EDUCATENG COUNSELOR$ BY VEDEOTAPES USENG ME INTERFERSONAL PROCESS RECALL TECHNIQUE The“: for flu Dawn of DEL D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Glen Robert Ward 1965 THF‘S': This is to certify that the thesis entitled EDUCATING COUNSE LORS BY VIDEOTAPES USING THE INTERPERSONAL PROCESS RECALL TECHNIQUE presented by Glen Robert Ward has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph .1). degree in Education Major professor I Date August 26, 1965 0-169 22WI/3 ABS TRACT EDUCATING OOUNSELORS BY VIDEOTAPES USING THE INTERPERSONAL RROOESS RECALL TECHNIQUE by Glen Robert Ward The purpose of this investigation was to study the effect of educating counselors by means of videotapes using the Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) technique and by means of a more conventional method. Three treatment groups were established for practicum super- fvision: a video IPR treatment; an audio IPR treatment; and a control treatment. The video IPR group witnessed the playback of their counseling sessions of videotapes, while the audio group heard the audio recording of their counseling sessions. In addition, each counselor listened to an audiotape of the interview between his recall inter- viewer (IPR supervisor) and his client in which those two had reviewed the original video or audiotaped counseling session. The_third treatment group received no stimulated recall sessions, but listened to the audiotapes of their counseling interviews as is the conventional method for supervising practicum students. Each treatment group was exposed to the same amount of client contact, either in the actual interview or through the stimulated replay of tapes. All counselors Glen Robert Ward received the same amount of supervision time from the IPR staff members. Each counselor held three counseling sessions with a high school client, and a fourth (criterion) session with a coached client. The papulation under investigation included all of the master practicum students during the academic year of 1963-1964. There were 46 master students, 29 males and 17 females. Also, included in the study were 8 male doctoral students who were enrolled in a practicum course during winter quarter. The study was conducted during the fall, winter, and spring academic quarters of 1963-1964. To evaluate the relative effectiveness of the three treatments, a coached client was used during the fourth IPR counseling session. This session was videotaped; and viewed by three nationally prominent counselor educators and two secretaries who judged a beginning and middle seg- ment of the counseling interview. The audio portion of the middle segment was also rated by a professional judge. These six Judges used the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale, a scale deve10ped specifically for this study. The coached client also evaluated the 54 counselors using the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale and the Rogers' Relationship Inventory Scale. Findings An analysis of variance was used to determine Glen Robert Ward whether significant differences existed among the three treatment groups. The results of the analyses of variance indicated that no significant differences existed among the three treatment groups as rated by three pro- fessional Judges, two nonprofessional Judges, the coached client, and one professional Judge who rated the counselors. Very low interJudge reliability was also found. Conclusions The use of Interpersonal Process Recall was based on the assumption that the added stimulus would create a greater awareness for the counselor of his own counseling behavior and of the dynamics of clients. It was assumed that if counselors were given recordings of their client's own voice eXpressing their moment by moment expectations and perceptions of the counselor's behavior, as well as the client's thoughts and feelings that this . would increase the counselor's sensitivity to inter- personal communication, and help him to become a more effective counselor. There are several possible explanations of the findings: 1. A few of the beginning counselors seeing themselves for the first time seemed shocked and even some- what depressed. This tended to inhibit their growth. 2. The counselors did not have enough time to Glen Robert Ward integrate the insights gained. Three exposures within eight weeks did not give the counselor a chance to grow. 3. No attempts were made to achieve uniformity among supervisors in focusing the counselor's attention on specific aspects of the counseling process. 4. The coached client was a "good client" to every counselor, no matter how effective or ineffective the counselor was. 5. The instruments used to rate the counselors though of high face validity appear to have questionable interJudge reliability. - .EDUCATING COUNSELORS BY VIDEOTAPES USING THE INTERPERSONAL PROCESS RECALL TECHNIQUE By Glen Robert Ward A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1965 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to thank his thesis chairman, Dr.Norman Kagan, for his patience and support, and for his efforts and insights. Appreciation is extended to Dr. David R. Krathwohl and Dr. William W. Parquhar for helping in analyzing and presenting the data. Acknowl- edgment is due Dr. Norman Abeles and Dr. Bernard German for their support and good will. In addition, appreciation for the help and kindness is expressed to the Interpersonal Process Recall staff, and to Mrs. Roslyn Blum. This investigator wishes to take this occasion to thank his wife, Beverly, for the devotion and kind assistance over the years as this study was being completed. TABLE ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . LIST OF GRAPES . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . Chapter I I THE PROM O O O O or CONTENTS II. III. IV. Statement of the Problem . Importance of the Study. . Previous Uses of CounSelor Hypotheses . . . Organization of the Study REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . Introduction . . . Stimulated Recall Methodolo Use of Visual Feedback . . Reeordings gy. . . . Research and Dictums in Counselor Education . . . Implications of the Literat DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . Design . . . . . . . . . . Procedure . . . . . . . . Recall Interviewer Training Instrumentation . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . The Hypotheses . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . ure... ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS . . . Differences in Ratings of J Two Time Segments . . . iii udges Page ii vii viii d \OCD-l-‘UN 1O 1O 11 24 43 45 45 46 57 62 65 68 7O 71 Chapter One-Way Analysis of Variance for the Three Professional Judges for the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Performance of the Group on the CPES, Part I . . . Analysis of Part II of the CPES, the Global Scores . . . . . Analysis of Part III of the CPES, the AdJectives . . . . . . . . Rating Differences Among the Three Judges . . . . . . Two-way Analysis of Variance for the Two Secretaries and the First Four Minutes and the Ninth through Thir- teenth Minutes . . . . . Ratings of the Three Groups by the Coached Client . . . . . One-Way Analysis of Variance for Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale by Coached Client . . . . . Ratings of the Audio Portion of the Second Time Segment by a Fourth Professional Judge . . . Relation of Possible Control Variables to Judges' Ratings of Treatment Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND IMPLIGATIONS O O O O O O O O O O O. O' O Smary O O O .« O C O O O O O‘ O O O O 0 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . Implications for Future Research . . - BIBLI OGRAPHY o o o o o o o- o e o o o o o o o o o Arrmmors O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iv Page 75 75 78 79 8O 81 88 89 89 91 93 95 95 103 107 113 Table 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.3 21.4 4.5 LIST OF TABLES Summary of the basic design of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supervision of the IPR staff for the academic year of 1963-64 for the Master and Doctoral students for the three treatment groups . . . . . . . . Number, sex, and level of practicum students in each.treatment group for each quarter who are included in the analyai 8 O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Mean age for each treatment group by quarter. 0 o o o o o o .1 o o o o o e 0 Mean grade point average for each treatment group by quarter . . . . . . Analysis of variance for grade point average for the three treatment groups 0 O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 Analysis of variance of ratings by the three professional Judges of the first four minutes and the ninth through thirteenth minutes . . . . . . . . . . Intercorrelation for the three pro- fessional Judges for the first five minutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercorrelation for the three pro- fessional Judges for the ninth through thirteenth minutes . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for Part I of the OPES O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ,Analysis of variance of global ratings for the two time segments'by the three ' professional Judges . . . . . . . . . Page 47 53 63 64 64 65 71 72 73 76 78 Table 4.6 4.7 4.8 Page Analysis of variance for the adJective scores for the two time segments by three professional Judges . . . . . . . . 79 Judge I mean ratings for the three parts of the Counseling Process Effectiveness scale 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 82 Judge II mean ratings for the three parts of the'Odunseling Process Effectiveness Scale 0 O O O l O O O O O O O O O O O O O 83 Judge III mean ratings for the three parts of the'Counseling Process Effectiveness scale 0 O O O O O O D O O O O I» 0‘ O O O O 84 Analysis of variance for two secretaries .and the first four minutes and the“ ' hinth through thirteenth minutes . . . . 85 Correlations of ratings of two secretaries and three profesSional Judges for both' time segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Intercorrelation for the two secretaries, their relationship with the three professional Judges and themselves.for the first four and the ninth through thirteenth minutes . . . . . . . . . . . 87 One-way analysis of variance for the . Rogers' Relationship Inventory Scale by Coached Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Analysis of variance of the Wisconsin Relationship OrientatiOn Scale by coached client . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Analysis of variance of the fourth pro- fessional Judge onCPRS for the ninth ' through thirteenth minutes . . . . . . . 90 Analysis of variance of the ratings of the fourth professional Judge on the Global Scale for the ninth through thirteenth minutes. . . . . . . . . . . ._ 91 vi Graph 4.1 LIST OF GRAPHS Page Distribution of total scores for Part I of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale as rated by three professional Judges for the two time segments . . . . . 77 vii Appendix A. Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale . B. Directions for Reviewing Audio Tapes . . C. Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale (WROS) o o o e e o o o o o o o o D. Relationship Inventory Scale . . . . . . 3. Functions of the Recall Interviewer . ., It Means and Standard Deviations for: Three Professional Judges,“ Two Nonprofessional Judges, The Coached Client, and The One Professional Judge ... . . . . G. The Nonprofessional Judges' Analyses of Variance for the First Four Minutes and the Ninth Through Thirteenth Minutes for the 33 Items and the Global Scale of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale . . . . . H. Intercorrelation Matrix, and Multiple Regression for Ten Independent and One Dependent Variables . . . . . . . I. Item Analysis of the Thirty-Three Items LIST OF APPENDICES of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale . . . . . . . . . viii Page 113 122 125 127 137 140 144 147 150 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Ever since man developed the ability to interact, the process of counseling (in a broad sense) has been taking place. But it was not until the 20th century that counseling began to deve10p as an academic discipline. During this early phase, the main concern was with its role and usefulness to society. As the field of counseling emerged, there was an increase in empirical research on questions of central importance, such as determining the Optimal conditions for counselor selection, educating and functioning. On examining the hazy and inconclusive research evidence on these subJects, it is evident that much more needs to be accomplished. Research activity in this area has been unduly random in nature, or encumbered by extremely complex research designs in the attempt to demonstrate the obvious or the inconsequential. In recent years there has been a great deal of concern about the procedure for educating counselors. The new and pbpular technique has been to audiotape the counseling session, with the recorded session then being replayed and discussed with a supervisor. Methods have been devised to analyze the audiotapes with reference to the interpersonal dimensions of the counseling session, focusing on the dynamics of the counselor and client inter- actions. Since the recent innovation of videotaping, studies have reported on the effectiveness of using the videotape as a training device for counselors. No study, however, has compared the use of videotapes and audiotapes in the educating of counselors; nor has the full potential of videotapes been tapped by the development of optinally effective techniques. The present investigation is designed to compare the effectiveness of the current procedures of education and supervision for the audio- tapes with two different methods of using audio and video- tapes in conJunction with stimulated recall. Though educating counselors with videotapes is expensive at this time, costs are rapidly decreasing as smaller and more portable equipment becomes available. It seemed important therefore to determine the effectiveness of this procedure so that its use can be obJectively evaluated. Statement of the Problem This study employed the technique of videotaping along with the supervisory process of interpersonal recall to educate three groups of counselors enrolled in a regular university practicum course. Of the two experimental treatment groups, each student in one group witnessed the playback of his counseling sessions on videotape, while each in the second group heard the audio recording of his counseling sessions. In addition, each trainee in these two groups listened to an audiotape of the interview between his recall interviewer (supervisor) and his client as they reviewed the video or audiotaped interview. This experimental treatment is named Inter- personal Process Recall and was designed to maximize the effectiveness of replay as a learning stimulus. The third group of students served as control; they received regular practicum supervision as it is regularly employed in counselor education. _ Importance of the Stugy Due to the recent emphasis placed both by public and private agencies (Rational Defense Education Act pf 1958 and Merit Scholarship) on better utilization of existing talents, and due to recent technological inno- vations, the present study is most appropriate. Wrenn (1962) indicated that it is essential that counselors be well educated to handle burgeoning social crises such,as current man power problem. Developing better educational methods should be a goal in all counselor educating institutions. Although various techniques have been tried, there is no clear indication as to which process or method serves to produce the best counselors. Therefore, it is important to improve the process and technique so.as to better meet some of the current problems that confront the academic world. Also, through further experimental investigations within this area, the discovery of improved methods may result, thereby facilitating the solution of those problems in which good counseling can benefit society. The counseling program can reflect a broader obJective in its process and techniques by keeping close to effective means of educating students to be counselors. Previous Uses of Counselor Recordiggs “ The solution to a number of problems in educating counselors depends on uncovering the covert processes underlying certain overt actions expressed by client or counselor in communication. From the days of the early introspectionists, when Titchener trained his subJects to observe and report their inner processes, there has been an interest in obtaining evidence of the ways that covert reactions control the overt interactions. Nearly all theories assume some sort of mediating inner process thet is not discernable by direct observation. The technique of audio recording the counseling session as a means of better understanding the inter- personal dynamics of the counselor and client was suggested by Lasswell in 1929. Rogers (1942) and his groups at Ohio State University used the phonograph to record the counseling session. The aim was to facilitate the supervisory process, and to give added insight into the intensive therapeutic work of various cases. A process of "stimulated recall" was introduced by Bloom to aid the student's ability to learn in the classroom setting. This method is based upon the assumption that given enough of the original cues and situational material from a classroom session, the individual will be able to relive, through stimulated recall, the previous experience. He later published the results of research using this method (1954). Gaier (1952) used Bloom's technique in studying various class- room teaching sessions, and than within 48 hours played back these sessions, stopping at "critical points” to ask the students what was taking place within the class- room, and what they were thinking about at that particular time. Using only audiotapes to record the classroom sessions, Gaier's data indicated promising evidence that covert sequential processes could be explored. In attempting to encourage increased use of videotaping, Landsman and Lane (1963) reported that the method was a great improvement over audiotaping. They suggested that the insight received by the actual relivyng of the counseling session fostered better understanding pf the client's dynamics. Welz and Johnston (1963) also employed videotape to record the counseling session, and discovered that the prospective counselor who views the tapes seemed to gain greater confidence and awareness. They concluded that the videotape offered a unique means of assisting practicum students to understand themselves better and to be more aware of the feelings of the client; however, Walz and Johnston observed that reaction by these students varied widely. But, this reliving of the>n session seemed to help change many counselors' perceptions without the direct assistance of a supervisor. The process of perceptual change through self confrontation was investigated by Nielsen (1964). He had students discuss their philosophial beliefs with a coached interviewer. Toward the end of the discussion the interviewer deliberately provoked the student to see how he would conduct himself when forced to defend his beliefs. Each discussion was filmed, then the students confronted themselves by viewing the film. Nielsen reported that during these viewings of the film the subJects were unable to recall all of their feelings because they were still involved in the emotionality pf the exchange. When they were reconfronted with the film 18 months later, most of the subJects were able to detaph themselves so that they did not have the same feelings, although they were able to recall their previous reactions. Nielsen encountered a further interesting characteristic of the final reconfrontation: there was a reversal of 7 self-evaluation, those subJects reacting negatively at first to their filmed selves became more positive and vice-versa; 'Nielsen concluded that his method of self confrontation was beneficial to the subJects. The subJects were able actually to view their body reactions, to listen to their voices, and to evaluate the content of their conversations. They saw their nervousness and other emotional expressions. Finally, they observed hpw they related to another person while defending their beliefs. Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller (1963) modified Bloom's method of stimulated recall to secure the maximum effect from the replay of videotapes in counseling. The method was termed ”Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR)." This procedure provides both the counselor and the client with maximum cues for reliving their encounter by immediate playback of the counseling session. The video playback can be stopped at any point to facilitate discussion about the recall of feelinEP, thoughts, or body movements that occurred during the regular counseling session. (In the IPR study the counselor and client viewed the playback in separate rooms and were encouraged by "interrogators" (educated counselors) at significant points in the playback to recall feelings and to interpret their behavior. The authors observed that by using this medium, the recall process revealed that even slight gestures often concealed depths of hidden meaning of which the clients may have been unaware, indicating the presence of resistance to the imminent perception of an anxiety-laden topic. The authors concluded that: . . . here under the stimulation of reliving the scene, we have a deep exploration of the role of counselor and client. This is a level the coun» selor was unable to achieve in the original ses- sion. This exploration of relative roles may have had something to do with therapy process by structuring the role for both client and coun- selor for subsequent sessions (1963. P. 242). In summary, the studies using the technique of videotape replay as a medium for educating the potential counselor have concluded that as a result of witnessing himself in operation in the counselor's role, the student may come to an insight into how he appears and behaves in his interpersonal relations. He may see more clearly than before how he conveys ”understanding" and "cam- munication" to the client. He may perceive and understand more clearly the significance behind the verbal and physical behavior both of himself and of his client. Hypotheses The present study was conducted to determine_the relative effectiveness for counselor-education of three experimental conditions: (a) replay of audiotaped inter- views with subsequent supervision (regular educatgng procedure); (b) replay of audiotaped interview and audiotape of Interpersonal Process Recall by the client of audio- taped interview with subsequent supervision; (c) replay of videotaped interview and audiotape of Interpersonal Process Recall by the client of the videotaped interview. The following research hypotheses were thus generated: 1. The Interpersonal Process Recall technique using videotapes as a means of stimulated recall is more effective in educating counselors than the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using audiotapes to stimu- late recall. 