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CREATING ART AND RESPONDING T0 ART:
AN EXPANSION OF THE STUDIO ART
CURRICULUM

BY

Linda Whitetree Warrington

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Art

1983

ABSTRACT

CREATING ART AND RESPONDING T0 ART:
AN EXPANSION OF THE STUDIO ART
CURRICULUM

BY

Linda Whitetree Warrington

Studying art by creating art and re5ponding to art through
written and verbal communication integrates art education with
educational trends that emphasize the learner's role in society.
This descriptive study focuses on two groups of high school student's
reactions toward gradual change from a personally expressive studio
curriculum to a more socially oriented curriculum.

Participant observation was the mode of inquiry chosen to
evaluate the significance of the experience. Tape-recorded class
discussion, student work and written responses provided data for
reflection and analysis. Accounts of interactions and excerpts
from student writings are included. The students were rated
according to their ability, interest in art and understanding
of the processes or products.

The knowledge and understanding gained through the descrip-
tion, analysis and interpretation served in the evaluation of the
observer's own program. The findings indicate that creating art
and responding to art can be successfully combined but that meas-
urement of the student's understanding can only be evaluated over

time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express her appreciation for the
encouragement and guidance of her chairman Dr. James Victoria and
of the committee members Mabel M. Nemoto and Nancy Stackhouse.

The cooperation of her students and department members,
Judy McEnaney and Linda Hill was also greatly appreciated.

Finally, the support and understanding of her husband,
Steve and daughters, Rachel and Rebecca were essential in the

completion of this thesis.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
Attitudes About the Art EXperience . . . . . . . . . . 1

II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
III. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Resources for the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Theoretical Framework of the Inquiry . . . . . . . . . 11

IV. DEFINITION OF TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
V. LIMITATIONS OF THIS INQUIRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
VI. PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

The Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Situational Factors That Influence This Study . . . 18
Group Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l9

Data-Gathering Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Overview of the Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Experience
Experience
Experience

O‘U‘DWNH
o
o
o
o

EXperience 24
ExPerience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
EXperience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

VII. DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF EVENTS . . . , . . . . 26

Experience
Experience
EXperience

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

O‘Lflnfi-wNI-l
o
o
o
0

Experience 40
Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
EXperience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

VIII. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . 55

IX. REFERENCE NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

X. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

iii

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Group
Group

Total
and

Total
and

Total
and

Total
and

Total

LIST OF TABLES

I Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Technical Responses According to Grade
Ability Level for Group I . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Emotional Responses According to Grade
Ability Level for Group I . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Technical Responses According to Grade
Ability Level for Group II . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Emotional Responses According to Grade
Ability Level for Group II . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Responses to Question #1 According to

Ability Level for Group II . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Total

Number of Re3ponses to Question #2 According to

Ability Level for Group II . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Total

Number of Responses to Question #3 According to

Ability Level for Group II . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of Student Achievement to Understanding of

the

Objectives - Group I . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of Student Achievement to Understanding of

the
Group
Group
Group

Group

Objectives - Group II . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I - Student Achievement on Self-Portrait . . . .
I - Student Achievement on Essay . . . . . . . .
II - Student Achievement on Self-Portrait . . .

II - Student Achievement on Essay . . . . . . .

iv

Page
20

21

27

27

28

28

31

32

33

37

37
49
50
50

51

LIST OF FIGURES

Student expressions of feeling toward
work - Group I . . . . . . . . . .

Student expressions of feeling toward
work - Group I . . . . . . . . . .

Student expressions of feeling toward
work - Group II . . . . . . . . . .

Student expressions of feeling toward
work - Group II . . . . . . . . . .

Variation in student ratings assigned
questioning - Group I . . . . . . .

Variation in student ratings assigned
questioning - Group II . . . . . .

their own

Page

39

39

39

39

43

44

I INTRODUCTION

Attitudes About the Art Experience

 

Attitudes about the value of learning are formed early in
the child's education. Elementary classroom teachers engage students
in art activities to foster creativity and allow children to express
themselves. Art activities are also used to enhance other subjects
or as rewards for special occasions. The attitude that art is
different from other subjects, "special", is shaped by the time
the student enters middle school.

Classrooms oriented to the production of art at the secondary
level promote the attitude that art is "special". During the 60's
and 70's education in all areas as well as the arts centered around
creating options for individual students. Art teacher workshops
were offered on mastering new processes and sharing successful
projects. Emphasis on technical processes and offering eXperiences
with a variety of media continue to dominate many high school art
programs.

Recent trends in the back to basics movement and the trimming
of specialized classes has prompted art educators to re-think the
value of their programs. "Many art educators now openly challenge
the long-standing assumption that understanding is a natural outcome
of an art program which places major emphasis upon developing the

creative capabilities of students."1 In re—thinking the purpose of

art education, educators need to attend to what happens beyond the
classroom and examine what the learner needs to enhance his or her
adult life. The value of the art experience is then shifted from

an emphasis on the individual learner to the individual's role in

society.

Studying art continues to be "special" because the learner
can grow socially and personally. The art experience is an individ-
ual's means of expressing ideas, values and feelings. From a social
perspective, expression involves communication from one individual
to another. The educator attending to the student's social growth
strives to deveIOp understanding of the ideas and feelings being
communicated. It is necessary to research methods of changing
studio oriented classrooms to socially oriented classrooms,
maintaining the attitude that art is indeed "special". Art
educators need to be able to define and describe why art is
special so that others can begin to understand the contribution
art education has and will make in the educational growth of the

student.

II STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of this research was to deve10p an alternate

means to the individualistic studio art curriculum, by teaching art

through learning situations that enhance social and cultural under-

standing.

Influenced by Chapman, Feldman, McFee and Degge, these

situations would combine creating art with understanding and

criticizing art and responding to art.

Specifically, the purpose

was to implement and describe learning situations that enabled

the student to:

1.

Identify personal stereotypes
and biases for acceptance and
rejection of the values of
persons in other cultures.

Recognize the similarities
and the differences over
time and distance between
cultures.

Discover the systematic
recurrance of themes in
art.

1.

So that the individual can
be aware and understand
their personal values --
it is then possible to
understand the values of
others and take re5pon-
sibility for individual
choices.

So that each student can
understand the common
relationship of humans

in all cultures and better
understand what makes the
differences between culture
groups.

So that students develOp
understanding as to how
art expresses the human
condition and that single
themes can be interpreted
through the various forms
of art.

Compare styles, structures
and materials.

Formulate explanations about
works of art.

Make judgments about works
of art.

Respond personally to the
works of art.

Analyze the relationship
between art and society
and between the artist
and his/her culture.

50 that each student can
expand his/her knowledge

of the art making processes
and better appreciate works
of art.

So that students can be
impartial and unbiased

in their criticisms of

art works.

So that students establish
a personal criteria for
quality.

So "meaning" can be found
in art works.

So that students learn how
art forms originate in a
society and be able to
express or respond to
social values not only

in their immediate social
environment but in other
cultures as well.

III REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Ideas focusing on a socially responsible attitude for art
education are gaining momentum. In the January 1983 issue of

Art Education Jack Hobbs states, "If anything, the elitist, socially

 

isolated concept of art is reinforced through art education's

emphasis on personal expression which tends to relate art NOT to

the society but to the individual."2 This statement clearly shifts

the emphasis from the individual's psychological growth to

sociological growth. Hobbs doesn't deny that the personally

expressive aspect of art exists, or is important, but that the

art experience can also be a social experience. In the same

article, Hobbs states that the public now accepts (generally)

the notion that making art has "therapeutic potential" and that

it no longer has to be "sold". He is, however, concerned that

art is being taken "less and less seriously" as our society changes.
Laura Chapman says, "We have a long history of introducing

the arts in schools as a form of physical activity or as a

manipulative tool to achieve a variety of ends. In the past

we have been so eager to treat art as a technique for achieving

other educational purposes, that we have not fully considered

whether children learn anything about the world of art, or, if so,

what they are learning. . . . In preparing youth for their role as

citizens, the major functions of basic education are: to cultivate

those abilities which hold some promise of making ones life sat—
isfying, to transmit the cultural heritage to each generation and
to nurture responsible social conduct."3

Socially relevant and responsible art education is the
common vision of the Caucus on Social Theory in Art Education.
Founded in 1979 at the NAEA convention, these educators publish
an annual Bulletin of articles, issues, theories and practices
that focus on art educations' role as a catalyst for socio-cultural
understanding. The scope of social theory and art education touches
several areas of concern: art and the technological society,
multi-cultural understanding, modern society and modern fine art,
phenomenological sociology and ethnographic methodology, to name
a few.

