rugsm; ‘ l;§§%fizliflllf Whitman State flatworm, This is to certify that the thesis entitled CHARACTERISTIC OF SOME HAPLUDALFS WITHIN A LANDSCAPE IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN presented by Bhairav Raj Khakural has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Science Pgree 1n Department of Crops and Soil Sciences Mejor professor ‘73134 Date 8 6 81 0-7639 LIBRMUES ‘ mil.- RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. INES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 1 l l l l l l l l l l l, l l —‘—J CHARACTERISTIC OF SOME HAPLUDALFS WITHIN A LANDSCAPE IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN By Bhairav Raj Khakural A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Crops and Soil Sciences 1981 ABSTRACT CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME HAPLUDALFS WITHIN A LANDSCAPE IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN by Bhairav Raj Khakural Characteristics of some Hapludalfs were studied at the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station in Ionia County, Michigan. Pedons represent- ing six soil mapping units were described in the field. Samples were analyzed for particle size; hydraulic conductivity; bulk density; organic carbon; nitrate nitrogen; extractable phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium; and soil pH. Representative pedons were classified according to Soil Taxonomy. Limitation Tables were developed for assessing these soils for some common horticultural and agronomic crops. Two subgroups of Hapludalfs were encountered, Typic and Psammentic. Typic Hapludalfs found were of the coarse—loamy; coarse-loamy over sandy; fine-loamy; or fine-loamy over sandy, mixed, mesic family. The Psammentic Hapludalfs were of the sandy, mixed, mesic family. . In general, the studied soils had slight limitations for the selected crops (both horticultural and agronomic)with the following exceptions. Spinks soils (Psammentic Hapludalfs) have a low water holding capacity and had severe limitations for both horticultural and agronomic crops. The moderately well drained Riddles (Typic Hapludalfs, fine-loamy, mixed, mesic) had moderate limitations for apples, pears and peaches. All moderately sloping soils (2-6%) had moderate limitation for the selected crops. To My Parents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I express sincere gratitude to my major professor, Dr. G. D. Lemme for his understanding, encouragement and valuable guidance throughout the course of my study and thesis preparation. Equal gratitude is expressed to Dr. D. L. Mokma for his help, valuable guidance and moral support during the first year of my study. Sincere thanks are due to Dr. R. L. Andersen, Dr. L. S. Robertson and Dr. D. F. Fienup for serving as guidance committee members and for their valuable suggestions. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Hugh Price for his help in preparing limitation tables of the studied soils for selected vegetable crops, to Clarksville Horticulture Research Station Personnel for their cooperation during my field study, to the personnel of the soil testing laboratory in carrying out some of the routine chemical analysis and to Mrs. Ardell Ward for her help at various occasions throughout the completion of this work. A grateful acknowledgment is also extended to the MUCIA/Nepal Project for the financial support and to IAAS Tribhuwan University Nepal, for grant— ing me study leave throughout my stay at Michigan State University. Special appreciation goes to my wife and sons (Promod and Pradip) for their constant love, understanding and sacrifice without which my study could never have been successful. Gratefulness is expressed to my parents for their moral support and help in taking care of my family while I was away. - “.3“. a TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................... LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................... INTRODUCTION ......................................................... LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................... A. Soil Forming Factors of Clarksville Horticultural Research Station ............................................ Climate ..................................................... Parent Material ............................................. Biological Organisms ........................................ Relie ...................................................... Time ........................................................ B. Formation and Classification of Soils of the Clarksville Horticultural Research Station .............................. Alfisol ..................................................... Ochric Epipedon ............................................. Argillic Horizon ............................................ Formation of Argillic Horizon ............................... Formation of Lamellae ....................................... Udalfs ...................................................... Hapludalfs .................................................. C. Soil Properties in Relation to Crop Production .............. Soil Texture ................................................ Natural Drainage ............................................ Soil Reaction ............................................... Soil Slope .................................................. MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................ Site Selection .................................................. Field Study ..................................................... Sample Collection and Preparation ............................... Analysis of Selected Physical Properties ........................ Analysis of Selected Chemical Properties ........................ TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page RESULT AND DISCUSSION ........................................... 25 A, Morphology ............................................. 25 B. Physica1 Properties .................................. 25 Particle Size Distribution ............................ 25 Parent Material Homogeniety ........................... 35 Bulk Density .......................................... 35 Hydraulic Conductivity ................................ 45 Moisture Retention .................................... 48 C. Chemica'l Properties ................................... 58 Organic Carbon ........................................ 58 Nitrate Nitrogen ...................................... 58 Soil pH and Lime Requirement .......................... 58 Cation Exchange Capacity .............................. 60 Percent Base Saturation ............................... 6T Extractable Nutrients ................................. 6l D. Classification of Representative Pedons ................ 64 Limitations of Studied Soils for the Production of Selected Fruits, Vegetables and Field Crops ............ 67 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION .......................................... 7l BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................... 73 APPENDIX ........................................................ 80 Table l0 ll 12 l3 l4 l5 LIST OF TABLES Correlated Hectares of Soils Found on the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station in Michigan (l979).... Ionia County Field Crop Area, Production and Economic Value (l978) ................................. Temperature and Precipitation, Ionia County, Michigan .............................................. Particle Size Distribution ............................ Particle Size Distribution of Non—Clay Fraction on a Clay Free Basis .................................. Mean Values of Selected Physical Properties from Representative Pedons ................................. Correlation Coefficient, Coefficient of Determination and Regression Equations for Effects of Textural Subclass and Oven Dry Bulk Density on Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity fot the Studied Soils .......... Mean Values of Selected Chemical Properties from Representative Pedons ................................. Phosphorus and Potassium Fertilizer Recommendations for Selected Vegetables and Field Crops for the Studied Soils ......................................... Degree of Limitations of Studied Soils for the Production of Selected Fruits, Vegetables and Field Crops ........................................... Distribution of Greater Than 2 mm Size Fraction ....... Selected Physical Properties for Representative Pedons ................................................ Criteria for Determining the Degree of Limitations for Selected Vegetable Production (Cauliflower and Tomatoes) on Southern Michigan Soils .................. Criteria for Determining the Degree of Limitations for Selected Fruit Production (Apple, Pear and Peach) on Southern Michigan Soils ..................... Criteria for Determining the Degree of Limitations for Selected Field Crop Production (Corn, Wheat, Soybeans) on Southern Michigan Soils .................. vi Page 36 38 49 59 68 87 88 94 95 96 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Page Location of the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station ..................................... 3 Soil Map of the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station ..................................... 4 Particle Size Distribution for Pedon l (Riddles, Well Drained) ................................ 28 Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 2 (Riddles, Moderately Well Drained) ..................... 29 Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 3 (Kalamazoo) ............................................ 30 Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 4 (Bixby, 0-2%) .......................................... 3l Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 5 (Bixby, 6—l2%) ......................................... 32 Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 6 (Spinks) ............................................... 33 Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon l (Riddles Well Drained) ................................. 39 Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 2 (Riddles Moderately Well Drained) ...................... 4O Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 3 (Kalamazoo, O-2%) ...................................... 4l Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 4 (Bixby, O-2%) .......................................... 42 Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 5 (Bixby, 6-l2%) ......................................... 43 Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 6 (Spinks, 6—12%) ........................................ 44 Hydraulic Conductivity Distribution for Pedons l and 2 (Well and Moderately Well Drained Riddles) ..... 46 LIST OF FIGURES (Continued) Page Hydraulic Conductivity Distribution for Pedons 3, 4, 5 and 6 (Kalamazoo (O-2%), Bixby (O-2%), Bixby (6—l2%) and Spinks (6-l2%) ....................... 47 Relationship between Bulk Density and Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity in Pedons l and (Well and Moderately Well Drained Riddles) ............. 50 Moisture Distribution for Pedon l (Riddles Well Drained, O-2%) .................................... 