‘\

AN INITIAL SURVEY OF THE ATTITUDINAL
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MOTHERS OF
OVER‘ACHEVING AND UNDER-ACHIEVING
ELEVENTH-GRADE PUERTO RICIAN STUDENTS

Thesis for ihe Degree of Ph, D.‘
MICHZGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
David W. Ha'lsted
1966

THESIS

 
   

LIB?!" 3U: Y
Micr’higm State

Univ crsity

  

    
   

Thlsistoeertifgthatthe

thesis entitled

AN INITIAL SURVEY OF THE ATTITUDINAL DIFr
FERENCES BETWEEN THE MOTHERS OF OVER-
ACHIEVING AND UNDER-ACHIEVING ELEVENTH
GRADE PUERTO RICAN STUDENTS

presented by

David W. Ha lsted

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D. degree in Educat ion

    

Major professor

Date 1 1- 14-66

 

 

0-169

ABSTRACT

AN INITIAL SURVEY OF THE ATTITUDINAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE MOTHERS OF OVER-ACHIEVING AND
UNDER-ACHIEVING ELEVENTH GRADE
PUERTO RICAN STUDENTSl

by David W. Halsted

The study was designed to ascertain differences be-
tween attitudes of mothers of over- and under-achieving
students in Puerto Rico. The underlying assumption for the
study was that parental attitudes and behaviors are in-
strumental in or related to the learning productivity of the
child.

The pOpulation studied was mothers of eleventh grade
under- and over-achieving students in three geographical
areas on the island of Puerto Rico. Mothers were chosen due
to (l) the hypothesized greater validity of mothers' than
fathers' reSponseS to questions about child—rearing practices
and attitudes, (2) the ease of finding mothers at home as
compared with fathers, and (3) the limited interview time

available.

 

1The research was supported by funds granted by the
U. S. Office of Education, as part of a study under the
direction of William W. Farquhar, entitled, Motivational
Factors Influencing Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade
Puerto Rican High School Students, Research Project
No. 5-1069-2—12-1.

David W. Halsted

The geographical areas, Urban San Juan, Other—Urban

areas, and Rural areas, were chosen due to the hypothesized

change in values from the now oriented or traditional cul-

ture found in the Rural areas to the combined "now" and
"future" orientation of the Other-Urban areas to the "future"
orientation of the Urban San Juan area.

Mothers from each of the above areas were selected on
the basis of the discrepancy between predicted and actual
achievement of their children. From each region approxi-
mately sixty under-achieving students (thirty males and
thirty females) and approximately sixty over—achieving stu-
dents (thirty males and thirty females) were chosen. The
basis of selection was their academic achievement which ex-
ceeded one standard error of estimate above or below the
regression line prediction of their academic achievement.

The questionnaire employed for interviewing the mothers
of these children was the Parental Interview Questionnaire
(PIQ), which was develOped especially for this study. For
social reasons only female interviewers were used to contact
the mothers.

The research hypotheses tested were that (l) more
achievement pressure, (2) more permissive attitudes, (3)
fewer possessive attitudes, (U) greater consistency of
discipline, and (5) greater academic orientation would be
reported by mothers of over-achieving students than by

mothers of under—achieving students. Because of lack of

David W. Halsted

theory and prior investigation, non-directionalized dif-
ferences were hypothesized between under- and over-achieving
students in the areas of (1) kinds of misbehaviors and paren-
tal treatment of those misbehaviors, (2) maternal attitudes
toward characteristics of a good parent, the child's progress
in school, work, the temporal location of the good life,

and the inherent worth of man, and (3) demographic charac-
teristics. The hypotheses were tested by the chi-square
model.

The following differences between mothers of over- and
under-achieving students were obtained. The Urban San Juan
and Rural mothers of over-achieving daughters wanted their
daughters to have a significantly greater amount of education
than did the mothers of under-achieving daughters. For the
Urban San Juan and Other-Urban area males and for Other-Urban
areas and Rural females the maternal estimates of eventual
length of academic preparation were significantly greater
for the over—achieving students than for the under-achieving
students. More mothers of over— than under—achieving stu-
dents of the Other-Urban males and Rural females indicated
that a child should be permitted to ask as many questions
as he wants to of his parents. The necessity for children
to obtain parental permission before making personal decisions
did not differentiate under- and over-achieving students.
Maternal encouragement of young children to play with neigh-

borhood children differentiated under— and over-achieving

David N. Halsted

students among the Rural males and Urban San Juan, Other-
Urban areas and Rural females in that the mothers of over-
achieving students encouraged their children to play with
neighborhood children. The locus of the decision of the
proper hour for children to return home in the evening dif-
ferentiated the under- and over-achieving Urban San Juan

and Other—Urban males with the mothers of over-achieving
students reporting more often that the child made the de-
cision concerning the hour to return home. Irrespective of
area or sex, more mothers of over— than under-achieving
students reported that their children were doing better than
their siblings in school. Under- and over-achieving students
were not differentiated on the basis of the number of pre-
vious marriages of the mother or father. Paternal occu-
pational level, the amount of time the father was working,
family income, and socio-economic status did not differen—
tiate under- and over—achieving students.

Some observations were gathered which were indicative
of all of the mothers studied. All mothers found it dif-
ficult to discuss the topics of misbehavior and discipline
in a consistent and objective manner. Economic reasons
were the most popular given as explanation of parental ter—
mination of school. Mothers reported that they were the
administrator of the discipline for children aged one to six
years and also during the four years preceding the interview.

The modal type of reported misbehavior from ages one to six

David W. Halsted

years was fighting with siblings. Most of the mothers in—
dicated that they believed the best times to be in the future.
Mothers of both under- and over-achieving students thought
the child's progress in school was above average.

The hypothesized shift in attitudinal patterns from
the traditional in the Rural areas to a conbinaitraditional
and modern in Other-Urban areas to the modern in Urban San
Juan was given only Slight support. Future researchers
Should seriously consider a different stratification pro—

cedure for sampling.

AN INITIAL SURVEY OF THE ATTITUDINAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE MOTHERS OF OVER—ACHIEVING AND
UNDER-ACHIEVING ELEVENTH—GRADE

PUERTO RICIAN STUDENTS

By

x
/I‘

David N} Ralsted

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Counseling, Personnel Services,

and Educational Psychology
1966

DEDICATION

To my wife, Judy, whose understanding and assistance
made possible the completion of this project, and to my
two sons, David and Mark, who tolerated well the absence

of their father.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people helped the writer at various stages in
the research and it is impossible to mention each of them.
Only those who made special contributions are given personal
recognition.

Dr. William W. Farquhar, the author's major adviser,
has been helpful to the author during his entire doctoral
program. Special help, scholarly and financial, has been
given by Dr. Farquhar during the research for this thesis
and for this assistance the writer is most grateful.

The other committee members, Drs. Bill L. Kell, Walter
F. Johnson, and Richard C. Rank, have each assisted the
writer in his personal and professional growth during his
doctoral program.

Dr. Edward W. Christensen was helpful by coordinating
the research in Puerto Rico, a difficult task.

The translation and coding of the Spanish responses
done by Mrs. Elen Burbidge, Miss Mercedes Font, and Miss
Joyce Berdahl was a necessary part of the research and for
its completion the writer is grateful.

The interviewers in Puerto Rico who worked hard to
obtain the data for the study deserve special mention and

thanks.

iii

Statistical and analytical assistance was obtained
from Dr. Martin Fox, Mr. Arthur Resnikoff, and Mr. Alan
Lesgold.

Finally the inspirational and secretarial help of
the author's wife, Judy W. Halsted, was vitally necessary

for the undertaking and completion of the project.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM

Introduction. .
Need for the Study.
Purpose of the Study
Hypotheses .
Overview

II. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction.
Literature Concerning Academic
Motivation
Literature Concerning Anthropoligical and
Sociological Studies of Puerto Rico
Summary

III. DESIGN OF THE.STUDY

Introduction.

Sample. .
Instrumentation.
Interview Procedures
Statistical Hypotheses
Statistical Analysis
Summary

IV. PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Introduction.
Restatement of Hypotheses and
Discussion of Results.

Page
iii

vii

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16
18
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20
22

23

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Chapter Page
Examination of Non-Significant Chi-

Square Values . . . . . . . . . 97

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . lOA

V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH . 112

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . ll2
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . ll2
Findings . . . . . . . . llA
Theoretical Implications. . . . . . l23
Implications for Future Research . . . . l28
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l3l
APPENDIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13A

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Summary of Maternal Sample Size for Each
Geographical Region

Summary of the Chi—Square Analysis of
Maternal ReSponses to Questions about
Academic Pressure

Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to
Question 27 (Person Other than Mother
Who Helps "x' with Homework) .

Summary of the Chi-Square Analysis of
Maternal ReSponses to Questions about
Permissive Attitudes

Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to
Question 57 (Hour When "X" Must Return
Home . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of the Chi-Square Analysis of
Maternal ReSponses to Questions about
Possessive Attitudes

Frequency Tally for Maternal Responses to
Question 52 (Reason for Maternal Reaction
to Child‘s Intention to Leave Island)

Summary of the Chi—Square Analysis of
Maternal ReSponses to Questions about
Consistency of Discipline

Summary of the Chi-Square Analysis of
Maternal ReSponses to Questions about
Academic Orientation

Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 16 CWhat was the Last Grade
You Attended in School?") . .

Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 18 (Last Grade Husband Attended)

vii

Page

19

28

33

3A

38

AD

A8

55

56

Table Page

4.11 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to
Question 17 (”Why Did You Stop Attending9") . 58

4.12 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 19 ("Why Did Husband Stop
Attending9"). . . . . . . . 59

4.13 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 33 (Ways Mother's Life would be
Improved with More Education) . . . . . . 60

4.14 Summary of the Chi-Square Analysis of
Maternal Responses to Questions about
Misbehavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.15 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to
Question 36 (Misbehavior from Ages 1—6). . . 66

4.16 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 37 (Most Frequent Misbehavior
During Ages 1-6) . . . . . . . . . . 6

\1

4.17 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 38 (Method of Discipline
Age 1— 6) . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.18 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to
Question 40 ("Who Administered the
Discipline?’ ') . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.19 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 42 (Most Frequent Misbehavior
for Past Fourt Years). . . . . . . . . 71

4.20 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 43 (Method of Discipline for
Four Years Prior to Interview). . . . . . 73

4.21 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 46 (Disciplinarian during Four
Years Prior to Interview) . . . . . . . 74

4.22 Summary of the Chi-Square Analysis of
Maternal Responses to Questions about

Other Attitudes. 76
4.23 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to

Question 61 (Ways She's a Good Mother

to "X") . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

viii

Table Page

4.24 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to
Question 62 (Ways Father is a Good Father). . 82

4.25 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to
Question 68 (Reason for "X” Not Doing

Well in School). 83
4.26 Summary of the Chi-Square Analysis of

Maternal Responses to Questions about ‘

Demographic Characteristics. 85
4.27 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to

Question 14 (Mother's Age Range) . . . . . 89
4.28 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to

Question 15 (Father's Age Range) . . . . . 93
4.29 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to

Question 22 (Level of Husband's Occupation) . 91
4.30 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to

Question 24 (Family Activities) . . . . . 93
4.31 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to

Question 25 (Most Frequent Family Activity) . 94
4.32 Frequency Tally of Maternal Responses to

Question 55 (Level of "X's" Occupational

Aspiration) . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.33 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponseS to

Question 63 (Source of "X's" Help When He

Has a Personal Problem) . . . . . . . . 96
4.34 Frequency Tally of Maternal ReSponses to ,

Question 73 (Weekly Family Income) . . . . 98
4.35 Frequency Tally of Question 71 (Interviewer

Estimate of Socio-Economic Level of Family) . 99
4.36 Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . 135

ix

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page

3.1 Method of Selecting Under- and Over—
Achievers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5.1 Types of Attitudes Held by Puerto Rican
Mothers of Over- and Under-Achieving
Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM1

Introduction

 

Puerto Rico is a land of many and radical changes.
Hollingshead and Rogler2 and Lewis3 both concluded that Puerto
Rico is evolving from a rural, agricultural society with only
high and low socio-economic classes into an urban, industrial
society with a middle socio—economic class that is increasing
in importance. The traditional ideas and modes of behavior
are rapidly becoming part of the past while the new values
and behaviors have not become explicitly defined. The result
is a society in a state of flux and a peOple who are seeking
new directions for their lives.

Puerto Rico is a natural laboratory for studying social

change. Extrapolation from previous studies indicates that,

 

1The research was supported by funds granted by the U.S.
Office of Education, as part of a study under the direction
of William W. Farquhar and Edward W. Christensen, entitled,
Motivational Factors Influencing Academic Achievement of
Eleventh Grade Puerto Rican High School Students, Research
Project No. 5-1069-2-12—1.

2A. B. Hollingshead and L. H. Rogler, "Lower Socio—
economic Status and Mental Illness, " Sociology and Social
Research, 46:387, July, 1962.

 

 

 

3Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in
the Caribbean (New York: MR Press, 1963), p. 289.

I

 

 

as one moves from the Rural areas to the Other-Urban areas

to the Urban San Juan area, one finds the attitudes, values,

and the world view of the peOple changing from the more tra—

ditional "now" orientation to the "future" orientation found

more commonly in the United States. Thus, within one culture

at one point in time, one can study cultural change in a

unique way.

Need for the Study

 

In Puerto Rico, as in any country or social group under-
going rapid change in values, education has the potential of
influencing the direction that the group will take in the fu-
ture. In areas Similar to Puerto Rico it is crucial that the
pOpulace be as well—educated as possible. That education is
necessary is due to the search for a direction for social,
economic, and political values that affect a large number of
peOple. In an undertaking of this nature the need for an edu—
cated, and, thereby, clear thinking citizenry is self-evident.