2. The Interpersonal Process Recall technique using either video or audiotapes as a means of stimulated recall is more effective in educating counselors than the conventional training procedure without IPR. Organization of the Study The research related to educating counselors will be reviewed in the following chapter. The design, 'sampling procedures, treatments, null hypotheses, and the type of analysis will be described in Chapter III. The results of the analysis will be discussed in Chapter IV, and the summary statement, discussion and concluding remarks will be presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW or LITERATURE Introductign Interpersonal Process Recall as a technique (Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller, 1963) builds upon two approaches to the study of interpersonalinteractien. . One approach is that employed by Bloom (1954) and by Gaier (1952) who questioned students about their learning in a classroom replaying an audiotape of the class discussion to stimulated recall. The second approaeh i; that employed by Tintera (undated, 1963), Schueler, Mitzel, and Gold (1962), and Walz and Johnston (1963) who have used visual feedback in the educating of teachers and counselors. This review traces both of these approaches and also includes an overview of issues in counselor educatipn to help the reader better appreciate the current status pf research on counselor education and to sharpen the issues involved in such research and education. Stimulated Reca;l Methodology . Bloom (1954).described a method of stimulating the student's memory to help him recall his covert behavior in 10 11 the classroom. The basic assumption underlying this method of stimulated recall is that a student may be enabled to relive an original situation with great vividness and accuracy if he is presented with a large number of the cues of stimuli which occurred during the original situation. Gaier (1952) applied Bloom's stimu- lated recall technique in a study of selected personality variables and classroom learning. He obtained audiotape recordings of the classroom discussion of eight males and three females over a period of four months. He played back these audiotape recordings to each of the 11 students within 48 hours after they had been recorded. Gaier had pro-selected "critical points" in the recorded discussipn where he stopped the recording and asked the student to recall and report the thoughts he had experienced at that particular moment of the classroom discussiqn. The methodology of stimulated recall has been used by other investigators who went further in their methods of eliciting responses by the use of stimulated recall. These investigators employed the use of photographs and films as additional ways of stimulating the subJects' recall of the original event. Use of Visual Feedbagk _ In an effort to give a tangible reflection motion picture photography has been used to help the mentally ill 12 and alcoholic individuals see themselves as others see them. Carrere (1954) and Oarrere, Oraignou, and Pochard (1955) used motion pictures to photograph alcoholic patients undergoing delerium tremens. Later these films were played back to the patients after they had recovered from the acute stage. Carrere (1958) indicated that this self-viewing seemed to intensify the therapeutic relationship and increase the patient's motivation to change as compared to the success of the standard methods of treating alco- holics. Prados (1951) indicated that visual, kinesthetic, and audal images can facilitate the entire_procesa of vicariously reliving the repressions and emotions that have been blocked off or held back from the overt mani- festations of an individual's behavior. Prados felt that the subJect, by integrating himself with the image that he views on the visual replay, can become aware of his emotions and impulses without becoming too traumatized if given enough time and support. Stimulated recall playback techniques were found valuable by Cornelison and Lrsenian (1960). They used two variations of the self-confrontation procedure. In the first variation, using seven female subjects, the experi- mentors combined the sound motion picture self-images with exposure to still photographs taken with the Polaroid Land Camera, which develops the picture in approximately one minute. These still photographs were shown during each 13 session; the motion picture was shown to the patient on the third session and intermittently in subsequent sessions. The second procedure employed only the still photographs and was used with a group of nine male patients. The results of this study indicated that five of the seven female and two of the nine male patients improved during the series of sessions as rated by the investigators. This technique permits examination of important dimensions in the study of the self concept. Nielsen (1964) conducted a study in which subjects discussed and defended their personal philosophy of life with another person (the alter) who was employed to attack and criticize the subject?s statements. ‘These dyads were recorded on sound movies end were later played back to the subjects (self-confrontation). The alter was instructed to begin rather gently and then to increase his attacks on the subject‘s philosophy by making his criticisms increasingly severe. Usually toward the end of the dyads the two individuals were engaged in an emotional and tense discussion. Later when the subjects were confronted by the playback of the movie, they realized how they had actually behaved. Nielsen reports that there were cases in which the subject's feelings had not been clearly shown in the movies. ~Either the subjects were able to control their feelings, or the feelings had not become overt so that emotional behavior would not appear on the films. Generally 14 during this first self confrontation, the subjects were intensely interested in their overt bodily movements. When the students were reconfronted 18 months later, they were more detached. Nielsen claimed that on re-evaluation, those subjects who had evaluated themselves positively during the first self confrontation playback session tended to evaluate themselves negatively during the reconfrontation and vice versa. Nielsen suggests that the about face indicated that the subjects' evaluations should be regarded as processes rather than as static phenomena. He stated: . . . the first evaluations of self (positive or negative) were amplified and elaborated in the following months, thus tended to move towards the extremes. Returning for the re-confrontation, however, and now being able to view the film in an objective way, an assimilation of the extreme positive or negative evaluation took place, along with a counter-evaluation. Those who were predisposed to see themselves positively now judged themselves more negatively; those who were predisposed to evaluate themselves negatively were6gew more satisfied with themselves (1964, Pa‘ '0 This self confrontation method adopted by Nielsen seems to support the ideas that the subjects need to be able to integrate the new information before it benefits them effectively. A longitudinal study using the method of self confrontation is being conducted by Ricker and Pinkard (1964), who are investigating the use of audio-visual playback technique with mentally retarded children. They 15 have three groups of seven retarded youths meeting with a group leader four mornings a week for four months, each group having its own group leader. These group leaders are four psychologists assigned to the three treatment groups on a rotating basis. The groups are matched on the basis of age, sex, I.Q., and talkativeness. All three treatment groups are photographed with a sound movie camera during a fifteen minute session on Monday and Wednesday of each week during the first month. Each of the three treatment groups is filmed while it is engaged in four types of activities--a work assignment, playing tqgether, eating lunch, and group discussion. This activity cycle is repeated for each of the following three months. Every Tuesday and Thursday the film of the previous day’s meeting is shown to the audio-visual treatment grqup as part of a 45 minute discussion period. The second treatment group views a 15 minute motion picture film of retarded youths engaged in group counseling who are similar to themselves in age and ability; they never view themselves by the audio-visual feedback technique. The third group (control) follows the same counseling schedule as the two experimental groups, but they do not view any motion picture film. The authors indicated that this research design will include three replications of the initial set of three groups to give a total of 80 cases. At the present time, 16 Ricker and Pinkard indicated that half of the research has been completed. Tentative trends for 40 subjects given four months of treatment suggest that all three treatment groups show some improvement in intellectual performance with the greatest gains occurring in the audio- visual treatment group. The authors pointed out that the _group leaders (peychiatric consultants) described the results as indicating: In general, all groups developed an awareness of (purpose, and group dynamics and transference developed and became important . . . it becomes obvious to the supervisor that the amount of group cohesiveness, self awareness, and spon- taneity was greatest in the group that had max- imum visual stimulus and least in the group with the smallest stimulus. . . at this moment the premise of this experiment is apparently well founded (1964, p. 717). Ricker and his associates are attempting both intellectual and social training of mental retardates with some apparent success. Similarly both intellectual and social educating in the complex role of the teacher has been attempted by using stimulated recall with videotapes. Schueler, Gold, and Hitzel (1962) investigated the compar- ative effectiveness of three ways of preparing elementary student teachers. One group received the conventional observation method in which college supervisors made five classroom teaching observations and then discussed the lesson with the student teachers. The second treatment group received the kinescOpe method in which five kins- scope recordings were made of the student's teaching with 17 the supervisor observing from the control room, followed by supervisory conferences in which the kinescopes formed the basis for the discussion. The third treatment group received the observation plus the kinescope method in which the supervisor observed in the classroom while the five kinescopes were being made, followed by the discus- sion. Each of the college supervisors worked with an equal number of student teachers in each of the three treatment groups. The student teacher's performances were recorded on four films, two at the beginning of the semester and two at the end. These performances were evaluated by means of a specially prepared and validated "Observation Schedule." ' Schueler, and his associates indicated that no significant differences were found among the three treat- ment groups. The authors pointed out, however, that the subjective reactions of the student teachers and super- visors supported a combination of the in-person observation and kinescopes. A positive change in the direction of desired goals was made by the student teachers in all three treatment groups. Tinterajs (undated, 1963) was another study of teacher preparation using kinescopes for feedback. Like Schueler, Gold and Mitzel, Tintera studied the effectiveness of three student teaching critique methods. All three methods included observation methods by the supervisor, but 18 in one method the conference was conducted from notes, in the second, an audiotape was available to recreate the teaching scene during the conference, and in the third a kinescope-was used in place of audiotape. a total of 66 subjects, 22 for each treatment group, were supervised by 22 teachers who were rotated through all three treatments. Tintera indicated that there were no significant differences among the three treatment groups on immediate observation and testing. However, after six months of teaching, the student teachers trained with the aid of kinescope (video- tape recordings) and voice tape recordings were npt significantly different from each other, but showed improved scores on Tintera's test instrument which included the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. One of the most carefully_designed of this type of research was reported by Haccoby, Jecker, Breitrose and Rose (undated, 1965) who compared the abilities of neo- phyte, inexperienced and experienced teachers to correctly judge the extent to which a student was comprehending material that was presented to him. The authors assessed the relative value of verbal and nonverbal cues contributing to the accuracy with which teachers made their judgments. The authors used three groups of subjects: 67 students just enrolled in the teacher preparation program, 59 students nearing the completion of the same teacher prepar- ation program, and 46 teachers enrolled in summer courses 19 who had had-at least two years teaching experience. Approximately one third of each experience level group was shown both the picture and the sound of the student- teacher interaction, one third heard only the sound track, and remaining subjects saw only the picture track. The authors indicated that the group viewing both the picture and the sound and the group hearing only the sound track had significantly greater accuracy than the group viewing only the picture track but did not differ in accuracy from each other. There were no differences in accuracy among the three experience level groups. By assessing the extent to which cues contributed to the success of subjects judging the students' compre- hension, Maocoby, et.al., developed a standardized inter- pretation for the nonverbal cues which could be used to prepare teachers. Twenty teachers stratified by sex were randomly assigned to one of two preparation groups; one (group was trained by pointing out the source of the nonverbal . cuss, the frequency of movement, and the facial gestures, the second received a placebo training of films related to interpersonal communication. This group discussed the process of student-teacher communication in conjunction with the films. Following the preparation, both experimental and control groups were asked to judge students' comprehensipn on segments of film. The experimental group of teachers significantly improved their accuracy of judging the 20 students' responses to a pre and post test, while there was no change in the ability of the control group. Maccoby,_et al., concluded that adequate examples of students‘ nonverbal behavior can be obtained, that nonverbal behaviors can be coded reliably for use in preparing teachers, and that through this preparation, teachers can improve their ability to judge student comprehension from nonverbal cues. Several researchers have used video playback in educating counselors but these were not controlled studies. Walz and Johnston (1963) conducted a studywith 30 counselor candidates who were enrolled in an NDEA Counseling and Guidance Institute. These counselors had received prior didactic instruction and had interviewed a coached client several times. These interviews were observed through one-way vision mirrors and closed circuit television by their supervisors. The experimental experienpe was introduced to each counselor as if it were another. closed circuit television session. After the counseling session had been videotaped for ten minutes, the session _was stopped and the counselor, coached client, and super- visor separately completed the Interview Oheck List. They were instructed to react to the counseling interview as they felt the client had seen the counselor. On the following day the counselor observed the videotape of his interview. Following this personal viewing of his counseling session 21 he completed the Interview Check List again. Walz and Johnston indicated that the counselors who viewed the videotape of their counseling session with the coached client felt more confident but were also more realistic concerning their weaknesses. Evidence of these results appeared in the decrease of the number of positive- neutral items used after viewing themselves on the video- tape as compared with those used before the viewing. Oorrelation analysis indicated that there was substantial agreement among the three (counselor, client, and super- visor) as to their perception of the counselor. After the viewing, the counselors moved in the direction of adopting the more external frame of reference of the supervispr rather than toward the frame of reference of the client. This shift occurred without the counselors contacting or discussing these events with their supervisors. Bill's Index of Values and Adjustment and the Anxiety Index scores were accumulated for these counselors prior to the experi- mental eXperienoe. The authors indicated that there was some evidence for their claim that the scores on the Index of Values and Adjustment were related to the direction and amount of change after the counselors had viewed their videotapes. Further, those_scoring high on the Anxiety Index were found to move more than others towards con- gruence on the Interview Check List with the clients and supervisors after their vieWing of their counseling session. walz and Johnston concluded that for this group, 22 changes in perception accompanied viewing a videotape of one's interview. The change was more in the direction of the supervisor's perception than that of the client's. Personality variables may be predictive of the impact that video viewing has on a given counselor. Another study reported by Landsman and Lane (1963) indicated that counselors while role playing before a television camera, and then receiving a playback of their session had gained new insight into their reaction in the interpersonal relationship. These authors concluded that this method‘added to the basic understanding in the vital process of counselor education. POIing (undated, 1965) investigated the use of videotaping the counseling interview in three different settings. The first setting was a counseling cubicle equipped with a one-way mirror. The second was a simulated counseling cubicle with cameras partially concealed, and the third was an open studio environment with no attempt to conceal the cameras. Poling also investigated the critiquing of videotape recorded counseling interviews to determine which of three methods had the greatest influence. The first method was an individual critique session with only the counselor and supervisor participating; the second was a small group critique of the session with fire counselors and a supervisor; the third was a large grqup critique session with ten counselors and a supervisor. 