Daniel Nadaner believes that the recognition of social
issues in art leads ultimately for a stronger role of the arts
in education. According to Nadaner, educators communicate values
and attitudes simply by their selection of exemplary art works
and activities. He suggests that by broadening educational
sensitivity and awareness of multicultural art forms, learners
will set a lifelong foundation for social participation. He also
warns of the danger of continuing to foster expression strictly
through studio experiences in our technological society. It would
be tempting to move from brushes to computers. "Critical awareness
of the social values implicit in these experiences is needed so
that the educational phenomenon of participation is not replaced

. . 4
by the miseducational phenomenon of alienation." In another

article Nadaner declares that the social values that shape, or
mis-shape, what is taught in all school subjects are the same
values affecting the arts. These values are materialism,
scientific reductionism and conventionalism. "While humanistic
goals still have a place in school arts rhetoric, they are valued
much less in practice than are technology, receipts and acceptable
products."5 He admonishes the system of learning art history by
reducing art works to the labels of style and elements that make up
our visual vocabulary. Nadaner also contends that schools maintain
conventional views of reality fixed within a particular cultural
perspective. The underlying spirit of art works against convention.
To Nadaner the conformist, technocratic socialization that has
influenced art and art education is individualistic or so
self—centered that it is socially irrelevant.

Another social theorist, Robert Berrsson attacks the elitist
art education politics that undermine "cultural democracy"--culture
created of, by and for all people. "For socially concerned art
educators, the following goals have become of the utmost importance:
multicultural understanding through art, critical understanding of
the dominant visual culture, especially its more manipulative and
dehumanizing aspects; critical understanding of the way in which
the larger social context shapes art and art education; actual
improvement of our individual and collective lives through art
study, experience and practice. For educators of formalist persua-
sion to discredit and ignore the social dimension of the study,

experience and practice of art seems exceedingly narrow, as well

6 If art educators are concerned with the real

as irresponsible."
world implications of art, they extend the boundaries of the
conformist, elitist, self-centered society, to include the
pluralism, diversity and difference found in our visual culture.
In the words of Lanny Milbrandt, "One must question on what
grounds art education will continue to exist. If it exists
narrowly as a self-serving entity, unresponsive to society's
needs, it most certainly will appear as an unnecessary appendage
to the broader spectrum of education.”7

In his keynote address to the National Art Education Associa-
tion National Convention in 1980 Vincent Lanier stated that the
central purpose of art education is "the literate citizen, one who
is affectionately knowledgeable about all the visual arts of past
and present and of other cultures and our own."8 Lanier adds that
in education literacy means more than just being able to read, it
means to read well. More purposeful to art education is the develOp-
ment of aesthetic literacy--which, in his estimation, requires a
non-studio curriculum. He advocates removing emphasis on the
production of art claiming "that making art cannot provide learnings
about art and aesthetic experience in anything near an adequate
measure."9

In most life experiences, we are viewers of art rather than
makers of art. The viewer of a painting does not see the artist's
work, but sees instead the product of the artist's work. Knowing
this, Lanier advocates a ”dialogue curriculum" in which students

experience art works by concentrating on what function the work

played for the artist or society in which it was made, reacting
to the work, and reflecting on why the work causes the reaction
for the individual student. A dialogue curriculum would allow
students to develop their skills as art viewers and consumers,
roles pursued by most individuals in their adult life.

Creating a "dialogue curriculum" is certainly a total
re-direction for art education and could take years to successfully
implement. Manuel Barkan takes a more middle-of—the-road approach
in his article "Curriculum and the Teaching of Art". He advocates
art programs that deve10p "visual literacy"--meaning that one is
aware of the artistic dimensions of one@;life--having insight into
the poetic and imaginative aspects of human experience, and a
recognition of the potency of visual form. The teaching of visual
literacy requires making art and analyzing art in order to develop
understanding. Critical analysis is dependent upon having adequate
accumulated knowledge in order to form Opinions about the meaning
and significance of the work. "Through critical analysis students
will learn to utilize works of art and cultural history to focus

upon human meanings."10

Resources for the Classroom

 

At least three significant art education texts stressing the
social, cultural and anthropological dimensions of art experiences
have contributed to an awareness of art as a vehicle for understanding.

In Becoming Human Through Art Edmund Feldman recommended making

 

aesthetic education a primary concern of the art education profession.

10

The importance of this 1970 publication is that it is a practical

guide for implementing aesthetic education methods in the classroom.

Processes of looking at art, and responding to art can easily be

integrated to extend the individual students personal expressiveness.
Feldman's chapters dealing with curriculum construction

combine the subject matter of art with a variety of expressive

activities designed as part of a sequence in a comprehensive scheme
. . ll . .

of humanistic study. SpeCific areas focus on;

. Developing an understanding of the world

Learning the language of art

Studying varieties of the language; and
. Mastering the techniques of art criticism

meH

Robert Berrsson's review of Laura Chapman's Approaches to

 

Art in Education states that the book "describes in detail for the

 

classroom teacher and college methods students a demanding but
practical art program and philOSOphy. Nonsexist, nonelitist, and
in harmony with the yet-to-be-accomplished ideals of our democratic
society. Chapman's approach achieves a rare balance between
individual fulfillment and social relevance in the art program."12
According to Chapman art education needs to be recognized as a
serious area of study so that students can develop understanding

of the values and influences in the larger society. Her proposed

1
curriculum framework in Chapter 6 illustrates the following goals. 3

Learning to generate ideas for expression through art
Learning how artists generate ideas for their work
Learning how art forms originate in society

Learning to refine and modify ideas for visual
expression

5. Learning how artists use visual qualities for
expression

waV-J

ll

6. Learning how cultural groups use visual qualities
to express their beliefs
7. Learning to use media to convey an expressive intent
8. Learning how artists use media and tools
9. Learning how cultural groups use media to express
social values
10. Learning to perceive obvious and subtle qualities
11. Learning how experts perceive and describe art
12. Learning how people perceive visual forms in their
environment
13. Learning to interpret the meaning of perceptions
14. Learning how experts interpret works of art
15. Learning how peOple interpret visual forms as
social expressions
16. Learning to judge the significance of experience
17. Learning how experts judge works of art
18. Learning how judgments can be made about visual
forms in society

In Art, Culture, and Environment June King McFee and Rogena

 

Degge (1977) present a means for beginning to accomplish an under-
standing of the phenomena of art in culture and society. This book
focuses on responding to and criticizing art as well as teaching
art--with an emphasis on ethnic and cultural influences. One of
McFee and Degge's goals is to relate art to the differences in the
cultural backgrounds of students and to encourage the students to
understand the visual forms of other cultures.

Feldman, Chapman, McFee and Degge have presented art in
society as an important part of art education. Their perspective
is in contrast to the personal, individualistic view of art that

has been so often encountered in art education literature.

Theoretical Framework of the Inquiry

 

Among those art educators concerned that students understand
art in its social context, are prOponents seeking alternatives to

educational research methods. According to Aoki the empirical

12

analytical orientation or technical form of knowing has long been
the dominant approach to educational research. A researcher using
this method of inquiry seeks factual and statistical understanding
while assuming a detached stance, a position that isolates him from
the society he is evaluating. While this mode of inquiry may be
beneficial to know which phenomena are repeatable and predictable
in order to exert control over situations and environments, it
alienates the observer from the "real-world" of the situation.

In his analysis of research developments, Aoki provides
a framework for situational-interpretive inquiry and critical-
reflective inquiry as methodologies offering the most promise for
art educators. One common factor in these two approaches is that
the researcher is a participant in the situation.

Participant observation is a term used to denote research
techniques which anthropologists, sociologists and other social
scientists use to gather data from within the natural setting.

