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'THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPECTATIONS
OF MISSIONARY TEACHERS:

TEN CASE STUDIES

BY

Dorothy Margaret Tweddell

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1978

ABSTRACT

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPECTATIONS
OF MISSIONARY TEACHERS:

TEN CASE STUDIES

by
Dorothy Margaret Tweddell

The purpose of this study is to describe the development
of the expectations of 10 missionary teachers concerning
their teaching in other cultures. The study covers these
facets of inquiry: the levels of formality and types of
learning experiences respondents expect to provide important
learning; the sources of the respondents' expectations; the
levels of formality and types of learning experiences
respondents perceive their students as expecting to provide
important learning; the respondents' perceptions of the
differences between their expectations and those of their
students; the respondents' efforts to accommodate to any of
these different expectations; the changes in the respondents'
expectations due to any such accommodations; the effects of
the respondents' teaching on their students, and their
proposed future modifications of these effects.

From February to September, 1978, 10 furloughing

Dorothy Margaret Tweddell

missionary teachers were interviewed in East Lansing, Michigan,
and in Wheaton, Illinois, for approximately 10 hours each. The
qualitative data of the interviews served as the basis for
interpreting the responses to an audio-visual instrument used
to stimulate and focus responses. In this instrument nine
learning situations represented combinations of three kinds

of learning experiences (input, self—awareness, sharing), and
three levels of formality (low, medium, high).

In the first use of the instrument, respondents were
asked the same question for each learning situation represented:
"Do you think these peOple are learning something important?"
The instrument was used again and respondents answered this
question for each learning situation: "Would your students
think these peOple are learning something important?"

Answers were recorded on a five-point Likert-type response
scale.

As a projective technique, this instrument encouraged
respondents to note contrasts between their expectations
concerning'important learning and those of their students in
other cultures. Through the use of this instrument issues
were raised concerning the development of respondents'
expectations, which they explored in their own terms in the
remaining interview sessions.

The findings of this exploratory study are summarized
as comments about suggested sets of relationships. Among

these are the following:

Dorothy Margaret Tweddell

* Respondents perceive their students' expectations
concerning important learning to be associated more with
clustering at the extremes and with fewer and broader
sources than their own expectations.

* Respondents perceive their students to expect higher
levels of formality and more input learning experiences
in important learning situations.

* The learning of the students in the respondents' schooling
contexts is associated with their expectations becoming
more like those of the respondents.

* An expectation by both respondents and students of low
formality-sharing in important learning situations is
associated with learning and teaching in the students'
traditional modes.

* The respondents' practice of low formality is associated
with the adoption of accepted roles in the students'
cultures.

* The encouragement of the students' personal development
is associated more with learning and teaching in

nonschooling contexts.

In conclusion, the implications of the study for
missionary teaching are suggested. Recommendations are

also made for further study.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study has been in essence and in reality an
international project. Missionaries serving in nine
<iifferent countries so willingly gave their limited
leisure time for the interviews. They have made this
study possible and have expanded my own understanding of
the missionary task.

My parents came from Australia to help with the
lengthy task of data transcription and typing. As always,
they offered freely their unequalled care and diligence in
checking each detail of the manuscript preparation. It is
a unique privilege to experience such a partnership.

My Lansing sojourn has provided a treasured experience
of true friendship with my hostess, Helen Carr. She has
cared for me and made it possible for my parents to visit
America. It was Helen who persuaded me that skiing, canoeing,
and exploring the woods could be combined with the
preparation of a dissertation. She was right. My other
housemates, Mary Kerr and Maggie Heathman, have been
constantly thoughtful and offered their skilful editing
ability which I needed so much. Dr. and Mrs. D. Mitchell
loaned their cabin beside beautiful Piatt Lake during the

time of data transcription. Dr.and Mrs. W.Norton of

ii

Wheaton College so kindly helped to arrange interviews.
A host of other peOple, including June Sutton, Kathy
Wilson, Dr. and Mrs. D. Boardman, loyal friends in
Australia and colleagues in Papua New Guinea, have
encouraged and supported me.

My committee members, Dr. Cole Brembeck, Dr. Peggy
Riethmiller, Dr. Ruth Hill Useem, Dr. Ted Ward, have
offered guidance and inspiration. I am grateful that
they have supported the study of a tepic so relevant to
my life concerns.

The American Association of University Women awarded
me an international scholarship to defray the expenses of
this study. I count it a privilege to be honored by

AAUW in this way.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter
1

2

3

THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . .

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem . . . . . . . . . . .
Research Questions . . . . . .

Background . . . . . . . . .
Importance . . . . . . . . .
Assumptions . . . . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . . .
Definitions of Important Terms
Overview . . . . . . .

PRECEDENTS IN THE LITERATURE . .

Overview . . . . . . . . .
The Effect of Expectations . .
Schooling and Expectations .

Relations across Cultures and Expectations

Companion Studies . . . . . .
The McKean Study . . . . . .
The Wilson Study . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . .

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . .

Description of Methodology . .
McKean Instrument . . . . . .
Use of McKean Instrument . . .
Focused Interviews . . . . . .
Facets of Inquiry . . . . .
Interview Procedure . . . . .
Types of Questions . . . . .

Method of Analysis . . . . .

Respondents . . . . .
Sylvia Bowers . . . . . .
John Gross . . . . . .
Carl Beach . . . . . .
Jim Wilson . . . . . .
Bill Johnson . . . .
Karen Gegner . . . . .
Maggie Becker . . . . . .
Ray Norton . . . . . .
Lisa Rohr . . . . . .
Ed Kerr . . . . .

iv

Page
viii

22

22
23
26
31
34
35
35
37

38

38
39
41
45
45
46
48
50

51
52
53
54
55
55
56

57
58

59
6O

Chapter Page

Field Experience in Use of Methodology . . . . 61
Use of McKean Instrument . . . . . . . . . 63
Focused Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Recording Responses . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Scoring of Responses to McKean Instrument . . 70

Organization of Interview Material . . . . . . 7l

Methodological Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . 72

Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4 RESEARCH FINDINGS I . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Responses to McKean Instrument . . . . . . . . 76

Method of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Review of Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Respondents
Sylvia Bowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
John Gross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Carl Beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Jim Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Bill Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . llO
Karen Gegner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Maggie Becker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Ray Norton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Lisa Rohr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ed Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

5. RESEARCH FINDINGS II . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Formality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
According to Teachers' Expectations . . . . 146
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
According to Students' Expectations . . . . 149
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
According to Respondents' Expectations . . . 154
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
According to Students' Expectations . . . . 157
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Role of Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A Presenter of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . 160
An Encourager of Students' Discovery
Processes . . 162
Influence of Missionary Status . . . . . . . 163

Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Sources of Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Sources of Teachers' Expectations . . . . . 166
Sources of Students' Expectations . . . . . 168
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

V

Chapter Page

Respondents' Views of Students . . . . . . . . 169

Students to be Accepted . . . . . . . . . 170
Students to be Changed . . . . . . . . . 171
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Differences in Expectations . . . . . . . 173

Differences as Hindrances for Students . . . 175
Differences as Items for Respondents' Study 176

Disappearing Differences . . . . . . . . 176
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Accommodations . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Accommodating to Teachers' Expectations . 177

Accommodating to Students' Expectations . . 180

Accommodating to the Best Method . . . . . . 181
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Changes in Expectations . . . . . . . . . . 182
Causes of Change . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Types of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Observations . . . . . . . . . . 185
Effects of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Increasing Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Changing Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Larger Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Modifications of Future Teaching . . . . . . 189
Intensifying Present Effects . . . . . . . . 189
Modifying Effects . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Observation . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Culture as a Barrier . . . . . . . . . 191

Culture as a Complex Set of Differences . . 193

. . . . . 199
. . . . . 200

To Researcher . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . .

The Individual above Culture . . . . . . . . 195
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Language of Missionary Teaching . . . 196
Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Meaning of the Interview . . . . . . . . 198
To Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

6 SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 201

Summary of Main Findings . . . . . . . . . . 202
Findings Related to an Overview of the Data 202
Findings Related to Schooling Contexts . . . 203
Findings Related to Nonschooling Contexts . 209
Findings Related to Missionary Role . . . . 212

Implications for Missionary Teaching . . . 214
Recommendations for Further Study . . . 219
Personal Reflections . . . . . . . . . 220
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

vi

Page
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Research Instrument . . . . . . . . . . 236

APPENDIX Al
APPENDIX A2 - Answer Sheet for Research Instrument . . 239

APPENDIX Bl — Scores on McKean Instrument . . . . . . 240

APPENDIX B2 - Learning Situations Preferred . . . . . 241
APPENDIX C - Sessions with Respondents . . . . . . 243
APPENDIX D - Data on Respondents . . . . . . . 244
APPENDIX E - Case Studies
- El, Sylvia Bowers . . . . . . . . . . 245
- E2, John Gross . . . . . . . . . . . 261
- E3, Carl Beach . . . . . . . . . . . 277
- E4, Jim Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . 291

- E5, Bill Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . 306
- E6, Karen Gegner . . . . . . . . . . . 323
- E7, Maggie Becker . . . . . . . . . . . 338

- E8, Ray Norton . . . . . . . . . . . 357
- E9, Lisa Rohr . . . . . . . . . . . 376
— E10,Ed Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . 393

vii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

3.1 POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS

OF FORMALITY AND KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE . 44
4.1 HIERARCHY OF PREFERRED LEARNING SITUATIONS . . . 77
4.2 NUMBER OF NEGATIVE RESPONSES TO MCKEAN

INSTRUWNT O O I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 78
4.3 FOCUS OF RESPONDENTS' AND STUDENTS' RESPONSES

TO MCKEAN INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 LEARNING EXPERIENCES AS DEFINED ACCORDING TO

MCKEAN INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.5 FORMALITY LEVELS AS DEFINED ACCORDING TO
MCKEAN INSTRUMENT O O O O O O O I O O O O O 8 2

viii

CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM

A complex and largely idiosyncratic combination of
factors develop the expectations of Protestant evangelical
missionaries towards their teaching in other cultures. The
varying sources of these factors include the missionaries'
distinctive philosophy of life, their personality character-
istics, their patterns of socialization, their experiences
in learning-teaching situations and their presuppositions
about the other cultures. These expectations cause them
to anticipate certain behaviors that are most likely to
occur in the learning—teaching situations in other cultures.

Missionary teachers are not the only ones who bring
expectations to the learning-teaching situations in the
other cultures. Students too are subject to influences
from their societies which produce specific group and
individual expectations appropriate to learning and teach-
ing. Increasingly these students are exposed to networks
of expectations far broader than their own socialization
processes. A multitude of sources, some consistent, some
conflicting, contribute to forming the students' expecta-
tions that they bring to the learning-teaching environments

of the missionary teachers. Further conflicts may occur as

the students perceive their expectations as differing from
those of their missionary teachers. If the missionary
teachers assume the roles of powerful authorities in the
other cultures, the students may discard their expectations
in favor of those of their teachers. Alternatively, they
may modify their expectations or suspend them for use in
the context of their own environment.

The extent to which missionary teachers are aware of
both their own expectations and those of their students in
the other cultures governs the accommodations they consider
necessary to bridge any perceived differences. Lack of
awareness of these issues will cause missionary teachers to
plan and conduct irrelevant learning experiences for students

and to anticipate inaccurately student behaviors.

Purpose

The dual purpose of this study is as follows:

1. To describe the development of the expectations of 10
missionary teachers concerning their teaching in other
cultures;

2. To present a summary of the findings in terms of
relationships suggested by the data.

The first purpose is served by interviewing 10 missionary
teachers. From these interview data, their present expectations
concerning important learning and teaching are deduced.

The sources of these expectations are traced and their

perceptions of the differences between their expectations

and those of their students in the other cultures are

delineated. Attempts by the missionaries to accommodate to
their students‘ expectations are described. The missionary
teachers note any changes in their expectations resulting
from these accommodations. Both actual and desired effects
of the missionaries' teaching in the other cultures are
explained.

This study relates in terms of the missionaries' own
perceptions the deve10pment of their expectations. How the
realities of teaching students in other cultures temper the
actual outworking of these expectations is the focus of the
study.

The second purpose is served by noting the features
of common themes in the responses of the missionary teachers.
Relationships between several features as suggested by the
data are noted. Out of these arise implications for

missionary teaching and recommendations for further study.

Problem

This study describes the development of the expectations
of 10 missionary teachers concerning their teaching in other
cultures. The problem involves the examination of these
areas:

* The nature and source of respondents' expectations
concerning preferred levels of formality and types of
learning experiences that contribute to important
learning.

* The differences between respondents' expectations and
the perceived expectations of their students in other

cultures.

* The accommodations made to account for expectations
perceived as differing.
* The modifications of respondents' expectations

resulting from such accommodations.

Researchguestions

This order of inquiry is followed in the study:

What levels of formality do the respondents expect to

 

provide important learning when "level of formality"
refers to how structured, authority-oriented and teacher-
controlled a learning situation is? What kinds of
learning experiences do the respondents expect to provide
important learning when "kind of learning experience"
refers to input, self-awareness or sharing?

What do the respondents perceive to be sources of these
expectations?

What levels of formality do the respondents perceive

 

that their students in the other cultures expect to

 

provide important learning? What kinds of learning
experiences do the respondents perceive that their
students in the other cultures expect to provide
important learning?

In what ways are the expectations of the respondents and

their students perceived as differing? What are the

 

perceived causes for any differences?

What efforts are made to accommodate to any different

 

expectations of respondents and students?

6. What changes result in the respondents' expectations as
they accommodate to any different expectations of their
students?

7. What are the perceived effects of respondents' teaching
on their students?

8. What modifications of these effects do respondents intend

 

to make in their future teaching?

Background

 

The values of any social group are an ideal which
actual behavior may sometimes approximate but seldom fully
embody. The expectations of missionary teachers reflect the
conflicts inherent in attempting to practice their ideals
against a background of educational tradition which does
not necessarily exhibit these same ideals.

The recent Willowbank report (1978), compiled by 33
leading evangelical theologians, anthropologists, linguists,
missionaries and pastors, expressed concern to develop an
understanding of the interrelation of the gospel and culture.
It reemphasized some of the ideals of missionary teaching
in other cultures:

The spiritual calling of the missionary:

...our fellow men and women are made in God's image.
...we are commanded to honor, love, and serve them
in every sphere in life. To this argument from God's
creation we add another from His kingdom which

broke into the world through Jesus Christ. All
authority belongs to Christ. He is Lord of both
universe and church. And he has sent us into the

world to be its salt and light. As his new
community, he expects us to permeate society.

Thus we are to challenge what is evil and
affirm what is good; to welcome and seek to promote
all that is wholesome and enriching in art, science,
technology, agriculture, industry, education,
community development and social welfare, to
denounce injustice and support the powerless and
the Oppressed; to spread the good news of Jesus
Christ, which is the most liberating and humanizing
force in the world; and actively to engage in works
of love....the church cannot impose christian
standards on an unwilling society, but it can commend
them by both argument and example. All this will
bring glory to God and greater opportunities of
humanness to our fellow human beings whom he made
and loves....churches must seek to transform and
enrich culture, all for the glory of God (p.29).

A contextual approach to Bible teaching:

It takes seriously the cultural context of the
contemporary readers as well as of the biblical
text, and recognizes that a dialogue must develOp
between the two (p.11).

Sensitive cross-cultural witnesses will not
arrive at their sphere of service with a prepacked
gospel. They must have a clear grasp of the
"given" truth of the gOSpel. But they will fail
to communicate successfully if they try to impose
this on people without reference to their own
cultural situation and that of the pe0ple to whom
they go (p. 14).

A respectful attitude to culture:

We repent of the ignorance whidh assumes that
we have all the answers and that our only role is
to teach. We have very much to learn. We repent
also of judgmental attitudes. We know we should
never condemn or despise another culture, but
rather respect it. We advocate neither the
arrogance which imposes our culture on others, nor
the syncretism which mixes the gospel with cultural
elements incompatible with it, but rather a humble
sharing of the good news - made possible by the
mutual respect of a genuine friendship....we see
the need to begin where peOple are, but not to
stOp there. We accept our responsibility gently

and patiently to lead them on to see themselves as
we see ourselves, as rebels to whom the gospel
directly speaks with a message of pardon and hope.
To begin where pe0p1e are not is to share an
irrelevant message; to stay where people are and
never lead them onto the fullness of God's good
news is to share a truncated gospel. The humble
sensitivity of love will avoid both errors (p.16).
Missionaries uphold these ideals of their spiritual
calling, the need for effective contextualization of their
message, and a respectful view of culture. They also
represent a home-based constituency that has an idealized
conception of their ability to achieve these high purposes.
Howeverythe translation of these ideals into educational
practice has been less than complete. The expectations of
missionaries concerning their teaching in other cultures
provide evidence of this. Charges are made that mission-
aries' education is based on "minimum estimates of the
potentialities of people" (Gezi,197l: 98), and their
institutions are perceived as authoritarian, conservative
and alien to actual aspirations and problems of the people.
While many criticisms of missionary teaching have arisen
more out of emotional bias than careful research, it is
clear even to most missionaries that these ideals are not
automatically transformed into educational procedures.
Nowhere is this more obvious than in the institution
building of missionary teachers. In 1928 missiologist
Roland Allen criticized the Jerusalem International
Missionary Council of attempting to "saddle the native

churches with institutions created by foreigners," and of

using a schooling "conception of training for leadership

(that) is Western and unapostolic" (Allen,1928: 5, 27).

His concerns reflect the dilemma that recent critics of
missionary education have pointed out. Missionary schools
have attempted to impart biblical values (e.g. love, justice,
unity of believers) in environments that have long reflected
the accepted Western classical mode of learning and instit-
utionalization fashioned on the rationalistic Greek model
with its hierarchial authority system. As servants of

these institutions, missionary teachers are socialized

into roles as imparters of knowledge and as controllers of
learning outcomes, more than as models of their ideals.

