a... l x t .. .. $3.... .w .éprunn. . v.0. nihmufiw sit»! hr... x .3 . .ixn . . ‘15."..9... %m~ Rs t . .3... u &« ’LI. . . .‘ 1. [flu i i kw ......... fiwfifi. gtaflifi" . V. 13 U vL , . “Wm,“ .sxl} . 1m...- .h :2. 3.... 7... sets, 5)., L... .3. .. I)... [tin-yr: .luarutalzu gag.” ,. w .i. _‘ LIBRARY University i This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN EXPLORATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ABILITIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL WORK PRACTITIONERS presented by Shelley D. Schuurman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in Social Work £14. MA Major Professor’s Sibnature 0/4qu Date MSU is an Afiirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer — -._.-.----.-.-o-.-.--— PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout’from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE SIOB K:/Proleoc&Pres/ClRC/DateDue.indd AN EXPLORATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ABILITIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL WORK PRACTITIONERS By Shelley D. Schuurrnan A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Social Work 2008 ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ABILITIES THAT CONTRIBUT TO COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL WORK PRACTITIONERS By Shelley D. Schuunnan Accurately describing competent professional performance is a complex task. An individual’s ability to “perform” requires the application of acquired knowledge, which is a process that is impacted by the personal characteristics and abilities of the individual. The purpose of this exploratory study is to examine the phenomenon of professional performance, specifically, as it relates to the individual characteristics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance in social work practitioners. Using a semi-structured interviewing format, four social work educators, four field instructors, and four social work practitioners were asked to describe the individual characteristics and abilities of a student or practitioner whom they believe exemplifies competent professional performance. Grounded theory analysis of the qualitative data collected during the interviews revealed the four major categories of self-awareness, self- management, social awareness and relationship management. Each category contains multiple distinct themes and sub-themes. A conceptual framework describing the building blocks to competent professional performance was also developed. Knowledge gleaned from this study is of potential benefit to social work educators as it contributes to the body of knowledge on professional performance and provides a framework that may serve as a starting point for developing criteria for evaluating professional performance and for conducting research examining the educational context and learning methods that most effectively facilitate social work students’ mastery of these individual competencies. Copyright by SHELLEY D. SCHUURMAN 2008 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Bertha Capen Reynolds, Virginia Robinson and Charlotte Towle, three social work practitioners and educators who were committed to excellence in social work education. All three women considered the mastery of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills to be an essential foundation to competent professional performance and developed teaching strategies to nurture the development of these skills in the classroom. Reading their work fueled my interest in this area and inspired me to explore how social work educators address this topic in the 21St century. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank and acknowledge Dr. Rena Harold, Dr. John Mooradian, Dr. Joanne Riebschleger, and Dr. John Dirkx for their service on my guidance and dissertation committees, and their invaluable support through out this process. I am especially grateful to Dr. Rena Harold for serving as my dissertation chair, her encouragement and wise counsel was a constant throughout my entire PhD. experience. I would like to thank Dr. John Mooradian and Dr. Joanne Riebschleger for their support and guidance particularly in the area of qualitative research methods. I also would like to thank Dr. John Dirkx for sharing his passion about transformative learning and introducing me to the field of teaching and learning in higher education. Finally, I want to thank Dr. Judy Ravenhorst-Meerman, my friend, colleague, and fellow PhD. student, Whose support, encouragement and comradery made this accomplishment possible. Additionally, it needs to be acknowledged that I could not have completed the PhD. process without the generous love and support of my husband, Don Schuurman, whose amazing and unfaltering belief in me enabled me to grow my tiny wings and fly. Lastly, I would like to thank my mom, Judy Bruechert, who showed me that women can be Smart and introduced me to the field of social work. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGUIRES ........................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... l Rationale for the Study .................................................................................... 3 Purpose of Research Question ......................................................................... 4 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................... 5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 7 Theoretical Orientation and Personal Perspective ........................................... 7 Professional Performance in Early Social Work Education .......................... 10 Mary Richmond ................................................................................. 12 Virginia Robison ................................................................................ 13 Bertha Capen Reynolds ...................................................................... 14 Charlotte Towle ................................................................................. 16 Professional Performance in Current Social Work Education ....................... l8 National Association of Social Workers ............................................ 