In a 1978 article Robert Bersson proposed a "special form of
participant observation wherein the art educator would be both

an actual participant in and observer of his own program."14 The
research design is intentionally unstructured allowing for flexibility
within the interactive situation. According to MacGregor and Hawke,
propositions may be held throughout the study or they may be
discovered while the study progresses or they may even be dis-

covered after the data has already been collected. The empiricist
may criticize such a flexible design on the grounds that the method

is uncontrolled and invalid, whereas the ethnomethodologists would

_13

assert that "reality is indeed reflexive, context-dependent and
socially constructed."15

Another advocate for alternative research methods is
Elliott Eisner. In 1974 he advocated that art education research
needed to extend beyond the limits imposed by empirical evaluation.
Eisner contended that "more imaginative" work in the evaluation
field would be rooted in ethnography and in art criticism as sources
of describing, interpreting and evaluating what goes on in schools.

Robin R. Alexander echoes the parallel between the field
of art criticism and participant observation techniques. She
defines the process as one that "the educational criticism draws
on participant observation techniques for gathering data in the
field--in an elementary or secondary classroom, an art classroom,
or perhaps a museum. The critic analyzes the data. The data is
then presented using the model of aesthetic criticism--description,
interpretation, evaluation and sometimes, prescription. The critic
attempts to construct a form that communicates the qualitative,
affective, and cognitive meanings of the situation. The result
is an understanding of the situation which is as in depth and
comprehensive as the best criticism of film, television, literature

. 16
or Visual art."

IV DEFINITION OF TERMS

For the purpose of this inquiry the following terms need
definition so that the reader may understand the stance of the
researcher.

A. Basic education.--Every society seeks to provide a basic

 

education for their children in order to prepare them to be respon-
sible adults. This can vary depending upon whether the district
emphasizes vocational skills or humanistic skills. This research
is based on the premise that both vocational and humanistic skills
are essential for individuals to be socially responsible.

B. The art eXperience.--Within a social context art can be

 

defined as a process or a product of human activity. Art has the
capacity to express feelings and values and is often an individual's
reaction to a situation. While music, dance and theater potentially
fit this definition, for the purposes of this research, the art

experience will refer to the visual arts whether the experience

 

is as a viewer or as a maker of art objects.

C. Cultural trait§.--Human activities acquired in social

 

life become a part of one's cultural heritage by way of communication.
Nancy Johnson interprets these activities as socialization--
contributing to one's "Social Stock of Knowledge." (See note 17.)

Many writers are using phrases that define one's past or status

within the culture (cultural heritage, cultural elite). Since the

14

15

skills and values for preparing learners to be responsible adults
vary between culture groups, one component of a "basic" education
is to learn about one's own cultural heritage as well as develop
an understanding for the social groups of other cultures.

D. Cultural understanding.--(Cross-cultural understanding,

 

multi-cultural understanding.) understanding is a state of mutual
comprehension of each other's thoughts and meanings in a state of
friendly relations between persons. (American College Dictionary,
Random House, 1968.) This definition provides the necessary
framework for the notion that familiarity with art forms from
other cultures can broaden the studenfls cultural understandings

as well as contribute to the understanding of one's own cultural
heritage.

E. Cultural democracy.--Best described as a society whereby

 

experiences are available to and reflect efforts of all the people.
In the visual arts, education should be equally recognized, supported
and available cross culturally and across social barriers.

F. Aesthetic knowledge.-~Sensory knowledge is concerned

 

with the value of an art object in terms of one's experience of
pleasure, beauty and enjoyment. As a part of one's "Social Stock
of Knowledge" aesthetic knowledge is transmitted through social
interactions, interpreted and internalized into one's consciousness.
G. This researcher believes that aesthetic knowledge and
cultural knowledge are transmitted through social interactions
contributing to the meaning one assigns as aesthetic preferences

and cultural assumptions.

V LIMITATIONS OF THIS INQUIRY

The purpose of this inquiry is to implement and describe a
social situation. While descriptive inquiry is advantageous for
the classroom teacher in that the evaluator is able to assume the
role of participant, it requires the observer to be aware of the
biases he or she brings to the situation. One needs to consciously
remain impartial in order to analyZe the data objectively. Personal
bias of the researcher can threaten the objectivity in two ways,
coming to the situation with pre—conceived notions about the
subjects and in exposing the flaws of a program one has personally
developed and/or implemented.

The subject's willingness to provide purposeful, trustworthy
responses threatens the reliability of information gathered. And
in these circumstances the reading and writing skills were so
varied that comprehension was difficult to assess.

Another limitation of this method of inquiry is the difficuhar
to single-handedly witness and record all relevant phenomena. The
use of a variety of research methods and data-gathering techniques
help to dispell this weakness.

Student attendance was a constant variable in this inquiry.
The numbers of students in attendance varied daily making a sense
of continuity difficult. However, this evaluator sees this as a

natural occurance in the classroom situation, one that must

16

17

continually be dealt with, especially in the spring of the year
during which this study was conducted.

Time is perhaps the greatest limiting factor in this inquiry
method. Effects of this research, not being measurable in statis-

tical data, rely on the significance of the situation to become

 

meaningful. This researcher believes that significant situations
are not necessarily memorable as single events but combine in one's

"social stock of knowledge."

VI PROCEDURE

The Participants

 

Overview

The students involved in this study were enrolled in a
high school drawing/printmaking class. All students had completed
the pre-requisite Art I (a one year course in basic design concepts
with limited exposure to the relationship of art and society or
art and culture). Approximately 1,300 total students attend this
rural/suburban school. Members of the local community are generally
politically conservative, operators of large and small farms and
believe strongly in the work ethic. The community is fairly homo-
geneous in that very few minorities are residents. Even more
important is the fact that many families have lived and remained
in this small town for generations. The teacher, participant and
observer, in this study does not live in the community even though
she has taught there for eight years.

Situational Factors That Influence
This Study

 

The following situational factors and observations are
relevant to this description: (1) The students receive limited
exposure to deveIOping understanding of the differences and
similarities within culture groups. (2) The students have limited

experiences in viewing the works of others--whether through museum

18

19

trips or through discussions with artists. (3) The students often
have difficulty making decisions on their own (this analysis stems
from the number of times students need to be prompted to make
choices and be responsible for decisions in their making of art).
(4) The students are seldom asked to verbally express their opinions
and feelings about subject matter during a "normal" school day
(this assumption is based upon conversations with the students
about responding to value oriented questions). (5) This was a
new course as a result of overall curriculum revisions. The
students were basically unfamiliar with printmaking and came to
this course expecting to learn to draw, create works of art,
receive pleasure and enjoyment from making art, and get away

from other "more academic courses" or for some, learn skills for
careers related to the arts. (6) Since the operation of this
study began in the last half of the second semester, the students
had completed two related tasks. Broad descriptions of the tepics
are; 1. A study of gesture drawing as a method of capturing human

facial expressions was the basis for portraits of each other.

 

Students were encouraged to examine the planes of the human face,
de-emphasizing outlines around the features. 2. An introduction
to the various methods of printmaking enabled the classes to hold
a brief discussion of how the graphic arts movement has improved

artistic communication.

Group Classifications

 

The students were divided into two groups--according to

their class schedule. Group I met in the morning for 50 minutes

20

per session. Group II met in the afternoon for 55 minutes per
session. Students in both groups were in grades 10-12. They all
possessed varying levels of interest, ability and experience in
the study of art, as well as varying levels of interest, ability
and experience in writing and in history.

Group I and Group II are illustrated in Tables 1 and 2
according to the number of students, their grades in school and
a rating of their level of ability, interest and experience in the
study of art. This rating is based upon prior observations and
interactions with the students-—since all students have taken one

or more previous courses from the evaluator.

TABLE l.--Group I Participants.

 

 

 

Grige Ability Levels

School High Medium Low Total
10th 0 4 1 5
11th 4 2 2 8
12th a l _7 .12
Total 6 7 10 23

 

21

TABLE 2.--Group II Participants.