23 The ten participating counselors were eight males and two females, masters or post-master's degree students, with no counseling practicum experience. The same clients worked with the counselor throughout the three treatment sessions. Each of these counseling sessions was videotaped for 20 minutes. Analysis of the data obtained from the video- tape recording Environmental Rating Scale yielded statistically significant differences between counselor and client ratings of the three physical environments. In each of the interview settings counselors were more anxious and concerned than were the clients as determined by the Scale. No statistically significant differences were observed among counselor-client ratings of the three interview environments, however, the data indicated that more positive reactions were obtained from open studio counseling using a prefocused and unmanned television camera for videotaping. There were no statistically significant differences between mean interview ratings of counselor's audio, counselor's video and supervisors in individual, small group and large group critique sessions. The Interview Rating Form data indicated that counselors' video review ratings more closely paralleled supervisory ratings than did counselors' audio review ratings. Poling concluded that videotape recorded 24 counseling interviews seemed to produce a greater degree of anxiety in a much more threatening manner than the audio- tape recorded counseling interviews. He pointed out that the first videotape recorded counseling interview and the resulting critique became almost a traumatic experience. The counselor's defenses were higher than usual and sqme hostility and resistance were evident during this first counseling interview. Research and Dictums in Counselor Educatign The third part of this review of literature is centered on the historical development of the education for counselors. This aspect of the literature is included to give the reader a proper prospective of the field of counseling with its recent innovations in the educating of counselors. Overvigwp_ Reviewing the literature on the educating and supervision of counselors is a complex task because the boundaries of the problems are vague, and the research has been scattered throughout the academic fields of educatipn and psychology. A short historical presentation of the development of the field of counselor-education will be given here, and the particular research studies that are germane to the IPR investigation will be surveyed. Counseling is an old and honored activity and 25 yet so young a profession that it may be dated shortly before the beginning of this century. Just after the Civil War the universities began to expand their curricula from the traditional to the practical because of the demands by society for a practical education for all individuals. Because of this increased curriculum, it was found that the students needed assistance in program selection. In addition, the growing emphasis on life adjustment and mental health created the need for a counseling profession. Frank Parsons in 1908 founded the Vocation Bureau of Boston. He was concerned about the youth entering occu- pations without adequate knowledge of either the require- ments of the position or the range of possibilities available to them. Because of the First World war, there was a great surge of testing and interest in the classic studies of individual differences. Throughout the 1930's counselors were immersed in the problem of delimiting their field. Emphasis was centered on the functions and roles of the counselors in higher education, the home, and work. During this time little attention was given to the actual educating of the counselor, or to recruitment to fill the positions created by expanding student enrollment. The veterans returning from the Second World War added to the increased enrollments and to the demands for counselors. It was not until the mid 1950's that serious consideration was given to the great shortage of adequately educated 26 counselors. To amend this dilemma Congress passed the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which includes provision for the selection and preparation of counselors. This act has stimulated the growth of new programs and research to establish their effectiveness Learning Experiences in the Education of Counselors In the 1950's the literature on counselor edu- cation expanded rapidly. Bordin in 1950 suggested a frame- work for counselor education that has received widespread approbation. He directed a Michigan conference that went beyond the two previous conferences of the American College Personnel Association chaired by Anderson (1950), and the Joint National Committee on Counselor Preparation directed by Miller (1949). Bordin's conference considered the educating of the psychological counselor in any setting, whereas, the two previous conferences were mainly concerned with the counselor employed in educational ' institutions. Bordin's groups suggested that each insti- tution should assume responsibility for developing the appropriate courses and establish desirable objectives for the proper educating of counselors. Included in the curriculum that has been suggested was the actual counselor practicum which most counselor educators deem crucial for the students before they have completed their degree. Erickson and Smith (1947) and Pierson (1950) have suggested 12 generalizations as guidelines for the practicum 27 education of the proSpective counselor. These generali- zations can be placed into the following four areas: the program, the counselor educator, the counselor candidate, and the experience. The authors indicated that if each of the four areas is sufficiently handled, the prospective counselor will have had the prOper education that he needs to accomplish his work. In 1953 Landy indicated that one of the most serious deficiencies in our counselor education was the absence or near absence of the actual experience of having a carefully supervised internship program. He advocated that the internship should have its major emphasis in the area of personality counseling, and its minor emphasis in the area of educational-vocational counseling. Black (1953) reported that in order to enhance the theoretical education, the counselors should have the Opportunity of actually interviewing students. Another experiment involving in-service education for the prepa- ration of secondary-school counselors was conducted by Kirk in 1955. She concluded that while an educational program consisting of individual conferences, periodic group meetings, and case demonstrations was helpful, a workshop stressing practicum education was needed to correct the shortcoming in the counselor's preparation. Leaders in counselor education seem to have arrived at a consensus concerning the desirable 28 characteristics of educational programs. Many programs have supported Dethick's (1958) pleas for improved quality in counselor education to help candidates achieve clarification of their own values. Abeles (1958) empha- sized the need for flexibility and permissiveness in the educating of counselors. Yates and Schmidt (1959) simi- larly indicated that counselors in practicum could not develop self-concepts realistically and usefully if their education did not maintain a certain amount of flexibility. MacMinn and Ross (1959) completed a survey in the departments of education as to the preparation programs for the education of counselors. They indicated that 178 institutions reported offering graduate programs in guidance and personnel. But only two—thirds of these institutions provided practicum education. Hill and Green (1960) reported that Santavicca conducted a survey in the area of counselor preparation, and concluded that the adequate practicums that were offered tended to exist within the larger universities. Santavicca indicated that many of the counseling educational programs were so new that the actual practicum experience had not been organized as a part of the counselor's curriculum. . Harmon and Arnold (1960) indicated that 40 per~cent of the counselOrs have had no supervised practicum or tape recording of their interviews. They felt that counselor candidates are not adequately prepared until they have had 29 the experience of recording their counseling interview and having a supervispr work with them on an interpersonal tutorial relationship. The results that Harmon and Arnold ascertained from counselors who responded to a questionnaire indicated that 28 per cent of the counselors wanted more supervised counseling experience. From what we know now about the importance of practicum, it would seem that any educational institution offering the counseling degree would be required to have a practicum program that would be adequate for the educating of counselors. Roeber (1963) has pointed out, however, that within the past five years, the number of practicums have increased significantly. The Personnel and Guidance Journal published in 1961 "Standards for Preparation of School Counselors." They recommended that the laboratory experience and counseling practicum should come early in the student's program, and that the internship may be substituted for part of the practicum. The article suggested that the following conditions be in existence for the counseling practicum: The counseling practicum represents the major practical experience in the two-year sequence of counselor edu- cation, and it should be allotted at least as much time as the laboratory experience. Each counselor candidate in the counseling practicum must have individual supervision regularly and frequently. 30 The case load for counselor-candidates in a coun- seling practicum should reflect: A variety of clients. Counseling experience with clients at the educational level apprOpriate to the candidate's eventual employment. Multiple interviews with individual students. Thirty to fifty hours in pupil interviews. The load of practicum supervision should be weighted in recognition of the fact that the practicum is virtually a tutorial form of instruction (1961, p. 406). These experiences should be such that the counselor will be able to gain insight concerning himself in relation to his new role, increase his self-perception, aid in his confidence and knowledge, and further develop his skills. Kemp (1961) held that the counselor-in-training needs to discover his own personality dynamics and must be able to judge himself. The ability to understand and accept others is based on self-acceptance and Openness to experience (Jersild, 1955; Rokeach, 1958; and Rogers, 1961). Arnold (1962) indicated that the procedures of selection, instruction, individual contacts, and planned experiences should all be evaluated for the extent to which they contribute to or hinder the development of a counselor's self-deve10pment in these areas. Thus, in recent years a search for practices which would help the counselor-in- training "know" himself began. Typically this aspect of counselor education is a central concern during the practicum experience. 31 The practicum is in some respects the most important phase of the entire process of educating coun- selors. Without this, the counselor candidate may be unable to apply his academic knowledge or to integrate his required skills to understand and help his clients. The discipline of the supervised practicum in counseling safeguards the public by preparing the neophyte to meet his professional responsibilities. Educational insti- tutions that educate counselors have an obligation to the counselor candidate and to society to offer the very best program possible so that the personal problems of the future can confidently be solved. The meaning of the practicum experience for the counselor candidate may vary according to his interpre- tation of his own needs. Counselor candidates should find the practicum an opportunity to synthesize the fragmented phases of their previous academic work and to bring the various theoretical concepts to a focus so that a practical application can be formulated when working with the indi- vidual clients. Thus, potential professional knowledge and skill will be centered, not on purely academic achievement, but upon the adjustment, orientation, and development of the clients. Supervised Experience for the Counselor Candidates A study of practices in 102 colleges and univer- sities was made by a committee of the National Association 32 of Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers under the direction of Froehlich (1949). Provisions for supervised experience were reported by 68 institutions. The varia- tions in experiences and purposes were not unlike the findings of the APA committee in its review of the intern- ships for clinical psychology (1941). There was little uniformity in amount of time spent and in the types of experiences or supervision provided. Small budgets, lack of staff, and nonavailability of qualified agency super- visors were frequently mentioned as major obstacles in the way of developing this uniformity. The effect of an observer during the interview has been considered, and has deve10ped from being viewed as new and upsetting to the present practice of having one-way mirrors in the practicum laboratories. The close analysis of recorded sessions has been perfected to the degree that increased counselor self-awareness, sensi- tivity, and self-perception have apparently become attainable goals in training. Due to the modern innovations and deve10pment of educational methods, the supervisor of the counselor can emphasize the meaning and understanding that are being communicated in the totality of either the counselor's or client's responses. In their study, Demos and Zuwaylif (1960) were concerned with the counselor’s attitudes and the degree to which the supervisor could change these attitudes 33 due to a particular theoretical orientation. They reported a highly significant difference on the Porter Attitude Tests; the counselors in training moved in the direction of being less evaluative, supportive, and probing, to an orientation of being more understanding and interpretive. However, when counselor responses were analyzed in terms of the theoretical position of their supervisor, only two scales were found to be significant. The authors indi- cated that the counselors of the client-centered supervisor were found to be significantly more understanding in their responses than were both the counselors of the ecelectic and directive supervisors. The counselors of the client- centered supervisor gave significantly fewer probing reaponses to the test than did the counselors of both the other two groups. However, the movement made by all the counselors, despite the theoretical position of the super- visors, was essentially in the same direction. Hunger, et al. (1963) compared the direction and stability of attitude changes made by counselor candidates in eight-week and semester-long guidance institutes. As in similar studies, changes were in the direction of more under- standing and fewer probing responses. Such changes were maintained by counselors who had completed the semester-long Pragram, but the eight-week group evidenced a significant ‘ decrease in understanding responses following the completion 01' the programs. The results indicated that changes in 34 response to the Porter tests could be effected in a very short time but that more time was required for the changes to become stable. In commenting on the eight-week group Hunger,‘et al. questioned whether such newly-learned attitudes were not viable outside academic walls or if counselor candidates were learning what the faculty believed to be ”proper" answers to the Porter Test of Attitudes. Roeber (1963) indicated that a counselor candi- date's development in a practicum is directly related to his discovery and deve10pment of a style of counseling that, within professional limits, is consistent with his present and developing style of life. Such a goal assumes that counselor development and personal development go hand-in-hand; and superficial change in one as a result of a practicum is not likely to effect permanent change in the other. Furthermore, he assumes that development in a . practicum is dependent first on the counselor candidate who reaches a stage where he functions independently and effectively, and that within this stage of development the counselor exhibits more than one pattern of traits. For the counselor's growth and enrichment research needs to turn towards discovering patterns which combine cogni- tive and conative traits, patterns which portend movement toward successive stages of development. Roeber indicated secondly that, during a practicum 35 differential trait patterns call for the use of different critera of deve10pment for the counselor candidate. He felt that the formulation of differential criteria is reasonable because the counselor candidates differ with respect to motivations which they bring to the practicum and, therefore, their deve10pment will not be identical. These complex motivations, when coupled with differential patterns of other traits, preclude identical rates of development for all counselees. Differential criteria can account for individual differences and form a rationale for eventual endorsement of counselees as independently functioning counselors, assuming that the oounselees perceive this endorsement as worth the time and effort it takes to reach this level of personal and professional deve10pment. Roeber's third assumption is that differential criteria of development calls for the use of differential patterns of practicum experience and practicum supervision. The concept of a tailor-made practicum for each counselor would be able to encompass not only mastery of substantive knowledge but also conative learning. These differential experiences may have some similarities from one counselee to another and yet not be common to a group of counselor candidates. While Roeber’s assumptions may be idealistic, they do provide a framework around which the practicum programs 36 may eventually develop a rationale for future practicum supervision. Demos (1964) indicated that when three super- visors were presented tape recording of an initial coun- seling interview with a client who was exceedingly fluent and verbal and monOpolized the complete counselor hour except for the beginning and closing sentences, they resorted to their own theoretical positions in analyzing this counseling session. . . each of them (three supervisors) in cri- tiquing the counseling session fell back upon his own theoretical orientation regarding counseling. In short, their critiques of the taped interview were technique-oriented and involved commenting on how to implement their own theoretical positions, rather than being responsive to the more important client-counselor interactions (1964: P0 705)- ‘Demos concluded that the supervisor’s theoretical orientation should only be a minor concern, and that the supervisors should concentrate more on how the counselor candidate perceived the interview. He emphasized that the major concern should be on the dynamics of the counselor and client. Despite stated positions on techniques of super- vision most supervisors focus on student “errors". Walz and Roeber (1962) presented a typescript of a student interview to a group of counselor-educators to be reacted to as if in supervision. Seventy-three per cent of the responses given were concerned with the defects of the 37 student's performance either by questioning or giving instructions. Another five per cent were identified as errors. However, six per cent of the reactions made by the counselor-educators were classified as interpretive, eleven per cent were supportive, and four per cent were classified as suggestions of alternative student responses. The authors pointed out that the concern was mainly with the student-counselor rather than with the client. Very few references were made to the interaction between the student and client. The conclusion was that supervision is cognitive and information-giving, with negative over- tones. In describing how to monitor an interview, Byrn (1962) presented a counseling lab instructor's notes which illustrate the "error making" tendency noted by Walz and Roeber. Bryn commented on these notes stating that: If the above suggestions from a fellow counselor help the performing counselor, well and good. If not, he still can fall back on his own ideas of how things went, turn to the tape recorder for another run through, or hope the lab instructor himself was around and has a few kind words mixed in with the bad (1962, p. 165). The prescriptive tenor of the notes, however, would make it difficult for the student to "take it or leave it," even if he disagreed with the theoretical assumptions underlying the suggestions. Betz (1963) studied two methods of supervising counselors and evaluated the significant differences by 38 using a pre-treatment and post-treatment response of counselors working with high school clients. He divided 3O NDEA institute counselors into affective and cognitive supervisory groups. He noted that the affective group modified their counseling behavior significantly more from the pre-treatment to the post-treatment response than did the cognitive group. The author concluded that the affective supervised group was significantly different from the cognitive group in counseling behavior responses. It thus appeared that the kind of supervision offered does affect the way in which the counselor will work with students. Halz (1963) indicated that the self theorist supervisor would emphasize the relationship between him- self and the,oandidate. The supervisor would seek to understand how the counselor candidate saw himself rather than evaluate his performance, and would attempt to create a situatiOn in which the candidate could view his behavior without fear of disapproval or rejection. Throughout the relationship with the counselorcandidate, the supervisor would attempt to place himself in the counselor's place so that he could view the counseling session and the client as the counselor does. He would emphasize as (Gibson, 1951, p. 98) has stated that "we see things not as they are but as we are." The supervisor would realize that to_change the counselor candidate's behavior, the counselor must first 39 change his perception, particularly his perception about himself. Walz suggested that for the counselor candidate to change his behavior the following seven assumptions should be a major part of the supervisory program: 1. For significant learning to take place the coun- selor candidate needs to have the Opportunity of self discovery. The supervisor should not teach the counselor, but rather he should allow the counselor to assert himself toward self improvement. The supervisor will make his greatest contribution to the counselor's growth by fostering a rela- tionship with the counselor as a fellow learner. Significant learning will be facilitated when the supervisor tries to understand the meaning of an experience that a counselor has and to perceive the experience as the counselor does. The trying to understand may be more important than the actual understanding. It is important for the counselor to perceive what his counseling experience means rather than to understand merely his counseling performance. Thus focusing on how the counselor saw his client and how he perceived his role with the client would provide a more useful learning experience than merely focusing on the behavioral 4O techniques. The counselor candidate should not be evaluated by his supervisor if prOper growth is to be fostered in the dyadic relationship. ~The supervisor can not be both a helper and an evaluator to the counselor. It must be one or the other. The supervisor's role should be that of helping the counselor to see what his responsibilities to himself and to society are in attempting to become a proficient person in the field of counseling. Evaluation should be a part of the counseling practicum, but it should not be the supervisor's duty. Other supervisors should perform the evaluation. The results of the evaluation should be used by the counselor candidate and his supervisor to plan for future experiences. Learning is facilitated when the counselor candi- date clearly perceives his task. Rogers (1961) indicated that learning occurs more readily in relation to situations that are actually perceived as real problems. The practicum experience should be designed to come early in the educating of the counselor so that his preparation will be involved in the actual counseling situation. Thus, he will be able to understand for himself the counseling 7. 