18 Council on Social Work Education .................................................... 19 Field Education .................................................................................. 21 Gate Keeping ..................................................................................... 22 Key Studies Addressing Professional Performance ........................... 25 Summary ............................................................................................ 28 Professional Performance in Business Management and Organizational Leadership ............................................................................. 29 The Role of Individual Characteristics in Effective Job Performance ................................................................................. 30 A Framework for Social and Emotional Competencies .................... 33 The Emotional and Social Intelligence Framework in its entirety Is as follows ................................................................................................... 35 Summary ........................................................................................................ 37 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 38 Sample ............................................................................................................ 39 Data Collection .............................................................................................. 41 Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 46 Reflexive Accounting and Trustworthiness ................................................... 50 Summary ........................................................................................................ 54 vii CHAPTER 4 RESULTS...... .......................................................................................................... 56 Self-Awareness .............................................................................................. 56 Self-Management ........................................................................................... 56 Relationship Management ............................................................................. 57 Field Instructors ............................................................................................. 57 Category: Self-Awareness ............................................................................ 58 Theme: Emotional Awareness ...................................................................... 59 Theme: Accurate Self-Assessment ............................................................... 61 Theme: Self-Confidence ............................................................................... 62 Category: Self-Management ......................................................................... 63 Theme: Emotional Self-Control .................................................................... 64 Theme: Authenticity ..................................................................................... 66 Theme: Adaptability/Flexibility .................................................................... 66 Theme: Investment in Professional Growth ................................................. 68 Theme: Initiative ........................................................................................... 69 Theme: Optimism ......................................................................................... 69 Category: Social Awareness ......................................................................... 70 Theme: Basic Professionalism ...................................................................... 70 Theme: Accurate Empathy ........................................................................... 72 Category: Relationship Management ............................................................ 72 Theme: Engagement ..................................................................................... 72 Theme: Communication ................................................................................ 75 Theme: Collaboration and Teamwork .......................................................... 77 Follow-up Interview ....................................................................................... 77 Summary of Field Instructors Findings ......................................................... 79 Social Work Practitioners .............................................................................. 80 Category: Self-Awareness ............................................................................ 81 Theme: Emotional Awareness ...................................................................... 81 Theme: Accurate Self-Assessment ............................................................... 84 Theme: Self-Confidence ............................................................................... 84 Category: Self-Management ......................................................................... 85 Theme: Emotional Self-Control .................................................................... 86 Theme: Authenticity ..................................................................................... 88 Theme: Adaptability/Flexibility .................................................................... 89 Theme: Investment in Professional Growth ................................................. 90 Theme: Optimism ......................................................................................... 90 Category: Self-Awareness ............................................................................ 90 Theme: Accurate Empathy ........................................................................... 91 Theme: Organizational Awareness ............................................................... 91 Category: Relationship-Management ........................................................... 92 Theme: Engagement ..................................................................................... 92 Theme: Communication with Clients ........................................................... 