects of the investigation during two simulated counseling interviews that followed the experimental conditions of the study. A preliminary step in analyzing the results of the investiga- tion, therefore, was to determine the inter—rater reliabil— ities of these ratings. These are shown in Table 3.1. 40 d . ... v A. ( 133.1114”... 1.1.4.4111! I In... 41 Table 3.1. Pearson product—moment correlation coefficients for the determination of inter—rater reliability. ratings coefficients empathy rating 1 r = .82 empathy rating 2 r = .98 global rating 1 r = .97 global rating 2 r = .66 The coefficients shown in Table 3.1 indicate that three sets of ratings correlated very highly in a positive direction. The reliability for global rating 2, although not of the magnitude of the other coefficients, was cone sidered to be within an acceptable range as judged from re- ports of other studies that used ratings of this type. Treatment Effects The statistical analyses reported in this section were employed to test the following research hypotheses: H1: There will be no difference between the three groups (I-L, "Rap," and Control) on the empathy and global ratings of the performance of subjects during simulated counseling interviews. There will be no significant reduction of fear between the three groups as measured by pretest and posttest scores on a fear inventory. 42 H3: The number of blacks included inxa sociogram de— veloped after the experimental treatments will be equal to the number of blacks included in a sociogram developed before the treatments began. The number of blacks excluded from a sociogram developed after the experimental treatments will be equal to the number of blacks excluded from a sociogram developed before the treatments be- gan. 5: There will be no differences between the empathy and global ratings of subjects classified as high or low fear subjects. The analysis of variance source table, Table 3.2, provides data concerning the main experimental effects of the investigation. A 3 X 3 data matrix was constructed for the tests of the hypotheses. Subjects were nested accord- ing to level of fear by groups. Subjects and measures in- teractions were also nested in terms of fear scores by groups. An alpha level of .05 was chosen prior to the sta— tistical tests, to determine the significance of the results found in this study. By inspecting Table 3.2 it can be seen that factor A (main effect for groups) appears to have produced a sig— nificant effect (p<.001). In other words, the experimental treatments when taken across all groups and measures were apparently significant. No other significant effects can be 43 Table 3.2. Analysis of variance source table for I-L, "Rap," and Control groups. Source SS df MS F P d\ A 15.733 2 7.866 23.272 18.49 .001 B .963 l .963 2.849 5.32 n.s. S:AB 2.708 8 .388 - - - M 9.934 3 3.311 9.194 9.00 .001 AB .630 2 .318 .942 3.63 n.s. AM 2.402 6 .400 1.111 2.74 n.s. BM 2.782 3 .927 2.553 3.24 n.s. ABM .957 6 .159 .438 2.74 n.s. SM:AB 5.822 16 .363 - - - KEY: A = Main Effect for Groups B = Main Effect for Fear S:AB = Subjects Nested in AB M = Main Effect for Measures AB = ’Interaction of Fear by Groups AM = Interaction of Groups by Measures BM = Interaction of Fear by Measures ABM = Interaction of Groups by Fear by Measures SM:AB = Interaction of Subjects by Measures nested in the Interaction of Groups by Fear 44 observed and the possibility of spurious results due to in- teractions has been minimally diminished as evidenced by the nonsignificant F's for the various interactions. The next step in the analysis was to determine if the effects shown in Table 3.2 were significantly different as a function of the manipulation of the independent vari- ables. The Tukey method of multiple comparisons was used to test for the differences between any two means of inter- est. The results of this test are shown in Table 3.3. Table 3.3. Simultaneous confidence intervals around differ- ences between pairs of means for the I-L, Rap, and Control groups as determined by the Tukey method. differences . i1 -o€I, N - IJ MSe confidence between means N/J interval x1 ' X2 = .969 i 1.277 (-.308 , 2.246) 21 - i3 = 1.372 : 1.277 (-.095 , 2.649) x2 — X3 = .393 i 1.277 (-.984 , 1.670) X1 = 2.181 (Implosive—like group). >4 ll 2 1.212 (Rap group). X l 3 - .819 (Control group). No significant differences between treatment groups were found as a result of the T-Method of Multiple Compari- sons. It is important to note, however, that the small num- ber of subjects was a constraint on the statistical treatment 45 of the data of this investigation. The likelihood of pro- ducing significant differences is very remote given the num- ber of degrees of freedom available at a significance level of less than .05. It was decided at this point