'SEIEIIIIIIIIIIEIEIIII?‘YIEIIIIIIIIIEH§s§¥=s§§I§I§¢11i4;‘,".;§‘»:I':;‘.v~"In; *."':1 r _- THE EFFECT OF THE PREP PRESCHOOL PLAY PROGRAM ‘ ON THE PLAY SKILLS AND FREE PLAY PATTERNS OF MODERATELY (T RAINABLE) MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ELIZABETH JANE WATKINSON‘ 1977 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Effect of the PREP Preschool Play Program on the Play Skills and Free Play Patterns of Moderately (Trainable) Mentally Retarded Children presented by Elizabeth Jane Watkinson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Health, Physical Education degree in and Recreation If Major professor Date May 2, 1977 0-7639 #9.,” 5 '..~- ‘ J. "h ‘ i 2'.- “u. ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF THE PREP PRESCHOOL PLAY PROGRAM ON THE PLAY SKILLS AND FREE PLAY PATTERNS OF MODERATELY (TRAINABLE) MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN BY Elizabeth Jane Watkinson The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of a preschool play program (PREP) on the play skills and free play patterns of moderately (trainable) mentally retarded children. The study was undertaken in the second year of a prOgrammatic research project whose purpose was to develop instructional materials for the teaching of play skills to retarded children. The PREP program is an indi- vidualized instructional program which uniquely combines free >play with direct skill instruction to improve the quality and quantity of play of the retarded child. Specifically the study investigated the effects of an eight-month PREP program on free play patterns and play skills of twenty-one retarded children between the ages of four and seven years. Play patterns were assessed using videotaped samples of preprogram and postprogram free play. Based on 800 seconds of free play the percentage of time spent in each of the following five categories of play was determined: Non-play, Prerequisite Skills, Primary Skills, Elementary Skills, Advanced Skills. Categories were Elizabeth Jane Watkinson behaviorally defined and encompassed all behaviors seen in free play. In addition, four specific play skills were investigated with respect to changes seen in these skills after instruction. Daily records of the children's per- formances in running, jumping down, tricycle riding and swinging on a bar during individualized instruction were analyzed to determine the effects of the program on these prescribed skills. Performances were recorded on sequential tasks leading to efficient execution of these four skills as well as on response levels within each task that reflected the amount of teacher intervention required. Results of the free play analysis indicated that the children initially had very unsophisticated play patterns, spending a large percentage of their time in Non-Play (20.65 percent) and Prerequisite Skills. A statistically significant change occurred from pretest to posttest how- ever, with the percentage of time in Elementary and Advanced Skills increasing from 8.41 percent to 28.29 percent. This change accompanied a decrease in the amount of time spent in inactivity, and a decrease in the number of behaviors exhibited in each sample of play. In the analysis of specific skill learnings it was found that 100 percent of the children learned to swing on a bar, 50 percent of the children learned to ride the tri- cycle, while small but measurable improvements were demon- strated in running and jumping down. Analysis of the free play patterns of the children who failed to make gains in . L W‘---‘ ' -..L: . A. o‘_‘g ‘ ”.va ‘ . NI 2 r3'_: ‘0 O O J '11 t In. “On : "j‘ V‘. a Elizabeth Jane Watkinson these specific play skills showed that these children spent a large percentage of time in the lower categories of play on both the pretest and the posttest. The author concluded that an individualized program of play skill instruction combined with unstructured free play in a stimulating play environment could result in measurable and meaningful changes in the quality and quan- tity of play demonstrated by the preschool moderately re- tarded child. THE EFFECT OF THE PREP PRESCHOOL PLAY PROGRAM ON THE PLAY SKILLS AND FREE PLAY PATTERNS OF MODERATELY (TRAINABLE) MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN by Elizabeth Jane Watkinson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation 1977 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to Lyle and his friends in the early childhood classes at Winnifred Stewart School. ii .' ‘ -u~’ .IOS“‘(S 1’ “.fir " ' UV. 0'. R" I ~=-r 1 A“ u¢vh O. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express her appreciation to the many people who have contributed to this thesis and the development of the PREP Preschool Play Proqram. Thanks are extended to Dr. Janet Wessel, chairperson of the doctoral committee, for her professional direction and interest throughout the course of these graduate studies as well as for her friendship and personal guidance. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Lawrence Alexander, Dr. Donald Burke, Dr. Lee Shulman and Dr. Paul Vogel for their willingness to assist in the preparation and comple- tion of this thesis. To the staff of the PREP program, Valerie Hunt, Barry Dovell, Brenda Lovell and Margaret Medak, the writer wishes to express her sincere appreciation for continued support and assistance throughout the development of the program. To the children and teachers from Winnifred Stewart School, special thanks are extended for their willingness to participate in the PREP Program and for the special times spent in shared play. iii h“-~‘~ a... (v.1. ‘.~"fiv§9 l _, . u‘..~.' ‘4'" .- ..~- fl“ ‘ 1 «UL (. 0 Co" A- \ -." V'Q "‘ 3--.. - .. - ,- M‘“ O “AK r—c "P ‘4» TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . Scope of the Investigation . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . \lO‘U‘I-blfl I-" O II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Motor Deficit of the Retarded Child. . . 9 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Play Patterns of the Retarded. . . . . . . ll Studying Play Behavior . . . . . . . . . 16 Activity Proqrams for the Retarded . . . . . 20 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Individualized Instruction . . . . . . . . 24 Instructional Strategies Using Operant Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Curricula for Instruction of Motor Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Population and Sample . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 The Program Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Prescription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 iv Q ”90““- - vua’ c U m It . FY? 1‘. CHAPTER Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . Free Play and Group Instruction . One Group Design . . . . . . . . Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . Specific Design . . . . . . . . Internal and External Validity Instrumentation . . . . . . . . Procedures for Data Collection. . Treatment of the Data . . . . . Single Subject Design . . . . . Rationale . . . . . . . . . . Specific Design . - . . . . . . Internal and External Validity. Instrumentation . . . . . . . . Treatment of the Data . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessment of Free Play Patterns . . . Action units 0 O O O O O I O O O O O 0 Results of Specific Skills Instruction. V. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Free Play Behavior . . . . . . . Results of the Pretest . Changes in Play Behavior. . . Individual Differences in Play Changes in Action Units . . . . Individual Skill Learning . . . . Running . . . . . . . . . . Jumping Down . . . . . . . Tricycle Riding . . . . . . Bar Swinging . . . . . . . . . Effects of Individualized Instruction Implications for Changes in the Treatment The Program Model . . . . . . . . . . Terminal Performance Objectives and Task Sequences . . . . . . . . . . Learner Response Levels . . . . . . . VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recomendations O O O O O O O O O O O 0 PAGE 51 52 53 53 53 54 54 57 63 65 66 66 69 7O 71 72 74 74 78 81 87 87 87 9O 95 99 100 100 102 103 106 107 109 109 110 111 114 114 115 116 ‘IIC‘O‘Tfl: R I " f-I..lug\uu A. I APPENDICES A. B. C. BIBLIOGRAPHY RAW DATA: RAW DATA: INDIVIDUAL LEARNING CURVES FOR SELECTED TERMINAL PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES. PRETEST AND POSTTEST SCORES ON PLAY ASSESSMENT vi REVISED INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PROFILE. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR SELECTED TERMINAL PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES HISTORY OF THE PREP PROGRAM AND GUIDE- LINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREP INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS REVISED DAILY RECORD AND GRAPHING FORMS PAGE 119 146 157 170 173 211 214 0“.“ r n .4--- Pu 1.) 0 (ll) 0 D TABLE 1. 10; LIST OF TABLES PAGE INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT ON 1500 SECONDS OF PRETE ST DATA 0 C O O C O O O O C O O O I O 62 INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT BETWEEN NAIVE OBSERVER AND PREP STAFF ON 1000 SECONDS OF PRETEST AND POSTTE ST DATA 0 O O O O C C I O O C O O O 6 4 PERCENTAGE OF TIME SPENT IN EACH CATEGORY OF PLAY IN PRETEST AND POSTTEST . . . . . . . 75 RESULTS OF HOTELLING T2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . 77 SIMULTANEOUS COMPARISONS OF THE MEANS OF CATEGORIES 1 TO 4 and the population MEANS OF ZERO O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 77 ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED PLAY SKILLS INITIATED IN VIDEOTAPED SAMPLES OF FREE PLAY . . . . . 80 NUMBER OF ACTION UNITS IN 800 SECONDS OF PREPROGRAM AND POSTPROGRAM FREE PLAY. . . . f 80 T-TESTS FOR THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRETEST AND POSTTEST MEANS IN NUMBER OF ACTION UNITS. . . . . . . . . . . . 80 CHANGES OBSERVED IN PRESCRIBED SKILLS DURING INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION . . . . . . 83 FREQUENCIES OF PRESCRIBED AND UNPRESCRIBED SKILLS OBSERVED ON THE POSTTEST SAMPLES OF FREE PLAY 0 O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 9 3 vii ««««« (A) pl} (I. LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. HIERARCHY OF PLAY SKILLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2. EXAMPLES OF MOVEMENT SKILLS FOUND IN EACH OF FIVE CATEGORIES OF PLAY . . . . . . . . . . 58 3. PERCENTAGE OF FREE PLAY TIME SPENT IN EACH OF FIVE CATEGORIES OF PLAY BY FOUR SUBJECTS ON PRETEST AND POSTTEST . O O O C O O C C O O C 91 4. INDIVIDUAL PRESCRIPTIONS FOR SKILL INSTRUCTION. . 94 5. PLAY SKILLS IDENTIFIED FOR DEVELOPMENT 1974-76 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0127 viii i n.“ fig '01“ 9. 'v.‘ " -— -.__ '1‘ s 1 '3“; .q m.“ A. "=":.. '.i<-b' .,.-. .' ‘1 Q 1. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Problem Throughout the preschool years a very large propor- tion of the normal youngsters time is spent in unstructured free play. During this time the child acquires the funda- mental movement skills of locomotion and object manipulation (Piaget, 1951; Espenschade and Eckert, 1967; Wickstrom, 1970) that are practiced and applied in interactions with the ob4 jects encountered in the home, in the yard and in the play- ground. The child learns to run and jump and climb, to slide on slides, hang from bars, ride tricycles and scooters and to throw and kick balls and other objects. The unstructured free play activity of the preschooler contributes greatly to his social, emotional, cognitive and motor development. It is the vehicle through which a good proportion of the child's learnings are acquired. At the same time play is a reflection of the child's cognitive and motor competencies (Piaget, 1951). The expression of these competencies through play begins with the neonate and con- tinues, with increasing SOphistication in play skills and play patterns, throughout life. By the age of four and five, young children have usually developed a wide range of skills 1 n.0 u..- a .::q vv-‘v- -.—‘- - ..‘. '..,‘ ' . A \g. u— a ‘. \ ~ ‘ "h to be used in free play. For a large proportion of these children the skills appear to be acquired without major difficulty and without much intervention by parents and teachers. What about the child then who does not play? Pre— sumably this is indicative of an absence of the competencies required for play. Presumably too it is an indication that the social, emotional, cognitive and motor advantages that are usually gained through play are being missed. Unfor- tunately, this appears to be what happens to the retarded child. During the period of his life in which play should take up the majority of his waking hours, the retardate is listless and inactive (Benoit, 1955; Kuiper, 1967). Unlike the normal preschooler he lacks sophistication in both the quality and the quantity of his free play. He spends a good proportion of his time in idleness, rarely interacting with objects or peers and rarely initiating the skills of loco- motion and object manipulation that are seen so frequently in normal youngsters (Noble, 1975). The preschool retarded child demonstrates a lag in his play behavior that is comparable to the lag displayed in motor deve10pment (Carr, 1975), physical fitness (Stein, 1963) and other movement characteristics (Francis and Rarick, 1960). Observations of four-year-old mentally retarded children in free play indicate that they showed play be- haviors that were approximately two years behind the play of normal four-year-olds in terms of space management, imitation, V H .'::.H I nI._‘ ‘. .i: ‘5‘.“1 ~~ .ALaLV‘ 1'- ) l participation and interaction with materials (Knox, 1974). They spent a good proportion of their time simply watching others, and their object manipulation skills were immature. Clearly they lacked the skills to make constructive use of their free play. The retarded child's failure to attain the motor skills and play patterns of normal youngsters may be attrib- uted to several factors. It may be related to the circular effects of his inability to respond adequately to his mother or caretaker during the months of infancy, leading to a decrease in stimulation given to him in the natural give and take of parent and child (Calder, 1972). It may be related to a lack of Opportunity to move and play that is based on parental protectiveness (Benoit, 1955). Alternately the motor retardation may be due to the child's inherent lack of ability to make use of the opportunities presented to him. Unlike the normal child, the incidental instruc- tion and exposure to play that arise during early child- hood may be insufficient to bring about play skill learnings. Whatever the cause, this discrepancy between the play skills of the normal and retarded preschooler suggests that the young retarded child needs to be taught play skills that he can apply during his free play time, and needs to be given plenty of opportunity to use what skills he has in unstructured free play. The PREP Preschool Play Program is an experimental program that attempts to teach retarded preschoolers the .V 0' ;_‘.'J" EVIVJ ur- ilrL' 1 I» U) t|l ta‘ 0 .I'-‘ "-1....‘8 u;nfi C4 r,:-' f F. “a‘b‘ s ’V‘wrflfi ~a.u.u... I I .DI. .- ~ ‘ . ‘40-. a :’-’A'.‘, ' . nv- , .. ‘ Jibfia *7] ’5 " .1 ““I h», ...t "- ~ 51‘ ‘u ‘ :h‘ .‘M.. 5-- x‘ F ‘ play skills that are acquired incidentally in free play by normal youngsters. The program began in 1974 in the Depart- ment of Physical Education at the University of Alberta under the direction of Dr. Pat Austin. The purpose of the program was to design instructional materials for the assess- ment, prescription and instruction of play and movement skills for moderately mentally retarded children between the approximate ages of three and seven years. The present study took place within the context of this ongoing research pro- gram. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of The Preschool Play Program (PREP) on the play skills and play patterns of young moderately retarded child— ren. The goal of the program was to increase the quality and the quantity of the skills the children initiated during their free play time. Instructional objectives designed to facilitate acquisition of the goal were written in terms of play skill learnings and specific strategies, using Operant techniques, were defined for each objective written. A diagnostic-prescriptive instructional approach was used in the treatment. The program was designed to bring about changes both in what the child chose to do in free time and in what the child could do when asked, shown, or prompted. As a result, jperformances in both of these dimensions of play skill ,- .:O*~' tow-V-' a ‘ .bv;0 ‘ ...‘v-l .«npn. wovo-u O 11“.” Pry _... "‘U be, ‘1. 59T...s C 9;:~: ‘ -..:“‘ob— ‘3‘; 3...“ . n ‘ "n..‘ V ‘ 'I ‘ 1 ”v- 5 A “N‘c' . l‘. I' , . H“ ,h o . . V"I SC”! 5 .’ .. . . " 4H. 3“. ‘4 '.'~‘- .p‘ "N ‘fiA \ “t patterns were seen as possible sources of data for demon- strating the program's effectiveness. The study attempted to answer the following ques- tions: 1. What are the effects of participation in an eight month PREP program on the quality and quantity of play skills initiated during free play time? 2. What are the effects of participation in an eight month PREP program on the performance of specific play skills during instructional time? Scope of the Investigation The study was undertaken in the midst of an ongoing research project whose focus was on the development of in- structional materials for teaching play skills to retarded children. Five areas of instruction were identified for in- clusion in the program: Body Awareness Skills, Body Control Skills, Locomotor Skills, Object Control Skills and Skills for Use on Specific Pieces of Equipment. Within each content area, several skills were identified for direct instruc- tion. During the year of the program twenty-eight such skills were being used, either on a pilot basis or follow- ing formative evaluation (see Appendix A). While each of these skills required extensive analysis, only those for which replicable instructional materials had been designed and tested were included in the study. The long-range goal of the program was to increase It (I . “Em ‘n '- .09 nun-o r-‘ r .n... p- un- I c . -.. ul o.‘.... ‘\l (H 'n h In play skills initiated during free time. For the preschool child, these skills would normally be applied in free play in the home, in the yard, or at the playground. While the PREP program has attempted to identify and teach those skills that are relevant to these situations, the scope of the present study was limited to the application of the play skills in free play in the room in which instruction took place. It would certainly be of interest, in later studies, to examine the application of these learned skills in the playground or home setting. Limitations of the Study The use of the one—group pretest-posttest design, and the single subject design limited the study in terms of being able to interpret the results as being solely dependent on treatment. Maturation and history were possible sources of invalidity in the group design, while these and other factors possibly confounded the effects of the single subject studies. The generalizability of the studies was also limited by the nature of the design and the selection of the subjects. The small sample size and the process of its selec- tion limited the degree to which the results of the study can be generalized. The sample was an intact group of twen- tyeone students from the early childhood classes at Winnifred Stewart School in Edmonton, Alberta. The group was chosen because of its geographical proximity to the play center and because of the willingness of the school to transport I .IA wt 9“‘ .: .L 8 J. '0‘ . v' .- an Il.‘.l0‘u‘ n v' ‘ AIIIay-O ya... a. V I.“ V ‘PAAC 'V Ulndrv~ ': 0v; 7 h. .“ “:Iyufl “'UOJn T. A. — 0. ‘ ‘c . .,a.. 'U .1: g .‘ . "ESl's H “I q '. \A b§~V‘ ~... Q at} q: . U ‘5. "v .4‘ m .PIQ‘ K .‘, ."‘§ ‘. A \J“ the children as a group to the University campus. The size of the sample was limited because of the difficulty of pro- viding an individualized program for a larger number of children. Definition of Terms Free Play Time. Time during which the child is free to choose the activities he will engage in, the equipment he will use, and the skills he will apply without the inter- vention of a teacher. Individualized Instruction. Instruction that is based on the assessed needs of an individual child. Instructional Time. Time during which a teacher is in close proximity to a child and is directing her attention and energies to improvement of the child's performance on pre— scribed skills. Moderately Retarded (trainable). Children with a measured intelligence quotient between 30 and 50 on a standardized intelligence test. Play Skills. Those behaviors demonstrated in play that are a result of maturation and learning. Shaping Techniques. Specific instructional strate- gies designed to facilitate acquisition of each task in the Task Sequence. These strategies include specific verbal cues, demonstrations, manipulative prompts, and manipulations. Task Sequence. A logical arrangement of specific behaviors ordered in terms of difficulty whose acquisition ’A'... g — gunk-och in sequential order may lead to the attainment of the Terminal Performance Objective. Terminal Performance Objective. "A specific statement of a learning outcome expressed in behavioral terms which describes what the learner is able to do at the end of in- struction (Vogel, 1974)". (page 9). ’ 9 ""‘61V « II ‘t' —- v"... u . F ":H FF . on § m. A” . CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The Motor Deficit of the Retarded Child Introduction Research into the motor performance of the mentally retarded has shown repeatedly that retardates perform well below the level of their normal peers on measures of physi- cal fitness and motor achievement (Francis and Rarick, 1960; Stein, 1963; Rarick, WiddOp and Broadhead, 1970; Kral, 1972; Bruininks, 1975). The degree to which these deficits in performance can be attributed to lack of physical matura- tion, intellectual function, or motivation, or to insuffi- cient opportunity to practice has not been determined. The deficit appears to establish itself early in life. At six weeks of age children with Down's Syndrome perform well below normal infants on the Bayley Infant Scales of Mental and Motor Development (Carr, 1970). By two years of age retardates (who typically are unable to walk alone) are even further behind normal peers (who are able to stand on one foot and walk a straight line). The developmental mile- stones usually achieved in infancy and childhood in normal individuals, do appear in approximately the same sequential tr l | O A. .v-O' do ‘ua‘ :.A;a"t I‘vov-d V I =="ec ova.“ ' ‘ .QVQ. -' w, . 'v'vccp . “C V ~\1 "v‘...‘. A “>~. 1 q "“ V] {‘I v ‘ .,_ Z._:.: ..“ u 10 order but at a much later age in retarded children (Burkett, 1974; Carr, 1975). The slowness in achieving the developmental milestones of infancy and early childhood probably results in an insuf- ficient opportunity to practice skills once they are learned. In infancy the retardate who is late to make developmental gains may inadvertently receive less than the optimum stimulation. Calder (1972) suggested that: If the baby is 'good' he tends to attract less attention, and is possibly more passive and less responsive to approaches made to him than expected. Such conditions will result in a reduction of the number of approaches made and the amount of stimu- lation given to the infant. (page 19) This problem becomes more exaggerated as the child grows older. The simple, repetitive and often stereotyped movements of infancy persist into the early childhood years (Kuiper, 1967; Frances, 1970; Carr, 1975) and the skills normally learned in the first two years of life do not appear until the child is older. In walking behavior, for example, normal children typically become independent by 11 1/2 months of age, while only 30 percent of children with Down's Syndrome achieve this by 24 months of age (Carr, 1975). By the time the retarded child is four or five years his motor skill repertoire has fallen well be- hind that of normal children his age. As a result, he is likely to have fewer opportunities to receive stimulation, a much narrower range of movement experiences and fewer In: ' prbw 2:3...ul 0. qqhfly at ."u-v. . Q "v-‘- a ‘ .— um-.. I ‘V‘pq ' ~‘A IIOQIV‘L ’ Q In. ,: ..-.,. s 4 n‘. ‘- ll opportunities to receive positive reinforcement of his motor achievements. Play Patterns of the Retarded Play is as essential to the develOpment of the re- tarded child as it is to other children, both for its in- trinsic value and for its contribution to all areas of the child's deve10pment. Benoit (1955) stressed the need for research and practice in the area of play for the retardate. He suggested that retardates were deprived of suitable Oppor- tunities for play because of a lack of appropriate play equipment and facilities, a lack of imagination on the part of play leaders in finding suitable activities for the re- tarded, and a hesitance to allow retarded children to play because of the potential danger involved to themselves and equipment. The biggest need, he suggested, was to train teachers, parents and caretakers in how to engage these children in constructive play. Fulfilling this need re- quires research into the specific play patterns of the re- tarded and subsequent design and evaluation of strategies of instruction that will effectively improve play skills (Benoit, 1955; Wehman, 1975). Benoit (1955) suggested that the lack of opportunity to play resulted in deficit play skills in the retarded. ‘Whether this deficit is due in fact to lack of practice or 'whether the retardate is simply unable, because of cogni- tive or motivational limitations, to use play time A!" v'“ A. O'p In." .v- . .