5l Moisture Distribution for Pedon 2 (Riddles Moderately Well Drained, O—2%) ......................... 52 Moisture Distribution for Pedon 3 (Kalamazoo, O-2%) ...................................... 53 Moisture Distribution for Pedon 4 (Bixby, O-2%) .......................................... 54 Moisture Distribution for Pedon 5 (Bixby, 6—l2%) ......................................... 55 Moisture Distribution for Pedon 6 (Spinks, 6-l2%) ........................................ 56 viii INTRODUCTION Hapludalfs in Southern Michigan are well drained reddish or brownish Alfisols with udic moisture regimes and mesic temperature regimes. They have argillic horizons and are the most common soils found on nearly level to gently sloping till plains and moraines of the area. Hapludalfs are the dominant upland soils of Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan. Nearly ll8,000 hectares of Hapludalfs have been correlated in Michigan by l979 during the progress of cooperative soil survey program (Soil Survey Staff, l979). Hapludalfs are the dominant soils of the Michigan State University Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station. A detailed characterization of morphological, physical and chemical properties of these soils is essential for research plot designs. Horticultural crops such as fruits and vegetables respond differently to different soil properties. Differences in these soils influence the management of the studied crops. Information on soil physical properties such as particle size distribution, water holding capacity and water movement is required in designing irrigation and drainage systems. Irrigation scheduling for maximum crop response with minimum water and energy inputs is dependent upon soils information. Accurate extrapolation of research results obtained on the experiment station will benefit Michigan agriculture. The classification of the soils will assist researchers in understanding their data and in guiding them in making management recommendations to the general population of Michigan. The specific objectives of this study were as follows: l. To determine selected morphological, physical and chemical properties of representative pedons from the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station. 2. To classify the representative pedons. 3. To develop generalized suitability tables for the production of selected hortucultural and agricultural crops on the studied soils. The Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station is located in Boston Township, Ionia County including the S l/2, Sec. 28; NE l/4, NE l/4, Sec. 33; and W l/2, SW l/4, Sec. 27; T6N, R8W (Figure l). A soil map at a scale of l:l066.67 ft. was prepared by Dr. Delbert Mokma and Dr. Gary Lemme of the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences after observa- tions were made at 61 meter intervals (Figure 2). The dominant upland soils of the experimental station were Riddles (fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalfs), Bixby (fine-loamy over sandy or sandy skeletal, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalfs), Kalamazoo (fine-loamy over sandy or sandy skeletal, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalfs) and Spinks (sandy, mixed mesic Psammentic Hapludalfs) correlated hectares of these series in Michigan are given in Table l. The Experiment Station is within the Charlotte moraine system which is composed of a sequence of moraines and till plains of the Wisconsin age Saginaw glacial lobe. Ionia County is an agricultural county with a total land area of l36,728 hectares (Michigan Conservation Needs Committee, l975) of which 57% (78,205.5 hectares) is cropland, l3.6% (l8,630 hectares) pasture, 19.7% (269,730) woodland and 9.5% (l2,555 hectares) in other land uses such as resorts, urban, recreational and industrial sites. U.S.D.A. capability class I—IV comprises about 95% of the total land. Ninety-nine £33.... .5512...“ 33:353. «5.5.55 2: .o 5:33 7mm. Figure 2. IOU _. s'LT N L9 4111 '1'.‘V_~' 'i. 0.5 -l ~$1T ZJL' CenAe- . _.v.. c-An-b- - 'ii’!?§*3:33§ H 5-. 5:.:>_ :3 .! ii 9 1 L;'." o- ”33'” I ’ " a 3 | \C ‘- ‘I J , (w . ‘ 1 I" “-w_ Note: Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station. Originals of this map are available at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Department of Horticulture, and and one half percent of the cropland is found on these capability classes. Corn is the main row crop (Table 2). Wheat and oats are the important small grains. Alfalfa and clover are the main forage crops which cover l2,222.5 and 2,934.2 hectares (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred, l967), respectively. Horticultural crops are also important agricultural products in the area. Potatoes are grown on 89.9 hectares, tree fruits, nuts and grapes on l,ll6.6 hectares and vegetable crops on 707.9 hectares. Apples are the dominant tree fruits grown in the county. Pears, peaches and plums are other important fruits grown in this area. Table l Correlated Hectares of Soils Found on the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station in Michigan (l979) Soil Series Hectares Riddles 56,37l.l4 Bixby 57l.l Kalamazoo 48,62l.9 Spinks 8l,299.7 JiuflsLZ Ionia County Field Crop Area, Production and Economic Value (l978) Area Yield Crop Price/ Production Product Value 9:92_ (hectares) (kg/ha) kg<$> (1000 kg) (1000 s) Corn 24,340.5 876.498 0.32 38,075.5ll l2,2l3 Wheat 7,978.5 459.3l 0.8l 36,646.048 2,984.4 Oats 6,885 664.78 0.3l 4,439.320 l,356 75 Soybeans 2,535.2 294.57l 1.52 746.794 l,l42.44 Dry beans 4,536 l,670.29 0.36 7,576.435 2,748.82 Source: Michigan Agricultural Statistics, July 1979. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Soil Forming Factors of Clarksville Horticultural Research Station Climate Post glacial climates since the deposition of the glacial deposits that these soils have formed in, likely have not always been exactly like the present day climate. However, in general the soils of the area have formed under a cool, moist modified continental climate. Lake Michigan modifies the climate of the area. As a result, Ionia County has a milder winter and cooler summer than areas at the same latitude west of the lake (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred l967). Ionia County has an annual mean temperature of 8.92°C with an average daily maximum and minimum of l4.75T3and 3.07“; respectively (Table 3). Eighty-three centimeters of precipitation are received on the average. The precipitation is distributed throughout the year with two-thirds of the total rainfall falling during the months of April to September. Snow covers the ground for 58 days with l04 cm. average annual snowfall (Table 3). The humidity is high throughout most of the year. There are normally l35 frost-free days (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred l967) and 275l growing degree days at base 50°F (Brink, C.V.D., et al., l97l). Parent Material The soils of the station are developed in the glacial drift of the late Wisconsin (Cary) glaciation. The drift is very thick and there is no direct influence of the underlying reddish sandstone bedrock 0n the soils of the Experiment Station (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred, l967). The bedrock is of Koo_ nmce_< .m ecu .o .o_mx_cwsh >5 .ceawgowz .xucsou mmcoh .xm>c:m __om ”mocsom« Eu mo.om mm __.mm No.m mk.w_ me> oe.o __ om.m mm.m- eq._ cmoemomo __.m m o_.c om.o- om.“ L3:632 o o mc.o om.w mm.m~ concuoo o o Km.m __.op w~.mm Lwnewuamm o o 2.x 8.: 2:3 382 o c m; 2.: 2.3 :2. o o o_.m oo.m_ om.om mczw o C ox? meg 3.8 3. o c 00.x mw._ o.mp cha< om.N o mo.© N_.¢- m.o Luca: 9; E a: 88. 90 5.8.53 £8 E 8. e 2.x- go- 932% wees Lo Eu cm.m mLoE Lo Eu m.m Eu u:o 0:0 80 Lm>ou zocm ;u_3 Lm>cu zocm _cuoe E:EL:_z Eaewxez mxcu co 30cm mo guamo womcm>< ;u_3 mxmc msmcw>< x—eao >_wmo moccm>< mmmcm>< co_ucuwa_omca wczumcmasm» gucoz ecmo_zowz .xuczou cw:o_ .:o_umu_awomca use mcaumcmaEmp ”m m_ome the Grand River Formation and is late Pennsylvanian in age (Dorr, J. A., Jr. and D. F. Eschman, T970). Unweathered glacial drift consists of limy residue; with fragments of shale, limestone, sandstone and smaller amounts of crys- talline rocks. These materials were deposited in the form of glacial till or glacial outwash (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred, l967). The area is within the Charlotte moraine system which is composed of a sequence of moraines and till plains. Biological Organisms The soils of the station have formed under forest vegetation. Prior to settlement the area was under a dense forest of oaks, hickory, and sugar maple. The dominant species were elm (Ulmus s23), basswood (Tilia americana L.), ash (Fraxinus sp,), shagbark hickory (carya ovata (Mill.) K Koch), swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor Willd.), sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh), and beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh) (Veatch, J. O. l959, U.S.D.A., l949). Earthworms, arthropods and rotifers are the major soil forming animals of the area (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred, l967, Pritchett, W. L., l979). These animals help in the fragmentation of the plant litter and the incorporation of the fragmentations with the mineral soils; which can later on be acted upon by decomposing micro-organisms. Bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi are the major decomposers, with bacteria being the dominant one. The foliage of hardwood species is generally high in pH, bases, and pro— tein content which are more favorable for bacterial decomposition (Whitkamp, M. l963). In addition to fragmentation and mixing of plant litters, soil animals such as earthworm burrow into the soil and cause soil lO mixing. They also modify soil structure, aeration and drainage (Hole, F D., l98l). Presence of worm casts in the studied profiles indicate that earthworm activities are common in these soils. Ben's: The study area has slight micro relief with 0 (nearly level) to l2 percent (moderately sloping) slope. The upland soils of the Station are mostly well drained, with some moderately well drained soils on level plains, and depres- sions where the sub-soil permeability is slow (Figure l). Time The soils of the station are geologically relatively young. They have developed in the late Wisconsin (Cary) aged glacial drift (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred, 1967) which dates back l6,000 to l3,500 years before present (Dorr, J. A., Jr. and D. F. Eschman, l970). ll 8. Formation and Classification of Soils of the Clarksville Horticultural Research Station A good knowledge of soil formation is essential for the proper under- standing of certain soil properties and their implications in management planning. A lot of new terms are encountered at various category levels in the new classification system (Soil Survey Staff, l975). Therefore, formation of some diagnostic horizons and terms that would be used in classifying studied soils are reviewed in this section. Alfisol Alfisols are those soils which have an ochric or umbric epipedon, an argillic horizon, a medium to high supply of bases and water available to the mesophytic plants more than half of the year or more than