95 Theme: Communication and Collaboration with Colleagues ....................... 95 F ollow-up Interview ....................................................................................... 96 Smnmary of Social Work Practitioners Findings .......................................... 97 viii Social Work Educators .................................................................................. 99 Category: Self-Awareness .......................................................................... 100 Theme: Emotional Awareness .................................................................... 100 Theme: Accurate Self-Assessment ............................................................. 102 Theme: Self-Confidence ............................................................................. 104 Category: Self-Management ....................................................................... 105 Theme: Emotional Self-Control .................................................................. 105 Theme: Authenticity ................................................................................... 108 Theme: Flexible Thinking ........................................................................... 109 Theme: Abstract Thinking/Masters Complex Ideas ................................... 110 Theme: Initiative ......................................................................................... 111 Theme: Optimism ....................................................................................... 112 Category: Self-Awareness .......................................................................... 112 Theme: Organizational Awareness ............................................................. 113 Category: Relationship-Management ......................................................... 114 Theme: Engagement ................................................................................... 114 Theme: Communication .............................................................................. 115 Theme: Communication and Collaboration with Colleagues ..................... 115 F ollow-up Interview ..................................................................................... 1 16 Summary of Social Work Educators Findings ............................................. 117 All Social Work Professionals ..................................................... 119 Theoretical Outcomes ............................................................... 120 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS ................................................................... 122 Self-Awareness ............................................................................................ 122 Self-Management ......................................................................................... 123 Overarching Themes .................................................................................... 128 Intrapersonal Building Blocks ..................................................................... 130 Theory Practice Disconnect ......................................................................... 132 Theoretical Implications .............................................................................. 1 36 Pedagogical Implications ............................................................................. 137 Curriculum Development ............................................................................. 138 Teaching Strategies ...................................................................................... 140 Research Implication ................................................................................... 143 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 144 APPENDICES Appendix A — Introductory Email to Solicit Volunteers ............................. 147 Appendix B — Letter of Informed Consent .................................................. 148 Appendix C — Social Work Faculty and Field Instructor Interview Protocol Questions ............................................................... 1 5 1 Appendix D — Social Work Practitioner Interview Protocol Questions ...... 154 Appendix E - Second Interview Participation Form ................................... 159 Appendix F — Education Policy 2.1-Core Competencies ............................ 160 Appendix G — Intrapersonal Themes and Sub-themes ................................ 163 Appendix H — Interpersonal Themes and Sub-themes ................................ 167 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ l 70 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Goleman’s Emotional and Social Intelligence Framework ................ p.34 Table 2. Coding Structure .................................................................. p. 48 Table 3. Field Instructor Responses ...................................................... p. 58 Table 4. Social Work Practitioner Responses ........................................... p. 81 Table 5. Social Work Educator Responses ............................................. p.100 Table 6. All Social Work Professionals ................................................ p. 120 Table 7. Self-Awareness .................................................................. p.123 Table 8. Self-Management ................................................................ p. 124 Table 9. Social Awareness ................................................................ p. 126 Table 10. Relationship Management ..................................................... p. 128 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figurel. A Model of Effective Job Performance ....................................... p. 30 Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of Abilities and Characteristics that Contribute to Competent Professional Performance ..................................... p. 120 xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Social work education is not only about the acquisition of new knowledge and skills; it is also about the acquisition of a new identity-- an identity as a social work professional. This new professional identity comes with rights and responsibilities, including the responsibility to practice social work in a professionally competent manner according to the knowledge, skills, values, and ethics of the profession. In order to demonstrate competent professional performance, social work students must successfully transfer classroom learning to the field practice setting. Why is it that some students successfully transfer classroom learning to the field practice setting and others struggle to do so? Goldstein (2001) pointed to the primarily theoretical content of most social work courses as a possible stumbling block to the Successful application of classroom learning to the field practice setting. He viewed the dominance of the scientific method, specifically, that only empirically supported methods of treatment should be provided to clients and taught in the classroom, as an underlying rationale for this theoretical emphasis (Goldstein, 2001). While acknowledging the value of a specific treatment method, he emphasized that it is a living social worker, a human being, who is applying the treatment method (Goldstein, 2001). This living social worker, with his unique intrapersonal and interpersonal ch«'rlracteristics and abilities, is the instrument that applies the scientific theory and accompanying treatment method. In this real world scenario, thinking (classroom leal‘ning) and doing (field practice) are integrated and inseparable. Goldstein (2001) Suggested the use of experiential learning strategies in the classroom, focusing on the development intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies as a means to bridge the gap between theory and practice and to increase the likelihood that students could successfully transfer classroom learning to the field practice setting. Clearly, professional performance is an extraordinarily complex phenomenon. It requires that the practitioner possess the ability to apply the knowledge and skills acquired in the classroom in a variety of social work practice settings with individuals, families, groups, organizations and/or communities made up of diverse individuals facing unpredictable challenges. While research literature on this topic is quite limited, there is consensus that the successful application of acquired professional knowledge is influenced by the specific characteristics and abilities or limitations of the individual practitioner (Boyatzis, 1982, 1995; Goleman, 2002, 2006; SchOn, 1983, 1987; Shulman, 2005). Recent studies in social work education substantiate this finding, indicating that an individual’s poor interpersonal skills, rigid thinking, judgmental stance, inability to CStablish healthy boundaries, and personal mental health problems are the most common 1‘ easons for less than competent professional performance in field education (Bogo, Hughes, Regehr, Power, Woodford, & Regehr, 2006; Gibbs, 2000; Miller & Koerin, 200 1; Ryan, McCormack, & Cleak, 2006). There appears to be some agreement on the individual characteristics, abilities and behaviors that contribute to problematic or failing field performance. However, identifying and defining the individual characteristics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance remains a complex issue that social work education has yet to fully elucidate. Rationale for the Study The field of social work has historically looked to educational institutions to train professionally competent social workers and to serve as gatekeepers of the profession (Gibbs, 1994, 2000; Koerin & Miller, 1995; Miller & Koerin, 2001; Ryan, Habibis & Craft, 1998; and Ryan, McCormack, & Cleak, 2006). The Council for Higher Education Accreditation recognizes the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), as the sole accrediting agency for social work education in the United States of America and bestows on them the responsibility of promoting and maintaining a high quality of social work education, and thereby ensuring the preparation of competent social work professionals (Retrieved April 30, 2008 from http://wwwcsweorg). The Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) established by CSWE provide a road map for the curricular content and educational context required of accredited social work programs. This road map is grounded in the purposes of the social work profession and is based on specified knowledge, values and skills that are deemed requisite for competent Professional practice. Social work programs are required to make explicit the criterion used to evaluate a SOCial work student’s readiness for professional practice. The accreditation standards (EPAS) are delineated in four subsections with the third subsection titled, Implicit Curriculum. Section 3.2.7 of Educational Policy 3.2, titled Advisement, retention and tet‘rj‘lination, mandates that “the program spells out how it informs students of its criteria for evaluating their academic and professional performance, including policies and proCvedures for grievance (EPAS, 2008, p.12). Although research indicates that social Work programs do have clear criteria for evaluating and terminating students based on academic performance, a majority of programs do not have policies in place for evaluating or terminating students based professional performance (Gibbs, 1994, 2000; Koerin & Miller, 1995; Ryan, Habibis & Craft, 1998). Accurately describing “competent professional performance” is a complex task. An individual’s ability to “perform” requires the application of acquired knowledge, which is a process that is impacted by the personal characteristics and abilities of the individual. Although the task of articulating and defining these characteristics and abilities is difficult, it is not one that can be ethically ignored. Schools of Social Work have a mandate to prepare competent and effective professionals. It appears that the development of a framework that identifies and defines the individual characteristics and abilities and that contribute to competent professional performance would be of benefit to social