‘. a: A: .u! .Ru . .D C . .. a! C. a... . . .3 n . .qu “I .n Ill ‘1 Vhfi a; h to .1 .f. .p... . . Ow 1 ~.. .14 I. . P. L. bsx Fe .9; .1. v. is :- 5 o :5 n .. a 1 -~ ~ -. ml. ah» '1 I 12 constructively is yet unconfirmed. Certainly it is clear that the retarded child spends less time in play activity. A study of ten multihandicapped children 30 to 58 months old (including three mentally retarded children) showed that these children had less total play time than a control group of nonhandicapped children (Gralewicz, 1973). The handi- capped children spent 350 minutes in play over a three day period, while the total play time of the controls over the same period was 480 minutes. During free play the retarded child uses his time less efficiently as well, further increasing his practice deficit. In one study, retarded children of 4 to 8 years with Down's Syndrome were compared to normal children of the same age on selected aspects of their play (Linford, et 31., 1971). Filmed sessions of free play revealed that normal children demonstrated much more movement, in terms of speed, frequency and distance covered than the Down's Syndrome children during the same period of time. The two groups differed in their preference for equipment, also, with the normal children spending considerably more time on each chosen piece of apparatus. An exploratory study on young retarded children in free play was carried out at the University of Alberta (Wall, 1974). Play behavior was categorized as creative, purpose- ful, watching or nothing. Wide individual differences in the type of play engaged in were noted and it was found that five of the fifteen children studied spent 55 percent LIL l—". 13 of their time either doing nothing or watching their class- mates at play. Further confirmation of this inefficient use of play and practice time was found in a later study conducted at the University of Alberta on young trainable retarded child- ren (Noble, 1975). The focus of the study was on both the quantity of time spent constructively during free play and the quality of play skill demonstrated. The results clearly showed that retarded children of four to seven years spent a good deal of their time in complete idleness and that during the time they were active, the sophistication of their play skill was well below that expected of normal children of the same age. As a group, the subjects spent approximately 20 percent of their free time in complete inactivity, while 33 percent was additionally spent in simple locomotor activity or unpurposeful interaction with objects. These figures are well above those described in studies with normal children (Rosenthal, 1973). The range of time spent in non-play (inactivity) was wide with one child spending 64 percent of his time doing nothing and 24 percent of his time in simple locomotion and another child spending 25 percent of his time in those two categories combined (Noble, 1975). Clearly, then, retardates spend a good deal less time in active play. Whether or not this leads to the deficit in skill or whether the skill deficit results in less con- structive use of free play time is not clear. Presumably, l .P‘ .25". 1‘1‘ nvzab‘ Noni: v- I Q '2’ Q; Ui-fiu\ 6 I 2" h ”3.11 U r. \ “VS‘D ~ 0 .~' a I": . .,.. ‘ ““3 ‘ Au . ‘PH ‘1‘“: .:""‘.v- .... U 7‘“ 1 ‘ . "‘JI I . O . S - Q.» " W Ir." Q :i'm ' vuy:rl‘ \ ~L.' a I fly . .1‘2- 1 ‘| s n: 14 both effects are possible: the retardate lacks the play skill required to engage himself constructively during free time and therefore he does not use play time for skill practice, resulting in further play skill deficit in com- parison to the normal child. Studies have demonstrated very clearly that the re- tardate lacks skill and SOphistication in his play behavior compared to his normal peers (Keeran, Grove and Zachofsky, 1969; Noble, 1975). Kuiper (1967) described the retardate's play behavior as characterized by simple, repetitive, stereotyped movements usually directed towards his own body. This is representative of the play behaviors seen in very young normal children (Piaget, 1951). Certainly these be- haviors do persist longer in retarded youngsters (Carr, 1975) and may even increase in frequency again later in the life of the retardate (Frances, 1970). However, within the population of retarded youngsters, the skill and SOphisti- cation of play responses vary widely according to age and severity of the deficit in cognitive functioning. Some children may approach normal development of play skills and Iflay behavior while others show very little, if any, play Skill at all (Noble, 1975). In the majority of retarded Youngsters, however, the degree of skilltdemonstrated falls Well below that of the normal child, or is achieved at a much later date. On the playground and in the playroom the retarded Child lacks both range and depth in his play skills. This 15 skill deficit has been demonstrated through observations of retarded children in free play. Noble (1975) found only a small percentage of skilled activity (less than 20 percent) taking place in a playroom containing equipment such as ladders, slides, climbing frames, scooterboards, balls and mats. His subjects were three to seven year old trainable retarded children. Keeran, Grove and Zachofsky (1969) developed an instrument to assess the play skills of se- verely retarded children, adolescents and young adults in their interation with playground equipment and found com- parable results. Sequential steps of competency on each piece of equipment were written as an assessment scale. Each scale was divided into proficiency levels representing (a) complete absence of skill in using the equipment (b) minimal skill in use of the equipment, (c) use of the equip- ment with help, and (d) proficiency in using the equipment. The investigators found that the merry-go-round was used proficiently by the largest number of experimental subjects (50 percent) while the swings were used proficiently by 31 percent of the subjects. The tunnels, wide slide and stair slide were used well by 26 percent, 20 percent and 15 per- cent of the subjects respectively. While very few of the experimental subjects were totally lacking in skill on the apparatus, a fairly substantial percentage of the subjects showed no more than minimal skill in using the swings (51 percent), the merry-go-round (28 percent), the wide slide (32 percent), the tunnels (26 percent) and the stair slide 16 (58 percent). The authors did not describe the specific behaviors included in 'minimal skill'. However, one can assume from the competencies described for using the swings that "sits on employee's lap and holds chain" would be con- sidered 'minimal skill'. The control subjects who were not chosen for special instruction reflected slightly better competencies. In us- ing the swings, merry-go-round, tunnels, wide slide and stair slide the percentages of subjects demonstrating proficiency were 66 percent, 75 percent, 69 percent, 64 percent, and 58 percent respectively. These subjects ranged in age from under eight years to 29 years however. Clearly, for this age range they demonstrated a lack of the skills required to use playground equipment constructively and proficiently. Studying Play Behavior Studies that have examined the nature of play with both retardates and normal children have focused on differ- ent aspects of play for its analysis. Linford and his asso- ciates (1971) looked at the amount of movement in terms of time and space. Gralewicz (1973) used total play time, play with others, play alone, and categories involving TV watch- ing as dependent measures in her study of multihandicapped children. Still others have looked at the social qualities of play. In an early study Parten (1932) examined the play of normal preschoolers, using the size of the play group as a dependent measure. She also attempted to find the I: .5- 4. .6. an.- ‘d .1 I51 V‘UVA,‘ us ca.' -4 ...,,..' .- "~‘ g“, ‘ Ovat- Q 9a~- _ ~v.a~ _ Q \"~'-- --~ : ‘~¢- ‘U 4". w (I) r a. (D I I. 1'" 'l g ). m l7 relationship between the type of social participation being engaged in (solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, or cooperative) and the kind of toys being used. Some parts of this study were replicated in a later study (Barnes, 1971). A study of young educable mentally retarded children investigated the social aspects of play using a modified version of Parten's categorization of play (Knapczyk and Yoppi, 1975). Five categories of play behavior were de- fined: onlooker, solitary, parallel, cooperative, and competitive. Five children aged eight to ten years who showed no spontaneous competitive play and little c00pera- tive play during the baseline period increased both of these categories of play when social and token reinforcement were given for these behaviors. The authors concluded that fre- quency of c00perative and competitive play behavior in re- tarded children could be developed and maintained using operant techniques. A further modification of these play ratings was used in a study designed to train social responses in severely retarded youngsters of approximately four to eleven years of age (Paloutzian, et 31., 1971). Degrees of social inter- action in free play were defined behaviorally and used as an assessment scale. The scale was an ordinal one composed of eight levels of behavior: autistic, unoccupied, inde- pendent play, observing, attempted interaction, parallel play, associative play and cooperative play. The trainers that soc :n s. “r 3a....uh .Ubl.bg‘ ‘ n .’:I“ n "‘.‘.‘&.g A 18 used prompting and modelling techniques to increase the level of the children's play during the treatment and found that social interaction in play could be facilitated through training of interactive responses. Few studies have looked specifically at play skill as a dependent measure, though play activities such as ball- rolling, passing a bean bag, or pulling a wagon have been identified as overt behaviors to be used in assessing and training c00perative play (Paloutzian, et 31., 1971). Weh- man (1975) recommends that more emphasis be put on investi— gating overt play behaviors, including the frequency and the diversity of play behaviors as well as the frequency and nature of interactions in play. Certainly it seems, at least to the physical educator, that both the frequency of play behaviors and the sephistication of the play skill are two highly significant aspects of play behavior. Florey (1971) attempted to design a classification scheme for the overt behaviors seen in play. She classified behaviors such as reaching, grasping, mouthing, jumping, and climbing according to the age at which these behaviors typically emerge in young children and according to the objects on which they were enacted: human (parents, peers, self) or non-human (unstructured, those that combined to form new shapes, those that did not lend themselves to changing shape or form). She recommended the classification scheme as a possible instrument for observing play in prac- tical and research settings. rn "“31 c I I "use 2375 ‘JSE a '. o..~-?1?! :v-o'fik'l ."n 3.531, .Henn U‘:--Ules - Oil; 3~qs< rub a. {v u . . Fly-A h I'VogobbLflAJ ‘ l 7"-'h- “H Huang“. J L N to ld“ b 2'”? 7c. A sé‘ $535 .Q . . a s ._ “£51,: 5. H ‘ I ,. -: :s; “-4.3“. ‘ ..‘ _ \: f‘ a “‘1 TN ‘ ‘I‘ ‘: ‘ ~ ‘~ Cr} “‘ C .I ‘h‘.“' “ ‘v ‘ "‘mfi-n \. H ". > . “"5 38“ “*e‘ ‘ 19 Studies of the Spontaneous free play of normal pre- school children have looked at the kinds of equipment or toys used, the frequency of their use, and duration of activity as dependent measures in analysis of play behavior (Hulson, 1930; Clark, Wyon and Richards, 1969; Rosenthal, 1973). One author used specific behaviors and their fre- quencies to examine the impact of reducing and augmenting the amount of play equipment available in a playground (Johnson, 1935). Frequencies of running, swinging, sliding, climbing, jumping, and other less vigorous behaviors were used to arrive at a total number of occurrences of active and less active behaviors. Few studies have been done to analyze the retarded child's play in behavioral terms. One attempt was made to examine the choice of play materials and the amount and kind of activity engaged in by mentally deficient children (Horne and Philleo, 1942). Six categories of play type were defined: constructive activity, original constructive ac- tivity, activities with games and toys, manipulative activ- ity, inspection and observation, and miscellaneous. Speci- fic behaviors were given as examples in each category. Relationships between the type of activity engaged in, and the kinds of toys preferred, showed that the mentally re- tarded children spent more time in games with toys which required highly specific play skills. Normal children, on the other hand, tended to engage in constructive or creative 20 play with toys that required a good deal of imagination in their use. Actual skill applied in using the toys was not dealt with. Only one other study was found that used behavioral definitions of play in observing the retarded. Keeran, Grove and Zachofsky (1969) looked at the proficiency with which severely retarded children interacted with certain pieces of playground apparatus. The categories of skill defined and the results of this study have been reported in another section of this review. The design of programs of motor skill instruction is based on the assumption that the program fulfills a need. The literature strongly suggests that the play of the men- tally retarded needs improvement. However, the dissimilar- ity of the measures of play used makes it difficult for pro- gram designers to determine which specific needs are to be fulfilled. In establishing priorities for instructional objectives, this information is crucial. If specific play skills are to be chosen as instructional objectives in pre- school programs, then the play of the retarded must be exa- mined using behavioral definitions of these skills, and assessment devices designed for the purpose of implementing and evaluating instructional programs (Wehman, 1975). Activity Programs for the Retarded Introduction The recognition of play and motor skill deficits in ‘vFNVJ'S ‘dgnnn ' U .° 4 'P‘ .quQOQ . .— . .u-vd-‘ O Y‘::: ~~“'u'.' .__‘ t | " ‘1 .{C .._ ~ 1? No: v..' .:‘ an ‘5. ' E‘ :l . " '-\~ 'I u " u‘e ‘~ \nu VP v ~~ ' .‘VH ‘- :u‘ ., - a v. ‘ . \ § §‘ r ‘4' . 2‘- ~vh.‘~ 21 retarded children has resulted in the development of several programs of instruction whose focus is to improve play. The specific objectives of these programs vary considerably. A number of them reflect an interest in the development of the affective behaviors required for play (Whitman, et al., 1970; Bradtke, Kirkpatrick and Rosenblatt, 1972; Knapczyk and Yoppi, 1975; Kazdin and Erickson, 1975). Others focus on the development of motor abilities as measured by standard- ized tests of motor performance or scales of motor develop- ment (Harvey, Yep and Sellin, 1966; Cannon, Moffett and Moffett, 1970; Stephens, et_a$., 1970; Chasey and Wyrick, 1971; Morrison and Pothier, 1972; Newcomer and Morrison, 1974; Morrison and Newcomer, 1975). A few of the programs reflect objectives of specific play skill learnings (Buell, gt $1., 1968; Peterson and McIntosh, 1973; Flavell, 1973). One program directed itself toward the development of basic skill performances and other game components by young educable mentally retarded children (Ross, 1969). The train— ing program was designed to improve games skills by teaching skills within the context of simple games rather than using drill and repetition. Other aspects of the program included: a focus on learning the social components of play, active participation of all students, the use of short periods of instruction with frequent changes in activity, the use of adult models, and a close relationship between the games played and traditional playground games. The group that participated in this program made nr*~"fi‘,:: L..d-¥-~. . 4 nyfii‘“ L 1.IJU:J ‘ orfiwv M tour"- 5' u a El}! Fyfll on" N. J‘ J O 1 a. , 1...,Ah‘ . a ....r ‘ UCQ'V- I'~.\ W... .‘V‘- “In - ’.A:F+ 7‘“ ‘vv‘.; . - . "‘m-cr . . _;"f~ .“ | ~-~.,,; '71 I; C --. n‘ “J .. y. . VA . T u‘ ~‘y . V , . . n s - .F 22 progress in sport and games skills beyond that of a control group who participated in the special physical education program prescribed for special classes in California. Ross suggested that the results support the aSpects of the train- ing program outlined and raised some questions about the effectiveness of the special education curriculum. This cur- riculum used nursery rhymes, singing games and simple motor tasks unrelated to the games and play of normal children as the basis of the movement program. Ross' study points out the need to examine carefully the content of programs given to young retarded children as well as the specific strategies used in program instruction. She stressed the need to teach basic games skills in conjunc- tion with the social aspects of play, and to teach these in a manner which reflects consideration of the learning and performance characteristics of retarded children. Two weaknesses in reporting studies of this nature were noted in reviewing the literature and have been referred to previously by Wehman (1975) and Vogel (1974). Firstly, few of the studies gave adequate descriptions of their specific program objectives or instructional pro- cedures to allow replication of the program. Several studies listed the categories of skills or the activities engaged in (Stephens, gt a;., 1970; Cannon, Moffett and Moffett, 1970; Chasey and Wyrick, 1971), others gave reference to sources for guidelines in conducting similar programs (Morrison and Pothier, 1972; Newcomer and Morrison, 1974; Morrison and "MIRA" Y ,‘i’ryduue L .-,. .V‘ g N“ In“: H: o ' o v:oy§ f‘ J‘SLLVK' ., . :Id 5‘ m . I and uLhtE ' q '3- ”.330 b- “may I. =:-=3‘lv b 'vn- '.U‘F:q§ - jean: . V PI .55.. tes . ‘. ‘ih 1" I' (I) 23 Newcomer, 1975), while others gave examples of training pro- grams designed for one individual subject (Bradtke, Kirk- patrick, and Rosenblatt, 1972). The constraints of space and time make it understandable that treatment descriptions be made brief, but the lack of replicable programs points to the need for the development of accessible descriptions of program goals, objectives and instructional strategies. The second weakness observed in the literature re- viewed was that the dependent measures on which program effectiveness was assessed rarely were derived directly from program objectives. In the majority of cases, a standard- ized test or scale was used to assess program effectiveness and no mention was made of the relationship between the mea— sure and the instructional objectives (Stephens, EE,El°v 1970; Chasey and Wyrick, 1970; Newcomer and Morrison, 1974; Morrison and Newcomer, 1975). In other studies the informa- tion from these tests was used to design program objectives (Lillie, 1968). Two reports did not give performance data as evidence of program effectiveness, but did give descriptive reports on changes observed in individual subjects (Kugel, 1970; Bradtke, Kirkpatrick and Rosenblatt, 1972). Three studies reflected complete congruence between objectives of the instructional program and measures of program effective- .ness (Ross, 1969; Cannon, Moffett, and Moffett, 1970; Hardi- man, et_§£., 1975). All studies that were reviewed reported improvement in at least one area of motor function thus confirming the ‘ ~ ‘ ‘ gut-317.851 a u t ‘I‘ . 5.1;A&S Cc . .- - Q unto?" nvq‘ . mun“ -uue .A l .L f‘ ' " a bu . z. -‘ . .. : ~ "“ I . 24 hypothesis that instruction and practice in play and motor skills can result in increases in skill in retarded children. Individualized Instruction In reviewing these studies, and in examining curricu- lum materials designed for groups of handicapped children and adults, it becomes clear that individualized instruction is the instructional approach most often recommended. Large scale curriculum projects in self-help, social, motor and language skill learnings appear to have, without exception, adopted the model of individualizing instruction according to a child's assessed needs (Connor and Talbot, 1966; Shearer, et al., 1973; Johnson and Werner, 1975; Wessel, 1976; Kysela, 1976). According to Wessel (1975): The variability and heterogeneity that exists among mentally retarded clearly indicates the need for individualization of programing. (page 5) She suggested that prescriptive instruction is based on the application of these processes: 1. diagnosis of each child's strengths and weaknesses based on the child's performance on hierarchical sequences of skill development, 2. prescription of instruction based on the child's needs, 3. instruction on sequential objectives accompanied by evaluation of the child's progress in learning. The majority of the programs that were designed to increase motor skills recommended an individualized, q .~ ‘ a f. . 'n: U‘eh u... 1"..‘ U.. U :‘ F ‘4’.~QI~‘ ‘ ‘\‘ '\. - -~ \‘. 3 I”. 5‘ c 25 diagnostic-prescriptive approach to instruction. Two studies attempted to assess the relative effectiveness of individual- ized instruction, and in both cases support for this approach was clearly demonstrated. In one of these studies, a recrea- tion program for trainable mentally retarded children was designed to include assessment of each child's functioning on two batteries of tests from which individual prescrip- tions were made. Results showed that the diagnostically designed program was effective in increasing performance on both batteries of tests (Cannon, Moffett and Moffett, 1970). Morrison and Pothier (1972) conducted remedial motor training programs with mentally retarded children of preschool age using three approaches: (a) social attention in activities, (b) social reinforcement of gross motor activities, (c) social reinforcement for activities prescribed from a developmental skills assessment. Individualized proqrams were designed and administered for those in group (c) while those in groups (a) and (b) engaged in randomly selected activities of a gross—motor play nature. The dependent measure for all three groups was the Denver Developmental Screening Test. Subjects in the individually-prescribed sensorimotor activity group made significantly greater gains in gross-motor and language development during the six month program than did subjects in the other two groups. The treatment for this group included training activities in skills that generally were expected to appear next in normal development, and pre- senting the component parts of these tasks from simple to 05”” DX I ‘..~-v CV D. :nvxv-r. r& 85 g‘UUV. b .5 upr.'.uct a“: u. A . I. ”:FA ~s...‘.‘.,be ona'. - H on u... HM“ . ‘l' I o "" no. .. ‘vu V‘ A} ..;‘:’\q a...‘~I . .. . . v .RLW" :5 tier. .1: . ".'~I bLl c .‘7: ..,_~n ' H“‘~‘. u: ' 'Io. \ \‘s ”'V. .2 . . ' w 5“ 1L2: .. ‘ ' . A . ‘- Iav‘, T-‘~:.4 “ . ‘ a— ‘ “\Z~.“ . ‘:-*~Af; v N ‘H .s' x I -. a; ‘ “'k F‘ H \L‘ V . ‘ N I “it \ 1‘ ‘ 1 ‘3‘. ‘ d“"‘ H £"v-.~ .‘ ‘2‘; § 26 complex until the whole response was learned. The study supported the use of individually-prescribed programs of instruction in motor skill development. Newcomer and Morrison (1974) used a play therapy approach to improve the gross motor skills of institution- alized retarded children. The Denver Developmental Screen- ing Test was used as a pretest and posttest measure of per- formance. Children were assigned to individual and group therapy and received ten sessions of directive therapy, then ten of non-directive therapy, followed again by directive therapy. Directive therapy was that in which the therapist structured and conducted activities in each of the four areas of skill, while non-directive therapy was that in which the therapist structured the environment by choosing certain toys, but allowed the children to initiate the play activity. Individual or group therapy was defined entirely by the numbers involved. No differences were found between the individual and group therapy treatments but both groups receiving therapy increased their developmental skills while a control group did not. Since 'individual' in this case referred only to one-on-one play therapy, and not individ- ualized or diagnostic-prescriptive therapy, this study cannot be viewed as unsupportive of individualized instruction. Lack of descriptive detail about the program methods and spe- cific differences between individual and group, directive and non-directive, make it difficult to draw implications for instruction from this study. A later study (Morrison and reascmer tive arm 'I I. . _ A . 'Hfi "““~vts .. :1... K. '31:sz ] v. Ho-DL": '11:} ec- A“- ‘ "u-OI .s. . :“‘~‘ .1 x: :R‘ ' ‘A ‘. . ~~ we: ‘I an '- 27 Newcomer, 1975) looked at the differential effects of direc- tive and non-directive therapy and found no difference between the two approaches in making developmental changes as measured by the Denver Scales. Individualization of instruction appeared to be imple- mented differentially in the programs reported. In one study (Stephens, gt gt., 1970), the twelve experimental sub- jects were homogeneously grouped into training groups of four children for whom activities were chosen based upon assess- ment. 'Within these groups, training strategies were individ- ualized based on three levels of teaching: physical guidance, demonstration and verbal explanation. Scales of performance within each activity were used to assess the child's reaction to instruction. The scale was a modification of that used by Connor and Talbot (1966) which reflected a continuum ranging from no interest in the activity to completion of the activity without assistance. Training sessions included instruction in locomotor skills, balance skills (trampoline, balance board, skipping), arm-hand coordination and manual dexterity. Increases in performance on scales of motor achievement were found over a three month exploratory period. In some studies individualization referred to selec- tion of Specific motor skills for instruction from a pre— determined list of appropriate motor skill objectives based (n1 preprogram assessment (Stephens, gt gt., 1970) while in others, individualization refers to the design of a complete ‘program of instruction after assessment (Kugel, 1970; ' Q - A, .:= " Iovwv- Y I ‘0. o. - ‘ L.