three consecutive months during the warm season of the year (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Ochric Epipedon Ochric epipedons are those surface soils that are too high in value or chroma, are too dry, have too little organic matter, have an N value too high, or are too thin to meet the criteria of a mollic, umbric, anthropic, plaggen or histic epipedon, or it is both hard and massive when dry (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Argillic Horizon An argillic horizon is one that contains illuvial layer-lattice clays. This horizon forms below an eluvial horizon but it can be at the surface if the soil has been partially truncated by erosion. The following properties can be used for identifying an argillic horizon (Soil Survey Staff, l975). l2 1. If there is no lithologic discontinuity the argillic horizon contains more total and fine clay than the eluvial horizon as follows. a. If the eluvial horizon has <15% clay in the fine earth fraction, the argillic horizon must contain 3% more clay. b. If the eluvial horizon has l5-40% total clay, the argillic horizon must have at least l.2 times more clay. c. If the eluvial horizon has >40% clay, the argillic horizon must contain at least 8% more clay. 2. The argillic horizon should be at least one-tenth as thick as the sum of the thickness of overlying horizons. If the argillic horizon is composed entirely of lamellae > l cm. thick, it should have a combined thickness of l5 cm. ‘— 3. If the peds are present, a. An argillic horizon should have clay skins on both vertical and horizontal ped surfaces. b. The clay skin requirement may be waived if there are evidences of pressure caused by swelling, uncoated grains of sand and silt in overlying horizon; and if the ratio of fine to total clay in the argillic horizon is at least one-third more than in the eluvial horizon. 4. If the soil has a lithologic discontinuity between the eluvial horizon and argillic horizon, or if only the plow layer overlies the argillic horizon needs to have clay skins only in some part. Formation of Argillic Horizon Argillic horizons are formed by the eluviation of clay from an overlying A horizon and its accumulation in a B horizon (McKeague, J. A., et al., 1959). In this process more fine clay is moved than coarse clay. Four requirements are recognized for the formation of an argillic horizon (Soil Survey Staff, l975). l. Sufficient fine clay content in the parent material and/or sufficient production by weathering. 2. Disruption of the fabric and dispersion of the clay particles. 3. Clay translocation through the soil. 4. Some mechanism for deposition. l3 Wetting and drying soils can disrupt the fabric and disperse clays. Sodium ions increase the dispersion of clays. Organic matter also has some indirect effects on clay dispersion. Dispersed clay moves with percolating water until it is flocculated (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Deposition of clay in the argillic horizon may be brought about by the depletion of percolating water through absorption into the peds; constriction of voids by the swelling of clays which prevent the continued percolation of water; clogging of finer pores with clay particles from the percolation water; and flocculation of negatively charged clays by iron oxide or other cations such as calcium ions in B horizons (Boul, S. W., et al., l980, Throp, J., et al., l959). Clays can be translocated either in suspension or as weathering products (silica, alumina) in solution (Birkeland, W. P., I974). Weathering products such as silica and alumina later precipitate as clay minerals in the illuvial horizon. Clay carried in suspension could account for the formation of clay skins (Throp, J., et al., l957, Buol, S. W., et al., l96l). Therefore, the presence of clay cutans in the B horizon is considered as evidence of illuvation (Grossman, R. 8., et al., l959). Such strongly expressed illuviation features are attributed to a higher frequency of wetting and drying cycles (Smith, H., et al., l972). In many Udalfs, maximum clay films were observed in the lower 8 horizons (Buol, S. W., et al., l959, l96l). However, a maximum accumulation of fine clay was observed in the upper 82 horizon of the same soils (Smith, H., et al., l972). Argillic horizons generally are more strongly developed under forest vegetation than under grass vegetation probably because of a more extensive use of subsurface water by trees. Moisture regimes also influence the formation 14 of argillic horizons. N0 evidences of clay illuviation are found in the soil with perhumid climate. It might be because of the lack of wetting drying cycles in those soils (Soil Survey Staff, l975). The distribution of clay in the solum is influenced by the depth of leaching, amount and distribution of rainfall, and the natural drainage class of the soil (Goddard, T.M., et al., l973). Argillic horizon formation requires at least a few thousand years and a stabilized condition. There should be minimum or no mixing of horizons by animals, frost or by shrink-swell action of the soil (Soil Survey Staff, l975). Formation of Lamellae Some sandy soils of the humid temperate regions have thin subsoil bands which contain more silicate clays, free iron oxide and/or organic matter complexes than the layers above or below. The genesis of these bands is not well understood. Many of these bands are pedogenic (Folks, et al., l956; Wurman, et al., l959; and Dijkerman, et al., 1967) while others are geologic in origin (Robinson, et al., T960). Some kind of periodic precipitation mechanism is involved in the formation of iron enriched clay bands in the soil (Folks, et al., l956). Iron oxides, silicate clays, and organic complexes can move simultaneously or at different times in the soil (Wurman, et al., l959). The deposition of suspended material takes place by flocculation, sieving or simple drying where the wetting front ceases (Wurman, et al., l959, Dijkerman, et al., l967). In many cases lamellae have formed by clay translocation. It was concluded from the Study of lamellae in Psammentic Haploxeralfs that clay illuviation is the most important factor in their formation (Torrent, J., et al., l980), Clay illuviation can be confirmed by observing well-oriented argillans. If a 15 B horizon has lamellae 3_l cm. thick and has a combined thickness of l5 cm., it qualifies for an argillic horizon (Soil Survey Staff, l975). Textural stratification of the parent material may initiate clay accumula- tion in certain lamellae (Bartelli, l960) due to its influence in the downward movement of water (Miller and Gardner, l962). Larger soil pores in the coarse textured layers cause the water to be concentrated in the finer pores above in the lamellae. When this water is withdrawn by evapotranspiration, the suspended clay is deposited. Once an incipient lamella is formed, it grows further due to increased pore size differences between the two layers (Soil Survey Staff, l975). Udalfs Udalfs are the Alfisols (Soil Survey Staff, l975) that have: l. A mesic or isomesic or warmer temperature regime. 2. A udic moisture regime or, if marginal to an ustic or a xeric moisture regime, do not have a calcic horizon and do not have soft powdery lime in spheroidal forms or as coatings on peds or disseminated in clay- size particles. 3. A chroma too high for aqualfs or do not have either an aquic moisture regime or artificial drainage. Hapludalfs Hapludalfs are the udalfs (Soil Survey Staff, l975) that: l. 00 not have tongues of albic materials in the argillic horizon that constitute as much as l5 percent of the volume in any subhorizon; 2. Have mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures at a depth of 50 cm. that differ by 5°C or more and have a mean annual soil temperature of 8°C or higher; 3. Do not have a fragipan, a natric horizon, or an agric horizon; and l6 4. Have an argillic horizon in which the clay distribution is such that the amount of clay decreases by 20 percent or more of the maximum clay content within a depth of l.5 m. from the surface if, a. The hue is redder than IO YR and the chroma is more than 4. b. The hue is 2.5 YR or redder, the value, moist,is less than four and the value, dry, is less than five throughout the major part of the argillic horizon; or c. There are many coarse mottles that have a hue redder than 7.5 YR or chroma of more than five; and in addition, d. There is :_5 percent plinthite (by volume) in the horizon in which the amount of clay decreases. C. Soil Properties in Relation to Crop Production Soil Texture Soil texture can be associated with the nutrient status of most soils. Clay particles have a large surface area compared to silt and sand particles. In addition to large surface area, clay particles are also negatively charged. The electrical charge helps to absorb positively charged nutrient ions. Therefore, soils which are high in clay content are also high in cation exchange capacity (Thomson and Troeh, l978). Moderately fine tex— tured soils tend to contain higher amounts of available water (Black, I968). The coarse textured soils on the other hand aredroughtyivith rapid in- filtration and percolation rates (U.S.D.A., I957). Properties that present management problems in clayey soils are their stickiness and slow permeability. They become very sticky when wet and hard when dry; they require greater power for tillage and are difficult to drain. Therefore, medium textured soils (Loams and Silt Loams) are preferred for most crop production (U.S.D.A , I957, Thomson and Troeh, I978). I7 Decidious fruits such as apples, pears and peaches can grow in a wide variety of soils but deep sandy loam soils are best suited. Pears are more tolerant of more clayey soils than the other two species (Childers, I976). Sandy loam soils are well suited for early crops such as cabbage and cauliflower where as medium loams and heavy loams are preferred for later crops. Tomato yields are usually greatest on deep loam, silt loam and clay loam soils (U.S.D.A., I957). It was concluded from a three-year field survey including field and greenhouse crops that sandy loam soils yield 20-30 percent more tomatoes than sandy soils (Vandamme, J., l978). Field crops (corn, wheat, soybeans) do very well on sandy loam to clay loam soils. However, wheat can yield equally well in finer soils (U.S.D.A., I957). Natural Drainage Most crops (including fruits, vegetables and field crops) require a well aerated soil. Oxygen exchange is required for root respiration. Energy released during respiration is used for plant growth; and for the uptake of water and nutrients. Poor drainage causes oxygen deficiency. A short term oxygen deficiency can reduce root respiration, increase resistance to water movement through roots, reduce nutrient uptake, and product toxic substances in the plants. Continued poor aeration results in death of cells, increased cell permeability, and finally death of roots (Williamson, R. E., et al., l970). Drainage is more critical for fruit orchards than for other crops because fruit trees have a long life and deep rooting pattern. Decidious I8 fruit trees (apples, pears, peaches) can tolerate some submergence during the winter dormant period but water logging during the growing season is detrimental (Makeriev, Z. I976; Rom, C., et