in the an- alysis, in view of these constraints, that further analysis of the main experimental effects of the investigation would not be warranted and to accept research hypotheses 1 through 5 at the .05 level of confidence. As the T-Method of Multi- ple Comparisons did not reveal any significant differences between treatment groups, the total effects of all measures of the treatments apparently produced the significant ef- fect observed in Table 3.2. Data are presented in Table 3.3 that show that the differences between the means of the implosive—like and rap groups and between the means of the implosive-like and con- trol groups do approach significance. These findings indi- cate that replication of the investigation appears to be warranted. Therefore, several exploratory analyses of the data were carried out in order to provide additional infor- mation concerning the direction of the differences among groups. These data are reported in the following section. Exploratory Analyses The first step in the exploratory analysis was to examine the cell means of the difference scores among the I-L, Rap, and Control Groups. These are shown in Table 3.4. 46 Table 3.4. Observed cell means of the difference scores among the I-L, Rap, and Control groups. Cell Means group variables DIFFI DIFGLO DIFEMP DIFINC DIFEXC Control 5.25 .35 .425 .250 1.25 Rap 3.75 .50 1.250 1.000 1.50 Implosive—like 27.00 .625 1.600 .500 .75 DIFFI = difference of pretest and posttest scores on a fear inventory. DIFGLO = difference of posttest 1 and posttest 2 on global ratings. DIFEMP = difference of posttest 1 and posttest 2 on empathy ratings. DIFINC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of inclusion on a sociogram. DIFEXC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of exclusion on a sociogram. Data presented in Table 3.4 show that the observed cell means for the scores on a fear inventory decreased for all groups with the greatest change occurring for the implosive-like group. This suggests that the treatments in- fluenced the scores on a fear inventory for all groups with the greatest influence shown on scores of the implosive-like group. Likewise, the implosive-like group received higher empathy and global ratings than the rap and control groups. The rap group, however, showed the greatest change in terms of including or excluding blacks on a sociometric device. The next step in the exploratory analysis of the findings of this study was to calculate tests of multivariate 47 and univariate ANOVA's to learn more about the specific dif- ferences among groups. It is important to note that while some of the univariate F's shown in the tables to follow may appear to be significant at the .05 level or less, the alpha level of .05 must be divided by the number of variables used in determining the effectiveness of the treatments. There- fore, each univariate F must be significant at least at the .01 level in order to be meaningful. Tables 3.5 and 3.6 display F-ratios for three dif- ference scores and the first posttest of global and empathy Table 3.5. F-ratios for tests of multivariate and univari— ate ANOVAs of three difference scores and the first posttest of global and empathy ratings. F-ratio for multivariate test of the difference of the rap minus the implosive group mean F = 3.3893 p <.1033 variable univariate F p less than DIFFI 7.05 .0263 DIFINC .32 .5813 DIFEXC .69 .4250 TIGLO 10.77 .0095 TIEMP 2.37 .1574 DIFFI = difference of pretest and posttest scores on a fear inventory. DIFINC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of inclusion on a sociogram.- DIFEXC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of exclusion on a sociogram. TIGLO = first posttest score of global ratings. TIEMP = first posttest score of empathy ratings. 48 ratings which were observed immediately after the treatment sessions of the study had terminated. Table 3.5 shows the ratios for the differences between the rap group minus the implosivevlike group means. Table 3.6 illustrates the ra— tios for the differences between the control group minus the means of the two experimental groups. Table 3.6. F-ratios for tests of multivariate and univari- ate ANOVAs of three difference scores and the first posttest of global and empathy ratings. F-ratio for multivariate test of the difference of the control minus the means of the two experimental groups F = 3.6558 p <.0906 variable univariate F p less than DIFFI 1.78 .2164 DIFINC .44 .5255 DIFEXC .03 .8758 TIGLO 7.04 .0264 TIEMP 6.35 .0328 DIFFI = difference of pretest and posttest scores on a fear inventory. DIFINC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of inclusion on a sociogram. DIFEXC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of exclusion on a sociogram. TIGLO = first posttest score of global ratings. TIEMP = first posttest score of empathy ratings. Table 3.5 depicts that the largest difference be- tween means of the rap and implosive-like groups occurred on the first posttest global ratings. This appears to be a significant difference. Examining the univariate F's of 49 Table 3.6, no significant differences are observed when the difference of the control minus the means of the two experi- mental groups is calculated. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 display F-ratios for all differ- ence scores calculated for this study. Table 3.7 shows the ratios for the differences between the rap group minus the implosivevlike group means. Table 3.8 shows the ratios for the differences between the control group minus the means of the two experimental groups. When partialing of the al- pha level is considered, none of the ratios approach signif- icance. Table 3.7. F-ratios for tests of multivariate and univari— ate ANOVAs of all difference scores for I-L, Rap, and Control groups. F-ratio for multivariate test of the difference of the rap minus the implosiverlike group mean F = 1.8627 p <.2557 variable univariate F p less than DIFFI 7.05 .0263 DIFGLO .18 .6750 DIFEMP .15 .7060 DIFINC .32 .5813 DIFEXC .69 .4250 DIFFI = difference of pretest and posttest scores on a fear inventory. DIFGLO = difference of posttest 1 and 2 scores for global ratings. DIFEMP = difference of posttest l and posttest 2 scores for empathy ratings. DIFINC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of inclusion on a sociogram. DIFEXC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of exclusion on a sociogram. 50 Table 3.8. F-ratios for tests of multivariate and univari- ate ANOVAs of all difference scores of I-L, Rap, and Control groups. F—ratio for multivariate test of the difference of the control minus the means of the two experimental groups F = 1.8138 p <.2647 variable univariate F p less than DIFFI 1.78 .2146 DIFGLO .72 .4170 DIFEMP 2.66 .2310 DIFINC .66 .5255 DIFEXC .04 .8758 DIFFI = difference of pretest and posttest scores on a fear inventory. DIFGLO = difference of posttest l and posttest 2 scores for global ratings. DIFEMP = difference of posttest l and posttest 2 scores for empathy ratings. DIFINC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of inclusion on a sociogram. DIFEXC = difference of pretest and posttest scores of exclusion on a sociogram. Given the constraints mentioned earlier in this chapter on interpretations of data displayed in this sec— tion, it is interesting to note that the differences in global ratings shown in the first posttest (Table 3.6) were negligible when ratings were made during the second post- test. As the second posttest occurred one month after the first posttest, the passage of time seems to negate any pos- sible effects on the global ratings. 51 Summary An analysis of variance indicated that the experi- mental treatments when taken across all groups and measures apparently produced a significant difference. The Tukey Method of multiple comparisons was used to test for differ— ences between means of the implosive-like, rap, and control groups. No significant differences between treatment groups were found as a result of this test. Due to statistical constraints, no further analyses were performed and all null hypotheses were accepted at the .05 level of confidence. Apparently the total effects of all measures of the treatv ments produced the significant effect observed as a result of the analysis of variance. The T-Method of Multiple Comparisons did indicate that the differences between the means of the implosive-like and rap groups and between the means of the implosive—like and control groups were approaching significance at the .05 level of confidence. An exploratory analysis of the data was therefore conducted in order to provide information for replication studies. CHAPTER IV SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to determine the ef- fectiveness of a modified implosive technique in reducing alleged racially induced anxiety of white counselor trainees when counseling with blacks. Much of the literature in counselor education and counseling psychology reflects the need for more effective counselor education programs espe- cially in the area of minority counseling. If proven suc- cessful, this approach would be an important and highly ef- ficient teaching method. The implosive—like treatment was compared with a "rap" session treatment and an inactive con- trol group. Effectiveness was determined by subsequent evaluations of the counselor trainees' performance as rated by trained observers. Subjects of the study were master's degree candi- dates in counseling at Michigan State University. Three ex- perimental treatments were developed. In the first, sub- jects