In the postwar era missions imbibed the fervor of the
modernization movement with its emphasis on overseas instit-
ution building. There was little consciousness that the
process of modernization had its own latent ethical content,
which Knapp (1977: 155) claims is frequently inimical to
the very biblical faith which missions are intent on prep-
agating. In promoting the secularizing impact of both
technology and institutional form, missionaries were more
"children of their age" (Luzbetak, 1977: 332), rather than
"servants of the Kingdom" (Rowen,l97l: 98). The active
programming demanded by institution building as well as the
"success" of missions (in terms of converts) allowed little
time for reflection on aims and the deve10pment of theory
for educational practice.

Efficiency in planning and quantitative gains of

institution building were not sufficient to combat the

increasing malaise in Western-style education, both in
America and overseas. Critics called for radical measures
ranging from remedying the weaknesses of the school
experience to the "deschooling of society" (Illich,l971).
Some of the loudest critiques of Western education as
"cultural imperialism" (Carnoy,l974) came from countries
considered "mission fields" by the Western church. Many
were beginning to realize that their belief in schools as
complete problem-solvers was only an hallucination (Hanson,
1965).

The inherent dilemmas of attempting to improve the
schooling became increasingly clear. McCoy (1979) notes
that alternative methodologies (as in the instructional
technology field) do not alter the classical schooling
approach to education. The discussion method has the para—
doxical effect of attempting open-endedness while affirming
the divine right of the teacher. Teachers still view educ-
ation as primarily what they put into students rather than
as what they can get out of them (Leacock,1969). Inter-
actional methodologies are recommended yet classes
continue to be teacher-oriented and to offer rewards for
conforming behavior (Gallagher and Aschner,l963, Bellack
et al.,l965, F1anders,l969). Current views of curriculum
reflect several diverse and seemingly irresolvable phil-
osophic conceptions of man and education. From personality
theory and quantifications, the explanations and predict-

ions concerning effective teaching remain contradictory.

10

In the sixties bold moves were taken to reform mission-
ary teaching (particularly theological education.) These
were motivated not so much by the conflicts within the
schooling movement, its radical critics (Illich,l970,
Reimer,1972, and Freire,l970), or by charges from the
missionaries' constituency that it was producing
"ecclesiastical children" (Gatu in Wakatama, 1976: 9) and
"evangelical robots." The clear realization that the
classical nature of missionary schooling was perpetuating
oppressive elitism has only been more recently recognized
(Kinsler,1973). Rather the reformist efforts reflected a
concern for more effective church leadership training and
simultaneously grew in different mission locations (e.g.
Guatemala 1962, Indonesia 1967).

The resultant Theological Education by Extension
(TEE) movement offered an alternative to institutional
training to meet this concern. It recognized the value of
a worldwide trend to field-based, life-long learning and
adopted these educational methodologies to implement TEE.
By 1977 TEE had spread to every continent and involved
40,000 students. The movement has become so pOpular that
most evangelical missions claim some sort of TEE program.
Yet TEE is in danger of being interpreted as a "packaged
panacea" (Mulholland,l976: XI) for missionary educators
rather than as one alternative to institution-based

training with its own inherent limitations. As Ward

11

(1979a) notes:

On the one hand TEE has demonstrably increased
the availability of help for isolated and previously
untrained pastors; on the other hand it has even
further extended the influence of the Western
culture church. TEE has enabled many underemployed
missionary educators to find a more meaningful
life; yet it has given a new validity to externally
controlled institutions at the very moment that
nationalism is making its most substantial gains
towards localizing the church. TEE has given the
technologizing of missions and church growth a
substantial boost in the very face of a sweeping
awareness of the theological validity of christian
liberation. How ironic that TEE, with its attendant
emphasis on educational technology, arises at the
very moment when all sectors of the church (yes,
evangelicals included) are becoming aware of the
need to attack dehumanizing influences and techno-
cratic tyranny within the secular society.

These are some of the background elements shaping the
attempts of missionary teachers to practice their ideals.
The expectations of the missionaries concerning their
teaching in other cultures reflect the modifications of
these ideals by the realities of their backgrounds,

personalities and responses to other cultures.

Importance

Much of the research on the effects of the transmission
of education, notes Kimball (1974: 33), has focused more on
the recipients than on the initiators. This study recognizes
the need to broaden this focus of inquiry, particularly to
the previously unexplored area of the expectations of
missionaries concerning their teaching in other cultures.
In an age increasingly characterized by multilateral
"missions,“ even apart from those church-based, this study

is timely. If the practice of freedom is to be promoted

12

by these missions, indigenous education systems, not
transplanted ones, must be developed, claim Calhoun and Ianni
(1976: 157). Protest, evangelical missionaries particularly,
who are concerned that their educational practices reflect
their ideals, must seriously examine their expectations
concerning teaching in other cultures.

Larson (1977: 76) claims that the "core presuppositions"
of missionaries matter significantly in their ultimate
effectiveness. He identifies these common presuppositions
about "overschooling" among missionaries: the key to
effectiveness is a good school; learning outside the school
is inferior; missionaries are fully equipped when schooling
is completed. Though these presuppositions are not neatly
separated, indexed or readily accessible, Larson believes
that they should be brought into awareness and challenged
when they are found to interfere with the pursuit of chosen
goals. He recognizes that the changing of "core presuppositions"
can only be done by the person holding them.

Larson's concern lies at the heart of the questions
regarding missionaries' expectations concerning teaching and
learning. Their expectations are critical because they
stimulate teaching postures and patterns of interaction that
cause students to react in preferred modes. These expectations
are particularly influential in cultures where Western—educated
teachers represent the social success, power and authority
which are apparently denied to students. Out of such
situations Freire (1970) claims a "culture of silence"

deve10ps were the expectations of the "Oppressed"

13

are conditioned by the passive, fact-absorbing, "banking"
pedagogy of the powerful. Unless the peOple are liberated
from this form of Oppression, claims Freire, they will never
develop the dialogical, critical skills necessary for acting
on and transforming their own reality.

Cultural differences influence the development of
specific expectations about valid learning and teaching.

In different environments, these can be modified, as

Ward (1973) notes:

The most concrete evidence of the imposition

of culture on the learning potentialities of people
is their expectations of what constitutes a valid
learning experience. What is accepted as a valid
learning experience in one culture may be rejected
in another. The wisdom of the elders, transmitted
as legends and proverbs, may be profoundly respected
as a learning experience or totally rejected as
having no place in an educational system. A person
may be culturally conditioned to accept the pedantic
ways of the lecturing teacher in a formal classroom
as a valid learning experience, tending to make him
suspicious of discussion groups or instructional
motion pictures (pp. 2-3).

For effective learning to occur, Burger (1968) claims
that teachers should utilize instructional procedures that
are recognizable to the learner as valid learning exper-
iences. If learner expectations are ignored and not utilized
to improve teaching, educational objectives may be subverted
(Singleton,l97l), and dysfunctional outcomes produced
(Rosenfieldpl97l).

Zintz (1963: 77) found that teachers recognized obvious
differences in language,customs and experience background,

but they failed to recognize significant differences in

value perspectives among learners from differing ethnic

14

groups. Teachers with pedagogical expectations, for example,
of an Anglo origin tend to use inapprOpriate teacher-learner
relationship styles, instructional materials, channels and
concepts if they lack bicultural sensitivity to learners
of another ethnic origin. When teaching techniques and
learning experiences are incongruous with learner expectations,
in a fairly short time learners tend to return to the previous
attitudes and behaviors which are part of their dominant
cultural pattern (Homme 1966).

McKean (1977) points out that complete congruency between
expectations of teacher and student is not the key issue:

With pedagogical expectations, the degree of
congruency is a more important consideration than
absolute congruence between expectations and
instructional activities....The important point

is that the higher the degree of congruency the
more meaningful the learning experience is likely
to be for the learner....Both Dewey and Piaget
suggest that meaningful learning occurs when there
is disequilibrium....Thus it may not be harmful

to have some dissonance caused by a mis-match
between instructional activities and learner
pedagogical expectations. However, the type of
disequilibrium Dewey and Piaget talk about concerns
the content, or the subject matter of a learning
experience and not necessarily the medium of that
experience. Thus it would not necessarily mean
that there ought to be a mis-match between
instructional activities and pedagogical
expectations (pp. 9-10).

Three specific kinds of learning experiences are
explored in this study. Ward suggests that these three kinds
form a model for effective learning. They are as follows:

£3233 learning experiences involve learners in

receiving or coming into contact with some new
information.

15

Self-awareness learning experiences involve learners
in reflecting upon their current situations.

 

Sharing learning experiences involve learners in
putting into their own words or acting upon some
new information, ideas, insights (McKean,1977: 34).
Wilson (1978: 16-20) points out in her summary of the
three kinds of learning experiences that there are great
differences of opinion on what learning experiences most
consistently stimulate the total transformation of a
person's conception and behavior that represents learning
(Eisner and Vallance,l974). For some, most effective
learning occurs through the igput experiences involving
transfer of new sets of information. They focus on attempts
to externally stimulate the student's internal deve10pment
(Lamm,l972). Others believe that learning occurs not only
by articulating and clarifying present perceptions but also

by confronting the will so that the learner must choose to

change or to stay the same (i.e. self-awareness experiences).

 

They focus on the individual's own efforts to change and how
best to facilitate this natural deve10pment process (Chase,
1970: 98-104; Combs,l962).

It is further claimed that the students need to cement
the union between knowing and doing in sharing experiences.
Freire (1970), Illich (1970), Dewey (1949) and Huebner (1963)
focus on the combining of the inner deve10pment of perception
with outward communication in a transactional environment
(McLuhan,l963).

Western schooling uses input experiences as the primary

learning modes. Schooling has attained such a stronghold on

16

learning that input is valued by some people as the most
legitimate and important way to learn. Even in nonschooling
settings teachers tend to create learning situations primarily
out of input experiences as they have been conditioned by
their culture to accept input as the teaching-learning norm.

Within the past 15 years self-awareness learning
experiences have become more widely used in both formal and
nonformal learning settings. Slowly expectations of important
learning are changing to include these experiences. However,
instructional experiences are not yet characterized by the
constant giving and receiving relationship of sharing
experiences in which no one person lords it over another
or has ascribed status (Pinar,l975). As Wilson notes:

"Most adventures into learning are not joint adventures
at present" (1978: 19).

Dewey (1938) saw the need to integrate all three
experiences (input, self-awareness and sharing) into one
instructional experience. Other contemporary authors also
follow this integration rather than the use of one
experience or another (Pinar,l975; Miel,l963; Combs,l962).

If effective learning situations should comprise all three
kinds of eXperiences (input, self-awareness, sharing),
then one of the first tasks of educational planning is the
assessment of current expectations of both teachers and
students concerning important learning experiences. Only
then can learning experiences be attuned to the present

learning preferences of students and an appreciation for

17

other kinds of learning experiences be stimulated.

This study is important because it represents an
exploratory preparation at the initial stage of assessing
the differences in expectations of missionary teachers and
their students in other cultures. If the burgeoning
educational involvement of protestant evangelical mission-
aries is not going to be further labelled as "cultural
imperialism," the significance of any differences in

expectations must be studied.

Assumptions

 

These assumptions are made in this study:

1. Levels of formality (high, medium or low) and types of
learning experiences (input, self-awareness, sharing)
are important features of learning experiences.

2. Representatives of various cultural systems hold
different and potentially contrasting expectations
concerning important learning.

3. The expectations of both missionary teachers and their
students concerning important learning influence their
behaviors in learning-teaching situations.

4. The learning and teaching behaviors resulting from the
expectations of teachers and students are consistent with
their perceptions of those behaviors.

5. It is important for missionary teachers to be aware of
their own expectations concerning important learning and

those of their students in other cultures.

18

6. An awareness of the contrasting sources and natures of
these expectations influences the missionary teachers'
accommodations to their students' expectations and the

modifications of their own expectations.

Limitations

This study attempts no generalizations. It is confined
to describing the deve10pment of the expectations of 10
missionary teachers.

While it is recognized that there are other important
features in learning situations besides levels of formality
and types of learning experiences, the focus of the study is
on these two factors. However,the focused interview process
reveals other factors which respondents regard as necessary
to consider in important learning situations.

This study is limited to the respondents' perceptions
of their own expectations concerning important learning
and those of their students in other cultures. There is no
attempt to compare respondents' perceptions with students'
perceptions.

The fact that the researcher herself is a missionary
teacher means that she accepts the respondents' roles as
legitimate. However,this is not recognized so much as a
limitation. Though the researcher's empathy may influence
the objectivity of the study, it is recognized primarily as
an advantage to gaining immediate acceptance and confidence

of respondents.

19

Definitions of Important Terms

Culture. Useem, Useem and Donoghue (1963: 170) define
"culture" as "the learned and shared behavior of a community
of interacting human beings." Thus references in this study
to the expectations of students in the other cultures
indicate those expectations formed out of the learning,
sharing, and interacting of the students prior to their
contacts with respondents. It is recognized with Useem,
Useem and Donoghue that the interaction of the respondents
and students creates "binational third cultures" in which
both missionaries and their students act as "cultural
middlemen mediating between societies."

Ethnopedogogy is a term coined by Burger (1968) and

 

refers to the need of a teacher to be able to effectively
adapt teaching-learning activities to the cultural
viewpoints and experiences of learners.

Expectations refer to those conscious and unconscious
personal evaluations which lead to treatment of others in
such a manner as though the assessments were correct.
Expectations are estimations of reality and imply the
anticipation of behaviors most likely to actually occur if
certain circumstances are created and put into action
(Finn,l972: 390). In learning situations, expectations
often termed "pedagogical expectations" are what "a learner
and teacher expect to be the sociology (roles of teacher and
learner), content and procedures of an educational activity"

(McKean,1977: 19). They are considered cultural phenomena

20

by Ward, Burger and others.

Learning experiences refer to the distinctly different

 

nature of experiences in which a learner can participate.
Based on the Ward model, three kinds of learning experiences
are represented in this study instrument: input, self-aware-
ness, and sharing. All three kinds are considered necessary
for effective learning. Input experiences involve learners
in receiving or coming into contact with some new information.
Self-awareness experiences involve learners in reflecting
upon their current situations. Sharing experiences involve
learners in putting into their own words or acting upon some
new information, ideas, insights.

Levels of formality refer to how structured,authority-
oriented, controlled the learning activity must be for
important learning to occur - low, medium or high.

Perception defines how people view the world. Behavior

 

is assumed to be a function of perception. People behave

in ways that are consistent with their view of the world.

Overview
In Chapter 2 some of the precedents in the literature
relatedto expectations and their influence by culture are
reviewed. In Chapter 3 the research methods used to describe
the development of the respondents' expectations are outlined.
The field use of the research instruments is discussed.
Chapters 4 and 5 present the findings of the study.
A review of each case study is given in Chapter 4, and

analyses of common themes in the study are presented in

21

Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 summarizes the main findings of the study.
Implication and recommendations for missionary teaching
are suggested.

In summary, this study describes the deve10pment of
the expectations of 10 missionaries concerning their
teaching in other cultures. In terms of their own
perceptions, the differences between their expectations
and those of their students are noted. Accommodations
to these different expectations are described as well as
the modifications of the expectations of the missionary

teachers.

CHAPTER 2

PRECEDENTS IN THE LITERATURE

This chapter reviews some of the precedents in the
literature related to the function of expectations in
learning-teaching situations, the effect of schooling on
the development of expectations, and expectations associated
with relationships across cultures. Companion studies to

the present study are also described.

Overview

In the last 20 years the expectation phenomenon has
been given considerable attention in literature related to
personality theory, social interaction, psychological
diagnosis, teaching-learning, management, the practice of
medicine and other areas of study. Abundant evidence exists
for the existence and influence of both interpersonal and
intrapersonal expectancies in a wide variety of settings.
Many unanswered questions remain and methodological flaws
have caused ambiguous results. The changing patterns of
expectations at different stages of development need future
research. Even so, it appears that expectations do influence
both the behavior of the person holding the expectation and
the behavior about whom the expectation is held. Expectations

have consequences on affecting social reality, whether

22

23

or not the assessment of that reality on which they are based
is accurate (Krishna,197l). The Thomas theorem (1928: 1104)
apparently stands intact that "if men define situations as
real, they are real in their consequences." Expectations,
popularly labelled "self-fulfilling prophecies," play an
important function not so much in telling the future but in
making it, notes Jones (1977: 243). Yet he rightly cautions
against claiming that "expectations are everything" (p.110).
Much research remains to be done on the effect of transferring
expectations related to the performance of particular roles

across cultures.

The Effect of Expectations

The process of communicating expectations has been
studied extensively in teacher-student interaction in
formal schooling settings. The basic thesis is as follows:

a teacher creates a reality commensurate with
his own perceptions... the learner, while
creating his own reality, shadows substantially
the reality forming in the teacher's mind.
(Braun,l976: 185).

In 1968 Rosenthal and Jacobson followed up this thesis
in their "Oak School" experiment by testing the proposition
that children would demonstrate greater intellectual growth
if their teacher expected such growth than if the teacher
had no such expectation. Teachers were informed that some
students had been identified as "spurters" and were
predicted to show "academic blooming" in the following year.

The experimental group was in fact a random selection of

20% of the 18 classes (kindergarten through fifth grade)

24

under investigation. Intellectual growth was defined as
the difference between IQs at the time of the pre-test and
the post-test. The results indicated that the students who
had been identified to their teachers as "spurters" showed
significantly larger gains in IQ than their classmates. In
the first and second grades the experimental group showed
as much as 15 IQ points gain above the control group.
Teachers described experimental children as being happier,
more curious, more interesting and having a better chance
of success in later life than control subjects.