‘ .3 “I 5 o“ .‘I 'Q r.- _ . “I 7".U. o F O‘V 2'7 .' ‘II ”o. ' . I‘u «. T". ‘e I .§ 1 -; H..'er O. ‘h-~ '1 0-. R .‘-:° “u '-'I e n .- '1 1 \‘ RI ‘l I Q q ‘ A Q “ NH \ 5“ h 41.; 2. . -~ \~ ‘~:C~ ‘PS‘ a ". . NL— ‘ rt:"' p; Q IL‘ES 'E ‘A 28 Bradtke, Kirkpatrick and Rosenblatt, 1972). One study re- ported the effects of a 'diagnostically based motor develop- ment program' but failed to report how the assessment and diagnosis were used in prescription and instruction of motor skills (Lillie, 1968). In fact, the program described more closely resembled a group-oriented, pre-planned approach. One study (Chasey and Wyrick, 1971) contained no reference at all to individualized or diagnostic-prescriptive instruc- tion, and it was assumed therefore that this study did not attempt to use an individualized approach. It is interest- ing to note that the retarded children receiving this program did make gains in gross motor skills over and above a control group. Roswell (1974) described an individualized program of play instruction for severely retarded children that was designed for and implemented in an institutional ward. Play activities and toys were graded in six-month stages from 0 to over 25 months. Children were assessed on developmental scales and prescribed one of five stages of play activities. Progress was measured by change from one set of toys to the toys in the next stage. Approximately 20 percent of the children made a gain of one stage in a one-year period. The assessment device appeared, however, to lack sensitivity to the changes in the remaining children, since the author suggested that additional progress was made within each stage of play described that was not reflected in change from one stage to the next. Mir1 ‘9‘ :“r‘ J ‘ ,.,,.1.... oovht- ‘- ‘ ogragq ~‘Oi‘v‘ ' Q .-.-‘,‘ I-‘aad 'h V “‘nAp ‘ vet‘abg 1 . I ’:"“f\. "“'- as. . u. - ~YA‘ ‘..‘- :a‘ \. VI I ‘ a ' c.‘ A? a . .. ~- . ‘ ' s - .Nd‘ud . . :4 . I‘v‘ “ f b \.k e '1‘? A? . \y . Mil j‘lw ‘-. \ ‘I «qr s ‘- \:‘0, ‘1 Y- . i ‘el .f. 29 The individualized approach to skill instruction was employed in the study of the effectiveness of the I CAN cur- riculum for elementary school-aged trainable mentally re- tarded children (Vogel, 1974). Meaningful changes in running and three object control skills (catch, throw and roll) were found for sixty-five children receiving instruction from either physical education specialists or classroom teachers. Instructional Strategies Usigg Operant Techniques Operant techniques of modifying and shaping behavior have been used successfully with both normal and retarded children. These techniques have been applied to a wide range of skills with measurable success. The use of positive reinforcement immediately following completion of a desired response has been recommended for use in increasing response frequencies (Becker, Englemann and Thomas, 1971; Kazdin and Craighead, 1973). A number of studies have applied this technique to the learning of social, self-help and motor skills. Morris and Dolker (1974) used candy and verbal praise as reinforcers of cooperative ball rolling. Reinforcement of completed responses seemed to work best in conjunction with the modelling by a more highly skilled peer and verbal prompting by the instructor. .A similar study (Whitman, Mercurio and Caponigri, 1970) used primary reinforcers and praise to improve ball rolling and block-passing tasks and found, incidentally, that social Suborgc ‘bA'V‘ I {an "e yeti: O b . OIA fir pl on- up. 0 t '=‘=rde bio-1‘ L55 WEI ,. .9“: ": us \— J... . ""5 +r~ "no CC ’-:---' “I «.1-J In V '3“ CC -”".A < ._L‘ .""f‘v ‘1‘“; . ‘n e g "‘ 9““ a. It: .. . .. “H‘. r J.“_\ '1’ an» In at) 30 interactions in other forms of play increased along with the frequency of these two target behaviors. Two studies used reinforcement procedures to increase the appropriate use of play toys with severely and profoundly retarded youngsters (Flavell, 1973; Abbas, 1973). Both stud- ies were concerned with increasing the number of times toys were used successfully or the total time spent in playing with toys, and decreasing or eliminating undesirable be- haviors. Both studies demonstrated favorable results. Fla- vell concluded that toy play was incompatible with stereo- typic (undesirable) behaviors and that increase of toy play would therefore result in decrease of the latter kind of be- havior. Social reinforcement was used to increase the climb- ing behavior of a preschool boy whose play skill repertoire was very narrow and whose free play pattern consisted largely of onlooker behavior (Johnston, gt gt., 1966). Reinforcement was used on successive approximations of the desired climbing behavior, beginning with approaching the climber and ending ‘with constructive play on the climbing frame. Climbing be- havior on the frame increased with reinforcement and de- creased when it was withdrawn. Once acceptable frequencies of climbing-frame behavior had been achieved, reinforcement ‘was given intermittently and climbing behavior on other pieces increased. The authors suggested that the new skill gained in climbing encouraged the boy to increase his activity in other areas of the playground. ahzed r , . oeahv- s «VJ L . u-vuuahl . '2‘3’; th :IUVH IL'. 93 on 115: Will '::v-' I‘D”: .V"-.~u - A An. A Cub.“ ’r: .- fl‘h‘.‘ ‘ -~' iv- -~.“‘ r'f "T1 n n m D) O "U 31 Smith (1972) demonstrated that young non-institution- alized retardates (age 3-10 years) could profit from Operant techniques in learning motor skills. The author investi- gated the relative effects of tangible and social reinforcers given on continuous and intermittent schedules. She found that while both schedules and both types of reinforcers resulted in gains in number of motor responses completed, social reinforcers, used intermittently resulted in larger gains in children who were enrolled in the program. Smith suggested that young trainable retardates in different stages of training are sensitive to more efficient schedules of reinforcement that do not require continuous application of tangible rewards. Altman and Talkington (1971) recommended the use of modelling with reinforcement procedures, and suggested that imitative behavior should be shaped in? reinforcing succes- sive attempts to imitate. Wehman (1976) reviewed the litera- ture in self-help, play, social, language and classroom skills and said Generally, modelling is used in conjunction with other behavior—shaping procedures such as physi- cal guidance and verbal cues, and augmented with positive reinforcement. Gradually, discrimina- tive stimuli, i.e., model or physical prompt, are faded until the behavior is under control of natural environment cues. (page 41) Johnston's study demonstrated the efficacy of this approach (1966). Prompting has also been recommended as a method of generating responses which can then be shaped or reinforced . . Pram ‘Uiofioh I In ‘ A: ’1‘“ 4“ H-04 '73- ‘ a ‘V' 5 § s . I H.‘ “u- A \4 .PA ‘ s cc "s L" ... N a ' ‘.I ‘N v‘. A. V . .0 ~ . ;‘ V‘n‘1" u,‘ .‘ . ‘\ c “ ~ 2 . ‘V 32 (Strain, Cooke and Appollini, 1976). Once prompts have served their purpose of assisting in the initiation of a modified behavior, they must be systematically faded (Kazdin and Craighead, 1973). Paloutzian (gt gt., 1971) used verbal cues, simul- taneously with a demonstration, and followed immediately by physical prompting to establish motor behaviors in severely retarded children. Physical prompts were faded so that response was made to the verbal cue and demonstration. He found these procedures facilitated learning of social inter- action in motor skills. All of these operant methods have been recommended for teaching motor skills (Becker, Engelmann and Thomas, 1971; Bricker, 1970; Parker, 1972). Parker recommended that backward chaining be used in teaching sequences of motor skills. He used ball catching as an example of a behavior that could be shaped using operant techniques. Buell, gt gt., (1968) applied some of these techniques to one subject who demonstrated a deficit in motor and social skills. She was concerned with the child's behavior on outdoor play equip- ment. During a baseline stage the pre-school girl showed a very low rate of use of the equipment. Approximately 2 per- cent of her play time was spent in interaction with the equip- :ment. The teachers prompted the child verbally and physically to get on the equipment, and then reinforced her as long as she stayed on it. This was followed by reinforcement without prompts. The authors found that the frequency of spontaneous ..~ \ 2.x. n c-nv' a u‘. v I a "‘A -4 'v‘y - c...‘ ‘5... n g a uuq‘ 33 use of outdoor play equipment increased to approximately 70 percent of the child's free time with reinforcement. Moreover, concommitant increases were observed in verbali- zations to other children and in incidents of cooperative play, while undesirable behaviors decreased in frequency. Operant techniques have been shown to be effective in teaching tricycle riding to retardates. One report recom- mended using behavior shaping techniques to teach severely retarded children to sit on the trike, to put each foot on the pedal, and finally to press on the pedal. Primary rein- forcers were used initially, followed by social reinforce- ment. Eventually the tricycling behavior itself was found to be reinforcing (Bensberg, Colwell, and Cassel, 1965). The authors recommended the use of these techniques in teaching self-help skills as well. Tricycle riding was the focus of another study that attempted to improve this skill in young retarded children, aged three to eight years (Peterson and McIntosh, 1973). The investigators used an automated stationary tricycle that dispensed sweetened cereal in fixed ratios of pedalling, and at fixed intervals. Shaping techniques were used to teach the children to approach and mount the tricycle and to actually pedal the tricycle in the stationary position. All of the subjects learned to ride the tricycle and transferred this learning to riding tricycles in other settings. Hardiman (gt_gt., 1975) investigated the effects of «qperant techniques on the motor skill behavior of a a pgqy IV‘- r)‘ In a a i "no - --a4 - A..A .‘Tv4 a. ‘L \ 2‘. “in -. ~.. 34 four-year-old handicapped child in six activities: stepping through a horizontal ladder, ascending and descending small steps, sliding down a board, rolling, climbing and walking a balance board. Four response levels were defined that applied to all six activities: (1) being close to the equip- ment, (2) touching the equipment, (3) unskilled performance, and (4) skilled performance. Responses at each of these levels were behaviorally defined for the six activities. After a baseline period, skill training was implemented using primes, contingent attention, physical assistance and forced practice. Each day after training observations were made on the child under one of several conditions: primes, contin- gent attention, primes plus contingent attention or general attention. The authors found that during the baseline phase unskilled participation was generally increased with primes and contingent attention, but skilled performance was not. Skilled participation during free play was increased with an average of six training sessions per activity, and was main- tained after the training period under conditions of teacher primes and primes with contingent attention. The authors concluded that social reinforcement techniques were not sufficient to bring about changes in skill in activity, though they did result in increases in frequency of activity. Primes were found to be superior to contingent attention in increasing the frequency of activity, and training in several activities resulted in increased skill in related activities. u D ‘rI AK 5374'. .5 as. -~I.Jl ll!“ ‘ I. 35 The response levels defined were found to be adequate for recording the child's performance in all activities. Hardiman's study provides support for the application of operant techniques along with specific skill training in the systematic instruction of play skills with handicapped children. The study, furthermore, offers evidence of the benefits of applying these principles within an individual- ized program of instruction. Curricula for Instruction of Motor Skills After reviewing the literature concerning play devel- opment in retarded children, Wehman (1975) concluded that there was a need for the development of replicable program materials that could assist teachers and parents in dealing with this aspect of the retarded child's development: A need exists to establish a play skill curricu- lum for mentally retarded children. A broad range of play skills arranged horizontally in conjunction with a logically sequenced ability hierarchy is needed for proqramming direction for the student. (page 244) Several large-scale curriculum projects have directed themselves towards the development of instructional ma- terials for individualized instruction in skills for young rnentally retarded children. A number of these have focused on the learning of language, self-help and personal-social skills with only a cursory treatment of motor skill learnings. These curricula have attempted to link the AAVI:‘ r11. 'vduv b5 V on,” 1‘ Nb com-4. .Pufl ‘ aka-J ! '3 n ‘- ouohd i- ’I u 5. - s u_. 36 construction of instructional objectives to knowledge about normal sequences of development in language, social, and motor skills. Bricker and Bricker (1972) and Connor and Talbot (1966) have chosen skills for the motor development section of their curricula that are typical of normal child- ren of the same or younger ages. Johnson and Werner (1975) have identified sequential tasks leading to walking, stair climbing and grasping that reflect consideration of the schedules of normal sequential development found in infants. Other curricula have been designed with consideration of the developmental stages in motor skill learnings identi- fied by Wickstrom (1970) and Seefeldt (1971). The specific instructional objectives chosen vary'from curriculum to curriculum depending on the target population for whom the materials were designed and the sc0pe of the content to be included. These objectives are stated behavior- ally and sequenced using a task analytic procedure. Instruc- tional objectives are directly related to the assessment 'tools provided so that an individualized, diagnostic-prescrip— tive model can be applied. In several curricula instruction- al strategies are tied directly to each instructional objec- tive. The strategies that are recommended range from general perscriptions for activities, games, or equipment arrangement to precise verbal cues, modelling and prompting procedures. Two programs for young moderately to severeLyretarded children recommend the use of reinforcement and other operant techniques to assist children in attaining sequential . fur-1n .33.. Wt Q ‘~ ‘nn~‘r ‘ bvuv'dn- 4 V urbarn ‘ vv‘V‘ iv "-vnf‘ a pa. JV 8 . . “"" fl'l cu.'.\4 ‘ Fl.:". «o‘ugI‘e '1“! “1...; 0 .._~ -\ '-~.~d‘.‘_ d {n.‘q ,- .M..‘ : a... ' Arc in“ h“- 37 instructional objectives (Bricker and Bricker, 1972; Schearer, gt al., 1973). Both programs recommend that teachers keep accurate data on student performance for the purpose of evaluation of instruction. Unfortunately, these curricula focus most heavily on self-help, language and cog- nitive skills and therefore only a very narrow range of motor skill objectives is included. Two programs have been developed in Canada that are designed to improve the skills of very young Down's Syndrome children (Kysela, 1976) and severely and profoundly retarded children (Martin, gt al., 1975). Both programs focus on self- help, coqnitive or fine-motor manipulative skills that have motor components. Similar scales of teacher intervention em- ploying physical guidance, physical prompts, and verbal prompts are used for assessment and instruction in specific skills. Reinforcement schedules, and shaping and fading tech- niques are employed to help the child reach target behaviors. Recording and graphing procedures are described as well as guidelines for modifying the instructional strategies applied. Connor and Talbot (1966) designed a fairly extensive curriculum for trainable children. The instructional mater- ials included behavioral descriptions of five levels of per- formance in self—help, motor, language and personal-social skills. Many of the motor skills described were apprOpriate for play (tricycling, sliding, jumping, running, wagon). While the sequencing of these skills appeared to be logical and reasonable, the teaching strategies were lacking in , . l a UCle -:pp:r u-J‘hlifiv. O :...';.-,. Q .And‘ : ””451 v.‘.“' "‘v:, . a “‘3! k .‘s‘A “1‘: t “o,‘ V -‘ . :--.:Q + \ 38 detail and in range and were not applied in a systematic manner. Operant techniques were not recommended. The authors did provide techniques for recording student pro- gress through the program. A curriculum for the moderately retarded was designed to improve the gross and fine motor skills, social behavior, perception, self-care and language skills of infants from zero to two years of age (Johnson and Werner, 1975). The motor skills included standing, walking, reaching and grasp- ing and selected manipulative skills. Tasks were sequenced in order of difficulty and the authors recommended using re- wards, behavior shaping, manual guidance, and imitative tech- niques to bring about appropriate skill learnings. They sug- gested too that daily records be kept of the child's per- formance on selected skills for evaluating the child's pro- gress. The most extensive set of program materials for teach— ing motor skills to the retarded was developed at Michigan State University under the direction of Dr. Janet Wessel (1975, 1976). The focus of the project materials is on teaching moderately retarded children the skills of body per- ception, locomotion, object control, fitness and aquatics. The instructional objectives are sequentially and hierarchi- cally arranged and based on developmental changes seen in normal children. Specific instructional strategies, involv- ing application of Operant techniques, are written for each instructional objective. Game activities have been suggested 5 war .1. . H!- F: '- "n'v uln- A .- u-‘nnd . .‘-\~ u“H r -. -_ ’v .._. . 39 for the practice and application of the motor skills that have been learned. Materials, equipment and class organi- zation are specified for each game activity. A teacher's manual has been developed and evaluated with both physical education specialists and classroom teachers. The developers of the I CAN curriculum have demonstra- ted empirical evidence of the effectiveness of their program in helping retarded youngsters between the ages of six and twelve achieve the motor skill objectives. Dependent measures of program effectiveness have included teacher feedback (Wessel, 1975) as well as student performance data on skill learnings (Vogel, 1974; Wessel, 1975) and as such have been directly related to achievement of program objectives. The program has been implemented and effectively used with a wide range of handicapping conditions. The I CAN curriculum is characterized by: l. diagnostic and prescriptive instruction of speci- fic motor skills based on assessment of student needs, 2. continuous recording of student status for evalu- ation of instructional effectiveness and for accountability, 3. associated cognitive and affective learnings, 4. the use of manipulation, prompts, imitation, and verbal cues to facilitate learning, 5. the use of games and group activities for skill practice (Vogel, 1974; Wessel, 1975; Knowles, Vogel and Wessel, 1975). The PREP Preschool Play Program (Watkinson, et al., a}. .4 an in (Y) 9|» 0 p. on. nan -4 viva a: 40 1976) is an extension of the I CAN program in that it focuses on the development of motor play skills for younger retarded children. It is composed of develOpmentally-based sequential learning objectives in a broad range of play activities. The teaching procedures are very explicitly described for each task and based on techniques that have been demonstrated as effective in other programs or studies. Furthermore, it is an individualized program that requires a comprehenisve assessment of each child's play skills before instruction begins. The validity of its skill sequences has been tested in the formative stages and empirical evidence of its effec- tiveness in changing play behavior is currently being sought. The :icnal p rc iiiievemen ~ the ot ‘ivi CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES Design There are usually two intended outcomes of an instruc- tional program (Taylor and Maguire, 1972). One is the achievement of target behaviors in the educational context and the other is generalized application of this behavior at appropriate times in the life setting. The goal of the PREP program was stated as 'learning to play' and this referred to application of learned skills in a free play setting. As a result, the teachers were concerned primarily ‘with changes in the children's free play behavior, or the degree to which newly acquired skills were applied in free play. At the same time, it was recognized that all of the Skill learnings would not be reflected in changes in free play since many skills could not be adequately overlearned during the instructional program. For this reason, an attempt was made to look at individual skill learnings in selected skills to determine the effects of instruction on specified target behaviors. Achievement of these skills ‘was defined by performance within the educational context of individual instruction. 41 Ir ite ffec gired. :‘ whetm "Nest arable :atts of ’IA- VA ....‘:SS ' a -:."“h ‘ h... ‘. g; Q 42 In order to investigate both of these aspects of the effects of the treatment two study designs were re— quired. The first design was chosen to answer the question of whether or not the instructional program resulted in changes in free play patterns. The one-group pretest- posttest design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963) was chosen as suitable for answering this question. Videotaped assess- nents of the children's free play patterns before and after the eight month program were used as the source of data. The question of whether or not the children made progress through the skill sequences during individualized instruction was answered using the single subject design (Bijou 23 31,, 1969; Birnbrauer, Peterson and Solnick, 1974). Assessment of status and progress on the sequential instruc- tional objectives was done and recorded daily by the teachers in the process of individualized instruction. These data were used to study the effects of the program in changing the children's behavior during instructional time. ngulation and Sample .POEulation The focus of the study was on the population of mOderately to severely retarded children often classified as tIrainable because of their ability to profit from educa- tic3116.1 programs. The study limited its concern to the young‘child who is entering school. In the normal . fiillat .. TEEIS C . h. :58 14... l 2655 C I bv:~ H ‘ .' '0IlcoL-A ‘2': H "’b 5. '0‘- - ‘ m.“ p. “u" ‘ ~ .Q‘~‘ .. a”: - u'.. .‘A'. ‘.‘,'§ 2" “ . 43 population this would refer to the child of four or five years of age. However, in the retarded population, this age limit would extend to seven or eight years because ~these children are late to enter formal schooling due to late identification or extended home care. In Alberta, children in this age range would enter programs that are designated as 'preschool', 'early childhood' or 'sense training' and the focus of these programs would be to pre- pare the children for the elementary curriculum by teaching them prerequisite skills in self-help, language, social and motor development. Sample The sample was made up of twenty-one children who attended the early education classes at the Winnifred Stewart School for Retarded Children in Edmonton, Alberta. Retardation was established prior to the study by family physicians and psychologists. Each subject met the follow- ing criteria for entrance to the school: 1. The child was medically diagnosed as retarded without severe secondary handicaps. 2. The child demonstrated some skill in self- feeding. 3. The child demonstrated skill in walking. 4. The child was toilet-trained, or demonstrated readiness to profit from toilet-training. The early childhood classes from Winnifred Stewart School at hiversit‘ .1 ‘ k 21:0 Jg5lou 1375 to J six child 353:. onl; '5’: males 52:9 were 35 Pro-gr; 53:13:37 15 3.3.395 anc Th Tales bet... FLS, 58‘. 