participated in a series of audio—taped, implosive- like sessions. In the second treatment, the subjects par- ticipated in two "rap" group sessions. These sessions were 52 53 modeled after an encounter group structure, differing from that structure only in the goals and the type of informa- tion considered in the group. The third treatment consisted of an inactive control group. Treatments one and two were maintained for five hours over ten (for the I-L) and two (for the "rap" group) sessions. The objective was to com- pare the effects which would result from the I-L sessions, the "rap" sessions and the control group and therefore as- certain the effectiveness, each in relation to the others. A.3 x 3,:epeated-measures, matrix was constructed, with subjects nested in groups by scores on a fear inven— tory. Also, nesting occurred with subjects and measures nested in groups by fear. The hypotheses for main effects posited that experimental subjects would perform better (receive higher empathy and global ratings on genuineness, concreteness, and respect) than subjects in the control group. Ancillary hypotheses were posited which tested for the effect of all experimental treatments and their inter- actions. F-ratios derived from a repeated—measures, two-way ANOVA indicated significant effects for treatment groups. When confidence intervals were established around differ- ences between pairs of group means (T-method of multiple comparisons), none of the groups differed significantly. Further statistical analysis did not appear to be warranted or appropriate due to the small number of subjects involved 54 in the study and all null hypotheses were accepted at the .05 level of confidence. Apparently the total effects of all measures of the treatments contributed to the signifi- cant effects shown by the ANOVA. Differences between means of the implosive-like and rap group and between the means of the implosive-like and control group were observed to approach the established level of significance. These findings suggest that repli- cation of the study would be warranted and exploratory tests of multivariate and univariate ANOVA's were conducted to provide information about the specific differences among groups. In general, these tests substantiated the results reported above. Discussion The present study did not reveal any significant treatment effects on a number of factors. The cumulative effect of the treatment variables was significant but no differences were found between treatment groups. In other words there was no statistical evidence at the .05 level of confidence provided by this investigation to support the theory that a reduction in assumed racially—induced anxiety would assist counselor-trainees to become more effective in counseling blacks in terms of the variables measured in this study. 55 Differences between means of the implosive-like treatment groups and the rap and control groups did approach significance at the .05 level of confidence. Observed cell means of difference scores of dependent measures indicate that the implosivevlike treatment group showed a larger amount of change than the rap or control groups in terms of a decrease of fear of blacks as measured by a fear inventory and in higher empathy and global ratings of genuineness, concreteness, and respect. These changes, however, were not observed to be evident at the time of a second posttest of ratings and fear inventory scores taken one month following the conclusion of the treatment sessions. These findings give support to the value of replicating the study. Replication of this investigation with an adequate number of subjects in each group will need to be carried out in order to determine if implosive theory has value in train- ing white counselors to work effectively with black clients. While the literature suggests that certain types of behav— iors, such as manifest racial anxiety, can be considered as phobic-like, and that the abatement of such behaviors might be accomplished by using;an implosive-like treatment, the adequacy of these assumptions has not been shown by this study. The design of this investigation appeared to be ba— sically sound and can be replicated in a standardized manner due to the audio tapes containing the implosive-like treatment. 