 

 

 

 

Grige Ability Levels
School High Medium Low Total
10th 1 l l 3
11th 3 l l 5
12th :1. 2 .6_ E
Total 8 8 8 24
N = 24

Data-Gathering Methods

 

Classroom talk was recorded on a tape recorder. These
tapes were transcribed and edited for clarity. The recordings
provided an account of the events that were analyzed by the
researcher. The interpretations from these tapes were not neces—
sarily definitive, but served as memories which allowed reflection.
The researcher made no attempt to capture the precise reality of
the event, which would disregard the interpretive framework in which
the study was conducted. Reality in this situation is reflected in
the exerpts experienced and recorded by the evaluator.17

Another record of data used in this study were the written
responses provided by the student. The questioning strategy provided
an opportunity for the students to reflect on the event. Since the
intent was to see reasons for underlying choices the questions were
open-ended, clarified and revised according to the needs of the

. . 18
Situation.

 

22

Materials

Brushes and india ink were the mediums used for the practical
exercises. A model was posed in the center of the room and a
spotlight was aimed so that strong shadows were cast on her body.
Later in the study seventeen photographs of Kathe Kollwitz's drawings
and prints were selected and reproduced as slides. As earlier
indicated, the combination of drawing and printmaking were new
to the students. Kollwitz's gestural drawings, powerful and
complete as they are, were preparation for her prints. And, too,
her themes expressing human emotion are clearly understood even by
the most naive viewer.

These works included the following:

1. "Woman Welcoming Death" (woman with children)

2. "Seed Corn Must Not Be Ground" (the last print made
by the artist-—mother protecting three children--
hovering under her arms)

3. "The Survivors" (group of figures)

4. "Bread"

5. "Killed in Action" (grieving woman surrounded by
consoling children)

6. "The People"

7. "The Mothers"

8. "The Widow I" and "The Widow II"

9. "Hunger" (poster)

10. "The Parents”

11. "The Volunteers"

12. "Mother with Child in Arms"

13. "Run Over"

14. "WOman Between Life and Death"

15. "Uprising"

16. "Death"

17. ”Death Reaches for a Child"

18. "Mother With Dead Child in Her Arms"

Overview of the EXperiences

The events analyzed in this study are discussed in five

parts. A sixth part was administered to the 10th and llth graders

23

returning to the program the following year. This event is a final
exam, required by the school administration--but not a requirement
for graduating seniors. Individually the experiences enabled the
student to create art or respond to art, reflecting, judging and/or
analyzing the experience based upon their own scope of knowledge.
Initially the questioning strategy was aimed at studio processes
because these experiences were more familiar. The students were
informed of the purpose for each task in advance. All events were
conducted in sequential sessions. Each experience is briefly

described in this overview.

Experience 1

 

One session was planned for the initial experience of
figure drawing. The purpose was to practice and gain confidence
with the subject matter. Students did several drawings--and turned
in the drawing they thought was "most interesting". The phrase
"most interesting" was intentionally used so that the students
would judge their own work and record their responses based upon

their own knowledge or expectations.

Experience 2

 

One session was devoted to "seeing shapes as shadows".
Betty Edward's Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain provides
detailed information regarding this experience. In addition the
technique of "drawing upside down" was utilized, with the assumption

that the students would gain confidence with human subject matter.

24

The students were asked questions--reflecting on the experience.

Reflections were recorded and then evaluated by the researcher.

Experience 3

 

Four sessions were used so that the students could continue
"seeing shapes as shadows" drawing from a model. One of three
drawings was collected during that period. A fifth session was
allotted to select and display one drawing. The intent was to
allow time for observation and interaction about the works.
Exerpts from their interactions were recorded and are included
as data in this evaluation. Questions were asked to define
feelings about the works and to provide data to evaluate the
student's understanding of the objectives for the task. Answers

were written by the student and then analyzed by the researcher.

EXperience 4

 

Two sessions were devoted to viewing the slides of
Kollwitz's works. In the first session the students viewed
the slides as uninformed observers. No discussion of the slides
was permitted. The students were informed prior to viewing the
slides that they would be expected to reflect and respond to
questions about the works. Some students made notations about the
works to aid their recall of individual slides. After questioning
the responses were analyzed for similarities and rated for their
quality of content. Exerpts of student responses have been included.
During the second session the students were given brief

information about the artist. The Expressionist Movement was

25

discussed-—relating the communicative power of the graphic arts.

The slides were shown again with titles provided for each work.

EXperience 5

 

During the next three weeks the students were not asked to
write any responses to questions--nor were they required to look
at the works of others. Instead the students worked with the
techniques of dry point etching and/or tusche resist silk screening.
Relevant observations by the evaluator have been included in this

description.

Experience 6

 

This segment of the study was administered in one, two hour
session. The students were asked to reflect on all of these
activities in order to perform two tasks--draw a self-portrait
and write an essay on the relationship of art and emotion. They
were given essential materials and thorough instructions. Details
of those instructions are included as well as the results of their

performance.

VII DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION
OF EVENTS

Experience 1

 

Event: figure drawing from a model

Duration: one session

Materials: brush and india ink, paper

Student evaluation: The students selected one of several
drawings as their "most interesting", a judgment to be made
according to their own understanding. Criteria for their judgment
was recorded on the back of their work.

Teacher evaluation: The responses were analyzed and
categorized according to similar content. Two categories were
selected to represent the student's judgments. Responses were
either technical descriptions or emotional descriptions. Examples
of technical responses included judgments about the variation of
lines, values and/or shapes of the drawing or illustrated concerns
for better proportion, detail or completeness. Emotional descrip-
tions contended that the models' pose was interesting, made the
viewer "think" and/or had more feeling because of the style.

Presentation of the data: Tables 3 - 6 illustrate the
number of technical and emotional responses educed from each
student. Some students made more than one response so that the

N is not the same as the number of responses.

26

27

TABLE 3.--Total Number of Technical Responses
According to Grade and Ability Level
for Group I.

 

 

 

 

Grige Abilitprevels
School High Medium Low Total
10th 0 5 0 5
llth 3 3 l 7
12th 9 ___3. 3». _6
Total 3 11 4 18
N = 21*

TABLE 4.--Total Number of Emotional Responses
According to Grade and Ability Level
for Group I.

 

 

 

Grige Ability_Levels

School High Medium Iow' Total
10th 0 3 l 4
llth 4 l 2 7
12th 1 3 a .2.
Total 5 6 5 l6

 

N=21*

*Some students made both technical and emotional
responses or more than one of either response,
thus the N_does not equal the number of
responses.

28

TABLE 5.-—Total Number of Technical Responses
According to Grade and Ability Level
for Group II.

 

 

 

Grige AbiligLLevels

School High Medium Low Total
10th 0 O 1 1
11th 3 2 1 6
12th _§ ll 2 22
Total 11 13 5 29

 

TABLE 6.-~Total Number of Emotional Responses
According to Grade and Ability Level
for Group II.

 

 

 

 

Grige Ability Levels
School High Medium Low Total
10th 1 1 0 2
llth 2 l 0 3
12th 2 2 l __6_
Total 5 5 l 11
N = 23

29

Interpretation of the data: Evidenced by the number of
technical responses (47), the students consider a work to be
"interesting" when the subject is better proportioned, more detailed
or when the parts (lines, shapes, values) are technically varied.
TWenty-one of those students who chose "interesting" drawings
based on emotional factors (27 total responses) were initially
rated as having high or medium levels of ability; In reflection--
the indications in this introductory experience became a catalyst
for subsequent experiences. The evaluator reasoned that students

needed experience and encouragement to respond to works emotionally.

Experience 2

 

Event: Using Betty Edwards' book, Drawing on the Right

Side of the Brain, the students were instructed to "see shapes as

 

shadows" and draw upside down from Master's drawings.19 The students
were also told that another purpose was to eliminate unnecessary
details in a drawing.

Duration: one session

Materials: same as previous experience

Student evaluation: Prior to turning the drawing around
the students were prompted to recall thoughts that had occurred
while drawing and then to record observations of their finished
work. Examples of the questions and types of responses made are
included in this study.

Presentation of data: The purpose of questioning students

was to have them reflect upon feelings and record significant

3O

impressions about the experience. Group I did not have an opportu-
nity to respond to the questions because a fire drill interrupted
the event and nullified the possibility of immediate reflections.
Group II was questioned-—each student recording their individual
responses. The data was collected, analyzed, categorized and
recorded in Tables 7-9.