44 School attended the PREP Preschool Play Program on the University of Alberta campus three mornings per week throughout the school year. The criterion for inclusion in the study was attendance in the program from September 1975 to June 1976 without major absences. Of the twenty- six children who attended the program during the school year, only twenty-one met this criterion. Two females and two males entered the program after October, 1975 and there- fore were not included in the study. One child who began the program in September left Winnifred Stewart School in January 1976 to attend a school for the dependent handi- capped and was therefore excluded from the study also. The sample consisted of seventeen males and four fe- males between the ages of four years, two months and eight years, seven months at the start of the study. The mean age of the group was five years, eight months. Of the seventeen males, ten were diagnosed as having Down's Syn- drome while three of the four females were similarly diagnosed. Five children were diagnosed as brain-damaged while the remaining children were reported as being re- tarded due to unknown causes. All of the children lived in homes with natural or foster parents. Twelve of the children had attended ‘Winnifred Stewart School for at least six months prior to the study, and had attended the PREP program for a four- rmonth period in the school year preceding the start of the study. T1 are typi: :“E‘“ n ntv .504 J 45 The competencies required for entrance to school are typical of those demonstrated in young retardates entering educational institutions throughout Canada. The variability of etiology, the frequency of representation of males and females, as well as the range of skill dis- played in self-help, language and motor development make the sample typical of the population of trainable mentally retarded children in this age range. Treatment The children participated in the PREP Preschool Play Program on the University of Alberta campus three mornings a week from October 1975 until June, 1976 with the exception of a three week Christmas break, a one-week Easter vacation, and other holidays. In total, the program oper- ated for eighty-four instructional days during this time. The program was loosely structured around the following time schedule: 9:25 Children arrive 9:30 - 10:15 Free play and individualized instruction 10:15 - 10:30 Group play and instruction, juice break 10:30 - 11:15 Free play and individualized instruction 11:20 Children return to school The children were accompanied by two classroom 'teachers who were not involved in the instructional program: eizcati " Q .“T‘ #hg.‘ . b “‘\— . ..~ 46 but did supervise the toiletting and juice break. Five PREP staff were involved in instruction, including one under- graduate physical education student, two graduate physical education students and two physical educators. All teachers received training in the use of the program model and the instructional materials prior to the beginning of the pro- gram. Training consisted of instruction in all facets of the program using films, videotapes and other audio-visual aids. Three of the teachers had had several months of experience in the program during the year preceding the study. During the initial week of the program the children were given freedom to play in the play room in order to give them time to feel comfortable before assessment began. This gave the teachers time also to learn the children's names and develop a rapport with them that would make assess- ment and instruction possible. The room contained slides, ladders, mats, trampoline, climbing apparatus, boxes, benches and small equipment that were rearranged at least on a weekly basis. The next two weeks were spent gathering baseline assessment data on each child by means of videotape and individual student assessment by the teachers. For this iperiod of time each teacher was assigned to four or five children for assessment. After the baseline period child- ren were reassigned based on teacher preference. The specific treatment consisted of individualized instruct as base 253-: b" of asses :ianal s gress th litmus .19 Pros N 47 instruction on prescribed play skills. The prescription was based on a comprehensive assessment of play skills made by the assigned teacher. Teachers followed the method of assessment, the criteria for prescription, the instruc- tional strategies and the guidelines for evaluation of pro- gress that were specified in the PREP teacher's guide (Watkinson gt gt., 1976). The Program Model The program model uniquely combined freedom and choice in play with skill instruction. The children were free to play at whatever level of sophistication they were capable of, to be interrupted only at well-chosen moments by the teacher who interjected assessment or instruction in prescribed activities at this time. Typically, then, a child spent a large percentage of his time in free play and at intervals throughout this time he received brief periods of instruction on prescribed skills. Those children who showed less sophistication in their play skills received more assistance and instruction while those who used their free time constructively spent more time in free play alone, or with other children. It was assumed that those children who were engaged in active, sophisticated play were making gains in their play skills through self-initiated practice. Those children on the other hand, whose play was charac- terized by inactivity and little interaction with objects were unlikely to be making the games they could with teacher =“empt ential recogni vided t. rage 0 Ln, laugh 0:. L m... of 48 teacher intervention. The program model then did not attempt to reduce the variability of the group by differ- ential instruction to the skilled and unskilled, but rather recognized that gains could be made in free play time, pro- vided that children were somewhat self-initiated. The range of student outcomes was not expected to be restricted through this approach. The program content was organized sequentially by Task sequences and hierarchically by skill categories and Terminal Performance Objectives. The organization and con- tent of the skills are presented diagrammatically in Figure 1 with the goal of 'Play' at the apex of the hier- archy. Specific skills were grouped by skill category: body awareness, body control, locomotion, object control and specific equipment. Each skill identified within the skill categories had been written as a Terminal Performance Objective (TPO) with a Task Sequence containing enabling skills that lead to acquisition of the TPO. Specific in- structional strategies (Shaping Techniques) were included for each task in the Task Sequence. Examples of these :materials can be found in Appendix C. The instructional model was that of individualized instruction as described by wessel (1975). This model is characterized by five processes: 1. Assessment of each child's play skill repertoire. 2. Prescription of instruction based on needs identified through assessment. 49 mxfiue manna mcwaw Hmuooom Hmppmq nonmm maaflxm mmHm mo accumumflm "a musmflm QEHHU scape mxfiuum xoflm mam acumo condom Haom P _ b _ _ p _ . |_ @358 @356 928353 aomazoo onHummm sumac _ . . ucflsm xom mam: mmom magnum Hm>o c300 QEAHU meow mash cam . p r _ mAAHMm mOBOSOUOA mAAHMm AQMBZOU waom mcflsm Hum _ muumm zoom munmm munmm co acom atom m>oz w>o£ 30cm . . .. manMm mmmzmmdzm waom :ies t J 9V5 3?. al ' n 5914‘- Vina h“ .4.‘Q ' "E w ““1 a \ i Q .....,_n ‘A 50 3. Instruction on prescribed skills using strate- gies that are suitable for each child. 4. Evaluation of individual student progress. 5. Modification of the original prescription based on evaluation of the effectiveness of instruction. Assessment Teachers assessed the children using the PREP Indi- vidual Student Profile (Appendix B). This profile speci- fies Terminal Performance Objectives (TPO), a Task Sequence leading to attainment of each TPO and five levels of student response on each task. The first four levels of response required some inter- vention by the teacher, while the fifth level of response (Initiation) was recorded if the child demonstrated the skill voluntarily during free play. Teachers spent a minimum of ten minutes of every morning in direct observation of the children in free play during the first three weeks of the program. During this time initiation of TPO's and tasks within a Task Sequence were recorded on the Individual Student Profile. Following the observation period teachers continued with direct assessment on the TPO's using the remaining response levels and following the guidelines of the manual (Watkinson gt_gl., 1976). The children were initially assessed on fourteen play skill sequences in the Profile that had previously undergone a "HP“ 4 .VQO‘fi' nbfififl‘ =vt ‘V' I. a! “ luzn‘b. """."“ 3'. JV In L: LIA (‘7' 3. "'2R'h1 -.-D\.. Lnstrw. ~:h.. wuaj ‘ I 3.53 ' m ‘bgi ' Q In‘ «.3 Fr‘ 51 formative evaluation to determine validity of the sequence, applicability to this population and feasibility as in- structional objectives (Watkinson, 1975). As skills were identified for development and evaluation within the in- structional program they were added to the Student Profile and the children were assessed on them. Prescription Once a comprehensive assessment of the child's skills had been completed the teacher prescribed two or three skills for individual instruction. TPO's were chosen for instruction based on priorities outlined in the teacher's manual. Instruction within a TPO was prescribed for the task that followed the one the child was capable of doing with a verbal cue or demonstration. Instruction Teachers attempted to spend a minimum of five minutes of instruction per day on each prescribed skill, using the strategies outlined on the TPO sheets. The Shaping Tech- niques described on those sheets follow the continuum out- lined in the Learner Response categories. Teachers began by using complete manipulation of the child's body to per- form the response, then reduced this to physical prompting and finally to demonstration and verbal cue. Shaping and fading techniques were used as described in the PREP manual (Watkinson, gt gt., 1976). TPO sheets for the 52 skills of tricycling, jumping down, running, and bar swing- ing can be found in Appendix C. Evaluation Teachers kept daily records of student behavior on the Daily Record Form in Appendix D. The TPO and the task in which instruction took place were recorded along with the child's response level (M, MP, D, VC, I) and an esti- mation of the time spent in instruction. Teachers used the information from the Daily Record Form to: 1. know where instruction should begin each day, and 2. be sure each child was getting sufficient in- structional time on each prescribed skill. At the end of every month this information was transferred on to graphs so that an ongoing record of a child's behavior in each prescribed skill was kept. Teachers used the information from the graphs to: 1. determine overall progress of the child on each prescribed skill, 2. determine when to terminate instruction because of insufficient progress or achievement of the TPO, and 3. make decisions regarding instructional strate- gies that had been implemented over each two week period. Decisions were made based on guidelines from the teacher's manual. 53 Free Play and Group Instruction The remainder of the treatment consisted of free play time in the play room, and fifteen minutes of group instruction as described in the PREP manual. Group in- struction focused on skill practice with some emphasis also on group skills such as listening, taking turns and sharing teacher attention. One Group Design Rationale The one-group pretest—posttest design was chosen as suitable for answering the question regarding changes in free play patterns of the children since the study took place in a natural setting in which the controls character- istic of more sophisticated designs were not feasible. Campbell and Stanley (1963) described this design as 'pre-experimental' because it lacks the control required to eliminate possible rival hypotheses such as those of his- tory and maturation. Since the present study was undertaken in the midst of formative evaluation of newly-designed pro- Vgram materials, this design was seen as the most apprOpriate. More sophisticated experimental designs to overcome the weaknesses related to internal and external validity would hopefully follow the present study once further aspects of the treatment have been thoroughly evaluated. 54 Specific Design This part of the study was specifically designed to look at the effects of an individualized program of instruc- tion in play skills on the play patterns demonstrated dur- ing free time. Videotaped samples of free play behavior were taken of each child prior to and following the eight-month pro- gram. Tapes were subjected to analysis to determine the amount of time typically spent in five categories of play or non-play. Differences between pretest and posttest group means of time spent in each category of play were determined. Internal and External Validity Campbell and Stanley (1963) list maturation, history, testing, reactivity, instrumentation, statistical regres- sion and the interaction of these variables with selection as possible sources of error limiting the internal and ex- ternal validity in the one-group pretest-posttest design. Testing and reactivity are least likely to confound the treatment effect when videotapes are used rather than ob- servers, and especially when the subjects are allowed a period of habituation to the presence of the videotape such as they were in this study (Johnson and Bolstad, 1973). The lack of the subjects' awareness of the purpose of a videotape recorder makes reactivity particularly unlikely in the present study. 55 The children entered the program in September 1975 at which time the pretesting was begun. The program ended eight months later with posttesting. Certainly this is a period of time during which maturation may affect the motor skills of young children. Examination of individual sub- ject's skill in the posttest however, focusing on the re- lationship between the changes observed in play, the speci- fic activities receiving instruction and the changes in those not receiving instruction was undertaken in an attempt to determine the likelihood of maturation being solely responsible for the changes observed. It is highly unlikely that maturation would have effects on individual subjects that coincided with the effects that were the focus of in- struction. While history also can be viewed as a rival hy- pothesis to treatment, it is again unlikely that similar histories would produce differential effects on the sub- jects congruent with changes expected from results of specific instruction. An attempt was made to examine the results of the group design in light of changes in subjects with different program histories to determine whether or not history offered a strong alternative hypothesis to treat- ment. The single group study is also subject to influence from changes in instrumentation especially where human observers are used and are subject to fatigue or to expec- tations of changes in the pre and post measures (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). In the present study, the assessment 56 of videotaped films was carried out by three members of the project staff. The staff were familiar with all aspects of the program including the purpose of the play assessments. An attempt was made to minimize the effects of instrumenta- tion by randomizing the order in which the samples were assessed. However, it could not be assumed that the staff were unaware of which samples were pretest samples and which posttest since changes in the children may have communi- cated this information. As a result, a naive observer was trained to read the tapes and subsequently assessed random samples of pretest and posttest data. Percent agree- ment between the naive observer and the project staff were calculated on pretest and posttest samples. These are reported in Table 2. The interaction of selection factors and the indepen- dent variable is a possible source of external invalidity in the one—group pretest-posttest design. The sample used in this study was an intact group rather than a random selection of preschool trainable retarded children. Fur— thermore, a number of the subjects in the group had attended the program for some months prior to the beginning of the study. While the nature of this particular sample may have had an influence on the effectiveness of the treatment, it is likely that the effect would be a conservative one since the gains made in the previous year of the program would be reflected in the pretest. .355 7': '0‘ ‘ 1 - 1 O I L ”"3” anié 'fifilo MUoo co‘hfi 5'.“le \“S .f‘ ‘ 57 Instrumentation The dependent variable in the group study was the quantity of time Spent in five categories of behavior during free play time. The five categories of play and non-play were behaviorally defined and were based on an ethological study of retardates' play behavior completed in the previous year of the program (Noble, 1975). The categories were ordered classifications of behavior that reflected developmental changes in motor skill. The five categories of play were defined as follows. Examples of skills to be included in each category accom- panied the definitions of play behavior. Further examples can be found in Figure 2. Catggory l: Non-Play Definition: The child maintains a static posture or changes posture without locomotion or interaction with objects. Category 2: Prerequisite Skills Definition: The child demonstrates simple movement skills such as those usually acquired by eighteen months of age. Body Awareness: examining body parts, being in a special place. Body Control: sliding on seat on floor Locomotion: crawling, walking, shuffling A... \dL—nu-uafi i 1....L q \ftuau-eru .«1Hv >..~A:..,. «.34 58 wmam mo mmauommumo m>fim mo comm ca canon mHwam ucmsm>oz mo mmamsmxm .N gunmen damn mafiaaou umuooom m anammnou mcflmesn mmoua m nascent mcflnmsml mcfloqsoa Hamel mcflaohowuun @GHHHSQI mcflmca3ml Hosanna Ho pom msfixowxl mcHHHsnn mswmmoupl luau on mafisonnu mcfinoumon uso mcflxmul msflmuumol no mcflxofixs mafizounuu as mcfluusml mcfipaozn muomnno oz AQmBzou Homemo mcflnafiaol . mcfimEdnl :3op mcflawmnnml Haou msflmmwan no mo msfimmmuml msflxam3l can mash .csul mcflcczun mcflxamz uncut mcfla3mu0| wcoz oneozoooq ocean weds mam: Umuum>cHI mcflam mcoH c300 ocfipfiaml mocmamn G300 vcflpflamu x0e pmuuw>afll Emma m mcflxamzn m ouco magnumml mcflpcmum: mmou mcflmcfl3ml mcHHHOH Hoon so mcamfll a so mcfimcHBml mcflmcmnn msoscfiucoon ummm so maficflamu mcwuuflml domezoo moom womHm Hmflo Imam m as mcflwnu muumm weaves: moonm mcfl>osmnn >Uon maficflSmxml mmmzmmdsm Moom mAAme mAAHMm mAAHMm mquxm Méqmlzoz 9.8ng 34928sz 525mm aHmSammmmm m whommumo v huommumu m anomwumo N anomwumo H anommumo 59 Object Control: holding, carrying, dropping, swinging. Category 3: Primary Skills Definition: The child demonstrates immature execu- tion of the fundamental skills of body awareness, body con- trol, locomotion, and object control. Body Awareness: dressing and undressing Body Control: continuous rolling, getting up onto a box Locomotion: fast walking, stepping up or down Object Control: putting in and taking out, hurling, pushing, pulling, chasing. Category 4: Elementary Play Skills Definition: The child demonstrates mature skill patterns in executing skills of body awareness, body control, locomotion, and object control. Body Awareness: hiding Body Control: hanging, swinging, walking a beam Locomotion: running, leaping, jumping, climbing Object Control: throwing, catching, striking, kick- ing, tricycling, scooterboarding. Category 5:' Advanced Play Skills Definition: The child demonstrates competence in integrating or combining fundamental skills of locomotion, q Lapin 3'82 C‘.’ S; ‘A “a r: ‘s. . 6 H U .. 3* h b." . d‘ H ‘ " I I . K . N C‘s-4 { . . h -. .d\ I ‘4 C . “A ‘1 J {3“- ~ . v- ‘a :‘~. -tN 60 body control, or object control in interaction with children or special play equipment. Body Control: rcpe swing, inverted balances or suspension Locomotion: run, jump and roll Object Control: kicking at a goal, throwing at a target, jumping rope, ball bouncing. The instrument was judged as having face validity since the categories of play were behaviorally defined in observable terms and were derived from the behavioral outcomes speci- fied for the program. The categories were ordinal in nature since they represented a hierarchical and sequential arrange- ment of motor skills based on the developmental changes observed in young children (Gesell and Armatruda, 1947; Wickstrom, 1970). The skills described in the lower cate- .gories of the behavior cxxka precede in time of appearance and degree of difficulty the more SOphisticated play skills of the latter categories. Scalogram analyses of specific skill sequences encompassed by these categories revealed that subjects who can perform higher level skills can per- form those in the lower categories, while subjects who per- form lower level skills are not necessarily proficient in high level ones. These analyses were completed in pilot testing in the first year of the program (Watkinson, 1975). Interobserver accuracy of the three observers were determined using fifteen randomly selected samples of the ,QAOI H.4- '. a f‘ ‘v‘vu .u ~ A .:-¢, ‘50. bit D ‘A ~—"'_' 'V- I \- u o.. - 'u‘ -l 1 5.? . VQ . i. 3“,..- a...“-c ‘5 = Nt‘rVn .U-‘ u '- ‘. ., ‘ s ‘p‘ ‘.r .‘1 I 3“. ‘ ""I'az \ 5 . ‘~ .-"‘ . .N v. s W: .D‘ Q ‘i 61 pretest data. Observer accuracy was determined by identi- fying the number of agreements and disagreements between observers. The data were analyzed second by second on the 1500 seconds to determine agreement and disagreement in categorizing specific events. The number of observer agreements was divided by the sum of agreements and dis- agreements and multiplied by 100 percent to calculate the percentage agreement (Johnson and Bolstad, 1973). Table 1 contains the frequency of disagreements found and the per- centage agreement obtained between pairs of the three ob- servers. Chance agreement between observers was calculated to be 31 percent. Johnson and Bolstad (1973) suggested that the percentage agreement should be significantly lar- ger than that found by chance alone, but that 80 - 85 per- cent agreement was a realistic upper limit for observation codes that contained complex categories. On the basis of this, the observed percentage agreements were seen as being indicative of a high degree of observer agreement in the instrument. A trained naive observer who was unfamiliar with the subjects and the program assessed ten samples of ran- domly chosen pretest and posttest data. Interobserver accuracy between these readings and the observer read- ings was calculated using the same method. Percent agree- ment was found to be 88.9 percent on the pretest samples and 86.7 percent on the posttest samples. The similarity of 62 TABLE 1 INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT ON 1500 SECONDS OF PRETEST DATA Observers Observers Observers l and 2 l and 3 2 and 3 Frequency of Disagreements 206 208 185 Percentage of Agreement 86.26% 86.13% 87.66% and- a 3mm.- 0nvvv the st 11' o.‘ 6 n.‘ .f l (D I); 63 these percentages indicates that there was not a systematic shift in the posttest readings of the PREP staff. (Table 2). Procedures for Data Collection Children were videotaped during free play time in the second and third week of the program and again at the end of the program. Eight samples of one hundred seconds of play were taken. Noble (1975) found in a similar study that eight samples were sufficient to get a representative sample of the child's behavior. His data revealed that continued sampling after 800 seconds did not change the percentages of time spent in the categories of play defined. Subjects were videotaped in random order each day and no more than two samples of any child were taken on one day. After taping, a lOO-second count was dubbed onto the tape. Two observers were trained by the investigator on pilot samples taken during the first week of the program. Agreement was established between each observer and the investigator on fifteen randomly chosen samples of pretest data before analysis of the remaining tapes was completed. The two observers and the investigator then assessed pre- test and posttest tapes in random order. The procedures for analysis were as follows: 1. The observer watched the taped sample of free play behavior at least once before beginning assessment. 2. With repeated viewings the observer identified the action units engaged in by the child throughout the ?‘w- d.‘. 64 TABLE 2 INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT BETWEEN NAIVE OBSERVER AND PREP STAFF ON 1000 SECONDS OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST DATA Pretest Posttest Frequency of Disagreements 116 133 Percentage of Agreement 88.4% 86.7% Ce L“ e -7. 5 .C 'I o ‘l A 9:. .O N Hwy. add at. «\u n. c m.- a. o. .. 1.. 2. o . a u .3 w‘ 65 sample. An action unit was defined as a specific behavior initiated by the child and engaged in without shifts of attention. The action units were written in order of appearance on the tape. Posture changes were included with the behavior that followed if the change was made to accom- plish that behavior. Behaviors that were repeated without a shift of attention were recorded as one action unit. 3. The observer determined the time of the beginning and ending of each action unit and recorded these times. This required repeated viewings of the tape. 4. The length of each action unit was determined by adding the seconds between and including the start and the stop of the behavior. 5. Each action units was rated according to the categories of play described in the Play Assessment. A number of 1 to 5 corresponding to the Play Level observed was recorded for each action unit. When all tapes had been analyzed using this procedure, the number of seconds spent in each category of play was summed over the eight pretest samples and recorded for each subject. This was repeated with the posttest samples. Treatment of the Data Percentage of time spent in each category of play or non-play was calculated for each subject and the group in the pretest and the posttest. The number of action units engaged in by each DCStt {31’ I). J d . \‘Ah .pvg .. VA. -,)_c1‘ 5“ ~.' -.;9- t 5 66 subject over the eight pretest samples and the eight posttest samples was determined. Group pre and post means were calculated and a t-test was used for testing the signif- icance of the difference between means of dependent sam- ples (Glass and Stanley, 1970). The number of seconds spent in each category of play and non-play on the pretest and posttest was calculated for each subject and the group. In testing for the significance of the difference between the centroids of a sample in a test-retest multivariate design, Tatsuoka (1971) recommends using the difference score as the dependent measure. Conse- quently, the difference scores for each individual in the five categories of play were determined. Only the scores from the first four categories were used in determining the significance of the difference scores since the fifth score was a linear combination of the other four. The Hotelling T2 technique (Tatsuoka, 1971) was used to deter- mine the significance of the difference scores from pre- test to posttest of the sample in the first four categories of behavior. This technique is used to test the signifi- cance of the difference between the centroid of a multi- variate normal population and a known population centroid. Single Subjgct Design Rationale The use of the single subject design has been strongly recommended in cases of applied research (Birnbrauer, shag; val“; at?” 3.398 Cflte :e ef I .4. 