The Rosenthal-Jacobson study has been severely
criticized because it was not adequately standardized for
use with the young children who showed the more significant
gains in IQ (Thorndike,l968). The statistical analysis was
challenged (Snow,l969) and replication of the study presented
difficulties (Claiborn,l969). The pervasiveness of the
teacher expectation effect was questioned (BrOphy and Good,
1974). Rosenthal (1969, 1970) answered criticisms to the
satisfaction of many researchers. Adams and Cohen (1976:
216) indicate that half of the successive studies of the
expectancy effect do in fact support the original
Rosenthal-Jacobson thesis that one person's expectation of
another person's behavior can come to serve as a self-
fulfilling prophecy. To Baker and Crist (1971: 64) "the
question for future research is not whether there are
expectancy effects,but how they Operate."

Though Rosenthal and Jacobson paid little attention to

25

effects of expectations, several studies have provided some
evidence to account for the processes involved. Robovits
and Maehr (1971) show that more participation is demanded
of gifted students and leads to the precise articulation of
ideas and better understanding. Beez (1968) indicates that
teachers with favorable expectations about their students
attempt to teach them significantly more symbols and give
fewer explanations and examples than the teachers who had
unfavorable expectations.

Research concerning the function of teacher expectations
has also looked at the communication of negative expectations.
Rubovits and Maehr (1973) studied the interactions betseen 66
white female undergraduate teacher trainees and their groups
of four students (two black and two white). They noted that
black students were paid less attention, were requested to
offer fewer statements, were praised less and criticized
more.

It may be, notes Jones (1977: 109), that teachers become
overly exacting when they believe they are dealing with a
low ability student and slow down the learning process.

A "labeling approach" tends to Operate in which the
"processes involved in letting those so stigmatized know
their place are anything but passive" (Jones,l977: 112).
Implicit in all studies on expectations is the fact that
students are alert to any clues from the teacher concerning
desirable and undesirable behavior (Rosenberg,l965). It

is difficult, Berne (1961) agrees, not to let others know

26

what we expect of them.

In reviewing research on expectations since Rosenthal
and Jacobson, Brophy and Good (1974) claim that the
teachers' accuracy and flexibility in taking into account
new evidence are the crucial factors in the influence of
their expectations upon their behavior. Where teachers'
expectations are inaccurate and inflexible, Rosenthal's
”self-fulfilling prophecy" effect is more likely to take
place. Such teachers tend to persistently treat students
in ways that cause them to conform to their expectations
concerning appropriate interaction patterns, achievement,
and self-concept.

Brophy and Good's research also points out that in
addition to "student individual differences...teacher
expectations can also be shaped by the curriculum materials
used and the grade level expectations associated with them
and within these by the nature of the steering group toward
which the teacher aims his level of instruction" (p. 119).
In summary, the existence of the expectancy effect has been
widely demonstrated across several kinds of educational
settings. The sources of expectations and variables related
to expectations have been pointed out (e.g., Adams and Cohen,
1974, 1976; Cooper, Baron and Lowe,1975; Brophy and Good,

1970; Braun,l976; Dunkin and Biddle,l974; Finn,1972).

Schoolipg and Expectations
Bruner's social theory of perception (1951) indicates

that perception does not arise from a neutral ground, but is

27

the result of antecedents. The stronger the antecedents the

less input material is needed for its activities (pp.121-l47),

and the more likely it is to be activated in a given situation.

Formal schooling experiences have been shown to provide

extremely strong antecedents for the formation of expectations

concerning important learning. Freire (1970) critiques these

expectations out of a Brazilian context where,to him, the

dehumanizing effects of the submission of the poor to the

learning systems

expectations are

1.

2.

10.

The teacher
The teacher
nothing.

The teacher

The teacher

.The teacher

The teacher

of the powerful are Oppressive. These
as follows:
teaches and the students are taught.

knows everything and the students know

thinks and the students are thought about.
talks and the students listen meekly.
disciplines and the students are disciplined.

chooses and enforces his choice, and the

students comply.

The teacher

acts and the students have the illusion of

acting through the actions of the teacher.

The teacher

chooses the program content, and the students

(who are not consulted) adapt to it.

The teacher

confuses the authority of knowledge with his

own professional authority, which he sets in Opposition

to the freedom of the students.

The teacher

is the subject of the learning process

28

while the pupils are mere objects (p.59).

Such expectations are particularly reflected in teacher
and student behaviors in non-Western societies swept into
the great race to grab the illusive socio-economic rewards
of Western formal schooling. The source of much of the
development of such expectations can probably be traced to
the assumptions of those transferring Western learning
systems overseas that the expectations of others concerning
teaching and learning are the same and not culturally
influenced. Increasingly research shows the teaching-learning
strategies of Western formal schooling to be the polar
Opposites of those typical of the traditional learning
environments in non-Western societies (Di Stephano,l970).

Cohen (1971) notes the contrasts between learning
through socialization and learning through schooling. The
former involves the inculcating and elucidating of basic
motivational and cognitive patterns through spontaneous
interaction with parents and others in the community. In
contrast, formal schooling is aimed at the inculcation of
standardized and stereotyped knowledge, skills, and values.
Nonkinship, universalistic considerations are primary.

Schooling is basically analytical and orients those of
this style towards higher levels, but is disorganizing for
the relational person, claims Cohen (1969). The academic
requirements and the general environment favor the cool,
impersonal and outeroriented individual who can sit quietly
for long periods, is well-ordered, and can follow time

schedules. These attributes are rewarded, while the

29

relational ones are not. A higher formality level is
associated with individualized expository methods than with
the group and discovery methods more "culturally attuned“ to
traditional learners in Brazil, notes McKinney (1974).

Bruner claims that schooling fosters Western ways of
thinking, for instance learning to categorize by form rather
than by color (Bruner et a1. 1966: 315). In schooling
environments students are required to make transformations
in the head. They learn that they are expected to combine
all kinds of material, even if by their standards this does
not make a great amount of sense.

Denny (1975) concludes that even in Western societies
unnatural demands are placed on individuals in formal schools
to classify with similarity criteria:

There seems to be more evidence for the position
that all individuals are capable of grouping
according to either complementary or similarity
criteria and that the criterion they use depends
upon environmental factors....It may be argued
that both young children and elderly adults are
capable of grouping according to similarity, but
that they simply prefer to use complementary
criteria. Neither the young child nor the elderly
adult experiences much pressure for categorizing in
any particular way; under such circumstances,
complementary categorization would seem to be the
most natural....the transition appears to begin

in the young child at about age six, at the
initiation of the child's formal educatiOn with
its attendant emphasis upon similarity relations
and more abstract forms of thought. Such demands
would certainly continue through one's education
and into many occupations. In fact it is only
after retirement that many individuals are freed
from demands to categorize according to similarity,
and it is at this time that there appears to be a
return to the use of complementary criteria for
categorization (p.48).

30

Students in formal schools are encouraged to use words
independent of the immediate context (Bruner,l966). The
learner is also expected to work with problems that Operate
within well-defined, circumscribed limits. In traditional
cultures the tendency is to include many other conditions in
keeping with the real life situation (Cole et al.,l97l).

The need for conceptual consistency is stressed in
Western schooling systems. In other cultures there is less
recognition of the need for such a unifying principle
(Khokhlov and Gonzales,l973; Mendelson,l956).

Emery (1978: 237-8) notes that often students from the
third world studying in Western institutions apparently
learn well, but apply little of this learning to their home
contexts. They learn terms at a high level of generalization
but have no connotative experience to use in transferring the
ideas into concrete applications. The nonexistence Of all
the foundation levels of cognitive structure based on
idiosyncratic experience makes this transfer impossible.
Emery points out that Western teachers need to find ways to
fill in the lower levels of the conceptual hierarchy so
that the high level generalizations are in fact grounded
in concrete experience, and can be related to it.

It is clear that no groups of people remain isolated
from outside influences. The increasing amounts of new
knowledge necessary for building multilateral networks
cannot be transmitted by the oral traditions and socializa-
tion patterns alone. As Western schooling has become an

accepted alternative system of transferring knowledge and

“has. -

31

of building new behavior patterns, it is important to
appreciate the different expectations associated with

this system.

Relations across Cultures and Expectations

When different cultural groups interact, each develops
expectations to enable them to consistently anticipate
appropriate behaviors. As Secord (1959) notes:

Certainly it is not feasible to observe and grasp
each individual in all his uniqueness and still
carry on the smooth, fast-moving interaction with
other persons which is characteristic of most
everyday relationships. A reasonable assumption
is that each perceiver has a set of person
categories (of which stereotypes are the most
Obvious) into which he classifies those with whom
he interacts (p.313).

Normative expectations associated with a particular
role and setting in one culture may not correspond with
those associated with that same role in another culture.
The unmodified performance of a role in a different culture
may cause the related behaviors to be perceived as
inappropriate. The results of inappropriate behaviors
are influenced to some extent by the relative power of the
interactants. When the inappropriate ones are low in status,
attempts may be made to shape their behaviors, notes Jones
(1977: 240). When the inappropriate ones are perceived
to be higher in status, the options available to those with
whom they are interacting are more constrained.

Expectations related to the interaction of different

ethnic groups often result in the development of stereotypes.

These are artificial constructions arising out of the

32

perceptions of the interacting groups. When the goals or
desires of one group are thwarted, certain characteristics

of the other group are seized upon and if necessary distorted
to "explain " the causes. Cathuen claims (1971) that the
functioning of these stereotypes about others reflect
implicit theories of personality. Jones (1977: 50) notes
that they are sometimes not very responsive to disconfirming
data.

The greater the real difference between groups on any
detail, the more likely "that feature will appear in the
stereotyped imagery each group has of the other," says
Campbell (1967: 821). He further claims that the more
remote and less well known the other group is, the greater
the perceiver projects his own content into the stereotype.
The characteristics actually invoked in the intergroup
interaction are likely to provide the strongest stimuli
relevant to each group's perception of the other and hence
to be incorporated into the stereotype that each has of the
other. According to Campbell, "once a stereotype or
perception of differences is established, less real
difference is required to maintain it" (p.822).

Harding, Proshansky, Kutner, and Chein (1969) point out
that:

...socially desirable characteristics are more
likely to be emphasized in a group's description
of itself, while undesirable characteristics are
more likely to be stressed in descriptions of the

group by members of another group (p.8).

Yet, as Secord and Backman (1964) point out, there is no

33

simple relation between prejudice toward: a group and
stereotypes of that group. The question also of the
veridicality of stereotypes has not received the research
attention it deserves.

More recently research has implied that expectations
about other ethnic groups are subject to revision and to the
same criteria for evaluation (internal consistency, testa-
bility, parsimony, validity) as are implicit theories of
:personality (Jones,l977: 62). Kraft (1973: 262) points out
that if strangers to a particular context simply conform to
the stereotyped expectations of the other group, they
operate at a low degree of credibility. Acting unpredict-
ably in terms of the stereotypes, while at the same time
acting intelligently within the frame of reference of the
group, increases the credibility of strangers and their
potential for acceptance.

Byrnes (1965) studied the attitudes and responses of
American technical assistants to their roles abroad. He
observed that a low awareness of the necessity to modify
expectations concerning the assistants' roles and stereotypes
of others was some measure of a lack of cultural sensitivity.
Such technical assistants may be more concerned with the
cultural transformation of their host country rather than
with the specific problems for which their assistance is
sought, says Caldwell (1959); Of the 192 missionary
teachers interviewed by Ward and McKinney concerning their

self-perceived teaching modifications, Dettoni (1973) points

34

out that those less authoritarian were concerned to make
modifications towards more positive intercultural commun-
ication.

The literature on the interactions of different cultures
has largely concentrated on adjustments and conflicts.
Useem, Useem and Donoghue (1963) developed the concept of
"third cultures" to describe the new patterns of interaction
created by the intersecting of societies. Out of these third
cultures develop expectations of the "men-in-the-middle" to
function as "cultural exchange units" in the continuing
interactions between the larger societies. In these Open—
ended, rapidly changing third cultures "the man tends to
construct the role," notes Useem (1971), rather than
merely to inherit a prescribed role. The concept of third
cultures thus emphasizes the need for an understanding not
only of the contrasting expectations of the interacting
cultures but also of the new expectations that develOp out

of the creation of these third cultures.

Companion Studies

 

Most of the studies of expectations concerning learning
and teaching have been done in the formal schooling context
measuring people who are credentialled as "teachers."

Kidd (1977: 28) recognized the need to carry on research on
the expectancy effect in out-of-school education settings.

McKean (1977) and Wilson (1978) took up Kidd's concern.

35

The McKean Study

McKean studied the expectations of 225 adults from
various adult education programs in Michigan concerning
important learning for themselves. He found that the
subjects considered low and medium formality settings
preferable to high formality settings, and that sharing
and self-awareness experiences were considered more valid
than input learning experiences. He also noted a lesser
preference for high formality by those who had more schooling.
It was apparent that the type of learning experience was
significantly related to the expectations about the level
of formality. .In low formality settings, all three types of
learning experiences were considered approximately equally
valid. In medium formality settings, sharing experiences
were considered more valid. In high formality settings,
input was considered least valid (pp. 51-69).

Wilson claims that it is not clear from McKean's study
whether the results reflect the expectations of important
learning for the subjects or for others or both. The study
was not backed up with any descriptive data, and thus assumed
that all respondents interpreted all learning situations

exactly the same.as they were in the audio-visual instrument.

The Wilson Study

 

As a companion study to McKean's inquiry, Wilson probed
the expectations of 51 Girl Scout leaders in Hawaii concerning

the important learning experiences they provided for their

36

troup members.

The results showed that the leaders considered low
formality more valid than medium or high formality situations,
and judged input learning experiences as providing the more
important learning above sharing and self-awareness exper-
iences. Leaders preferred medium levels of formality with
sharing experiences. Least preferred were low formality-
sharing experiences. With input and self-awareness exper-
iences leaders preferred low formality settings.

Several variables were discovered to be significantly
related to the leaders' expectationsof learning. Leaders'
amount of schooling significantly related to choices on
medium levels of formality. Leaders with least education
and those who were college graduates preferred the extremes
of formality. The more schooling a leader had, the more
favorable their expectations were that important learning
would occur in input-low formality, self-awareness-low
formality, and self-awareness-medium formality settings.
Leaders with mean and above degrees of self-acceptance judged
input-medium formality settings less favorably than those
with below mean degree of self-acceptance,but judged
sharing-low formality more favorably.

In addition, age of the leader, the kind of schooling
(public, private, both), the age of the girls the leaders
worked with, the leaders' attitude toward past schooling,
and the leaders' income level were all found to significantly

relate to judgments made regarding one or more levels of

37

formality and kinds of learning experiences.

Summary

The literature which forms the background of this study
is related to "expectancy effect" research. The majority of
studies examine how teacher expectations are related to
learner academic performance in formal schooling contexts.
The literature suggests that teacher expectations signif-
icantly influence the treatment and achievement of various
learners. The influence of Western schooling systems in
modifying the expectations of learners from other cultures
is discussed. Some of the literature concerning expectations
associated with relations across cultures is also reviewed.

The companion studies related to this investigation
are described. The McKean audio-visual instrument is used
as a projective technique in this study to explore the
expectations of 10 missionaries concerning their teaching
in other cultures. Chapter 3 outlines the methodology used

in the study.

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methodology used to trace
the development of the 10 missionaries' expectations concern-
ing their teaching in other cultures. Elements of the
research process, research questions and short biographical
sketches of the respondents are presented. Field experiences
in the use of the methodology are outlined. Also explained
are the procedures used to record and organize the interview
material. The methodological assumptions and recognized

limitations of the research are then stated.

Description of Methodology

The research is a descriptive study done for exploratory
purposes. Only such a study permits the flexibility needed
to consider the many different aspects of a previously
unformulated area of study. This use of qualitative metho-
dology allows the researcher to "get close to the data"
and thereby develOp "the analytical conceptual and categor-
ical components of explanation from the data itself"
(Filstead,l976: 6). The researcher interprets the real
world from the perspective of the respondents. According to
Glaser and Strass (in Filstead,l971: 299), qualitative

research is not to be seen merely as a preliminary provision

38

39

of categories for use in ensuing quantitative research.

They stress the importance of discovering substantive (or
"grounded") theory based on qualitative research. No
clearly formulated general methodology for qualitative
research has been established. In fact, the inadequacy of
using any single source of data unsupported by other sources
is underscored (Riley and Nelson, 1974: 8). This study used
an audio-visual instrument (McKean, 1977) as a projective
technique in the context of a focused interview with each
respondent.

The purpose of the study is to present multifaceted
case studies of the development of the expectations of the
respondents concerning their teaching in other cultures.

To encourage a focus on the development of these expecta-
tions, the McKean instrument was used at the beginning of
each interview. This stimulated the respondents' efforts

to compare and contrast their expectations concerning
important learning with their perceptions of their students'
expectations. In the other sections of the interview process
the respondents explored the origins, modifications, and.
implications of their expectations about teaching in

other cultures.

McKean Instrument

 

The instrument developed by McKean was used to examine
the pedagogical expectations of a sample of Michigan adult
education students concerning the levels of formality and

the types of learning experience they desired in important

40

learning situations. The degrees of expectation were the
respondents' scores on the audio-visual instrument made up
of nine pictures and their associated audio-stimuli
(Appendix Al). Scores were recorded on an answer sheet
with a Likert-type response scale. A questionnaire listed
the relevant demographic data.

Level of formality of a teaching activity referred to
how structured, inflexible, authority-oriented and
controlled a learning activity was appropriate for
providing important learning for others. Formality was
measured in three levels: low (very informal), medium
(in between), and high (very formal).

Types of learning experiences and instructional
activities referred to what experiences the teacher offered
for important learning to occur. Three types of learning
experiences were identified:

Input - the learner was involved in primarily receiv-
ing or coming into contact with some new information;

Self-awareness - the learner was involved in reflecting
upon his or her current situation including abilities,
interests, feelings, knowledge, limitations;

Sharing - the learner was involved in "putting into
his or her own words" or acting on some new
information or ideas (McKean, 1977: 34).