56 The time and conditions for the treatments appeared to be adequate as were the training procedures for coached clients, rap group leaders, and raters. The most crucial variables affecting the outcomes of this study were the number of sub— jects and the conditions surrounding their participation. Initially twentyrfive subjects volunteered for the eXperi— ment but only twelve completed all phases of the treatment and evaluation sessions. In replication studies, all pos- sible steps to insure adequate subject motivation should be taken. In short, in order to have an adequate number of subjects complete the treatment and evaluation sessions, at— trition rate of subject drop-outs must come under more ade- quate controls than were available to the investigator who managed the operations of this study. Implications The crucial issue investigated by this research is whether the implosive-like treatment might account for changes in racially induced anxiety and, therefore, changes in the performance measures rating counselor trainees' ef- fectiveness. If this could be substantiated, then the field of counselor education would have a process by which to train counselors to be effective with each counselee they encounter. Moreover, the applications outside academia would be virtually limitless. Unfortunately, the results 57 of this study did not indicate that the implosive-like pro- cess was responsible for producing differential levels of counselor performance. The primary conclusion to be offered is that the results of this study suggest that the implosive-like pro- cess was not significantly effective. However, some of the results approached significance and it is suggested that further investigation of this topic is warranted. LIST OF REFERENCES 47w LIST OF REFERENCES Aragon, J. A. and Learn, S. R. "Learn, amigo, learn!" The Personnel and Guidance Journal, (1971), 87-89. Ayer, W. A. "Implosive therapy: a review." Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice. Vol. 9, No. 3, (Fall, 1973), 243-249. Bandura, A. Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,I1969. Barrett, C. L. "Systematic desensitization versus implo- sive therapy." Journal ofyAbnormal Psychology. Vol. 74, No. 5, (1969), 587-592. Bell, R. L. "The culturally deprived psychologist." The Counseling Psychologist. (1971), 104-106. Bernstein, D. A., and Paul, G. R. "Some comments on therapy analogue research with small animal "phobias." Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psyv chiatry. (1971), 225-237. Boulougouris, J. C.; Marks, I. M.; and Marset, P. "Super- iority of flooding (implosive) to desensitization for reducing pathological fear." Behavior Research and Therapy. Vol. 9, (1971), 7-10. Burrell, L., and Rayder, N. F. "Black and white students' attitudes toward white counselors." Journal of Negro Education. (1971), 87-89. Campbell, D. T., and Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi- . experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966. Crowe, M. F.; Marks, I. M.; Agras, W. S.; and Leitenberg. "Time—limited desensitization, implosion, and shap- ing for phobic patients: a crossover study." Be- havior Research and Therapy. Vol. 10, No. 3, TI972), 319-328. 58 59 DeMOor, W. "Systematic desensitization versus prolonged high intensity simulation (flooding)." Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. (1971), 45-52. Dua, P. S. "Group desensitization of a phobia with three massing procedures." Journal of Counseling Psy- chology. (1972), 125-1297 Everaerd, W. T. A. M.; Rijken, H. M.; and Emmelkamp, P. M. G. "A comparison of "flooding" and "successive approximations" in the treatment of agoraphobia." Behavior Research and Therapy. Vol. 11, No. 3., (1973), 105-117} Fazio, A. F. "Implosive therapy in the treatment of a phobic disorder." Paychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. Vol. 7 (1970), 228-232. Fazio, A. F. "Treatment components in implosive therapy." Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Vol. 76 (1970), Fiedler, F. E., and Senior, K. "An exploratory study of unconscious feeling reactions in 15 patient- therapist pairs." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Vol. 47 (1952), 446-453. Frankel, A. S. "Implosive therapy: a critical review." 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A., and Kirchner, J. H. "Implosive, eclectic verbal, and bibliotherapy in the treatment of fears of snakes." Behavior Research and Therapy. Vol. 6 (1968), 167v17l. Island, D. "An alternative for counselor education. The Personnel and Guidance Journal. (1972), 762-766. Kirchner, J. H., and Hogan, R. A. "The therapist variable in the implosion of phobias." Ps chothera : Theory, Research and Practice. VoI. 3 (I966), 102- 104. Levis, D. J., and Carrera, R. "Effects of ten hours of implosive therapy in the treatment of outpatients: a preliminary report." Journal of Abnormal Psy- chology. Vol. 72 (1967), 504-508. Lewis, S. 0. "Racism encountered in counseling." Counselor Education and Supervision Journal. (1969), 49-54. Locke, E. W. "Racism encountered in counseling." Counselor Education and Supervision Journal. (1969), 56-62. Mealiea, W. L., and Nawas, M. M. "The comparative effec- tiveness of systematic desensitization and implo— sive therapy in the treatment of the snake phobia." Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psy- chiatry. Vol. 2 (1971), 85-94.' Milliken, R. L., and Paterson, J. J. "Relationship of dog- matism and prejudice to counseling effectiveness." Counselor Education and Supervision Journal. (1967), 125-129. Monke, R. H. "Effect of systematic desensitization on the training of counselors." Journal of Counseling Mowrer, O. H. Learning theory and behavior. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1960. Mylar, J. L., and Clement, P. W. "Prediction and compari- son of outcome in systematic desensitization and implosion." Behavior Research and Therapy. Vol. 11, No. 3 (1973)71105-117. 61 Rachman, S. "Studies in desensitization — II: flooding." Behavior Research and Therapy. Vol. 4 (1966), 1-6. Rachman, S. "Treatment by prolonged exposure to high in- tensity stimulation." Behavior Research and Therapy. V01. 7 (1969), 295-302. Rihani, S. T. "The comparative effects of implosive therapy and systematic desensitization upon counselor trainees anxiety and ability to communicate emo— tions." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972. Russell, R. D. "Black perceptions of guidance." The Per- sonnel and Guidance Journal. (1970), 721-728. Sikes, M. P. "The counseling psychology curriculum: a new dimension." The Counseling Psychologist. (1971), 102-104. Stampfl, T. G., and Levis, D. J. "Essentials of implosive therapy: a learning-theory-based approach to psy- chodynamic behavioral therapy." Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Vol. 72 (1967a), 496-503. Stampfl, T. G., and Levis, D. J. "Implosive therapy." In Jurjevich, R. M. (ed.). Handbook of direct and be- havior psychotherapies, North Carolina Press, 1967b. Stampfl, T. G., and Levis, D. J. "Learning theory, an aid to dynamic therapeutic practice in psychotherapy." In Evon, L. D., and Callahan, R. (eds.). Relation- ship of theory to practice in psychotherapy. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co.,“1968. Stampfl, T. G., and Levis, D. J. "Phobic patients: treat— ment with the learning theory approach of implosive therapy." Voices. (Fall, 1967), 23—27. Sue, E. W., and Sue, S. "Counseling Chinese-Americans." The Personnel and Guidance Journal. (1972), 637— 644. Truax, C. G., and Carkhuff, R. R. Toward effective counsel- ing and psychotherapy: training and practice. Chicago: Aldine PubliShing Co., I967. Tolson, H. "Counseling the 'disadvantaged.'" The Personnel and Guidance Journal. (1970), 735—738. Vontress, C. E. "Counseling blacks." The Personnel and Guidance Journal. (1970), 713-719. 62 VOntress, C. E. "Racial differences: impediments to rap— port." Journal of Counseling Psychology. (1971), 7-13 0 Walk, R. D. "Self—ratings of fear in a fear-invoking sit- uation." Journal of_Abnormal and Social Psychology. Vol. 52 (1958), 171-178. Wolpe, J., and Lang, P. J. "A fear survey schedule for use in behavior therapy.". Behavior Research and Therapy. Vol. 2 (1964), 27-30,! APPENDIX A FEAR INVENTORY APPENDIX A FEAR INVENTORY In order to evaluate the project for which you vol- unteered, we need to determine the degree to which you fear or have unpleasant feelings about black people. The items in this questionnaire refer to situations and experiences which you may fear or that cause you to be uncomfortable. You may not have experienced some of the situations described by the items. For those items, please imagine how you would feel if in such a situation and then report the degree of fear or unpleasant feelings you think you would have. It is very important that you be completely honest in completing the questionnaire. Your responses will never be known to anyone but the two people conducting the rev search. There is no way to identify you. Please circle one of the numbers by each item that most closely indicates your feelings about that item. Please complete all items. Circle No. 1 if the situation doesn't bother you at all. Circle No. 2 if the situation bothers you a little. Circle No. 3 if the situation bothers you a fair amount. Circle No. 4 if the situation bothers you much. Circle No. 5 if the situation bothers you very much. Items 1. Being alone at night in a predominantly l 2 3 4 5 Black neighborhood. 2. Being alone during daylight in a pre- 1 2 3 4 5 dominantly Black neighborhood 3. Being confronted or challenged by a. 1 2 3 4 5 Black male. 4. Being confronted or challenged by a l 2 3 4 5 Black female. 5. Living in a predominantly Black neigh— l 2 3 4 5 borhood. 6. Going on a date with a Black person. 1 2 3 4 5 63 64 7. Being alone (in any situation) with a l 2 3 4 5 Black male. 8. Being alone (in any situation) with a l 2 3 4 5 Black female. 9. Being employed on a job where axHTack l 2 3 4 5 is your immediate superior or boss. 10. Working in a predominantly Black school 1 2 3 4 5 or agency where most employees are Black 11. Being counseled by a Black for a 1 2 3 4 5 personal-social problem. 