A further indication of the need for education in Puerto
Rico is the necessity for Puerto Rico to develop a sound tech-
nology. Due to the lack of natural resources the Puerto
Rican peOple must learn to manufacture items using imported
raw materials in order to survive economically. To become
a culture with a good technological program requires an edu-
cated citizenry.

Puerto Rico has made great progress in improving the

education that it can offer to its people. In 1898 less than

20% of the peOple could read and write. Today there is 86%
literacy, and of the island's children within the age bracket
of six to eighteen, 85% go to school.u However, underscoring
the need for more education, the Puerto Rico Planning Board
in the Office of the Governor in projecting current figures
into the future has stated that by 1975 six per cent of all
vocational positions should be filled by college graduates,
fifty-one per cent by senior or junior high school graduates,
and twelve per cent by those peOple with less than six years
of elementary school. To meet this demand 100,000 graudates
are needed at the high school level and there must be a 100%
increase in graduates at the college level.5 It appears that
the present educational effort will not meet these demands.

In View of the above statements it is readily apparent
that education and all that it implies are important to
Puerto Rico. Because education is so important, it merits
extensive study.

In Puerto Rico for people 25 years old and over the
median level of schooling in 1960 was 4.8 years of school

. 6 . .
for men and 4.3 for women. No social group can function

.2

 

4

Ruth Gruber, Puerto Rico, Island of Promise (New York:
Hill and Wang, Inc., 1960), p. 130.

 

I:
JTheodore Brameld, The Remaking of a Culture; Life and
Ed tion in Puerto Rico (New York: Harpers and Brothers,

 

 

uca
1959). p- 12-

6NewYork City Board of Education, Board of Education
Curriculum Bulletins, No. 5, Puerto Rican Profiles: Resource
Materials for Teachers (New York: Board of Education, 1964-65.)

 

 

at a maximal level in the contemporary world with a pOpulace
having this amount of education. Thus the need is great for
better understanding of academic achievement.

Tumin and Feldman7

state that in Puerto Rico peOple of
the same social class have differing attitudes toward the im-
portance of education. The investigation of parental commit-
ment to education is part of the purpose of this study. That
this investigation is needed is attested to by (l) the variance
in parental attitudes toward education that exists, and
(2) the important implications of the attitudes for the lives
of the children involved as well as for the future of Puerto
Rico and similar social groups. The schools.can foster favor-
able attitudes toward education, but parental attitudes can
obviate these efforts. Therefore more Should be known about
the parental influences of academic achievement.

An additional value of this study is that Puerto Rico
has been a model for other underdeveloped countries in aspects
other than education. Studies of the nature described here

have bearing upon the educational problems faced by other

under-developed countries.

Purpose of the Study

 

The purpose of the study is to investigate the differ-
ences in characteristics, attitudes, and values among Puerto
Rican mothers of eleventh grade under- and over—achieving stu—

dents of the same sex in each geographical area.

 

7Melvin M. Tumin and Arnold s. Feldman, Social Class
and Social Change in Puerto Rico (Prinéeton, New Jersey:
Princeton UniverSIty Press, 1961), p. 0.

 

 

Hypotheses

 

Hypotheses were generated to test differences between
mothers of under- and over-achieving students of the same
sex from each of the geographical areas studied. The fol-
lowing research hypotheses were investigated.

1. More achievement pressure is exerted by mothers of over-
achieving students than by mothers of under-achieving
students.

2. More permissive attitudes toward children are held by
mothers of over-achieving students than by mothers of
under-achieving students.

3. More possessive attitudes toward children are held by
mothers of under-achieving.students than by mothers of
over-achieving students.

4. Mothers of over—achieving students are more consistent
in their discipline than are mothers of under—achieving
students.

5. Mothers of over-achieving students are more academically
oriented than are mothers of under—achieving students.

The above research hypotheses have been stated in a
directional form. While it is preferable to directionalize
all hypotheses, due to a lack of previous research or de—
finitive theory the following hypotheses are not direc—
tionalized.

6- The types of misbehaviors and the parental treatment
of those misbehaviors are different for over-achieving

students and under—achieving students.

Attitudes toward the characteristics of a good parent,
the child's progress in school, work, the inherent worth
of man, and the temporal location of the good life are
different for mothers of under— and over-achieving stu-
dents.

Demographic characteristics such as age of child, number
of Siblings, number of previous marriages of parents,
employment history of parents, and socioeconomic status
of parents are different for under- and over—achieving

students.

Overview

In Chapter II the pertinent literature and research is

reviewed. The research design for the study is presented in

Chapter III. In Chapter IV the results are presented and

discussed, and the study is summarized and implications for

future research are drawn in Chapter V.

Because the study represents an attempt to direc-

tionalize hypotheses wherever previous studies permitted,

the literature review and its implications for parental

patterns of under- and over-achieving children are presented

in the following chapter.

I

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

 

The research areas of academic motivation and anthro-
pological and sociological studies of Puerto Rico are per—
tinent to this study. Previous related research from each

area is discussed in this chapter.

Literature Concerning Academic Motivation
1

 

McClelland's theory of motivation was followed as a
basis for this study. His theoretical analysis of moti-
vation is that all motives are learned; they develop out of
repeated affective experiences connected with certain types
of situations and types of behavior. In the case of achieve—
ment motivation the situations Should involve "standards of
excellence," presumably imposed on the child by the culture,
or more particularly by the parents as representatives of

the culture, and the behavior Should involve either "com—
petition" with those standards of excellence or attempts to

meet them which, if successful, produce positive affect or,

if unsuccessful, negative affect. It follows that those

 

1David C. McClelland, et al., The Achievement Motive
(New York: Appleton—Century Crofts, Inc., 1953), p. 275.

 

 

7

cultures or families which stress "competition with standards
of excellence" or which insist that the child be able to
perform certain tasks well by himself would produce children
with high achievement motivation.

In studying achievement need (n Ach) in boys and girls
in the United States, McClelland2 found that n Ach was dif—
ferent in boys and girls. For the boys achievement pressure
was necessary to gain a difference in their achievement
scores; for the girls social acceptance, not achievement
pressure, was found to be the crucial variable.

Farquhar,3 in his factor analysis of his M—scales,
found the factor structure for boys to be different from that
of girls.

Winterbottom)‘I studied twenty—nine Midwestern United
States boys, eight to ten years old. She found that mothers
of sons with low n Ach tend to demand less in the way of
independent achievement at an early age, and they tend to be
more restrictive than the other mothers. She also found
that mothers who do not want their children to play with
strangers are more apt to have attitudes favoring the de—

velOpment of sons with low n Ach and with high F scores or

 

2Ibid., p. 181.

 

3William W. Farquhar, A Comprehensive Study of the
Motivational Factors Underlying Achievement of Eleventh Grade
High School Students, Office of Research and Publications,
College of Education (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State
University, January, 1963).

 

 

 

”M. R. Winterbottom reported by McClelland, et al.,
op. cit., pp. 302-303.

"anti-democratic" attitudes. From this She concluded that
low n Ach comes from the same "authoritarian" or protective

family syndrome which is associated with race prejudice.

5

Payne has reviewed many studies of parental influences

and their implications for the achievement of the children.
At the end of his review he drew the following conclusions
about high academic achievement after cautioning the reader
that the lack of comparability in sampling techniques, in—
strumentation and analysis procedures are just a few of the
factors which effected the frequently contradictory results.

1. Parents exert a high degree of achievement
pressure that develops in the child a competitive
Spirit and a need for achievement.

2. There is a high frequency of parental behavior
which is perceived by the child as rejecting or
ignoring. The child is encouraged to be on his own

at an early age, this behavior being interpreted as
rejection. The father is generally seen as a re-
jecting figure, the mother as a warm and accepting
one. There is often a rejection of parental responsi—
bility and the homemaking role on the part of the
mother.

3. Parents exhibit a low degree of possessiveness
where the child is not dominated by his parents and
is not encouraged to depend upon them.

4. A high degree of permissiveness exists, encour-
aging the child to act freely and to make decisions
on his own at an early age. The frequent practice
of independence training is found.

5. A generally high degree of authoritarianism is
shown on the part of the parents. The child is not
consulted on decisions which affect the whole family
or its individual members.

 

5David A. Payne, "Parental Influences and Achievement,"
The Reporter, XV, No. 1, pp. 5—11.

 

lO

6. There is a low frequency of discipline. The
child is expected to accept the consequences of
his own behavior.

7. Children manifest a high valuation of and
respect for parents, but without a warm and in—
timate association. Frequently a somewhat emotion—
less atmosphere engenders feelings of doubt and
confusion in areas of felt understanding and accep-
tance. Parents are trusted and confidence is
placed in them, as evidenced by acceptance of their
standards. Achievement is a result of an attempt
to please parents and to meet expectations.

Literature Concerning Anthropological and
Sociological Studies of Puerto Rico

 

 

In this section the values, family life, child rearing
practices, and subcultural differences of Puerto Rico are

examined.

Values

Brameld6 has described Puerto Rico as being a syn—
cretic culture or one in which there is occurring a fusion
of different or even opposing principles and practices.
This makes the determination of the values of Puerto Rico
difficult.

However, in spite of this difficulty some of the pre-
sent Spiritual and cultural values of Puerto Ricans have
been described thus:7
1. The solidarity of the family group is esteemed, as is

the deep sense of responsibility felt by the family for

its members.

 

6Brameld, Op. cit., p. 132.
7 . If

New York City Board of Education, op. Cit., p. 96.

ll

2. People are judged on the basis of what they are and do
rather than on the basis of how much material wealth
they possess.

3. Racial differences are seen in a less discriminating way
than in the United States.

4. Each individual has a deep sense of dignity.

5. A style of life that renders grace and job to living
prevails.

Cochran8 in his study of the Puerto Rican business
elite pictured the Latin American entrepreneurs as:

1. Interested in inner worth and justification by standards
of personal feeling more than they are in the opinion of
peer groups.

2. Favoring personal authority over group decisions.

3. Liking personal as Opposed to impersonal arrangements.

4. Preferring social prestige to money.

5. Not interested in science and technology.

From the above it is apparent that many Puerto Rican

values differ from those commonly held in the United States.

Family Life

 

The family in Puerto Rico is grounded in mores and
customs that reflect its European and especially Spanish

past, but it is beginning to acquire attitudes and habits

 

8
T. C. Cochran, The Puerto Rican Businessman: A Study

 

in Cultural Change (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1959), p. 131.

 

12

that resemble certain types of North American families. One
consequence of this is instability and conflict, particularly
between older and younger family members.9
In Puerto Rico the family loyalties extend further than
parents and children. The "extended family" consisting of
a "compadre" or godparent is the most frequent type of
family. The compadre is completely accepted as a family
member with a deep mutual sense of affection and obligation;0
A division of authority as well as labor has been cus—
tomary--the father was primarily concerned with the "ex-
ternal" relations of the family, and the mother was con-
cerned with the "internal."ll The oldest child is next in

authority with almost the Same right as his parents to en—

force family discipline.l2
Brameldl3 believes that the chief weaknesses of the

Puerto Rican family are its unduly hierarchical, pater-
nalistic, and self—centered structure. Its chief strengths
are rooted in profound loyalties and affections that reach

far beyond its immediate members.

 

9Brameld, op. cit., p. 40.

loIhid., pp. 40—41.

11Ibid., p. 42.

12Ibid., p. A3.

l3Ihid., p. 40.

 

13

Child Rearing

 

Landylu found the following child-rearing practices
and parental attitudes toward children to be true in the
rural population that he investigated.

1. High demands and many threats of punishment exist but
punishment is inconsistently administered.

2. High sexual anxiety exists but the boy's genitals are
exposed and played with.

3. Demands are made that the child remain around home and
he is threatened with what may happen to him in a hostile
world, but the child's social timidity and withdrawal
are ridiculed.

Some pervasive characteristics that Landy15 noted in
the behavior of rural youngsters were high dependency, low
guilt feelings, low superego, shyness, low interpersonal
aggression, and displaced aggression.

l6

Farquhar summarized his findings of the child rearing

practices in Puerto Rico in the following way:

 

l“David Landy, Tropical Childhood: Cultural Transmission
and Learning In a Rural Puerto Rican Village (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, Puerto Rico University
Social Science research center study, 1959), pp. 247-248.

 

 

15Ibid., p. 2A8.

16William W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, Application
to the Commissioner of Education, U. S. Office of Education,
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, for Funds to
Support a Cooperative Research Project Under the Provisions
of Public Law 531, 83rd Congress, East Lansing, Michigan,
September 1, 1963, p. 9.

14

From the psychological point of View, child—rearing
practices seem to be geared to two main goals: (1)
obedience to and dependence upon authority and (2)
strong repression of agression. Compared to main-
land mothers, the Puerto Rican mothers use more

(1) threats of withdrawal of love, (2) physical
punishment, and (3) dependency demands. Over and
above this, there is much less tendency to give rea-
sons or explanations for what children are required
to do. The patterns of discipline are heavily
saturated with inconsistency in punishment. Finally,
the achievement demands on the children are low.

Subcultural Differences

 

Tumin and Feldman,l7

in their study of the socio—
economic class differences in Puerto Rico, stratified their
sample pOpulation into Urban San Juan, Other—Urban areas, and
Rural areas because they had been advised by experts familiar
with Puerto Rico that people in these areas were different

in terms of their attitudes and values.

Steward, et al.,18 also emphasized the cultural

uniqueness of different geographical areas in Puerto Rico.

Summary

From the preceding review of literature related to
this investigation, five conclusions were drawn. Those
conclusions were: (1) that motives are learned, (2) that

some children have high achievement needs, (3) that the

 

l7Melvin M. Tumin and Arnold S. Feldman, Social Class
and Social Change in Puerto Rico (Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 196I), p. 514.

 

8
1 Julian Steward, et al., The People of Puerto Rico
(Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1956).