With the small number of total participants representing
each grade level it was difficult to assess the significance of
the student's grade level. So responses will only be shown accord-

ing to ability level.

Questions Used for Evaluation

 

Question #l.--What was the main thought you had recurring
while doing this exercise?

Responses were grouped for similarity of content. These
five comments represent the replies.

1. The student felt uncomfortable or did not like the
eXperience

2. The student concentrated on the "shapes of the
shadows"

3. The student thought about the subject matter of the
masters drawing

4. The student was curious about what the drawing would
look like

5. Assorted remarks

31

TABLE 7.—-Tota1 Number of Responses to Question #1
According to Ability Level* for Group II.

 

Ability Levels

 

 

 

Responses High Medium Low Total
1 l 0 2 3
2 4 5 0 9
3 0 l 2 3
4 l 0 3 4
5 1 1 __3 .2
Total 7 7 10 24
N = 24

* . . . .
Note in this experience the teacher's evaluation of
high, medium and low refers to the drawing completed
and reflected. A high rating was assigned to those
able to render a shadow drawing that greatly
resembled the Master's work. A medium rating
was assigned to those drawings that were shadowed
but did not resemble the Master's work. A low
rating indicates that the student had difficulty
with both tasks.

Interpretation of the data: It is interesting to note that
the greatest number of medium and high ratings were assigned to
students who said they were "concentrating on the shadows"
(response #2). Also that the number of students who had low
ratings were the same students who made assorted remarks (response
#5), felt uncomfortable with the task (response #1), or were

thinking about the outcome (response #4). It is also significant

that the number of high, medium and low ratings for this drawing

32

(7—7-10 respectively) closely resembles the initial ratings assigned

in Table 2 (8-8-8 respectively).

Question #2.--Turn the drawing around--then record the first
thought that enters your mind.

Responses were judged to fit into the following categories.
Positive reaction
Negative reaction

Critical reaction
Unrelated response

DUI-INF
.0.

TABLE 8.—-Total Number of Responses to Question #2
According to Ability Level for Group II.

 

Ability Levels

 

 

 

Responses High Medium Low Total
Positive 9 2 l 7
Negative 2 3 8 13
Critical 3 4 2 9
Unrelated ‘9 9. _2_ '_3

Total 9 9 13 31*

*
N = 24

* . .
Note: seven students who made critical responses also
made positive or negative responses.

Interpretation of the data: It is evident that most students
were negative or critical of their work. Of the seven students who
reacted positively, four made additional critical judgments of

their work. Some of the student's written comments have been

33

included here to further illustrate how they felt when seeing their
work right side up for the first time:

S: "I was surprised that I could draw by this method"

S: "If I squinted, it looked somewhat like the original"

S: "How awful the face looks"

S: "It looks distorted, out of proportion"

In the researcher's interpretation of these comments, the
students were disappointed primarily because they wanted their

drawings to look like the originals--even though none of the works

had been done with the same medium used by the students.

Question #3.--Study your drawing for a few minutes and then
record what you think of your work.
Responses for this question were categorized in the same

manner as for Question #2.

TABLE 9.-—Total Number of Responses to Question #3
According to Ability Level for Group II.

 

Ability Levels

 

 

 

Responses High Medium Low Total
Positive 3 2 3 8
Negative 0 3 6 9
Critical 3 3 3 9
Unrelated l_ 9. _9 ._1
Total 7 8 12 27
N = 24

*
Note: some students made more than one response.

34

Interpretation of the data: Even though the number of
negative reactions decreases after the students observe their work
the number of critical responses and positive responses remain
nearly the same. There were thirteen students who shifted between
the reactions. These shifts are represented by the following
comments.

S: "Now I see that it's really out of proportion"

S: "It's still not very good"

S: "After awhile I could see the 3-D figure"

S: "I had no idea that shading made the picture look

so real"

The researcher interprets these responses as indicating that
once one has a set impression of a work, change is difficult. If
the students were indeed dissatisfied with what they accomplished

then they need to be guided or encouraged to see the value of an

experience. This becomes the greatest task of an art educator.

Experience 3

 

Event: "seeing shapes as shadows", drawing from a model

Duration: five sessions

Materials: same, except that a strong spotlight was focused
on the model so that shadows would be obvious

Special instructions: The students were encouraged to look
at the model long enough to differentiate the shadows then to
"record" them on their paper. (Four sessions)

Student evaluation: During the fifth session the students
chose one of their drawings to be displayed for observation. They

were told that their choice was to, in their opinion, reflect their

35

best efforts. After all the work was displayed the students had
an opportunity to interact as they viewed the works.

Evaluator's observations: Student interactions were
observed and recorded by the evaluator. Generally students were
complimentary to one another, commenting on what was "good",
"well-proportioned", and looked "more realistic". Some students
laughed, felt uncomfortable or made negative comments about their
own work. Some students looked at the work, and returned to
their seats. Some students gathered to discuss other subjects,
not related to the class. Interaction was minimal in both groups.
However, a discussion by four students in Group II was noted as
significant.

Account of interaction:

Student G: "(inaudible) . . . to be less realistic"

N: "I think it's to be mg£e_realistic. (Pause)
It depends on how you're looking at it."
D: "To be more realistic?--They all look abstractl?"
E: "Because we're taking shadows separate from
the outlines of the form."
D: "The shapes are nice."

The students then agreed the drawings were "different".
They, too, went to their seats to wait for further instructions.

Interpretation of the interaction: The researcher sees
the lack of significant interaction as consistant with the effects
of an individualized curriculum. Given the Opportunity to interact

with each other the students chose to keep personal opinions to

36

themselves. It takes an assured student with a positive self-concept
to risk commenting publically about a peer's work. The interaction
described in this account indicates that the students were not able
to discern whether these drawings were realistic or abstract. In
reflection, the students seem to associate works of art as being
either realistic or abstract, with no regard as to how interpreta-

tions of reality might be defined in other ways.

Questions Used for Evaluation-

 

The purpose of these questions was to reflect upon the
drawings on display. Students were also expected to define their
feelings when comparing their works to others' works. The questions
were answered in writing.

1. What was the objective for this drawing assignment?

2. Use two sentences to describe the climate of the

room when you were working.

3. Use one word to describe how you feel when you

look at your drawing.

4. Use one word to describe how you feel when you

look at the other students drawings.

Presentation of the data: In response to question #1, the
students generally made one of the following comments--categorized

as reflecting high, medium and low understanding.

S: "To draw the shadows as shapes, not the lines or

contours of the figure” = high response
S: "To draw the shadows of the model" = medium response
S: "To use brushes to draw" = low response

Tables 10 and 11 illustrate the student's understanding of the
objectives when compared to the teacher's assessment of achievement

on the displayed drawing.

37

TABLE lO.--Comparison of Student Achievement to
Understanding of the Objectives

 

 

 

 

Group I
Understanding
Achievement High Medium Low Total
High 4 l l 6
Medium 1 l l 3
Low 2 s 2 .13
Total 9 6 7 22
N = 22

TABLE ll.--Comparison of Student Achievement to
Understanding of the Objectives

 

 

 

 

Group II
Understanding
Achievement High Medium Low Total
High 2 2 0 4
Medium 0 4 l 5
Low 2 .9. .3. .12
Total 2 15 4 21
N = 21

In response to question #2--climate descriptions-—the reactions
indicated various interpretations. Among the descriptors were

emotional and physical phrases. "Cool, dark and crowded" were used

38

to emphasize the physical environment. Emotional descriptions
expressed a wider range of feelings about climate. The following

list illustrates the various responses:

Group I

S: "I am given a feeling of being on stage"

8: "Everyone was concentrating"

S: "Unfriendly because other students make fun of
the work"

S: "A reclusive mood"

S: "Quiet, peaceful and concentrating"

S: "Everyone gets along and they say 'your work
is good'"

Group II

S: "Half the room is cheery, the other part is
neutral"

"There are less distractions than usual"
"The people are dull"

"Quiet, with an awe of concentration"

mmm

The responses to questions 3 and 4 were analyzed and categorized
according to similarity. Figures 1—4 represent the feelings eXpressed
toward the student's own work and toward the other students' works,
according to the number of students in Groups I and II.