McKean studied the adult learners' pedagogical expecta-
tions regarding their own learning experiences. Responses

to the instrument were correlated with the independent

41

variable of amount of formal schooling.

Use of McKean Instrument

The present study used the McKean instrument as a
projective technique, and assumes that responses to the
stimulus situation are indicative of the basic trends in
the respondents' perceptions of the subject. Such techniques
have been useful in the uncovering of reactions that were
otherwise difficult to obtain, particularly social attitudes
(Proshanky,l943; Sayles,l954). Pictorial instruments have
long been p0pular in projective studies. Collier (1957)
found that a photographic instrument gave more specific
information in his interviews and provided greater ease of
keeping the interviews on the tOpics of concern. Selltiz
(et al.,1959: 287) notes that some respondents find it
easier to express their own attitudes and feelings if they
do not explicitly focus on their own situations.

The McKean instrument, as a projective technique,
became the common entry point to the building of thorough
case studies which trace the development of the respondents'
expectations. It encouraged the freedom and spontaneity
necessary for the focused interview process. The instrument
was used twice during each interview. It was also available
during the interviews as a source of reference or stimulus
for questions and explanations. The two prime uses of the
instrument were sources for these data:

1. The expectations Of the respondents concerning

preferred levels of formality and the types of

42

learning experiences they considered would provide
important learning for others.

2. The respondents' perceptions of the expectations of
their students in the other cultures concerning
preferred levels of formality and types of learning
experiences appropriate for important learning.

The nine pictures showed teachers and students partici-
pating in various kinds of learning-teaching experiences
(input, self-awareness, sharing) at various levels of
formality. The taperecorded audio-stimuli simulated the
teacher's directions in all learning-teaching situations to
clarify for the respondent what was happening in all pictures.

The learning-teaching situations represented by the
audio-visual instrument were as follows:

Picture 1. In a high formality situation the teacher asked
the class to list 20 things important to them concerning
this tOpic as a self—awareness exercise - (HF-SA);

Picture 2. In a high formality situation the teacher asked
the students to share with their neighbors their answers
for the reading assignment - (HF-S);

Picture 3. In the low formality of a class break two students
responded to the teacher's request to look through their
notes to discover areas still confusing to them (a self-
awareness exercise) - (LF-SA);

Picture 4. In a high formality situation the teacher

instructed the class to look at page 54 in their books to

43

clarify his input- (HF-I);

Picture 5. In a cafeteria after class students responded to
teacher's suggestions to informally share with others two
helpful things they learned in class- (LF-S);

Picture 6. In a medium formality of a group discussion, six
students shared how they would answer the question- (MF-S);

Picture 7. In an informal lunchtime meeting the teacher
further explained his class input to Fred- (LF-I);

Picture 8. In a medium formality situation students made a
list of 10 things that they felt should be discussed in
that class- (MP-SA);

Picture 9. In a medium formality situation the teacher
indicated that students should take notes on his input
as it would be very helpful for their exams- (MF-I).

After hearing each audio-stimulus and carefully
examining the associated picture, respondents described
their processes of arriving at their chosen responses. They
then marked their choices of five possible answers on the

Likert—type response scale, ranging from "yes," "probably

are," "some are, some aren't," "probably not" to "no"

(see Appendix A2). In the first use of the instrument

respondents were asked the same question for each picture:

"Do you think these peOple are learning something important?"

This question was chosen for several reasons. In trial uses

McKean found this question was the clearest. It focused on

participants' personal viewpoints and has been used in other

ethnopedagogy studies to determine if peOple considered an

44

activity as a valid learning activity. The word "important"
focused on intentional goals and objectives of the activity
and away from ancillary or negative learning.

On the second use of the instrument this question was
asked for each picture: "Would your students (in the other
cultures) think these people are learning something important?"
Respondents again marked their answers.

Each of the nine pictures demonstrated a particular level
of formality (low, medium or high) combined with a
particular kind of learning experience (input, self-awareness
or sharing)- Thus nine combinations, as shown in Table 3.1,

were possible:

TABLE 3.1
POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS OF

FORMALITY AND KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE

 

 

High formality High formality High formality
Input Self-Awareness Sharing

Medium formality Medium formality Medium formality
Input Self-Awareness Sharing

Low formality Low formality Low formality
Input Self-Awareness Sharing

 

The process of selecting answers for all pictures on
both uses of the instrument were enunciated by the respondents
and recorded. Both sets of answers and the processes of

reaching them provided the basis for further interviewing.

45

Focused Interviews

 

The focused interview methodology was particularly
relevant to the building of multifaceted case studies of
the deve10pment of the expectations of the 10 missionaries
towards their teaching in other cultures. The flexibility
and freedom of this interview structure allowed respondents
to explore at length all aspects of their changing percep-
tions. McKean concentrated on the influence of the amount
of schooling on the students' perceptions for certain levels
of formality and kinds of learning experiences. But he
recommended that other influences also be examined. In
another study using an expectation of learning instrument,
Wilson (1978) inquired into the effects of the quality of
schooling (the nature of past schooling and the respondents'
attitudes towards this). She also investigated any relation-
ships between ethnic backgrounds and preferences for kinds
of learning experiences and levels of formality.

As no previous research has been done on the deve10pment
of the expectations of missionaries towards their teaching
in other cultures, focused interviews were necessary to amass

a body of data for the purposes of generating further studies.

Facets of Inquiry

 

Interviews covered these facets of inquiry related to
the research questions of Chapter 1:
1. Respondents explained their expectations regarding the
level of formality and kind of learning experiences which

provided important learning. These explanations were

46

given in the process Of formulating responses to the McKean
instrument.

Respondents traced the sources of these expectations.
Respondents described their perceptions of the expectations
of their students in the other cultures regarding the
levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences
considered necessary for important learning. These
descriptions were given in the process of formulating
responses to the second use of the McKean instrument.
Respondents also described the characteristics of learners
in the other cultures.

Respondents explained the ways in which their expectations
and those of their students in the other cultures were
perceived as differing.

The adaptations in the teaching process considered necessary
to accommodate to these differences were detailed. They
cited experiences in making these accommodations.

Any changes in the respondents' expectations as a result
of these accommodations were also outlined. Factors
influencing these changes were traced.

Respondents then gave details of their perceptions of the
past and present effects of their teaching on students

in the other cultures.

They also projected the desired modifications of these

effects for the future.

Interview Procedure

 

Each interview involved four to five sessions with the

47

respondent to total approximately 10 hours of detailed case
history recording (Appendix C). All sessions were tape-
recorded in full for later transcription and building of
case studies (Appendix E). This way the researcher's
selective bias and distortion through relying on memory were
avoided.

Interviews were conducted at the convenience of the
respondents. A quiet place suitable to both researcher and
respondent was agreed on to permit maximum concentration and
freedom from interruption. Some interviews were conducted in
the homes of respondents but where conditions were too
disrupting, the respondent and researcher met in quiet rooms
on the campuses of Michigan State University and Wheaton
College.

Two pilot tests were conducted so that the researcher
could become more skilled in conducting interviews. As a
result of the pilot tests, the researcher took particular
care to avoid leading questions and to review at the
beginning of each interview the overall directions of the
research. The latter was considered necessary as the inter-
view process was lengthy and some respondents became uneasy
when they lacked clear understanding of the goal of the
research.

The following clarifications were outlined before the
interviews began:

1. The purpose of the interview to explore the deve10p-

ment of the respondent's expectations about teaching

48

in another culture;

2.The importance of frank and Open expressions of the
respondent's personal views, values, hunches,
experiences;

3.The assurance that answers would not be judged
against external criteria;

4.The function of the instrument as merely an
introductory procedure in the research;

5.The value of the respondents' insights and
experiences as the basis for knowledge building
about teaching in other cultures.

To allow maximum freedom for respondent's self-expres-
sion about matters of personal significance, the researcher
used a nondirective technique of interviewing. The avail-
ability of the objective instrument as a point of reference
focused all discussion on the nature of learning-teaching
experiences in other cultures. The researcher recognized
it was a challenging and demanding experience for respon-
dents to examine the development of their expectations and
could not be confined merely to what she considered relevant
data. Out of the sometimes diffuse recounting of experiences
came the richest source of the understanding of process of
the formation of respondents' expectations of what was

valid learning in another culture.

Types of Questions
Questions of varying degrees of structure were used

throughout the focused interviews (Merton,l956: 15):

49

(a) Unstructured questions that were stimulus and response-
free and led the respondent rather than the interviewer
to indicate the foci of attention (e.g. Why have you chosen
to teach in another culture?)

(b) Semi-structured questions that were response-structured
but stimulus-free (e.g. What did you learn about your
students in your second term that you hadn't known
before?)

(c) Semi-structured questions that were stimulus-structured

 

but response-free (e.g. How did you respond to your
students who expected only straight lecturing and
notegiving?)

(d) Structured questions that were stimulus and response-

 

structured to elicit specific details required by the
researcher (e.g. Did your improved knowledge of the
vernacular encourage you to adopt more formal or
informal methods of teaching?)

To ensure maximum effectiveness of the focused inter-
views, these criteria were used: range, specificity and
depth (Merton,l956: 41-114).

Rgpgg was maximized by the researcher's eliciting as
many anticipated and unanticipated responses as possible.
Care was taken to avoid premature judgments of the irrelevance
of interview material and rapid shifts in topics leading to
superficiality. Respondent-led transitions to new areas of
discussion were preferred. When unstructured questions

proved no longer effective in looking at adequate coverage

50

of the issues, the researcher made use of these types of
questions: cued transitions (researcher shifted the discussion
by drawing on a phrase or remark of the respondent);
reversional transitions (researcher attempted to relate a
previous issue to the current context); mutational

questions (if necessary, researcher made explicit reference

to a previously unconsidered issue.)

Specificity directed attention toward the search for
determinate elements or patterns in the situation which were
involved in changed responses. The researcher refrained
from imposing her structure on the specifics of the evocative
situation by requesting respondents to elaborate particular
features of examples of their answers.

pgptp was necessary in interviews to encourage the
maximum self-revelation by the respondent of how situations
relevant to the research were experienced. NO responses were
considered peripheral until probing had failed to show them
so. Respondents were continually oriented towards the process
under research rather than to the researcher. Increasing
depth was encouraged by alluding to feelings as well as to
objective observations; by direct restating of intimated
feelings and concepts; and by encouraging comparisons between
the evoked situation and one known by the researcher to be

central for the respondent.

Method of Analysis

 

The scores of the McKean instrument were only accepted

at face value where the respondents viewed the learning

51

situations in the terms of the instrument. Care was taken to
note if the respondents focused on one or both features of
each learning situation (i.e. level Of formality and type

of learning experience) and if they interpreted the features
according to the instrument.

The descriptive data revealed any differences in focus
and interpretation which affected the use of the instrument
scores as accurate representations of both respondents'
expectations and their perceptions of their students'
expectations. Case studies were necessarily reviewed as
individual units. Common themes from all studies were then
analyzed according to the categories of the respondents.
Both extreme and central tendencies of interpretations were

noted.

Respondents

 

The respondents for this study were chosen from a
convenience sample of adults who have had varying lengths of
experience of teaching in other cultures. They were all
missionaries, members of a mission society or representatives
of North American Protestant churches overseas. At the time
of the study all respondents were removed from their actual
teaching environments and on leave in North America. They
'were located in Lansing, Michigan, and Wheaton, Illinois.
ZFour were involved in part-time or full-time study to upgrade
their professional skills for future service overseas. Five
‘were mainly engaged in deputation meetings in churches. One

:respondent was on leave for health reasons. The researcher

52

obtained from friends and from church and mission leaders
the names of possible respondents who considered themselves
missionary teachers either in formal or nonformal settings.
Interviews were conducted with those who were willing to
commit the large amount of time required by the research.

No attempt was made to obtain a representative sample of
the North American missionary teacher pOpulation. Respondents
were treated as individuals rather than as representatives of
their particular group, country or teaching specialty.
Pseudonyms were used in reporting case studies. However,all
other details reflected the actual experience of the
respondents.(Appendix D).

The following brief biographical statements encapsulate

the main concerns of each respondent in the interviews.

Sylvia Bowers

After teaching nursing at the college level, Sylvia
Bowers worked in a village mission hospital in Kalimantan
since 1969. The medical needs of the peOple have been so
pressing that Sylvia has had little time to give to the
preparation of the wide range of courses for training local
nurses. LPlunged into the foreign environment Of the
American style hospital, the students constantly amaze
Sylvia at the way they respond to the “massive reorganization
of their minds" and to accepting the responsibilities
expected by the missionary staff. When disappointed with
their performance, Sylvia tries to remember the primitive

background of her students prior to entering nursing training.

53

She particularly enjoys the spontaneous teaching of small
groups of students in the hospital wards. Being in Indonesia
forced her to revamp her ideas of student-teacher relation-
ships as "the Eastern way is to almost give undue respect

to those in authority." In the future she plans to intro-
duce more cultural elements into both nursing care and
training. However;she recognizes the need for much reflect-
ion and discussion concerning what standards and technology
should be "sacrificed" to make this possible.

John Gross

 

After taking Agriculture Education at University, John
Gross taught for two years in a high school and then went to
Korea with his wife and small daughter. There he introduced
an agricultural program into a Christian college. In 1974,
they went to Chad where John began extension agriculture
projects with village farmers. Through the local church
a cooperative has been established to improve the farmers'
incomes and to make farming supplies more easily available.
John prefers working directly with the peOple where "the
problems of the people are our textbook? This provides the
immediate learning that both John and the Chadians value.
This agricultural outreach branch of the church John
considers an effective way of stimulating interest in peOple
who would never come to church. After seeing practical
economic results, many people have learned the value of
cooperation and overcome the defeatist attitude that nothing
can be changed. This experience, John believes, will give

the people confidence to accept more of the church's

54

responsibilities. Missionaries are not to demand a certain
level of education before they transfer responsibility.

"We must work together at this," says John, "and not get

so wrapped up with our titles and importance of education as
in America."

Carl Beach

 

Carl Beach and his wife have been missionaries in South
Africa since 1954. For seven years they supervised 13 rural
churches, then worked on the publication of a popular Christian
magazine for three years. After another seven years of teaching
Zulu students in a Bible Institute, Carl became a field
director for the mission. The last 25 years have been a time
of bewildering transition for the church in Carl's opinion,
as missionaries inadequately prepared the leaders to handle
the practical issues of church government. During this time
Carl has seen the role of the authoritarian missionary
completely changed. He believes that drastic changes in
future teaching and training by missionaries are also neces-
sary if peOple are going to be adequately prepared for the
worsening political situation. Training for Bible teaching
ministries and in practical matters must be emphasized. "In
Angola our institutions were destroyed," says Carl, "but the
Word of God lasts."' To this end Carl considers Theological
Education by Extension (TEE) the most effective way of apply-
ing the Scriptures to the lives of the people. "TEE is achiev-
ing the goal missionaries have aimed at for centuries as the

people spontaneously respond to the Word of God." This

55

necessary spontaneity, Carl cautions, happens "through the
implanting of the Word of God, not through our teaching."

Jim Wilson

 

As a young teenager, Jim Wilson lived in Liberia for two
years with his missionary parents. He returned to the USA
for high school, undergraduate and graduate study in Theology
as specific preparation for training church leaders overseas.
In 1967 Jim, with his wife and two children, went to the
Philippines. Following two years of language school and
cultural orientation, Jim began teaching in a Bible college.
Since then he has continued on its faculty and has contributed
to the redesign of its curriculum. From 1975-76 Jim served
as executive director of an organization to coordinate
Theological Education by Extension (TEE) in the country.

His involvement in planning extension education increasingly
Amade Jim aware of the limited ways that the schooling approach
could respond to the needs of training leaders for the church.
His current graduate studies in Education are helping him
discover some access routes to what Jim considers the
critical problems in theological education. While admitting
his own need for further understanding about introducing
change, Jim believes he may be more fully involved in
extension theological education in the future. He purposes

to encourage the planning of theological curricula to

respond to the needs Of students' congregations.

Bill Johnson

 

Bill Johnson's missionary career began with his regis-

tering as a conscientious objector to the Korean war. After

56

completing a doctorate in chemistry, he applied to his church
to teach overseas. Since 1959 he has taught science in an
Indian Christian college. During his second term he married
an American missionary nurse, and they now have three children.
Science teaching in India is governed by what Bill considers
an "unfortunate outside examination system in the British
pattern of education." However, he attempts constantly to
overcome the more formidable limitations of this system.

He is particularly concerned that his students relate science
to their everyday lives and view their social uncertainties
as creative opportunities to serve their communities.
Building low-cost electronic instruments for his students'
laboratory work has occupied much of Bill's most recent
furlough. His students will now have access to instruments
that have been prohibitively expensive in India. Above all,
Bill considers that the efficient and high standards of the
science lab should communicate a concept of a God who can

be depended on.

Karen Gegner

 

After training in Christian Education, Music, and
Elementary Education, Karen went to the Philippines in 1967
to teach at a Bible college. Her language and culture study
were abbreviated as she was assigned to an English teaching
program. She has taught a wide range of courses related to
her specialities, and has supervized the musical group of the
college in several tours around the country. She views her

teaching role as one of being an example of a Christian to

57

her students. In Karen's experience, cultural differences
fade as she gets to know her students as people who can
contribute to her Christian growth. Her part-time involvement
in a local Filipino church adds the necessary reality to her
institutional teaching. Karen and her students are able to
use these experiences as creative problem-solving exercises

in the classroom. "Teaching is character building," says
Karen. "All my methods will fail if I don't bring students

to the point of applying their lessons in life."