67 Peterson and Solnick, 1974) especially in observational studies with children (Bijou gt gt., 1969). Birnbrauer suggested that single subject studies meet the following criteria to be distinguished from case histories: 1. reliable data must be gathered 2. the recording of data must be done repeatedly 3. methods must be described sufficiently to per- mit replication 4. effects of the treatment must be found in repeated analyses. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of an individualized program of play skill instruction. Since a wide range of skills was chosen for instruction and very few children had exactly the same prescription, the single-subject design was seen as most appropriate to look at individual changes in skill perfor- mance in behaviors that were well defined in criterion- referenced terms and checked for reliability in a previous phase of the program. The third criterion was met in the detailed description of the treatments found in the PREP instructional materials (Watkinson gt gt., 1976). An attempt was made to meet the fourth criterion by analyzing individual progress in skills in which more than two children received instruction. The type of single-subject design used was the Simple Time Series (Birnbrauer, Peterson and Solnick, 1974; Camp-. bell and Stanley, 1963). In this design behavior is 3559556 335 Che todesc ‘FA '- 'BQA'. . ”'5' '1 M Q .Q *2 33.0 W. I . : l ‘. ‘h :a “:rd H .'. 68 assessed prior to and during a well-monitored treatment, and changes in the behavior of an individual are subjected to descriptive analysis. Studies based on this type of design are frequently used to gather initial data relative to program effectiveness that can be used to generate hy- potheses for experimental testing at a later date. Specific Design The purpose of the PREP program was to provide indi— vidualized instruction in play skills for twenty-one retarded children based on an assessment of skill at the beginning of the program. The assessment was completed on fourteen play skills, each one written as a Terminal Performance Ob- jective with a Task Sequence of enabling skills. Assessment of individual children was accomplished during the two week baseline period at the beginning of the program using the procedures outlined in the PREP Manual (Watkinson, 1976). Baseline data for the group study was also collected at this time. Assessments were completed on twelve additional Terminal Performance Objectives during the course of the program. Following the assessment, two or three skills were prescribed for instruction for each child based on guide- lines in the teacher's manual. Because of the heterogen- eity of the skill repertoires in the sample, a wide range of skills were prescribed for instruction. By the end of the pr 9.55855 perioc "g c: M. u ”a .s] V‘O“ skill 69 the program twenty of the possible twenty-six skills in the assessment were prescribed for at least one child for a period of time. The present study however, attempted to limit its analysis to selected Terminal Performance Objectives. Those Terminal Performance Objectives that satisfied the follow- ing criteria were identified as potential ones for analysis: 1. Terminal Performance Objectives that had pre- viously undergone formative evaluation 2. Terminal Performance Objectives that were judged as having high priority for further evaluation because of their importance in the play repertoire of children 3. Terminal Performance Objectives that were pre- scribed for more than one child for a period of at least six weeks 4. Terminal Performance Objectives that were seen as being representative of ontogenetic and phylogenetic skills of childhood. The following Terminal Performance Objectives met these criteria and were selected for analysis in this study: tricycle riding, running, jumping down and bar swinging. ‘ Internal and External Validity Campbell and Stanley (1963) showed that history, maturation and instrumentation are factors that might be confounded with treatment in producing changes in a single 70 subject study. As a result, this design was seen as weak in factors relating to internal validity. However, since the purpose of this part of the study was to monitor changes in behavior that occurred during instruction, this was viewed as the best possible design. The small size of the sample, and the lack of representativeness in its choice also jeopardizes the generalizability of the study. Birn- brauer, Peterson and Solnick (1974) suggested that further replications of single subject studies in different field settings demonstrating the same results are required to strengthen the external validity of this type of study. Instrumentation Performance on selected play skills was measured on the PREP Individual Student Profile (Appendix B). This profile is a criterion-referenced measurement device that can be used to assess a child's performance on the Task Sequences of twenty-six Terminal Performance Objectives. Each Terminal Performance Objective represents a play skill that is seen as highly desirable in the skill reper- toire of young children. One to seven tasks leading up to the TPO are included in the Profile to increase the speci- ficity of the assessment. The last task in the sequence is the TPO. The Profile also contains a method for the assess- ment of the child's level of response within each of these tasks. Performance is recorded as being initated (I), or as meeting the criterion task with the assistance of the teache prompt script the se fund '5” vév ’ 71 teacher's verbal cue (VC), demonstration (D), manipulative prompt (MP), or complete manipulation (M). Specific de- scriptions of the behavior required to meet each task in the sequence and the response level within each task are found in the instructional materials of the PREP program (watkinson gt gt., 1976). These materials are organized alphabetically by content area (body awareness, body con- trol, locomotion, object control and specific equipment skills) and by Terminal Performance Objective. The instrument is designed to be used by the teacher unobstrusively in the midst of instruction. Assessment, therefore, was repeated with each instructional situation. Assessments made after the baseline period were recorded onto Daily Record Sheets (Appendix D) by the teacher and later transferred onto graphs. Treatment of the Data Assessment data gathered prior to and during instruc- tion were translated into graphic representations to display the child's best performance on a specific task sequence during each week of instruction. Discrete learning curves (Bijou gt gt., 1969) were thus generated for each subject on each prescribed skill. These curves were examined with consideration of the following: 1. the change in performance from the beginning of instruction to its termination thOSt Lll revel 5r 1 .C Q» Hid L y :4 Q. ~ v. Us II. a: 1‘ ‘5 la 5 9“. ‘\ d I‘~-« ‘1‘... q 72 2. the length of time required to attain the TPO 3. the shape of the learning curves 4. the variability in performance and learning of those children for whom the skill was prescribed 5. the appropriateness of the tasks and the response levels for assessment and instruction. Hypotheses The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of the PREP Preschool Play Program on the play skills and free play patterns of moderately mentally re- tarded children. The application of the one-group pretest - posttest design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963) and the single subject simple time series design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963; Bijou gt gt., 1969) was used in testing the following hypotheses: l. The children will exhibit a decrease from pre- test to posttest in the percentage of time spent in non- play during free play. 2. The children will demonstrate an increase from pretest to posttest in the percentage of time spent in ele- mentary and advanced play skills during free play. 3. The children will exhibit a decrease from pre- test to posttest in the average number of action units en- gaged in during free play. 4. At least 60 percent of the children will demon- strate improvement in the prescribed skills of running, 73 jumping down, tricycle riding and bar swinging after at least six weeks of individualized instruction in these skills. 4 at ~~ SC 50 A ‘- u DIA‘ as C e .45 . .h“? 's V CHAPTER IV RESULTS Assessment of Free Play Patterns Two research hypotheses were stated concerning the children's free play behavior prior to and following parti- cipation in the PREP play program. One suggested that assessment of the amount of time spent in non-play would reflect a decrease in percentage of time spent in this category of behavior in the posttest. Concomitant with this change an increase in the more SOphisticated categor- ies of play (elementary and advanced play) was predicted. Percentages of time spent in each of the five cate- gories of play and non-play were calculated for each subject and the group for the pretest and posttest. Group percent- ages are displayed in Table 3. For individual subject's play data, see Appendix F. In the pretest, large propor— tions of time were spent in the first three categories of play (Non-Play, Prerequisite Skills, Primary Skills) and very little time spent in Elementary and Advanced Play Skill. In the posttest, however, the percentage of time spent in Categories 1 and 2 decreased considerably while the time spent in Elementary and Advanced Skills increased. The largest changes were found in Categories 1, 2 and 4. The 74 75 TABLE 3 PERCENTAGE OF TIME SPENT IN EACH CATEGORY OF PLAY IN PRETEST AND POSTTEST Non-Pla Prerequisite Primary Elementary Advanced Y Skills Skills skills Skills Pretest .20.65% 37.37% 33.57% 7.75% .66% Posttest 9.96% 29.76% 31.99% 25.18% 3.11% :02 an: E ;. n .A- Q U ‘ s““l ' u? . ‘e ’r-1 ’9‘ ‘w‘ in, . . k‘ . if" . w .5‘ .U‘ .. I.‘ \ . 76 subjects decreased the amount of time spent in Non-play from 20.65 percent to 9.96 percent, while the percentage of time spent in Elementary Skills increased from 7.75 percent to 25.18 percent. Large individual differences were seen in the raw data with the percentage of time spent in Non-play in the pretest ranging from 1.38 percent to 57.25 percent, and similar ranges being found in the posttesting in Non—play and Elementary Skills. Gains scores in each category of play were calculated for each subject. The Hotelling T2 technique (Tatsuoka, 1971) was used to determine the significance of the gains in Categories 1 to 4. The results of this analysis are pre- sented in Table 4. The F-ratio obtained was found to be significant at the .001 level of significance indicating that a significant change occurred from pretest to posttest in time spent in these categories of play. Simultaneous comparisons of the mean gains in Categories 1 to 4 and the population mean gains of zero were conducted to determine where the significance lay. The F-ratios found in Categor- ies l, 2 and 3 were insignificant while the F-ratio in Cate- gory 4 was found to be significant at the .01 level (Table 5). A significant change occurred in the percentage of time Spent in Elementary Play Skills then, from preprogram test- ing to postprogram testing. The children increased the amount of time spent in more sophisticated play activities after the eight-month program. ti QC hr: 77 TABLE 4 2 RESULTS OF HOTELLING T ANALYSIS 2 T F df Probability 34.1717 7.2615 4, 17 0.001 TABLE 5 SIMULTANEOUS COMPARISONS OF THE MEANS OF CATEGORIES 1 TO 4 AND THE POPULATION MEANS OF ZERO Category T2 F df Probability 1. Non-Play 9.7716 2.0765 4, 17 0.1288 2. Prerequisite Skills 6.8089 1.4469 4, 17 0.2618 3. Primary Skills 0.1380 .0293 4, 17 0.9982 4. Elementary Skills 23.4333 4.9796 4, 17 0.0077 78 Frequency counts of the number of children ini- tiating specific play skills during the pretest and post- test videotaped samples of free play were made (Table 6). Skills were organized by categories identified in the PREP instructional materials. A broader range of skills was initiated in the posttest assessment of free play, and lar- ger frequencies were found on the posttest in seventeen elementary and advanced play skills. In other words, not only did the amount of time spent in skilled behavior increase, but also the range of skills increased, along with the number of children initiating these skills. Action Units It was hypothesized that changes toward more highly skilled patterns of free play would be accompanied by a decrease in the number of behaviors engaged in during sam- ples of free play time. As a result the number of action units engaged in by each subject over the eight pretest samples and the eight posttest samples was determined (Table 7). Group pretest and posttest means and standard deviations for 800 seconds of play are presented in Table 7. A correlated t-test for the significance of the differ- ence between sample means (Glass and Stanley, 1970) yielded a t value of 2.758. With 20 degrees of freedom, this value was found to be significant at the .05 level of signif- icance. A t-test for the significance of difference of "(A «flu am new 50" w-‘v .u-‘ .a ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED PLAY SKILLS INITIATED IN 79 TABLE 6 VIDEOTAPED SAMPLES OF FREE PLAY Skill Category Skill Subjects Initiating in Pretest Subjects Initiating in Posttest Body Awareness Body Control Locomotion Object Control Specific Equipment Skills Wrestling Bar Swing Hang on Bar Inverted Hang Beam Walk Rope Swing Forward Roll Climb Cargo Net Run Jump Climb Jump and Roll Throw Kick Strike With Stick Bounce Ball Partner Toss Strikes Ball off Tee Target Throw Sliding Scooter on Slide Trampoline Tricycle Inclined Bench Jump Ball Scooter on Floor 0 H-bmw OOOOI—‘OH HOOOHNN OOI-‘bU‘lxlI-J H l-‘O‘WCD wwpwowq OHUHNNW HNOUIQO‘Q US“ a I a Y.’ T‘a'. ‘nul' 80 TABLE 7 NUMBER OF ACTION UNITS IN 800 SECONDS OF PREPROGRAM AND POSTPROGRAM FREE PLAY Mean Standard Deviation Pretest 80.67 18.80 Posttest 67.38 23.97 sample variances yielded a t value of 1.226 which was found to be insignificant (Table 8). These results supported the research hypothesis indi- cating that the subjects did initiate fewer action units dur- ing free play after the eight month program of free play and individualized instruction. It was assumed that this de- crease in action units, coupled with increases in play so- phistication, was desirable since it indicated that the TABLE 8 T-TESTS FOR THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRETEST AND POSTTEST MEANS IN NUMBER OF ACTION UNITS df t Probability Means 20 2.758 .012 Variances 19 1.226 .235 r ,v :u .Flv A: as v. 5 .‘ 31" V i u. l~" sf ‘33:" by d. a \“ 2.5. U.~h EN .s- N 81 children were spending longer periods of time in the ini- tiation of skilled behavior. Results of Specific Skills Instruction It was hypothesized that 60 percent of the children receiving instruction in prescribed skills would demon- strate measurable improvements in these Skills over the course of instruction. Four skills were selected for analysis. These were skills that had been prescribed with some frequency and met the following criteria: 1. They had undergone formative evaluation, 2. they were judged as having high priority for development and evaluation because of their contribution to children's play. 3. they were prescribed for more than one child, 4. collectively they included both ontogenetic and phylogenetic skills. The four skills selected were: running, jumping down, tricycle riding and swinging on a bar. Four other skills were prescribed with equal fre- quency and met the four criteria but were not chosen for analysis. Two of these skills, climbing and striking, under- went major revision during the year, even though they had been formatively evaluated the preceding year. As a result, the data collected on student performance in these skills was chili fine-i C.ltt 82 incomplete. One skill, catching, was not chosen for analy- sis because it required the interaction of a teacher and child and therefore was not applicable to free play as de- fined within this study. The fourth skill, throwing, was omitted because it was not judged as being as crucial to the free play of children as the locomotor skills of running and jumping and because it typically is acquired in its ma- ture pattern at a later age than either of these locomotor skills (Wickstrom, 1970). Table 9 contains the frequencies of prescriptions for each of these four Terminal Performance Objectives, along with the frequency and percentage of children who: reached the TPO, made a gain of at least one task in the Task Se- quence, made gains within a task, and made no gains. Achieve- ment of the TPO was defined as performance of the TPO at the level of Initiation or Verbal Cue. Changes from task to task at the response level of complete manipulation were recorded on the graphs but were not viewed as gains since they did not reflect changes in the student's independence or skill. In all TPO's at least 50 percent of the subjects made gains of one or more tasks in the Task Sequence, while the percentage of students reaching the TPO ranged from 0 per- cent in jumping to 100 percent in bar swinging. Individual learning curves are presented by TPO in Appendix E for each of the four skills. Performance by task and response level leading to the TPO are plotted 83 Hwo v o Hwo V o Hwo V o HwoOHc s s mSHzm Ham lemme s Hem c H lemme s Awmev m HH msHHosoHss HSHHV H Hwo v 0 memV m HwHHv H m ssoo SSHmssn “some N Hwomc m Hwomc m AHOHV H OH msHsssm same sHsuHs mswmw oz Hm>mn Bmz mHoz Ho xmme wco OmB coauosuumcH OmB mcfixmz mm mcfl>wwnod mm mco msfl>mwno¢ mm mcH>wH£o¢ mm mcH>Hmomm mm ZOHBUDmBmZH OflNHAdDQH>HQZH UZHmDD mQAHMm DmmHmUmmmm ZH Dm>mmmm0 mmwz¢mo m mamdfi 84 against weeks of instruction. Teachers did not prescribe instruction for subjects at the same time throughout the program; therefore some subjects may have received some weeks of instruction in one skill in the fall, while others did not begin on that skill until the spring. Regardless of when their instruction began, the first week was recorded in the first square of the graph. The curves reflect the subject's best performance each week in the prescribed skill. Teachers were instructed to begin instruction on the next task once the first task was consistently performed at the response level of demon- stration or verbal cue. As a result teachers did not wait until children initiated each task before moving on. How- ever, initiation of any task in the sequence was recorded on the first occasion of being observed, regardless of how far along the task sequence individual instruction had pro- gressed. Skills that were thus initiated, observed and re- corded are marked by an X in the apprOpriate square in the learning curves in Appendix E. The individual differences for running in subjects' initial performances and learning rates are reflected in the curves. Only one subject reached the TPO, and then only at the response level of verbal cue. This subject entered the instructional period at Task 3 (running with inconsis- tent periods of non-support). For the majority of subjects the length of instruction was between six and ten weeks. One subject received instruction for sixteen weeks while gar y‘yu A '- 4J1; both '17.: s1 9 L H 5&5! D 0 RC ‘ '5 ....e :es‘ 85 another received instruction for twenty weeks. A marked in- consistency from week to week was noted for several of the subjects, with gains in one week being lost in the ensuing weeks. Only four of the subjects had prOgressed beyond a fast walk even after weeks of instruction, and two of these evidenced inconsistent periods of non-support in their run- ning pattern. The graphs displayed marked variability in the subjects' entering and terminal behaviors, as well as in the time required to see change and the general shape of the learning curves. In the TPO of jumping down the same variability is displayed in initial and terminal performance. Only one child reached the TPO and that child ($14) initiated the skill on the week following the termination of instruction. Three subjects achieved task 4 and three more task 3. Both of these tasks involve a two-foot take-off and landing with an observable period of flight. All children made measurable gains within eight weeks of direct instruction. In tricycle riding wide individual differences were apparent in the amount of change over the instructional period and in the amount of time required to reach the TPO. Five children attained the TPO at the level of initiation (SS, S7, $12, $14 and $18). The range of time required to reach that performance level was wide with one child ini- tiating tricycle riding and steering after seven weeks of instruction and another doing the same after twenty weeks. Five children did not progress past the first task of sitting or»- iv- ‘2’ H H 5. .er 8 "me or. t!) TEE) :8 n u_ “G 86 on the trike while being pushed. Four of these required manipulative prompts to keep their feet on the pedals while another could do this with a verbal cue. Subject 16 re- ceived instruction in the last ten weeks of the program and may have made some progress with extended time. Two sub- jects had instruction terminated for a period of several weeks. When instruction began again however, the children continued to make no measurable progress towards the TPO. In examining the learning curves for swinging on a bar it can be noted that the shape of the learning curves for six of the subjects was highly similar, with all six achieving the TPO at the Initiation Level by the fifth or sixth week of instruction. Subject 15 reached the TPO in 13 weeks at the response level of verbal cue and maintained this level of response until the termination of instruc- tion. Wide individual differences were seen in the seven children at the beginning of instruction, with one child entering the task sequence at the lowest level of per- formance and another beginning on the third task with manipu- lative prompts. These results support the research hypothesis since at least 60 percent of the subjects made measurable gains in the skills of running, jumping down, riding a tricycle and swinging on a bar. The degree to which these measurable gains can be considered meaningful or reasonable however requires the consideration of the time spent in instruction. Theseanuiother factors will be discussed in the next chapter. .1 . s 3n «u a'. . 'uA‘ C .l in... e l s u u . s A w «an. A u *vu‘ v,‘.& CHAPTER V DISCUSSION Free Play Behavior Results of the Pretest Results from the pretest indicated that the children spent a large proportion of their time in non-play (20.65 percent) and simple movement skills (37.37 percent) such as walking, crawling or holding objects. The range of time spent by individuals in these categories was large with some children spending as little as three percent in non-play and one child spending 57 percent of her time in non-play. Within the sample, fourteen children spent at least 15 per- cent of their time in complete inactivity. All of these children spent a considerable proportion of their remaining time in simple movement skills (Category 2). In fact, twelve children spent more than 60 percent of their free play time in these two categories combined. Using Rosen— thal's definitions of play behavior (Rosenthal, 1973), all of this time would be categorized as non-play. In view of the highly stimulating nature of the environment, this per- centage represents an extremely large amount of time spent in uns0phisticated levels of play behavior. Considering 87 100 Y; 6‘ 88 too that a number of the subjects had been in the program for several months in the previous year and that all of the children had had a week of free play during which they could be accustomed to the play room and the teachers, it is likely that this percentage is a conservative estimate of the time spent in non—play and simple movement by the population of retarded youngsters. Clearly these results support the view expressed by others (Benoit, 1955; Wehman, 1975; Gralewicz, 1973) that retarded children do need to increase their ability to use free play time constructively. Since very little of the group's time was spent in skilled activity (8.41 percent in Categories 4 and 5 com- bined), it can be assumed that the children lacked the play skills required to make the best use of free time. Only three of the subjects initiated any Category 5 (Advanced Skill) behavior and six subjects demonstrated no behavior at all that could be categorized as either Elementary or Ad- vanced play skill. Analysis of the specific skills observed in these categories revealed that fifteen identifiable skills were initiated. Only four of these were initiated by more than four children: jumping, throwing, jumping on the tramp- oline, and going down the slide on the scooter. The child- ren who initiated these skills tended to be those who had had previous experience in the program. It is likely that they received some instruction in these skills before the pretesting, since these were viewed as high in priority for instructional materials development in the previous year. 89 The large amount of time spent in Non-play supports the findings of Noble (1975) and Linford gt gt., (1971). Since Noble's lowest category of play closely resembled that of the present study, and the environment in which the free play behavior was assessed was virtually the same, it is not surprising that his figure for Non-play (approximately 20 percent) was almost identical to the pretest figure of the present study. This appears to confirm that these children spend a good deal of time in inactivity. Linford (1971) suggested that the gross energy expenditure of children with Down's Syndrome was low because of inactivity. He found that these children had low velocities of movement and shorter amounts of time spent in movement during free play than normal children. Other studies have also confirmed the lack of skill evidenced in the retarded child's movement. Keeran, Grove and Zachofsky (1969) found that a large number of severely retarded children and adolescents lacked proficiency in using playground equipment. The present study found a lack of time spent in proficient play and those skills that were per- formed proficiently were exhibited by only a few subjects. The results of the pretest showed a large percentage of time spent in non-play and in very simple movement skills and very little time Spent in skilled behavior. Furthermore, the range of elementary and advanced play skills demonstrated 'was small and those skills that were initiated were generally done so by a small number of individuals. This suggests a clear skill ficie; "F hut-ands —.