 

 

achievement need is different for males and females in the
United States, (4) that the values, family life, and child
rearing practices are different in Puerto Rico from those
in the United States, and (5) that subcultural differences
can be hypothesized to exist as one moves from the Urban
San Juan area to Other-Urban areas to the Rural areas. The
question remains of how the maternal attitudes, child-
rearing practices, values, and sociological characteristics
vary with the achievement level of the students in each
area. It is toward this latter question that this study is

directed.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Introduction

 

In this chapter the nature of the population studied,
the research instrument employed, the interview procedures,
the statistical hypotheses and the statistical analytical

methods are described.

Sample

Mothers of eleventh grade students in three geo-
graphical areas on the island of Puerto Rico were studied.
Mothers were chosen due to (1) the hypothesized greater
validity of the mothers' responses to questions about child
rearing practices and attitudes as compared with fathers'
responses, (2) the ease of finding mothers at home as com-
pared with fathers, and (3) the limited interview time
available.

The three geographical areas, Urban San Juan, Other-
Urban areas, and Rural areas, were chosen due to the
hypothesized change in values from a "now" oriented or
traditional culture found in the Rural areas to the com-

" .II

bined now and "future" orientation of the Other—Urban

areas to the "future" orientation of the Urban San Juan

l6

17

area. This hypothesis was based on Steward's, et al.,1

work emphasizing the cultural uniqueness of geographical
areas in Puerto Rico and on Tumin and Feldman's2 similar
stratification in their study of socio-economic classes
in Puerto Rico.

'The decision was made to analyze separately the
maternal reSponses for males and females in each geograph-
ical region based on the findings of McClelland3 and H
FarquharLl that achievement needs are different for males
and females in the United States.

In each of the areas approximately sixty under-
achieving students (approximately thirty males and thirty
females) and approximately sixty over—achieving students
(approximately thirty males and thirty females) were chosen
on the statistical basis of their achievement scores, which
were more than one standard error of estimate above or below
the regression prediction of their academic achievement.5

Because part of the difficulty in comparing the results of

 

lJulian Steward, et. al., op. cit.

2Tumin and Feldman, op. cit.

3McClelland, Op. cit., p. 275.

“Farquhar, 0p. cit.

5William W. Farquhar and David A. Payne, "A Classi-
fication and Comparison of Techniques Used in Selecting
Under- and Over-Achievers," Pepsonnel and Guidance Journal,

(May, 1964), pp. 874-884.

 

18

research in the area of academic motivation is the fact
that the definitions of under—achievement and over-
achievement have not been rigidly and uniformly set,6 a
statistical definition provides an operational definition
of under- and over—achievement. The method of selection
is summarized in Figure 3.1.

In Table 3.1 the sample Size used in the study is

summarized.

Instrumentation

 

The instrument used was the Parental Interview
Questionnaire (PIQ)that was develOped especially for this
study by several people.7 (A cepy of the PIQ is found in
Appendix A.) The questionnaire was revised four times.
The last two times pilot interviews were done and the
questionnaire was revised after each administration. The
purpose of these latter two revisions was to (l) clarify
the language, (2) identify categories for previously open-
ended questions, (3) determine the feasibility of using
the questionnaire, and (4) ascertain the time required for

the interview.

 

For a more complete discussion of this methodological
problem see W. Farquhar and D. Payne.

7William w. Farquhar, Edward Christensen, Ahmad Kamal,
David Payne, Allison Davis, and David Halsted.

l9

 

 

 

(1)
$3"
$4 High
0)
>
<1
4.)
c
H
o
m t
g a
8 //////;£//// 0 = over-achiever
w
0°C 0 O = under-achiever
'3 O o 00 a = 1 standard error
3 of estimate
é: Low

Test Aptitude Predictor of
Grade Point Average

Figure 3.l--Method of selecting under- and over-achievers.

TABLE 3.l--Summary of maternal sample Size for each
geographical region.

 

 

Urban

 

Sex San Juan Other-Urban Rural
Males Under—achievers 31 30 30
Over-achievers 31 28 31

Females Under-achievers 29 31 30

Over-achievers 30 29 30

 

20

Interview Procedures

 

The interviews were conducted with the mothers of the
under— and over-achieving students by female interviewers.
Women were chosen as interviewers due to the greater freedom
felt by women in talking about child-rearing attitudes and
other domestic issues with women rather than with men, a
problem estimated to be more crucial in the rural areas than
in the urban areas.

The number of interviewers was restricted to further
ensure the reliability of the interviews and to make easier
the training of interviewers. All of the interviewers had
participated in previous social scientific research. One
of the interviewers conducted the pilot interviews and was

invaluable in the training of the other interviewers.

Statistical Hypotheses

 

The stated hypotheses in Chapter I were in the gen-
eralized research form. Hypotheses one through five
constitute an attempt to predict the relationship between
maternal child-rearing practices, attitudes, and values,
and over-achievement in their children. For statistical
purposes testing employed both a null and an alternate
hypothesis.

For hypotheses six through eight sufficient research
data was not available to directionalize the hypotheses.
Therefore, differences between mothers of under— and over—
achieving students were predicted but directionality was

not predicted.

21

The following are the statistical hypotheses stated

with their alternates in cases where previous knowledge

warrants the formulation of alternates.

H0:

H1:

There is no difference in achievement pressure
exerted by mothers of under—achieving students
and by mothers of over-achieving students.

There is a greater amount of achievement pres—
sure exerted by mothers of over—achieving
students than by mothers of under—achieving
students.

There is no difference in the permissive attitudes
toward children held by mothers of under—
achieving students and by mothers of over—
achieving students.

There is a smaller number of permissive attitudes
held by mothers of under—achieving students
than by mothers of over—achieving students.

There is no difference in the number of possessive
attitudes toward children held by mothers of
under—achieving students and by mothers of over—
achieving students.

There is a greater number of possessive at—
titudes held by mothers of under—achieving
students than by mothers of over-achieving
students.

There is no difference in the consistency of
discipline on the part of mothers of over-
achieving students and on the part of mothers
of under—achieving students.

There is a greater consistency of discipline on
the part of mothers of over—achieving students

than on the part of mothers of under-achieving

students.

There is no difference in the amount of academic
orientation held by mothers of over—achieving
students as compared with mothers of under—
achieving students.

There is greater amount of academic orientation
held by mothers of over—achieving students than
by mothers of under—achieving students.

22

The following hypotheses are stated only in the null

form because they are not directionalized.

HO: There is no difference in the kinds of mis-
behaviors and the parental treatment of those
misbehaviors between under— and over—achieving
students.

HO: There is no difference in attitudes toward
characteristics of a good parent, the child's
progress in school, work, the inherent worth
of man, and the temporal location of the good
life between mothers of under— and over-achieving
students.

HO: There is no difference in demographic character-

istics between under— and over-achieving
students.

Statistical Analysis

The chi-square test and frequency tallies were used
to measure the differences between mothers of low— and high—
motivated students. The chi-square test compares an observed
frequency distribution with a corresponding theoretical dis—
tribution. If the difference between the observed and ex—
pected frequencies is sufficiently large, the null hypothesis
of no difference is rejected.

The independence of the individual measures that is
necessary in the chi—square test was assumed to exist. It
was expected that there would be a number of significant
Chi-square values obtained strictly by chance. In a study
OfT‘this nature, i. e., an initial survey, this fact should

YMDt be detrimental to the value of the study.

23

For the first five hypotheses the tabled level of
significance used was .10 because the hypotheses were di-
rectional and the table is based on non-directional tests.8
The next three hypotheses were non—directional and therefore
the tabled value for the .05 level of Significance was used.
For a chi—square value to be significant a theoretical value

greater than five was required to exist in each cell.

Summary

A sample of 360 mothers of over- and under-achieving

.~

eleventh grade Puerto Rican students from three geographical
regions was studied. In each region equal numbers of under—
and over-achieving males and females were randomly selected.
A structured interview (PIQ) was conducted by professional
female interviewers with each mother.

The following null and alternate hypotheses were

formulated:

Ho: There is no difference in achievement pressure
exerted by mothers of under-achieving students
and by mothers of over—achieving students.

H1: There is a greater amount of achievement pressure
exerted by mothers of over—achieving students
than by mothers of under—achieving students.

HO: There is no difference in the permissive atti—
tudes toward children held by mothers of under-

achieving students and by mothers of over-
achieving students.

8G. A. Ferguson, Statistical Analysis in Psychology
€151_Education (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959),
p. 1750

 

 

24

H1: There is a smaller number of permissive attitudes
held by mothers of under-achieving students than
by mothers of over~achieving students.

H : There is no difference in the number of possessive
attitudes toward children held by mothers of
under-achieving students and by mothers of over—
achieving students.

H1: There is a greater number of possessive attitudes
held by mothers of under-achieving than by
mothers of over—achieving students.

H : There is no difference in the consistency of dis—
cipline on the part of mothers of over-achieving
students and on the part of mothers of under-
achieving students.

Hl: There is a greater consistency of discipline on
the part of mothers of over—achieving students
than on the part of mothers of under—achieving
students.

H : There is no difference in the amount of academic
orientation held by mothers of over—achieving
students as compared with mothers of under-
achieving students.

H : There is a greater amount of academic orientation
held by mothers of over—achieving students than
by mothers of under-achieving students.

H : There is no difference in the kinds of misbe—
haviors and the parental treatment of thos mis-
behaviors between under- and over-achieving
students.

H : There is no difference in attitudes toward charac—
teristics of a good parent, the child's progress
in school, work, the inherent worth of man, and
the temporal location of the good life between
mothers of under- and over-achieving students.

H : There is no difference in demographic character—
istics between under— and over-achieving students.

Chi-square tests and frequency tallies were obtained

to ascertain differences between groups.

25

Whereas this Chapter included a discussion of the
methods and procedures used in the study, Chapter IV con—
tains the results and discussion of the data gathered to

test the research hypotheses.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Introduction

 

The data gathered to test the hypotheses stated in
Chapter III are presented in this chapter and are discussed
thereafter. Each of the eight hypotheses is restated as in
Chapter III and then the results of the questions from the
Parental Interview Questionnairel that were used to test the
hypotheses are analyzed. Data and previous research per-
mitting, chi—square analysis was applied to the responses.

Restatement of Hypptheses and
Discussion of Results

 

 

Achievement Pressure

 

Payne2 reported in his summary of research that the
presence of parental achievement pressure was related to
over—achievement in the United States. The following null
and alternate hypotheses were formulated to ascertain the
relationship between parental achievement pressure and
student's level of achievement in Puerto Rico.

HQ: There is no difference in achievement pressure
exerted by mothers of under-achieving students and by
mothers of over—achieving student.

1A complete c0py, referred to herein as the PIQ, may
be found in the Appendix.

2Payne, loc. cit., p. 11.”
26

[U
—\1

H1: There is a greater amount of achievement pressure
exerted by mothers of over—achieving students than by
mothers of under-achieving students.

The PIQ questions used to test the above hypotheses and
the results of the chi—square analysis of the maternal re-
sponses to them are presented in Table 4.1.

The group for which the results of the question in-
quiring about preschool teaching of "X" (Question 29) was
significant was that of the Other-Urban females (X2 = 3.143)
but not in the predicted direction. The Other—Urban mothers
of under-achieving females reported more often than those of
over—achieving females that they had taught their daughters
the "A, B, C's" and "numbers."

Question 53, "How far do you want "X" to go in school?",
was asked to ascertain if mothers of over— and under—achieving
students had different levels of aspiration concerning years
of education for "X". The over- and under—achieving females
in the Urban San Juan (X2 = 4.873) and Rural (X2 = 7.454)
areas differed in the predicted direction, i.e., more mothers
of over- than under—achieving females in the Urban San Juan
and Rural areas aspired to post—high school education for
their daughters than expected.

The purpose of Question 54 was to ascertain how far the
mother thought her child would actually go in school with the
hypothesis that mothers of over—achieving children would ex—
pect their children to stay in school longer than mothers of

under-achieving children. The prediction was supported for

28

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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male students in the Urban San Juan (X2 = 7.411) and the
Other-Urban (X2 = 8.684) areas and for females in the Other-
Urban (X2 = 4.648) and Rural (X2 = 13.577) areas.

Mothers' beliefs about the necessity of parental
pressure on the child to do well in school (Question 85)
were different in the predicted direction (more parental
pressure for over-achievers, less for under—achievers) for
females in the Other—Urban area (x2 = 4.819) when the re—
sponse categories were collapsed "Strongly Agree," "Agree"
versus "Disagree," and "Strongly Disagree." The same col-
lapsing scheme yielded a significant chi—square value for
the males in the Urban San Juan area (X2 = 5.415) but in the
opposite direction from that theorized. Maternal response
to Question 85 can reflect either parental achievement pres-
sure (which haS been found to be present in the case of
over—achievers in the United States) or parental limiting of
the child‘s assumption of responsibility for his own deci—
sions and life. The nature of parental aChievement pressure
can be inspirational or over—possessive; it is not clear
from this question which aspect of it is being measured.

The other responses in this section investigating
academic pressure on the child did not yield significant
results: i.e. the null hypothesis of no differences was not
rejected.

Because Question 27, "If someone else helps "X" with

homework, it is usually—-," elicited multiple responses, a

U.)
IO

frequency tally, presented in Table 4.2, was used instead of
the chi—square test. From Table 4.2 it is clear that either
the mother helped with the homework or no one helped in the

majority of cases, according to the mothers' reports.

Permissive Attitudes

 

Previous research in the United States found that
higher permissive attitudes were held by parents of over—
achieving students than by parents of under-achieving stu—
dents. Whether or not this is true in Puerto Rico was not
known; therefore, the purpose of the questions in this
section was to investigate parental permissiveness and its
relationship to the level of the child's achievement.

The null and alternate hypotheses tested were:

H : There is no difference in the permissive attitudes
toward children held by mothers of under-achieving
students and by mothers of over—achieving students.