Maggie Becker

 

Maggie Becker first went to Zaire in 1951, where she
spent 10 years in a mission hospital before being forced to
leave by the war of independence. For 16 months she then
trained Arabian nurses for government exams in Morocco.

Since 1963 Maggie has been in Senegal, where her chief desire
is to "reach women for Christ." Apart from being the mission
treasurer, Maggie visits the women in their courtyardsto tell
them Bible stories. "The women consider me a nice and
pleasant person to have around," says Maggie, "and look
forward to their lessons as an interesting diversion to the
humdrum ruts of their daily lives." The women have no
intention of making any personal application of these
lessons. But Maggie's aim is to "build up a reservoir of
knowledge about the Christian life so that the women will be
ready to respond when the right circumstances come." She
considers herself called to a "spiritual ministry," and now

restricts her medical care to specific periods during the

58

day. She does not want to be totally preoccupied with
"secondary things." On furlough Maggie wants to "bubble
out and tell people that the missionary is a fulfilled
person and not the burdened, self-sacrificing creature so
many people think we are."

Ray Norton

In 1953 Ray Norton, his wife and three small children
settled in a relatively isolated landlocked Indian village
in Guatemala to learn the vernacular for the purposes of Bible
translation. They have since raised eight children in this
area. Apart from time spent on mission administration and
on consultant work with 25 other teams of linguists in
Central America, Ray and his wife have steadily worked half-
way through translating the New Testament. From the begin-
ning Ray was determined to be more a learner than a teacher,
convinced that he must not misrepresent the Christian message
by his ignorance of the culture. Although the people expected
him to play an authoritarian role in church leadership and
problem-solving, he refused to comply. "The extent to which
we exercise authority as outsiders to the culture," says Ray,
"then to that extent we feed the idea that Christianity is a
foreign religion." He is convinced that a thorough
understanding of the vernacular and culture is an essential
prerequisite to any active prOpagation of the gospel.
Leadership training too, he believes, should take place
within the person's own culture and language. In their

next term, Ray plans to be more actively involved in training

59

church leaders and to help them understand that accepting
Christianity does not mean rejecting their people. Before
he returns to Guatemala, Ray hOpes to complete his master's
degree in linguistics.

Lisa Rohr

Lisa Rohr describes herself as a "missionary to the
missionaries," in her primary thrust to teach missionaries'
children. Her concern to give missionaries' children the
extra attention that their busy parents cannot offer took
Lisa first to Korea for five years and then to Abu Dhabi, an
Arab Emirate, for four years. In Korea she also taught
English Bible classes for college students and wrote radio
scripts for Bible lessons in English. At the American
international school in Abu Dhabi she considered her job
was to harmoniously "put many cultures together in the same
classroom.”

The array of nationalities represented at international
schools has fascinated Lisa and afforded her students an
interesting and varied environment for learning about other
cultures. Lisa found the majority of missionary children
were leaders, not followers, and thus a challenge to "keep
their fertile brains channelled in the right direction."

On her return to Abu Dhabi Lisa plans to teach the children
of the missionary staff associated with the mission hospital.
Being identified with the hospital gives Lisa a greater
acceptance in Bedouin villages. "They realize we are inter-

ested in them as individuals. TO be effective in teaching in

60

their culture you have to let the people know that you really
care." The same, she believes, applies also to international
students.

Ed Kerr

Ed Kerr and his wife with their two young children have
spent three years as missionaries in Brazil. They first
acted as assistants to a Brazilian pastor in a large interior
town. Later they joined the faculty Of the mission's seminary
in a neighboring town. This move was necessary to avoid Ed's
three day separation from the family, demanded by the combin-
ing of pastoral duties with seminary teaching. Ed's prepara-
tion for an "international citizenship" began early with
attending a Chicano high school and a trip to his church's
missions in the Orient as a college senior. After majoring
in psychology and religion at college, he attended seminary
both in America and in Germany. He taught Semitic languages
at his American seminary for three years. Ed considers his
wife, the daughter of long-term South American missionaries,
the most helpful influence on his growing cross-cultural
awareness. "Just getting to know Brazilians" was the aim
of their first missionary term. Thus they declined the
mission's usual plan for theological educators to go straight
from language school to the seminary on the mission compound.
They realize their decision to work under a Brazilian
pastor and to put their children in Brazilian schools are
key factors in demonstrating that they want to work with

Brazilians as equals.

61

Ed is pursuing graduate studies in education to search
for solutions to his frustrations in attempting to teach
theology in another culture. These studies, rather than
completing his German doctorate in theology, Ed believes,

will be more relevant to his future work.

Field Experience in Use of Methodology

In spending at least 10 hours with each respondent and
in encouraging them to be frank and Open about their exper-
iences, the researcher was highly sensitive to the fact that
their individual interests, personalities and preferences
were to be respected. The interview experience was such a
"catharsis" for some respondents that they appreciated the
Opportunity to unload all of their experiences and to
reflect on these. For such respondents the preplanned
schedule for covering the facets of inquiry was highly
restrictive. They preferred to discuss spontaneously issues
relating to all facets of inquiry. The researcher respected
this desire and realized that the more significant insights
were obtained when the respondents felt free to follow their
own agendas. Being asked to relate issues or experiences
back to the features of the audio-visual instrument prevented
the interviews from wandering into irrelevant material. It
became clear that other respondents were only comfortable
within a tightly structured interview schedule and so relied
on the researcher constantly to make transitions to other
facets of inquiry.

It is obvious from Appendix C that the spacing of

62

interviews varied considerably. The plan to hold interview
sessions reasonably close together was achieved with some
respondents. Some sessions were held on successive days
because of the missionaries' speaking and travel commitments.
Other sessions were widely separated because respondents had
sudden responsibilities (e.g. overseas trip), family commit-
ments or special classes to attend. The researcher was con-
cerned that time delays might cause the issues of the inter-
view process to become stale or hazy. But this was not so.
Two respondents were able to quote themselves almost exactly
even after a month's delay. It was apparent that the inter-
view process had stimulated deep reflections in the minds of
respondents so it was almost an advantage for those (e.g.
Beach, Wilson) who had time for this further reflection.

The long time delay also gave the researcher an opportunity
to check on the consistency of the respondents' earlier and
later statements. However concentrated sessions forced
respondents to focus very intensely on the deve10pment of
their expectations. This time for some became an exciting
time of discovering new insights, or of linking aspects of
their work together which they had not previously done.

The total time spent on interviews varied according to
the actual progress made in each session. Some respondents
had to consider many issues before they came to decisions.
For others, the issues were very clear-cut, requiring
concise answers. One interview was curtailed after six

hours as the respondent (Rohr) said she had "told everything.‘

63

and objected to further probing on issues raised. Individual
sessions of other interviews were cut short because of
disturbances. Most sessions were two hours in length. It was
found that after two hours it was difficult for both researcher

and respondent to concentrate effectively.

Use of McKean Instrument

As respondents were asked to discuss each picture and
related audio stimulus in the process of arriving at an
answer, many commented on their difficulties related to the
instrument. The researcher accepted negative comments about
the instrument as insights into the respondents' perceptions
concerning their expectations of factors contributing to
important learning. However, attempts were made to relieve
anxieties related to the instrument without suggesting the
researcher's preferred answers which three respondents
requested. The field use of the instrument revealed some
genuine liabilities related to the attempt to represent
aspects of learning situations photographically. For example,
the two severe people at the end of the table in Picture 6
were viewed by some as "experts monitoring student answers,"
and not as fellow students; the audio stimulus for Picture 7
suggested a future meeting, yet the picture showed the
actual meeting; the teacher in Picture 9 was considered by
several as "too enthusiastic" to be talking about exams.
One respondent felt most learning situations represented the
arts and not the science disciplines with which he was

involved.

64

Four respondents struggled with the meaning of the
question: "Do you think these people are learning something
important?" They felt they were given too little information
on which to base a decision. They did not know the purpose of
the meeting, the nature of the content, the degree of student
preparation, the relationship between teacher and student.
The researcher encouraged those concerned about these issues
to supply for themselves the unknowns which would contribute
to satisfactorily answering the question. Some respondents
were ambivalent about the meaning of the question: "Did it
mean that content was important or the method of learning
was important, or both?" Again, the researcher encouraged
the respondents to supply their own definitions of important
learning. This was a new and difficult task for some, but
in their struggles to do so, they decided on the aspects of
learning-teaching situations that they really valued.

In all of these struggles, the researcher was patient
and sympathetic and noticed no embarrassment by the respondents
as they verbally agonized about these issues. At any signs of
distressful impasse in the respondents, the researcher sug-
gested a different tOpic of discussion. For only one
respondent (Gross) was the use of the instrument abandoned.
The respondent's suspicion of "these little pictures" was
considered damaging to the harmonious relationship between
the respondent and the researcher necessary for the focused
interview. This respondent was more comfortable discussing
broad issues, so the researcher waited for him to discuss

situations similar to those in the audio-visual instrument.

65

Then he was very willing to discuss what he considered
important learning.

In the second use of the instrument, it was difficult
for some respondents to focus on the perceptions of their
students in the other cultures. When some lapsed back into
commenting on their own expectations, the researcher asked,
"Would your students agree with that perspective?" This
helped to restore the focus. One respondent (Gross)
commented that his perception Of the students' answers may
be inaccurate as his experience in the country had been
limited. Other respondents felt more secure in knowing

how their students perceived the learning situations.

Focused Interviews

 

One of the difficulties experienced in the process of
a 10 hour focused interview was that a relationship was
built up between researcher and each respondent, yet the
researcher could not contribute her ideas. As Goode and
Hatt (1952: 191) note, "The interview of necessity has all
the warmth and personality exchange of a conversation but
with the clarity and guidelines of scientific searching."
Some respondents desired an exchange of information either
to overcome their own insecurity or to enjoy genuine
dialogue. Where possible, the researcher tried to fulfil
these requests in an informal sharing session after the
interview sessions were completed. The researcher is still
sending books, articles and materials to some respondents

to encourage their further reflection on issues.

66

Research gyestions
Within the eight broad areas denoted by the research
questions (Chapter 1), which correspond with the eight facets
of inquiry for the interview process, the researcher had
many specific questions in mind as she listened to responses.
General questions related to the whole interview
process:
* What distinctive language was used (e.g., the
vocabulary missionaries used to describe their
work; recurrent strong words, like "efficient";
word pictures like "teaching is one big fencing

game")?

* Was there a consistency in the responses of
different sections?

* What was the distinctive contribution of the
missionary role to teaching?

* What key incidents, experiences captured the
essence of respondents' explanations?

* What general attitudes and recurrent themes were
expressed (e.g., attitude to culture; role of
Western-style institutions)?

Questions related to the respondents' expectations:

* How was formality defined and valued by the
respondent?

* How was each learning experience defined and
valued by the respondent?

3!-

Were any levels of formality particularly associated
with specific learning experiences?

* Did the respondent tend to focus on the formality
aspect or the learning experience aspect of the
audio-visual instrument or on both aspects?

* How many features of each learning situation were
considered necessary to be aware of in formulating
a response to the instrument?

* What was the preferred role of the teacher in the
different learning experiences?

*

 

67

What was the preferred role of the student in the
different learning experiences?

How did the respondents view their own roles as
teachers?

How did these views affect responses?

Did teaching the Scriptures affect the roles of
teacher and student?

How did personal experience of similar learning
situations affect responses?

Did an institutional setting modify responses in any
way?

How was learning defined?

Questions related to the sources of respondents'
expectations:

*

*

*

*

What sources were valued most highly (e.g. models,
formal training, books, experiences)?

What were the positive and negative sources?

What sources were related to peOple and experiences
in the other cultures?

What sources were related to religious calling of
the missionary?

Questions related to students' expectations:

*

*

How was formality defined and valued?
How was each learning experience defined and valued?

Were any levels of formality particularly associated
with specific learning experiences?

What was one aspect of the learning-teaching experience
focused on in preference to the other?

Were responses all related to any specific posture
(e.g. a particular view of culture; a particular
View of the learning-teaching process)?

What contribution did the student's background make
to the learning-teaching situation?

What was the preferred role of the teacher?

 

68

* What was the preferred role of the student?

* What factors were considered necessary to ascertain
students' expectations accurately?

* To what degree were respondents' perceptions of
students' expectations considered accurate?

* Were students' perceptions considered to be influenced
by their having a Western teacher?

* What was considered the sources of the students'
expectations?

* How was learning defined?

* Was the missionaries' teaching seen to be an influence
for changes in students' expectations?

Questions related to the differences between the
expectations of teacher and students:

* Which differences were stressed?
* What were the bases for these differences?

* What was the effect of these differences both on
teachers and students?

* Which differences were considered as major or
important?

Questions related to accommodations to the different
expectations of students:

* What specific accommodations were considered necessary?

* What were the bases for judging these accommodations
as necessary?

* Were accommodations considered necessary for the
student related to any aspect of the missionary's
religious role?

* Were accommodations viewed as a developmental process
or as a dramatic transformation?

* In reflecting on respondents' answers to the first and
second uses of the McKean instrument, to what extent
did respondents appear to be making the accommodations
they claimed necessary?

* What view of the other cultures influenced the
accommodations considered necessary?

*

*

*

69

Were accommodations considered technical or
conceptual processes?

What were successes and failures of respondents to
make these accommodations?

What feelings were associated with any accommodations
considered necessary?

Questions related to the changes in the expectations of
teachers:

*

*

'k

*

What particular changes did the respondents consider
important?

What were the causes of these changes (e.g., greater
cultural awareness; different view of students:
improved knowledge of subject matter)?

What was the role of failure in these changes?

What effects did these changes have on the
perceptions of missionary role?

Questions related to effects on teaching:

*

*

What were actual and desired effects?

What were the bases for determining effects?

To what extent were desired effects achieved?
What provided confirmation of these achievements?
What caused these effects to be achieved?

Were the perceptions of effects consistent with
other responses in the interview process?

What effects were considered negative?

were effects considered locally or on a broader
spectrum?

Questions related to future modifications of teaching:

*

*

*

What present effects of teaching were to be enhanced?
What present effects were to be modified?

What were the bases for making modifications?

70

Recording Responses

All interview sessions were fully taperecorded for
later transcription and building of case studies. The
researcher reviewed each recording before the next interview
to find features that were not clearly described and
important items that were not covered. Materials from these
reviews provided the introductions to the subsequent session.

Responses from the two uses of the McKean instrument
were recorded on an answer sheet (Appendix Bl). These were
always available to respondents during the interviews and
provided a ready assessment of the differences in the
expectations of the teachers and their students in other
cultures. The respondents constantly referred to the answer
sheets when eXplaining the ways they had accommodated to the

expectations of learners in other cultures.

Scoring of Responses to McKean Instrument
Responses from the two uses of the McKean instrument

were scored in the following way:

 

Responses Score
Yes ............ 5
Probably are ............ 4
Some are, some aren't ... 3
Probably not ............ 2
No ............ 1

Levels of preferred formality were first assessed.
Pictures #1, 2, 4 reflected high formality; Pictures #6, 8,
9 reflected medium formality; Pictures #3, 5, 7 reflected
low formality. With three pictures per level of formality

the highest favorable score was 15. Scores of 10 to 15 were

71

considered positive scores for the level of preferred
formality while scores below 10 were considered as suspicious
to completely negative responses to that level of formality.

Kinds of preferred learning experiences were assessed
in the same way. Pictures #4, 7, 9 represented Input
experiences, Pictures #1, 3, 8 represented Self-awareness
eXperiences. Pictures #2, 5, 6 represented Sharing
experiences. Scores of 10 to 15 were considered positive
scores for the kind of learning experience preferred, while
scores below 10 were considered as suspicious to completely
negative responses to that kind of learning experience.

Each combination of the two aspects of the learning
situation (i.e. level of formality and kind of learning
experience) was represented in only one picture in the
instrument. Scores of 5 to l were assigned according to the
response to each combination. Scores of 5 and 4 were con—
sidered positive responses, while scores below 4 were
considered suspicious to negative responses to those
combinations.

These scores were interpreted in terms of the

reflections on the descriptive interview materials.

Organization of Interview Material

 

All interviews were transcribed verbatim apart from
personal interchange between respondent and researcher. The
materials were then rearranged into the appropriate sections
of the eight facets of inquiry. This was particularly

necessary for those respondents who preferred no structure

72

in the interview process.

To build the case studies as represented in Appendix E,
much editing was necessary. Most case studies represent the
result of at least four editings. Some required more because
of the frequent repetitions and digressions to other topics.
Materials eliminated in successive editings were related to
poor grammar, repetitions, personal experiences not relevant
to the issues under discussion. Some respondents requested
that specific sections related to sensitive political issues
or to institutional conflicts not be included in the final
presentations.

In the process of editing, the researcher made every
effort to retain the essence of the original interview, the
spontaneity of colloquial speech, and the accuracy of
perceptions. The prior-to-final edition was used for analysis
of responses, but other editions were continually checked to
see if interpretations were accurate. Each case study was
then assessed and common themes in case studies were

compared and contrasted.

Methodological Assumptions

Some of the methodological assumptions for the design
and execution of this study related to the nature of the
McKean instrument. It was assumed that the responses to
questions on the research instrument indicated the
importance of the learning which the respondent considered
represented in the pictures.

It was further assumed that levels of formality and

73

different kinds of learning experiences were represented in
these pictures. The audio stimulus was considered to aid the
respondent in understanding what was represented in the
pictures.

The researcher also assumed that intensive interviewing
revealed any differences in focus and interpretation in the

respondents' answers from the McKean instrument.

Limitations

Some of the limitations of the study also related to
the nature of the McKean instrument. The instrument consisted
of nine one-item tests, which were not usually considered very
good measures for discovering differences that really exist.
McKean took careful precautions to test the validity of the
instrument though he did not set controls for this weakness.
The five-point scale also provided for detection of only
gross differences. However,the detailed focused interviewing
attempted to compensate for the inadequacies of the instru-
ment. The interviewing also probed beyond the two descrip-
tive constructs (level of formality and kind of learning
experience) to discover what other elements respondents felt
provided important learning for students of other cultures.
It was recognized that the respondents' scores were only
valid when the features of learning situations were defined
according to the instrument. The descriptive materials
demonstrated where this was not done. This limitation was
overcome by interpreting scores in terms of the descriptive

data.