—d._ preprc of tin 9.96 p spent ;:ave - fidual I.‘ ‘33 ~ Wa: i 90 clear need for the retardate to acquire a wider range of play (skills and to learn to initiate these play skills in a pro- ficient manner in free play. Changes in Play Behavior A significant shift in play behavior was seen from preprogram testing to postprogram testing. The percentage of time spent in Non-play decreased from 20.65 percent to 9.96 percent and a similar change occurred in the time spent in Prerequisite Skills. While these changes did not prove to be statistically significant, a close look at indi— vidual subjects revealed that very large decreases were made in time spent in Non-play. Four children increased their active play time by more than 30 percent of the total time (see 516 in Figure 3). The largest change from pretest to posttest occurred in Category 4 Play (Elementary Skills). A statistically significant increase was found from preprogram to postpro- gram testing. Whereas only 7.75 percent of the group's time was spent in this category of play in the pretest, by the end of the program this had increased to 25.18 percent. This category of play includes skills such as jumping, riding a tricycle, running, climbing, using a scooterboard or bouncing on the trampoline. It was on the development of these specific skills that the program of individualized instruction had focused (Watkinson gt gt., 1976). Maturation has been recognized as an alternative 91 _ _ _ nu nu nu a) GA 1; 60- 50- 40- . _ _ _ nu nu nu nu AU R4 AH 14 0‘ 1L >MHQ «mum SH wEHB mo wmmucwonwm Category of Play (515) Category of Play (S7) _ _ _ _ nu nu nu nu _ . nu nu :U :J AH 53 «4 1L __————————————— _ . . _ _ _ nu nu nu nu nu nu r0 :J A1 )4 64 1; >6Hm monk CH mEHB mo wmmucwouwm 5 4 3 11 EJ 4. r0 1; Pretest Posttest Category of Play (S Category of Play (514) Percentage of Free Play Time Spent in Each of Five Figure 3. Categories of Play by Four Subjects on Pretest and Posttest 92 hypothesis to treatment in one-group studies (Stanley and Campbell, 1966). In the present study, however, it appears that a strong case can be made for eliminating this as a competing hypothesis because of the nature of the changes that occurred. Many of the tasks that were initiated in the posttest but not on the pretest (see Table 10) were those that had received considerable instruction (four weeks or more) in the program. Individual prescriptions for skill instruction by subject can be found in Figure 4. Of those play skills that were prescribed for individual instruction approximately 20 percent were initiated in the free play samples. This represents the number of TPOs or mature skills initiated during the taping time. It does not in- clude skills that were initiated at a lower task level, or those that were initiated at times other than the posttest filming. Those skills that did not appear in the subject's pretest, but did appear on the posttest are marked with an asterisk. An analysis of the frequency of initiation of pre- scribed skills and those not prescribed for instruction in the posttest samples of free play behavior revealed that approximately twice as many of the prescribed skills were observed On the posttest (Table 10). This did not include skills that were observed on both the pretest and the post- test. In other words children initiated more of the skills that had received instruction during the program than they did skills that had not received instruction. This supports 93 TABLE 10 FREQUENCIES OF PRESCRIBED AND UNPRESCRIBED SKILLS OBSERVED ON THE POSTTEST SAMPLES OF FREE PLAY Body Object Special Locomotion Control Control Equipment Prescribed Skills* 1 8 5 20 Unprescribed Skills* 3 2 2 ll *including only those skills ggt_seen on the pretest. 94 :oHuosuumcH HHme new meowumauommum HanoH>HpSH ”v gunman .umwumum madman Hos use ummuumom agenda hmam menu :a teamwuwcw mums was» madflxms Hmuoooms .sSHHo. .msHHm .asmuu ssoe mean .ssu Hum QEAHO mxfluuma .noumo .zounu mcflSm cache cum exam» .QEHHUS guano .3ounus can «Hm QEHH0« .mxaup sous»; .mxfiuum mcw3m mach: csop mash on QEHHU wxfluumk soumo .3oHnu :300 mean .csu sHm waHu .msmuu .wpwam .nEHHok mcw3m Hank .mcmnk S306 mean mHm oxwuu .msmuu .Hmuooom .QEHHU mcfism use .mgHBm mmou c300 masfl .ssu mHm QEHHU .mxfiuu 3on3» maazm Hun .mnfl3m wmouk nzoc mash :Hm QEHHU .umuooom« mxHHum«.:oumo .souau mcflsm mmou« :30p magma mHm mpHHm .memuu .QEAHO .mxfiuu «Hm nEHHo soumo .3ousu SSH HHm mflfldmt .mxHuu .QEHHok .memuua can on mxwuu .msmuu .QEHHos maesm Hank can mm QEHHos mxfluum mcflsm wmou Hm>o mash mm manna .mxHHu« mxwuum .3ounu mcwsm mmou GBOU QESw hm QEHHO xofix .mxwuum .zounu mcfl3m use mm menu”; .mcHQEHHo .mUHHm .mxfluus mxwuum .noumo .3ousu can mm onx QEHHUS .mEmuu mxfluum .noumo .zounu Sm nfiflaoc souco .mxwuum .3ounu mcfl3m Hans mm QEHHUS .macuua .mxHHu xOHx .noumo .3ounu mewsm use as» «m wpaams .QEHHO .msmuu« sons» :300 mean .SSH Hm ezmsmHsam HaHommm ‘ Homezoo somemo Homezoo soon oneosoooH poomnsm madwxm conflhommum 95 the hypothesis that the treatment rather than maturation was responsible for the changes in free play. It must be remembered however that the free play samples were by no means a comprehensive assessment of what the child could do in free play since they were intended only to sample patterns of behavior. Many of the skills (both prescribed and unprescribed) that were initiated on the posttest and not on the pretest required interaction with play equipment such as bars, ropes, tricycles, trampolines, scooters, slides, climbing apparatus. They are skills that have been referred to as 'ontOgenetic' skills because they are likely to be influenced by learning and experience (Espenschade and Eckert, 1967: McGraw, 1935). Those skills that are often referred to as 'phylogenetic' did not appear to be initiated as frequently, even when they had received intensive instruction. These are the skills (run, jump, throw, catch, kick) that are most likely to be affected by maturation, according to develop-- mentalists. These skills which reflect more complex movement patterns are likely more difficult to learn and require more time and instruction to acquire. It appears that eight months was insufficient time to bring about changes in the initiation of phylogenetic skills, though it was sufficient time for gains to be made in ontogenetic skills. Individual Differences in Play The amount of change in play behavior varied from indiv incre ccrie stanc I u 96 individual to individual as expected. All but one child increased the amount of time spent in the two highest cate- gories of play. All children exhibited at least one in- stance of skilled activity (Category 4 or 5). On the post- test assessment, five of the children spent at least 50 percent of their time in Category 4 and 5 behavior, and fif- teen children spent at least 15 percent of their time in behavior of this type. Individual differences in amount of change observed and kinds of behaviors initiated were quite apparent. One child increased his Category 4 activity times from 0 percent to 50.63 percent. While it cannot be shown conclu- sively that the change was due to instruction, it is prob— ably worth nothing that he received daily instruction in tricycle riding, a skill which he could not initiate at the time of pretesting, but which was seen frequently on the videotapes of the posttest. Histograms showing changes in play skill behavior of this subject (S7) and others are pre- sented in Figure 3. Another subject made large increases in the time spent in both Elementary and Advanced Play Skills. From a pretest percentage of 0.125 percent in these categories of play, Subject 14 (Figure 3) increased to 41.25 percent in these categories. The larger change was made in Category 5 (from 0.0 percent to 26.75 percent). A considerable amount of time was spent during the posttest in the activity of jumping off a bench to swing on a rope. This was an 97 advanced play skill that had been prescribed for instruc- tion for this student during the winter months of the pro- gram. The skill was not present during initial assessment but was achieved during the program and initiated during posttest assessment. In fact, rope swinging became a highly favored activity and was observed on seven occasions in the posttest, totally 207 of the 800 seconds of sampled free play. This only includes actual time spent in swinging and does not reflect the time spent in close proximity to the rope (holding it and looking elsewhere) between turns. Other subjects showed posttest increases in pre- scribed skills. Subject 9 increased his Category 4 play from 0 percent to 18 percent of his sampled time. Of the 144 seconds of Elementary Skills initiated during free play on the posttest, 143 seconds were spent on two prescribed skills: bar swinging and climbing. Clearly in this case the posttest changes seem to be directly related to the pre— scribed treatment. The learning curve for bar swinging for this subject can be found in Appendix E. While some children demonstrated little change in the amount of skilled behavior they initiated, they did at least increase the prOportion of time spent in Category 3 behavior (Primary Skills). One boy, for example (S15 in Figure 1?), increased from 16.75 percent on the pretest to 43.875 percent on the posttest in this category. The change probably reflects the instruction he received in running which increased the frequency of fast walking 98 (Category 3) even though he did not achieve a mature pattern of running (Category 4). The learning curve for running for Subject 15 can be found in Appendix E. Although the curve does not reflect rapid acquisition of the Terminal Per- formance Objective, in fact the frequency of fast walking behavior increased considerably throughout the year. In the videotaped pretest no initiation of fast walking was ob- served, while in the posttest, fifteen separate instances of fast walking were observed totalling 37 seconds of this activity. While this does not reflect a high percentage of free play time, it does indicate that the skill was being initiated voluntarily, even if only for one or two seconds, and that in itself is highly meaningful for a child who spent more than 82 percent of his free time in Non-play and Prerequisite Skills on the pretest. Subject 16 (Figure 13) also made significant changes in his pattern of play. Inactivity accounted for 43.88 per- cent of his time in the pretest, and Prerequisite Skills accounted for an additional 48.75 percent of his free play time. On the posttest these drOpped to 4.50 percent and 40.88 percent reSpectively, while Primary Skills and Ele- mentary Skills were observed for 44.75 percent and 9.88 Percent of his play time. Activity on the climbing appar- atus accounts for a very large prOportion of his time in bOth of these categories of play. Climbing was a prescribed Skill that received instruction during at least four months Of the program. 99 Changes in Action Units The results indicated that a significant change occurred in the number of action units demonstrated from the preprogram to the postprogram testing. The subjects displayed approximately ten behaviors during a one hundred second sample of play during the pretest. In the posttest this was reduced to eight behaviors. Large individual differences were apparent as was suggested by the large value of the standard deviation on both assessments. One child averaged seventeen attention shifts during the pre- test (approximately one behavior every five or six seconds) while another engaged in only six behaviors during the same period of time. The decrease in action units may be indicative of a shift towards more SOphisticated play patterns. Linford gt gt., (1971) found that normal children spent longer periods of time on one piece of apparatus than retarded children did. The continual shifting of attention from one behavior to another makes practice of skills difficult. The decrease may be the result of the kinds of skills that were initiated on the posttest. The incidence of climb- ing for example increased markedly from pretest to posttest (Table 8). While only four children initiated climbing be- havior in the pretest, sixteen children initiated this activity in the posttest. Climbing is an activity which re- quires prolonged attention if only for the sake of safety. 100 Once a child began to climb the ladder of A-frame the ac- tivity required his full attention until he got off. While Linford's study (1971) suggested a relationship between skill and time spent per activity, no trends could be detected in the present study. Several children who spent very little time in SOphisticated play changed be- haviors infrequently, while those who were highly skilled remained in one activity for long periods of time also. There were also both skilled and unskilled children who demonstrated highly frequent changes of activity. It would seem however, that as children increase their sophistication of play skill, as occurred from pretest to posttest, a de- crease in the number of action units engaged in would be desirable for further practice and application of the new skills. Individual Skill Learning Running The results showed that 80 percent of the children for whom running was prescribed made some gain in running skill. According to Sorenson (1971) and Vogel (1974) this could be judged as evidence of effectiveness. However, it is impor- tant to note that six of the children made no progress beyond a fast walk, with or without use of the arms, with as much as six to sixteen weeks of instruction. Whether this is due to the nature of the skill, the nature of the 101 children or the nature of instruction cannot be determined. It is possible that many retarded youngsters lack the moti- vation required to run at higher speeds, or that their im- mature body proportions, especially in Down's Syndrome make this an especially difficult skill to acquire. The relative influence of growth, learning and maturation in the develop- ment of fundamental motor skills has been debated in the past and remains an unresolved question. It is interesting to note the relationship between achievement in running and the free play analysis. All of the six children who failed to achieve more than a fast walk spent a large proportion of their free play time in idleness (from 17 percent to 57 percent). More importantly, five of these children exhibited no occasions of elementary or ad- vanced play Skill. It is perhaps unreasonable to expect mature running patterns to be developed in children whose other play Skills are so unSOphisticated. For these child- ren the achievement of fast walking, particularly if it is initiated or is the response to a verbal cue, can probably be considered very meaningful change in skill. Retarded children appear to require extended practice before measurable gains can be achieved. Vogel (1974) recommended that two to five hours be allotted for running instruction and practice for maximum improvement. If the 'PREP teachers allotted five minutes per day for three days a week, this time could only be met in nine or more weeks 0f instruction. Perhaps the amount of time spent daily in 102 instruction on each skill needs to be increased signifi- cantly if maximum gains are to be made in this skill. An increase in time spent in instruction may also decrease the fluctuations seen in individuals from day to day. Increas- ing the number of weeks spent in intense instruction of this skill should also be recommended. In the majority of these cases in the present study instruction was carried out for less than ten weeks. Perhaps the nature of the skill re- quires that the child receive instruction and practice daily over a much longer period of time. Junging Down In the TPO of jumping down 89 percent of the children who received instruction made gains of at least one task, demonstrating that the program was very effective in changing student performance on this skill. Only one child failed to make any gains in performance throughout the program. The extremely low frequency of children reaching the TPO raises a question about the apprOpriateness of this task as the target behavior. Wickstrom (1970) suggested that new heights; may be perceived as difficult and may result in a less mirture form of jumping than was previously used. Per- haps a 3jump from hip height is regarded as too difficult to be undemrtaken by the majority of preschool retarded children. The “SE! of carefully graded benches and boxes designed to graduallly increase the height of jumping would be important in teaching this skill. The PREP room contained only three 103 different heights of equipment for jumping and the difference between the bench judged as knee height for most children and the box judged as hip height may actually have been too large to be used effectively for instruction. In such a case it would perhaps be better to use the fourth jumping task, from knee height, as the target or terminal behavior. Tricycle Riding The results of the tricycle riding showed a wide spread in achievement, with five children acquiring the TPO and five children remaining at task one. One child ($19) learned to push the pedals on the tricycle but did not learn to steer before instruction was terminated at the end of the program. The frequency of children attaining the TPO during the instructional program is evidence that this skill can be effectively taught using the PREP instructional materials. However, the high incidence of complete failure to make gains in tricycle riding raises some question about the process of instruction. There are several possible reasons for the failure of these children to learn this skill. The first one may be related to the nature of Task 1 in the tricycling_ sequence. The shaping techniques for this task focus on having the child sit on the tricycle with his feet on the pedals while he is being pushed. Attainment of the task at even the level of manipulative prompt is highly reinforcing simply because the child gets to ride the tricycle with the 104 assistance of the teacher. It is likely that the reward of being pushed may not have been as stringently applied as it should have been. The teacher must make it clear that get- ting pushed is contingent on placing the feet on the pedals and keeping them there. Similarly, in Task Two, the child receives his reward of being pushed before he in fact is required to make his response (pushing on the pedals after being given an initial push). In fact the consequences of pushing the pedals himself are probably not reinforcing: the tricycle slows down, the teacher stOps pushing and gives social reinforcement. A better technique to be applied may be to attempt to teach Task 3 first, where the child is re- quired to make an initial push on the pedals from a stOp. In this instance the reinforcer of continued pushing by the teacher could immediately follow the child's correct re- sponse. Delaying the prompts could then be used as an effec- tive means of increasing the child's willingness to respond. An alternative explanation of the results of the tri- cycle riding instruction with the five unsuccessful children may be related to the inappropriateness of the prescription. While prerequisite motor skills for tricycle riding have not been specified in the literature it is possible that these children lacked the skills required to initiate pedal push- ing. It is interesting to note for example that four of these five children were receiving instruction on the ele— mentary locomotor skill of running and were skill performing at the level of a fast walk, while only one of the six as ”I, q/~ .mlu in tn two tic: ~Str1 - h \ 105 children that reached Task 3 or the TPO was at the fast walking stage. Perhaps fast walking is a prerequisite skill for tricycle riding or at least is somewhat related to it, perhaps through the skill required to push with the legs. This difference is also reflected in the free play assessments. Those who did achieve the TPO in tricycling and those who did not achieve the TPO differed also in the changes made in free play. Those children who learned to ride the tricycle made an average gain of approximately 27 percent in time spent in elementary and advanced skills during free play. Those children who did not reach the TPO in tricycle riding showed only a 10 percent gain in these two categories of play. The latter group had less SOphis- ticated patterns of play in both the pretest and posttest of free play. Perhaps it is not expedient to attempt to teach tricycle riding when the children's overall play patterns are still very immature. It is possible that the Task Sequence is insensitive to the changes that actually did occur. An intermediate step in the sequence may be pushing with one foot, pushing with the feet on the floor, or perhaps pushing the pedal down without completing one revolution. Further analysis of the sequence may reveal enabling objectives that would help the teacher to monitor the child's progress towards the TPO.~ Finally, it is possible that the intensity of the instruction, either in terms of time or application of the shaping procedures was insufficient for these children. 106 Daily five minute instructional periods may be too short to allow the child time to make measurable gains in skill. Bar Swinging The results of individualized instruction on learning to swing on a bar presented very positive evidence for the effectiveness of the instructional materials in this skill. One-hundred percent of the children for whom this was pre- scribed reached the TPO. Six of the seven children did so within seven weeks of instruction. The curves for acquisi- tion of the skill are highly similar indicating that the Task Sequence was apprOpriate for the majority of the children. It is difficult to determine why this skill particularly was the most successful of the four chosen for analysis. It may be related to the high degree of reinforcement generated by completion of the task itself. The feeling of vertigo that is the result of being suspended may be highly rewarding for young children. In looking at the free play patterns of the children who learned bar swinging through individualized instruction it is interesting to note that four of the seven initiated the skill during the posttest videotapes assessment. Since the goal of the PREP program is to learn to apply new skills to play it is evident that the goal was reached with those subjects. 107 Effects of Individualized Instruction The results of individualized instruction revealed large differences between skills in terms of the effective- .ness of the program in changing the children's behavior. Instruction in bar swinging was 100 percent effective in TPO achievement while instruction in jumping down resulted in no subjects reaching the TPO. However, in all of the tasks analyzed at least 64 percent of the children made some measurable gain. This would be considered as evidence of effectiveness in new materials such as those used (Sorenson, 1971; Vogel, 1974; Wessel, 1975). However, it is important to look at the amount of change that can be considered as meaningful within the context of the program. In the PREP program a change within a task from one response level to the next may be meaningful if it occurs within a reasonable time span. If, however, the change is observed only after ten or twenty weeks of instruction the gain is hardly worth the effort of intense instruction. In this case, instruc- tional time may be better spent on other skills. At the same time many retarded hcildren make so few gains in skill that even the smallest detectable change can be viewed as successful participation in a program. For this reason it is important to look at each child's play Patterns along with the changes seen in other skills. Analy- s;is of all of this information may result in a more reason- able interpretation of 'meaningful change'. 