H1: There are fewer permissive attitudes held by mothers
of under—achieving students than by mothers of over-
achieving students.

The chi-square analysis of the maternal responses to
questions concerning the hypotheses related to permissive
attitudes is presented in Table 4.3.

Question 65, "Should children be permitted to ask as
many questions as they want to of their parents?", dif—
ferentiated between under— and over-achieving Other-Urban

2
males (X = 4.383) and between under— and over—achieving

Rural females (X2 = 4.356) in that mothers of over—achieving

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35

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ooschcootlm.: mqm<9

36

children reported that they permitted more questions than
did mothers of under-achieving children. Some parents who
permitted information seeking questions.may have responded
negatively to this item because they do not.permit trivial
or nagging questions by children. A distinction between
information seeking and trivial questions in future research
would be wise.

Maternal attitudes toward whether a child should be
seen and not heard (Question 77) differentiated between
mothers of under- and over—achieving females in the Other—
Urban (X2 = 3.696) areas when the responses were collapsed
"Strongly Agree," "Agree" versus "Disagree," and "Strongly
Disagree." Disproportionately fewer mothers of over—
achieving students in the Other—Urban living area agreed
with the statement than expected by chance alone.

For Question 82, "The best child is one who does what
his parents want," collapsing the responses "Strongly Agree,"
"Agree" versus "Disagree" and “Strongly Disagree" dif-
ferentiated between under— and over—achieving students for
the Rural females (X2 = 3.463). Collapsing the responses
"Strongly Agree" versus "Agree," "Disagree," and "Strongly
Disagree" resulted in differentiating between over— and
under-achieving Rural males.(X2 = 3.720). More research
needs to be done concerning the Puerto Rican parental
conception of a model child and the implication this

attitude has for the achievement levelengendered in the

child.

37

The analysis of the other.three questions in this
section yielded non-significant results and the null
hypothesis was accepted.

In Table 4.4 is presented a frequence tally used
instead of the chi-square model.because of multiple responses
to Question 57, "At what established time does "X" have
to return home in the evening?" The most frequently chosen
responses were 8—9 o'clock, 9-10 o'clock and "Doesn't go
out at night," with no difference in frequency of response
for over- and under-achieving students. More mothers of
female students chose 8-9 o'clock than did mothers of male
students. Many more mothers of female students than male
students stated that their daughters did not go out at night
in the Urban San Juan area and in the Rural areas. Why this
difference did not exist in the Other-Urban areas was not
clear. Perhaps the parental apprehension in the Urban San
Juan area kept females at.home-at night and the.traditiona1
protective attitude toward females accomplished the same

end in the Rural areas.

Possessive Attitudes

 

In the United Statesaparents who are more possessive
toward their children tend-to have more under-achieving
children than do parents who are-less possessive. Little
is known about this relationship.in Puerto Rico. In this
section questions having as their.purpose the determination

of the relationship between maternal possessive attitudes

38

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39

and the achievement level of the child have been formu—
lated.

The null and alternate hypotheses tested were:

HO: There is no difference in the number of possessive
attitudes toward children held by mothers of under-
achieving students and by mothers of over—achieving
students.

H1: There is a greater number of possessive attitudes
held by mothers of under-achieving.students than by
mothers of high—achieving students.

The results of the chi-square analysis of the mothers'
responses to the questions is presented in Table 4.5.

When responses to Question 50 (Amount of maternal
encouragement given to small child to play with neighbor-
hood children) were collapsed "Gave him little encouragement
to do so," "Gave him no encouragement to do so" versus
"Gave him much encouragement to do so," no significant re-
sults were obtained. However, when the responses were
analyzed with no collapsing of categories, significant
results were obtained for the over— and under—achieving
males in the Rural areas (X2.= 3.508) and for the over-
and under—achieving females in all three areas. (In Urban
San Juan, (X2 = 5.051) in Other—Urban areas(x2 = 3.337,
and in Rural areas (X2 = 6.501).

One of the reasons for the original design of the
study was that a progressively greater traditionalism was
hypothesized to exist as one moved from the Urban San Juan

area to the Other-Urban areas to the Rural areas. The

results obtained from responses to Question 50 substantiated

40

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41

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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42

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43

the hypothesis in the following way. In the more modern
Urban San Juan and Other—Urban areas, mothers of both under-
and over—achieving students were more likely to encourage
their young boys to play with other boys. In the more tra-
ditional Rural areas one would hypothesize that the mothers
are less likely to encourage their young boys to play with
other boys; this supposition was substantiated in that over-
achieving boys had been encouraged to play with neighborhood
children and under-achieving boys had not. Furthermore, the
result for the Rural area was consistent with the hypothesis
that early independence training is associated with over—
achieving Children.

Question 50 also differentiated between under— and
over-achieving females in all regions. Females are more
protected than males and it may.well be that in those in—
stances in which the female was encouraged to act inde—
pendently and assertively the likelihood of over-achievement
was increased.

In Question 58 mothers were asked, "Who decided what
his or her hours were to be?" The responses, "Mother,"
"Father," and "Both Parents" were collapsed and contrasted
to the response, "Himself." Differentiation between the
under— and over—achieving male students in the Urban San
Juan area (X2 = 6.857) and the Other—Urban areas was found
with the over— more often than the under—achieving students

being reported as making his own decisions. These results

44

were consistent both with the hypotheses that responsibility
for decision—making leads to high levels of achievement and
with the culture in Puerto Rico that was hypothesized to be—
come more traditional as one moves from the Urban San Juan
area to the Other-Urban areas to the Rural areas. One can
not expect the Rural males to be as likely to make their

own decisions as males in the other two areas, due to the
cultural lag in independence of children and their right and
responsibility to make decisions. One would also not expect
the females to make such decisions due to the recent change
in modern areas in the traditional attitudes that women are
to be subservient and to have their decisions made for them.
Of the sixty mothers of Rural female students interviewed,
only one answered that her daughter decided what her hours
were to be.

The over- and under—achieving males in the Rural areas
were differentiated (X2 = 5.010) when responses to Question
80, "The best child is the one who shows lots of affection
for his parents," were collapsed "Strongly agree," "Agree"
versus "Disagree," and "Strongly disagree." The result of
the analysis was consistent with the.hypothesized more
traditional orientation in the Rural areas.

The only collapsing scheme that resulted in signi—
ficance for question 87, "Is it permissible for a daughter
to live away from home before she is married?" was that of

"Strongly Agree," "Agree," "Disagree" versus "Strongly

Disagree" and it differentiated among over- and under-
achieving Rural females (X2 = 6.239). More mothers of
under- than over—achievers chose "Strongly Agree," "Agree,"
and "Disagree" than expected when the alternative was
"Strongly Disagree."

For all other questions concerning possessive attitudes
in which the chi-square model was appropriate the null
hypothesis of no difference between the groups was not re—
jected.

Because more than one response was given to Question
52, (Reason for maternal reaction to possibility of child's
leaving the Island), the chi-square model was not used.
Instead, a frequency tally.is presented in Table 4.6.

More than twice as many (13 versus 6) mothers of under—
achieving students chose response 3, "Nobody would take
care of him," as did mothers of over-achieving students
among the Urban San Juan males. This finding is consistent
with the speculation that independence training is associated
with high achievement. Furthermore, in the Urban San Juan
males almost twice as many (16 versus 9) mothers of over—
achieving students chose response 5, "Better educational
opportunities," as did mothers of under—achieving students.
The maternal interest in education manifested here may be
related to the child's high level of achievement.

For the Rural males the response, "Opportunity for

more economic success," was the modal choice of the mothers

46

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“7

of the over-achieving students and close to the modal choice

of the mothers of the under—achieving students (ll versus 12).

Consistency of Discipline

 

Previous researchers have found that discipline of

3 For the

children tends to be inconsistent in Puerto Rico.
purposes of this study it was assumed that consistency of
discipline is associated with.high academic achievement or
motivation. To test the above assumption the following null

and alternate hypotheses were formulated:

HO: There is no difference in the consistency of dis-
cipline by mothers of over— or under-achieving students.

Hi: There is a greater consistency of discipline by
by mothers of over-than by mothers of under—achieving
students.

In Table 4.7 the mothers' responses to questions per-
taining to consistency of discipline are presented. None of
the questions differentiated the over- and under-achieving
students. Consistency of discipline is theoretically im—
portant in the establishment of a level of achievement but
it has yielded non—significant results as a construct in the
present research. Some means of studying this phenomenon

other than a structured interview with mothers needs to be

employed in future research in this area.

 

3D. Landy, "Childrearing Patterns in a Puerto Rican
Lower Class Community," (unpublished manuscript, University
of Puerto Rico, 1952)

8

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Academic Orientation

 

Because it is academic achievement with which the
study is concerned, one would expect more academic orien—
tation of mothers of over— than under—achieving students.
This expectation follows from McClelland's theory that
motives are learned and the fact that children learn much
from their parents. A number of questions were designed to
test the above assumption.

In null and alternate form the following hypothses
were tested:

HO: There is no difference in the amount of academic
orientation held by mothers of over—achieving students
as compared with mothers of under-achieving students.
H1: There is a greater amount of academic orientation
held by mothers of over-achieving students than by
mothers of under—achieving students.

The results of the chi-square analysis of the mothers'
responses to the questions in this section are presented in
Table U.8.

The responses to Question 31, "What, if any material

do you like to read?", collapsed “Nothing" versus the re-

maining responses, differentiated the under- and over—

. 2
achieving Rural females (X = 3.931). A succeeding question

should have been asked requesting the type of reading done
most frequently by the mother.

Question 35 (Paternal reasons for wanting more edu-
cation) differentiated the males in the Other—Urban areas

(X2 = 4.098) and the under— and over—achieving females in

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5b.

the Rural areas (X2 = 9.823). The research hypothesis was
that fathers of over-achieving children would desire an edu-
cation for "Knowledge," "Social adequacy," or "Parental
competence" more than for "Monetary gain" or "Employment."
The "Wants no more education" response was grouped with
these responses predicted to be chosen more often by mothers
of under—achieving students as was the "Don't know" re—
sponse, which was assumed to give evidence of either poor
parental communication or lack of parental concern with
education. Either of the latter was predicted to be assoc—
iated with under-achieving students. The hypothesis was
supported in the way described above.

In Question 73, "If his parents need him, a child
should drop out of school," the under— and over—achieving
Urban San Juan males were differentiated when the responses
were collapsed "Strongly agree," "Agree, "Disagree" versus
"Strongly disagree” (X2 = 4.769). The result reflects the
more modern attitudes held by people in Urban San Juan than
by those in the other areas.

None of the analyses of.the responses to the other
questions yielded significant results, i.e., the null
hypothesis of no differences between the groups was ac—
cepted.

In Tables “.9 and 4.10 it is.reported that the ma-
jority of the parents in any area or group had less than

a ninth grade education. However, there was no differential

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pattern for the number of years of schooling for either
mothers or fathers of under— or over—achieving students.

The modal reason for leaving school given by the
mother for herself and for her husband (reported in Tables
u.11 and H.12) was "Economic concerns," indicating the
close relationship between the general economic health of
a country and the educational level attained by its people.
This reason did not apply differentially to the under— and
over—achieving students.

The most frequent responses given to the question,
"How would your life be better if you had more education?",
were "Monetary gain," "Social adequacy," and "Employment."
These results are summarized in Table 4.13, a frequency
tally. While providing a beginning for future research,
this question would have yielded more information if a
following question had been asked requesting the respondent

to name the most important way life would be better.

Misbehavior

 

Academic achievement and.misbehavior are two common
aspects of a child‘s life. In this.section the purpose was
to explore the misbehaviors-of the.different achievement
groups and to ascertain the relationship of these two dynamic
facets to the children under investigation.

The following hypothesis was tested concerning the
child's misbehaviors and also.the parental treatment of the

misbehavior:

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HO: There is no difference in the kinds of misbehaviors
and the parental treatment of those misbehaviors be—
tween under- and over—achieving students.

In Table “.1“ is summarized the results of the chi-
square analysis of the mothers' responses to the questions
testing the hypothesis.

Question 36 (Most frequent forms of misbehavior of "X"
from ages 1—6) differentiated between the under— and over-
achieving females of the Rural areas (X2 = 5.934) but did
not differentiate between the groups in any other area.
Fewer mothers of over- than under—achieving females in the
Rural areas than eXpected stated that their daughters did
not misbehave. Mothers of over-achieving females in the
Rural areas were more reality oriented in this aspect of
their daughters' lives than were mothers of under-achieving
females in the Rural areas, because it is hard to believe
that any child never misbehaved from age 1 to 6.

The method of collapsing the responses to Question 41

(Misbehavior of "X" for four years prior to the interview)

was "XDne" versus "Fighting," "Destructive," "Disobeys
parents," "Had vices," “Unpleasant personality," and
"Truancy from school." The differentiation was significant

for under— and over—achieving Urban San Juan males

2
(X = 10.629) and for under— and over-achieving females

6.726).

in Other-Urban areas (X2
For Question M6, "Who administered the discipline?",
more mothers of under— than over—achieving Other-Urban

females indicated that a parent had done so (X2 = 5.511).

62

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65

The chi—square analysis of the remaining questions in
this section was non-significant and the null hypothesis was
accepted.

Because multiple responses were elicited by Question
36, "When "X" was between the age of l and 6, what were the
most frequent forms of misbehavior (he/she) showed?",
collapsing schemes and chi—square analysis other than the
one reported previously ("None" versus all misbehaviors),
were impossible. Thus the responses to Question 36 are
further analyzed by the frequency tally presented in Table
H.15. The modal response for under— and over-achieving
males to this question is response 5, "Fought with brothers
or sisters" and there are more over- than under-achieving
Urban San Juan males described this way-(lu versus 8). This
group and the females from the Rural areas (17 versus 8)
were the only groups in which there was such a marked dif-
ference in the answering of response 5 by the mothers.
Aggression is inhibited in Puerto Rico and, perhaps, the
Open expression of aggression proved to be psychologically
healthy for these two groups. Of course it is equally
possible that the over—achievement exhibited by these
youngsters in eleventh grade was another manifestation of
the competitiveness shown by them when they fought with
their brothers and sisters.