Related accounts: These responses were anonymously read aloud.
When asked how they felt about the responses as a whole, the students
were critical of themselves because they were "repetitious" and
"superficial". One student in Group I pointed out that they weren't
used to teachers asking their opinions during class. Several others
agreed and said that this was the only class in which they expressed
opinions and it would take time to get used to it.

Interpretation of the data: In reference to Tables 10 and
11, student responses indicate a majority understood the basic

technical objectives of the task--to draw shadows. A total of

Students

15
14
13
12
11
10

HwaLflOQmw

 

 

 

 

 

A B C

Figure l.--Student expressions

Students

15
14
13
12
11
10

9

HwaU‘O‘QQ

 

of feeling toward
their own work
Group I

N a 22

 

 

 

n

 

A B C

Figure 3.--Student expressions

of feeling toward
their own work
Group II

N - 22

for Figures 1-4

Satisfied with own work
Dissatisfied with own work
Indifferent

39

QWMU

HMO-35010“)

 

 

 

 

 

D

u

E

Figure 2.--Student expressions

Students

15
14

Hnwhmmqm

 

 

of feeling toward
other's work
Group I

N - 22

!
Jfl

 

D

E F C

Figure 4.--Student expressions

of feeling toward
other's work
Group II

N - 22

More self-confident
Interested in other's work
More dissatisfied with own work

Indifferent

4O

eleven students understood the underlying motivation-—to draw
shadows and eliminating the need for outlines. Eleven students
did not mention shadows, lines or shapes in their response.
Descriptions of the climate indicated that a majority
interpreted "climate" as a physical condition rather than as a
feeling toward the environment. In reflection, the researcher
should have been more specific about what type of response was
expected. Feelings about their accomplishments (Figures 1-4)
varied greatly-~especially in comparing their achievement and
understanding as recorded in Tables 10 and 11. These puzzling
findings pose three questions for the researcher: 1. Were the
student responses honest and trustworthy? 2. Was the degree of
variation due to factors outside the domain of the classroom?
3. Was the degree of variation caused by the students' inexperience

and lack of opportunity to express opinions?

Experience 4

 

Event: viewing and judging slides of an artist's works
as uninformed viewers.

Duration: two sessions

Special instructions: The teacher told the students that
they were to View art works by a single artist. The teacher

eXplained that most citizens become uninformed viewers when they

 

leave the classroom. And that most of their responses, judgments,
and criticisms about works of art would be made without knowledge

of who the artist was, where the artist lived, when the artist lived

41

or why the artist created the specific object. The 17 slides of
Kathe Kollwitz's prints were then shown in a darkened, quiet room.
The slides were arranged in random order--each slide shown for
approximately one minute and then repeated for a few seconds.

Data gathering procedure: Students in Group I asked not
to write anymore, so the researcher determined that requiring
further questioning would have been invalid. An oral questioning
strategy was again used to elicit student responses for Group II.
The students were asked to respond according to their own stock of
knowledge. High ratings were assigned a numerical value of 3,
medium = 2, and low = 1, no response or unacceptable response = 0.
These ratings were totaled and the mean was established for each
individual student in both groups. This average was then used to
compare response ratings with the initial teacher evaluation level
indicating ability, interest and eXperience. While this numerical
comparison represents generalized information, more significant
information is presented in the form of exerpts--edited from the
student's written responses and tape recorded interactions.

Evaluative criteria: The following questions and sample

responses illustrate the researcher's expectations of a high rating.

Q #1 In what way/ways does the R #1 "All of these works show
statement, "Art is an an emotion, one that the
expression of human emotion" artist wished to convey;
apply to these works--for love, fear, compassion,
the artist and for the grief. The viewer picks
viewer? up an impression of the

print based upon their
own experiences."
(Student N, Group II)

42

Q #2 Describe in as much detail R #2 A brief description and
as you can recall, one statement about personal
composition that you were feeling (positive or
shown. Tell how you feel negative) should be
about the work. included.

Q #3 Identify the theme or themes R #3 Wbrds such as death, war,
used in the artist's work. fear, mother and child

should be listed.

Q #4 Speculate as to the time R #4 Realistic speculations
period and country in which should be accompanied
these works were drawn and by an explanation.
tell why you think this is
so.

Q #5 What do you think is the R #5 "The pain and agony of
artist's message? war for the people--not

the soldiers. And to
serve as a reminder for
the future." (Student I,

Group I)
Q #6 "What is your basis for R #6 Personal reflection
knowing what is happening required.

in these pictures?"

(T. explanation citing
similar experiences, in
dreams, on TV, books, etc.)

Presentation of the data: Figures 5 and 6 illustrate compar—
isons of the variation in averages assigned to student responses to
the initial evaluation assigned at the beginning of this study.

Interpretation of the data: A clear majority of students
matched their initial evaluation level. The lack of significant
progress was discouraging to the teacher. In retrospect, educators
tend to take-for-granted that progress is a natural evolution of
experience. Even though these students appeared to continue in
the patterns set from the beginning, it might serve to remember

that progress is difficult to assess over short periods of time.

43

Number
of students

20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10

 

KO

 

 

l-‘NUJubUlO‘QCD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Higher Same Lower

Figure 5.--Variation in student ratings assigned
after questioning
Group I N = 20

44

Number
of students

23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14

13
12
11

10

\D

 

 

wabmmqoo

 

 

 

 

 

 

Higher Same Lower

Figure 6.-—Variation in student ratings assigned
after questioning
Group II N = 23

45

Observations and analysis of student responses, comments
and notations made during Experience 4.

Observation: Written descriptions of the subjects in
Kollwitz's works included several comments about animals, cave men,
monsters and natives in addition to the mothers and children who
dominate the works.

Analysis: The students in this community have had little
or no experience with people from other parts of the world. Too
often they will label others as different without attempting to
realize the similarities in being human.

Observation: Many of the students used the pronoun "He"
when referring to the artist. In the next session exerpts from
the student writings were read aloud. This interaction was edited
from the classroom tape of Group I.

T: "Why do you think so many people thought the artist
was a man?"

S: "Because there are more men artists."
T: "Okay. What other reasons?"
S: "The style of the work is masculine."
8: "Most of the people in the pictures looked like men."
T: "Are there other reasons you thought the artist was
a man?"
S: "I didn't think about the artist being a man 9£_
a woman."

Analysis: Kollwitz' style and powerful expressiveness are
not consistent with many of these student's views of women. And
without knowledge of who the artist was--many of the students view
the artist from an unreal perspective. Sexual identity was not a

conscious factor.

46

Observation: Most students understood the pictures were
about war but had very sketchy information about what war, when it
happened or where it took place.

Analysis: In this high school, history classes were not
always taught in chronological order (until this year) so it is
possible that students will have difficulty assessing when events
happened in time. History classes are generally begun in a students
llth year of school.

Observation: The students were able to describe compositions
from memory (note the number of high and medium level responses for
question #2). Their descriptions included subject matter and
emotional appeal of the work. Some students remembered technical
details such as dark and light placements and balance of the
composition. Given the amount of time they had to view the slides,
technical details would generally not be as lasting in their memory.
Herein lies the very purpose of the response-~the expression of
emotion. This researcher speculates that if the students had been
given more time to view the works the descriptions would have been
more technically oriented rather than emotionally felt.

Observation: Many students remembered and described the
composition "Mother with Child in Her Arms." Their personal feelings
about this print stated a need for warm, loving pictures.

Analysis: One student was very explicit about looking at
sadness in life. These are the comments she attached to her written

responses.

study.

47

"I use drawing and art as a way to get away from
reality. Most of these prints don't depict scenes
of happiness or imagination. They remind me of
the realistic writers we're studying in American
Lit.

They are good works, but to me art is a way of
getting away from that type of thing. I mean,
your always hearing about "save the children" and
"care". They just don't appeal to me--not at this
moment. Maybe another day." (Group I)

Experience 5

Event: There was no event tested for this portion of the

A brief explanation is given in the Overview of the Experiences.

Duration: three weeks

Significant observations: While it was not required, of the

41_students involved in this study, 41_students incorporated human

subject matter into the dry point etching assignment. The other 6

students chose to do symbols for rock groups, swastikas, and cartoon

characters.

These students were also initially evaluated as having

low interest and ability and were graduating seniors.