108 In all four tasks analyzed it appears that those who made significant gains (reached the TPO or improvedmore than one task) generally made a gain of at least one task in the initial three weeks of instruction. Perhaps an initial period of three weeks could be recommended as a trial period for the appropriateness of a prescription. During this time a gain of one task should be considered meaningful change and evidence that the child is likely to be successful in that skill. Teachers should be encouraged to change the TPO prescription if children fail to make a one-task gain during this time. The percentages of children experiencing improvement in the skills in which they received individualized instruc- tion is indicative of a substantial degree of program effec- tiveness. These findings are generally supportive of other studies in which the diagnostic-prescriptive approach was found to be successful. The fact that this instruction took place within a highly stimulating environment for play and was accompanied by positive changes in free play patterns supports Ross's notion that skills should be taught in the social context to which they apply (1961). Certainly the advantage of having numerous opportunities for the applica- tion of these skills in free unstructured play cannot be overlooked. It is important that the areas in which little change (nacurred not be ignored. Data from these sources can be used to generate new ideas about the appropriateness of the 109 model and the program content and the applicability of cer- tain strategies to subjects who do not make gains readily. Analysis of such data should result in increased effort on the part of the program staff to investigate modifications to the existing instructional materials. Implications for Changes in the Treatment The Program Model Support for the program model of individualized in- struction incorporated into free play can be found in the changes in free play behavior after the program of instruc- tion. While it cannot be concluded that the individual gains made in prescribed skills actually resulted in gains in free play patterns, it has been shown that these changes occurred together over the eight month period. A closer examination of the relationship between these factors would perhaps sub- stantiate a causal relationship. The large variability in prescriptions, initial per- formances on selected skills, and progress with instruction lends further support to the use of an individualized approach in instruction. At the same time the progress of the majority of the children through the Task Sequences in- dicates that common instructional objectives, based on clevelopmental changes, can be used effectively for the asssessment, prescription and instruction of these skills with a wide variety of children. 110 Student performances were examined on a monthly basis to determine whether instruction should be continued or terminated. However, stringent guidelines were not written to help teachers make these decisions. In looking at the learning curves of the children who made few gains in tri- cycle riding it is apparent that after several weeks of no progress the prescription should have been changed. Teachers should be cautioned to examine the graphed data at more fre- quent intervals to decide whether the instruction is being effective. Guidelines for terminating instruction based on this performance data should be made clear. Instruction did end when a child reached a TPO and initiated it several times on different occasions, as speci- fied in the Task Sequence. Further monitoring of these skills was not done. A maintenance system incorporated into the program model would provide for systematic review of these tasks at regular intervals to ensure that the skill is being maintained. Perhaps through twice weekly review of these skills the children will be prompted to perform them more often in free play. Eventually the frequency of com- plete initiation of these skills may increase. A similar process of maintenance on language and self-help skills with young Down's Syndrome children has been implemented and judged effective (Kysela, 1976). Terminal Performance Objectives and Task Sequences Analysis of the children's progress through skills 111 has revealed that some tasks that Were identified as appro- priate and achievable in formative evaluation are in fact not achievable within an eight month prOgram. The TPO for jumping down appeared to be inappropriate given the kind of equipment found in the PREP room. Analyses of more of the TPO's might reveal the need for modification of others as well. Tasks within the Task Sequences were identified as being in need of modification. The second and third tasks in the tricycling sequence appear to require revision, and a more graduated Task Sequence in terms of the height of jumping down may be effective. Learner Response Levels The absence of performance at the response levels of manipulation and, to some extent, manipulative prompts in the higher level tasks of the TPOs raises some questions about the applicability of these response levels at higher levels of skill. In the first one or two tasks of running, jumping down, tricycling and bar swinging these response levels appear with some frequency in the learning curves. However, in the last one or two tasks of each sequence the responses recorded were typically at the level of demonstra- tion or verbal cue. It seems likely then that once a Child has achieved some competency in the skill (as reflected in attainment of the first one or two tasks at the level of demonstration, verbal cue or initiation) he is unlikely to 112 require extended physical assistance to move on to the next task. At this point in time he may even refuse to be phys- ically manipulated. Removal of these techniques of instruc- tion in the latter part of the Task Sequence should be recommended to teachers. Similarly, it appears that all response levels are not appropriate in all Terminal Performance Objectives. Demonstration was not recorded in the tricycle riding sequence for example. Whether this was because of the rela- tive difficulty of demonstating adequately on a small tri- cycle or whether the technique was in fact not applicable to this skill cannot be determined from the present data. It is possible that a sixth level of response, that of physical gesture, should be incorporated into the response and teach- ing continuum. The teachers frequently appeared to gesture with their feet in tricycle riding, and with their arms in running and jumping, without actually completing a good demonstration. In skills such as tricycle riding, the ges- ture could be used as an alternative technique to demon- stration. Analysis of the tricycle riding sequence indicated that the application of Operant techniques of reinforcement should be more closely examined in each of the skill sequences. This would help determine the most effective type of reinforcement to be applied at each stage of skill learning. It is likely that the intrinsic reinforcement provided within the four tasks analyzed influence to a great 113 extent the learning of these skills. The sensations created by swinging, being airborne in the jump, moving quickly on the tricycle and on the feet should be taken advantage of in the teaching of these skills. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the PREP Play Program on the play skills and free play patterns of young moderately retarded children. Assess- ments of the children's play patterns during unstructured free time and assessments of individual proqress in skill learning during individualized instructional time were used as dependent measures. Assessment of the free play patterns of the children prior to the treatment revealed that they were unskilled in their play and spent large proportions of their time in in- activity. A statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest scores indicated that the play patterns of retarded children could be changed, however. A decrease in the amount of inactivity and an increase in the amount of skilled activity is evidence of this change. Clearly the treatment had a significant effect in improving the free play patterns of the subjects. Monitoring of the changes in individuals on four se- lected skills during individualized instruction revealed 114 'tJ 115 that measurable changes were made in the majority of the children. Bar swinging was most effectively achieved, while tricycling, jumping down and running were achieved by smaller proportions of the group. The meaningfulness of these changes was determined considering time spent in instruc- tion. It is clear however, that retarded children can learn these skills and can learn to initiate them apprOpriately in free play. Improvement in free play patterns was accompanied by a significant decrease in the number of action units initiated during the play samples. This was interpreted as a positive change in play and practice patterns that would perhaps lead to further skill increases. Analysis of the frequency of target (prescribed) and non-target skills used in the posttest suggested that those skills that received individualized instruction during the program were initiated more frequently in free play than skills that did not receive specific instruction. Conclusions The following conclusions were supported by analysis of the results. 1. Preschool trainable retarded children spent a large percentage of their free play time in unsophisticated patterns of play. The variability was large, however, with some children spending the majority of their free time in in- activity while others spend more time in skilled activity. Pr de 5k. was uni chi ate and Strl fic; actj ride Stru Santa. 116 2. The percentage of time spent in elementary play skills was increased through participation in the PREP Preschool Play Program. This increase was accompanied by decreases in Non-play, and increases in the range of play skills initiated. 3. Increases in SOphistication of free play patterns was accompanied by a decrease in the average number of action units engaged in during free time. In other words, the children spend more time on each activity that was initi- ated. 4. Retarded children improved their skill in running and jumping down through an individualized program of in- struction in these skills. Eight months however, was insuf- ficient time for them to attain skilled patterns in these activities . 5. Retarded children learned to swing on a bar and .ride a tricycle through an individualized program of in- struction in these skills. Bar swinging was learned in six ject in Physical Education for the Mentally Retarded Child in The Elementary School (Wessel, 1975) was adopted for use in the development of the PREP program materials. The development of guidelines for writing objectives, the speci- fication of criteria for the evaluation of their technical acceptability, and the choice of procedures for the initial evaluation of feasibility were based on the working papers and evaluation plan of that project. Application of this procedural model to the PREP program resulted in the formulation of the following ques- tions which were used to guide the evaluation: 1. What are the play skills that constitute accept- able instructional content for young trainable mentally retarded children? 124 2. How are the instructional materials to be developed? 3. Are the written instructional objectives appro- priate for this population? Each question was answered using descriptive and evaluative techniques designed to generate data on which to base judgements relative to the appropriateness and feasi- bility cf the program. Question 1: Identification of Program Content The first question dealt with the identification of possible appropriate instructional objectives and associated strategies for teaching play skills to retarded preschoolers. Three basic sources of data were recognized as potential suppliers of information about the choice of relevant play skills for the retarded. These three sources included: the literature concerning the nature of development of motor skills in normal youngsters, the literature concerning the nature of skill develOpment in the retarded, and observa- tions of normal and retarded youngsters in play made by the program develOpers during the first year of pilot study in the program. Four areas of skill development were typically iden- tified throughout the literature: body awareness skills, locomotor skills, object control (manipulative) skills and body control skills. To this the project staff added those skills that are specific to pieces of play equipment 125 found in the home, in the playground or in play schools. An attempt was made to identify specific skills in each of these categories. Initially, the skills that are normally achieved by preschoolers were chosen as instructional objectives since it seemed that the program goal emphasized the need to teach the skills that would effectively reduce the differ- ence between the skill levels of retarded and normal child- ren. The literature concerning the nature of mental retarda- tion suggested that trainable mentally retarded children are typically from two to four years behind normal peers in motor development (Francis and Rarick, 1960; Kral, 1972; Knox, 1974; Carr, 1975). For this reason, emphasis was put on motor skills that are usually acquired during the second and third year of life. A review of pertinent literature resulted in the identification of fundamental skills of object control, locomotion and body awareness that are normally part of the skill repertoire of young children. Later, during the testing for appropriateness, some of these skills were discarded because of the amount of time required for their achievement. Finally, constant observation of normal preschoolers and retarded preschoolers in free play resulted in the iden- tification of some skills that were specific to pieces of play apparatus. These, too, were chosen as appropriate skill objectives since they were skills that were required for functional play activity in a community or school playground. 126 The identification of skills as possible instruc- tional objectives continued throughout the course of the program implementation. New skills were suggested by new pieces of apparatus and these were incorporated into the program for evaluation. A complete list of skills identi- fied for devleopment from 1974-76 is presented in Figure 5. Suggested skills were approved for further develop- ment and feasibility testing by the program staff. A group concensus was sought in informal staff meetings before skills were approved for inclusion in the program. Cri- teria for acceptability were outlined in the Guidelines for the Development of PREP Instructional Materials (see Appendix A) and 80 percent agreement by the staff was used to determine whether or not a skill should be included in the materials for further develOpment. Question 2: Development of Instructional Materials The PREP program materials were developed on the assumption that learning and development are sequential and hierarchical (Gesell, 1947; Gagne', 1965; Robb, 1966) and that instruction can be facilitated through the iden- tification and specification of behavioral objectives (Mager, 1962; Davis, Alexander and Yelon, 1974). As a result, the staff of the program chose to use a task analy- sis procedure to determine sequential instructional objec- tives and associated strategies for instruction. Based on the working papers of the Programmatic 127 oblean usoEmoHo>oo you onMHucopH mHHme hmHm "m owsmflm .hosum ucomoum on» on HOHHQ pcumsHm>o can woumouluoHHmk OCHocsom onum moxoon m SSH; asHupHm use mcHHo%oHHBt m Sufi: mCHxHHum muflmum mchcoomooa msflmcfl3m omomk ooHHw oUHB so Houoooms mcflonxa mHHcpm mewocoomck mcmm oouHo>CH Hoon so Houooom mcHHHom Ho>o mCHmEdhe mCHHHom mucofic>oz zoom Hmuoe xon mcHSHHomEMHB« mcHnoum0« c3oo mchEShs m ouco OCHQEHHO muumm mo ucoEc>oz opHHm m CBOU unflpflamk mcflzonnak oceansms men n so mafimcflzmk muumm >©om 92mmmmm0m Homezoo ZOHBOSOOOH Homezou mmmzmmdzm Bombmo waom waom UHmHummm Research Project (Wessel, 1975), a set of guidelines was developed to assist the curriculum develOpers in writing instructional objectives and associated teaching-learning activities for the PREP program. The guidelines included statements of procedure for identifying and writing sequen- ‘tial objectives, the criteria to be met by these objectives, and suggestions for the writing of teaching-learning It was intended that these guidelines be fol- activities . Revision lowed in the writing of the curricular materials. of the materials was to be based on small sample pilot testing of the objectives. Objectives were initially checked for technical acceptability by the project director using the criteria set forth in the guidelines. Objectives were then redis- tributed to project staff who checked each Terminal Per- formance Objective and Task Sequence for technical accepta- bility on teacher feedback forms. Objectives were checked for being reasonable in terms of sequence, behaviors, conditions and standards by the project director and development staff before testing for feasibility and again after the feasibility testing Period. A criterion of 80 percent agreement on the Teacher Feedback Form was used to determine whether or not the ob- jectives or the teaching strategies would be revised. Spe- cific revisions that were not described on the feedback 129 forms were determined by a group concensus during staff meetings. Eight Terminal Performance Objectives (TPOs) were initially chosen as having high priority for development and testing for feasibility. These were submitted to cri- tical examination by the project staff and then were imple- mented with groups of children for a period of several weeks. ’Following this, project staff filled out a feed- back form concerning the relevance and technical accept- ability of the TPOs and Task Sequences and reported on any Teaching-Learning Activities that had been used during the trial period. This process was repeated throughout 1974-75 with continued modification and revision of the objectives and Teaching-Learning Activities. Initial assessment of the children's performance on the Task Sequences revealed that performance depended on the amount of teacher assistance given on each task. Since the differences in performance brought about by teacher intervention seemed to occur within the tasks of the Task Sequence, the project staff attempted to define the levels of response possible within each task based on the varying conditions of teacher assistance. Five categories or levels of response were identified: Initiation, Verbal Cue, Demonstration, Manipulative Prompt, and Manipulation. In the first stages of program development, these levels of performance were not incorporated into the TPO sheets, but were written separately as a tool for recording 130 student performance during instruction. However, the pro- gram staff agreed that the presentation of one well-tested technique for instruction and assessment of each subtask in the Task Sequence would be valuable to teachers using the PREP objectives. As a result, a new column headed 'Shaping Techniques' was included on the TPO sheet. The information included in that column could be used to: l. assess student performance within each sequen- tial objective, and 2. provide a detailed account of an appropriate instructional technique for that objective. The guidelines were subsequently rewritten to include this step in the development process and the TPO sheets were revised accordingly. The recommendations for material revisions were in- corporated into the subsequent production of the TPO sheets. Recommendations were generally of the following types: 1. Inclusion of additional intermediate instruc- tional objectives into the task sequence to make the Task Sequences more sensitive to the performances and improve- ments of the children. 2. Modification of the standards, behaviors and con- ditions to suit the typical performances of the children after instruction. 3. Inclusion of the column containing Shaping Tech- nli-‘ques for more accurate assessment and instruction on each task in the Task Sequence. 131 4. Expansion of the Teaching-Learning Activities to include alternative shaping techniques, ideas for 'games' and modifications to the environment. 5. Expansion of a TPO into several TPOs of funda- mental or advanced application of a skill. At the same time a Teacher's Manual and supplemental audio and visual materials were developed to train teachers in the use of the instructional materials and program model. The manual was pilot tested with existing staff in the summer of 1975, and in the fall of 1975-76. Verbal and written feedback were gathered from the developers and users and a revised manual was written in the spring of 1976. Question 3: Appropriateness of the Instructional Materials Evaluation of the appropriateness of an educational product involves establishing that the product is suitable for use with the intended population, that the objectives are perceived as being educationally relevant and that they appear to be reasonable and achievable. Data in the form of teacher feedback or student performance on the objectives can be used to establish this (Wessel, 1975). The PREP materials were designed for trainable men- tally retarded children between the ages of three and eight. Information was gathered on each subject to determine ini- tially that the groups in the PREP program in 1974-75 and 4J1 1975-76 were, in fact, samples of the target population. Ikita revealed that 90 percent of the children were from the 132 intended population. The importance of the selected termi- nal performance objectives was determined by asking the classroom teachers and PREP staff whether or not each termi- nal objective was important for this group. Those that were judged as important by at least 80 percent of all staff were maintained in the program. The suitability of the content of the Task Sequences was determined from teacher feedback on the Teacher Feed- back Form and from student performance data. Small groups of children (eight or ten per group) were assessed on each task in the sequence to determine whether or not the tasks were suitable for the range of student ability found in the sample. Data from this assessment were gathered and tabu- lated to determine the distribution of subjects within the task sequence. A frequency count was made for each task in the sequences of all Terminal Performance Objectives and the frequency was found to differ from task to task and sequence to sequence depending on the task difficulty and the distance between steps in the sequence. When most child- ren performed within the range of the sequence, however, the Task Sequence was seen as being reasonable and suitable for the group. If the frequencies within the sequence were well distributed, and at least one child was performing each task in the sequence, the Terminal Performance Objective was judged as being achievable. Each sequence was then re-examined more carefully to determine whether or not the sequential tasks were in a 133 logical order and whether or not additional steps needed to be added within the sequence. A scalogram analysis was performed on each sequence. These analyses showed whether or not the order of the sequence held for the group of children assessed and whether or not steps needed to be added or omitted to facilitate progress through the se- quence and allow for the detection of small changes in per- formance. Assessment of student performance and subsequent scalogram analyses were conducted on all sequences as they were written. The recommendations for material revisions based on teacher feedback and student performance data were incor- porated into subsequent editions of the Terminal Performance Objective sheets. Changes were of the following types: 1. Deletion or change of Terminal Performance Ob- jectives not judged as important. 2. Deletion of initial steps in Task Sequence that were performed by 100 percent of the sample. 3. Addition of steps to the end of a Task Sequence when more than 20 percent of the subjects were performing the Terminal Objective prior to instruction. 4. Inclusion of intermediate tasks in the task sequences to assist in discriminating between performances. 5. Exclusion of tasks that did not discriminate between good and poor performances. 6. Development of advanced Terminal Performance 134 Objectives to accommodate those subjects performing at the top of an existing Terminal Performance Objective prior to instruction. The appropriateness of the shaping techniques was determined by examining pertinent literature which re- vealed that operant techniques of shaping behavior such as those included in the PREP materials have been applied successfully in teaching children self-help skills (Bens- berg, Colwell and Cassel, 1965; Giles and WOlf, 1966; Nelson, Cone and Hanson, 1975) and motor skills (Johnston, Kelley and Harris, 1966; Parker, 1972; Peterson and McIntosh, 1973; wessel, 1975). 135 Guidelines for the Development of PREP Instructional Materials A major purpose of the PREP Program is the develop- ment of instructional materials for the Physical Education of mentally retarded preschool children. These materials are designed to assist the teacher of retarded children in doing the following things: 1. Choosing appropriate content for preschool children. 2. Assessing children's needs in motor skill develop- ment. 3. Prescribing activities that will help the child to gain needed skills. 4. Teaching these skills in a manner that is appro- priate for each child. 5. Assessing the progress of each child. This purpose is best achieved by planning and develop- ing a series of learning objectives that are hierarchically arranged in sequences leading to terminal objectives and including for each objective a detailed example of teaching strategies that facilitate acquisition of the objective. The following guidelines are written to assist the developers in writing these objectives. The guidelines con- Sist of a series of steps for writing materials and the II 136 criteria to be met at each step. An example is included from the PREP materials to clearly demonstrate the product expected. 1. Identify the broad areas of content important in the physical education of preschool retarded children. 