74

Another limitation in the study was caused by the fact
that respondents were removed from the cultural situation on
which they were reflecting. Yet this was not considered a
serious limitation as the lengthy nature of the interview
process provided the opportunity for reflection which
respondents had been prevented from doing in the intensity
of their overseas involvement.

It was recognized that the intensive process established
a new and temporary social system and thus could lead to both
interviewer and response bias (Riley,l963: 187). The role
relationship of respondent to researcher could have affected
the interviewer's perceptions of the respondent's answers
and the tendency of the respondent to offer answers favorable
to the researcher. Constant efforts were made to avoid this
limitation by reducing the social interactive character of
the interview relationship and to neutralize the researcher's
role. The researcher attempted to avoid the communication of
normative expectations about preferred answers by expressing
neither approval nor disapproval of responses given.

When respondents became frustrated with the neutral role
of the researcher and desired more interaction in the inter-
view process, observations were offered to reassure the
respondent of the similar experiences of others. This
response, as well as a sharing session after the interviews
were completed, was necessary to prevent the researcher's
neutrality becoming a limitation for some respondents.

Even though 10 hours seemed an extended time to spend

75

with each respondent, it was constantly recognized as a

very limited amount. The researcher was continually aware
of the danger of pressing for quick, simplistic answers.
Though most respondents were relaxed and Open, one was only
prepared to admit any failures towards the end of the inter-
view. More time was desired with each respondent but the
researcher had to respect the intensely busy program of all
missionaries. She valued the large amount of time all so
generously made available for these interviews.

When finally preparing the case studies some issues in
the interviews were not clear. Where physically possible,
these issues were checked with respondents. But some had
already left for their mission locations. In spite of
constant efforts to review materials during the interview
process, the researcher recognized the deve10pment of her
own perceptions regarding the issues discussed. The inability
to follow up some of these issues was considered a frustrating

limitation.

Summary

This chapter describes the methodology used in this
research. It explains the distinctive use of the McKean
instrument as the entry point for the intensive interviews.
Procedures for collecting and organizing the descriptive
material are outlined. In chapter 4 reviews of each case

study are presented.

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH FINDINGS I

This chapter presents the quantitative data from the
two uses of the McKean instrument. These results are then
interpreted in the context of the reviews of the qualitative
interview data for each respondent. The chapter concludes

with a summary.

Overview

The aim of this study is to describe the development of
the expectations of 10 missionaries towards their teaching
in other cultures.

To trace this deve10pment, the McKean instrument was
used as an introductory stimulus in the interview process.
It helped the respondents to focus attention on the types
of learning experiences and levels of formality that they
and their students expected to contribute to important

learning.

Responses to McKean Instrument

The actual scores for each respondent are presented
in Appendices B1 and 32. In this section the main features
of the teachers' responses and perceptions of students'

responses to the instrument are noted.

76

The hierarchy of preferred learning situations for

both respondents and students as presented in Table 4.1

demonstrates that the respondents perceive their students

as expecting input experiences in situations providing more

important learning.

While respondents express a similar

highest preference for the same learning situation as

students (low formality-input),

it is cle

ar that other input

experiences are expected to provide less important learning

than are sharing
formality levels

than by students

and self-awareness experiences.

Low

are generally expected more by respondents

in important learning situations:

 

 

 

TABLE 4.1
HIERARCHY OF PREFERRED LEARNING SITUATIONS
Respondents Students
Learning Average Learning Average
Situation Score Situation Score
LF-I 4.4 LF-I 3.9
LF-SA 4.2 MF-I 3.8
MF-S 4.1 HF-I 3.5
HF-S 3.9 LF-SA 2.9
LF-S 3.9 LF-S 2.9
MF-SA 3.9 HF-S 2.9
HF-SA 3.5 HF-SA 2.6
MF-I 3.1 MF-S 2.6
HF—I 2.8 MF-SA 2.4

 

N=10

 

 

 

78

From Table 4.2 it appears that nine of the 10 respondents
expect important learning to occur in more of the nine learn-
ing situations of the McKean instrument than they perceive
their students as expecting. Students are represented as
perceiving almost twice as many situations as not contributing
to important learning (i.e. with negative scores below 4):

TABLE 4. 2

NUMBER OF NEGATIVE RESPONSES TO MCKEAN INSTRUMENT

 

 

 

Respon- Aver—
dent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 age
Self 3 3 6 2 4 3 4 2 2 2 3.1
Stud“ 7 4 3 6 6 7 6 4 5 6 5.4
ents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The trend to assign students more negative scores is
considered more significant than the actual scores recorded.
Respondents imply that most learning situations can contribute
some amount of learning for themselves. They perceive their
students as viewing situations as producing important learning
only when their specific expectations are fulfilled. All
respondents, except Gross (#2) and Norton (#8), consider their
students to have highly negative reSponses to all learning
situations which are not directly concerned with formally
receiving the teacher's input. The suspicion of respondent
Beach (#3) towards the first use of the instrument is
reflected in the more negative scores for his own expectations.

There is a tendency to perceive students' scores more

in terms of the few extremely positive (i.e. score of 5), and

79

the more common extremely negative (i.e. score of l). The
respondents' scores are more evenly distributed over all

possible responses except the extremely negative scores.

Method of Analysis

The two uses of the McKean instrument form an essential
introductory function within the focused interview process.
The scores are not accepted at face value but are interpreted
within the larger context of the descriptive data of the
interview.

It is clear on examining the respondents' reasons for
their answers that the scores represent different degrees of
focus on the two aspects of each learning situation (i.e.
level of formality and type of learning experience), as
indicated in Table 4.3:

TABLE 4.3
FOCUS OF RESPONDENTS' AND STUDENTS' RESPONSES

TO MCKEAN INSTRUMENT

 

 

 

Level of Learning
Formality & Experience Formality
Learning only only
Experience
Respond-
ents 41 29 20
Students 14 54 22

 

 

 

 

N=90

80

Out of the total 90 learning situations, respondents
focus on both aspects of the learning situations (type of
learning experience and level of formality) in describing
their expectations of important learning in 41 situations.
However, in describing their perceptions of their students'
expectations, they focus more on the type of learning
experience (54 responses).

It appears that for the students' expectations, the
formality aspect is more of a basic assumption. Eight
respondents assume their students to expect high formality
in important learning situations, while two sets of students
are perceived to expect low formality. Thus for the students'
expectations, the type of learning experience becomes a
more determining influence in the actual preference selected.

The descriptive data also reveals that the three types
of learning experiences are defined differently from the
McKean instrument in some situations. Respondents interpret
73 of the total 90 learning experiences according to the
definitions of the instrument, while they perceive their
students as defining only 44 of all learning situations in
these terms.

It is interesting to note in Table 4.4 that for
respondents and students the definition of input
experiences is similar to that of the instrument in most

cases (28 out of the 30 input learning experiences).

81

Respondents also define 20 out of the 30 self-awareness

experiences, and 25 out of the 30 sharing experiences in

terms of the instrument:

TABLE 4.4
LEARNING EXPERIENCES AS DEFINED

ACCORDING TO MCKEAN INSTRUMENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Input Self-Awareness Sharing
Respondents 28 20 25
Students 28 5 10
N=30

Self-awareness and sharing learning experiences are

considered not usual features of important learning

situations for the respondents' students, particularly

those in schooling settings.

Students are perceived as

defining several self-awareness and sharing experiences

as input experiences.

In fact,

65 of the total 90

learning situations are defined as input experiences in

the responses assigned to students.

82

The three levels of formality are interpreted according
to the McKean instrument in 41 of the total 90 scores of
respondents and in 37 of the students' scores. Table 4.5
reveals that most respondent and student scores represent
only high and low formality levels. Few recognize the
medium level of formality:

TABLE 4.5
FORMALITY LEVELS AS DEFINED

ACCORDING TO MCKEAN INSTRUMENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Foigiiity High Medium Low
Respondents 19 2 20
Students 11 3 18
N=30

High formality is only defined as such in students'
scores if the teacher is in complete control of the giving
of input. When it is associated with the two other types
of learning experiences (sharing and self-awareness), less
teacher control (i.e. lower levels of formality) is assumed.
It appears that the type of learning experience associated
with each formality level has a greater influence on the
assessment of the degree of formality than the physical

structure of the classroom.

83

The only learning situation which all respondents' and
students' scores interpret the formality level and type of
learning experience in the same way as the McKean
instrument is the high formality-input situation (No. 4).
In contrast, the examination preparation situation (No. 9)
is not interpreted in any score as a medium formality-input
situation. Both respondents and students appear to assume
that preparation for an examination is associated with higher
formality. The more casual seating arrangement portrayed
in photograph No.9 in the McKean instrument does not
influence the assessment of the formality level. This
learning situation (No.9) is the only one which lends
itself to a greater focus on the formality aspect by both
respondents and students.

Because of these varying foci and interpretations of
the features of the McKean instrument, it is clear that the
raw scores cannot all be accepted as accurate representations
of respondents' expectations and their perceptions of
students' expectations of important learning situations.
The instrument served as a useful projective technique to
focus the responses in the interview process.

In attempting to reconcile the instrument scores with
the descriptive data of the interviews, considerable
interpretation interpretation is required. Each case

study is examined as an individual unit, so that the bases

84

of analyzing responses can be determined.

Review of Case Studies
The following presents reviews of the 10 case studies.
The actual scores of the McKean instrument become more
accurate representations of the respondents' and students'
expectations as they are evaluated in the context of the
whole of the interview data.
Each review is presented in the order of the interview
process:
* Respondents' expectations towards formality levels.
* Respondents' expectations towards learning experiences.
* Sources of respondents' expectations.
* Students' expectations towards formality levels.

* Students' expectations towards types of
learning experiences.

* Differences in teacher's and students' expectations.

 

* Accommodations to different expectations of students.

 

* Changes in teacher's expectations.
* Effects of teaching.
* Modifications in future teaching.
In each review the key words are underlined (as above)
to represent the different sections. The expressions of

the respondent are used in each review as far as possible.

85

Respondent l: Sylvia Bowers

"My main talent is teaching because I am a creative
person," said this respondent. Creativity to her meant
"not sticking to traditional methods," allowing more student
participation, and lower formality.

Her preference for medium and low levels of formality

 

reflects her View of herself and her teaching ideals.

However, lower formality is not commonly realizable because

it is thwarted by obstacles mostly stemming from students
(inadequate class preparation, immaturity in denying personal
interests). The teacher's own lack of preparation time also
restricts the practice of lower formality. In reality low
teacher control results in the students resuming their own
interests. Students require a teacher control that stimulates
their minds, motivates their discussion and stresses an
immediate review of class materials. Such a teacher accurately
assesses and effects students' progress.

The respondent's scores indicate a negative attitude to
high formality. This is associated with the teacher's attempt
to enforce externally an internal process ("thinking"), and to
require mechanical student compliance. Yet high formality is
valued when it coincides with student goals (desire for
examination success).

Though the respondent's scores indicate an equally

positive preference for all three types of learning

 

experiences, six of the nine experiences are interpreted

in terms of input. Self-awareness defined as "thinking"

86

involves the students' acceptance of responsibility for their
learning. Sharing defined as the expression of personal
ideas necessitates student confidence and freedom "not to

be perfect." However,these two types of learning experiences
are interpreted as reviews of content exercises necessary

for important learning, though less "creative" than
generating personal ideas.

An input experience is contrasted with exploring one's
own interests and feelings. When it is received directly
from the teacher and is relevant to students' interests and
rates of progress, input contributes more effectively to
important learning.

Thus in the rushed reality of teaching experience,
learning situations are more commonly characterized by input
experiences with higher formality. Three of the six learning
combinations considered positively are couched in terms of
the hOpe "if they actually did that." The three favorable
learning situations not associated with this proviso are the
active and free sharing of ideas, the teacher's giving of
input in a one-to—one situation and to the class as exam
preparation.

It is interesting to note that the experience with which
the respondent identifies as a student is that which stresses
freedom from outside control and arbitrary stands. Yet the
only experience with which the respondent identifies as a
teacher is the highly controlled exam preparation session.
This represents the heart of her conflict between the ideal

and the real in teaching so pressured by limited time and

87

student inadequacies. It is significant too that the ideal
is associated with schooling in America, and the real is
linked with her teaching experience in Indonesia.

The sources of the respondent's high expectations of
the teacher's role are traced mainly to her natural intuition
for teaching (her "creative" abilities), and successful
teaching eXperience in USA. The latter taught her the
value of goal setting, adequate preparation time, use of
different media and a prepared syllabus. But in Indonesia
she is "in oblivion," cut off from information about new
teaching methods, and with little time for preparation. She
wonders if she is "all wet" and outmoded in teaching. In
the informal teaching of the hospital wards, she proves that
close teacher-student relationships enhance both the
teacher's knowledge of student progress and the students'
self-expression. Yet the "undue respect" demanded by
Indonesian culture makes her ambivalent about the type of
relationship a teacher can have with students.

The respondent considers her students negative to all

levels of formality. Students are perceived as interpreting

 

six of the nine learning situations as low formality, which
is not expected as a feature of important learning. Their
preference for high formality is expressed in their willing-
ness to comply with a meaningless assignment from the teacher
and their preference for the "teacher's word over delving for
themselves in textbooks." The students' desire for high

formality is traced to their previous experiences in

88

Indonesian schools where the teacher is "on a pedestal,"
preparing students for exams.

In contrast, the lower formality of the mission
hospital training of the respondent encourages student
participation, learning from peers, an appreciation for
textbooks, and a decreasing gap between student and teacher.
Yet these "positive structures" still have to operate within
the government examination system, which perpetuates an
orientation to external criteria (as it does in America,
she believes).

The learning experience feature is the focus of eight
of the nine scores for the students. They are perceived as

being marginally positive to input learning experiences

 

and as completely negative to both sharing and self-aware-
ness experiences. Learning experiences in the mission
hospital are so dissimilar to previous learning patterns in
public education that negative responses are given to six
situations. Indonesian schooling causes students to value
the rote learning of the teacher's input. The respondent
blames missionaries.for perpetuating a "segmentalized" view
of learning as restricted to the classroom through their
continued emphasis on notetaking above thinking. The drastic
and immediate changes demanded by the American hospital
contributes to the students' feeling that their previous
backgrounds are of no contribution to their nursing training.
The most negative learning experience is the "strange"

self-awareness experience which requires students to take

89

responsibility for their learning on the basis of their
previous backgrounds.

It is interesting to note the wide variance between the
students' two very positive and the seven very negative
scores in contrast to the more generous and evenly dispersed
scores for the respondent. Students' scores are assessed on
two bases: the degree of similarity to former public school
experiences and the extent of appreciation of mission
education patterns. The former are considered a stronger
influence as the latter take several years for the students
to develOp.

The main differences between the respondent's and

 

students' expectations are traced to the students' preference
for "absorbing knowledge" in the outmoded Dutch educational
pattern. The students are used to being "spoon-fedo" They
are unable to discuss because their own culture keeps them
”quite humble" and never requires them to offer opinions.

The respondent considers it important to always remember that
her students are from a "primitive people who resist the
enormous rate of change of modern peOple" and who thus take
longer to believe the "truth-" She is sensitive to "the
massive reorganization of the students' minds which the
missionaries demand of students in response to medical
crises." The respondent also realizes that the difficult
mechanics of notetaking overcome much of the students' real
learning in class. Both students and missionaries are

confused as to what is of value in the Indonesian culture

90

to modern medical practice.

The teachers's accommodations to the students' different

 

expectations are generally seen in terms of the classroom
activities to ensure that the teacher's input is being
absorbed, (e.g., review of notes, oral sharing as review of
class). Through discussions with many peOple, she attempts

to make this input relate to specific problems of nursing

care. Asking for students' ideas, role-playing, using the
culturally harmonious narrative method are all seen as desirable
but as unrealistic because of the teacher's limited time to
prepare. New types of learning experiences (e.g., peer sharing)
are considered apprOpriate for those students more familiar
with the "positive" hospital training. The respondent
recognizes that the learning situation cannot be totally
unfamiliar to incoming students.

Students need to accommodate by changing some of their
values as well as adapting to the "shock" of the foreign
hospital environment. The "Muslim way to allow patients to
endure pain" has to be replaced by an immediate effort and
desire to alleviate suffering. Patient care also has priority
over pleasing authorities.

The respondent considers the enforced language learning
on her first arrival changed her expectations and gave her a
good grasp of "how Indonesians looked at things." Her
Indonesian colleagues on the hospital staff made her realize
the need to temper the informal US style classroom atmosphere

so that the students can learn more "respect" for teachers.

91

Thus the respondent complied with their suggestions so that
the students' transition from their former training would
not be so harsh. But within this structure she attempts to
show her students the "mutual respect" she associates with
Christian love and humility. Indonesian students cannot be
expected to respond like American students. Yet knowing
their background, she increasingly becomes "more generous"
and "more realistic" in her expectations of their perform-
ance. She is not sure what "plain Western" aspects should
be eliminated from the hospital training. A formal course
in cross-cultural nursing at an American university could
help her to understand this.

The respondent is amazed at the effects of her teaching.
The students' "almost miraculous amount of nursing know-
ledge" makes them "quite responsible, more confident to
contribute their own ideas." They receive far more
"respect" from the missionaries than they do in their own
culture. "Sometimes," the respondent said, "I think we
overdo it."