In Table “.16 (a frequency tally of Question 37,

"Describe the most typical or frequent problem during

66

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68

ages 1-6)" the response, "Fought with brothers of sisters"
was the modal response in three of the six groups and was
the second most frequently chosen in two more groups. In
four of the groups the larger number of mothers giving that
response were the mothers of over—achieving students. In
the other two groups the number of mothers of under- and
over-achieving students was the same. These results further
indicate the need for more knowledge of the kind of fighting
and the dynamics underlying that fighting engaged in by
children in Puerto Rico.

The type of discipline used with the children was
divided approximately equally between physical and verbal
punishment. (The results are presented on frequency tally
form in Table H.17.) The other four responses were chosen
infrequently, leading to the conclusion that future research
seeking to understand discipline more fully should attempt
to obtain more knowledge about these two methods of dis—
cipline.

In Table u.l8, a frequency tally of the maternal re-
sponses to Question HO "Who administered the discipline?",
the modal response was Mother, emphasizing the matriarchal
nature of the home.

Question “2 (Child's most frequently demonstrated
misbehavior during past four years) elicited the responses
"Destructive," "Had vices" and "Truancy from school" as

reported in the frequency tally in Table “.19. "Fighting,"

69

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70

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71

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72

"Disobeying parents," "Unpleasant personality" and "No
misbehavior" were the most frequently chosen responses.
No pattern of different frequency of responses existed
for under- and over-achieving students.

Question A3 was used to determine the main methods
of discipline employed during the four years prior to the
interview. According to the results, presented in Table
4.20, the modal response was "Scolding" and the relative
frequency with which it was given varied from group to
group. Scolding is usually considered to be a feminine
mode of punishment. One cannot help but conjecture that
a strong father-figure and a masculine mode of discipline
might change some aspects of the culture and also the
achievement orientation. HoWever, it must be remembered
that it was mothers who were responding to the question.

The maternalistic character of the home was evidenced
in the mothers' responses to Question “6 (Person admin-
istering discipline to "X" during the four years prior to
the interview) as reported in the frequency tally pre—
sented in Table 4.21. Although it was not uncommon for
both parents to be given as the disciplinarians, the mother

listed herself more frequently.

Other Attitudes

 

Maternal attitudes toward the characteristics of a
good parent, the child's progress in school, work, the

inherent worth of man, and whether the best times are in

73

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74

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75

the past, present, or future were surveyed in this section.
Non-directionalized differences between mothers of over-
and under—achieving students were hypothesized to exist.

The following null hypothesis was tested:

Ho: There is no difference in attitudes toward char-
acteristics of a good parent, the child's progress in
school, work, the inherent worth of man, and whether
the best times are in the past, present, or future be-
tween mothers of over- and under-achieving students.

In Table 4.22 are presented the results of the chi-
square analysis of the mothers' reSponses to the questions
concerning Other Attitudes.

The chi-square values for the reSponses to Question 67
(Mother's Opinion of "X”‘s performance in school) were sig-

nificant for Other-Urban males (X2

= 12.599). These results
indicated that the mothers were aware of the academic
standing of their sons. However, one cannot help but con-
sider the possibility that the sons performed as they did
because the mothers considered their academic standing either
satisfactory or unsatisfactory. That students tend to per—
form as they believe significant others expect them to is
probably true. Asking the mother's Opinion of her child's
school work may not have tapped this dimension, but a
question or series of questions that did would undoubtedly
yield interesting results.

Question 69 (Comparison of "X"'s school performance
with that of siblings) was significant for all the groups

(for Urban San Juan males, X2 = 10.5Hl; for Other Urban

76

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79

males, X2 = l2.u65; for Rural males, X2 = 8.066; for

Urban San Juan females, X2 = 13.314; for Other—Urban
females, X2 = 9.024; and for Rural females, X2 = 17.876).
The mothers of the over-achieving students in each area
considered the academic performance of the child con-
cerned to be better than that of his siblings more fre-
quently than expected by chance. The converse was true
for the mothers of under—achieving students. These
results further support the idea mentioned in the pre-
vious paragraph that the academic performance of students
may be influenced by the Opinion of significant others.
The over- and under-achieving Rural females (X2 =
5.455) were differentiated by maternal reSponses to
Question 86, ”No human would work if he really did not

have to,’ when the responses were collapsed "Strongly

' versus "Strongly Disagree." The finding

Agree," ”Agree,I
indicates that more frequently than expected the attitude
of the Rural mothers of over—achieving females is that
some peOple would work if they did not have to do so.

The analysis of the maternal reSponses to the re—
maining questions in this section was non—significant,
and the null hypothesis was accepted.

The most frequently chosen responses for Question
61, "In what ways are you a good mother to "X"?", were

H

"Setting limits, "Giving advice," "Teaching him prOper

behaviors,” ”Supplying physical needs,' and "Supplying

80

emotional needs." (The reSponses for the question are
summarized in the frequency tally on Table 4.23). There
was no pattern in the differential frequency with which
they were chosen by mothers of under- and over-achieving
students.

The reSponses to Question 62, "In what ways is your
husband a good father to "X"?", which are presented in
frequency tally form in Table 4.24, were more evenly dis-
tributed than were those for Question 61. The modal
response was "Supplies physical needs." That this reSponse
was chosen most frequently as the way in which the husband
was a good father is an interesting commentary on either
the father's functioning as a father, the mother's concep—
tion of a good father, or both.

For Question 68, "If "X” is not doing well in school,
what do you think is the reason?", the modal reSponse was

” as reported in the frequency tally pre—

"Doesn't apply,
sented in Table H.25. Because this response indicates that
the child was performing satisfactorily academically, its
selection by mothers of over—achieving students was under-
standable. However, it was also the modal response for
mothers of under-achievers. In some cases the reSponse

may have indicated that in the mother's Opinion, the child
was performing satisfactorily for his academic ability.

One also wonders, however, what the effect would be if the

mothers of low—motivated students were less satisfied with

81

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84

the academic performance of their children. An attitude
more consistent with reality could change the kind of
reinforcement enjoyed by the child and might subsequently

have positive effects on performance.

Demographic Characteristics
As part of the present attempt to understand better
the phenomena of over- and under-achievement in Puerto
Rico, some demographic characteristics of the student were
studied. For statistical purposes and due to the lack of
previous research results only the null hypothesis of no
differences was postulated.
Ho: There is no difference in demographic char-
acteristics between over- and under-achieving
students.
The chi—square analysis of mothers' responses to
the questions in this section is presented in Table “.26.
For Question 9 (Farthest any children have gone in
school) more of the over—achieving Rural females than
statistically expected had siblings who had achieved more

than an eleventh grade education; this was the case for

fewer of the under-achieving Rural females than expected

(x2 = u.o69).

85

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88

In Question 21, "How much are you working now?", the
under— and over-achieving females in the Urban San Juan
area were differentiated. In San Juan significantly more
mothers of under-achieving females worked than did mothers
of over-achieving females (X2 = 8.748). Urban San Juan
females were the only group so differentiated.

None of the analyses of the responses to the other
questions were significant and the null hypothesis of no
difference between the groups was accepted.

In Table 4.27 it is reported that the usual age range
for mothers of under- and over—achieving students was
thirty—five to.fifty-four years. The fathers were forty to
sixty years old in general as indicated on the frequency
tally in Table 4.28. The age difference reflected in these
two tables is one of the differences between husbands~and
wives which may make difficult an equalitarian marital
arrangement in Puerto Rico.

The number of husbands working in different occu-
pational levels as reported in frequency tally form in
Table 4.29 remained stable for under- and over-achieving
students regardless of area or sex. Predominantly the
occupations engaged in by the fathers were in lower socio-
economic levels than expected. Occupational level of
fathers did not differentiate under- from over—achieving

students.

89

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92

The types of family activities engaged in by families
of under— and over-achieving children were relatively equal
in frequency for all areas and for both sexes as reported in
Tables 4.30 and 4.31.

Responses to Question 55, "What Job(s) does "X" have
in mind when he/she finishes his/her schooling or training?",
are presented in frequency tally form in Table “.32. The
over-achieving students in all areas chose High level Jobs
(as reported by their mothers) more frequently than ex-
pected. They also were reported to choose Low level Jobs
less frequently than expected. The converse was true for
under-achieving students. In all groups the occupational
aspiration level was consistent with the achievement level
of the students.

The maternal responses to Question 63 (Source of "X"'s
help when he has a personal problem) indicated that mothers
were most often selected as the one to be sought out for
help when a child had a personal problem. (A summary of the
responses to this question is presented in the frequency
tally, Table “.33.) This result should be verified by other
research means before being fully accepted, particularly
because in this research it was the mother herself making
the judgment. To give any other answer may have been
viewed as indicative of poor performance as a mother.
However, in the matriarchal structure of the home this

finding may reflect actual conditions. If so, modeling

93

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97

behavior on the part of males is made more difficult.
Teachers and counselors were mentioned a total of five
times by the mothers, indicating, either (1) the minimal
impact that school personnel have on the mothers of chil-
dren or (2) the threat such potential help might have on
parent-child relations.

Family income as reported in Table n.3u does not
differentiate between under— and over—achieving students
and remains constant across geographical areas as does
socio-economic status as reported in Table “.35. The
latter was consistentlyVfifightedtoward the middle to lower-

lower end of the scale for all areas and both sexes.

Examination of Non-Significant Chi-Square Values

 

The non-significant results of the study are discussed
in Chapter V, Theoretical Implications. However, in addition
to the reasoning in that section, an inspection of the fre-
quency tallies of the responses across geographical areas
was also made. This analysis was made with the purpose of
guiding future similar research endeavors and to examine the
utility of the assumption that a progression in traditional
modern value structure existed in the geographical areas
selected for the study.

Three types of reSponse patterns were identified. The
first, rectilinear, occurred when all or some response
categories were approximately equally weighted. ReSponse

patterns having one predominately favored response were the

98

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100

second type evidenced. And, finally, a third type was
identified which displayed a shift of response pattern from
one geographical area to another. In some cases the shift
was predicted by the traditional-modern continuum even if
the reSponses did not differentiate for mothers of under-
and over-achieving students. In other cases no shift in
pattern was observed, refuting the hypothesized change in
attitudes in moving from one geographical region to another.

The responses to three questions were found to be dis-
tributed in a rectilinear pattern. For Question 83, "Parents
should admit their own mistakes to their children” and
Question 84, "Even though there are a lot of ideas around
about how to raise children, the old ways are usually the
best,” the reSponses of ”Agree" or "Disagree” were chosen
by almost equal numbers of mothers in all groups, irreSpec—
tive of geographical area, sex of child, or achievement
level. Apparently Puerto Rican mothers were about equally
divided in their stand on these issues.

For Question 78, ”Children should generally do nothing

' the reSponses "Agree” and

without the consent of parents,‘
"Strongly agree" were chosen by the majority of all the
mothers studied.

The second type of reSponse pattern (one reSponse
being predominantly chosen) was observed for the responses
to thirteen questions.

In the section of the Parental Interview Questionnaire

entitled Brief Parent Attitude Inventory, five questions had

101

one response chosen almost unanimously. For all mothers
irrespective of region, sex of child, or achievement level
the response was ”Agree” to Question 75, ”Children always
neglect their school work if parents do not keep after them”;
Question 76, ”Parents should encourage their children to
bring their friends home”; Question 80, "The best child is
the one who shows lots of affection for his parents”; and
Question 85, ”Children should be pressured to do well in
school." For Question 87, ”Is it permissible for a daughter
to live away from home before she is married?" the reSponse
chosen by all mothers with almost total unanimity was ”Dis-
agree."

The responses to these questions were more informative
about the cultural concept of child-mother relationships
than they were about discrepant achievement-child rearing
interaction.

For all groups irrespective of geographical region,
sex of child, or achievement level, the most common form
of maternal help with homework given to the child as reported
by the mother was ”Work with him.” For some children direct
help may be necessary; for those who do not need it or who
are resistive it could be harmful. Future research could
explore the mother's discrimination of situations in
which the child actually needs to have her work with him.

The predominant answer to Question 29, "Did you try

to teach "x” the A,B,C's, numbers, or things like this before

(he/she) entered school?” was "Yes." Unfortunately the

102

reSponse did not clarify if the mother did this once or a
hundred times, or if she were successful. In some cases it
could prepare him for school-—in others the child could be
thwarted before starting.

Almost all mothers of both over- and under-achievers
expressed the desire that their child attend or graduate
from college.

Almost no mothers (9 of 360) reported that they or
the father had told the child what the nature of the child's
work was to be. For this one aspect all of the mothers
studied were judged as not possessive.

Almost all (35l or 360) of the mothers indicated that
"X” was not allowed to decide on the time to return home at
night until he was at least l8 years old. Apparently the
Puerto Rican mothers were highly possessive in setting time
limits.

Most of the mothers reported that ”X” had been disci-
plined immediately after he had misbehaved. From a learning
theory standpoint, this immediate negative reinforcement
should aid a developing child in his need for a constant
knowledge of what his parents expect. However, from other
sources Puerto Rican discipline has been described as incon-
sistent. For the groups studied here (with the exception
of the Urban San Juan males) the maternally reported timing
of discipline indicates a more consistent and rational
tendency than has been believed to exist in the culture.

Either the findings have uncovered an inconsistency between

103

belief and action or the culture is registering a shift in
behavior.