work educators and serve to fill the gap in knowledge needed to comply with the mandates of the EPAS. Md Research Question The purpose of this study is to explore the phenomenon of professional Performance specifically as it relates to the individual characteristics and abilities that cOntribute to competent professional performance in social work practitioners. The perspectives of social work educators, field instructors and practitioners have been anEEI‘IBVZed to generate a grounded theoretical framework that identifies specific characteristics and abilities associated with the personal dimension of competent professional performance. Additionally, the purpose of this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge on professional performance and provide a framework that may serve as a Starting point for conducting research examining the educational context and learning methods that most effectively facilitate social work students’ mastery of these individual competencies. This study is exploratory in nature and asks the primary question of how social work educators, field instructors, and practitioners describe the individual characteristics and abilities that they believe contribute to competent professional performance in social work practitioners. This general research question led to the development of the specific interview protocol and questions (see Appendixes D and E) used in this study. Theoretical Framework The belief that knowledge is constructed through an individual’s understanding of their interactions with others and the world around them, rather than an objective reality that exists apart from the individual knower (Charmaz, 2000; Greene, Jensen & Harper, 1 996; Lee & Greene, 1999; Schwandt, 1994) led to the use of Social Constructionism as the theoretical lens which guided this study. The concept of professional knowledge was explored, followed by an examination of the education of social work professionals with a Specific focus on professional performance. A Model of Effective Job Performance deVeloped within the professional discipline of Business Management and Organizational Leadership was analyzed along with a framework centered on the individual characteristics and abilities associated with emotional and social intelligence. Grounded theory methods (McGhee, Marland, & Atkinson, 2007; Strauss & Cor‘Din, 1997) were chosen following the literature review because it allowed for a fresh 311d open minded approach to the existing problem of identifying and defining the individual characteristics that contribute to competent professional performance. The Social constructivist perspective is congruent with the open and axial coding procedures of grounded theory methods (Charmaz, 2000; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; LaRossa, 2005; Schwandt, 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1997) which enabled the discovery of how the three distinct subgroups constructed definitions of specific characteristics and abilities, ' including an explanation of the context in which they occur and their relationship to one another. Summary Chapter One contained the introduction, as well as the rationale and purpose of the study. The research question and theoretical framework of the study were also introduced. Chapter Two provides the theoretical orientation and personal perspective that guides this study, as well as a critical analysis of the historical and current literature relevant to the phenomenon of professional performance. The research methodology is described in Chapter Three and the findings are presented in Chapter Four. Chapter Five includes a summary of the study and major findings, leading to a theoretical framework describing the individual characteristics and abilities that contribute to competent Professional performance in social work practitioners. Finally, a discussion of implications and recommendations concludes this study. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Theoretical Orientation and Personal Pergective Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that centers on the nature of knowledge. A broad epistemological question is, “How do we know what we know?” Of particular interest is the relationship between the knower and what can be known. Epistemological assumptions about the nature of knowledge guide and inform the strategies of inquiry a researcher uses (Cresswell, 2003). Professional and personal perspectives can also influence the focus of a study and shape the process of data collection. In the following section, I will describe the theoretical, professional, and personal perspectives that informed the review of the literature and in turn guided the development of the research question. Social Constructionism is the theoretical orientation that guided this qualitative BXploratory study. Social Constructionism posits that an individual’s generation of knowledge and ideas of reality originate from a social process rather than a solitary one (Lee & Gilbert, 1999). One’s reality is constructed in part by the interactions one has Wi th others, and in part by the individual’s own interpretations of those interactions. Social constructionists believe that knowledge is socially constructed; therefore it can Vary historically over time and differ across cultural groups that hold diverse beliefs. GiVen that values, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and practices vary from one cultural group to another, so does the social construction of knowledge (Gergen, 1985). Since meaning is co-constructed in dialogues that occur between people in which 1fleas are exchanged, the social constructivist perspective posits that language plays a central role in the construction of knowledge (Schwandt, 1994). From the constructivists’ standpoint, consensus on an idea or topic can be reached only after dialogue comparing and contrasting divergent ideas has taken place, and the group has reached a mutually agreed upon synthesis of all vieWpoints (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The social constructivist perspective is mirrored in