al., l979). Most of the root hairs are lost during winter dormancy. These must be replaced during the spring to supply sufficient water and nutrients for the new growing plant tissue (Hoffman, M. 8., I966). Oxygen is essential for the production of root hairs. Waterlogging becomes more detrimental when the temperatures are high (Rowe, R. N., et al., l97l). Therefore, a soil with a water table within l5 cm. of the surface more than a week after a heavy rain or irriga- tion is considered unfit for fruit production (Childers, I976). Some plant diseases and physiological disorders such as Pithium infection of the peach roots; bitter pit, summer leaf fall and withering of leaf buds of apples have been associated with poor drainage (Segeren, W. A., et al., I969; Taylor, J., et al., I970). A reduction in the yield of tomatoes and cabbage was observed in a soil with a water table I5 cm. below the surface. Tomato yields increased with increasing depth to water table from I5 cm. to 8l cm. (Williamson, R. E., et al., I964, Going, T., et al., I966). Diseases such as club root in cauliflower and mud wilt in tomatoes have been associated with poor drainage (Lopatin, V. M., et al., I972; Young, P. A., l963). Field crops such as corn, soybean and wheat are also sensitive to poor drainage (U S.D.A., I957). Winter wheat is most sensitive to water logging between germination and emergence (Cannel, R. 0., et al., I980). Water logging of wheat reduced root growth and penetration and was responsible I9 for the decreased production of tillers and fertile heads (Watson, E. R., et al., l976). Major reduction of dry matter yield of corn was evident after flooding for four days. This reduction increased as the period of flooding increased (Sheard, R. W., et al., I976). Greater yield reductions were observed with a single submergence than repeated submergences of equal total duration (Chaudhary, T. N., et al., I975). Soybean plants cannot tolerate water logged conditions even for a short period (Williams, C. N., et al., I978). Soil Reaction Soil reaction affects the availability of nutrients. Strongly acid soils are generally low in plant available calcium and phosphorus but potentially may contain aluminum and manganese in toxic amounts. Strongly alkaline soils on the other hand are commonly deficient in iron and phosphorus (Tisdale and Nelson, I975). Soil microbial activity is also influenced by soil acidity. The optimum soil reaction for crop production differs among species. Apple and pear trees do very well at slightly acid reaction (Lebedev, V. M., I972). It was concluded by growing a wild apple seeding in a nutrient solution that roots are the most sensitive organs and began to die at strongly alkaline (PH > 8.5) and extremely acid (< 3.5) ranges. Internal bark necrosis of apple is associated with low PH's and high leafinanganese concentration (Fisher, A. G., et al., I977). Slight to medium acid reactions (5.5-6.5) tends to prevent specific apple replant disorder (Jonkers, H., et al., I978). The highest tomato yields were obtained at slightly acid to neutral (6.l to 6.9) soil reactions (Worley, R. E., I976). However, optimum growth 20 of the crop was observed at medium to slightly acid reactions; in the solution culture experiment (Islam, A.K.M.S., et al., I980). Tomato yields are also found to be influenced by subsoil acidity (Doss, B. D., et al., I977). Lucedale sandy loam (Rhodic Paleudult) withiimedium acid (6.0) surface reaction produced a maximum yield when the subsoil pH was also within the medium acid range (5.6 to 5.8). Maximum yields of Chinese cabbage are generally obtained at neutral reactions (6.5 to 6.8) (Oh, W. K., et al., l975). Fusarium wilt in tomatoes (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici) is reduced by adjusting the soil reaction from medium acid to neutral (Jones, J. P., et al., l97l). Maximum yields of corn and wheat are generally obtained at slightly acid reactions (Walker, W. M., et al., l979). Whereas soybeans performed well within medium to slightly acid ranges (Chen, T. T., et al., I974). Nodulation depressed at extremely acid reactions while nodulation and nitrogen fixation were optimum in strongly acid to neutral (5.2-7.0) soils (Harper, J. E., et al., l976). Soil Slope Nearly level to gently sloping sites are preferred for the production of fruits, vegetables and field crops. Soil erosion is a serious problem in steeper slopes. The problem becomes more serious for producing clear tilled crops such as corn (Shrader, W. D., et al., I964). The use of equip- ment and other management practices also becomes difficult on steeper slopes. In fruit production, many orchard operations such as pruning, thinning, harvesting and hauling fruits are much more difficult on strongly sloping ground (Childers, I976). A flat valley floor, a river bottom or a depres- sional area should be avoided for fruit orchards because of the possible 2l frost damage from the cold air draining into it. The slope should be uniform with well defined air and water drainage ways. There should not be any obstructions to the cold air drainage (Childers, I976, Soil Conservation Service, l970). 22 MATERIALS AND METHODS Site Selection Six representative pedons from four dominant upland soil series of the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station were selected after the soils were sampled on a 6I meter grid. Six pedons represent the follow— ing mapping units. RWA (Riddles Sandy Loam, well drained, O-2% slope) RMA (Riddles Sandy Loam, moderately well drained, 0-2% slope) KaA (Kalamazoo Sandy Loam, well drained, 0-2% slope) BiA (Bixby Sandy Loam, 0-2% slope) BiC (Bixby Sandy Loam, 6-I2% slope) SpC (Spinks, Loamy Sand, 6-I2% slope) Field Study The soil profiles were described in the field (Soil Survey Staff l975). Descriptions included the following morphological properties: depth of horizon, color, texture, structure, consistence, root distribution, clay films, horizon boundary, reaction to IO% HCL and other important observed features. Sample Collection and Preparation Representative bulk samples were collected from each horizon for laboratory analysis. Five core samples from each horizon were also taken for saturated hydraulic conductivity, bulk density and moisture retention studies. Soil samples were air dried, crushed with a wooden rolling pin and passed through a 2 mm sieve. Greater than 2 mm fractions were weighed and discarded. Sub-samples were taken with a sample splitter, which were later on used for various physical and chemical determination. 22 MATERIALS AND METHODS Site Selection Six representative pedons from four dominant upland soil series of the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station were selected after the soils were sampled on a 6l meter grid. Six pedons represent the follow- ing mapping units. RWA (Riddles Sandy Loam, well drained, 0-2% slope) RMA (Riddles Sandy Loam, moderately well drained, O-2% slope) KaA (Kalamazoo Sandy Loam, well drained, 0-2% slope) BiA (Bixby Sandy Loam, 0-2% slope) BiC (Bixby Sandy Loam, 6-l2% slope) SpC Spinks, Loamy Sand, 6-I2% slope) Field Study The soil profiles were described in the field (Soil Survey Staff l975). Descriptions included the following morphological properties: depth of horizon, color, texture, structure, consistence, root distribution, clay films, horizon boundary, reaction to l0% HCL and other important observed features. Sample Collection and Preparation Representative bulk samples were collected from each horizon for laboratory analysis. Five core samples from each horizon were also taken for saturated hydraulic:conductivity, bulk density and moisture retention studies. Soil samples were air dried, crushed with a wooden rolling pin and passed through a 2 mm sieve. Greater than 2 mm fractions were weighed and discarded. Sub-samples were taken with a sample splitter, which were later on used for various physical and chemical determination. 23 Analysis of Selected Physical Properties Particle size analysis was performed by the pipette method of Kilmer and Alexander (I949) with modifications as described by Day (I965). Carbonates were removed by using lN_sodium acetate solution buffered at pH 5. Undisturbed core samples were used for saturated hydraulic con- ductivity measurements (Klute I965). The same core samples were used for measuring l/3 bar moisture retention and bulk density on a I/3 bar and oven dry basis (Procedure 4Ale, 4Bla, Soil Survey Staff I972). A pressure membrane apparatus was used for determining I5 bar moisture (Procedure 4B2, Soil Survey Staff l972). Analysis of Selected Chemical Properties Organic carbon determination was performed by the Walkley-Black Method as described by Allison (I965). A glass electrode pH meter was used to measure the pH of a I:I soil to water suspension. The Shoemaker, McLean and Pratt (SMP) Method (McLean I980) was used for lime requirements. Phosphorous extracted with Bray PI solution was measured with a colori- meter (Knudsen I980). Extractable bases (Ca, Mg, K) were extracted with IN_NH4OAC at pH 7. The concentration of bases was determined on a Perkin- Elmer 290, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The Nitrate-Nitrogen Electrode Method was used for determining nitrate nitrogen (Carson I980). Cation exchange capacity values were estimated from the equation developed from Ohio State University: CEC = (lb K/A + 780) + (lb Ca/A + 400) + (lb Mg/A % 240) + I2 (7.0 - SMP Buffer pH) which correlated well with CEC values determined with IN_Nh40AC method (Warncke, et al., I980). Percent base saturation was determined. 24 Soils were classified on the basis of studied soil properties (Soil Survey Staff, l975). Generalized limitation tables were prepared for selected field crops, vegetables and fruits on the basis of soil properties by consultation with university staff with experience in these crops and by reviewing existing information. 25 RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Morphology Profile descriptions of the six representative pedons are given in Appendix A. 8. Physical Properties Particle Size Distribution Particle size distribution data for the six pedons studied are shown in Table 4. Total sand, silt,and clay distribution for each pedon is shown in Figure 3(a-f). Percent total sand values varied from 32.4l to 98.06. The AP horizon in Pedon 2 had the lowest sand content while horizon II A88 in Pedon 5 had the highest percent total sand. In general, percent total sand increased with depth in the profile. However, the Ap horizon in Pedon 5 and 82lt horizon in Pedon 3 had higher percent total sand than the lower horizons within the profile (Table 4). Sand fractions in Pedons l, 2 and 5 were mostly fine, whereas Pedons 3 and 4 contained dominantly medium sand fractions. Pedon 6 had greater than 87.85% total sand throughout the profile. Percent total sand increased abruptly at 203, I42, 65 and 75 cm. depths in Pedons I, 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The abrupt in- crease in percent total sand occurred as the soil parent material changed from glacial till to glacial outwash. This agreed with field descriptions where soil horizons developed in the second parent material were designated with a Roman numeral two (Appendix A). 