The most pOpular reSponse to Question 89 was "The best
times are in the future” (as opposed to past or present).
This was true without regard to geographical region, sex of
child, or achievement level. One might not expect this
reSponse from mothers in the Rural areas. The possibility
exists that some respondents interpreted the future as
including the religious concept of heaven. If, however, this
is not the case, the finding is most significant considering

" time orientation of Puerto Ricans.

the hypothesized ”now

A preponderant majority of the husbands of the mothers
interviewed were reported to be working full time. This
finding probably rests on the fact that the students chosen
for the study were eleventh graders. Children whose fathers
are not working full time may have left school for finan-
cial reasons before reaching the eleventh grade.

The third group for which the non-significant chi—
square values were examined was that pattern in which the
reSponse frequencies reflect the hypothesized attitudinal
change from a traditional point of View in the Rural areas
to combined traditional and modern outlook in the Other-Urban
areas to the modern philosophy of life in Urban San Juan.

The forty-one reSponse patterns refuting the above hypothe-

sized change in attitudes greatly outnumbered those five

response configurations supporting the change. In future

lOiL

research the geographical stratification of this study may
not be necessary. Some other basis for a sampling procedure
may be apprOpriate, e.U., socio—economic status or years of

0

education of the parents.

Summary
In Table H.36 are presented the major hypotheses of
the study and the questions whose responses yielded sig-

nificant results.

105

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.UQjCfl Luanncn q MQQ<B

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Introduction

 

The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the re—

(I)

earch described herein, to state the research findings,

Ff
O

- discuss the theoretical implications, and to draw some
implications for future research on the basis of these

findings.

Summary

The present study was designed to ascertain dif—
ferences between under— and over—achieving students in Puerto
Rico. The underlying assumption for the study was that
motives are learned and that parental attitudes and behaviors
are instrumental in or related to the learning productivity
of the child,

The pOpulation studied was mothers of eleventh grade
under— and over-achieving students in three geographical
areas on the island of Puerto Rico. Mothers were chosen due
to (l) the hypothesized greater validity of mothers’ than
fathers‘ responses to questions about child—rearing practices

and attitudes, (2) the ease of finding mothers at home as

compared with fathers, and (3) the limited interview time

available. _
ll:

ll3

The geographical areas, Urban San Juan, Other-Urban
areas, and Rural areas, were chosen due to the hypothesized
change in values from the "now" oriented or traditional cul-
ture found in the Rural areas to the combined "now" and
"future" orientation of the Other—Urban areas to the "future"
orientation of the Urban San Juan area.

Mothers from each of the above areas were selected on
the basis of the discrepancy between the achievement and
ability of their children. From each region approximately
sixty under—achieving students (thirty males and thirty fe—
males) and approximately sixty over—achieving students
(thirty males and thirty females) were chosen. The basis of
selection was that their academic achievement exceeded one
standard error of estimate above or below the regression
line prediction of their academic achievement.

The questionnaire employed for interviewing the
mothers of these children was the Parental Interview
Questionnaire (PIQ), which was developed especially for
this study. For social reasons only female interviewers
were employed to contact the mothers.

The research hypotheses tested were (1) more achieve-
ment pressure, (2) more permissive attitudes, (3) fewer
possessive attitudes, (A) greater consistency of discipline,
and (5) greater academic orientation would be reported by
mothers of over-achieving students than by mothers of under-

achieving students. Because of lack of theory and prior

114

investigation, non—directionalized differences were hypoth—
esized between under- and over—achieving students in the
areas of (1) kinds of misbehaviors and parental treatment of
those misbehaviors, (2) maternal attitudes toward char—
acteristics of a good parent, the child's progress in school,
work, the inherent worth of man, and the temporal location
of the good life, and (3) demographic characteristics. The
hypotheses were tested by the chi—square model.

Some of the hypothesized differences were substantiated
by the research results. In those instances in which sub-
stantiation was not found, the differences may exist in actu-
ality, but the limitations of the design simply did not un-
cover them. In future research persons other than, or in
addition to, the mother could be interviewed. Of course the
possibility always exists that the assumptions of the study

were not warranted.

Findings
The findings for each sub-division of the PIQ are

presented in the following section.

Achievement Pressure

 

1. No differences were found between over— and under-
achieving students in (a) the maternal or non—maternal
ways of helping students with homework and (b) the child's
pre-school academic preparation.

2. The Urban San Juan and Rural mothers of over-

achieving daughters wanted their daughters to have a

'._u
n.4-
Ul

significantly greater amount of education than did the
mothers of under—achieving daughters.

3. For the Urban San Juan and Other—Urban area males
and for Other—Urban areas and Rural females the maternal
estimates of eventual length of academic preparation were
significantly greater for the over-achieving students than
for the under-achieving students.

A. Academic pressure was reported by the mother to
be similar for both under- and over—achieving students.

5. The mothers stated that they were the usual source
of help with homework for children in all groups.

6. Almost all mothers agreed that children will
always neglect their school work if the parents do not keep
after them.

7. Almost all mothers believed that children should
be pressured to do well in school.

8. Most mothers indicated that they taught their
children educational concepts before the child entered
school.

9. Mothers of both over— and under—achievers ex-
pressed the desire that their child attend or graduate from

college.

Permissive Attitudes

 

l. Maternal permissive attitudes toward the child's
leaving the island were reported to be no different for

under- and over— achieving students.

 

/.

llb

2. The necessity for children to obtain parental
permission before making personal decisions did not dif-
ferentiate under— and over—achieving students.

3. More mothers of over- than under—achieving stu-
dents among the Other-Urban males and Rural females indi—
cated that a child should be permitted to ask as many
questions as he wants to of parents.

A. All mothers agreed that children should generally

do nothing without the consent of their parents.

Possessive Attitudes

 

l. Maternal encouragement of young children to play
with neighborhood children differentiated under— and over—
achieving students among the Rural males and Urban San Juan,
Other-Urban area, and Rural females in that the mothers of
over-achieving students encouraged their children to play
with neighborhood children.

2. The mother's perception of the locus of vocational
decision-making was not different for under- and over-
achieving students.

3. The locus of the decision of the proper hour for
children to return home in the evening differentiated the
under— and over—achieving Urban San Juan and Other-Urban
rmrles with the mothers of over-achieving students reporting
more often that the child made the decision concerning the

hour to return home.

117

4. Parental encouragement of their children's
social behavior and the parental conviction that the best
child is the one who shows most affection toward his parents
did not differentiate under— and over-achieving students.

5. The mothers of under- and over—achieving Rural
females differed concerning the premissibility of daughters
living away from home, i.e., more mothers of under-achieving
girls considered it permissible than expected.

6. Almost all mothers agreed that children should be
encouraged to bring their friends home.

7. Almost all mothers agreed that the best child is
the one who shows lots of affection.

8. Almost all mothers agreed that daughters should
not be permitted to live away from home before they are
married.

9. Almost no mothers reported that they or the father
had told the child what the nature of the child's work was
to be.

10. Few mothers indicated that the child could decide
on the hour to return home at night until he was at least

18 years old.

‘ansistency_of Discipline

l. The analysis of the relationship of variable
schedules of discipline to achievement level as reported
by mothers was precluded due to the small numbers in the

response categories.

118

2. None of the questions about consistency of dis—
cipline yielded significant results.
3. Most of the mothers reported that the child was

disciplined immediately after he had misbehaved.

Academic Orientation

 

l. The level of schooling attained by either parent
did not differentiate under— and over-achieving students.

2. The under— and over-achieving Rural females were
differentiated on the basis of whether or not the mother
read in that more mothers of over—achieving students than
expected reported that they read; no group was differentiated
on the basis of whether the father read.

3. No difference was found between children whose
mothers reported they had read to them at an early age and
those whose mothers reported they had not read to them.

A. Mothers of under— and over—achieving students did
not differ concerning how they thought their lives would be
better with more education.

5. The mother's opinion of the advisability of re—
moving a child from school if he were needed at home dif—
ferentiated the Urban San Juan males in that more mothers
of over— than under—achievers disapproved of this action.

6. Under- and over—achieving students were not dif—
ferentiated on the basis of the mother‘s opinion of the
advisability of the child's getting as much education as

possible.

119

7. Economic reasons were the most popular given as
explanations of parental termination of school irrespective

of geographical or achievement classification.

Misbehavior

 

l. Mothers of over—achieving Rural females reported
more often than expected that their daughters misbehaved
during ages 1 to 6, while mothers of under—achieving females
in the same area reported more often than expected that
their daughters did not misbehave while in that age group.

2. Under- and over-achieving students were not dif—
ferentiated by the presence or absence of discipline as
reported by the mothers after misbehavior occurred.

3. The reported timing of discipline after the mis-
behavior did not differentiate under- and over-achieving
students.

A. For all groups, mothers reported that they were
the usual source of discipline for children aged l—6 years
and during the four years preceding the interview.

5. More over— than under—achieving students in the
Urban San Juan males and the Other-Urban females were
found to be described by the mother as not having misbehaved
during the past four years.

6. Maternal insight (defined as believing that mis—
behavior is caused by reasons unique to child) into causes
of misbehavior differentiated the under- and over—achieving

Rural males, i.e., more mothers of over- than under—achieving

students believed that misbehavior was caused by reasons
unique to the child.

7. Familial or extra-familial locus of discipline
differentiated the under— and over—achieving Other—Urban
females with over—achieving students being disciplined more
often than expected by family members.

8. For all groups, the modal type of reported mis—
behavior from ages I to 6 years was fighting with siblings.
9. For all groups, the reported discipline was
approximately equally divided between physical and verbal

means.
10. The modal type of reported discipline for mis—
behavior during the four years-preceding the interview was

scolding.

Other Attitudes

 

l. Maternal opinion of the child's academic standing
in school differentiated under- and over-achieving Other—
Urban males in that more mothers of over—achieving than
under—achieving students reported their child was doing well
in school.

2. Irrespective of area or sex, more mothers of over—
than under—achieving students reported that their children
were doing better than their siblings in school.

3. Agreement or disagreement with the statement, "Even
though there are a lot of ideas around about how to raise

children, the old ways are usually the best," did not

121

differentiate mothers of over- from under-achieving stu-
dents in any area.

A. Mothers of over-achieving Rural females disagreed
more frequently than expected with the statement that "No
human being would work if he did not really have to."

5. Whether or not the mother agreed that "Parents
should admit their own mistakes to their children" did not
differentiate under— and over-achievers regardless of area
or sex.

6. The mother's opinion of whether the best times
are in the past, present, or future was the same for under-
and over-achieving students.

7. For all groups, the most popular response con-
cerning the way(s) in which the father was a good father,
as reported by the mother, was that he provided for the
physical needs of the child.

8. Mothers of both under— and over—achieving stu-
dents thought the child's progress in school was above
average.

9. Puerto Rican mothers, irrespective of geo—
graphical area, sex of child, or achievement level, were
about equally divided concerning the issues of parental
admission of mistakes to children and the value of tra-
ditional child rearing practices.

10. The most common form of maternal help with home-

work given to the child as reported by the mother was
"Work with him."

122

11. Most mothers reported that the best times were

in the future rather than in the present or past.

Demographic Characteristics

 

I. More under—achieving and fewer over—achieving
Rural males had younger sisters than would be expected by
chance.

2. Under— and over-achieving students were not dif-
ferentiated on the basis of the number of previous marriages
of the mother or father.

3. Being a child of the present marriage, the
mother's having worked when the child was 0 to 6 years of
age, or the number of mother‘s step-children did not dif-
ferentiate under- and over-achieving students.

A. Mother's working at present differentiated the
under— and over—achieving Urban San Juan females, i.e.,
more mothers than expected of under-achieving girls in San
Juan were working at the time of the survey.

5. Paternal occupational level and amount of time
the father worked was not related to achievement level.

6. Under— and over—achieving students were not
differentiated by participation or non—participation of
families in activities together.

7. The reading ability of the mother, as ascertained
by the interviewer, did not differentiate under— from

over-achieving students.

123

8. Over—achieving students in all areas were re-
ported by the mothers as aspiring to higher occupational
status than was reported by mothers of under—achieving
students.

9. Mothers were reported by mothers as being the
most commonly sought out source of help when the child had
personal problems.

10. Mothers listed school teachers and counselors in-
frequently for both under— and over—achieving students as
a source of help for students with personal problems.

11. Family income and socio—economic status did not
differentiate under— and over—achieving students.

12. Most of the fathers were reported as having full

time employment.

Theoretical Implications

The data for this study were gathered by means of a
structured interview. Respondents were asked direct ques—
tions about attitudes hypothesized to be important in the
development of a need for achievement in their children. In
Figure 5.1 is presented a schema elaborating the various
kinds of attitudes about achievement that are held by
mothers of over- and under—achieving students in any cul-
ture.

Six kinds of patterns emerge as comprising the total
number of attitudes held by parents of either under- or

over-achievers. First, there are attitudes common to

124

 

 

 

 

 

 

Under-Achieving Students 0 - —A oieving Students
6 u 6
3
5 5
2
l

l = Attitudes common to parents in all cultures.
2 = Attitudes common to parents in all Latin-American cultures.
3 = Attitudes common to parents in Puerto Rico.

4 = Attitudes common to parents of over- and under-achieving
students in Puerto Rico.

5 = Attitudes failing to support theory of achievement level
held by parents of over- and under—achieving students.

6 = Attitudes supporting theory of achievement level held by
parents of over- and under-achieving students.

Figure 5ol--Types of attitudes held by Puerto Rican mothers of
over- and under-achieving students.

125

parents of all cultures, regardless of the achievement

level of their children. Second, there exists a pool of
attitudes and beliefs common to most Latin American peOple.
Third, there are attitudes and beliefs held by parents of

a specific Latin American country, in this case Puerto Rico.
These three groups of attitudes undoubtedly constitute a
majority of the attitudes held by the Puerto Rican parents.