the data collection method utilized in this study. The responsive interviewing model places high value on accurately capturing the voices of the interviewees. This model allows the researcher to adapt questions and probes according to the individual nuances of each interviewee, therefore gaining data that has been co-constructed by the interviewee and researcher (Rubin & Rubin). Professional perspectives can also influence and guide our understanding of the topic of inquiry. The phenomenon of competent professional performance is embedded in the context of professional education and an understanding of how professional knowledge is defined. According to SchOn (1983), professional knowledge involves three things: an underlying discipline component upon which the knowledge is developed, an applied science component from which many of the day-to-day diagnostic procedures are d'E-n‘ived, and a skills and attitudinal component that concerns the actual performance of set"Vice to the client, using the underlying basic and applied knowledge. This appears to be an accepted definition of professional knowledge and ale'cllrately describes the common components of professional education (Boyatzis, 1982; BOYatzis, Cowen, & Kolb, 1995). The literature review and research question regarding the individual characteristics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance are informed by the parameters of professional knowledge and the subsequent required components of professional education. Finally, my personal perspective on competent professional performance was a motivating factor in the development of the research question in this exploratory study. As a social work practitioner, I have been acutely aware of practitioners who appeared to possess keen theoretical knowledge, but struggled to apply this knowledge in an effective manner that was helpful to the clients we served. On the other hand, I have also observed practitioners for whom this application seemed like a natural process. Similarly, when I served in the role of field supervisor, I found that some students were quite challenged by the task of “applying” the knowledge, skills, and values they had learned in the classroom to unpredictable and messy real life situations in the field setting, while others seemed to do so almost seamlessly. Most recently, in my role as a social work educator, I was again reminded of the difficulty in bridging the gap between the learning that takes place in the classroom and the application of that learning to the field practice setting. On several occasions as an inStl'uctor, I have known students who have completed social work practice courses and haVe mastered the material to a high degree. However, when these same students were in their field seminar course, it was very apparent that they were struggling to apply this infOl‘mation to actual encounters with clients in the field setting. This puzzle fueled my desire to better understand the “application process” as it appears to be a stumbling block for some in the attainment of professionally competent performance. therature Review The limited knowledge base in social work education related to the individual characteristics and abilities that contribute to the successful application of acquired knowledge guided the path of the following literature review (Bogo, Hughes, Regehr, Power, Woodford, & Regehr, 2006; Gibbs, 2000; Goldstein, 2001; Miller & Koerin, 2001; Ryan, McCormack, & Cleak, 2006). I begin by examining the literature from early social work education, and discuss four early social work educators who spoke directly to the topic at hand. Next, the phenomenon of competent professional performance is discussed within the context of current social work education, followed by a critical analysis of the two most current research studies that speak to the individual characterisitics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance. Finally, because the topic of competent professional performance has been given significant attention in the discipline of business management and organizational leadership, this literature review concludes with an overview of two business models that specifically examine the individual characterisitics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance and critical analysis of their relevance for social Work education. Mal Performance in Early Social Work Education In the late 1800’s, the profession of social work was emerging through two very distinct social welfare movements, the Charity Organization Societies and Social Se=tlilement Houses. Although both groups embraced the mutual goal of eradicating pQVerty, their differing philosophical views about the causes of poverty influenced the type of services they provided. The Charity Organization Societies provided home Vlsitors who went to individuals’ homes to meet with them and discuss the issues 10 surrounding their poverty. These trained visitors believed poverty was due to individuals’ own shortcomings and hoped to assist them in correcting their character flaws (Popple & Leighninger, 2004). Mary Richmond, a key figure in the Charity Organization Societies (COS), took on the task of articulating and defining the specific skills needed to perform charity work and advocated for the creation of training schools (Popple & Leighninger, 2004). Unlike the COS’s, the Social Settlement Houses viewed poverty as largely the result of environmental factors. Their aim was to confront the environmental causes of poverty by living in poor neighborhoods, offering support in the form of daycare, lectures, and other events, as well as advocating for legislative reform and social change (Popple & Leighninger, 2004). Jane Adams was a key figure in the Social Settlement movement, founding Hull House on Chicago’s west side, a neighborhood brimming with immigrants. Jane Addams tirelessly advocated for social justice by bringing key issues to the forefront of the political arena and fighting for legislative changes. By the early 1900’s, formal training for case workers began with a one-year Program at the New York School