1.1 Content areas should contain skills and know- ledges required for playing or learning to play. 1.2 Content areas should contain skills and know- ledges required as a base for learning recreational and leisure skills. 1.3 Content areas should contain skills and know- ledges required as functional movement skills for daily living at home and at school. Example: PREP content areas identified to date include: Body Awareness Body Control Locomotion Object Control Specific Equipment Skills Identify the skills within each content area which the child is expected to achieve before leaving the program. A skill should meet at least one of the following criteria in order to be included in the program: 2.1 It should be within the range of play skills identified in developmental schedules for normal children of similar or younger ages. 2.2 It should be identified by teachers or other school personnel as a functional behavior required for success in school. 137 2.3 It can be an entry behavior (or prerequi- site) for existing physical education curric- ula for elementary school age trainable mentally retarded youngsters. Example: For the content area of Locomotion the following play skills have been identified: Running Jumping. Write each skill or competencygin behavioral terms gs a terminal performance objgctive (TPO). Each objective must include the behavior that must be observed to demonstrate achievement of the compe- tency, the conditions under which the behavior is to be observed and the standards that must be reached in the performance. The following criteria must be met by each statement of a terminal performance objective: 3.1 The standards of the performance must be sufficient to insure that they cannot be expected to be met by chance. 3.2 The standards, behavior and conditions re- quired should reflect the value of the be- havior. A behavior that is a prerequisite for an activity that is extremely important in the child's movement repertoire should have standards that would reflect strong mastery of the skill. One that is an inter— mediate step between more major objectives may have lower standards for competency. 3.3 The terminal performance objectives must reflect content that is achievable with a year or less of programmed instruction. Ob- jectives that are likely to take more than that time should be broken into fundamental and advanced skills. 138 Example: For the skill of jumping, several terminal performance objectives (TPO's) were written. One reflects basic fundamental mastery of the skill: "To jump over a line 2 inches wide with a two foot take- off and landing, three times in a row." Another reflects more ad- vanced application of the skill: "To jump over a moving rope turned by teacher, three times in a row". Do a task analysis of each terminal performance objective. For the purposes of the PREP program a task analysis consists of the identification of a sequence of subtasks that, once accomplished, should lead to the acquisition of the terminal perfor- mance objective. The sequence of subtasks should be arranged in an easy-to-difficult sequence and may be based initially on the developmental motor stages seen in normal preschoolers. The last step in the sequence should be the TPO. The following criteria should be met in writ- ing the task analysis: 4.1 All necessary subtasks should be identified and arranged in a sequence. 4.2 Subtasks which are not necessary but may seem to facilitate acquisition of subsequent sub- tasks should be included at least initially in the task sequence. 139 Each subtask should be qualitatively differ- ent from the preceding one. Differences should not reflect improvement in time or number of repetitions. However, where quan- titative differences seem to reflect increased mastery of a task that may not show other im- provement over a long period of time include this as a separate subtask to facilitate the assessment of student progress. The subtasks should reflect small changes in performance or steps toward a skill so that improvement can be easily detected. The sequence need only reflect one possible way of achieving the skill. Example: For the terminal performance objec- tive of jumping the following se- quence of subtasks was identified: Stepping over a line on floor Jumping off floor Jumping over a 2" line on floor, one foot to two feet Jumping over a 2" line on floor, two feet to two feet. Write each subtask as a behavioral objective. Identify the behavior required (observable per- formance by the student before or after instruc- tion), the conditions of performance (the situa- tion in which the behavior will be demonstrated) and the standards of performance (the level of acceptable performance and the number of times this performance must be observed). The criteria for these statements are the same as those for the writing of terminal per- formance objectives. 140 Example: The behavioral objective for the first subtask in jumping is "To step down from shin height, one foot to the other foot, three times". Identify the pre-entry skills for each terminal performance objective. Pre-entry skills are those skills that are prerequisites to the first task in the sequence. Acquisition of these skills is not required for participation in that terminal per- formance objective but it is suggested that the child who has these skills is more likely to be successful during instruction. Suggested criteria for identification of pre- entry skills are: 6.1 These skills may be cognitive skills such as knowledge of body parts, vocabulary or concepts. 6.2 These skills may be affective skills such as attention to a teacher, sharing space or equipment. 6.3 These skills may be psychomotor skills that are normally attained in early childhood such as walking, grasping, reaching. Example: The pre-entry skills for throwing include: "Grasp and release an object held within arms reach." Write the Shaping Techniques for each subtask in the sequence. The shaping technique should re- flect one possible way in which a child can be taken from having no response but attending, 141 through to performing the response with a verbal cue. The following criteria must be met for the writing of the Shaping Techniques: 7.1 Each of the following steps in the shaping process should be described if it is appli- cable to the objective: Attending (A): This means that the child is generally attentive to the situation in which instruc- tion or assessment are taking place. It in- volves one or all of the following things: 1. Child watches a demonstration but does not perform. 2. Child maintains eye contact throughout verbal instruction but does not perform. 3. Child watches object withwhich he is ex- pected to interact but does not respond positively to it. 4. Child ceases other activity, or refrains from looking around, fidgeting, etc. Example: In the first subtask of running, the shaping technique for attending may be written "Hold child's head to face yours and when eye contact is made say 'Run, (Jgtp)'". Manipulation (M): This means that the child allows the in- structor to manipulate his body so that the required response is completed with maximum II 142 manual assistance from the instructor. It usually involves the instructor aligning his body with the child's in such a way that he can exert force to move the child's body in the required pattern. Example: In the first subtask of running the technique for manipulation may be written "Run backwards holding both of child's hands and pull him into a fast walk." Manipulative Prompt (MP): This means that the child performs the complete task using physical support or a prompt from the instructor or the environ— ment. Either the child or the instructor may initiate the prompt. The physical prompt may occur at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the response. At the beginning of the response the child may need to be manipulated into the proper preparatory stance or movements. For example the overhand throw may require the instructor putting the child's arm up over his shoulder, and placing his opposite foot forward. In the middle of the response, the child may need support for balance. For example, in the vertical jump the child may complete '* .1865...‘ ‘3 'Al "F al 143 the preparatory movement and the instructor lifts under shoulders to help the child get off the floor. At the end of the response the child may need support for balance, or prompts for follow-through that may improve the execu- tion of the response. For example in the horizontal jump if the child can complete response alone but does not jump far, the teacher may stand in front of the child, facing him from an appropriate distance and hold out her hands for child to reach for or hold on landing. Example: In the first subtask for running, the technique for prompting may be written "Run backwards holding the child's hands but giving periodic pulls to increase his pace. Let grasp on hand go when pace is in- creased, holding your hand just out of child's reach without allow- ing contact. Regrasp hand if pace slows." Demonstration (D): The child performs the complete task after being given an adequate demonstration by the teacher or another child. ‘7 ll 144 Demonstrations may be repeated or may be ongoing. Demonstrations should include an exaggeration of the points to be learned. Example: In the first subtask of running, the demonstration technique may be written "Run in front of child exaggerating the knee lift and arm swing." Verbal Cue (VC): The child performs the task given a ver- bal instruction that is clear and simple. Verbal instructions should be included at all points in the instructional process. Example: In the first subtask of running, the technique may be written "On each trial say 'Run, Lyle'. Repeat these words before and throughout each attempt." 7.2 Include only one set of shaping techniques and be sure each part of the technique (A, M, MP, D, VC) is a lead-up to the next. Write alternative or additional teaching sugges- ttgpg for each subtask in the sequence. These may include alternative shaping techniques, other play experiences, ideas for simple motivational 'games' or suggested modifications to the environment. The following guidelines should be remembered in writing Other Teaching Suggestions: 145 8.1 They can include activities which can be per— formed alone, with a partner or in a group. 8.2 There should be a wide variety of activities suggested for each instructional objective. 8.3 They should include a thorough description of the teacher's role. 8.4 They should include a description of the equipment required. Example: In the first subtask of running, the following shaping technique may be written: "Stand facing child standing on tOp of wide slide or incline and hold out hands. Pull childts hands to start and then let go so that child does a fast walk down incline." 9. Put the TPO, Task Sequence, Shaping Techniques, and Other Teaching Suggestions in the format shown in the example on the following page. 146 APPENDIX B REVISED INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PROFILE 147 PREP Preschool Play Program Department of Physical Education University of Alberta INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PROFILE NAME: DATE: ‘6. 8 H m a c m o o o > -H 233's“... BODY AWARENESS 8. «a m s. 8 m we F: u u m S s m .4 m 3.3.9.833 '1EPO Identifying BodyiParts : c e u H o m g o m c 2 S D > H 1. On command identifies the following: - head - tummy - nose - eyes - ears - mouth - seat 2 . On command identifies the following: - feet - hands -arms legs - fingers toes 148 No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 3. On command identifies the following: — knees - elbows - shoulders TPO Moving Body Parts 1. On verbal cue, does (moves) the following shake head clap hands wiggle fingers stamp feet bend knees .TPO Moving On Different Body Parts 1. On seat pushes with hands 2. On hand and knees 3. On stomach pushes with arms and legs 4. On back pushes with feet 5. On hands and feet - face down 6. On hands and feet - face up 149 BODY CONTROL TPO Bar Swing 1. Hangs from bar with hands 2. Steps off bench to hang on bar 3. Swings on bar 4. Swings on bar, returns to bench TPO Box Climb 1. Climbs onto hip high box 2. Climbs onto chest high box TPO Forward Roll 1. Rolls onto back 2. Rolls into sitting position 3. Rolls into squatting position TPO Inverted Hang l. Hangs from hands and knees on parallel bars 2. Hangs from hands and knees on single bar 3. Hangs from knees on single bar EEEQ Rope Swinging 1. Holds on with hands while being swung 2. Holdscnland locks legs while being swung 3. Swings on rOpe with initial push 4. Swings on rcpe No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 150 LOCOMOTION TPO Climbing Up Stairs Climbs stairs on knees Climbs stairs, marking time with support Climbs stairs alternating feet with support Climbs stairs alternating feet with- out support TPO Climbing Down Stairs 1. 2. Descends stairs on seat Descends stairs marking time with support Descends stairs alternating feet with support Descends stairs alternating feet without support TPO Jumping Down Steps down off box of shin height Steps down off box of knee height Jumps down off box of knee height, one foot take-off, two foot landing Jumps down off box of knee height Jumps down off box of hip height No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 151 TPO Jumping Over 1. Steps over a line on floor 2. Jumps 1/2“ off floor 3. Jumps over a line, one foot take-off, two foot landing 4. Jumps over a line TPO Running 1. Fast walk 2. Fast walk, arms pumping 3. Runs with instances of non-support Mature run 20' No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 152 OBJECT CONTROL TPO Bouncing 5. Drops ball, chases and picks up Taps bouncing ball intermittently Bounces ball 3 times moving and following it Bounces ball in place Bounces ball 5 times and catches TPO Catching 1. Chases rolling ball 2. Traps rolling ball 3. Traps dr0pped ball 4. Traps tossed ball 5. Catches tossed ball TPO Hitting 1. Pushes a stationary puck with hockey stick 2. Swings stick to hit puck 3. Stops puck and hits 4. Hits puck with direction TPO Kicking 1. Pushes ball with foot 2. Kicks stationary ball, knee swing 3. walks and kicks stationary ball No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 153 TPO Striking l. 2. 3. Strikes a ball off a tee with bat Strikes a bounced ball with bat Strikes a tossed ball with bat TPO Throwing Drops object into basket Hurls from sitting position Hurls from standing position Throws with direction Throws with direction and body rotation Mature throw No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 154 SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT SKILLS TPO Inclined Bench 5. Lie on stomach, pulls up with hands Kneeling, pulls up with hands Crawls up on hands and knees Crawls up on hands and feet Walks up TPO Ladder Climbing - Up A Climbs 5 rungs marking time Climbs 5 rungs alternating, not simultaneously Climbs 10 rungs alternating, not simultaneously Climbs 10 rungs alternating hands and feet 13%) Ladder Climb Down 3" Climbs down 5 rungs marking time Climbs down 5 rungs alternating, not simultaneously Climbs down 10 rungs alternating, not simultaneously Climbs down 10 rungs alternating hands and feet No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 155 TPO Scooter on Floor Sits on Lies on Lies on Lies on Runs an scooter, propels with feet stomach, propels with hands stomach, travels after push stomach, pushes, travels d hops on scooters TPO Scooter on Slide 1. 2. 3. Slides Slides Slides TPO Sliding l. 2. 3. 4. S. Slides Slides Slides Slides Slides on stomach, holding scooter with stomach on scooter down sitting on scooter down incline on seat on back feet first on stomach feet first on stomach head first on back head first No Response Manipulation Manipulative Prompt Demonstration Verbal Cue Initiates 156 TPO Trampoline l. Walks on trampoline 2. Bounces on body parts 3. Bounces without leaving surface 4. Instances of feet leaving bed 5. Jumps consecutively TPO Trampoline Seat DrOp 1. Jumps, lands sitting on bed 2. Jumps, dr0ps to seat, bounces back to feet 3. Seat drop TPO Trigycling 1. Sits with feet on pedals 2. Pedals after initial push 3. Pedals 20' forward 4. 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ZOHBUDmBmZH m0 m2mm3 om m2 mH 5H 0H mu :H mm NH HH 0H m m h m m : m N H z a: a H Mmaa o> H z m: a m smms o> H z m: a m swan o> H z m: a v sway o> H z m: a m swan o> H munmnHa no HuHmnm>Hca ochcsm one COH»0050m Hmon>Cm mo »C0E»n0m0o smnmonm >0Hm Hoonom0nm mmmm mm Bzmabam 178 IE? _ .uv, .onsoomemzH Co 02003 oN mH mH 5H 0H mH :H mH NH HH H: m o h w m I,_ m N H. 2 .IIIII, _\I|rl m2 1/ \x a H 2mg < U> H H z J 2 Q N 2955 \\ o> IT\ H 2 m2 0 m 293. 03 H 2 m2 0 v Mmma U> H 2 m2 0 m 29.3. 70> H 0»n0aH4 Ho >»Hmn0>HC5 mCHCCsm OCH C0H»0050m H00H0>Cm mo »C0E»n0m0a Emnmonm >0HC Hoonom0nm mmmm OHm Bzmnbam 179 m»n0AHC mo >»Hmn0>HCD C0H»0050w HMOHm>Cm no »C0E»n0m0o Ednmonm >0Hm Hooaom0nm mmmm ZOHBUDMBmzH ho mummz wCHCC5m 0m? HHm Bzmabam 180 ZOHBUDMBmZH ho mMmmS ON mH mH 5H wH mH :H mH NH HH oH m m N. 2 .\2 m2 \\ 0 H292. RV. 03 x H H H 2 H 2 a N 2m¢8 o> H 1H 2 H m2 H a mnmfi. II..I u... rllunliltiTl/ F o> ...... 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HNm gnaw 184 m»n0nHHC no >»Hmn0>HCD C0H»0050m HO0H0>Cm Ho »C0fi»nmm0a fimnmonm >060 Hoe—Homonm «EMA ZOHBUDmBmZH m0 mvaHWS C300 mCHnHEHS 09H. Hm Ema—Dam 185 ZOHBUDmBmZH m0 mxmmz 0N aH oH 5H 0H mH :H «H NH HH oH m m h m 2 m2 0 a H Mmda \ 3 x N H . C H 2 H H H a. . a m 005. .. o> M1 H HR 2 HF 02 N a m 0009 x \ H 2 m2 N a H. 005. U> IL H 2 m2 D m MmdB U> H 0»n0nH¢ mo >»Hmn0>HCD C300 mCHmE5b omB C0H»0o500 H00H0>Cm Ho »C05»nmm0o saunmonm >0Hm Hoonom0nm mama hm Bzmabfim 186 .onHoamemzH 00 00003 0N mH 0H NH wH mH :H mH NH HH 0H m m h m m .— m N H. 2 02 0 H v3.00. U> H 2 02 0 N 293. 03 H 2 K m2 - \ o m 0009 \. o3 \ H \r\ 2 Ilh 02 RI. G v Mde. \. o> IJ1|\\ H 2 02 0 m 2029 o> H 0»n00HC Ho >»Hmn0>HC0 C300 mCH055h 009 C0H»0050m H00H0>Cm Ho »C08»n0000 aunmonm >0H0 Hoosom0n0 0000 MHm BszDBm 187 ZOHBUDmBmZH 00 mxmm3 ON oH 0H 5H 0H mH :H mH NH HH oH m o N. w m .H m N H. 2 02 0 H Mmda U> H 2 02 0 N Xmas U> H 2 02 \ o m 0000. \, U> H ,1/ \l \N CIKV H H .VI D 2 I 7 m2 K C a H. 0009 \, ‘4‘ o> .IiIIL H 2 02 0 m 2mm? U> VA H 0»n00HC Ho >»Hmn0>HC0 C300 wCH0a5b O08 C0H»00500 H00H0>C0 Ho »C0E»n0000 amnmon0 >uH0 Hoosommn0 0000 ¢Hm Hzmnpam 188 0»n00H4 mo >»Hmn0>HC0 C0H»0050m H00Hm>n0 Ho »C0E»n0000 Eonmon0 >0H0 Hoonom0n0 0000 ‘ZOHBUDmBmZH .00 mvamz HH 0 C300 mCHHHECh 09H. mHm Ewen—Hm 189 0»n00H¢ Ho >»Hmn0>HCD CoH»00500 H00H0>C0 Ho »C0a»n0000 Emnmon0 >dH0 H000000n0 0000 4 203050005 00 00003 a HH o 02 Q U> H C300 mCHQE5h O08 mHm 9200980 190 ZOH9UD2902H 00 02003 0N 0H 0H 0H 0H mH :H mH NH HH 0H m o h o m 3 m N H. 2 02 a H 2009 U> \\ H x. z \lk m2 y\. 0 N 2009 U> \\1 H 2 I'll-IL I. II E 0 m 2049 U> H 2 02 0 v 2049 U> H 2 02 0 m 2009 U> H 0»n00H¢ Ho >»Hmn0>HC0 c300 mCH0E5b O09 C0H»00500 H00H0>C0 mo »C0E»n0000 E0nmon0 >0H0 Hoosom0n0 0000 9H0. 9200590 191 0»n00H< Ho >»Hmn0>HC0 COH»00500 H00H0>20 00 »C0E»nm000 Emnaon0 >0H0 Hoonom0n0 0000 H ZOH9UD2902H 00 02003 c300 mCHQE5h 009 mHm 920099m 192 auuonad no >uwmum>wqo :oaumosvw Handmasm mo unusuamo 5.5on hug Hoonumoum mmxm :u nu Na ‘ onsoomamzH mo mxmms a \\\4mmmflwwwm556 Hmm 825m 193 3.382 mo Mufimufiéno cognac—fin 33993 no uamfiuummma Enumoum >93 Hooaomoum mama ZOHBUDmBmZH m0 mxmmz m5” H 0H2" MB 09,—. mm .5295 194 .1294": Had; %.u-.b.fw.. 4...: . ...‘. -oneoomemzH mo mxmmz om mu an ha mu mm .2 mg a" "a on m o h w m a m N u 2 m2 D H M92... o> \ H W 2 J m: o N Mmmn. \1 u> \Nt H N \‘ z m: a m M93. o> H ‘1‘ z a m: A\ a v umca x\“ u> l1\ H 2 m2 0 m Mmde U> H muuwnaa mo huamuw>fico mcflao>oflu9 one coauuoaom Handmhzm mo usmfiuummoa amumoum amam Hoosomoum mmmm mm azmnbam 195 alibi L. : Kiln?— 21:;upl!:gixiiu ‘onauamsmzH mo mxmmz ow an an ha wH ma .2 MH NH Hm cu m o h m m : m N H 2 m: a H Mmae U> \\ H \\1 2 \Il. m2 1\\ a m xmme \\‘ o> \\ H ‘ z m: [N a m xmae +u\\ljlll1¢aulllllll, .\\ U> 1 x H \1\‘ 2 m2 G v Mmda \ILL U.) 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U> H muumnH< mo >uamuo>wca coHumuaom Hmowmhcm mo ucmfiuummoa mcwHoonuB one saumonm amam Hoosommum mama pm azmaaam 196 oN a“ ma 5H m" mH :H mu NH ZOHBUDmBmZH m0 mem3 an an m o h m 1 z Illl tn. m2 0 H Mmda o> H 2 m2 D N Mmde o> H 2 m: D m Mmde o> H 2 m: a v Mmda o> H 2 m2 Q m Mmda u> H munona¢ mo muamum>Hco mcwaowoaue one coaumuavm Hmowmanm mo ucmsuummwo summoum muHm Hoonommnm mmmm mm Hzmapam .onauamamzH mo mxmmz cu an m.— ha mu mm :a nu NH AH 0H m o h m m 3 m N H. z n.. m: o H Mmde u> H z m: a N Hmae o> H z m: a m Hmas o> H «.1 a, z 11 m: a H Hmaa u> H z m: a m Hmae o> H mpumnH¢ Ho muHmHm>Hao mcHHoHoHHa oma cadumoaom HMOHmhnm Ho unmfiuummwo anamonm ENE Hoonomoum mama OHw azmnpam 198 on ma on an on mm :H m" NH .20H802m9mZH m0 mxmm3 "H 0H m h m z \‘lll. m2 D H Mmde U> H x z x / m: w \ o m v85. \ < U> \ H 2 m2 \ o m Mm? \ U> \ H H 2 m: G v xm¢e \ u> H 2 m2 Q m xmce U> H «9.342. no huamumzcs 330539 09H. cOHumoanm Hmowmanm no ucguuummmo 5903 32 Hoosommum mama Sm EmaBm 199 HZOHBUDmBmZH m0 mxmmz ON ma 0H 5H mu mu :H m.— NH HH 9H m a h o m .H m N H‘ 2 # an: N o H V65. W 8 H z N m: x o m xmg Nllllw U> L\ H 2 m2 \ a m 293. IMHI U> H 2 m: a w Mmme K u> J19 H 2 m2 0 m Mmda u> H muumnad mo >uamuw>wca mCHHONOHHB oma couumuavm HMUHmanm mo unmauummwo aunmoum HMHH Hoonomoum mmmm vam Bzmnpam 200 ZOHBUDmBmzH b0 mMmmZ ON mH 0H NH mu mm :H mH NH an an m m h m m .H m N H Z .ll.|lllil| m: D H Mmda U> H S m: a N Mmde o> H z m: D m MmflB o> H 2 m: 0 v dee u> H 2 m: D m Mmda o> H muum§¢ no 33335 320539 one :oHumoacm Hmuamanm mo unmauummoa _Emumoum amHm Hoonomwum mama mHm Bzmobam 201 0N mH mH 5H mH mH :H «H NH ZOHBUQmBmZH b0 mammz HH oH m H. m I... Z \/ m2 ‘1 0 H Mmde /\, o> H 2 m2 AH N Mmde o> H 2 m2 Q m Mmdfi o> H 2 Hz a v Mmaa 0> H 2 m: D m Mm<9 U> H monoan mo muHmuo>HcD mcHHoHoHue 0&9 GOHunoavm HMUHmHAH Ho ucmsuummma awhmoum HMHA Hoonomoum mama on Bzmnbam 202 hfiflw. . :unr ZOHBUDmmeH m0 mxmmg ON OH OH NH OH mH .: mH NH HH OH O m H H z 5.1 I I all m: N 1 w a H xmg N o> \ H \ z x H H m: /\1 o N Mmda \ < o> \V H 2 m: H o m Mmfi. Il\ U> \l. H \ 2 m: a v Mmaa \WN‘ o> \ H 2 m2 0 m Mm<8 U> H muuwnH¢ mo HuHmHm>Hcs mcHHoHUHHe one :oHumosom HMUmezm mo usmfiuummma .Ewuvoum HMHA Hoonommum mmmm mHm Bzmabam 203 HZOHHUDmBmZH m0 mfimmS ON OH OH NH OH mH :H OH NH HH OH O o H. o m 3 m N H z \ g O H Mmca \ u> \\ H \ 2 m: G N xmde \ u> mN H N, 2 m: Q m xmda ‘N u> w H 2 m: G v Mmde o> H 2 m2 0 m Mmma o> H muumnHa Ho HuHmum>Hca mcHHomoHHe 0&9 coHumoacm HmOHmHnm mo ucoauummwo amuvoum HuHm Hoosommum mmmm mHm BZmDDBm 204 .oneoamemzH mo mummz ON OH OH NH OH mH :H mH NH HH OH O o h m m 3 m N H z m: a H mmHH o> H z m: a m xmme u> H 2 K 92 ‘NH 9 m mmHH >, _\ U> > H z m: «x, *x H, a v HmHH H \x\, o> H\x H 2 HE o m Mm»? U> H muumnHa Ho auHmum>HcD mchcH3m Hmm CAB coHumuavm kuHmacm mo acmsuummon awumoum huHm Hoonomoum mmmm Nm _Bzuapam 205 ~93an Ho 155932.25 :oHumoaHum HuUHmHHE mo ucmfiuummua pagan MMHH Hoonomwum ANNE .ZOHBUDMBMZH ho mMmmz HH 9 9&chsz Hum 09H. mm Ema—Dam 206 ZOHBUDHHBMZH nHO mvamz ON OH OH NH 0H mH :H OH NH HH OH O O b o m : m N H 2 m2 0 H Mmda U> H H H‘ s H m: N a m v55. U> H H, 2 H m: a m Mm»? \ o> H z \\ m: \ a v x93. \ u> H 2 m2 Q m vamp. U> H cuHmQHd Ho HuHmHm>HcD mchcH3w Ham one GOHumoavm HwOHmanm mo ucmsuummwa saumoum HMHA Hooaommum mmmm mm azunpam 207 .oneoamamzH mo mummz ON OH OH 5H OH mH :H OH NH HH OH O O H. O m +— m N H. 2 m2 D H vaHHH. U> H E H m2 H a m Hmaa U> H \H z “N\ m: \\‘ o m away X\\ o> _\ H 2 HS H a H Hmca [\HW o> .Iu1l\x H 2 HE D m vaHHH. U> H muuman mo HuHmHm>HcD \chucHaw Hmm one coHumosvm HMOHmmnm Ho unmauummma 5333 SE Hoosomoum mmmm mm 9.6an 208 ZOHBUDmBmZH m0 mMmNS oN OH OH OH OH OH :H OH NH HH OH O O b O O 3 m N H. 2 m2 G H Mmfis H U> x \ H 2 H m: H a H Mmfi. W o> \ H 2 m2 H o m Hmfi. Q B H 2 N m: \ o v v55. \ U> 1L H 2 m2 0 m Mmfle o> H 3.8a? Ho H3332: 9.35% Ham 8H. coHumosom HMOHEEH mo ucmfiuummmo sunbeam HMHA Hoonommum mmmm «Hm Ema—Dam 209 ON OH OH OH OH ZOHBUDNHBmZH nHO mxmmz OH :H mH NH HH OH O O n O m N H z m: Hi‘ a H Hmaa o> H H K 2 J HHI m: H a m Mmme H u> H z .unu m: a m xmma Ow o> H z \\ m: \\V a v mmHH I:|||u.n|.n|\‘ o> H 2 Hz a m Mmde o> H muuwnH¢ Ho HHHmHm>Hcs mchcH3m Hmm one coHumosvm Hmonxcm Ho ucmsuummma Emumoum HmHm Hoonomwum mama mHm Ezmnpfiw 210 .onaoomamzH mo mxmmz ON OH OH NH OH OH :H mH NH HH OH O O s O O .— m N H, 2 m2 0 H MmAHH. U> H 2 m2 0 N vadH. \ U> \1, H .\ 2 MN m: \\ O m vadrH. \\ u> H 2 g\ m: \1 o v xmaa \ o> nllu:I..TIN1 H 2 m2 0 m vaHHB U> H muuwan Ho huHmHm>Hco ‘mcwmcHBm Ham one coHumosom HMOHmanm Ho usmfiuummmn Emuuonm thm Hoonommum mmmm OHm Bzmnbam 211 APPENDIX F RAW DATA: PRETEST AND POSTTEST SCORES ON PLAY ASSESSMENT 212 RAW DATA: PRETEST PLAY SCORES IN SECONDS SUBJECTS PLAY CATEGORIES ACTION 1 2 3 4 5 UNITS s1 284 293 223 o o 52 s2 11 191 487 111 o 70 s3 - 121 250 280 149 o 106 s4 91 289 404 16 o 133 55 181 343 179 97 o 50 s6 28 233 394 155 o 82 s7 141 183 476 o o 65 38 68 142 353 237 o 66 59 137 474 189 o o 65 $10 458 255 87 o o 77 511 375 299 72 54 o 68 512 31 246 361 162 o 71 513 190 327 244 16 23 93 SM 180 308 311 1 o 96 515 217 444 134 5 o 95 516 351 390 59 o o 91 517 145 367 219 59 10 90 $18 154 391 247 8 o 81 519 77 188 473 62 o 81 520 65 269 218 170 78 76 s 165 396 239 o o 86 213 RAW DATA: POSTTEST PLAY SCORES IN SECONDS SUBJECTS PLAY CATEGORIES ACTION 1 2 3 4 5 UNITS s1 35 390 267 108 0 71 52 35 323 310 132 0 66 53 52 110 92 471 75 59 s4 76 275 359 90 0 126 s5 88 174 291 247 0 58 s6 34 90 342 334 0 47 s7 204 99 92 405 0 55 58 224 170 245 123 38 74 39 191 271 194 144 0 78 510 140 182 312 166 0 64 S11 98 533 117 52 0 40 $12 23 217 368 192 o 58 513 57 198 125 317 103 85 514 53 206 211 116 214 63 $15 101 337 351 11 0 136 516 36 327 358 79 0 65 517 12 264 76 448 0 45 318 92 241 303 164 0 58 $19 56 132 491 109 5 56 520 4 145 168 396 87 44 S 63 308 302 127 0 67 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbas, K. 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