Experience 6

Event: the final exam

Duration: one session, two hours

Participants: 10th and llth grade students

Special instructions: A handout explaining the requirements

for each task was given to the students. They were permitted to ask

basic questions to clarify objectives. The exam directions have been

recorded below in the same format as received by the students.

48

Drawing Exam - June 1983

Part I

For this portion of the exam you need to remember the following
assignments:

1. Drawing gestural portraits of each other "from the
inside-out", concentrating on the planes of the face
rather than linear edges.

2. Using brush and ink to draw "shadows as shapes" on the
human figure.

3. Using ink washes to express medium and light values of
grey.
4. Drawing faces that express different emotions.
You may use the following materials:

1. India ink

2. brushes

3. palette of water

4. 1 sheet of white paper
5. small hand mirror

**The task is to draw a self—portrait——demonstrating your understanding
that;

1. Your face is made up of planes, contours and projections--
with very few lines.

2. You know how to render facial proportions.

3. You can utilize the entire paper for a sense of compositional
balance.

4. You can captivate your own personal expressiveness.

Part II

For this portion of your exam you are to write a well-organized
essay on the relationship of art and emotion. The following topics
should be included in your discussion:

1. Explain the relationship of art and emotion--as expressed
by the artist, to the viewer and by the viewer.

2. In what ways did the EXpressionist movement contribute to
this relationship?

3. How were the works of the expressionist, Kathe Kollwitz
significant?

4. In your opinion, how have the works of the EXpressionists
influenced our society today?

You may use as much paper as you need to organize and write your essay.
Take your time and think before you write.

49

Data gathering procedure: The self—portrait and the essay
were evaluated separately for each student. A rating system was
again used to evaluate student progress. Student achievement was
assigned according to the following scale: high, good, average
or below average. The objectives for each task were eXplicit in
the instructions. Four tasks were involved in each of the two
assignments. Student achievement is shown in Tables 12—15
according to the total number of students in each group.

Presentation of the data:

TABLE 12.--Group I-—Student Achievement on Self—Portrait.

 

 

 

Achievement
Concept Below
Assigned High Good Average Average Totals
1. Uses gestural style--
no linear boundaries 5 2 6 0 13
2. Shows good facial
proportions 4 4 5 0 l3
3. Balances space 2 5 5 l 13
4. Captivates personal
expressiveness __§ _§_ ._3 .9 '13
Total l6 l6 l9 1 52

 

50

TABLE l3.--Group I--Student Achievement on Essay.

 

Logical Presentation

 

Concept Below
Assigned High Good Average Average Totals

 

l. Expresses differences
for viewer and artist 7 3 l 2 l3

2. Understands signif-
icance of communication 3 3 4 3 13

3. Makes references to
Kollwitz's prints 4 3 3 3 l3

4. Cites relationship to
present society

I...
I...
Is
I...
H
c»

Total 17 12 12 ll 52

 

TABLE l4.--Group II--Student Achievement on Self-Portrait.

 

 

 

Achievement
Concept Below
Assigned High Good Average Average Totals
1. Uses gestural style-—
no linear boundaries 6 0 l l 8
2. Shows good facial
proportions 3 0 4 l 8
3. Balances space 5 0 3 0 8
4. Captivates personal
expressiveness _§' _9_ _g_ 9. _§
Total 20 0 10 2 32

 

51

TABLE 15.--Group II--Student Achievement on Essay.

 

Logical Presentation

 

Concept Below
Assigned High Good Average Average Totals

 

l. Expresses differences
for viewer and artist 5 2 l 0 8

2. Understands signif-
icance of communication 2 2 2 2 8

3. Makes references to
Kollwitz's prints 6 0 0 2 8

4. Cites relationship to
present society

I...
[H
lo
IN
Ia)

Total 18 5 3 6 32

 

Examples of student essays: Three student essays have been
included in this investigation to show the variation of student
responses. Examples A and C typify the types of high responses
received. Example B is the opposite, showing a rudimentary applica-
tion of the concepts. All three students were llth graders.

Example A:

The relationship between art and emotion is very close
indeed; many people consider them inseparable. I don't agree
with this statement because art is also a vehicle for
rational ideas, commercial purposes, or simple ornamentation.

Whether these things actually qualify as 'art' I question
but I'm not the one to decide so let me frame the statement
I wish to make thusly: 'Art is at its finest when it deals
honestly with human emotion.‘

The prime interest of the artist is to express his emotions
and impressions to the viewer. To do this he must make his
statement in a way a viewer can perceive and yet still not
forgo his message or his personality. What's more the work

52

has to still be attractive (not always by its beauty, but its
power) enough to be observed in the first place. It is up to
the viewer to see what the artist was trying to say and
experience what the artist created.

The expressionist movement was definitely a message movement.
The artist created simple, powerful works for the expressed
purpose of advertising their emotional reactions to the world
at the time. More than any before them they dealt in trying to
sway the viewer, not just present an idea. They took the
concept of expressing emotion one step further and attempted
to change society as a whole by showing the victims of the war
in an emotional matter. They took their subject matter and
recorded it expressly for its emotional value to show the
world the horrors of war.

Kathe Kollwitz was one of the more famous and successful
of the expressionists. Her work dealt with the problems
experienced by the suffering civilians of war. Though she
was working during WWI in the prints shown there is never
an actual soldier shown, only one or two vague hints. Instead
she deals with the victims of the war, the civilians.
Concentrating especially on the mother and child image she
sought to change the attitudes of the people by showing the
victims of it.

As far as society as a whole is concerned the actual works
of the expressionists are virtually unknown by the masses.
However they affect the artists who are at work today. Though
expressionist art is not prevalent today the impartial lense
of the camera has taken over the field. Anyone who grew up
with the TV war knows that the undeniable reality of the camera
can be as powerful as the artists' print.

Example B:

I think art and emotion are about the same thing. They
(the artist and viewer) both are trying to eXpress the things
that they see. Artists draw or paint how they feel and, or
how they look. Each time they draw something it's an emotion
of theirs or someone elses eXpression on their face.

Example C:

Art is a way to express emotion for the artist. If your
artwork didn't have any emotion, it wouldn't be worth anything--
it wouldn't be something you could cherish (we only love things
that have a meaning to us). Someone would say--oh, that's a
pretty picture, and then walk right on by. The subject matter
doesn't necessarily have to be emotional—~but it should create
a feeling or mood to the viewer. It doesn't have to be ugly
or grotesque either to create emotions--it's easy to throw
together distorted images, clashing colOrs, etc., to make
something ugly-—but if it doesn't have any emotion or communicate

53

feeling to the viewer, it isn't worth much as a work of art.
The arts--no matter if it's music, drama, or visual arts--
exist as a device to express human emotions.

The artists of the expressionist movement were primarily
involved in expressing emotion and giving critiques of the
society they lived in. The first half of the nineteenth century
saw war and all its ugliness in Europe--very emotional times.
The artists of that period were understandably upset and
tried to show this through their art work-~in particular
the German artists of Die Brucke.

Kathé Kollwitz, one of the German artists in 'The Bridge,‘
did many outstanding compositions during this time. Her works
were significant for many reasons--among them--being a woman,
living in Nazi occupied Germany where she could witness first
hand the awfulness of war. Her works are characterized by the
relationship between mother and child or father and child and
seem to be preoccupied with death as a theme--but these were
only products of the time she lived in. All her works, even
self-portraits, were extremely emotional, very intense.

I think the works of the expressionists have influenced
our society today-~they remind us of terrible war is—-the
human suffering that takes place. They also can provide
inspiration to those aspiring to be artists--as do all
great works of art. The works of the expressionists have
led us away from the traditional in that they concentrate
on human emotions-~and not just a pretty picture.

Interpretation of the data: The reader should remember
that these participants were the 10th and llth grade students.
In reference to Table 1, the distribution of initial ratings of
10th and llth graders was high = 4, medium = 6 and low = 3 for a
total of 13 students. Table 2 illustrates the total of 8, 10th
and llth graders of having these ratings; high = 4, medium = 2 and
low = 6. The evaluator interprets the higher ratings given on the
exam (illustrated in Tables 12-15) to be attributed to three factors.
First, this was an examination as opposed to a regular school activity.
The students probably put their best efforts to use- Second, in
reference to Table 1, it is evident that the greatest proportion of

students with low interest and ability were the 12th graders who

54

were not present for the exam. The observer feels their absence
affected the entire atmosphere of the classroom by allowing more
space for the individual students and creating a more peaceful
environment in which to work. Third, the two-hour time period in
which this exam was administered was a better length of time for
students to develop a focus to their writing, and to demonstrate
their abilities visually.