The next three pools are much smaller and more dif—
ficult to separate from the total attitudinal structure.

The fourth group is comprised of those attitudes common to
parents of any culture whose children are over— or under-
achievers. Attitudes in a culture that fail to support the
researcher's theory of a psychological construct (in this
case achievement need) comprise the fifth general category.
Constituting the sixth group are those attitudes that dif-
ferentiate between over- and under—achieving students.

This research concentrated on identifying those at-
titudes that differentiate between over— and under-achievers
(the sixth category). The group of questions conceived by
the developers of the structured interview was based on the
results of research studying achievement level in the United
States and on sociological and anthrOpological data from
Puerto Rico. The total effort of the research was directed
toward separating the attitudes depicted in Group Six of

the above schema.

Significant Findings

Payne found in his review of research literature con-
cerned with achievement level in the United States that
achievement pressure was related to level of achievement.
The questions concerning achievement pressure by which over-
and under-achievers were differentiated in the predicted
direction in this study were those concerned with the
mother's desire to have.her child obtain post-high school
education, and those concerned with the mother's estimate
that the child actually would obtain post-high school edu-
cation.

Winterbottom found in studying Midwestern United
States boys that permissiveness on the part of the parents
was conducive to the development of achievement need.

For several questions that tapped the area of parental
permissiveness, the predicted differences between over—
and under—achieving students in Puerto Rico were found to
exist in some groups. That some of the groups studied
were differentiated on the basis of permissiveness indi—
cates that the dimension could be fruitfully investigated
further.

Another parental attitude that Payne found to be
related to achievement level in the United States was that
Of‘parental possessiveness, i.e., he found research support
.for the idea that low degrees of parental possessiveness

vuere related to high achievement levels. The present

127

research (in the area of parental possessiveness) ascertained
significant differences between attitudes held by mothers
of over- and under-achievers concerning the amount of par—
ental encouragement given to the young children to play
with neighborhood children and the child's prerogative to
make his own decision about the proper hour to return home
at night. Mothers of over—achievers indicated more fre-
quently than expected, in the first case, that they had
encouraged their children when small to play with neighbor-
hood children, and in the second case that the children
themselves made the decision to return home at night.

For the remaining sections of directionalized dif-
ferences the number of significant findings was small;
therefore interpretations were curtailed.

In the section of questions concerned with Other
Attitudes, where non-directionalized differences were
hypothesized, the question asking the mother to compare
the child's academic performance with that of his siblings
yielded significant results for each group, i.e., mothers
of over-achieving students believed more frequently than
expected that the academic performance of their child was>
better than that of his siblings. Future research might
be concerned with this attitude of parents, e.g., how
they believe that the child became an over-achiever and
why the other children are not as good students as "X".

Failure to find evidence supporting the separation

of mothers responses for the two discrepant achievement

128

classification groups can be attributed to a number of fac-
tors. One, the theoretical constructs were inadequate or
inapprOpriate. Two, the mothers distorted the responses to
create a favorable impression on the interviewer. Three,
the mothers misinterpreted the intent of the question
reading in other meanings which had little bearing on the
concept being assessed. Four, there exists little dif—
ference in fact in the mother's attitudes which are related
to the child's achievement patterns. Or, five, the actual
difference between the under- and over—achieving students
was not as great in Puerto Rico as would be found in the
continental United States because of the high attrition
rate. All of the above factors must be given consideration
in attempting to relate the findings of the study to the
theoretical underpinnings.

All of the above statements have meaning for con-
jecturing about future possible replications or extensions

of the study.

Implications for Future Research

 

One of the main purposes of an initial survey is to
indicate how future research in the same area could be con-
ducted. From the present study many suggestions can be
derived for further study of the hypotheses investigated
herein.

Instead of directly asking opinions and attitudes, the

researcher might conduct an interview by presenting the

129

interviewee with a hypothetical problem situation and then
asking him to describe how he would handle the problem.
Reacting to a make believe situation might permit more candor
than does describing real and personal behavior.

From the general failure in this study to support the
difference in attitudes in the three geographical areas,
stratification of the sample pOpulation might be conducted
using educational level as the criterion, rather than geo-
graphical area. Tumin and Feldmanlfound that educational
level is the best predictor of socio-economic class in
Puerto Rico and it is certainly worth considering that study
of achievement level in various socio—economic classes
might yield more significant relationships than did the
design employed here.

In addition to the interview, other research methods
could be employed in Puerto Rico. Observation of brief
family interactions via a one—way vision mirror might be
one possibility. Following the lead of other investigators

of motivation, anthropological data could be examined to

ascertain the achievement themes extant in the culture and
could then be related to academic motivation.

Parental attitudes in two of the areas studied stand
out as important ones for future research in Puerto Rico:

aggression, and discipline. Puerto Ricans are not believed

 

lTumin and Feldman, op. cit, p. tau.

130

to display hostility openly, and yet the modal type of
misbehavior reported in the data presented in the present
study is fighting. This may indicate a recent change in
cultural handling of aggressive impulses, but the topic
deserves more research attention. Discipline and misbehavior
were topics that Puerto Rican mothers found difficult to
discuss accurately. Answers to a series of questions re-
garding misbehavior and subsequent discipline were found

to be internally inconsistent and/or not reality oriented,
e.g., a mother might report that her child did not misbehave,
and then state that the father disciplined the child when

he misbehaved. Especially in these two areas different
interview questions or different research designs might

clarify the questions raised as a result of this research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brameld, Theodore. The Remaking of a Culture, Life and
Education in Puerto Rico. New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1959.

 

Cochran, T. C. The Puerto Rican Businessman: A Study in
Cultural Change. Philadelphia: University of Penn—
sylvania Press, 1959.

 

Farquhar, W. W. A Comprehensive Study of the Motivational
Factors Underlying Achievement of Eleventh Grade High
School Students. East Lansing, Michigan: Office of
Research and Publications, College of Education,
Michigan State University, January, 1963.

 

Farquhar, W. W. and Christensen, E. W. Application to the
Commissioner of Education, U. S. Office of Education,
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, For
Funds to Support a Cooperative Research Project Under
the Provisions of Public Law 531, 83rd Congress, East
Lansing, Michigan, September 1, 1963.

Farquhar, W. W. and Payne, David A. "A Classification and
Comparison of Techniques Used in Selecting Under-
and Over—Achievers," Personnel and Guidance Journal,
(May, 1964), pp. 87A-88U.

Ferguson, G. A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and
Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,

1959» ‘

Gruber, Ruth. Puerto Rico, Island of Promise. New York:
Hill and Wang, Inc , 1960.

Hollingshead, A. B. and Rogler, L. H. "Lower Socioeconomic
Status and Mental Illness," Sociology and Social
Research, A6;387-96, July, 1962.

Landy, David. "Childrearing Patterns in a Puerto Rican Lower

Class Community " Unpublished manuscript, University
of Puerto Rico, 1953.

132

Landy, David. Tropical Childhood: Cultural Transmission
and Learning in a Rural Puerto Rican Village. Chapel
Hill: University of Nort Carolina Press, Puerto
Rico University Social Science Research Center study,

1959”

Lewis, iordcn K. Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in the
Caribbean. New York: MR Press, 1963.

 

McClelland, David 3., et al. The Achievement Motive. New
York: Appletor-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953.

oard of Education. Board of Education Our-
riculum ulletins, No. 5. Puerto Rican Profiles:
'Resource Materials for Teachers. New York: Board
of Education, l96A-65.

Few York City B

 

Payne, David A. "Parental Influences and Achievement,"

The Reporter, Vol. XV, No. 1, pp. 5-11.

 

Steward, Julian, et al. The PeOple of Puerto Rico. Urbana:
Lniversity of Illinois Press, 1956.

Tumin, Melvin M. and Feldman, Arnold S. Social Class and
Social Change in Puerto Rico. Princeton, New Jersey:

ka/I .i

Princeton University Press, 1961.

APPENDIX

PARENTAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Academic Motivation Study
University of Puerto Rico
and Michigan State University

PARENTAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Introduction:

 

Note:

(1)

Hello, Mrs. Are you X's mother? I am and I
come from the University of Puerto Rico to have a talk
with you. We are interviewing mothers of high school
children, because we want to know how you feel about
education. Everything you tell me will be confidential

and only used for research purposes.

If the respondent is interested in more details, she
can be informed that: This is a study carried out by
the University of Puerto Rico. The study is an attempt

to understand children better.

Do not write
in this space.

Child's name

 

 

 

 

I—TT'A-
(2) Name of School __
5 '6"
(3) Sex of child (l=male, 2=female) __
7
(A) Age of child (to last birthday) 3_ __
9
I would like to start by asking some general
questions about your family.
(5) Number of older brothers __ __
10 ll
(6) Number of younger brothers ;_ __
l2 13

135

(10>
(11>
(12>
(13>

(14)

136

Number of older sisters

 

Number of younger sisters

 

What is the furthest any of your
children has gone in school?

Col. 18

1=No extra school

or training

22Extra training,

e.g. vocational
school

Col. 19

1: 11 grades
2: 12

3: High school
graduate

A: 1 year college

5: 2 years college
6: 3 years college
7: A years college
8: College graduate

9: Beyond the B.A.

Number of previous marriages of mother

(0:132:3543596a738)93 ’ 9 or more)

Number of previous marriages of father

(0:192:33u3536373839: ' 9 Of more)

Is "X" a child of the present marriage
(1=yes, 2:no)

Number of mother's step-children

(O,1,2,3,A,5,6,7,8,9, — 9 or more)

What is the range within which your age

falls?

1. 2o-2A
2. 25-29
3. 30—3A
A. 35-39
5. AO-AA

(3 CD

A5-A9
50-5A
55-59

60 and over

Do not write

in this space

IA
I6

I8

U1

I7

'I9

ml
U1

137

(15) What is the range within which your
husband's age falls?

1.
2.
3.
A.
5.

20-2A
25—29
30—3A
35-39
AO—AA

6.
7.

A5-A9
50—5A
55-59

60 and over

(16) What was the last grade you attended
in school?

 

Col. 27 and 28
OO= none 12
Ol 13—
02 1A-
03
0A 15=
05 16=
O6 17:
07 18:
08 l9=
O9 20=
10 2l=
ll 22=
23-

(17) Why did you stop

0:

\OGJNONU'IJZ'UUNH
II II II II II II II II

- high school grade
- short course and

training
1 year college

2 years
3 years
A years
college
B.A.

M.D. or
M.A.

~ PhODO

college
college
college
graduate

D.D.S., etc.

attending?

Never attended school
Still attending school

Course or degree requirements met

Economic difficulties
Interpersonal problems
Academic difficulties

Lacked interest in academic subjects

Illness

Girls are not supposed to go
School too far from home

Do not write
in this space.

‘26

138

(18) What was the last grade your husband
attended in school?

Col. 30 and 31

 

OO= none 12
l3= high school grade
lA= short course and

01
O2
03
CA
05
O6
O7
O8
O9
10
11

training

1 year college
2 years college
3 years college
A years college
college graduat
B.A.

M.D. or D.D.S.,
M.A.

Ph.D.

muonamreFHAFJH
damnecnocnwaoun

(19) Why did he stop attending?

0:

mm NOU‘IKUUNH

Do not know
Never attended school
Still attending school

e

etc.

Course or degree requirements met

Economic difficulties

Interpersonal problems

Academic difficulties

Lacked interest in academic
subjects

Illness

School too far from home

(20) Did you work for wages outside your
home from the time "X" was born until

he

(21) Are

was 6 years old?

= Did not work
= Worked full-time all of that

period

Worked half—time all of that

period

Worked full-time part of that

period

Worked half-time part of that

period

you working now?

How much are you working now?

O= None 2= Part—time (half day

1= Full-time
3= Seasonal

or less)

Do not write
in this space.

'3‘63

139

(22) What does your husband do for a living?
(Be very specific, describe his
duties)

- Nothing

= High

(Professionals, semi—professionals,
and owners of businesses)

Middle

(managers of business firms, white-
collar salesmen, owners or man-
agers of farms, clerks and skilled
industrial workers)

Low

(semi-skilled industrial workers,
unskilled laborers, the service
workers, blue-collar salesman and
agricultural day laborers)

(23) Is he working now?

O= No

1

Full—time

2= Part—time (half day or less)
3= Seasonal

(2A) What kind of activities do you and
your husband do with your children?
(If none mark g on 25 also and skip
to 26.)

U'l-IrLJUNI—‘O

Family activity

Watch things together

Do things together

Work together

Religious family activity
None

(25) If more than one activity is iden—
tified in #2A, have interviewee
select the one most frequently
engaged in. (Put 9 if g is used
for 2A)

(26) What kind of things do you do to help
"X" with (his/her) homework?

O:
l:

2

DUO

Nothing

Insist that (he/she) do homework
on his own

Work through homework with
(him/her)

Do homework for them

Establish environment

Do not write
in this space.

35

en

:1

1A0

(27) If some else helps "X" with homework,

it

mzwmu—Jo

is usually

No one (Mark 28 g, and skip to 29)
Father

Brother

Sister

Other relative

Someone else (specify)

 

(28) If someone is identified in #27, how

2:
3:

0 they help?

Insist that (he/she) do homework
on their own

Work through homework with
(him/her)

Do homework for them

No one helps "X"

(29) Did you try to teach "X", the A,B,C's,
numbers or things like this before
(he/she) entered school?

(1= Yes, 2= No)

(30) What does your husband like to read for
pleasure during his leisure time?
= Nothing
l= Novels
2= Religious material
3= Magazines and newspapers
A= Sports
5= Comic books
6= Technical material — professional
Journals and textbooks
7= Don't know
(31) What, if any, material do ygg like to
read?
O= Nothing
l= Novels
2= Religious material
3= Magazines and newspapers
A= Sports
‘5= Comic books
6= Technical material - professional

Journals and textbooks

Do not write
in this space.