41 problems he needs to prepare for during his education. Congruence between a supervisor's feelings and behavior toward the counselor candidate will imprOve their relationship. Sincerity and truthfulness are important in all interpersonal relationships. They are especially important in a relationship that exists to free the counselor from the need to defend himself from threat and rejection. The supervisor can enter into a real relationship with the counselor only if he is able to accept his real feelings. It destroys the relationship if the supervisor is perceived by the counselor as feeling one way and behaving another. 4 Supervisory warmth and understanding fosters a counselor's capacity for dealing effectively with new situations. An old educational truism states that a teacher must begin where the students are and not where he would like them to be. The supervisor must accept the counselor as he is and try to understand his feelings. Rogers calls for unconditional positive regard, empathy, and warmth to be as appropriate for the counselor candidate as for the client. A wide variety of instructional resources 42 facilitates the counselor candidate's learning experience. The new media of instructional devices would seem to be of importance in helping the counselor to perceive his role as a proficient and responsible person to society. The supervisor should be able to provide the help and insight needed to cape with the progress and growth of his counselor. Basic to all that walz has indicated is the reli- ance on the self-actualizing tendency of the counselor candidate. If the counselor is actively involved in helping others to grow, if he had identified the problems and issues he faces, then he will want to learn. The supervisor, through his personal relationship with his counselor, will provide the buoyancy needed to move over the rough spots during the changing of behavior. Implicit in these assumptions of the practicum program is the idea that the supervisory experience serves as both an agent for developing the working skills and as a growth experi- ence for the counselor where all of his previous learnings and experiences come to fruition. Supervision should not be teaching as an indi- vidual would lecture to a student, nor a Socratic dialogue. Nor is it a counseling or therapeutic session in behalf of the student. Patterson (1964) indicated that supervisiOn should be a learning experience. It should be learning that 43 comes close to the counseling and therapeutic experience instead of the classroom situation. He concluded that the conditions of supervision which appear to achieve the best results for the student are where the student is not threatened; but, rather where he is accepted, encouraged, respected and understood. With these conditions of nurturance, the student feels free to learn, analyze and explore his interpersonal process with his clients and to modify and grow in such a relationship. implications of the Literature The findings from the research literature for this study indicated that the practicum and the supervision are important processes for the educating of counselors and that the combination of the practicum and supervision should be a process where the counselors can integrate their previous learning experiences and formulate their life styles. Walz and Johnston's findings suggested that students did learn to change their perception of situations as a result of videotape feedback. Kagan's study suggested that both the counselor and client gained added insights from the video feedback, while Landsman felt that this method was a great improvement over audiotapes. The findings of Nielsen's study indicated that the subject became detached from the experience of self-confrontation over time and Only then was able to evaluate himself objectively. 44 At the time the present study was conducted, there were several studies underway that were attempting to evaluate the use of videotape feedback as opposed to the conventional methods. Among these studies was Maccoby's research which indicated that the improved interpretation of nonverbal behavior which resulted from instruction, was small but statistically significant in comparison with no instruction for the learning of nonverbal cues. Tintera's study suggested that possibly a long term rather than an immediate benefit occurs as a result of the videotape feed- back. While the Poling study, available after the completion of the present study, pointed out that the video- tape feedback may be more traumatizing than the audiotape feedback. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This experiment was designed to compare the relative effectiveness of three types of counselor- education techniques for practicum students; a video IPR treatment; an audio IPR treatment; and the usual method of supervision using an audiotape of a regular interview session. Design A design was developed that would expose each group to the same amount of client contact, either in the actual interview or through the replay of tapes. Each group received the same amount of direct supervision. In order to equate the groups on the variable duration of treatment, it was necessary to omit one phase of the full IPR treatment, that in which the counselor is interviewed simultaneously with the client as the tape is replayed. Thus the efficacy of IPR treatment may have been reduced in comparison with its full potential. To provide for a maxi- mum number of practicum counselors consistent with the capacity of the physical facilities and equipment, each counselor in the experimental groups was limited to three 45 46 exposures to IPR treatment. The nature of the three treatments is shown in Table 3.1. Practicum students were randomly assigned to the treatment groups each quarter. The practicum students were told that a research project was in process and that they would receive different experiences in their education. They were not told the nature of this difference.1 They were also told that it was extremely important that they not talk with each other about their project experiences, or with other students who would be taking the practicum course during the academic year. They signed an agreement to honor this requirement. At the end of the quarter, each practicum student was videotaped in the IPR room for twenty minutes as he counseled a coached client. He did not know this was a test situation or that this was a coached client. He assumed it was just another high school student. Procedure The three experimental treatment groups during each of the three quarters (fall, winter, and spring) of the academic year of 1963-1964 had the same practicum program. First, the practicum students had two sessions in 1. At the end of the experiment several practicum counselors reported that this design requirement contributed to the anxiety some of them felt about the treatments. ell1llI( (II-1. 0“ StVIHflV‘ (Vant— dfnufi IHO >.9H~Wus~m3m Etna ”Ham-H 7. .4 .o>onm as warm .obopm mm oasm .uopswonncpaa an soama> unease macs m soama>noasm .oamp soabnopna cause on use: m msmpmaa.noammssoo .casp soashcpaa ooud> area m magnum: noHomsdoo mnsuooonm mmH .ascnw Honpsoo map you soapacaoo opooaaa m .muson m _ camp cause op msopmaa.noaomssoo .o>ons me warm .mnson m .caop no ascaao m9 ._soapmm°nnopsa op msmpmda noaomssoo 3mfi>mm190HmmfidOO .psosanoawo on» Mo .mcbsomno nopowonampsH .3cabampsa mnaaomnSoo anon a a .obopm me warm .mhscn m new psoaao up“: muses non» nopmwon InopsH .3oabnopsa wsaacmssoo adon.m sodeuopsH smdmoc canon one no hnmaasm mqapoono «msoapacsoo wsapnmaa ooca> nous: msoon mmH on» ma sacs no: macaw some you soaumom amp mason m n ;n madame Tm magma 48 their regular laboratory where they counseled the same high school student for two sessions. Next, they had three sessibns in the IPR room with high school students. They then returned to their regular laboratory and counseled with high school students. In this way each practicum counselor worked with the same number of clients during the quarter, had three sessions in the IPR room, and had all other sessions in the regular counseling laboratory. Each student indicated on a card the days that he could counsel. From this card the practicum student was assigned a day that he would counsel in the IPR room. Usually it was possible to keep open the same day each week for each practicum student. During the spring quarter, because 24 practicum students were enrolled, the schedule became mere complex, and some practicum students counseled twice in one week in the IPR room. Each practicum student was required to complete the three processes of each session (counseling, listening to the tapes, and receiving supervision from the interrogator) before the next counseling session in the IPR room. This somewhat rushed the students when two of the counselor's three sessions were scheduled in the IPR room in one week. Video Treatment Group The video group counseled high school students in the IPR room in the following manner: The counseling 49 session was brought to a close as soon as convenient after 30 minutes. A recall person took the place of the practi- cum student in the IPR room. The half-hour interview was replayed with the client stopping for stimulated recall at significant points. The client was asked to relive the session and to recall his thoughts and feelings about what had been said and/or done during the original coun- seling interview. In some instances he was asked to trace a feeling and indicate when it reappeared. He was often asked the meaning of some nonverbal gesture. The replay was discontinued after two hours regardless of how much of the 30 minutes had been covered. Several times the 30 minute counseling session of the client did not provide enough material for the recall session to continue the full two hours. This situation usually occurred with the audio recall sessions. The audiotape of this recall session was then promptly given to the counselor so that he could listen to the interrogation of the client. While listening to the tape, he was asked to follow a written_listening guide1 prepared by the research staff to enhance the productiveness of listening to the audiotape by directing his attention to certain aspects of this session. After 1. See Appendix B. 50 listening to the tape, the counselor came to the IPR room and viewed a replay of the half-hour tape. Within the next two days he had a half-hour supervision with the recall person. There was no set schedule for the supervisOry times but supervision took place before the practicum student interviewed another client in the IPR room. This procedure was engaged in for three of the counselor's nine sessions over the quarter of practicum education. His other six sessions were supervised in the usual manner by the regular practicum instructors. Audio Trgatment Group The audio group followed the same procedure as the_video group. The only exception was that instead of using videotapes for recall purposes, the client was questioned about an audiotape recording of the interview. Practicum students then listened to audiotape of the two- hour recall session and their own counseling session unin- terrupted by recall. Then they met with the recall per- son for 30 minutes of supervision scheduled as in the case of the video group. As with the video group, this pro- cedure was used with three offithe‘nine“coun3elors inter- viewed over the quarter of practicum education. Control Treatment Group The control group received no stimulated recall sessions. They counseled the high school students for one— 51 and one-half-hours in the IPR room. Upon finishing the coun- seling session, they listened to their audiotapes for one-and- one-half hours using the same listening guide as did the video and audio groups. Following this, they were supervised for 30 minutes by a recall person who had monitored the counseling session through a one-way glass. The supervisory time was scheduled as for the video and audio groups. The control group thus received the same treatment for three of the nine sessions as they did for the remaining six except that their interviews were held in the IPR rooms and for the three sessions they received supervision from the IPR staff instead of from their regular practicum supervisors. Thg Recall Interviewer The same IPR staff members supervised three coun- seling sessions for each of all three groups and were assigned to counselors at random. Each staff member super- vised the same number of counselors in each treatment group and no counselor was supervised by the same staff person for more than one session.1 In Table 3.2 the total supervisory schedule is indicated for all three quarters. The supervisory times of the IPR staff for the 1. This procedure equated supervisors across the three groups and thus served to balance treatments; however, having a different supervisor or recall worker for each counselor session mitigates against the establishment of a super- visory relationship. 52 separate quarters are shown in Table 3.2. Because of the scheduling problems within a given quarter, the number of sessions varied for IPR staff members among the three treatment groups. Thus, by separate quarters, the IPR supervisors did not balance out for the three groups of counselors; however, they were balanced for the complete study. Counseling Setting for Non IPR Sessions The counseling laboratory at Michigan State University has seven rooms equipped with a microphone concealed within a telephone. This telephone is connected to a jack in the wall which runs to an audio tape recorder in the master control room. In each room a large one-way glass permits observation of the counseling sessions. The session can be monitored by means of an intercom-earphone system. The IPR counseling room is located across the hall from the seven counseling rooms. This room originally was a classroom that was remodeled into three rooms. Cameras were installed in two corners of the roOm. These cameras were placed behind a symmetrical pattern of perforated ply- wood so that they would not distract the counselor or the client. Each camera was focused across the room to a chair diagonally opposite the particular camera. Opposite halves of each camera were blocked so that when the images from the two cameras were played on a monitor, the eXposed images from 53 Table 3.2 Supervision of the IPR staff for the academic year of 1963-64 for the Master and Doctoral students for the three treatment groups Super- Fall Winter Spring Sub TOtal visor Master Doctoral Totals Video 2 2 1 2 7 A Audio 2 1 1 3 7 Control 2 O 1 4 7 21 Video 0 1 O 5 6 B Audio 4 1 1 O 6 Control 1 1 1 3 6 18 Video 2 1 2 O 5 C Audio 0 1 1 3 5 Control 1 1 0 3 5 15 Video 2 1 1 3 7 ~D 'Audio 1 1 2 3 7 Control 1 1 O 5 7 21 Video 4 2 2 2 10 IE Audio 2 1 O 7 1O OOntrol 1 3 1 5 1O 30 Video 0 O 1 0 1 F Audio 0 O 1 O 1 Control 0 O 1 O 1 3 Video 1 2 1 5 9 G Audio 1 2 3 3 9 Control 4 2 1 2 9 27 Video 1 3 1 4 9 H Audio 2 2 O 5 9 a Control 2 1 1 5 9 27 36 3O 24 7 N 162 162 54 the two cameras are seen side-by-side. The audio recording was made available by a microphone that was semi-concealed in a bouquet of artificial flowers on a small coffee table placed between the counselor and client. A box that, contained a remote control switch was on the coffee table to allow the recall interviewer or client to stop and start the videotape machines in the Closed Circuit Studio. To aid the recall interviewer in interrOgating the client a telephone was placed on the coffee table so that the IPR staff could communicate subtle cues that were overlooked. Also, the telephone was directly connected to the Closed Circuit Studio's telephone system so that the replay sessions could be controlled by the recall interviewer. A television set was placed opposite the two chairs. This TV set provides the video andwaudip playback of the original counseling interview so that the recall interviewer and the client could watch and/or listen to the replay session. The second small roOm was initially remodeled to provide a place where the practicum counselor and recall interviewer could view the playback of the original counseling interview at the same time as the client and his recall interviewer who were in the IPR room. Due to the balancing of the practicum counselor's time over the three treatment groups the stimulated recall technique was not employed for the Counselor. The third room was remodeled to provide a place 55 where the recall interviewers oculd observe the original counseling session through one-way mirrors. The conver- sation between the counselor and client could also be heard through a small audio speaker that was hooked to a jack which was connected to the main audio line.in the IPR room. The "Regplar" Ppacticum Supervisors The practicum students on the master's level were supervised by their regular instructors during the time they did not actually interview in the IPR room. Two professors and an assistant instructor supervised the practicum. The supervisors handled their supervisory hours in the manner they chose. The supervision setting was very permissive. The supervisors did not have any organized process to follow, but rather they worked on an individual basis with the practicum counselor. Use of the.Coached Client -A'senior'at Michigan State University majoring in drama was used as the subject in the criterion sessions in order to measure the outcome of the experiment. She was the final client seen by all subjects. To enhance the authenticity of the situation, instead of role-playing in the usual sense, the client was asked to enact a problem she had actually had as an addlescent. She rehearsed with the research staff before meeting practicum students. The 56 students did not know that the ”client" was an actress. In retrospect she may not have adequately allowed for possible differences in client cooperation such as might occur if "real" clients were used. Unfortunately there was a tendency for the coached client to tell her "problems" regardless of the effectiveness of the counselor's probes. The coached client completed client rating scales on counselor effectiveness for each practicum student immediately following the counseling session. The rating scales used in this aspect of the study were the Wisconsin Orientation Relationship Scale1 and the_Relationship Inventorye'developed by Rogers and his staff. Immediately after the practicum counselor had interviewed the coached client, the nature of the situation was explained as well as the reasons why the coached client was used. Again he was reminded about the agreement not to discuss this project with other students. To the best of Our knowledge all students adhered to their agreement. No practicum student viewed his criterion tape until all criterion sessions for the quarter had been held. In summary, the practicum counselor interviewed in the traditional manner in the practicum laboratory for two sessions before he interviewed in the IPR room.. In the IPR 1. See Appendix C. 2. See Appendix D. 57 room, three different treatments were carried out. All three treatments totalled three-and-one-half hours of exposure. After using the IPR rooms for a total of three sessions, each returned to the regular practicum laboratory for the remaining four sessions of the term. At the end of the term each counselor interviewed the same client and was videotaped for 20 minutes. Recall Interviewer Training In order that there might be comparability in the recall procedure among the eight persons conducting these sessions, all but one attended a series of training periods. A set of criteria (Appendix E) evolved which were used to determine where the tape should be stopped and what would be asked. During the training interviewers watched sample tapes of previously conducted IPR's. Holding one hand behind their back so others could not see the signal, they raised a finger to indicate a point where they wished to st0p the tape. When a majority of persons had so signaled, the tape was stopped and a discussion of what questions to ask ensued. Though agreement on the most appropriate question rarely reached much higher than a simple majority, by the time training was discontinued, a near unanimity on stopping points was obtained. One interviewer, a trained and highly experienced counselor, was added after the experiment started. She did not undergo training but 58 handled only one counselor in each treatment. Instrumentation The criterion used to measure practicum counselor effectiveness was a rating scale developed by project members after an unsuccessful search for a suitable scale. This scale, the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale, consisted of 33 behavioral and feeling tone items, a global rating, and a question asking the judges to write adjectives or phrases which described the counselor. The items were designed to differentiate counseling effectiveness among the three groups. Before this scale was developed, the literature was reviewed to find previously validated counselor-rating scales. The Anderson Scale (1962) and the Rogers' Scale (1962) seemed to be the most promising, but neither seemed entirely adequate. The Rogers? Scale was tied too closely to his own counseling viewpoint. The Anderson Scale did not draw broadly enough upon the various behaviors which were a part of the MSU program. In particular, it did nOt include aspects based on visual perception and confrontation which it was anticipated the video treatment might effect. Accordingly, parts of various scales were borrowed, revised, and added to in order to develop a scale commensurate with the trainingobjectives. The global rating was adapted from a scale for rating 59 counseling interviews developed by Rioch and others (1963). The global rating was scored on a representation of the, normal curve with baseline divided into eight equal seg- ments. The judges were asked to rate each counselor in comparison with counselors of comparable experience rather- than to compare the counselors in this study with each other. The intent was to establish an absolute rather than a relative judgment so that the general quality of the counselor as a product cauld be evaluated. Implicit in this procedure was the assumption that gross differences between the treatment groups would occur. The third part of the printed Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale consisted of a question asking the judges to indicate, in order of importance, the main dimen- sions which led to their rating of the particular counselor. Actually this statement was interpreted by the judges as if it were a request for an adjectival or short sentence description of the salient features of the practicum counSe- lor's behavior. These three parts formed the preliminary scale which was tried out in a pilot session using the IPR staff as judges. Videotapes from fall and winter quarters of twenty-four counselors' final session with a coached client were viewed. Half of the counselors were judged on the first feur minutes of the counseling interview. The remaining counselors were judged on the ninth through 6O thirteenth minutes.1 Based on the results of this last pilot judging ses- sion, the final form of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale was developed. This was the scale used by the judges in the final judging. The Judging of the Criterion Tapes Three prominent members of the counseling profession who represented different counseling orientations agreed to act as judges and to rate the final performance of the counselors. In addition, two nonprofessional judges (secretaries) who were not acquainted with the counselors taking part in the experi- ment, were also asked to evaluate the videotapes. The five judges each spent three days rating the 54 counselors. They were first trained in the use of the Counseling Process Effec- tiveness Scale with videotapes that were especially prepared for this purpose. Judges were trained separately for the master's degree and then for the doctor's degree counselors. In these training videotapes the coached client was inter- viewed by two master level and two doctoral level counselors. These counselors had taken the practicum course before the study was started. 