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Ea 000.-00. 00.00.-m0. as m0.-0 as 00.-_. 0:0 0.-00. 00m00 0000 0000 00000 0000 .0 0000 .z 0000 .0 0000 00000 0:00 .0.> 0000 .0 .x00 :000uc00 00_m 0 000000000000 0000 00000000 0 .009: 27 000m 0E000 u am; 000m wcw0 u 0m0 5000 xucmm m:_0 n 00m0 £000 xucom u 0mm ucom u mm 5000 000m u —_m 5000 u 0 0 0m 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.00 0m.00 00.0 00.0 0m0 0m.m 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.m 00.00 00.0m 00.0 00.0 mw< 0m0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 m_.0 00.00 00.0 00.0m 00.0m 00.m 00.0 <00 0m0 00.m 0_.m 0m._ 0m.0 00.0 mx.0m .0.0 00.00 00.nm 00.m mm._ 0< 0 0m 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0_.0 00.00 mm.mm m_.w 00.0 mw<00 00m0 00.00 _0.00 00.m 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 000 _0m0 00.00 00.0m 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.0m mx.0_ 00.00 00.00 m_._ 00.0 00 _0m0 00.0 m0.0~ mw.m 00.0 00.0. 00.00 00.0 00.0m 00.00 00.0 00.0 0< m Noo.v as moo.-mo. as moo.-moo. Es moo.-mo. =5 mo.-mc. as mo.-0 es mo.-_. SE _.-mm. as mw.-m. as m.-0 as _-N 000000: 00000 mmm0u 0000 000m 00000 000m .0 0__m .2 000m .0 000m 00000 000m .0.> 000m .0 000m .2 000m .0 000m .u.> xmp 00000000 000m 0 Aumscwucouv v mgmqp Depth in cm % Particle Size 1 0 2O 30 4O 50 60 70 80 90 I I 1 I I I I I I I V U U U U I ' 1 1 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 a: Total Sand '1‘ Total Silt G Total Clay Figure 3(a). Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 1 (Riddles Well Drained). Depth in cm 29 % Particle Size 1 O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ‘F-l-fi I1 Iii ITifi I I1fi1i1rfi ' 1r - + 25 - ~ :0" Q» .0»— w; . \ 5° / t 75'- + 100 - \ 125 - \ + 150 b I +\+ 175 l- 225- @j) 1: Total Sand '1’ Total Silt Q Total Clay Figure 3(b). Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 2 (Riddles Moderately Well Drained). Depth in cm 30 % Particle Size 1 O 20 30 40 50 60 7O 80 90 100 I'TjTTTTTWfi Vj‘lUIIIT 25 50 75 100 125 150 a: Total Sand + Total Silt G) Total Clay Figure 3(c). Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 3 (Kalamazoo). Depth in cm 3i % Particle Size 25 50 75 100 125 1 O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00 Wfiiliifiliilli1rrwrfifi + * / \ \ / \ + \*\ // \\ a: \ \ \ \ \ \ * Total Sand + Total Silt (9 Total Clay Figure 3(d). Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 4 (Bixby, 0-2°/o). Depth in cm 25 50 75 100 32 °/o Particle Size 70 80 90 1 00 TjjUTIIj 102030405060 IIIIIrIlIIII \ *——----x * Total Sand + Total Silt G) Total Clay Figure 3(a). Particle size Distribution for Pedon 5 (Bixby, 6.12%). Depth in cm 33 "/0 Particle Size 1 0 2O 30 40 50 60 I ’1 I TT’I r* I *I 25 -€D+ / ii l J. 100 -/ 125 * Total Sand + Total Silt G Total Clay Figure 3(t). Particle Size Distribution for Pedon 6 (Spinks). 70 80 90 1 00 'TTITjfi 34 In general, percent total silt also decreased with depth (Table 4, Fig. 3(a-f)). Surface horizons had higher percent total silt than subsoil hori- zons except in Pedon 5 where the AP horizon contained slightly less total silt than the Bl horizon (Table 4). Surface horizons of Pedons l and 2 contained greater than 50% total silt which fall within the silt loam textural class. Even Pedon 3 and 4 contained greater than 4 % total silt in their surface horizon. Coarse silt was the most dominating silt fraction in all studied pedons with lesser amounts of medium and fine silts. The silt accumulation on the surface of some of the pedons studied might have taken place either by the deposition of wind blown silt particles or by the de- position of silt particles carried by flowing water from the surrounding area. Pedon 5 which is situated in moderately sloping position contained less silt in its surface horizon. Silt particles from the surface might have been lost by runoff water during rains. Pedons 1 through 5 follow the same trend in total clay distribution (Figure 3a—f). In general, clay content was low in the surface horizon (6.l to ll.2%). It increased with depth,maximized in the 82 horizon (lO.4-l9.4). A decreasing trend occurred deeper into the profile beyond this point. However, maximum clay accumulation occurred at different depths. This trend of clay distribution might be the result of clay trans- location, which was further confirmed by the presence of clay skins in the B horizon of these profiles (Appendix A; Grossman, R. B., et al., l959). Pedon 6 does not show much change in its total clay distribution (Figure 3f). Percent total clay also decreased abruptly in Pedons l, 3, 4 and 5 as parent material changed from glacial till to glacial outwash (Table 4). Percent 35 total clay dropped from l7.89% in the BZt horizon to 0.98% in the IIA&B horizon in Pedon 5. Parent Material Homogeneity Particle size distribution of non-clay fractions on a clay free . si Total silt ba51s’ —_'(Total sand 5 from T are shown in Table 5. The criteria of comparing the silt/sand ratio si/s in upper horizon . . . and it deviation 51/5 in lower horizon S ) ratio; of one horizon with the ratio of another horizon seems to be the best test of initial uniformity of materials (Asady, G. H., l980). If the two soil si/s in Horizon l horizons are originally formed from a uniform parent material, 51/5 in Horizon 2 should be l or close to l. The greater the deviation from T the greater are the chances for the parent materials not being uniform. The si/s Hi si/s Hj ing horizons: Cl and 1183 in Pedon l; 822t and IIA&B in Pedon 3; B22t and largest deviations of ratio from l were observed between the follow— IIC in Pedon 4; and BZt and IIA&B in Pedon 5. Lithological discontinuities between these horizons were also confirmed by field observations (Appendix A). There was a change in parent material from sandy loam glacial till to sandy glacial outwash in all of the above horizons. Bulk Density Distribution of l/3 bar and oven dry bulk density values are shown in Table 6 and Figure 4(a-f). One-third bar bulk density values were always higher than the respective oven dry bulk density values. Both l/3 bar and oven dry bulk density distributions showed a similar trend in every soil (Figure 3a—f). Highest oven dry bulk density values were observed in the C horizons of Pedonsl and 2. Pedons 3 and 4 had their highest bulk density 36 00.0 00.0 0_0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 _m.00 00.0 0_.0 0000 0_.0P 0P._— 0.0.0 00.0 0m.0 00.0 00._ 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.0 _000 —F.— ~P.m 0_.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0_.0 00.00 00.00 No.0 0N.— ummm ~0.— 00.0 00.0 00.m 00.—P 00.0_ 00.0 P0.—N 00 00 00.0 mm.— upmm 00.0 00.0 00.0_ 00.00 —0.0 00.0— 00.0w 00.0_ 00.— 0< 0 00.0_ 00.0_ n_0.0 p0.0 00.0 00.0 .0._ 00.00 00.00 —0.0 00.0 00<~H 00.0 00.0 0N.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 P0._0 00.00 00.0 00.0 ummm 0N.0 00.0 0_.0 _0.0 ~0.0 00.0_ F0.0 00.00 00.00 00.0 00._ 0_N0 00.0 00.P 00.0 00.0 m0.0 00.00 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.0 0m.— _0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.00 0N.m— 00.0 00.0 00 0 00.0- —0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0_ 00.0_ 00.0 00.00 00.0F 00.0 00.0 0 N_.o NP.F F0.0 0_.— 00.0 00.00 00.0_ ~0.—0 0m.0_ 00.0 00._ 000 00.0- 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0_ 00.0— N0.N0 m0.- 00.0 NN.N ummm 00.0 m0.P 00.0 00.0 00.m_ _0.mp 00.0P 00.00 00.0— 00.0 0—.~ u_mm 00._ 00.m 00.0 00.0 “0.0— 00.00 00.0_ .m.0m F0.0P 00.0 _0._ 000 0m.— 00.0 00.m_ 00.00 00.0 00.0. 00.0 00.N 00.0 0< m l 3. till i Tlllll l0lll 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00,— 00.00 F0.m0 00.0 00.0 ~0_0 00.0 00.0 N_.0 00.F 00.. 00.0 x0.__ 00.00 00.00 00,— 00.— 0000 No.0 No.0 00.0 00.0 N0.0_ 00.00 0~.__ m_.0m 00.0P 00.0 —0.0 p0 00.0- 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 F0.m— P0.0m 00.0— 00.0 0N.0 000 00.0- 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0— .0.0_ 00.00 00.00 00.0— P0.0 00.0 ummm 00.0 m0.m 00.0 ”0.0 00.0 00.00 00.0_ 00._0 00.r~ 00.0 00._ 0_00 00.— ~0.N 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.m~ 00.00 00.0F 00.0 00._ P0 00.~ 00.0 0m._— 00.00 00.0 00.0. 00.0_ N0.m 00.0 00 F 00 0\wm 0: 0\—0 m\wm u—_m .00 “—00 .002 0 0000 0 0 0000 .0.> a 0:00 0 0 0:00 .00: 0 0000 0 0 0:00 .0.> 0 CONTLOI 00000 P: 0\_0 r: m\wm 00000 0000 0000 :0 m:0_00000 >0_0-:cz 00 000000000000 0~_0 00000000 0 000o upwm Fave» n m\wm “wuoz 37 00.0 0_.0 000.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.0 00< 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00._0 00.0 00.0 00< 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.0 _0.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.0 <00 000.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.0 00,— 00 0 0.00 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0_.0 00._0 00.00 .0.0 00.0 00<_~ 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.0 000 00.0- 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0_.0— 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.0 00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 .0.0 0< 0 0 n 0: 0000 0: 0000 0000 0000 .0 0 u_wm .umz 0 0000 0 0 0cc0 .0.> a 0:00 0 0 0:00 .umz a 0:00 0 R 0:00 .0.> x :ONTgoz :onwa w: 0000 w: 0\0m 1"! Illil Ll; « Irlrl Auwacwucouv m mgmqh 38 -- m0 0 4 c<._ a 00.0 00.0 00.0 00._ 00.00 00< -- _0.0 00.0 00.0 _0.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 maq ¢_._ 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 <00 00.0 0_.m 00mm.;;.;.mmwm;:-l-rmwFil-1--00.0 00._ 00.00 a< 0 00.0 _0.0 00._ 00.0 .0.0 00.0 00._ 00.00 00<_0 00.0 00.0. 00. 00.0 00.0_ 00._ 00._ 00.0 000 00.0 00.0 No.0 00.0 x0.m_ 00.0 00.0 00.0 00 00.0 00.00 00.0 .1;. 00.0 -:.hmwm_ 00,— .:©MW_ 00.00 a< 0 00.0 o_.0 00.0 _0._ 00.0 00._ 00.0 00.00 0000 00.0 00.0_ 00.0 00.0 _0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0_ “mm 00.0 00.0 00.0 0_.0 m0.0_ 00.0 00.0 @0._ 0000 00.0 00.0 00.0 0_.0 00.0_ 00.0 00.0 00.0 0000 00.0 00.0_ 00.00 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 m< q -- 00.0 m_.0 00.0 00.0 00._ 00.0 00.00 00000 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 0000 00.0 00.0— 00.0 00.0 00.__ 00.0 mo._ 00.0 0000 00.0 00.0_ 00.0 00.0 00.0_ 00.. 00._ 00.0 00 00.0 00.00 00.00 “:00V1-- 00.00 00.0 00._ 00.0 :< 0 -- 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00._ 00.0 00.0 0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 oq.__ 00.0 00.0 00.0 000 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 0000 00.0 00.00 00.0 _0.0 00.0_ 00.0 00.0 00.0 0_0m 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00._ 00.0 00¢ 00.0 00.0. 00.0 mowm1ziz.0¢.0_ -i-.0m._ 00.0 00.0 a< 0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0_ m0._ _0._ 00.0 00 00.0 0_.0 00.0 _0.0 00.00 00._ 00,— 00.0 000 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0. 00._ 00.0 00.0 0000 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0_ cm.m_ 00,— m0._ 00.0 0000 00.0 00.0 00.0 mc.0_ 00.0_ 00.0 00,— 00.0 00 00.m 00.