In reference to the essays included in this description,
it is obvious that Students A and C possessed a greater skill to
communicate verbally. It is also interesting that Students A and
C consistently rated high throughout the study. Student B was one
of the students who possessed a low overall rating and often gave
inappropriate responses, no response or low level responses. This
variation in interest and capability are the educator's greatest

hurdle.

VIII Summary and Implications for Further Study

Although these findings may not form conclusive evidence
from which to plan programs, they do suggest experiences that enable
learners to make art, while viewing and talking about art,are both
practical and appropriate for studio-oriented classrooms. The
experiences discussed in this inquiry evolved into a lengthy series
of interrelated events. The fundamental relationship of these events
was to generate and expand the use of expressive talk and communica-
tive talk. Charles Dorn has advocated research methods for teachers
to introduce relevant art talk into the studio classroom. Dorn's
two suggestions for beginning to elicit dialog can be seen in the
context of this inquiry: l. classroom talk relevant to expressive
thinking and 2. classroom talk related to instructional communica-
tion.

A brief re-examination of the events in this inquiry can be
applied to Dorn's recommendations. Experiences one through three
were studio-oriented experiences in which the students expressed
feelings about their own works and the works of other classmates.
Technical responses relating instructional communication were
identified as the easiest and most comfortable interactions for
students to make.

EXpressive thinking was also emphasized in experience three

through "climate descriptions". This type of dialog was judged by

55

56

the students as being "repetitious" and "superficial", revealing a
lack of experience and opportunity to express opinions.

Additional examples of expressive talk were illustrated in
experiences four and six. The students viewed works of art, identified
themes and speculated about the conditions in which the works were
created as well as their implications on our present society. The
data and examples provided with this inquiry demonstrate the varia—
tion of student interest and ability in relating feelings about art
works through dialog. The underlying purpose of eliciting expressive
talk was so that the student would discover and understand what they
wanted to express. Research must be conducted to determine what
types of instruction elicit the most expressive talk from students.

One observation made by the researcher needs to be re-stated.
In relationship to experience four, it was observed that the student's
descriptions of the art works shown, included the subject matter and
emotional appeal of Kollwitz's works. The limiting time factor
did not lend itself to technical responses. Further research might
be conducted on the effects of time regarding technical and emotional
responses toward works of art.

What these experiences mean in the development of the
student's social and cultural understanding are only speculative.

The purposes of art education can coincide with the broader
responsibilities of general education. Ideally, educational
goals should focus on developing responsive citizens. According
to Laura Chapman, an art education program should develop each

learnertsability to find personal fulfillment, extend social

57

consciousness and transmit cultural heritage. Measuring the effective-
ness of these functions can only be observed over time.

This research was intentionally heuristic-~to serve as
impetus and as a catalyst for expanding the studio curriculum to
include learning situations that enhance social and cultural under—
standing. Its intention was to expand the thinking processes of
the participants as well as the participant/observer—-so that critical
expression would generate new ideas for all concerned. Events,
experiences and interactions combine to form our "social stock of
knowledge". It is only through further inquiry, reflection and

analysis that effective methodogies can be developed.

Reference Notes

1 . . .

Gene Mittler, "Learning to Look/Looking to Learn: A PrOposed
Approach to Art Appreciation at the Secondary School Level,"
Art Education, March 1980, p. 17.

 

2 .
Jack Hobbs, "Who Are We, Where Did We Come From, Where
Are We Going?" Art Education, January 1983, p. 33.

 

3Laura Chapman, Instant Art, Instant Culture (New York:
Teachers College Press, 1982), p. 38.

 

4Daniel Nadaner, "Recognizing Social Issues in the Art
Curriculum," The Bulletin of the Caucus on Social Theory and
Art Education, Number 2, 1982, p. 74.

 

 

5Daniel Nadaner, "Marginal Images: Art and Ideology in the
School," The Bulletin of the Caucus on Social Theory and Art
Education, Number 3, 1983, p. 19.

 

6Robert Bersson, "For Cultural Democracy: A Critique of

Elitism in Art Education," The Bulletin of the Caucus on Social
Theory and Art Education, Number 3, 1983, p. 28.

 

 

7Lanny Milbrandt, "Socially Relevant Art Education,"
The Bulletin of the Caucus on Social Theory and Art Education,
Number 2, 1982, p. 59.

 

8Vincent Lanier, "Six Items on the Agenda for the Eighties,"
Art Education, September 1980, p. 19.

9Ibid, p. 20.

10Manuel Barkan, "Curriculum and the Teaching of Art,"
Report from the Commission on Art Education, published by NAEA,
copyright 1965, p. 72.

11Edmund B. Feldman, Becoming Human Through Art (Prentice
Hall, Inc., 1970), p. 211.

 

 

 

2Robert Bersson, this description appeared in the annotated
bibliography of Bulletin Number 3, 1983, published annually by
The Caucus on Social Theory and Art Education.

 

58

59

3Laura H. Chapman, Approaches to Art in Education (Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1978, Chapter 6).
4 . . .

1 Robert Bersson, "The Use of PartiCipant Observation in the
Evaluation of Art Programs," Studies in Art Education Vol. 19/2/
1978, p. 61.

15 . .

Ronald N. MacGregor and DaVid M. Hawke, "Ethnographic
Method and it's Application to a School Art Setting," Visual Arts
Research, Fall 1982, p. 40.

 

 

 

6Robin R. Alexander, "Participant Observer as Critic,"
The Bulletin of the Caucus on Social Theory and Art Education,
Number 2, 1982, p. 2.

l7 . .

An interpretive study by Nancy R. Johnson was used as a
guide for methodology. "Aesthetic Socialization During School
Tours in an Art Museum," Studies in Art Education Vol. 23 (l)
1981.

 

 

18Questioning strategies were influenced by the article
"Existential Phenomenology as a Dimension of Evaluation" by
Peter Roth. This paper was presented to the Annual Conference
of the National Council for the Social Studies, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 11/25/77.

19 . .
The draWings were selected for human subject matter from
a boxed portfolio, 100 American and European Drawings compiled
by Nathan Goldstein, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
N.J. 07632, 1982.

 

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James Victoria and Elizabeth J. Sacca (Eds.), Published by
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Barkan, Manuel. "Curriculum and the Teaching of Art." Report of
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Beittle, Kenneth R. "Formative Hermeneutics in the Arting Processes
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Bersson, Robert. "For Cultural Democracy: A Critique of Elitism
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Bersson, Robert. "The Use of Participant Observation in the
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Chalmers, F. Graeme. "Teaching and Studying Art History: Some
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Chapman, Laura. Approaches to Art in Education. New York:
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Chapman, Laura. Instant Art, Instant Culture: The Unspoken Polipy
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Clark, Gilbert. ”Making Art Essential in Education." Art and Basic
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Dorn, Charles M. "Separate But Not Equal: The Unfilled Promise
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60

61

Edwards, Betty. Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. L.A.,
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Eisner, Elliott. "Concepts Issues and Problems." Seminar in Art
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Eisner, Elliott. "Toward a More Adequate Conception of Evaluation
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Johnson, Nancy R. "Aesthetic Socialization During School Tours
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Lanier, Vincent. "Popularization Without Misrepresentation:
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Lanier, Vincent. "Six Items on the Agenda for the Eighties."
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62

Mittler, Gene A. "Learning to Look/Looking to Learn: A PrOposed
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Nadaner, Daniel. "Marginal Images: Art and Ideology in the School."
The Bulletin of the Caucus on Social Theory and Art
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Nadaner, Daniel. "Recognizing Social Issues in the Art Curriculum."
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Zigrosser, Carl. Kaethe Kollwitz. New York: H. Bittner and
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Zigrosser, Carl. Prints and Drawings of Kaethe Kollwitz.
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