12. Having a Black say something humiliating l 2 3 4 5 to you. 13. Counseling a Black client. 1 2 3 4 5 14. Having physical contact (hugging, kissing) 1 2 3 4 5 with a Black of the opposite sex. 15. Having a Black of the same sex put his/ 1 2 3 4 5 her arm over your shoulder. 16. Asking a Black to attend a party you are l 2 3 4 5 giving. - 17. Having a Black ask you to attend a party 1 2 3 4 5 where most guests will be Black. 18. Engaging in sex with a Black person. 1 2 3 4 5 l9. Attending a meeting of Black power 1 2 3 4 5 advocates alone. 20. Knowing that a Black is making fun of you 1 2 3 4 5 in the presence of other people. 21. Having a Black call you a honky racist l 2 3 4 5 in anger. 22. Being asked by a Black to visit at his/ 1 2 3 4 5 her home for a weekend. List below any other specific fears or situations involving Blacks that make you uncomfortable and indicate the degree of these feelings. l. l 2 3 4 5 65 12345 12345 12345 12345 APPENDIX B SOCIOGRAM APPENDIX B SOCIOGRAM NAME We are going to be engaged in a project that re- quires you to be in a small group of people with whom you feel comfortable. These people should be individuals you can trust and who do not cause you to be anxious or fear— ful. In order for us to assign you to such a group, please list below the names of three such people in this class who would fulfill (or come the nearest) to fulfilling the above criteria. 1. 2. 3. We anticipate it will be difficult to form groups based on everyone's first three choices. However, we want to be sure to exclude those individuals that would make you the most uncomfortable or anxious. Please list, therefore, the names of the three individuals whom you would least like to have in your group. 1. 2. 3. All names will be held in strict confidence. 66 APPENDIX C ROLES AND INSTRUCTIONS OF COACHED CLIENTS ...w ...p :1 .. . ...w. l‘lill‘. : . i l i ‘|) ’ APPENDIX C ROLES AND INSTRUCTIONS OF COACHED CLIENTS "UNHAPPY BLACK STUDENT" NAME: Ted Brown AGE: 22 College freshman recently discharged from U.S. Army - extremely resentful about being drafted and shipped to Vietman. Parents deceased. Problem: After first and second quarters Ted is upset be— cause he is not doing well (GPA <2.00) academically while carrying 18 hours each of past terms. He cannot seem to find all the time he needs to master his subjects. He feels that white people, especially teachers, counselors, administrators, are out to get him because he is a black man and militant. Has threatened several staff members with physical violence. Has been in several fights with whites on campus — once attacked a student in McDonel Kiva during a lecture. Role Playing Instructions: 1. Use Profanity copiously. 2. After each statement give trainees ample time to respond. Wait at least 30 seconds for the trainees to respond. 3. Say that you want a black counselor. If trainee is black then tell him/her that he/she isn't black, just honkies painted black. 4. Don't trust nobody white - because they are out to get blacks. 5. If white counselors are any good then why did they tell me it was O.K. to take 18 hrs? - ATL, History, Nat. Sci., Math and Psych. The average white student isn't taking that load. Realized mistakes too late. 6. Mention the following: counselors' lack of respect for blacks; lack of honesty with blacks; lack of understand- ing of blacks; lack of feeling for blacks' problems. Therefore, how can you help blacks? 7. Shout, challenge, and generally derogate trainee. . Just don't like white folks. . It is very important that each role playing session be the same for each trainee. So, please adhere strictly to the instructions given and please do not deviate from your roles. 67 68 "PERSONAL PROBLEMS" NAME: Bill AGE: 19 PROBLEM: Bill is extremely unhappy with his situation in the dormitory. He has been accused of making excess noise during quiet hours. Bill says everyone makes noise but only he is being warned of infractions of the rules. He feels that the RA'S pick him out automatically when anything wrong goes on in the dorm. All his problems culminated in a fight with the RA and his suite-mates. He thinks the white establishment is trying to get him. He is tired of the differential treatment he is receiving throughout the university. Role Playing Instructions 1. Use profanity. 2. Use provocative (threatening) gestures. 3. What can you do for me? How can you help me? 4. That is what all honkies say! 5. Be for real! 6. You have no respect! Not honest! Just another jive- assed red neck. 7. Give the trainees ample time to respond. NOTE: It is very important that each role played session be the same for each trainee. Adhere STRICTLY to your roles as practiced.