__ 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 a< 0 :0003 wE:_o> as 0:000: 02 :00 00 :02 000 0:0 :m>0 :00 m0_ ::050 mpnmpm0>< 0::umwoz 0::0m0cz 0:000: >0 00500500 00_>_pu:0:o0 :o~w:oz :0000 0:0_a mo Eu 0000000>< x 0_00_00>< y 0::0m_oz a xuwm:00 x030 u0030:0>: .000 m:00ma m>wumucmmo:amm 50:0 mcwp:mao:; pcuwmxga 0wuu0000 we mw:_0> :00: 0 00000 Depth in cm 39 Bulk Density gm/cm3 1.35 1.55 1.75 1.95 I 1 1 T I 1 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 * 1/3 bar (9 oven dry Figure 4(a). Bulk Density Distribution tor'Pedon 1 (Riddles Well Drained). Depth in cm 40 Bulk Density gm/crn3 1.35 1.55 1.75 1.95 2.15 W I T '— \ #l: l 100 '- I I 125 - ’ I O f 150 - I / 175 r I, 1 200 l- "'%’> """ * * 1/3 bar @ oven dry Figure 4(b). Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 2 (Riddles Moderately Well Drained) Depth in cm 4] Bulk Density gm/cm3 1.20 1.40 1.50 1.80 2.00 75*- 100 '- 125 '- 150 - 1.75 L * 1/3 bar 6) oven dry Figure 4(c). Bulk Density Distribution (Kalamazoo, 0-2 °/o). Depth in cm 1.2 42 Bulk Density gm/cm3 0 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 25* 50'- 75- 100 1 1 T 125 * 1/3 bar G) oven dry Figure 4(d). Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 4 (Bixby 0-2°/o). Depth in cm 43 Bulk Density gm/cm3 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 I 1 n 1 $ 25 - \\ \ x \\ \\ I 50 - I I I I I 75 " ’ ’,.* 9e”; ’ ’ 100 I- * 1/3bar C9 ovendry Figure 4(e). Bulk Density Distribution for Pedon 5 (Bixby,6-12°/o). 44 8qu Density gm/cm3 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 1 1 i I 25 - *‘ \ \ \\ 50 - g at: c ,’ =3 I I 3 75 i- , I I I 100 - I" t it 125 L * 1/3 bar 6) oven dry Figure 4(1). 8qu Density Distribution for Pedon 6 (Spinks, 642%). 45 values in their argillic horizons (Bth in Pedon 3 and BZZt in Pedon 4). However, Pedon 5 had its highest bulk density value in the Bl horizon. The Bl horizon of Pedon 1 also had a higher bulk density than the lower two horizons. There was no particular trend in the bulk density distribution of Pedon 6. Pedons l and 2 had coarse platy structure in their C horizons (Appendix A). This might have been the result of compaction caused by overlying materials when the glacial till was deposited. The reason for the argillic horizons having higher bulk density values is the filling of pore spaces by trans- located clays. Higher bulk density values in Bl horizons might be the result of compaction from farm implements. Hydraulic Conductivity Table 6 and Figure 5(a,b) show saturated hydraulic conductivity distri- bution. Pedons l and 2 had slowly permeable subsoil layers. The B3t horizon in Pedon 2 had the slowest permeability with a saturated conductivity value of 0.2l6 cm/hr. Surface horizons of Pedons l and 2, respectively, had moderately slow and moderate permeability. The rate of water percolation into the soil is controlled by the least permeable layer in the solum or immediate substratum (Soil Survey Staff, l95l). The slowest permeable layer in Pedon 2 might have caused a temporary pearched water table. All other soils had moderately slow or higher permeability in their slowest permeable horizons. Hydraulic conductivity values increased abruptly in the lower horizons (IIA&B, 11c, and IIA&B) of Pedons 3, 4 and 5 as soil texture changed from sandy loam to sand. All the horizons in Pedon 6 had rapid to very rapid permeability. In general, lower conductivity values were associated with Depth in cm 46 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity cm/ hr 1 2 3 4 I l I l at: I o ’95 a”’ 50l— ”’ c ”,, a”, I (D 100 " 200 250 * l I I I I l l 150- 1‘ a I I t r alt \ \ G) Pedon 1 * Pedon 2 Figure 5(a). Hydraulic Conductivity Distribution for Pedon 1 and 2 (Well and Moderately Well Drained Riddles). Depth in cm 100 150 200 47 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity cm/hr. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 I I 1 T 1 I I I 1 I j G) Pedon 3 * Pedon4 + Pedons 0 Pedon6 Figure 5(b). Hydraulic Conductivity Distribution for Pedons 3, 4, 5 and 6 [Kalamazoo (0'20/0), BIbe (0'20/0), BIbe (6420/0), Spinks (642%)]. 48 soil horizons which had either high bulk density values or high clay content or both. A linear regression analysis was run to investigate the effect of different particle size fractions and bulk density on saturated hydraulic conductivity. Correlation Coefficient, Coefficient of Determination and Linear Regression Equations are shown in Table 7. Total clay, coarse silt, medium silt, total silt and very fine sand all negatively correlated with hydraulic conductivity. Medium sand and total sand however showed a positive correlation. There was no statistically significant correlation between either fine sand or oven dry bulk density and hydraulic conductivity. 2 = 0.43 when However, there was a significant negative correlation with R data only from Pedomsl and 2 were plotted (Figure 6). Both Pedon l and 2 have dominantly sandy loam textures up to a depth of about 200 cm. An increase in bulk density in a given soil textural class means a reduction in the soil porosity and therefore a low hydraulic conductivity reading. The effect of bulk density was masked by the extreme difference in soil texture when data from all the pedons were considered. Moisture Retention Distributions of l/3 bar, l5 bar,and available moisture percentages are shown in Table 6 and Figure 7(a-f). In general, percent l/3 bar moisture decreased with depth except for Pedon 5 where BZt horizon had the highest l/3 bar moisture retention. The surface horizon of Pedon 3 contained the highest (23.3%) l/3 bar moisture value while the lower part of A&B horizon in Pedon 6 has the lowest (2.29%). Percent l5 bar moisture was almost constant throughout the whole solum in Pedon 2. However, it decreased 49 acam _apoc n x acam 6:.a stw> ” Nx 522m _mbOH H ex spamcwa x_:m team mead u ox b_.m Esauaz u mx sag ca>o u ox ecam Eswaaz n mx b_wm amamou u Nx sa_o _abOP u _x .bcaaacwcmam s__mawbmwbabm boz m\z .Fa>m_ _o. be bemowcacoam ... m\z ax wx Fm.o + em.mw- n > mm.o 52.0 ...mx Rx me._ - mm._m u > Rm.o _©.o- .tvkx m\z ox mx om.o + mu.©- > mm.o ow.o v.2mx ax mm.o - mN.om > am.o mm.o- ...sx mx _m._ - _o.m_ > mm.o oa.o- ...mx Nx m©.o - Fm.N_ > mm.o em.o- .I.Nx .Px mm.F - mm.mm > mm.o NN.o- ...Fx :owpmscm covmmmcmwx wmowwmmwfiwwwwm ucmwuwkwmou covpmpwccou m_nmwcm> ucmvcmamucH vmpmczpmm co xpwmcmo x_:m ace cw>o new mmmFonsm chszmh we mpowwmm m_wom cacasbm ago 20% sbw>abu=ncou u._=mzusz L0? mcowpmzcm cowmmmcmwm new :owwmcwscmpmo mo ucmwuwmmmoo .mpcwwuwwkmoo cowpmpmccou N m4m_u0pc000000m 5000 0000000000 _0uwa0zu 00000_0m 0o 00:_0> :00: x 0_300 6O Pedon 3, pH decreased with depth up to l42 cm. from the surface (6.2 vs. 5.4) and again increased in the last horizon (6). Soil pH in Pedon 2 was in the strongly acid range up to a depth of l42 cm. and mildly alkaline in the C horizon. The increasing trend of soil pH deeper into the profile could be the result of carbonate leaching in the soil profile. Higher pH in the surface horizons of some of the soils might be the result of past lime applications. No lime was recommended for RwA, BiC and SpC mapping units (Figure l) on the basis of pH levels of studied pedons. However, l6.54 tons/ha of lime was required for RmA and 2.47 tons/ha for KaA and BiA mapping units. Cation Exchange Capacity Higher Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) values were observed in Pedons l and 2 than in other pedons (Table 8). Pedon l had constant CEC values up to a depth of l23 cm. from the surface and had the highest CEC in the calcareous Cl horizon. Pedon 2 had the highest CEC value in the surface horizon which decreased with depth in the solum. The C horizon of Pedon 2 had a CEC value equal to that of the surface soil. All other pedons showed a similar distri- bution pattern as that of the clay. Higher CEC values in the surface horizons were attributed to the higher percent organic matter. Variation in CEC value reflected changes in total clay content in all other horizons except the calcareous C horizons. The high CEC values in calcareous C horizons might be due to the interference of free calcium carbonate (additional Ca++ comes from the dissolution of cac03) in the cation extracting solution (lN_NH4OAC) (Carpena, 0., et al., l972). 61 Percent Base Saturation All pedons had relatively high percent base saturation. Pedons l and 6 were 100% base saturated in all horizons. The lowest base saturation value was 28.29% in the surface horizon of Pedon 2. Extractable Nutrients Kilogram per hectare of extractable phosphorus (available), potassium, calcium and magnesium for studied pedons are shown in Table 8. Phosphorus in general decreased with depth in all soils except for KaA where the surface horizon had a lower P value than Bl horizon. Available phosphorus level varied from 58.29 kg/ha (Pedon 3) to 292 kg/ha (Pedon l) in the surface soil. Extractable potassium decreased with depth in Pedon 6. All other pedons had a similar distribution pattern of exchangeable potassium as total clay (Table 8). Extractable K in the surface soil varied from l34.52 (Pedon 3) to 385.62 kg/ha (Pedon 4). Fertilizer recommendations were made for selected vegetables and field crops (Table 9) on the basis of extractable phosphorus and potassium levels in the studied soils (Warncke, D. 0., et al., l976). In general, exchangeable calcinincreased with depth until the soil parent material changed from glacial till to glacial outwash (indicated by II). Surface horizons of pedons 3 and 4 were the exceptions which contained more exchangeable calcium than the horizons immediately below them. The sudden drop in exchangeable calcium in the soil horizons formed from the second parent material (glacial outwash) reflect the abrupt decrease in total clay. Higher amounts of exchangeable calcium in the surface horizons of Pedons 3 and 4 might have been the result of liming. 623 00 mm 00000200 00 mm :030_0_F:c0 0000000w0> 0:0: 0:0: 0:00000m 0:0: 0:0: 000:3 0:0: 0:0: :000 000.0 0_0_0 000 0_0 <_0 00. 00 0000050» om— 00 L030P0__:00 .meQM4mmmw om m_ 0:000000 mm 00 000:3 00: 00 .1 ---cww0-- 00000 0_000 00_ 00 <00 mm ac mmOQCEOh mm 00 00zorwwwmm0. 0000000m0> 0:0: 0:0: :000000 mm 0:0: 00023 cm 0:0: :200 00000 0_0_0 _mm mm_ «Ex 00 0:0: A00 + 000.000 00000200 00 0000 A00 . 000.0_0 .030:0__000|. 00_00umm0> 0:0: 0:0: A0; + emcv 0000000 0:0: 0:0: A0; + 0000 000:: 0:0: 0:0: ho; + mmm._ ::&P-- 0 0.0 0.000 000 000 <20 A0;\000¥ 20;\0000 000.0 00000—00 0 a 00000 000000: 0:\ 0 :00000:005000m L00___0:00 wwmwpwanLWMQWd~0no m_wom 0000:00 0:0 000 00000 0.000 0:0 000000000> 0000000m :00 0000000:052000m :000_00000 500000000 0:0 0:20:000:0 m 000<0 653 00. 00 00000000 om— mm Loxfirwr_:0uu- 000000um0> 00 0:0: :00000m mo 0:0: 000:: ovp 0:0: :000 00000 0_0_0 00_ 00. 000 000 0:0: 00000500 owp 0:0: 00300000000 wmflmmwwmmw 00 0:0: :00000m 00 0:0: 000:: m0 0:0: ::00 00000 0.000 000 000 000 00;\000¥ 000\0000 00000 00000000 ....