1. Interestingly, the results of this pilot session, which used the IPR staff as judges, indicated that the video- tape trained group was significantly the best group of counselors. In view of later results the staff may have been biased by knowledge of which counselors were in which groups, or also were using different bases for making their judgments than did the panel of outside udges. 61 The training videotapes were prepared in the same way as the criterion videotapes. Two counselors at the master‘s degree level, who were not participants of the study, interviewed the coached client. The first counseling inter- view was videotaped during the first to the fifth minutes. The second counseling interview was videotaped during the ninth to the 13th minutes. Before the judges were to rate the first four minutes of the 46 master degree counselors, they were shown the first four minute training videotape. After the judges had rated all the 46 master degree counselors for the first four minutes, then the ninth to the 13th minutes of the training videotapes of the master degree counselors were shown to the judges to orient them; after which, the judges then rated the 46 master degree counselors for the ninth to the 13th minutes. Upon completion of the judging of the master degree counselors, the judges were oriented to the training video- tapes of the doctoral counselors. These training videotapes for the doctoral counselors were prepared the same way as described above for the master degree counselors. After the judges were oriented to the first four minutes of the doctoral counselors' training videotape, they then rated the eight counselors. Again, after completing the ratings for the first four minutes, the training videotapes for the ninth to the 13th minutes were presented to the judges. They then rated the eight doctoral counselors for the ninth to the 13th minutes of the counseling interview. 62 Sample .The subjects for this investigation were students enrolled in a counseling practicum course at the master degree level during the academic year of 1963 to 1964. Winter quarter registration for the master’s counseling practicum course was so meager that students in the doctoral counseling practicum course were employed as additional subjects. During the academic year in which this study was conducted, 12 master degree counselors participated during the fall quarter, ten master degree and eight doctoral degree counselors during winter quarter, and 24 master degree counselors during spring quarter. Because of the uneven number cf counselors participating during the winter quarter, the number of counselors in the treatment groups was uneven, and so during spring quarter the numbers were balanced, so that each treatment group had 18 counselors over the three quarters. Of the counselors participating, 46 were master's level and eight were doctoral level students. Table 3.3 indicates the number of students by sex participating in the study. Also the same table gives the number of doctoral students that took part in the study during winter quarter. All the doctoral students used in this study were males. 63 Table 3.3 Number, sex, and level of practicum students in each treatment group for each quarter who are included in the analysis, Quarter Video Audio' Control Total Fall 3 Males* 1 Male 2 Males 6 Males 1 Female 3 Females 2 Females 6 Females Winter 4 Males 2 Males 2 Males 8 Males 0 Females 1 Female 1 Female 2 Females 3 Ph.D. 3 Ph.D. 2 Ph.D. 8 Ph.D. Males Males Males AMales Spring 4 Males 5 Males 6 Males 15 Males 3 Females 3 Females 3 Females 9 Females Total 14 Males 11 Males 12 Males 37 Males 4 Females 7 Females 6 Females 17 Females 3.4 for each group by quarter. *Undesignated training level cases were master's degree students. Average ages for the 3 groups are given in Table The averages for the video and control groups were 30 and 31 respectively, whereas the audio group's is 27. 64 Table 3.4 Mean age for each treatment group by quarter. Quarter Video ' Audio Control Fall 26 29 27 Winter 32 27 38 Spring 32 25 28 Treatment Group Means 3O 27 31 Grade point averages for the groups for each quarter are shown in Table 3.5. A one-way analysis of variance indicates no significant difference between the three groups, as shown in Table 3.6. Table 3.5 Mean grade point average for each treatment group by quarter. Group Means’ 3.41 3040 Quarter Video Audio Control ‘Fall 3.44 3.52 3.36 Winter 3.46 3.30 3.35 Spring 3.34 3.39 3.32 Treatment 3.34 65 Table 3.6 Analysis of variance for grade point average for the three treatment groups. * Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Between Treatment .06 2 .03 .25 Within Treatment 6.28 51 .12 TOTAL 6.34 53 F2 3.18 for significance at the 5% level The Hypothepes The null hypotheses tested in the present study in order to determine the effectiveness of educating counselors using the IPR technique are: 1. There are no differences in the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using videotapes as a means of stimulated recall as compared with practicum counselors' effectiveness with the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using audiotapes. 2.e There are no differences in the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using either audio or videotapes with the process of stimulated recall as compared with the practicum counselors' effectiveness with the regular practicum pro- cedure without IPR. Additional Analyses In addition, analyses were made to determine whether 66 the three professional judges were similar in their ratings of the 54 counselors and whether there were differences in judges' ratings for the first four minutes and the minutes nine through 13. Two-way analysis of variance was used and the interaction between the judges and the two ratings was examined. The treatment effect was examined separately by analysis of variance with each of the three parts of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale: the 33 items, the global, and the adjective dimensions upon which the judges rated the counselors. Two secretaries were used to determine whether they could rate the 54 counselors as reliably as the three professional judges. This was a test of the assumption that the rating scales were objective enough that a novice would be able to rate the counselors as reliably as pro- fessionals and this data was analyzed in a fashion parallel to the professional judges. The coached client was asked to rate each of the 54 counselors immediately after she had been interviewed. She used the Rogers' Relationship Inventory Scale which was patterned after Rogerian theory. Within this scale there were the four subscales of Empathy, Positive Regard, Con- gruence, and Unconditionality. She also used the Wisconsin Orientation Relationship Scale in which the client is requested to indicate how she felt about the counselor in terms of five steps which range from total avoidance of the counselor to 67 the feeling of probably being able to talk with this coun- selor about almost anything. One professional judge rated the 54 counselors‘ after listening only to minutes nine through 13 of the audio portion of the tapes that were made with the coached client. The author wanted to determine whether the treatment effect, if any existed, depended on whether the counselors were rated by audiotape only or with a combination of video and audio. methods. A multiple correlation was completed to determine what effects ten uncontrolled variables had on the ratings made by the three professional judges. The ten uncontrolled variables are: 1. Sex of the practicum counselors - possibly male counselors are more effective with female clients. The preponderance of clients were females. 2. Quarter in which practicum was taken - it is possible that quality of IPR and practicum supervision varied from quarter to quarter. 3. Grade point average - possibly bright counselors were assigned to one treatment. 4. Procedures in Counseling (816D)_- a course that each practicum counselor completes before enrolling for the practicum - it is possible that the judges were influenced due to quality 7. 10. 68 of instruction. Practicum (884) - it is possible that the practicum supervision varied for the different practicum groups within the three quarters. Candidate of the practicum counselor - it is possible that the level of the practicum coun- selor (master's or doctoral) could be influential. Treatment effects of the three experimental groups - possibly could have had a decisive influence. Experience that the practicum counselors had previous to the practicum might have influenced their effectiveness. Practicum supervision - it is possible that the supervision-varied among the instructors of the practicum Recall interviewer supervision - due to the amount of education among the IPR supervisors r it is possible that this might influence the counselors. Summary Two hypotheses were tested to determine the effectiveness of 46 master degree counselors and eight doctoral degree counselors who were randomly divided into three treatment groups (video, audio, and control). The 69 Interpersonal Process Recall technique was used in educating the video and audio groups. The control group did not receive the Interpersonal Process Recall technique. The practicum counselors interviewed a coached client for the criterion session. The coached client rated each counselor immediately after the interview. These criterion interviews were all videotaped and a beginning and middle segment were rated by six judges. These judges rated the practicum counselors on the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale. The mean differences in the counselor-effectiveness of the practicum counselors were measured by the three judges, two nonprofessional judges (secretaries), the coached client, and a judge who rated the counselors by listening only to the audio portion of minutes nine through 13. Except for the coached client they used the "Counseling Process Effectiveness" rating scale to evaluate the practicum counselors. The coached client used the Wisconsin Orientation Relationship Scale and Rogers' Relationship Inventory as rating scales to evaluate the practicum students. Analyses were made of the mean counseling effec- tiveness differences among the three treatment groups, the difference in ratings of the judges, the two time segments, and the interaction between judges and time segments. Analyses were also made as to the relationship of ten uncontrolled variables which could have influenced the rating of the three professional judges. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS As outlined in the previous chapter, the progress in training of the counselor-subjects was recorded by a final 20 minute videotaped interview with a coached client. Ratings of counselor behavior shown in two segments of the final tape were made by three professional and two nonpro- fessional judges. In addition, a fourth professional judge rated only the audio portion of the ninth through thirteenth minutes; the coached client also rated each counselor after being interviewed using Rogers' Relationship Inventory Scale and the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale. (The data thus obtained permitted the testing of research hypotheses by analysis of variance. The results of the statistical treatment of the ratings are presented in this chapter. In Chapter IV, the results of the tests of the null hypotheses are reported. Each hypothesis was tested by analysis of variance as described in Chapter III.1 1. Before analysis of variance was applied, the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale scores were weighted by Mosier's technique for maximizing the reliability of a weighted composite. A copy of the arbitrary weights assigned by the authors and the adjusted weights determined through Mosier's technique for the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale appear in Appendix A. 70 71 Differences_in Ratings of Judges for Two Time Segments Three professional judges rated the 54 counselors on two different time segments of the criterion interview. These segments were the first four minutes and the ninth through thirteenth minutes. A two-way analysis of variance was used to determine whether there were significant dif- ferences among judges or between the ratings given to the time segments. The results of the analysis of variance are summarized in Table 4.1. . Table 4.1 Analysis of variance of ratings by the three professional judges of the first four minutes and the ninth through thirteenth minutes. Source of Sum of Mean Variance Squares d.f. Square F Judges 5307.30 2 2653.65 8.68** Time 841.00 1 841.00 2.75 (Interaction) Judges X Time 980.13 2 490.06 1.60 Error 97231.04 318 305.76 TOTAL' 104359.47 **Necessary: F .052; 3.04 for 2, 318 degrees of freedom Necessary: F .052: 3.89 for 1, 318 degrees of freedom Inspection of Table 4.1 reveals an F value of 8.68, which was significant at the .05 level of confidence. This indicated that the three professional judges were not rating 72 the 54 counselors in a similar way. In order to determine how the three professional judges differed, a correlation matrix was computed to indicate the actual relationship among them. The results of the judges' ratings for the first four minutes are summarized in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Intercorrelation for the three professional judges for the first five minutes Judge I Judge II Judge III Judge I .46 .31 Judge II .30 Judge III Inspection of Table 4.2 reveals that there is a positive relationship among all three judges. However, the relationship is quite low, much lower than was desirable. Apparently the three judges did not rate the first four minutes of the tape consistently with each other. Only the correlation of Judges I and II is significantly different from zero. However, there are no significant differences of one correlation from the other. The second correlation matrix wascomputed to com- pare the relationship among the three professional judges for the ninth through thirteenth minutes. The results of these correlations are summarized in Table 4.3. 73 Table 4. 3 Intercorrelation for the three professional judges for the ninth through thirteenth minutes. Judge I Judge II Judge III Judge I .61 .55 Judge II .52 Judge III Table 4.3 reveals that there was a positive relationship among all three judges. While these indices are stronger than those for the earlier segment, the cor- relations are at the lower ranges of what is usually deemed satisfactory objectivity. As before, Judges I and II are somewhat more similar in their ratings, but there again, there are no statistically significant intervals between the pairs of correlations. Inspection of the correlation matrices indicate that there was a greater diversity among the three pro- fessional judges during the rating of the first four minutes than during the ratings of the ninth through thir- teenth minutes. In rating the first four minutes; two of the judges were together more than with the third, but their correlation accounted for only about 25 per cent of the variance. In the rating of the ninth through thirteenth minutes, the diversity was not as great, and the correlations were higher. The same two judges were more similar in their 74 ratings than they were similar to the third judge. For the two judges that were similar, the variance accounted for was 36 per cent. These correlation results help inter- pret the F value for the analysis of variance that the three professional judges were not signifiCantly alike in their ratings of the practicum counselors. The F value for the analysis of variance over the time segment of the first four and the ninth through thirteenth minutes was 2.75. Since the .05 level for the F value is 3.89 for 1, 318 degrees of freedom, the dif- ferences between the two time segments were attributed to chance. Since there were no significant differences in. ratings for the two time segments, these segments were added and treated subsequently as one rating instead of two separate ratings. Lindquist (1953) indicates that if the interaction is not significant, then the interaction mean square is an unbiased estimate of the common within-cells variance, and may be used in place of the within-cells mean square as the error term for testing the significance of the treatment differences. On the assumption that there is no inter- action, the formula F : ”SA/'SSAL + SSw is used to test N - a - 1 - 1 the treatment's effect. Because the interaction effects for all the two-way analysis of variance were not significant, 75 a formula was computed to indicate the adjusted value. This pooled value was so similar to the original F value that the author decided to report the original in this present study. gne-wgy Analysis of Variance for the Three Professional Judges for the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale Because of the evidence that the three professional judges' ratings for the 54 practicum counselors on the two time segments were not significantly different, a one-way analysis of variance was computed to determine whether a significant difference in means existed among the video, audio, and control groups for the Counseling Process Effec- tiveness Scale (CPES). The first part of this scale consists of 33 items, the second part consists of an eight point global scale, and the third part consists of adjectives written by each judge to describe the practicum counselor. Performance of the Groups on the OPES. Part I The total scale for each counselor on the 33 item subscale of the OPES was summed across the three judges and the two time segments. The resulting scores for the three groups were analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance. Hypotheses 1. There are no differences in the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using videotapes as a means of stimulated recall as compared with educating counselor effectiveness with the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using audiotapes to stimulate recall. 76 2° There are no differences in the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using either audio or video tapes with the process of stimulated recall as compared with educating counselor effectiveness with the regular training pro- cedure without IPR. Table 4.4 Analysis of variance for Part I of the CPES. Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Ho Between Groups 10313.81 2 5156.91 1.12 Accepted Within Groups 235173.00 51 4611.24 TOTAL 245486.81 53 Necessary: F .05}: 3.18 to r8380t HO, + 2 An F value of 3.18 is necessary for (2, 51) degrees of free- dom before significant differences between groups can be concluded at the .05 level of confidence. Inspection of Table 4.4 reveals an F value of 1.12 and therefore the first and second null hypotheses are accepted. Differences among the three treatment groups can only be attributed to chance variation within a common population and not to the effects of experimental treatments. .The results of this study indicate that when the three professional judges’ ratings on Part I of the CPES were combined, the F value of the analysis of variance was too small to be significant at the .05 level of confidence. 77 For the reader's information, the score distributions and means for the three groups are shown on Graph 4.1. Graph 4.1 Distribution of total scores for Part I of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale as rated by three professional judges for the two time segments. lNumber of:Cornselons l —-3 '-'2 —1 one I I 1 I I I I Scores: 140 201 251 331 3E1 401 4E1 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Video mean scores = Audio mean scores = . . . . . Control mean scores Means and standard deviations for the three treatment groups for both master and doctoral degree counselors Video Audio Control Master Degree Mean 308 330 323 SD 64.88 66.65 62.33 Doctoral Degree Mean 330 420 386 SD 86.86 107.43 109.66 78 Analysis of Part II of the CPES, the Global Scores A one-way analysis of variance was computed to determine whether a significant difference in means existed among the video, audio, and control groups on the global ratings by the three professional judges. The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 4.5. Table 4.5 Analysis of variance of global ratings for the two time segments by the three professional judges. Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Ho Between Treatment 2.68 2 1.34 1.12 Accepted Within Treatment 61.01 51 1.20 TOTAL 63.69 53 Necessary: F .052 3.18 to reject I-Io1 + 2 An F value of 3.18 is necessary for 2, 51 degrees of freedom before the differences among the three treatment groups can be rejected at the .05 level of confidence. 