The lessening of her workload is seen as the key to
more effective teaching in the future. This will lead to
more accurate goal setting. A better understanding of what
is of value from the students' backgrounds will make the
training program "less foreign." Yet some "bucking of the
culture" is thought necessary. Individual monetary
incentives are considered the best way to encourage better

work attitudes in nurses, even though Indonesians like to

92

"progress as groups." Technical standards and higher levels
of nursing care (e.g.humidicribs) are also not to be totally
abandoned for the sake of accommodating to cultural

practices.

Respondent 2: John Gross

"Personal freedom is very important to me," this
reSpondent often states, "as it influences relationships
and motivation." Thus he expresses a strong preference for

low formality, and relates this to the students' dealing

 

with questions of immediate concern and participating in
unrestricted discussions.

Any attempts to impose direction or outside evaluation
on students at the medium formality level are reacted to
less positively. TOpics arising spontaneously from the
group are preferred to those imposed by an outsider.

Forcing students to learn under "threat" of examinations
"kills motivation" and leads to irrelevant rote memorization.
However the respondent realizes that many consider this type
of learning as important.

High formality is associated with "artificial" learning
for possible future usefulness and restricts subjects of
doubtful personal relevance not chosen by the students. The
teacher's control is considered legitimate if it does not
hamper student involvement or force mechanical compliance
and stressful competition. But strong teacher control is
not able to provide the needs of all the students.

The respondent has a higher preference for sharing over

93

self-awareness learning experiences. His scores are only
marginally positive for input experiences. Sharing
experiences are valued as they are associated with intense
student interest to immediately confirm or reject personal
ideas through interaction. The "intensity" comes from the
student's own desire for interchange, not from the slavish
responses to the teacher's directives.

"Pertinent" self-awareness experiences arise out of
the students' reflecting on their own concerns rather than
on those subjects arbitrarily imposed by the teacher. Any
restriction in the selection of subjects is considered
negatively. Thus the very nature of self-awareness
experiences is inherently associated with freedom from
outside restraint (i.e.low formality).

The problem with input experiences is that the same
input is not relevant to all students. However if it is
not delivered in a mass, regimented way but within a sharing
relationship, there are possibilities for important learning.
Input geared only to external criteria (examinations) is
considered irrelevant. Thus the respondent is not negative
' to input as such, but to irrelevant imposed input which
eliminates personal choice. He infers that high informality
is more probably associated with input experiences.

The two combinations associated with externally con-
trolled input and high informality are considered negatively.
In six situations the respondent is favorable to all three

types of learning experiences if they stress the students'

94

freedom to deal with personal issues in a totally unrestricted
way.

A source of the respondent's strong sense of personal
relevance in learning is traced to his own study and teaching
experience in agriculture education in America. This was
confirmed through his university studies of agriculture as a
tool for change, but mostly through his agriculture extension
work in Chad. There the "problems of the people" form the
textbook of the cooperative's advisory committee. Problems
are defined and solved by the committee's discussions.

This provides the immediate learning the people valued, in
contrast to the future-oriented learning of demonstration
farms. Other sources as books, lectures, US models of
cooperatives stress the importance of starting from where the
peOple are and the necessity of involving as many people as
possible. Of special note is this respondent's emphasis on

a wide variety of sources from other cultures.

The respondent perceives his students, unschooled,

 

mostly illiterate farmers, to share his preferences for
freedom in learning. His preferences are based on his values
while the students' preferences are traced to characteristics
of their culture and their resentment of colonial domination.
Thus student scores show a totally positive preference for

low formality, a marginally positive attitude to high and a

 

slightly negative response to medium formality.
Low formality reflects the culturally harmonious method
of decision-making by those inside the group. It is valued

for affording students the freedom to voice their opinions

95

and have these confirmed or rejected by others. A one-to-one
relationship is also considered the traditionally accepted
method of decision-making, convincing one man who in turn
convinces others. Teacher control that demonstrates patient
interest in the problems of individuals is valued. However,
"rigid" situations of formal schooling directed to the
teacher's interests and not arising spontaneously are
considered "artificial." Because of their colonial
experience, the village peOple react against any outside
dominance which allows no opportunity for feedback. Higher
formality becomes more acceptable with increasing exposure to
Western schooling.

The degree of similarity to traditional learning
practices is also the basis of assessing the students'
preferences for self-awareness and sharing over input

learning experiences. Any learning experiences indicating

 

culturally unharmonious features (individualized thinking,
theoretical concerns, complying with outside interests,
unfamiliar learning contexts) are considered negatively. It
is interesting to note that self-awareness exercises
confirmed by others are viewed more positively than individual
thinking unchecked by the group. This indicates the cultural
preference for learning to be reinforced by others.

Sharing experiences are for group members, not outsiders
(other tribes, foreigners). The purpose of sharing is for the
most forceful person to exercise his control to achieve

consensus .

96

Input imposed quickly by someone remote from the group
is considered irrelevant. It is more appropriate given in
the known context of the peOple (e.g. a home not a class-
room) and in a one-to-one relationship. Time for feedback
is necessary if new ideas are to be considered.

It is significant that this respondent focuses on

similarities rather than differences between his own expec-

 

tations and those of the Chadians. Both prefer to follow up
relevant concerns rather than to respond to the directives of
others. Both value spontaneous sharing. Differences are
traced to the students' lesser familiarity with Western
schooling. Thus they expect interaction to be with peOple
not with written materials and about actual not theoretical
issues. Categorization exercises (making lists), distinctive
of classroom behavior, are irrelevant to their learning.

Students from a "primitive culture" expect learning to
center on themselves, their own existence. Western schooling
is considered the instrument of forcing learning expectations
away from self to the teacher, who knows things with which
the student only gradually identifies. Both respondent and
students resent being forced to comply. However the respond-
ent is more used to submitting to the schooling system and
thus to conforming.

Accommodations are mainly viewed in terms of a variety

 

of specific methods employed by the respondent to promote
cooperation in introducing change (e.g. small groups, change

agent, c00perative)- Imposed change, he realizes, is useless.

97

Insistence on Western educational standards is considered
detrimental to cooperation and to giving more responsibility
to the national church.

Learning from a previous "failure" in teaching
agriculture in Korea, the respondent changed to realize the
importance of using relevant methods and of taking advantage
of local resources. He became aware that those most Open to
change are not necessarily the ones who could acceptably
introduce change. His village experience in Chad demonstrates
the necessity of immediate results in learning for those who
have previously seen no possibilities for change. For such
people, he realizes a "down-the-roadism" approach is
inapprOpriate.

The immediate economic effects of the c00perative on the
welfare of the people are stressed. The experience in accepting
more responsibility for agricultural change is considered an
effective preparation to also accept more responsibility in
the church.

In the future the respondent plans to continue present
effective methods (working in small groups) and to introduce
new projects to make resources more available to the farmers
through the cooperative. Agricultural extension will continue
to be an effective evangelistic outreach of the church. The
respondent expects the cooperative committee to assume full
responsibility for its direction when they learn its

Operation more fully.

98

Respondent 3: Carl Beach

"Missionaries must be careful from the beginning not to
carry over into our Bible teaching our own cultural baggage,"
says this respondent. “But until we learn the culture, we
must just teach the Word of God in a positive way." The
significance of the role of the teacher, particularly in
Bible teaching, is reflected in his expectation of high
formality in important learning situations.

Formality is defined as teacher control ("on the ball

 

in his subject") and is adversely contrasted with student
control ("classes with no basis").

The respondent's generally lower scores for both aspects
of learning situations probably reflect his initial suspicion
of the audio-visual instrument. His scores demonstrate a

marginally positive attitude to low formality and negative

 

responses to both medium and high levels. However, teacher
control is assumed necessary or its absence criticized in

six of the nine learning situations. In the three situations
which the respondent identifies as providing important
learning for himself, teacher control or even preplanned
structure is not desired. His own initiative is the key to
such learning. Other students are credited with more
questionable diligence. Their learning has to be "kept on

the track," and made to "work" by the teacher.

In the scores for types of learning experiences the

 

respondent has a marginally positive attitude to sharing

and equally negative attitudes to both input and

99

self-awareness experiences. However, the value of input
(receiving knowledge from the teacher) is stressed in also
sharing and self-awareness experiences.

Sharing is defined as sharing "knowledge" and treated
with suspicion if the knowledge is gained "just" through
the students' reading and not "kept in order" by the teacher.

When self-awareness is interpreted as "comparing notes,"
it is assessed more positively. But when defined as "just
using their internal processes," "impressing things on their
own minds," and thus not getting any fresh input from outside,
self-awareness experiences are not considered to lead to
important learning.

Input is viewed as knowledge from the teacher. It is
very positively received in a situation of "mutual confidence"
where the student can "really open up" for the teacher to
deal with the subject in a "deeper way." The preference for
"live" input suggests the high expectation of the teacher's
performance. For the respondent, his personal desire for the
information rather than its use in examinations determines
the value of the input.

Thus the respondent considers that important learning
for others is achieved through input controlled by the
teacher. For himself, spontaneously comparing notes with
colleagues at a conference yields the most significant
learning.

The respondent traces the sources of his expectations
to mainly formal environments: preachers, books, Bible

schools. From "gifted African Bible teachers" he learned

100

the value of their interpretations of the Scriptures and the
need for the missionary to be less authoritarian in imposing
his own interpretations. From classroom discussions he
learned more about African "thought patterns," their beliefs
and fears.

This respondent, in contrast to other respondents, gives
his students more generous scores than he gives himself.
This represents his decreasing suspicion of the instrument
at this stage of the interview. The students' responses to
all learning situations focus on this type of learning

experience aspect as these assume that high formality is

 

associated with all important learning.

Teacher control is considered necessary, particularly for
those who are more "lackadaisical" (i.e. defined as those who
have had less Opportunity for schooling). For these students
schooling exercises (e.g. making lists, referring to books)
are difficult. All group discussions assume a guide with
“higher training" to prevent "miscomprehensions." There is
little profit in student questions which come "Off the top
of their heads." These need to be controlled within a
specific area. Learning governed by the teacher's examinations
is expected in theological training by both students and the
national church and conformed to by the missionary educators.

The students' scores for types of learning experiences
show them to have decidedly positive responses for sharing.

However, sharing is defined in terms of input (sharing the

101

information which would lead to right decisions). Sharing
is culturally harmonious, a means of producing warm
relationships and of coming to more accurate decisions
concerning matters of the faith. Africans are "natural
communicators" but their "spontaneous contributions" need
to be held within "fairly clear limits.”

Input is defined as information received from the
teacher. The value of input from a book is limited by the
students' poor reading ability. Input received directly
from the teacher is preferable, and indeed ideal in a
one—to-one situation where the teacher can help those with
obvious perseverance.

When self-awareness is defined as a recall of questions
concerning the teacher's input, it becomes a difficult writing
exercise for those barely literate. As a memorization
exercise for illiterates, it is not so difficult. As a
note-learning task, there are also problems because Of
students' poor reading abilities. Students are favorable to
self-awareness when defined as asking questions, but these
have to be controlled by the teacher to produce "profitable"
learning.

It is interesting that this respondent gives students
more evenly distributed scores. The respondent's own
preferences, particularly the need for teacher control to
temper "the desire for communication" Of Africans, is
constantly injected into these responses. All learning

situations for students are interpreted in terms of input

102

and teacher control. The basis for assessing these appears
to be the necessary checking of "natural" learning prefer-
ences with schooling values. Yet where the mechanics
demanded by schooling alone prevails, negative responses

are perceived of students. The respondent bases his own
answers on more personal issues (his own experience,
motivation, assessment of the value of the content and skill
of the teacher).

Despite the differences in scores, it is interesting

 

to note the similar expectations Of input and teacher

control perceived to be necessary for important learning by
both the respondent and his students. Africans are viewed as
still expecting formal lectures but are gradually seeing the
effectiveness Of learning by participation in extension
education. The respondent is unaware Of specific differences
in the way students think. Their "customs" have been broken
down when they first enter school and thus are not expected
to influence missionary teaching. It is assumed that by the
time students come to the missionaries they are already
thinking in Western frames of reference.

Thus accommodations (like oral testing) are made to

 

overcome the students' inadequate study abilities and to
improve the comprehension of what the missionary presented.
More interaction is considered desirable for the teacher to
discover learning problems. The respondent recognizes the
need not to impose irrelevant Western interpretations of

Christian behavior. But at the same time strong guidance

103

is needed for people who are "theologically illiterate"
as "eternal" issues are at stake.

The main changes in the respondent's expectations are
related to a gradual realization of the need for a less
authoritarian missionary role and a more practical and a less
theoretical approach to theological training. These changes
are forced on the mission through the "evolvement of the
church." With the increasing numbers of missionaries after
World War II, he also realized the necessity for a study of
the culture so Christianity will not cause cultural
dislocation.

The negative effects of missionary teaching are described
as the "terrible struggle" of African leaders in administering
the church because they have received inadequate practical
preparation by missionaries. Much of the missionary teaching
has not penetrated deeply into the traditional social
practice and belief systems of the people but remains "white
man's teaching." This shocks the respondent. However,
some African leaders are now prepared to "take a stand
against evil practices."

The respondent has seen missionaries gO too far in
making interpretations of Scriptures. The self-study methods
Of the Scriptures encouraged by TEE stimulates initiative,
and thus "breaks down the alienation between Christianity
and culture." The effects of the missionaries' material
possessions are noted, but their attitudes are considered

of far greater influence.

104

In view of the country's political urgency, more
practical and more locally based theological education is
needed in the future. More Bible teaching is considered
the only adequate preparation of the church for the

inevitable crises.

Respondent 4: Jim Wilson

This respondent considers the teacher's acceptance of
a high sense of responsibility as the key to important
learning. He claims that he is forced to emphasize on this
aspect because of the inadequate nature of other clues in the
instrument. He is the only respondent who focuses on both
aspects of all learning situations in forming responses.
His scores demonstrate a slight preference for low

formality over high and medium levels. An inadequate sense

 

of responsibility is indicated by the teacher's "displaying
his own brilliance" and in giving input merely for examinations.
This is associated with high formality.

A sense of responsibility respected by the respondent
involves the teacher's efforts to plan and take time to help
students move toward their own goals. This is interpreted as
lower formality. The teacher relates content to the
students' life experience and encourages their "integration
between learning and life." This type of teacher control
promotes the students' defining and reaching their highest
goal ("full maturity as demonstrated in the life of Christ").

Group sharing is considered a "method employed by a

105

teacher interested in helping learners to identify the
importance of what's happening in themselves." Thus a teacher
with a high sense of responsibility initiates individualized
or group learning experiences. A formal classroom setting
does not necessarily detract from learning. It can be an
effective demonstration of the teacher's positive concern
about improving students' comprehension. It is the teacher's
stress on satisfying his own or merely external criteria

that indicates the "inadequate" values.

In evaluating the learning experiences, the respondent
has a slightly more positive preference for sharing over
input and self-awareness experiences. Sharing is related to
the deve10pment of students' understanding, the promotion of
self-reflection, and the stimulus of others' thoughts. It
is the means of bringing about the integration between
learning and life and is contrasted with having "a bunch of
facts laid on the students" by the teacher.

Input experiences that demonstrate the teacher's
concern to relate to the students' specific "areas of growth"
are considered to contribute to important learning. But
input related to merely satisfying exam requirements indicates
"superficial learning."

Favorable aspects of self-awareness experiences involve
the students' removing confusions through observing their
own understanding levels." In similar experiences, they
identify their goals and assess their development towards
these. Unlike the respondent, some students and teachers

treat such experiences as mechanical exercises.

106

The respondent traces significant sources of his
expectations to both positive and negative teaching models.
The positive model convinced him of the importance Of student
development as a learning goal. From the negative model he
learned that all truth must be Open to scrutiny. His own
class experience made him more aware of the need to focus
on personal relationships over transmitting content. The
personal dimension and the need for teaching Objectives were
presented to him in valued reading. However, this "skills"
emphasis is considered to be of less importance than
"deve10pment of the person."

In analyzing his own expectations, the respondent needs
many more clues to form an adequate assessment (e.g. nature
and relevance of the content, purpose of the class, teacher's
relationship to the students). The worthwhileness of the
learning experience is considered to derive from the teacher's
sense Of his own responsibility. The responses of the
students are explained mainly in terms of the influence of the
authoritarian structure of their culture on their expectations
Of important learning. The respondent considers that students
are only positive towards highly controlled input experiences,
and are negative to any experiences that lessen the control of
the authority figure.

The scores represent the students as being negative to

all levels of formality. Yet the high formality of the

 

teacher's complete authority is assumed in five learning
situations, and its absence viewed negatively in the remaining

four situations.

107

Students expect learning to come from outside Of them-
selves and comply with a teacher's request to do a meaningless
exercise assured that the teacher would "make sense of it."
Learning is from the teacher and any classroom requests are
considered "legitimate-" The value of a learning experience
derives from the students' awe of authority of the teacher,
particularly a foreign teacher, not from the worthwhileness
of the activity. Students do not expect to participate but
to learn from the teacher and books. Peers cannot supply
answers but only remind one another of the teacher's input.
Any lessening of formality through student contributions
represents the teacher's abdication of this role and is
considered negatively. The culture encourages student
"acquiescence" not "thinking.“

The students are represented as being totally positive

to input learning experiences, suspicious of sharing and

 

extremely negative to self-awareness experiences. Scores
are strongly dichotomized on the basis of degree of
correspondence of the learning experiences to the hierarchial
authority structure of the culture.

Input is expected to be received from teachers and
books without student participation. The formal giving of
input for examinations is the culturally harmonious role for
an authority figure like a teacher.

Valued sharing is only concerned with the teacher's input,
not ideas from the student or his peers. The only value in

sharing is the teacher's future use of it. The respondent

108

has only overcome this cultural attitude by persistent
efforts to encourage peer sharing.

Learning is not generated by the individual, thus
self-awareness experiences are not valued. Reproducing the
teacher's input is considered more important that understand-
ing. It is recognized that language problems also hinder this
understanding.