|Lm:1, 0 00002 00_000z Bafli :00000:0:=500m 0000000000 __00 0000000 000 :0 00:000002 0000—00>< 00000000000 0 00000 64 Exchangeable magnesium in Pedons 3, 4 and 5 follow a similar distribution trend as calcium. However, in Pedonsl and 2 exchangeable magnesium increased up to l23 and l97 cm. depths from the surface and decreased deeper into the profile. Extractable calcium values were higher than that of the extractable magnesium and potassium in all soil horizons. Calcium is the dominant cation in all the soils which accounts for greater than 60% of the total bases. Magnesium and potassium percentages varied from 5.l to 29 and 0.3 to 8.9, respectively. D. Classification of Representative Pedons Surface horizons of all studied pedons did not meet the criteria for a mollic epipedon on moist and dry color basis (Appendix A, Soil Survey Staff, l975). Therefore, all the pedons had ochric epipedons. Clay films were observed in B horizons of all pedons studied (Appendix A). Elluvial horizons of all pedons had less than l5% total clay and B horizons of all except Pedon 6 had greater than 3% total clay increase (Table 4). B horizon of Pedon 6 on the other hand consisted of lamellae greater than or equal to l cm. thick which had a combined thickness of greater than l5 cm. Therefore, B horizons of all pedons net. the qualifications of an argillic horizon. All the representative pedons had greater than 35% base saturation at l.25 m. depth below the upper boundary of the argillic horizon (Table 8). Hence, all pedons fell into the soil order Alfisols. The study area had a mesic temperature regime (Table 3) and all studied pedons had an udic moisture regime (Appendix A). This put all six pedons into the suborder Udalfs. 65 There is no agric, natric, or fragipan horizon in any of these pedons and no tongues of albic materials (Appendix A). All of the pedons also met the requirement of clay distribution, color of the argillic horizon, and difference of mean summer and mean winter temperature for the great group Hapludalfs (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Pedons l through 5 met all the criteria of mottles, bulk density, interfingering of albic material, color of the surface horizon, soil temperature, texture of the surface, and argillic horizon for the subgroup Typic Hapludalfs. Pedon 6 did not have a continuous argillic horizon greater than or equal to 20 cm. thick with a soil texture finer than loamy fine sand. Therefore, Pedon 6 was classified at the subgroup level as Psammentic Hapludalfs. Pedon l had l9.l8% clay in the upper 50 cm. of the argillic horizon and fell into the fine—loamy family textural class. Pedon 2 on the other hand had only l6.9l% clay and fell into the coarse-loamy category. Pedons 3 and 5 had strongly contrasting particle sizes (abrupt textural change) within l meter from the top of the argillic horizon. The upper parts of the control sections had l4.79% and l8% clay, respectively, while a lower part of the control sections had only l.38% and 0.98% clay with greater than 96% total sand. Therefore, Pedon 3 was within the coarse-loamy over sandy family textural class. Pedon 5 on the other hand fell in the fine-loamy over sandy textural class. Pedon 4 had l0.4% total clay in the argillic horizon and was placed in the coarse-loamy family. Pedon 6 had less than 3% clay in the control section and belongs to the sandy textural family. Pedon 2 was close to the fine—loamy family. No minerological study of these soils were performed as a part of this research. It was assumed that all of these pedons had mixed minerology (Soil Conservation Service, l980). 66 The mean annual soil temperature of the area was 9.92°C (Table 3) which was estimated by adding 1°C to the mean annual air temperature (Soil Survey Staff, l975). The difference between mean summer and mean winter temperature was more than 5°C. Therefore, all the pedons had a mesic soil temperature class. All the representative pedons were classified as follows at the family level. Soil Mapping Pedon No. Unit Family Classification l RwA Typic Hapludalfs, fine-loamy, mixed, mesic 2 RmA Typic Hapludalfs, coarse—loamy, mixed, mesic 3 KaA Typic Hapludalfs, coarse-loamy over sandy, mixed, mesic BiA Typic Hapludalfs, coarse-loamy, mixed, mesic BiC Typic Hapludalfs, fine-loamy over sandy, mixed, mesic 6 SpC Psammentic Hapludalfs, sandy, mixed, mesic Pedons l, 5, and 6, respectively, fell in the range of characteristics of Riddles (Dryden), Bixby, and Spinks soil series. All other remaining pedons differ from their official series classification (Michigan Cooperative Soil Survey, l98l). Pedon 2 better fits the Lapeer series than Riddles. RwA and RmA mapping units were respectively mapped as Dryden and Lapeer soil series in the Soil Survey of Ionia County (Threlkeld, G. and S. Alfred, l967). It agreed well with the result of my study because Pedon l is also very close to the coarse-loamy family. Pedon 3 did not fit the Kalamazoo series because it is coarse-loamy over sandy instead of fine-loamy over sandy. Pedon 4 also did not meet the requirement of the Bixby soil series because it is coarse-loamy instead of fine-loamy over sandy. 67 E. Limitations of Studied Soils for the Production of Selected Fruits, Vegetables and Field Crops Tablel()shows the degree of limitations of studied soils for the pro- duction of different crops. The criteria used in preparing this table is shown in 'Tables 13, 14, and 15, Mapping units, RwA, RmA, KaA, BiA, BiC all had slight limitations for the production of selected fruits and vegetables. However, mapping units BiA and BiC had moderate limitations for selected field crop production. The SpC mapping unit on the other hand had moderate to severe limitations for the production of selected fruits, vegetables and field crops. Pedon 6 had the lowest organic carbon content (.ll4%) among all pedons and also had lower CEC values (Table 8). Sandier soils such as the Spinks are also commonly low in fertility in addition to being droughty. Pedons l through 5 representing mapping units RwA, RmA, KaA, BiA, and BiC had moderate limitations for crop production on the basis of total available water holding capacity (Tablel(b. Pedon 6 had very low available water holding capacity and therefore SpC mapping unit had severe limitation for crop production. All the mapping units studied except RmA were well drained and had slight limitation on the basis of drainage. RmA was moderately well drained and had moderate limitation for selected fruit production. Soil mapping units with nearly level slopes (O-2%) had slight limita- tions for selected vegetable and field crops. If there is no frost problem, these soils also had slight limitation for fruit production. Therefore, a detailed study on frost problems (air drainage pattern) is recommended before establishing a fruit orchard (apple, pear or peach) on these flat 68 000000 000000 0000000 0000000 000-00 F0>00 000002--0000m Fwom 000000 000000 000000 000000 0000000 0003--00000000 0000002 000000 000000 000000 000000 .00 0.00 E00000--.0.3.<.0 00000000 000000 000000 000000 0000 00000-0000x00 0000 <00 0 000000 000000 0000000 0000000 000-0v 00>0_ 000002--0000m Fwom 000000 0000—0 00000005 00000005 00:0000 F003 0_00000002--0m0:000o F00300z 00000005 00000005 00000005 00000005 A.50 0m.mv 300--.0.3.<.0 000000 000000 000000 000000 0000-0000000 0000 <00 0 000-00 000000 000000 0000000 0000000 00000 000002--000_0 0000 000000 0000.0 000000 000000 0000000 000zlu0m0cw00o F00000z 00000005 00000005 00000005 00000005 0.50 N_.Nv 300--.0.3.<.5 000000 000000 000000 000000 0000-0000000 0000 <20 0 00000 0000 w 0000< 00000 00000 0000000m0> 000000 0000000000 _00m 000:: .02 :0000 0:050m0c0z 000 :000000500 00 000000 0:00002 Fwom 0000000000 000 000 00000 0000000 00 0000000000 00 000000 00000 00000 0:0 0_000000> .00300 00000F0m 00 or m0m<5 69) .00000000 000 000 0000000050_ 0000 0:0 00000000000 00~0000000 000 0500 00 050000>0 000000 00 000 05000000 000000000 30— 000 00000000 0000 .A.:.m.z .>00m .0x0 .00000 0mm .0 .0000 .0x0 000 .000050000000 00~0000000 000 000500 000 .m .05000000 000N0000 00 00000 00 0005:00<0 .N .0000 00 .50 00 00000 00 00000000 000000; 00003 0000000>0 00000 n .0.3.<.0 .0 “0002 00000005 00000005 00000005 00000005 Aym_-0v-000000m.l 0000000000--00000 0000 000000 000000 000000 000000 0000000 0002--0m000000 0000002 000>00 000>00 000>00 000>00 A50 00.m0 300 >00>--.u.z.<4h 000>00 000>00 00000005 000>00 000m 0000umum0x00 From 000 0 00000005 00000005 00000005 00000005 Awm_-0v 0:0000m 00000005 0000—0 000000 0000000002--w00_m 0000 000000 000000 000000 000000 0000000 , 0003--um0:_000 0000002 00000005 00000005 00000005 00000005 0.50 00.00 300--.m4m0<.0 00000000 000000 000000 000000 0000 00000-0000000 0000 000 0 000000 000000 000000. 000000. 1. 00-0 00>00 000002--0m0—m 0000 - 0000000 ; 0003--umm:0000 0000002 00000005 00000005 00000005 00000005 0.50 mm.~0 300--.0.3.<.0 00000000 000000 000000 000000 0000 00000-0000000 0000 <00 0 00000 0000 0 0000< 00000 00000000000000> 000000 0000000000 000m 000:: .02 00000 _ 0000000 0000 000500000: 000 0000000500 00 000000 00000000000 00 000<0 7O soils. Mapping units, BiC and SpC had moderate siopes (6-12%) and moderate 1imitation for crop production. Soii erosion was the major probiem in such siopes. Conservation practices must be foiiowed for using these soils in crop production. A11 the studied soiis had very 10w to medium avaiiabie water hoiding capacity (Tabie 9) and therefore, they might need supplementai irrigation for good crop production. Irrigation is more criticai on the Spinks soi] because of its sandy nature. It had very low avaiiabie water hoiding capacity and rapid percoiation rate. Therefore, frequent and 1ight irrigation wouid be more efficient in such a soii. Wind erosion probiems are serious in sandy soiis such as the Spinks. Wind erosion can also be minimized by keeping the soi] moist with frequent irrigation or by the use of cover crops and muiches. RmA mapping unit is not weii suited for appie, pear and peach production uniess there is provision for drainage. Moderateiy sioping soils (BiC, SpC) shouid not be used for ciear tiiied crops such as corn uniess a no ti1] system is empioyed. If these soiis are used for orchards, ground cover shouid be maintained. 71 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Characteristics of some Hapludalfs were studied at the Clarksville Horticultural Experiment Station in Ionia County, Southern Michigan. Six pedons representing six soil mapping units were described in the field. Representative samples from the studied pedons were analyzed for particle size; l5 bar moisture; organic carbon; nitrate nitrogen; extractable phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium; and soil pH. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, bulk density and l/3 bar moisture were determined on core samples. All the pedons were classified as Hapludalfs at the great group level. Pedon 6 (Spinks loamy sand, 6-l2%) was classified as Psammentic Hapludalfs while all other pedons fell into the Typic Hapludalfs subgroup. Pedons 2 and 4 (Riddles moderately well drained 0-2% and Bixby O-2%, taxadjuncts) were classified at the family level as Typic Hapludalfs, coarse-loamy, mixed, mesic. Pedon l (Riddles well drained, O—2%), Pedon 3 (Kalamazoo, O-2% taxadjunct) and Pedon 5 (Bixby, 6-l2%) all had the same classification at the family level except the textural class. They respectively had fine— loamy, coarse-loamy over sandy,and fine-loamy over sandy textural classes instead of coarse-loamy. Pedon 6 (Spinks, 6-12%) is classified as Psammentic Hapludalfs, sandy, mixed, mesic at the family level. Limitations of studied soils for the production of selected fruits (apple, pean and peach), vegetables (cauliflower and tomatoes) and field crops (corn, wheat,and soybean) were estimated on the basis of soil-site properties (Table l0). Spinks loamy sand (6-l2%) soil had severe limitations for both horticultural and agronomic crop production on the basis of soil texture and total available water holding capacity. All other studied soils 72 had slight or moderate limitations for the above-mentioned crops. A moderately well drained Riddles (Pedon 2) because of its seasonal wetness problem had moderate limitations for the selected fruits while all other soils had slight limitations. Studied soils on C slopes (BiC and SpC) had moderate limitations because of erosion hazards. All the studied soils might need supplemental irrigation for good crop production. Irrigation is more critical on sandy soils such as Spinks. Wind erosion problems are also serious in sandy soils which can be minimized with conservation practices. Moderately well drained soils are not well suitable for decidious fruit production unless there is provision for artificial drainage. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Allison, L. E. l965. Organic Cargon. ID_C. A. Black (ed.) Methods of Soil Analysis. Part II. Agronomy 9:l367-1378. Asady, G. H. l980. Characterization of a Conover-Brookston Soil Mapping Unit in Monroe County, Michigan. M.S. 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APPENDIX A APPENDIX A Pedon Descriptions Pedon 1 Map Unit: RwA Pedon Classification: Typic Hapludalfs, fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Soil: Riddles (Dryden) Location: Ionia County, Michigan; NW 1/4, SE 1/4, SW 1/4, Sec. 28; T6N, R8W Vegetation and Land Use: Cropland--Rye Parent Material: Glacial Till Physiography: Till Plain Topography: Nearly Level Drainage: Well Drained Ground Water: Below 230 cm. Erosion: Slight Permeability: Slow Described by: B. R. Khakural, G. D. Lemme and D. L. Mokma Date: June 9, 1980 (Colors are for moist soil unless otherwise stated) Ap-O-31 cm; dark brown (lOYR3/3) moist and pale brown (lOYR6/3) dry silt loam; moderate fine granular structure; friable; many fine roots; abrupt smooth boundary. Ap fillings to a depth of 60 cm. 81—31-59 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) loam; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; firm; clear wavy boundary. 821t-59-95 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) clay loam; moderate medium angular blocky structure; firm; common fine distince dark brown (7.5YR4/4) mottles; common thin discontinuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; clear wavy boundary. Also have pale brown (lOYR6/3) fine sandy loam pockets with weak fine subangular blocky structure and friable consistency. 822t-95-123 cm; dark yellowish brown 910YR4/4) fine sandy loam; moderate medium angular blocky structure; firm; few fine distinct dark brown (7.5YR4/4) mottles; common medium continuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films, abrupt wavy boundary. B3t-123-l86 cm; yellowish brown 9lOYR5/4) fine sandy loam; weak moderate platy parting to weak fine subangular blocky structure; firm; common discontinuous thin dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) clay films; moderately effervescent; clear wavy boundary. Cl—l86-203 cm; yellowish brown (lOYR5/4) fine sandy loam; weak very coarse platy structure; friable; moderately effervescent; clear wavy boundary. 8O 8l IIB3—203-230 cm; yellowish brown (lOYR5/4) sand; weak medium platy structure; very friable; common discontinuous medium dark yellowish brown (l0YR4/4) clay films; abrupt wavy boundary. IIC2-Over 230 cm; very pale brown (l0YR7/3) sand; structureless single grained; loose; mildly effervescent. 82 Pedon 2 Map Unit: RmA Pedon Classification: Typic Hapludalfs, coarse-loamy, mixed, mesic Soil: Lapeer Location: Ionia County Michigan; NE l/4, SW l/4, SW l/4, Sec. 28; T6N, R8W Vegetation and Land Use: Cropland--Rye Parent Material: Glacial Till Physiography: Till Plain Topography: Nearly Level Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Ground Water: Below l97 cm. Permeability: Slow Described by: B. R. Khakural, G. D. Lemme and D. L. Mokma Date: June 9, l980 (Colors are for moist soil unless otherwise stated.) Ap—O-Zl cm; dark brown (lOYR4/3) moist and pale brown (lOYR6/3) dry silt loam; moderate fine granular structure; friable; many fine roots; abrupt smooth boundary; % pebbles in each horizon. A&B-2l-33 cm; pale brown (l0YR6/3) tongues of A2 in yellowish brown (lOYR5/4) 82 loam; moderate fine angular blocky structure; friable; common fine distinct yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) mottles along the tongue walls; clear irregular‘boundary. Bth-33-86 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) loam; moderate medium angular blocky structure; firm; common large distinct yellowish brown (l0YR4/4) mottles along walls of tongues; common thin dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; clear wavy boundary. 822t-86-l42 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) fine sandy loam; moderate fine angular blocky structure; firm; thin continuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; clear wavy boundary. B3t-l42-l97 cm; yellowish brown (lOYRS/6) fine sandy loam; moderate fine subangular blocky structure; firm; thin discontinuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; abrupt wavy boundary. C-Over 197 cm; yellowish brown (lOYR5/4) fine sandy loam; weak coarse platy structure; friable; slightly effervescent. 83 Pedon 3 Map Unit: KaA Pedon Classification: Typic Hapludalfs, coarse-loamy over sandy, mixed, mesic Soil: Kalamazoo, taxadjunct Location: Ionia County, Michigan; NW l/4, SW l/4, SE l/4, Sec. 28; T6N, R8W Vegetation and Land Use: Peach Orchard Parent Material: Glacial Till Physiography: Till Plain Topography: Nearly Level Drainage: Well Drained Groundwater: Below l53 cm. Permeability: Moderately Slow Described by: B. R. Khakural, G. D. Lemme and D. L. Mokma Date: June 9, l980 (Colors are flmcmoistsoil unless otherwise stated.) Ap-O-23 cm; dark brown (lOYR3/3) moist and pale brown (lOYR6/3) dry loam; moderate fine granular structure; friable; many fine roots; abrupt smooth boundary. 31-23-43 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) fine sandy loam; moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable; clear wavy boundary. Bth-43-89 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) sandy loam; moderate medium angular blocky structure; friable; many medium continuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) sandy clay loam clay films; clear wavy boundary. BZZt-89-l42 cm; yellowish brown (lOYR5/4) sandy clay loam with pale brown (lOYR6/3) sandy loam pockets; moderate medium angular blocky structure; firm; abrupt wavy boundary. IIA&B-Over l42 cm; pale brown (l0YR6/3) sand (A2); structureless single grained; loose; bands of dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) sandy loam (Bt); weak fine subangular blocky structure; friable; B bands are l-lO cm thick and 3-l2 cm apart. 84 Pedon 4 Map Unit: BiA Pedon Classification: Typic Hapludalfs, coarse-loamy, mixed, mesic Soil: Bixby, taxadjunct Location: Ionia County, Michigan; NW l/4, NE l/4, SE l/4, Sec. 28; T6N, R8W Vegetation and Land Use: Cropland Parent Material: Glacial Till Physiography: Till Plain Topography: Nearly Level Natural Drainage: Well Drained Ground Water: Below l53 cm. Permeability: Moderately Slow Described by: B. R. Khakural, G. D. Lemme and D. L. Modma Date: June 5, l980 (Colors are for moist soil unless otherwise specified.) Ap-0—24 cm; dark brown (l0YR3/3) moist and pale brown (lOYR6/3) dry sandy loam; moderate fine granular structure; friable; common fine roots; abrupt smooth boundary. Bth-25-45 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) sandy loam; moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable; common earthworm channels; thin continuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; clear discontinuous boundary. 822t-45-58 cm; dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) sandy loam; moderate fine angular blocky structure; friable; thin continuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; clear wavy boundary. B3t—58-65 cm; brown (lOYR5/3) sandy loam; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; friable; thin discontinuous dark brown (7.5YR4/4) clay films; clear wavy boundary. IICl—65—ll2 cm; yellowish brown (l0YR5/4) sand with thin l mm. bands of dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) loamy sand 4—6 cm. apart; structureless single grained; loose; gradual wavy boundary. IICZ—Over l22 cm; yellowish brown (lOYR5/4) sand; structureless single grained; loose. Map Unit Pedon Classification: Soil: Location: Vegetation and Land Use: Parent Material: Physiography: Topography: Drainage: Groundwater: Permeability: Described by: Date: 85 Pedon 5 BiC Typic Hapludalfs, fine-loamy over sandy, mixed, mesic Bixby Ionia County, Michigan; NE l/4, NE l/4, NW l/4, SW l/4, Sec. 27; T6N, R8W Cropland, Alfalfa Glacial Till Moraine Moderately Slopping (6-l2% slope) Well Drained Below l53 cm. Moderately Slow B. R. Khakural, G. D. Lemme and D. L. Mokma June 9, 1980 (Colors are for moist soil unless otherwise specified.) Ap-O-23 cm; dark brown (lOYR3/3) moist pale brown (lOYR6/3) dry fine sandy loam; weak very fine granular structure; friable; common fine roots; abrupt smooth boundary. Bl-23-43 cm; yellowish brown (l0YR5/4) fine sandy loam; moderate fine sub- angular blocky structure; friable; crack fillings of Ap material; clear wavy boundary. B2t-43-75 cm; dark yellowish brown (l0YR4/4) heavy fine sandy loam; moderate medium angular blocky structure; friable; common continuous thin dark brown (7.5YR4/4) sandy clay loam to clay loam clay films; wavy boundary. IIA&B-Over 75 cm; very pale brown (l0YR7/4) sand (A2); structureless single grained; loose; .5-30 mm. bands of dark brown (lOYR4/4) loamy sand (Bt); weak very fine subangular blocky structure; very friable. Top 3 cm. of the horizon has common continuous medium dark brown (lOYR4/4) clay films. The B bands are S-lO cm. apart. 86 Pedon 6 Map Unit: SpC Pedon Classification: Psammentic Hapludalfs, sandy, mixed, mesic Soil: Spinks Location: Ionia County, Michigan; NW l/4, NE l/4, NW l/4, SW l/4, Sec. 27; T6N, R8W Vegetation and Land Use: Cropland, Alfalfa Parent Material: Glacial Outwash Physioraphy: Moraine Topography: Moderately Sloping (6-l2% slope) Drainage: Well Drained Ground Water: Below 153 cm. Permeability: Rapid Described by: B. R. Khakural, G. D. Lemme and D. L. Mokma Date: June l0, l980 (Colors for moist soil unless otherwise stated.) Ap-0-24 cm; dark yellowish brown (l0YR4/4) moist light yellowish brown (lOYR6/4) dry loamy sand; weak very fine granular structure; very friable; common fine roots; abrupt smooth boundary. B&A—25-54 cm; bands of yellowish brown (l0YR5/6) loamy fine sand (Bt); weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable; and pale brown (lOYR6/3) fine sand (A2); structureless single grained; loose. 8 bands are l-4 cm. thick and l-2 cm. apart; common thin discontinuous dark brown (lOYR4/3) clay films. A&B-54-97; pale brown (lOYR6/3) fine sand (A2); structureless single grained; loose; bands of yellowish brown (lOYR5/6) loamy fine sand; weak fine subangular blocky structure; vary friable; common patchy thin dark yellowish brown (lOYR4/4) clay films. B bands are 5-30 mm. thick and 2-l5 cm. apart. APPENDIX B 87 TABLE ll Distribution of > 2 mm. Size Fraction Pedon No. Horizon % > 2 mm. 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