of Philanthropy. The first year’s generalist approach to SOCial work education was widely accepted; however, there was a debate in progress abOLIt the curriculum content for the second year, specifically, whether the focus would be On social policy and social welfare reform or on specialized training in case work and field education with social service agencies (Austin, 1983). At the 1915 National COl‘lference of Charities and Correction, Abraham Flexner’s keynote speech addressed the question “Is Social Work a Profession?” In his final analysis, he proclaimed that SOoial work indeed did not fulfill the criteria for being called a profession. Flexner’s 11 proclamation had a profound influence on the developing educational policy of the time (Austin, 1983; Specht & Courtney, 1994). During this period, social workers were frequently viewed as amateurs by the doctors and lawyers with whom they worked side by side; additionally, universities were being asked to consider adding social work as a legitimate academic discipline in order to establish themselves as professionals in the community and in the academy (Austin, 1983). Individual case work seemed more likely to aid social work in gaining acceptance as a profession and a scientific discipline worthy of the academy, so the focus on social reform and political advocacy diminished and casework, along with a field training component became the dominant focus of social work education. Social work curriculum rapidly adopted Freudian theory, and psychiatry became the guiding paradigm they emulated in hopes of gaining status as a credible profession in the community and the academy (Austin, 1983). A review of literature regarding the philosophy of some of the early social work programs and their faculty revealed a noticeably present focus on the personal nature of professional competence. Four early social work educators distinctly spoke about the need to address the individual characteristics and abilities of students as it relates to their ability to demonstrate competent professional performance. A brief discussion of each of their writings follows. Marv Richmond Richmond (1917) addressed the role of personal and professional competency in the social work practitioner in her book Social Diagnosis, when she discussed the issue of the social worker’s state of mind and the personal and professional predispositions that 12 arise from it. She suggested that social workers must be on guard against these predispositions because they, along with all the feelings and thoughts with which one approaches new problems, could be problematic in that they can limit knowledge in one direction or the other. She summarized by saying, “It is the worker’s very awareness [her italics] of his special predisposition on which depends the reliability of his judgment. Once he brings his prejudice into the light of day, he can offset its influence on his thinking” (p. 94). It appears that when referring to the caseworker’s “special predisposition,” She was referring to the personal characteristics, abilities, beliefs and values that make each of us uniquely ourselves. It also would appear that Richmond believed an awareness of one’s personal characteristics, abilities, beliefs, and values was needed so that they did not influence one’s judgment. Although she does not explain these ideas further or provide a format to assess whether students have gained this capacity, her belief in the need to address the personal characterisitics and abilities of the social work student was evident. Virginia Robinson In 1936, Robinson taught at the University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work, where the focus on the practitioner’s personal self was a central component of the educational process. She stated, “Education for any profession aims not only to teach the specific knowledge and skills necessary in its practice, but it undertakes also to make over the personal self of the “lay” student into a professional self. This is particularly true in education for social case work whose helping function demands the most conscious and responsible use of a professional self (Robinson, 1942, p. 3).” 13 During this time period, professional training in social work was thought to include knowledge learned in the classroom, technical skills learned through the fieldwork experience, and the controlled use of the capacity to relate oneself and one’s service to people in need (Robinson, 1942). The comprehension of psychological theory was viewed as an important component of classroom training; however, the students’ capacity to develop specific characteristics and abilities in the areas of self-reflection, self-control and interpersonal skills was a central theme in her theory of professional development A specific course referred to as the “Personality Class” was designed, where students concentrated on “experiencing their own feelings and genuinely experiencing the feelings of another without becoming personally lost in that experience” (Robinson, 1950, p. 140). Robinson acknowledged that there were numerous characteristics and abilities which need to be developed in order for an individual to be equipped to practice social work, but deemed “the balanced acceptance of self and acceptance of difference” as fundamental (Robinson, 1950, p. 140). She viewed the classroom as the place where this training began and field work as the arena where students could hone these individual characteristics and abilities toward the goal of demonstrating competent professional performance. Berthflapen Reynolds Bertha Capen Reynolds, a social work educator and a contemporary of Robinson’s, had her own unique approach to teaching the “art” of social work practice. Reynolds (1942) likened the practice of social work to the practice of any art and said that just as living involves the whole person, so does learning, especially learning an art 14 which is intimately the person, using sensitivity and judgment in relation to adapting knowledge and skills to a real situation (p. 57). In her discussion of teaching and learning in the profession