A2

A8 A9‘55

(32) When

1A1

"X" was small, did you usually

- Read to him

Tell (him/her) stories
Both

— Neither

(33) In what way would your life be better

if you had more education?
O= No way
l= Monetary or materialistic gain
2: Knowledge
3= Social adequacy
A= Employment
5= Become better parent
(3A) Does your husband ever wish he had
more education than he has?
l= Yes
2= No (If N9, skip to #36)
(35) Why do you think he wants more
education?
O= Don't know
l= Monetary or materialistic gain
2= Knowledge
3= Social adequacy
A= Employment
5= Become better parent
6= Wants no more education

We know that all children misbehave some—
times. Now I am going to ask you some

questions

about the way in which "X" mis-

behaved when he was small (between ages of

l and 6).

Try to think back to "X"'s ear-

liest years.

(36) When "X" was between the age of l and 6,

what was the most frequent forms of
misbehavior (he/she) showed? Give an
example if you can. (If more than one
reason, request interviewee to select
the'most frequent.)

O

1

None (But not likely, probe if
necessary)
Did not do what (he/she) was told
by parents

Do not write
in this space.

"5'1”
525-574"
55‘

ST
5758
”5666
'6‘1‘6'2'

1A2

Talked back to parents
Was physically aggressive toward
parents
Fought with other children
Fought with brothers or sisters
Destroyed own property
Destroyed property of brothers
or sisters
Destroyed property of other
children
9= Destroyed property of parents
lO= Nothing due to sickness
ll= Physically dangerous activities
l2= Getting dirty
l3= Leaving without permission
lA= Eating foreign objects
15= Teasing
l6= Killing or injuring animals
l7= Throwing dangerous objects
l8= Restless
l9= Bad temper
20= Biting
2l= Rough-housing

Noun;- UOI'U

(D
II

(37) Describe the most typical or frequent
behavior problem during ages 1 to
60

0= None
1:

 

 

 

 

(38) When "X" did (insert misbehavior from
question #36), how was he disciplined?

O= None

l= Physical punishment

2= Verbal reprimand or discussion
3= Shamed

A= Withdrew privileges

5= Isolation

6= Given extra duties

(39) How soon after the misbehavior did the
discipline take place?

O= Not disciplined
l= Immediately afterward
2: Delay of half—day

Do not write
in this space.

3:
)4:
5:
5:

1A3

Delay of one day
More than one day
Do not remember
Other

 

(A0) Who administered the discipline?

UTJZ'UUNP-‘O
II II II II II II

No one
Mother
Father
Other relative
Other

 

Mother and Father

Now I am going to ask you some questions

about "X",

and how he acted or behaved

during the past four years.

(Al) When

"X" was between the ages of "X"'s

present age minus four (insert pre-
sent age), what were (his/her) forms

of

oxanz-wmi—‘O
II II II II II II II

(A2) From

misbehavior?

Fighting

Destructive

Disobeys parents

Had vices

Unpleasant personality
Truancy from school
None

the list above choose the one most

frequently demonstrated.

 

(A3) When "X" did the misbehavior described
in question.#Al,how was (he/she)
disciplined?

O= Not disciplined

l= Spanking

2= Scolding

3= Withdrawing privileges

A= Isolation

5= Extra duties around house
6= Given advice

Do not write
in this space.

'69
7571-7-2—
73‘
7177576

1AA

Do not write
in this space.
(AA) How soon after the misbehavior did
the discipline take place? __
77
Not disciplined (probe)
Immediately afterward
Delay of a half-day
Delay of one day
More than one day (specify)
Variable
Do not remember

mmtwml—‘o
II II II II II II II

(A5) For the past four years, what has been
the most frequent reason you think
(he/she) misbehaved?

O= Don't know

No reason

Reasons external to child
Reasons unique to child
Children are naturally perverse
No misbehavior

Ul-EUUMI-J
II II II II

(A6) Who administered the discipline?

Nobody

Father

Mother

Other relative
Other adult
Mother and Father

U'l-D'LUNHO
II II II II II II

(A7) Do you and your husband agree on how to Card #2 gang

discipline "X"? punch 0013-1-9
from first card

Always IO-

Usually

Sometimes

Seldom

Never

Don't discipline and doesn't

misbehave

O\U1-I:'UUI\)}—‘

(A8) If you start to discipline "X" and your
husband doesn't agree, does he inter-
fere?

l= Always

Usually

Sometimes

Seldom

Never

Don't discipline and doesn't
misbehave

O‘uUl JZ‘UUN
II II II II

(A9) What

1A5

if you should tell "X" to do

something and he doesn't do it.

Do

(50) When

you think "X" should:

= Have another choice
= Be ignored because children are

like that
Be punished more severely because
he didn't mind
Firmly made to account for his
actions
Other

 

"X" was small, how much did you

encourage (him/her) to play with
neighborhood children?

0:

l:

2:

Gave (him/her) no encouragement
to do so

Gave (him/her) little encourage-
ment to do so

Gave (him/her) much encouragement
to do so

(51) If "X" wanted to leave the island be—
cause he thought (his/her) oppor—
tunities would be greater, how would
you react?

No reaction

Would prohibit it

Would object, but not try to
stop it

Would permit it

Would encourage it

(52) Why would you react this way?

0':
l:

(13% O\U1 JZ’UJN
II II II

No reaction

Moral standards too loose in other
parts of world‘

Should stay to help family

Nobody would take care of (him/her)
Better economic Opportunities
Better educational opportunities
Travel broadens a person

Miss him too much

(He/she) would be too lonely

Do not write
in this space.

El

}_n
U1
’51
“I

1A6

(53) How far do you want "X" to go in school?

= Finish llth grade only

Graduate from high school

= Finish high school and then get
some vocational training

Attend college

Graduate from college

Other (specify)

0
1
2

UT-DUU
II II II

 

(5A) How far do you think "X" will be able
to go in school? (Taking into
account financial resources, grades,
ability, and Opportunities.)

O= Finish llth grade only

l= Graduate from high school

2= Finish high school and then get
some vocational training

3= Attend college

A: Graduate from college

5= Other (specify)

 

(55) What job(s) does "X" have in mind when
(he/she) finishes (his/her) schooling
or training?

O= I don't know (probe)

l= High
(professionals, semi-professionals,
and owners of businesses)

2= Middle
(managers of business firms, white-
collar salesmen, owners or man-
agers of farms, clerks and skilled
industrial workers)

3= Low
(semi-skilled industrial workers,
unskilled laborers, the service
workers, blue-collar salesmen,
and agricultural day laborers)

(56) How did (he/she) decide on his future
job?

= Has not decided

= Father told him/her

= Discussed the job decision with
his/her father

= Mother told him/her

= Mother discussed job decision with
him/her

Do not write
in this space.

1'8

IA?

5: Both mother and fat
decision with "X",
having final say.

"X" made decision 1

Both parents involved, but "X" had

6:
7:
final decision

8= School counselor
9= Priest or minister
0:

her discussed
with parents

ndependently

 

1 Other (specify)
(57) At what established time
to return home in the
0: No limit 5:
1= 6—7 6:
2: 7—8 7:
3= 8-9
A= 9-10 8:

(58) Who decided what (his/he
to be?

No limit

Mother

Father

Both Parents

Other relative

"X" himself/herself
Other (specify)

does "X" have
evening?

ll«l2

12—1

Doesn't go out
at night

Later on week-
end

r) hours were

 

NOW-D'UJMHO

Doesn't go out at n

(59) What is the age at which
missible for "X" to de
hour to return home at

O= Whenever (he/she) w
1= 12—15

2= 16 lO=
3= 17

A= 18 11=
5= 19 l2=
6= 20

7: 21 13:
8= 22—25 lA=
9: 26-30

ight

it is per—
cide upon any
night?

anted to

When no longer
living at home
When married
When he starts
work

Never

Doesn't know

Do not write
in this space.

R)
U1
M

(60)

(61)

(62)

(63)

(6A)

1A8

In what ways are you a good mother
to "X"?

Setting limits

Giving advice

Teaching him proper behaviors
Supplying physical needs
Supplying emotional needs
Educating him

Sacrificial staying with children
Intervening with father

'\)O\\J'I£ILAJI\.)i—'O

In what ways is your husband a good
father to "X"?

Not a good father

Supplies emotional needs
Supplies physical needs

Gives advice

Has an interest in education
Teaches children proper behavior
Stable husband

O\U‘l Jt’LJOlU h—‘O
ll ll II II II II II

When "X" has a personal problem, to
whom is he most likely to go to for
help?

Don't know

Mother

Father

Priest or minister
School counselor
Doctor

Teacher

Other relatives
Other

CID-\IOUT zooms-Io
II II II II II II II II II

 

In what way is "X" a difficult child
to handle now?

Is not difficult

Wants to be independent
Personality problems
School problems
Demanding of parents
Disobeys parents

\DJrLMNF-‘O
II II II II II II

Should children be permitted to ask as
many questions as they want to of
their parents?

(1= Yes, 2= No)

Do not write
in this space.

27287—97
353—3—
33374—3?
33
37

149 Do not write
in this space.

(65) What kind of questions should children

not ask? __
3839716
O= Don't know any
l= Questioning adult authority
2= Sex
3= Explanations
A= About tragic happenings
5= Vice
6: Who is favorite child
{66) Do you think "X" is doing alright in
school? -
AI
(1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Don't know)
(67) If "X" is not doing well in school,
what do you think is the reason?
WWW
O= Doesn't apply
l= Study habits
2= Physical illness
3= Personality problems
A: Outside recreational interests
5= Outside work obligations
6= No parental supervision
7= Low academic ability
8: Low academic interest
9: Poor teachers
(68) How does "X"'s school performance
compare with (his/her) brothers
and/or sisters?
715
1= Superior
2= A little better
3= Same
A= A little worse
5= Inferior
6= "X" has no brother or sisters
7= Doesn't know
(69) What is the range within which the com-
bined weekly income of your husband
and you (if you are working) falls?
(You may have to remind her of the confi-
dentiality of the information.)
HEAT
l= l—2 6= 61-70
2= 21—30 7= 71—80
3= 31—AO ' 8= 81—90
A: Al—SO 9= 91-100
5= 51-60 10= more than 100

150 Do not write
in this space.

(70) Interviewer should make a classifi—
cation Of general socio—economic
level Of family.

 

H8
l= Lower—lower
2= Middle-lower
3= Middle (need definitions)
A= Upper-middle
5= Upper
Interviewer Presents Brief Parent Attitude Inventory
(71) After interviewer has presented the
Brief Parent Attitude Inventory an
evaluation of reading ability should
be made. '
A‘s?

l= Reads unassisted

2= Reads with assistance

3= Cannot read
If interviewee cannot read, questions should
be read and responses recorded on this sheet.

Brief Parent Attitude Inventory

Read each of the following statements out loud care—
fully as I follow along, and decide if you, STRONGLY
AGREE, AGREE, DISAGREE, or STRONGLY DISAGREE. If you
(STRONGLY AGREE) make a check mark (/) in the space with
the SA under it, if you just (AGREE) make a check mark (/)
in the space with the A under it, if you just (DISAGREE)
make a check mark (/) in the space with 2 under it, if you
(STRONGLY DISAGREE) make a check mark (/) in the space

with the SD under it.

151
Do not write
in this space.

a g fig SA=l, A=2,
cm a) so can D33» 313:1"
oau m m (am
ms. h m $4M
+>w to H 49H
an: a: a can
(72) If his parents ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
need him, a child SA A D SD 50
should drop out
of school.
(73) It is very im- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) __
portant for SA A D SD 51

children to get
as much education
as possible.

(7A) Children always will ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
neglect their school SA A D SD 52
work if parents do
not keep after them.

(75) Parents should en- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) __
courage their chil- SA A D SD 53
dren to bring their
friends home.

(76) A child should be ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

seen and not heard SA A D SD 5A
(77) Children should ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) __
generally do SA A D SD 55

nothing without
the consent Of
parents.

(78) It is the fault Of ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
the parents if SA A D SD 56
their children
are naughty.

(79) The best child is ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) __
the one who shows SA A D SD 57
lots of affection
for his parents.

(80) If one parent un- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
justly punishes a SA A D SD 58
child, the other
parent should stand
up for the child's
rights.

152

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an) o co ctn
00) (1) CU 0a!
9:. s m s.m
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Uh< <: a com

(81) The best child is ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
one who does what SA A D SD
his parents want.

(82) Parents Should ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
admit their own SA A D SD
mistakes to their
children.

(83) Even though there ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

are a lot Of ideas SA A D SD
around about how to

raise children, the

old ways are usually

the best.

(8A) Children should be ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
pressured to do well SA A D SD
in school.

(85) No human being ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
would work if he SA A D SD
really didn't
have to.

(86) Is permissible for ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
a daughter to live SA A D SD

away from home be-
fore she is married.

Here are three statements about life.
I want you to read them with me as I read
them out loud. Now place the cards in a
row, with the statement which is most like
your feeling about life here. ( ) The one

least here ( ) and the one in between

here ( ).

Do not write
in this space

153

(87) How do you feel about how people are
when they came into the world? Place
them in a row, with the statement

which is most like your feeling about

(88)

life here. ( ) The one least here ( )

and the one in between here ( ).

A.
B.

C.

Humans are born goo
Humans are born bad

Humans are born nei
nor bad

d

ther good

People feel differently about when
s were best. Which of the
following three statements most
nearly gives how you feel? Place
these in a row, with the statement
which is most like your feeling
about life here. ( )

time

here
here

A.
B.

C.

The one least

( ) and the one in between

( ).
The best times lie
The best times are

The best times are

in the past
now

in the future

DO not write
in this space.

A=l, B=2
C=3
lst
65'
2nd
63
3rd
67
lst
SE
2nd
6’?
3rd __
70
2

Card BO

44

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2
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