'Inspection of Table 4.5 reveals an F value of 1.12 and therefore the two null hypotheses were accepted. Differences among the three treatment groups in global ratings can only be attributed to chance variation within a common I population and not to the experimental treatments. 79 Analysis of Part III of the CPESI the Adjegtives An analysis of variance was computed to determine whether a significant difference in means existed among the video, audio, and control groups for the adjectives that the three professional judges assigned to the 54 practicum counselors. Each of the three professional judges wrote . several adjectives or short sentences desoribing the coun- selor. Eleven doctoral students in counseling ranked the clusters of adjectives from high to low as to their descrip- tiveness of good counseling. The average ranking for each of the 16 clusters of adjectives ranged between one and sixteen. The adjectival descriptions of each counselor were thus assigned a numerical score. Table 4.6 Analysis of variance for the adjective scores for the two time segments by three professional judges. Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares - d.f. Square F Ho Between - Group 192.44 2 96.22 .48 Accepted Within Group 10267.56 51 201.32 TOTAL 10460.00 53 Necessary: F .OS'Z,3.18 to reject Ho1 + 2 Inspection of Table 4.6 reveals an F value of .48 which is not large enough to be considered significant at the .05 level. 80 Variation among the three group means for the adjective scores can be attributed to chance variation within a common population rather than to the experimental treatments. Rating Differences Among the Three Judges Analyses of variance were computed for each of the three professional judges. Analyses of these results indicated that the three judges were rating the 54 counselors differently. Their ratings could have been influenced by several different factors, such as different philosophies of counseling or attention to different aspects of the counseling session. Even though they had been specially trainedin rating the three parts of the scale, their individual criteria apparently were different. The dif- ferences among their ratings are summarized in a separate table for each judge indicating mean scores for the three parts of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale. The results for Judge I show a consistent pattern across the three parts of the CPES in his ratings for the first four minutes, the differences reached significance only for the third part of the scale. See Table 4.7 for the results of this judge's ratings. 81 The results for Judge II indicated that with one exception there were no significant differences on either time segment over all three parts of the evaluation instrument. The one exception was the global rating scale in the second four minute period which was significant at the .05 level. These results for the second judge are presented in Table 4.8. The third judge found no statistically signifi- cant differences among any of the treatment groups for either time period in any of the parts of the evaluation instrument. The results are presented in Table 4.9 for the third judge. Two-Ha Anal sis of Va iance for the TwO Secretaries and the First Fong¥nut s anathe Ninth throggh Thirteenth Minutes Two secretaries rated the 54 counselors on the .same two four minute}segments of the criterion interview. A two-way analysis of variance was used to determine whether there were significant differences between judges or between the ratings given to the time segments. The results of the analysis of variance are summarized in Table 4.10. 82 nomanwaaoo node n« conaaneuns ma masonw pqeapmesp eennp one No pneuman one Hecca mo. an» an enceaeaawamm p '. ma. m.om m.om n.m_ mo.. o.m s.m was“ mnm.m m.fia n.0, ..m mc>aeecne4 mm. new m.m n.a Pe._ m.m Adm m.m ma._ New F.e m.m Hencfle mm. o.eo, otaaa o.mm mm. o.ae ceun o.mm cm._ no.mm 0.4m o.ee eacpH mm means 0 4 a eeaaa o 4 a cease o 4 a a Hence a m_ on eaaz a mafia an ego 1.6Hmom mmonebapoenmm mmoeonm madammnSoo on» no apnea manna any new mwaapsn uses H swash h. a manna 83 nomanwaaoo node a“ cesafinecns ma masonw pdefipdenp mess» on» we smegman one scene mo. an» an eneeaeaawamm — mm.m 4.m_ m.om m.ca ma.. e.c .mqm n.» sm.. e.m m.o. m.m neaapeene4 om.m m.c maH. _.e «ma.n 4.m mam .m.m 4n. new n.n ‘_.n Heneae om._ o.mo_ o.ma. o.mm mm._ 0.0m o.on o.m4 mm. o.am o.mw 0.04 aseeH mm eaaea o 4 a cease o . 4 _> enema .u .4 .> a Hence a n_ a» ends a esam an ego mmmoonm wnaaemnSoo one no manna means ens .eaeom mmmsobapoeumn new mmdapmn noes HH awash m.4 canoe 84 .ndmansasoo some.aa cosaaneuns ma museum amusemenp means can no pmenwan ona — m a. tmm walla 4.mm m4. will: 92 ed— om. m.o_ mg: In. a... $3383 5. MIN Md. «4. mm. 9n 4.44. Tm S. and 9m m6 HencS mm. o.mmfi oimwa o.ma_ mm. o.mm o.me o.mc mo. .o.mn o.am o.em maeau.mn ages 0 4 a ages 0 4 I» as?» .o 4 -a a Hence a n. 3 2:2 a 2.2 8. ado . deO m mmnmflmbduyomHHM mmooosm wadaomnsoo one no manna manna on» new mmaapmn mama HHH awash m.¢ canes 85 Table 4.10 Analysis of variance for two secretaries and the first four minutes and the ninth through thirteenth minutes. Source of Sum of ‘ Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Judges 532.04 1 532.04 4.98** Time 992.45 1 992.45 9.28** (Interaction) Judges X Time 397.45 1 397.45 3.72 Error 22661.02 212 106.89 TOTAL 24582.96 215 *Necessary: F .052. 3.89 for 1, 212 degrees of freedom **Necessary: F .012: 4.71 for 1, 212 degrees of freedom Inspection of Table 4.10 reveals an F value Of 4.98 which was significant at the .05 level of confidence. This indicated that the two secretaries were not rating the 54 counselOrs in a similar way. In order to determine how the two secretaries differed, correlations were computed between their rating and those of the three professional judges. All ratings were positive, but these were generally considerably lower than one would hope or eXpect. The objectivity cf the ratings was very poor. In general, the secretaries apparently agreed with one another's ratings about as well as the three professional judges did with each other for the first four minutes, but not for the second. For the 86 Table 4.11 Correlations of ratings of two secretaries and three professional judges for both time segments. First Four Minutes Judge I Judge II Judge III Secretary I Judge II .46 Judge III .31 .30 Secretary I .32 .13 .39 Secretary II .12 .03 .06 .38 Minutes 9 - 13 Judge I Judge II Judge III Secretary I Judge II .61 Judge III .55 .52 Secretary I .18 .13 .39 Secretary II .18 .04 .23 .41 first four minutes, one of themsecretaries agreed about as well with two of the three professional judges as they did with each other. But the second secretary's ratings were almost independent of the three professional judges for the first four'minute segment. Neither secretary related very closely to two of the three judges in the second time segment. ‘ In general, except for one secretary in the first segment, the secretary's ratings differed from the professional judges more than three judges differed from each other. They 87 must have interpreted the scale differently, were sensitive to different things, or were just less sensitive in general. Table 4.12 Intercorrelation for the two secretaries, their relationship with the three professional judges and themselves for the first four and ninth through thirteenth minutes. First Four Minutes 'Secretary I Secretary II Judge I .18 .18 Judge II ‘ .16 .04 Judge III .13 .23 Secretary I .41 Minutes 9 — 13 ___ Secretary I Secretary II Judge I .33 .12 311de II .13 .03 Judge III .39 ~05 Secretary I p ~.38 k Because the secretaries rated the practicum coun- selors differently for the two segments of time, the one-way ansJLysis of variance was computed separately for each time “ment. A Because the secretaries rated the practicum coun- “101‘3 differently for the two time segments, as shown by the I318111.1‘icant F value in Table 4.10, one-way analyses of variance 88 were computed. These data are shown in Appendixt}. No significant differences were found for any part of the scale for either time segment. Ratings of the Three Groups by'thg Coached Client The Rogers' Relationship Inventory scale, and Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale were completed by the coached client immediately after she had been interviewed by the practicum counselors. A one-way analysis of variance was computed for each scale to determine whether significant difference in means existed among the three treatment groups ,jvideo, audio, and control). The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 4.13. Table 4.13 One-way analysis of variance for the Rogers' Relationship Inventory Scale by coached client. Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Ho 'Between 1 Treatment 381.78 2 190.89‘ .72 Accepted Within Treatment 13442.22 51 265.73 TOTAL 13934.00 Necessary: 174.05?- 3.18 to reject 301 + 2 Since the obtained F value of .72 is below 3.18 which is necessary fer 2, 51 degrees of freedom before differences between the three treatment groups are significant at the .05 89 level 0f confidence, the null hypotheses were accepted. Que-way Analysis of Variance for Wisconsin Relationship rientation chlgby Coached C ient The results of the one-way analysis of variance on the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale as rated by the coached client are summarized in Table 4.14. Table 4.14 Analysis of variance of the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale by coached client. 1 1 ‘ Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Ho Between Groups 225.81 2 112.91 1.67 Accepted Within Groups 3455.44 51 67.75 TOTAL 3681.26 53 Necessary: F .052: 3.18 to reJeéf 31 + 2 Since an P value of 3.18 is necessary for 2, 51 degrees of freedom before differences among groups are significant at the .05 level of confidence, the P value in Table 4.14 is 1.67, and null hypothesis was accepted. Ratin of the Audio Porti n of the Sec nd T123 Segment By a FBurth Professional 3u§ge A fourth professional Judge rated the three treat- ment groups basing his ratings on only the audio portion of the ninth through thirteenth minutes. A one-way analysis of variance 90 was applied to his ratings of the 33 item and global scales of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale. The results of- the analysis for the 33 item scale are summariZed in Table 4.15. .Table 4.15 Analysis of variance of the fourth professional Judge on CPES for the ninth through thirteenth minutes. Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Ho Between . Groups 1116.99 2 558.50 1.70 Accepted Within Groups 16754.33 51 328.52 TOTAL 17871.32 53 Necessary: F .052, 3.18 to reject Ho1 + 2 An F value of 3.18 is necessary for 2, 51 degrees of freedom before differences between groups are significant at the .05 level of confidence, and the P value is 1.70 in Table 4.15 and the null hypotheses were accepted. The results of the analysis for the global scale are summarized in Table 4.16. Since Table 4.16 reveals an R value of 1.16 the null hypotheses were accepted. 91 Table 4.16 Analysis of variance of the ratings of the fourth professional Judge on the Global Scale for the ninth through thirteenth minutes. Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F Ho Between 7 Groups 3.37 2 1.68 1.16 Accepted Within Groups 74.33 51 1.46 TOTAL 77.70 53 Necessary: F .0523l18 to reJect Ho1 + 2 Relation of Possible Con rol Va iab es to Ju es Rat n’s o reatment Grou s It is possible that the lack of findings might be due to certain uncontrolled variables that counteracted treatment effects. Such differences could exist even though the practicum counselors were randomly assigned to the treat- ment. To determine which variables were sufficiently related to the criterion variable which functioned as a control variable with a significant effect, a multiple correlation analysis was computed between several of the more prominent possibilities as independent variables and a composite rating of the three Judges over both time segments as the dependent variable. The independent variables chosen for analysis were: 1. Sex of the practicum counselor-—possibly male counselors are more effective with female clients. The 10. 92 preponderance of clients were females. Quarter in which practicum was taken-it is possible that quality of IPR and practicum supervision varied from quarter to quarter. Grade point average-possibly bright counselors were assigned to one treatment. Procedures in Counseling (816 D)-a course that each practicum counselor completes before enrolling for the practicum-it is possible that the Judges were influenced due to quality of instruction. Practicum (884)-it is possible that the practicum supervision varied for the different practicum groups within the three quarters. Candidate of the practicum counselor-it is possible that the level of the practicum counselOr (Master's or Doctoral) could be influencial. Treatment effects of the three experimental groups—- possibly could have had a decisive influence. Experience that the practicum counselors had previous to the practicum might have influenced their effective- ness. Practicum supervision-~1t is possible that the supervision varied among the instructors of the practicum. Recall interviewer supervision-due to the amount of training among the IPR supervisors, it is possible 93 that this might influence the counselors. The multiple regression indicated that treatment group (video, audio, or control) accounted for more of the variance in the Judges' ratings than any other factor. The beta weights presented in Appendix H were not significantly different from zero. Thus, these results indicated that the ten independent variables were not related to the criterion variable significantly enough to effect the treatment effects. Summagy A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the two hypotheses that were postulated in this study. Both hypotheses were reJected at the .05 level of confidence. This result indicated that no significant differences existed among the three treatment group means (video, audio, and control) as rated by the three professional Judges, the two secretaries, the coached client, and a fourth professional Judge who used audiotape only. The differences that did exist among the means as rated by these Judges can only be attributed to chance variation within a common population and not to the effect of the experimental treatments. A two-way analysis of variance and a correlation matrix were computed to indicate the individual relationship among the three professional Judges and the two secretaries. participating in the ratings of the 54 practicum counselors. The P value of the analysis of variance indicated that the three professional Judges and the two secretaries differed in 94 their ratings of the counselors. The correlation coefficient indicated that of the three professional Judges, two of them were more similar than the third. Minutes nine through thirteen correlated more highly among the three professional Judges than did the first four minutes. The correlation for the two secretaries was lower than the correlation for the two professional Judges, but higher than.the third professional Judge on the first four minutes. However, the correlation for the second time segment for the two secretaries was lower than the correlation for the three profeSsional Judges. The two secretaries correlated with each other higher for the second time segment than they did for the firstfour minutes. A multiple correlation analysis was computed to determine what effect ten uncontrolled variables (sex, quarter, grade point average, Procedures in Counseling (816 D), Practicum (884), candidate either master ordoctoral degree counselor, experience, practicum supervision, recall inter- viewer supervision) had on the ratings made by the three professional Judges. The beta weights for the ten independent variables when correlated with the composite rating of the three Judges over both time segments as, the dependent variables were not significantly different from zero. These results indicated that the uncontrolled variables had no significant relationship with the treatment effects. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND IMPLIGATIONS Summary This phase of the author's research was a study of the effects of three different methods of educating counselors by means of Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR). one group of counselors used IPR with their High School 'clients, a second group used IPR with audio portion only, and a third group (control) used the usual method of reviewing audiotaped interviews without an IPR recall interview, but in interviews which took place in the IPR rooms. The education technique studied evolved from the work of Bloom (1954) on stimulated recall. Interpersonal Process Recall (Kagan, gtygly,1963) is similar to the stimulated recall method but with added dimensions. Video- tape and an educated recall worker (interrogator) are used as the stimulus to heighten the recall effect, and the counselor later listens to the audiotape of the client's recall session. For the experimental groups 39 minute counseling interviews were recorded on video or audiotapes. Immediately following the interview a recall interviewer worked with the client for two hours replaying the initial counseling interview. 95 96 During the recall session the recording was stopped at significant points and the client was asked to relive the session and relate his feelings about what was thought, said, or felt during the original counseling interview.1 The counselor than listened to an audio recording of this recall session and later viewed the videotape in the IPR room. The design of the investigation is based on the three treatment groups receiving equal time in their respective preparation. The two experimental groups spent the same amount of time on each phase of their preparation sessions. The education for both groups was similar except that the "video” group watched the videotapes of their counseling interviews, whereas the “audio” group listened to the audio interviews. The subJects of the investigation were 46 master's degree counselors and eight doctoral degree counselors, a total of 54 subJects. The counselors were all enrolled in counseling practicum courses during one of the three quarters of the academic year of 1963-64. Counselors were assigned randomly to the three treat- ment groups, video, audio, and control. The 54 counselors conducted a total of two hundred sixteen interviews in the IPR rooms, but all counselors received only three preparation sessiOns in the IPR rooms. The final counseling interview for all counselors in each academic term was videotaped for later 1. .See Chapter II, P. 10 and 11. 97 Judging. The "client" in this last interview was a drama student trained to enact the role of client. For rating the 54 counselors, two four-minute videotape samples of the 20 minute "coached client" session were presented to the Judges. The first four minutes of the interview and minutes nine through thirteen were chosen for presentation to the Judge. The coached client rated each counselor immediately after the final interview using the Rogers' Relationship Inventory Scale and the Wisconsin Relationship Orientation Scale. Three professional Judges and two non-professionals (secretaries) rated the counselors on the two segments of the final interview with the coached client. They first rated the first four minute segments presented in random order in as far as treatment and school term were concerned. When the Judges had completed the first rating of all 54 counselors, they then rated the minutes nine through thirteen, also presented in randomized order. These five Judges rated the two segments of time using the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale (CPES). This scale was especially constructed for this study because no suitable scale could be found in the literature. This scale consists of three parts, a 33 item feeling and behavioral scale, a global scale, and a space on which each Judge was to write adJectives or phrases descrip- tive of the counselor. A fourth Judge rated the 54 practicum counselors using 98 the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale by listening to the audio portibn of the minutes nine through thirteen of the coached client's interviews. This was done to determine whether differences existed in Judgments when only audio was used in rating the counselors. The basic hypotheses of the study were: HYPOTHRSIS I: The Interpersonal Process Recall technique using videotapes as a means of stimu- lated recall is more effective in educating‘ counselors than the Interpersonal Process Recall technique using audiotapes to stimulate recall. HIPOTHESIS II: The Interpersonal Process Recall technique using either video or audiotapes as a means of stimulated recall is more effective in educating counselors than the regular training procedure without IPR. No significant differences were found to exist between counselors who experienced the stimulated recall technique with videotapes and counselors who experienced the stimulated recall technique with audiotapes as rated by three professional Judges, two non-professional Judges, the coached client, and a Judge who rated the counselors by listening only to the audio portion of the minutes nine through thirteen. Discussion The use of Interpersonal Process Recall was based on the assumption that the added stimulus would create a greater awareness for the counselor of his own counseling behavior and of the dynamics of clients. It was assumed that if counselors were given recordings in their clients' own voices expressing their moment-by-moment expectations and perceptions of the 99 counselor's behavior, as well as the clients’ thoughts and feelings, that this would increase the counselor's sensitivity to interpersonal communication, and help him to become a more effective counselor. The hypotheses of the study were based on clinical observation of numerous IPR sessions. Several experienced therapists and counselors who had used IPR prior to this study reported gaining new insights into their clients. During the study, most of the video recall sessions seemed to contain highly instructive material about the concerns of clients, the subleties