of social work, Reynolds (1942) spoke to the significance of the personal “use of conscious attention” and posits that learning this skill requires that one progress through five distinct stages. They are as follows: 1) the stage of acute consciousness of self, 2) the stage of sink-or- swim adaptation, 3) the stage of understanding the situation without power to control one’s own activity in it, 4) the stage of relative mastery, in which one can both understand and control one’s own activity in the art which is learned, and 5) the stage of learning to teach what one has mastered. Reynolds (1942) continues her discussion of the individual characteristics and abilities of social work students, saying that the professional use of the personality cannot be left to chance. She references her colleague, Miss Robinson, as the person who brought attention to the fact that the professional use of the personality is the dynamic center of professional work (p.150). Reynolds suggested that although it may be difficult to define emotional maturity and the type of intelligence needed to be an effective social worker, she believed that after 17 years of teaching case work classes, she was able to identify nine distinguishable individual characterisitics and abilities that are essential to good social work practice. She stated them as follows: 1) Ability to use all the senses in keen observation, with a new range of appreciation of what is significant. 2) Ability to express in accurate words, or in other ways, what is observed and the meaning of it. 15 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) A flexible mind, capable of associating quickly and easily. A richly associating mind, drawing on a wide range of perceptions, making comparisons freely, sensing the general in a mass of particulars, and the particular application of generalities. An analytical mind, breaking up masses of concepts and stereotyped ideas into parts which can be grasped and used. A synthesizing mind, picking out of a mass of associations what are significant and belong together in relation to the present purpose. Ability to identify with a variety of people in many situations, yet without loss of personal integrity. Ability to feel appropriately in relation to the situation without losing the ability to see the situation in the perspective necessary to help the people immersed in it see beyond. 9) Ability to express warmth of feeling in appropriate ways (p.151). Charlotte Towle Towle (1954) is another early social work educator whose writings elucidate learning and educational processes and their application to teaching social casework. She emphasized the need to include social worker students’ personal characterisitics and abilities as an essential component of social work education, and Towle (1954) advocated for the emotional development of the student to be given equal attention in the educational process as the acquisition of knowledge and skills. She also pointed to the student’s capacity for developing and maintaining relationships as a critical factor for Consideration in professional education, stating that student’s level of self-awareness and 16 receptivity for increased self-understanding are determining factors in their ability to do so successfully. She warned that students who do not assume the responsibility of deeply engaging in self-understanding will be limited in their ability to understand others. Finally, Towle (1954) asserted that the practice of social work is inextricably related to the life experience of the learner, so that it is impossible to isolate the learning experience from an examination of one’s own life-experiences. Social work education requires the learner to acquire new characteristics and abilities and in the process relinquish or modify the old ones (Towle, 1954). Some of the individual characterisitics and abilities Towle (1954) posited as essential for successful completion of social work education were: adequate ego development, the ability to manage the gap between acquired knowledge and skill, the ability to manage anxiety, the ability to think objectively in situations where emotions are activated, the ability to regulate one’s emotional responses, the ability to tolerate feeling transparent, the ability to display compassionate attitudes while engaging in objective thinking, the ability to make intuitive judgments while also making well-thought out ones, and the ability to engage in speculative thinking while simultaneously engaging in precise thinking which is supported by evidence. Towle (1954) was the last social work educator to write extensively on the importance of the development of specific individual characterisitics and abilities that are essential to competent professional performance. The literature on early social work education revealed that social work educators engaged in classroom teaching aimed at developing the individual characterisitics and abilities of students as they relate to competent professional performance. This finding substantiates the significant role that the individual characterisitics and abilities of 17 students play in the deveIOpment of competent professional performance and supports this study’s research question, how do social work educators, field instructors, and practitioners describe the individual characteristics and abilities that they believe contribute to competent professional performance in social work practitioners? The focus in contemporary literature on social work education addresses this issue from the perspectives of gatekeeping and field education. The following section provides a contextual overview of contemporary social education and briefly reviews the areas pertinent to the discussion of the individual characterisitics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance. In closing, a critical analysis of two current research studies that speak to the individual characterisitics and abilities that contribute to competent professional performance are presented. Professional Performance in Current Social Work Education Nation_al Association of Social Worl_