of their communication, the nature of the counseloris impact on them and a host of insights which' even highly competent supervisors would probably have missed. The audio IPR-sessions seemed to contain much material of instructional value, though less than in the video IPR's especially for the nonverbal aspects of the interview. Further- more, video IPR's stimulated much more recall and discussion than audio alone, so there is much more data available. Why then did the data from the three groups turn out as they did? Several explanations are possible. A few of these beginning counselors seeing themselves for the first time seemed shocked and even somewhat depressed. ,This effect may have limited their ability to learn. It is also possible that IPR provided an over-abundance of insightful and meaningful material, thrust upon them too early for them to handle the enriching materials. Recent studies indicate 100 that when subJects are presented with a personal and enriched stimulation, their immediate reaction is one of regression. White (1963) reports a study in which infants were provided with a very large amount of visual stimulation. These infants' activity increased well beyond the point reached at the same age level by control-group infants and those who had received only the additional handling. Poling (undated, 1965) observed that many practicum counselors have fears or anxieties when audiotape recordings are first introduced in their counseling interviews. He concludes that recording the counselor's interview with a videotape produces a greater degree of anxiety and is even more threatening. Poling reports that the counselor's defenses were quite high and that hostility and resistance were evident. This explanation gains plausibility when the results of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale are examined. The video group was consistently lower than the audio group on most of the 33 items1 but was especially low on items which tended to reflect counselor anxiety. In addition to the anxiety created by viewing oneself, all recall workers were faculty or faculty surrogates. To what extent than did the counselors perceive IPR as a harsh method of "showing up" to the counselor the 1. The results of the item analysis for the 33 items of the Counseling Process Effectiveness Scale are summarized in Appendix I. 101 inferiority of his skills by a faculty member? Certainly, some counselors reacted as if the experience was punitive. Many others, of course, did not view IPR this way, suggesting possible differences in readiness to benefit from IPR. It is possible that there was not enough time fer the students to assimilate and integrate all that was pro- vided for them. Kelly and Fisk (1951) report studies in which added information actually lowered the effectiveness of psychologists' predictions. White (1963) and Nielsen (1963) report that when a subJect is provided with a visual procedure, the immediate effects create a temporary period Of retardation and suggest that if the subJect has enough time to integrate the extra stimulation, and if the experiment is continued over a longer duration of time, the subJect will increase well beyond the point reached by the other subJects who did not receive the visual stimulation. In an attempt to follow the university calendar for academic terms, all the counselors received their entire IPR treatment during the middle part of each ten week acadesic term. Because of this intensity of exposure to the process, the counselors may not have had time to integrate the quantity of information given them. It is thus possible that integration of the new learning had not yet taken hold at the time the criterion interview was held. Lack of specificity in preparation may also have influenced the results Tintera (undated, 1963) noted in his 102 study of preparing practicum teachers with the use of video and audiotapes that one of the problems students had was not focusing on the more important aspects of behavior. The focusing of attention on important errors, in essence knowing what to look for, may have been an important part of the educative process that we did not emphasize enough in the present study. Instead of using a rifle we attempted to apply the shotgun approach, thinking that the enriched stim- ulus of videotapes would be effective enough to significantly change the overall competence of counselors even after only three exposures. Maccoby, et.al., undated, 0965) indicated that training teachers for specific aspects instead of attempting to train for global results, the teachers significantly improved their accuracy in interpreting student's nonverbal communications. It is also possible that the author simply over- rated the potency of the treatment that we anticipated significantly changing the overall effectiveness of student counselors with only three exposures to IPR process. Another explanation was suggested by one of the Judges. He pointed out that as the coached client became more and more experienced, it appeared that she had learned how to be a "good client." That is, no matter how ineffective the counselor was, she had learned to relate her ”problems" comfortably and with a minimum of professional ”prodding." If true, this would surely have tended to "equalize" the three 103 treatment groups by making it possible for all counselors to appear competent. The criterion instruments may be too crude. Clearly the instruments lacked the necessary obJectivity to show the differences deserved. It is possible that the instrumentation Just was not good enough to sense whatever differences did exist. Finally, it is possible that such differences as exist among video, audio, and control methods should be looked for, not with global scales, but by scales that conCen- trate upon aspects of the counseling process that emphasize those aspects unique to the video process, and unique to the audio interrogation. Similarly, the educational process would need to concentrate upon these aspects. Implications for Future Research A replication of the investigation might include the following maJor modifications: 1. The low correlations among the ratings of the three professional and two non-professional Judges could be the result of their different orientation, but if so, the scales are too vague to measure behavior obJectively. More obJective instruments must be developed so that higher reliability can be attained. Another difficulty in using the criterion instruments was the problem of defining specific cues that the 104 Judges were to respond to as they rated the counselors. Although certain elements of effective counseling progress can be explicated for a counseling relationship over time the literature in counseling on the appropriateness of specific counselor sentences or short seg- 1 An improved ments of behavior is very sparse. instrument should be developed if none is available. 2. If the observation about initial debilitating anxiety is accurate, then student counselors should be provided with preparatory education so the experience of using IPR is less of a shock to them. Perhaps this could be accomplished by their viewing already prepared videotapes, their viewing themselves with their client and finally using full IPR treatment. Another method which. might help overcome some of the student counselor's concerns about faculty recall workers is to educate all student counselors to be able to do the recall interviewing. Two counselors could then work as a team - one serving as 1. At the time of report Richard Rank, William DeRoo and Gerald Griffin are developing instruments to Judge specific counselors’ statements. Initial results suggest markedly improved reliability and obJectivity. 105 interrogator for the other's client. The practicum counselors should have enough exposures and enough time between exposures to the IPR treatment so that they can assimilate and integrate the new infOrmation. This may necessitate using smaller samples or extending the training period over two aca- demic quarters. The goals of IPR must also be delineated so that the practicum counselors will have a clearer understanding of which dimensions of client behavior they should focus on. This implies a more adequate definition of what constitutes good counseling so that the education can be more specific and the desired behaviors can be more obJectively observed. ‘ It would then seem appropriate to rate the counselors after or during each IPR interview so that rate of movement toward these desired behaviors can be indexed over time. This might help establish the optimum number and timing of exposures to the process. There should be continued study to determine the variables operating in the stimulated recall technique. Does the counselor learn more by focusing on his own recall or that of the 106 client's? Does he learn more working with fewer clients in depth and over time or with a greater variety of client types? The coached client needs to be sophisticated enough in role playing that he responds productively only to counselors who would have encouraged him to talk if his problem had been ”real." BIBLIOGRAPHY Abeles, N. "A Study of Characteristics of Counselor Trainees." Unpublished doctoral dissertation., University of Texas, 1958. American Personnel and Guidance Association. ”Ethical Standards." Personnel and Guidance Jouppal, 1961, 40 , 206-209 e American Personnel and Guidance Association. "Standards for Preparation of School Counselors.” Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, 40, 402-407. Anderson, G. V. "Professional Standards and Training for College Personnel Workers." Educational and Psychological Measurements, 1950, 8, 451-459. Anderson, R. P., and Anderson, G. U. "Development of an Instrument for Measuring Rapport." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1962, 41, 18-24. Arnold, D. L. ”Counselor Education as Responsible Self- DevelOpment." Counselor Education and Supervision, 1962. 1. 185-192. Betz, R. L. "A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Group Counseling on the Counseling Performance of Counselor Candidates." Unpublished doctoral dissertation., Michigan State University, 1963. Black, F. A. "Counseling Laboratory Experience." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1953, 32, 36-38. Bloom, B. S. ."The Thought Process of Students in Discussion." in French, S. J. (Ed. ), Accent on Teaching: Experi- ments in General Education. New York: Harper & Brothers, 195 . 2 - ' Bordin, E. S. The Trainin of Pa cholo ical Counselors. ‘Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1950. Byrn, D. K. "How to Monitor an Interview." Counselor Education and Supervision, 1962, 1, 193-193- 107 108 Carrere, J. Cinematographic Psychochock. Principles and Technique. Applications in the Treatment of Patients Convalescing Prom Delirium Tremens." Appales Medico-Psychology, 1954, 1122, 240-244. Carrere, J. ”Psychogenesis of Alcholism and Psychotherapeutic Attitude." Annalee Medico-Psychology, 1958, 1162, Carrere, J., Craignou, J., and Pochard, C. "On Some Results With Cinematographic Shock in Psychotherapy of Alcoholic Delirium and Subdelirium Tremens.” Annalee Medico-Psychology, 1955. 1132, 46-51. Cornelison, F. S. and Arsenian, Jean. ."A Study of the Response of Psychotic Patients to Photographic Self- Imgge Experience.” Psychiatric Quarterly, 1960, 34. 1" 0 Demos, G. D. ,"Suggested Use of Tape Recordings." Pergonnel and Guidance Journal, 1964, 42, 704-705. ' Demos, G. D. and Zuwaylif, Fadil H. "Counselor Attitudes in Relation to the Theoretical Position on Their Supervisors." Counselor Education and Supervision, 1962, 2, 8-13. Derthick, L. C. "Guidance and the Nation's Needs." Personnel and Guidance Joupnal, 1958, 37, 107-113. Erickson, C. E. and Smith, G. E. Organization and Adminis- tration of Guidance Services. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1947. Froehlich, C. P. "Evaluating Guidance Procedures: A Review of the Literature." Washington: Federal Security Agency, Office of Education, Jan. 1949, No. 3310, 1-2 s Gaier, E. L. ”Selected Personality Variables and the Learning Process." Ps cholo ical Monographs: General and Applied, 1952, , 1-27. Gibson, J. J. "Theories of Perception." In W. Dennis (Ed.), Current Trends in Psychological Theory, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1951. Hahn, M. E. and MacLean, M. S. Counseling Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955. 109 Harmon, D. and Arnold, D. L. "High School Counselors Evaluate Their Formal Preparation,” Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1960, 38, 303-306. Hill, G. E. and Green, D. A. "The Selection, Preparation, and Professionalization of Guidance and Personnel Workers," Review of Educational Research, 1960, 30, 115-1300 Jersild, A. T. When Teachers Face Themselves. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955. Kagan, N., Krathwohl, D. R., and Miller, R. ”Stimulated Recall in Therapy Using Video Tape--A Case Study." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1963, 10, 237-243. Kelley, E. L. and Fiske, D. W. The Prediction of Pgrformance in CliniCal Ps cholo . nn rbor, Mic igan: ‘ University of Michigan Press, 1951. Kemp, C. "Influence of Dogmatism on the Training of Coun- selors.”~ Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1962, 9, 155-157. Kirk, Barbara A. "Techniques of In-Service Counselor Training." Personnel and Guidance Joupnal, 155, 34, 2045207. . ‘ Landsman, T. and Lane, D. "AV Media, Yes Depersonalization, No." Audio Visual Instruction, 1963, 8, 24-28. Landy,E. "Counselor Training Through Practice." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1953, 31, 310-314. Lasswell, H. D. "The Problem of Adequate Personality Records: A Proposal." American Journal of PsyChiatry, 1929, 85, 1057-10 . Lindquist, E. F. Design and Analysis of Experiments in Psychology and Education. Boston: Houghton i lin, 1953. MacMinn, P. and Ross, R. G. "Status of Preparation Programs for Guidance and Personnel Workers.” U. S. Office of Education Bulletin, 1959. No. 7 (washington, D. 0.: Government Printing Office, 1959). 110 Maccoby, N., Jecker, J., Breitrose, H., and Rose, E. "Sound Film Recordings in Improving Classroom Communications: Experimental Studies in Non- Verbal Communication." Title VII Pro set 680, National Defense Education Act of 195 , Grant 7-14-1380-136, Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University, Stanford, Cali- fornia, 1965. Miller, L. M. (Ed.). Counselor Pre aration. Washin ton: National Vocational Guidance Association, 19 9. Mosier, D. I. "On the Reliability of a Weighted Composite.” Psychometrika, 1943, 8, 161-168. Munger, P. F., Myers, R. A., and Brown, Darine F. "Guidance Institutes and the Persistence of Attitudes: A Progress Report." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1963. 41. 415-419. Nielsen, G. S. Studies in Self Confrontation: Viewing a Sgund Motion Picture of Self and nother Person in a Stressful D adic Interaction. Cleveland: Howard Allen, Inc., Publishers, 1964? Nielsen, G. s. "The Method of Self-confrontation." In a. W. White (Ed.), The St d of Lives. New York: Atherton Press, 1963, 125-144. Patterson, C. H. ”Supervising Students in Counseling PracZicum." Joupnal of Counseling Psychology, 1964, 11 9 7-530 Pierson, G. A. "Utilizing Internships in Preparation of Counselors." Occupations, 1950, 29, 92-94. Poling, E. G. "Video Tape Recordings in Counseling Practicum." Title VII ProJect 1235, National Defense Education Act of 1958, Grant Number 7-51- 0140-246, University of South Dakota, 1965. Practicum Training of Counseling Psychologists. APA Committee on Counselor Training, Division of Counseling and Guidance. American Psychological Association. Th3 American Psychologist. 1952, 7, 182-188. Prados, M. "The Use of Films in Psychotherapy." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1951, 21, 36-46. Prados, M. "The Use of Pictorial Images in Group Therapy." American Journal of Psychotherapy, 1951, 5, 196-214. 111 Ricker, L. H. and Pinkard, C. M. "Three Approaches to Group Counseling Involving Motion Pictures with Mentally Retarded Adults." International Copenhagen Congress on the Scientific Study cf Mental Retardation, 19 , 71 -717. Rioch, Margaret J., Elkes, Charmain, Flint, Arden A., Usdansky Blanche Sweet, Newman, Ruth G., and Silber, Earle. fiNational Institute of Mental Health Pilot Study in Training Mental Health Counselors." The American Journal of Ortho s chiatr , 1963. 33. 578-389. Roeber, E. C. Practicum Supervision: I. Theories, ”Trait Theory." Mimeographed Paper presented at the American Personnel and Guidance Association Convention, Boston, April 9’ 1963. Roeber, E. C. The School Counselor. Washington,.D. C.: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1963. Rogers, 0. R. Client—Centeped Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951. Rogers, 0. R; Counselin and Pa chothera . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1942. Rogers, 0. R. On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 1. Rogers, 0. R. "The Use of Electrically Recorded Interviews- in Improving Psychotherapeutic Techniques." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1942, 12, 429-434. Rogers, 0. R. Sponsor: Mathieu, Philippa, and Moursand, Janet P. "Relationship of Group Counseling to Subsequent Academic Performance at the College Level." Cooperative Research. ProJect No. CE 1417. - Wisconsin Psychiatric Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1962. Rokeach, M.8 The Open and Closed Mind. New Yerk: Harpers, 195 . Schueler, H., Gold, J., and Mitzel, H. E. "The Use of Television for Improving Teaching Training and for Improving Measures of Student-Teaching Performance: Phase I. Improvement of Student Teaching." New York: Hunter College of the City University of New York, 1962. 112 Staff of the Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology, Boulder, Colorado, 1949 (V. C. Raimy, compiler and editor). "Training in Clinical Psychology." New York: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1950. Steph, J. "Responses to Hypothetical Counseling Situation as a Prediction of Relationship Orientation in School Counselors." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1963. Tintera, J. B. "Analysis of Methods in Which Application of New Communications Media May Improve Teacher Preparation in Language, Science and Mathematics." Mass Communications Center, Wayne State University, Detroit 2, Michigan, Title VII ProJect Number 008E, National Defense Education Act of 1958 Grant Number 7'2‘0410‘037’ 19630 Walz, G. R. Practicum Supervision: I. Theory, "Self Theory." Mimeographed Paper presented at the American Personnel and Guidance Association Con- vention, Boston, April 9, 1963. Walz, G. R. and Johnston, J. A. "Counselors Look at Them- selves on Video Tape." Journal of Counselin Walz, G. R. and Roeber, E. C. "Supervisor’s Reactions to a Counseling Interview." Counselor Education and Supervision, 1962, 2, 2-7. White, B. L. "Plasticity in Perceptual Development During the First Six Months of Life." Mimeographed Paper presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Cleveland, Ohio, December 30, 1963. wrenn, C. The C unselor in a Chan in World. (4th ed.) Washington: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. Yates, J. W. and Schmidt, L. D. "The Counselor's Self Concept." Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1959. 7, 151-154. APPENDIX A COUNSELING PROCESS EFFECTIVENESS SCALE COUNSELING PROCESS EFFECTIVENESS developed by Norman Kagan David R. Krathwohl William W. Farquhar The scale was developed as a part of a proJect supported by a grant from the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, "Exploration of the Potential Value of Interpersonal Process Recall Technique (IPR) for the Study of Selected Educational Problems" (ProJect No. 7- 32-0410-216). Appreciation is expressed to Barbara Bonawitz, Sarah Hervey, Glen Robert Ward, and Robert H. Woody for assisting in the development of this scale. Michigan State University 1964 114 115 Mark each statement at the right according to the extent of the counselor's behavior or the counselor's tendency to behave in the manner described by the statement. >. :1 .4 .5? e e. -P s d 5 .3 >. [P s m .3 s 3' s *3 r111 0 on 2 1. The counselor is a co-worker 2 with the client. 3 1 0 0 3 2 1 o‘ 2. The counselor and client inter- act well with each other. 3 1 0 0 3 2 1 O 3. The counselor appears to be playing a role. 0 1 3 3 0 1 2 3 4. The counselor‘s bodily and/or facial expressions convey the feeling that he is frightened or anxious. 1 2 3 3 0 1 2 3 5. The counselor is too concerned with himself to become really involved with the client. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 —_* Throughout this Counselor Rating Scale the references correspond to footnotes below: 1. Arbitrary weights were assigned for scoring by the authors. 2. Adjusted weights determined through Mosier’s technique. *8. 10. 116 The counselor gives the impression that he is not at ease.- The counselor permits the client to engage in idle chitchat. The counselor's remarks make things clearer for the client. The counselor encourages the client to minimize her reaction to a given situation. The counselor misses cues of what is important to the client. *Items used from the Anderson Interview Rating Scale. >. hi >. .4 r4 r1 a .4 P s s g o 0 *4 >5 p s m .4 s 0‘ o o o o H p a o m o m <3 a: z 0 2 2 3 0 1 2 3 1 1 3 3 o 1 2 3 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 1 2 3 O 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 0 1 2 3 11. 12. 130 14. 15% 16. 117 The counselor inappropriately moves into sensitive topics unaware of the client's reluctance to go along. The counselor reveals certain nervous manifestations. The counselor seems to be aware of the client's non-verbal communication. The counselor paces the inter- view inappropriately. The counselor seems to make the client defensive. The counselor appears to be hostile tOward the client. >> >. S .4 3 ”A '3 5:1 0 d) «4 >; P :3 m H 03 0‘ (I 0 w 3 a: 1; 12 C: a: z. o 1 2 o 1 2 3 0 1 3 3 0 1 2 3 3 3 2 0 3 2 1 o o o 2 2 0 1 2 3 o 1 2 2 0 1 2 3 o o 1 2 0 1 2 3 17. 18. *19. 20. 21. 22. 118 The counselor's bodily postures seem stiff. The counselor helps the client to talk freely about his feelings. The counselor's tone of voice conveys his ability to share the client's feelings. The counselor accepts the client‘s expressions without disapproval or approval. The counselor shifts topics too abruptly. The counselor uses language apprOpriate to the client. >> :1 a i? e a +J :1 s g o m .H >. P :3 m H 0:1 0‘ 1.13 0 " 8 S; *3 a o e e O 1 3 3 0 1 2 3 3 2 1 O 3 2 1 0 3 2 O 0 3 2 1 0 2 1 1 O 3 2 1 O 1 1 3 3 O 1 2 3 2 1 O 0 3 2 1 0 23. 24. 25. 26. *27. 119 The counselor tends to lecture. The counselor wears a smiling mask of "acceptance" even when a different affect would be more apprOpriate. The counselor’s facial expressiOns are too serious for this situation. The counselor communicates by posture, words, and affect that he is immersed in the client's communication. The counselor behaves as if the interview is a routine, mechanical process. The counselor chooses the more superficial way of handling the client's communication. >5 rt >. «4 H r-1 (:1 H P :1 c1 :1 o m .4 p. p :3 m H ' co 0" cd 0 d) o H +9 H o m 0 13:4 0 m z 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 3 3 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 O 1 3 3 0 1 2 3 O 2 3 3 0 1 2 3 120 >. H b. .4 .4 vi a .4 P d d n o o .4 >. .p s m .4 a * 0' s o 0 0 H P a o s 0 ti. o m z 29. The counselor encourages the client to dig deeper. 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 Based on what you have seen of this counselor, try to predict how well this counselor would have handled the following incidence had they occurred. 30. If the client suddenly 0 1 2 3 started to cry. . Ineffectively Effectively 31. If the client becomes seductive with the O 1 2 3 counselor. ‘ Ineffectively Effectively 32. If the client refuses to speak. 0 O t 2 Ineffectively Effectively .33. If the client expresses to the counselor that he is concerned about her desire for homo- 1 2 3 3 sexual activities. Ineffectively Effectively 121 GLOBAL RATING OF COUNSELORS: I. To what extent would you be willing to talk to this counselor about educational-vocational or personal problems? Poor Good II. Please list in order of importance the main dimensions which led you to judge this counselor as you did? APPENDIX B DIRECTIONS FOR REVIEWING AUDIO TAPE 123 Counselor Client Date of Interview DIRECTIONS FOR REVIEWING TAPES Summarize the dynamics of the counseling interview as to the tactics used by the client, how you met these tactics, what feelings were expressed, and the rapport established during the interview. To give direction to your listening, try to answer the questions below. Make short notes to nail down your observations. 1. Which of the problems discussed were, in your opinion, the client's real problems? 2. Which of the problems given were not his real concern? a. What purpose did these problems seem to serve for the client? 3. .During the interview were there times when you assumed the client had certain feelings? a. 'What was your best guess at the time of the interview to the reason for these feelings? b. What clues and cues made you aware of these assumed feelings? c. Now, in retrospect which clues, cues, or other things support or refute your 124 interpretation? d. Were there instances where you missed major feelings? (1) What clues and cues made you now realize this? What additional kinds of things did you do in the interview? As you see it now what should you have done differently? a. Why? b. What clues and cues suggested this to you? The above five questions have asked you in detail about aspects of the interview. Could you write a paragraph or two summarizing the dynamics of the interview? What personal feelings did you have during the interview, i.e., did you feel apprehension, anger, affection, or confidence? What do you think the overall reaction of the client was to you? What is your overall judgment of your counseling effectiveness with this client during this interview? APPENDIX C WISCONSIN RELATIONSHIP ORIENTATION SCALE (WROS) 126 WISCONSIN RELATIONSHIP ORIMTATION SCALE (waosw1 Level 1: Level 2: Level 3: Level 4: Level 5: I would attempt to avoid any kind of interaction or relationship with this person. If no one else were available, I might consult this person for specific information of a factual, e.g. educational or vocational nature, but I would avoid any personal exposure. I would be willing to talk with this person about factual, e.g. educational or vocational concerns, and some of the personal meanings connected with these. I would be willing to talk with this person ‘about many of my personal concerns. I have the feeling that I could probably talk 'with this person about almost anything. *Half-step ratings are not permitted on this scale. 1. Steph, Joseph. "Responses to Hypothetical Counseling Situation as a Prediction of Relationship Orientation in School Counselors." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1963. APPENDIX D RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY SCALE 128 RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY Mark each statement in the left margin, according to how strongly you feel that it is true, or not true, in this relationship. Please mark every one. Write in plus (+) or minus (-) marks to stand for the following answers: ++ Yes, I strongly feel that it is true. + Yes, I feel it is true. - No, I feel it is not true. -- No, I strongly feel that it is not true. ++ + .- -- 1. He respects me.. 2. He tries to understand Just how I see things. 3. His interest in me depends on what I am talking to him about. 4. He tells me things he does not mean. 5. He disapproves of me. 6. He understands my words but does not realize how I feel. 7. Sometimes he responds to me in a more positive and friendly way than he does at other times. 8. What he says to me never con- flicts with what he thinks or feels. ++ 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 129 He is curious about ”the way I tick," but not really interested in me as a person. He is interested in knowing what my experiences mean to mg. His feelings toward me do not depend on how I am feeling towards him. He is disturbed whenever I talk about or ask about certain things. He likes seeing me. He nearly always knows exactly what I mean. His attitude toward me depends partly on how I am feeling about myself. I feel that he has unspoken feelings that are causing difficulty in our relationship. He is indifferent to me. At times he Jumps to the con- clusion that I feel more strongly or more concerned about something than I actually do. He responds to me consistently; always warmly or always coldly. ++ 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 130 He behaves Just the way that he $5, in our relationship. He appreciates me. Sometimes he thinks that I feel a certain way, because he feels that way. He likes me in some ways, dis- likes me in others. At times he is not aware of something that I can sense in his response to me. He is friendly and warm towards me. He understands me. If I am annoyed with him he becomes annoyed with me. He pretends that he likes me or understands me more than he really does. He cares about me. His own attitudes toward some of the things I say, or do, stop him from really under- standing me. Whether I am expressing ”good" feelings or ”bad" ones seems to make no difference to the way he feels toward me. ++ 32. 33. 34o 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 131 He does not avoid anything that is important for our relationship. He feels that I am dull and uninteresting. He ignores some of my feelings. Sometimes he is warmly responsive to me, at other times cold or disapproving. I feel that I can trust him to be honest with me. He is interested in me. He appreciates exactly what my experiences feel like to me. Depending on his mood, he sometimes responds to me with quite a lot more warmth and interest than he does at other times. He is secure and comfortable in our relationship. He just telerates me. He tells me what my actions and feelings mean. ++ 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 500 51. 520 53. 132 His liking or disliking of me is not affected by anything that I tell him about myself. He is acting a part with me. He does not really care what happens to me. He does not realize how strongly I feel about some of the things we discuss. His general feeling toward me varies considerably. There are times when I feel that his outward response to me is quite different from the way he feels underneath. I feel that he really values me. He responds to me mechanically. Whether I like or dislike myself makes no difference to the way he feels about me. I don't think that he is being honest with himself about the way he feels about me. He dislikes me. .f+ 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. .133 He applies his own point of view to me. Sometimes he responds quite positively to me, and at other times he seems indifferent. I feel that he is being genuine with me. He is impatient with me. He generally senses or realizes how I am feeling. He likes me better when I behave in some ways than he does when I behave in other ways. Sometimes he is not at all A comfortable, but we go on, outwardly ignoring it. He feels deep affection for me. He usually understands all of what I say to him. Whether I feel fine or feel awful makes no difference to the warmth or coldness Of his response to me. He does not try to mislead me about his own thoughts or feelings. ++e 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 134 He regards me as a disagreeable person. He can be deeply and fully aware of my most painful feelings without being dis- tressed or burdened by them himself. I can be very critical of him or very appreciative of him without it changing his feelings toward me. What he says gives a false impression on his total reaction to me. At times he feels contempt for me. When I do not say what I mean at all clearly he still under- stands me. His general feeling toward me (for example, of liking, respect, distrust or anger) reflects the way that I am feeling toward him. He tries to avoid telling me anything that might upset me. 135 73. How important to you is the relationship with this person, at present, compared with your other personal relationships? (Check one) a. It means more to me than my relationship with anyone else. ' b. It is Just pp important to me as any other relationship I have. c. There are some other relationships that are more important to me. d. Compared with other relationships I have, it is not important to me. 74. In general, how satisfied do you feel with the relation- ship that you now have with this person? (Check one) feel completely satisfied with it. am satisfied. am fairly satisfied. am about half satisfied, half dissatisfied. am rather dissatisfied. am quite dissatisfied. HHHHHHH am extremely dissatisfied. Please write in your completions for the following phrases. 75. The thing I especially liked about the counselor was 76. If I had known what the counseling was going to be like, I would have 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 136 My biggest problem in the counseling was The biggest waste of time was The counseling seemed very During the counseling the most important thing The thing I especially disliked about the counselor was To improve his counseling, the counselor should1 Rogers, 0. R., sponsor:. Mathieu, Philippa, and Moursund, Janet P. "Relationship of Group Counseling to Subsequent Academic Performance at the College LeVel.” Cooperative Research Project No. CE 1417, Wisconsin Psychiatric Ingtitute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 19 2. APPENDIX E FUNCTIONS OF THE RECALL INTERVIEWER 138 FUNCTIONS OF THE RECALL INTERVIEWER These are not necessarily the functions we attempted to standardize in Fall Term, but those which seem to have evolved through necessity and experience. Interrogatory function. .The interrogator helps to stimulate recall by eliciting comments, evoking associations, or more direct questioning. Expository function. .This complements the inter- rogatory function. The questions asked of the client indi- cate what the interrogator considers to be a fault in the counselor even if the client is unable to say so. .The inter- rogator may also comment upon technical aspects to the client but for the edification of the counselor. This role of commentator is important with a client who is not very verbal or very insightful. . Didactic function. A considerable amount of time is spent in the initial phases of the interrogation in training the client to Observe, improve and communicate his interpersonal perceptions. This is done by teaching the client some of the principles of interpersonal behavior, by demonstrating, by quoting examples. Motivational function. The interrogator provides a social stimulus for the client. He attempts to involve the client by his interest and attention, by treating him as a collaborator in important research, by reinforcing 139 good responses, by providing him with coffee, and so on. Regplatory function. The interrogator uses his knowledge of the counselor to control the amount of insight or the number of critical comments which he can integrate in one IPR ”treatment." The interrogator may have to tone down the comments of a hostile client, or even restrain his own flair for criticism. Nurturant function. The interrogator may need to provide the client with the support and personal concern which he expects from a counselor. He must also provide sufficient positive approval of the counselor to make the interrogation tape as palatable as possible. Function as a mogel. With counselOrs in training it is likely that the interrogator will out-counsel the counselor. This seems to have value in providing a model of how to relate, and in disclosing or clarifying the client's problem. The interrogator can also indulge in a game of cat-and-mouse with the client leading them on far enough to disclose their dynamics for the counselor's benefit in supervision, but stopping short of interpretation to the client. APPENDIX F MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR: THREE PROFESSIONAL JUDGES , TWO NONPROFESIONAL JUDGES , THE COACHED CLIENT, AND THE ONE PROFESSIONAL JUDGE. 141 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS Three Professional Judges The First Four and Ninth through Thirteenth Minutes CPES "v A 0 33 ITEMS Mean 311.6 345.4 330.4 SD 65.88 73.59 63.85 GLOBAL Mean 3.4 3.9 3.7 SD .937 .408 .323 ADJECTIVES Mean 57.88 62.00 58.11 SD 16.09 13.14 13.13 142 MEANS AND STANDARD DENIATIONS Two Nonprofessional Judges The First Four Minutes CPES V A C 33 ITEMS Mean 58.83 58.00 59.17 SD 8.22 10.73 9.86 GLOBAL 'Mean 3.77 3.80 3.88 SD .331 . .423 .366 Two NonprofesSional Judges The Ninth Through Thirteenth Minutes CPES V A C 33 ITEMS Mean 54.31 55.78 55.39 SD 6.01 7.70 8.31 GLOBAL Mean 3.22 3.66 3.00 SD .669 .380 .767 143 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS The Coached Client V A C RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY Mean 56.11 57.56 51.33 SD 17.89 14.63 16.22 WROS Mean 33.44 32.83 28.83 SD 7.97 7.70 8.97 One Professional Judge The Ninth Through Thirteenth Minutes CPES V A C 33 ITEMS Mean 50.88 61.72 54.06 SD 19.33 12.03 21.62 GLOBAL Mean 4.94 5.22 4.61 SD .87 1.17 1.50 APPENDIX G THE NONPROFESSIONAL JUDGES' ANALYSES OF VARIANCE FOR THE FIRST FOUR MINUTE AND THE NINTH THROUGH THIRTEENTH MINUTES FOR THE 33 ITEMS AND THE GLOBAL SCALE OF THE COUNSELING PROCES EFFECTIVENESS SCALE 145 Analysis of variance of thirty-three items for the first four minutes by two nonprofessional Judges. Source of Sum of Mean Variation. Squares d.f. Square F HO Between . Groups 13 2 6.50 .07 Accepted Within Groups 4752 51 93.18 TOTAL 4765 53 Analysis of variance of thirty-three items for the minutes nine through thirteen by two nonprofessional judges. Source of Sum of ' . Mean Variation Squares; d.f. Square F Ho Between Groups 20.0 2 10.00 .19 Accepted Within Groups 2696.5 51 52.87 TOTAL ' 2716.5 53 146 Analysis of variance of global rating for the first four minutes by two nonprofessional judges. Sum of Source of Mean Variation Squares d.f. Square F ' Ho Between _ Groups .12 2 .06 .04 Accepted Within ' Groups 71.96 51 1.41 TOTAL 72.08 53 Analysis of variance of global rating for the minutes nine through thirteen by two nonprofessional judges. Source of Sum Of Mean Variation. Squares d.f. Square F Ho Between Groups 4.1 2 2.0 2.5 Accepted Within Groups 43.2 51 .8 APPENDIX H INTERCORRELATION MATRIX, AND MULTIPLE REGRESION FOR TEN INDEPENDENT AND ONE DEPENDENT VARIABLE 148 whomdbnonsm mmH oo._ anomabnomsm no. adoapoonm a..: mo. monoauomwm oor 0F.1 00. psoapsona NA. is. no. mo. opeeaeneo ml. so.- mm.- 0—.1 me.- nm_o mi. mo.- eo.- mm.- mp. em. own no. om. .o. so.- .m. so. «A. «me so.- no.1 no. 00. m..- m..- _m. m..- sosssso F_. so. mo. mo. em.- mm. no.- em. mo.- Rom mo.- om. mo. _.. on. n—. no.1 as. o_.- m..- oo., mesons .eowese n“ mam "a n. m. mm Mw mw m. m. mxw H do .d a u 9 .V V a X 4D. 90 a 9 D. nu 1 1.3 so Mn+ 7A 1. or 4 "do n I. I. m D. a one a SM n 1. I O 3 a... a A I 9 Yr 3 B O I 3 moanoaas> pseudoaon one use peoosoaoosH nos one no“ msoapoaoanoo 149 Beta Weights for the Ten Independent and One Dependent Variables. Beta Weight Sex -.15 Quarter .,14 GPA -.03 884 .02 816D .24 Candidate .12 Treatment. .20 Experience .14 Practicum Supervisors .21 IPR Supervisors -.05 APPENDIX I ITm ANALYSIS OF THE THIRTY-THREE ITEMS or THE COUNSELING PROCES EFFECTIVENESS SCALE 151 Snowman» swoonnp odds mopssds ona ass . ,nopSSas anon woody one so Am_1m use m1_v seasons deadwooo s .mSoaHso no nonopawann ma on nn on on on me o on sons madame“ one on mm mm on an mu 4 hobnoo msoammonawo in em on on an on a House“ so\eos masses m.noHoms500.ona ,.4 4, pm mn _4 on me o .oaos o, mm m cm _e mn we 4 seasons on on anemone o. m_ om an an as S sonoosSoo one -.n m, o_ no en em mm o .nonpo assesses: anon .m m mm on on on 4 assesses pandas one o_ m. in nn nm on a noHooSSoo one ,.m m_ a. mm on mm on ow .psoaao m. 0— mm an nn .0» 4 one has: unannouoo a o_ n, no nn .n so a on soHomSSoo one V.A HHH HH , H T.» HE i. E Z passwom passwom psoamom passwom newsman psoamom mane zonaom . seam mos A mason mmodobapoouum mmooonm msaaomsSoo on» Ho maopH oonnauhpaana on» Ho mannass4_aopu 152 .SoHpSSPam am pm «4 mm on mm o no>aw o op soapooon mm om m4 mm um 00 4 was oudaasaa op mm mm 44 4m mm mm b pandas on» unmanneoso noaomsSoo one .m on m. on an om no o .sSoHHo on» on sonsoao ml 4. nn o4 4n 4» 4 wooden sass oneness cm 4— 4m mm mm no > m.H0Homndoo one .w .deOpano .m no 44 .4 nm 44 o oHed on season on mm s. an .4 an ow 4 unmade one opasnma nm _N 44 km mm mm b Hoaomqsoo ens .h .omdm mm mm mm on mm mm o no was on md.ponp 4m om 44 mm .n mm 4 noanmon934 on» noeaw 4m om 44 on mm mm b sodomsSoo ens .m .pho44o on» m. NF mm an em pm 0 mp4: oobaobsa madden mm m_ mm mm mm .m 4 «Scoop on Hammad: m— a. mm mm on mm > and: cosmoosoo oop m4 sodomsSoo one .m HHH HH H HHH HH H usoswom aweswom passwom passwom psoawom psoawom Nme :caaom MbHfi Roe 153 .maovsduaohaaosa om 4m om mm 4m mm o , . on 4m 4m mm mm mm 4 Beacaopsa one noose 4m mp «4 on rmm mm b noaomsSoe ona,q4— .soanooaqssaoo 0— w— mm mm mm mm o Hopuobnon n.94oaao one mm 4_ 04 m4 mm om 4 Mo.onsso on o» meson mm mm 44 4n on 4m p sodomsSoowona.tn_ Fm mm 04 mm mm 4m 0 ,.msoapopmomasos moo mm op mm 4n an mm 4 1>hos adopnoo mHoo>on m— we 4n mm mm mm > Hadomndoo.ona .Na .msoao ow op oossposaon om um p4 mm mm rm 0 n.94oaao on» no ensues: mm mm nm on mm mm 4 nodes» soundness eons nm em o4 om em nm S moeos saoseanoosonesa . noaomsSoo one .—_ . .pSoano m om om .mn 4m on o on» on sameness“ on ma __ mm mm mm ow 4 peak Ho mode mounds m mg —m mm mm Fm b HOHomgoo one .0. HHH .HH H HHH HH H _ passwom panama»... paoswom psoawom newsman passwom mth zoaaom fime mos 154 .mwsaaoou mp _m hm an on mm o m.psoaao on¢.onomm op on 4_ 44 «4 mm pm 4 hpaadpo man essence w. 49 on FM 4n A» .> ooao> no osop n.noaonSSoo one .m_ .mm444oou man om mm «4 on .n on 0 Sasha aneonc sass um ma m4 o4 4n 4» 4 op psoaao.ono means 0— an an mm .n so > noaomsSoo ona 2m— mm om m4 mm am mm o .Huapm oop mm m, an on on on 4 Soon nosesoon masses 0—. 4— on on an o» .> n.HoHomSSoo any .>_ .psoaao NP Am mm mm mm hm c on» nonwop oaapnon 4m mm mm on mm mm 4 on op massage om mm m4 mm pm mm b eoHomsSoo one .m— m. am 44 mm on on o .o>aosouoo poonao hm mm mm mm on mm 4 one mass on mason mm mm om um mm mm b HoHoquoo one .m. HHH HH H HHH .HH H passwom psoswom pacemom unoamom snowmen psosmom m>Hm moaaom Mme mos 155 .opanaonamo shoe on dHSos vacuum mm mm pm on on cm 0 pnoHoHHHu 4 sons mm mm 4m on mm mm 4 nobomoosopaooos: Ho mm on mm on on om > Mesa sHHHSm a when: HoHoquoo one .4m m_ mm m4 on on .00 o . . 1 EN mm mm mm on mm 4 .othoofi op mono» 4N mm m4 on mm mm b Hadomddoo ens .MN .noHomssoo mm mm mm mm hm mm 0 one on opoHnaonmns hm mm mm mm on mm 4 owoswsoH moms Fm mm mm mm mm 4m b Hoaomnzoo ens .NN nm no o4 ,4 an me, o ‘ .aapnsnnn em mm mm «4. an as 4 -oop moHaov nomanm mm NH m4 mm mm mm > HoaomnSOO one .pm .Hobosans on .m on mm mm on o no Hobonoonmmo mm om n4 mm mm m4 4 0504943 msOHmmoeawo m. Am 04 mm 4m om > n.9soHHo new avenues noHomsSoo one .om . HHH HH H HHH _ HH H passwom passwom passwom passwom passwom passwom mans :oaaom noun mos 156 .soHpSOHssssoo oF om on .4 on as o n.pno44o esp weaaeosn n2 we mm 44. mn as 4 . no as: HeaoacsooSn a Na 4m mm mm mm > egos on» momoono ,. amHonsSoo 049 «mm . .mmooona mp w, mm m4 mm mm o HNOHasnooa mosHpSon on m. m4 M4 04 mm 4 4 m4 apohopsH m_ n_ mm mm mm nu > 049 NH no mobsnop HpHomsSoo may .um .soHPoOHSSSSoo m.psoHHo .1 . one 44 oomsossH ma om an _4 4n 4» o as on sons scones mm o. on n4 on mm 4 one .nesos .oHSSmoo n, m. mm mn mn os a an nosnoHRSSSoo HoHomnSoo may .mm 4m mm m4 mm mm mm o .msoHnom oop mm mm 4n mm mm on 4 one awesomeness Hudson mm m. 44 mm em nn > n.eoHomRSoo.osa 4mm HH HH H HHH HH .H pooswom panamom passwom esoawom passwom passwom M>HH :caaom anh Hoa 157 umoHpH>Hpoo Hoswom uoaon Hon nuance non ma my nn _n on .m o ozono.oo4hooaoo nH a. m_ on mn on we. 4 one one» noHonSSoo m. w. on mm mm an a on» so noosonnso vdoHdo onp «H .nn mp ma mm an m_ m4 0 b“ m. mm mm m" om 4 .Mooam op newsman w" m— mm mm N— $4 > pnoHHo on» HH .Nm n m o mm 4. on o .soaooRSoo oso.nsas m n N— 4m ,mp m4 4 obHvosoom moaooon o n n ma s_ on 1» pandas ens 4H..An w n— mp on mm mm o .hno A. m w— mm on me 4 on nephews HHsoooSn w w 44 mm mm cm > pmoHHo map HH .on m. cm on .4 on _e o . . .sooooe was so nm ma on «4 4n on 4 pandas one announces. om mp on 4n mm mm b Hoaomndoo one .mm HHH an H HHH mm 4 . peoamom psoEMom passwom psoamom passwom passwom flme Scaaom Mth moa