The basis for major differences between the expectations
of the students and teacher is considered to be the respondent's
definition of learning "in terms of critical processes."

He admits that it is easier to say why his students are not
interested in critical processes than to explain why he is.
He infers that his explanation requires a consideration of
many complex factors but the nature of the students' culture
explains their answers. It is authoritarian and places no
value "of any kind" on critical or reflective thinking. To
them education is mere "data retrieval." He Objects to the
Filipinos' consideration of critical processes as "Western."
These are necessary for Christian maturity, the respondent
claims.

Accommodations are mainly seen in terms Of classroom

 

activities to make learning more "active" and disciplined
(e.g., work sheets, regular assignments). The students'
"penchant for memorization" is satisfied with "meaningful"
rote learning experiences and with their purpose clearly
explained. It is necessary to replace take-home exams with

class exams because of the cheating encouraged by societal

109

pressures and lack of personal discipline. Critical
processes are possible to teach through observing examples
and practicing the methodology. The respondent sees dangers
in accommodating to a Filipino methodology for theology as
the culture is oriented to establishing dominance not to
seeking truth.

As an evolving process rather than as a dramatic change,
the respondent became more responsive to the personal over
the content orientation of his teaching. He thus teaches
only the "basics" and gives more content only as students'
questions request it. In efforts to "spend his goodwill" on
the students, he tries to challenge them not to accept his
words uncritically. He considers this necessary to force
them to confront their own comprehension of the role Of
Christianity in their society and their concept of the
all-powerful authoritarian teacher. However, he has seen
only limited integration of faith into life experience outside
the classroom. Gradually he realized the elitist nature of
theological institutions and believes these to be destructive
to the true intentions of the church.

The effects Of his teaching are deduced from the
responses of former students who claim the respondent's
classes have taught them to "study the Bible." He is
encouraged to see two of his students base a radio Bible
teaching ministry on this theology courses. However, his
teaching is rejected somewhat by those who have "elitist

aspirations."

110

In the future the respondent is concerned that the
practice of theological education be brought more "into
line" with its scriptural presuppositions. He considers
extension education to be more harmonious with promoting
noncompetitive, egalitarian structures. He plans to develop

curricula to respond to the needs of the students' congregations.

Respondent 5: Bill Johnson

 

This respondent considers himself "institution-oriented"
and more conscious of the larger picture than the immediate
human situation. His expectations of learning and teaching
are based on his view Of important learning as the efficient
relating of specifics to wider concepts.

The respondent's scores reveal a slightly higher
preference for low formality over high formality, and a
negative response to medium formality. Yet many of the
positive scores do not reflect the negative nature of their
associated comments. Perhaps this indicates the respondent's
uneasiness with the instrument, which he feels is more
relevant to arts than to science teaching.

Formality is defined as the degree of the teacher's

 

efficiency in instructing the class and in using the time of
the student. Low formality is associated with dealing with
concepts, methods of reasoning, emotional hindrances to
learning. It is definitely "incongruous" with an examination
preparation class and unsuited to the average motivation of
students. All situations in the instrument are considered

"low pressure." Situations that are seen to deal with

111

specifics over general concepts are thought particularly
"inefficient" when the teacher Offers no framework for
answering questions.

The respondent expresses marginally positive scores for
all learning experiences, though is slightly more favorable to
self-awareness experiences. Self-awareness, defined as
"thinking through values," "generating their own points,"
is considered an inefficient classroom activity and likely to
produce only "reinforcement" and not learning (i.e. "generat-
ing something new"). However,a very favorable response is
made to self-awareness defined as a review Of the teacher's
input.

Sharing is viewed more positively when it is related to

comparing methods or reasoning processes based on values.
But classes are expected to stimulate students' initiative
to share matters of personal helpfulness. It is inferred
that high motivation is not associated with usual learning
experiences.

Input experiences are contrasted with those which
develOped concepts. Input demands clear, precise definition,
direction by the teacher and external signs of student con-
centration. Thus Objectivity rather than emotional involve-
ment is expected in situations producing important learning
(i.e. with reasoning processes, teacher's input). Class-
room learning is nOt associated with strong personal
emotions, and thus there is no motivation for students to

discuss the personal relevance of learning outside the

112

classroom. A teacher's emotive presentation is considered
inappropriate for giving the "nutshell" of facts for examina-
tion preparation. More personal issues (e.g.,sorting out of
personal preferences) need to be dealt with as the students'
learning preparation in their own time.

In the classroom the students' reflections on their own
values or discussions with peers are more "profitable" when
done within a framework provided by the teacher to "avoid
wasting time." The classroom is not to function as an
"Inefficient mimeograph machine." The teacher's relying on
a book for better explanations is an "inadequate technology."
The learning situations most highly valued are the students'
own review of the teacher's input and the one-to-One dealing
with concepts difficult to comprehend.

The respondent traces the sources of his expectations
about learning and teaching to his university science training.
From courses and a professor he particularly respected, he
learned the "infinite" possibilities of knowledge and the
consequent necessity for guidance in the rational selection
of those areas Of knowledge "with broadest application."

A helpful science teaching journal and his own creativity
have stimulated his efforts to improve science teaching
through building low-cost electronic laboratory equipment.
In college teaching he hoped to avoid the problems Of the
disciplining in younger students that he discovered at a
YMCA camp in the USA. However, he has to face those very

problems in his Indian college.

113

The respondent bases all his perceptions of students'

 

expectations on their reactions to the pressures of the

 

Indian academic system, particularly its external examinations.
Though the students are perceived as being negative to

all levels of formality, the presumed irrelevancy of most

 

learning experiences is the focus of seven responses. Where
high teacher control is assumed (e.g. in examination prepar-
ation and using input from a book), very favorable responses
are given. Formality is interpreted as the degree of teacher
control necessary to prepare students for the examination
system. Methods and answers are considered to be ”cut and
dried" and to be authorized by the teacher, not by peers.
Only the teacher can define the significant areas tO learn
within the large syllabus. The teacher is expected not to
waste students' classroom time but to clearly define all
input and relate it to the examination. Materials are
obtained from the teacher in the classroom but the "real
learning" (the memorization) occurs in the students' own
study time.

Students' preferences for input learning experiences
are perceived as being positive but as very negative to
self—awareness and sharing experiences. Input specifically
selected by the teacher, "efficiently presented," in the
quickest time and directly related to examination preparation,
is highly desired by students. The personal relevance of
subject matter is of no consequence. Personal reflection

(self-awareness) is only done on the teacher's notes. Only

114

the teacher's input is considered worth sharing.

There is a wide variance in the six negative scores and
their three completely positive scores. The latter represent
learning situations involving examination preparation through
the memorization of the teacher's input.

While both respondent and his students expect the
teacher to "efficiently" present content in the classroom,

the major differences in their expectations are related tO

 

the wider conceptual context to which the respondent wishes
to relate to all specific pieces of knowledge. Thus the
respondent is more concerned than his students for personal
relevance and understanding. He considers the purpose Of
learning tO be greater than mere examination success.
Sharing among peers is considered more positively, though
necessarily structured by the more experienced teacher.
However, the respondent has less appreciation for the
"human" side of learning than his students, (e.g., necessity
for leniency in examination if sick).

The respondent's earlier desires to change the external
examination system of science teaching in India are modified
as he realizes the entrenched resistance of this "colonial"
tradition. Thus his accommodations to the different
expectations of his students are related to broader purposes,
not to the specifics of the examining system. He is seeking
to make the best out of such a restrictive system by attempts
to overcome the compartmentalizing of knowledge to encourage

more personal relevance. Project contests stimulate students

115

to consider social uncertainties as creative opportunities
to apply their skills. His semimicro methods of analysis,
low-cost electronic instruments, constant attempts to link
specific units of knowledge to their wider concepts and
bOOkbank system are all efforts to creatively accommodate to
the examination system. Through failure he realizes the
importance of accommodating within the system rather than in
attempting vainly to introduce completely foreign procedures
(e.g., a COOperative staff-student college government).

The respondent considers that right from the beginning
of his missionary career he has been sensitive to the need
to be Open to change. When his projects were rejected (e.g.,
rotation Of department leadership among faculty members),
he realized the existing social structures which made such
a proposal untenable. In the future he may suggest less
radical changes. Teaching in India has forced the respondent
to break down the concepts he has wanted to teach into well-
defined units for expression in the other language. This has
made him realize that any language is capable of the precise
definition demanded of "scientific concepts."

The respondent hopes his teaching will effect a better
understanding of scientific concepts and an awareness of
alternatives as a source of hOpe both in life and faith. The
college, while not specifically achieving many conversions,
has at least "exposed" many students to the gospel, and has
met some portion of the great human need in India.

The respondent's concern to be a wider influence for

future change in the teaching of science is recognized as a

116

difficult aim. He plans to increasingly encourage his
students to be confident and to integrate more of their
learning with their lives. Maintaining efficient standards
in the science laboratory, he stresses, will continue to

prove to students the dependability of God.

Respondent 6: Karen Gegner

This respondent considers herself a "stimulator,

a reflector." "I set up projects for my students so they
can eventually grow without me," she states.

The learning situation which she most highly values
is the one with which she identifies her own high motivation
and desire to understand in order to satisfy personal not
external criteria. Thus the features she considers
important in making these responses are related to her own
teaching and her value of high personal motivation in the
students and the teacher's role as available stimulator
and guide, encouraging the students' change in behavior.
Thus in situations where the teacher remains "remote" and
uninvolved behind his desk, or the students' motivation is
doubted, negative responses are recorded. She expresses

slightly higher positive preferences for low formality over

 

medium formality, and is negative to high formality.

Low formality is associated with the freedom to exercise
personal choice. Yet a total lack Of structure (i.e. outside
of the classroom) causes hindrances to the learning of some.
The teacher's informal meeting with an individual student is

considered most conducive to the main aim of teaching -

117

encouraging change in behavior. The teacher's guidance is
also valued through nonthreatening yet specific instructions,
the "creative" use of media and directed reviews. But the
teacher can only stimulate, not ensure personal reflection or
learning, especially in a large class. He is to be available
and involved in student discussions, but not to "hover over
them.“

The respondent is positive to all learning experiences,
but has a slight preference for self-awareness experiences.
When self-awareness is defined as an "Opportunity tO reflect"
or as desire for understanding, it is dependent on the
student's own motivation, which the respondent recognizes
as high in herself. Yet in a more formal setting the real
value of the self-awareness exercise comes through the
interaction with the teacher and peers, not through the
student's personal list-making.

The value Of input experiences depends on the personal
desire of the students to learn and to seek out the teacher.
The willingness to put "concepts into practice" and not just
absorb them lead to important learning ("a change in a life").

Sharing defined as "mulling over and interacting on
their concepts" also depends on the motivation of the
student and the teacher's ability to communicate, stimulate,
and willingness to be available. The students' high motiva—
tion is particularly necessary to carry through on learning
exercises in totally unstructured situations.

The respondent traces some of the sources of her

expectations about learning and teaching to an "exciting"

118

project in starting a new church where students and staff
cooperate with the local peOple in a "team ministry."
There she expriences the value of immediate learning, of
relating the institution to the outside reality, and of
making aspects of the project into "creative problem-
solving" exercises in the classroom. The "strong" example
Of Jesus as a teacher challenges her, particularly the fact
that He "didn't get all shook up when the deciples failed.”
Thus she tries to "fan the spark that God sees" in each of
her students. She aims to be Open to learn from everybody
who comes into her life.

As with the respondent, personal characteristics
(motivation, Openness, maturity) are perceived to influence

the students' expectations in learning situations. The

 

students' responses are also governed by the degree Of these
displaying their traditional expectations of learning. Thus
their responses reflect an ambivalence between responding to
traditional authority patterns and developing internal
motivation. This ambivalence is represented not only in the
respondent's college, but also in the "changing culture"
in which students are becoming "more vocal."

Students are perceived as being marginally positive to

low and medium formality and as marginally negative to high

 

formality levels. Their responses interpret six of the nine
situations in terms Of high formality. The respondent
distinguishes between students with "internal motivation"

and those who "lacked self-discipline," a traditional charac-

teristic of the culture. The latter respond to authority,

119

high formality,and expect to receive from the teacher not
from their peers or from their own reflections. However,
internal motivation has developed in students in the
respondent's college. This has taken a long time to build.
Thus the students' scores represent their transition from the
traditional to newer learning patterns. Not all students
develop the high personal motivation to continue learning
exercises away from the formality of the classroom. The
students' heavy workloads make the respondent's efforts to
increase motivation a "drowning experience."

The students' responses to learningexperiences show
only a slightly positive preference for input over self-
awareness experiences. Marginally negative responses are
given to sharing experiences. Input experiences as referring
to books and learning for tests are the expected exercises
of the country's education and develOp little internal
motivation. Students with the high motivation that many of
the respondent's students possess are interested in seeking
the teacher out concerning the application of input.
Self-awareness exercises defined as self-reflection are
hampered by the students' lack of motivation. But as an
exercise required by the teacher, it is responded to
favorably. A preference for sharing increases with the
development of internal motivation.

Seven of the nine learning situations are considered

negatively in students' responses. Five of these negative

120

scores reflect the ambivalence between students with

internal motivation and those who merely respond to authority.
The two more negative scores focus on the inapplicability of
the learning experience to those oriented to the traditional
authoritarian structures. The two positive scores reflect
this same ambivalence: one represents the more internally
highly motivated: the other a perfunctory response to the
authority structure.

Differences in students' expectations are traced to

 

their "lesser exposure" to the type of learning considered
important by the respondent. She values sharing and the
application of knowledge rather than the "authority" of the
content. Filipino students are less familiar with abstract
concepts for which Americans are prepared right from the
beginning of their learning. However, after years Of experience
with the students, the respondent believes the cultural
differences fade. They become just "learners" and she their
"teacher."

The respondent does not consider accommodations either of
teacher to student or of student to teacher the main issue in
teaching in another culture. "Learning and growing together"
are more important than "accommodation to a method." The
real issue involves finding out the best method to encourage
mutual growth. Thus the respondent is concerned to build
a relationship Of Openness and trust, to encourage the
immediate application of the students' learning to set

patterns for "eternity," to challenge them continually

121

to test authorities and thus overcome the traditional attitude
to the teacher as a "god." She just practises new methods
preferably with prior preparation of the group leaders. The
eXplanation to the whole student group is given after the
method is completed.

The main changes in the respondent's expectations are
related to the fading of cultural differences after several
years in the country. Thus the "molding of all cultural
upbringings" to "conformity with Jesus Christ" is the main
concern of both her own learning and teaching. She consist-
ently cuts back on the amount of content given to students,
and is not concerned to be the authority with all the answers.
However,removing all guidelines for students' learning makes
them insecure so she has to come back to a "middle road" and
provide "more boxes" for them. Accusations of being
"imperialistic" because of her own decisive manners has caused
her to modify these and be more aware of the importance of
how others perceive her.

The desired effects of her teaching relate to her
students' continued character "building" through her emphasis
on "biblical values." It is necessary for her own life to
continuously communicate these values. She is most encouraged
when students lose their fear of approaching her. Other
encouragements come from seeing graduates follow her counsel
to act as "learners" more than "authorities" in the churches,
to work in teams instead of alone and to "set goals for

Christian growth" in their ministry.

122

In the future the respondent desires to continue to
view students as "persons" and train them through "creative
problem-solving exercises." She wants to "use her own
abilities to the maximum" by combining the local church

outreach with the institutional teaching.

Respondent 7: Maggie Becker

Although involved in teaching for 25 years, the
respondent did not think of herself as a teacher for a
considerable time as she lacked formal teacher training.
However, being a "peOple lover" makes her an effective
teacher, the respondent claims.

Her scores for high formality are slightly more positive
than for low formality, with negative scores for medium
formality. Responses to high formality situations reflect
more the respondent's preference for the associated learning
experiences. The teacher's belaboring a point which the
students have already covered in their own study is considered
negatively. Thus a preference for lower formality is actually
implied in these situations. This is confirmed in other
responses. An application of the students' ability to
"internalize" important things (i.e. learn) from even the
casual remarks Of the teacher is expressed in favorable
responses to low formality levels. Students are generally
assumed to share the respondent's enthusiasm for "learning."
Learning as satisfying external criteria (e.g., exams) and as
receiving the teacher's monologue is considered negatively.

Though the respondent values a high degree of student

123

contribution to the learning, she feels the teacher should
remain "the final deciding factor" (an "old-fashioned idea").

The reSpondent expresses a higher positive preference
for sharing over self-awareness and is negative to input
learning experiences. Learning is essentially an
"internalized process". Thus peer sharing, which appears
to be a "pooling of ignorance", is the source Of important
learning for the respondent. Her own excitement about life
and "getting involved in the subject" has rubbed off on others
in sharing experiences. Self-awareness ("thinking for
yourself") is considered a positive and active way to
"clarify" personal values. "Looking for something important
for yourself" even in casual remarks Often leads to the highest
aim in learning and teaching (a confession of faith). The
teacher's input contributes to more effective learning in the
context Of dialogue and as a stimulus of internal motivation,
not external compliance.

The respondent bases the responses on her own positive
learning and teaching experiences, and her personality
characteristics Of enthusiasm and motivation in life. She
realizes that not all students share this excitement. The
internal motivation of the student is the key to important
learning. The teacher is responsible for seeing that the
students' learning goals are accounted for in her syllabus.

Having no formal teacher training, the respondent
traces the sources of her expectations to her observations of
other teachers, practical on-the-job teaching experiences

and "being a student most of my life." Thus she values

124

relevant, enjoyable,practical learning. Though she realizes
the value of formal schooling in "sharpening one's wits,"

she resents the power of institutions to make those feel
"stupid" who are denied formal training. Her close contacts
with illiterates convinces her of their ability to learn,
though not "in our way" (i.e. concentrating for long periods).

Her students, the illiterate village women, are perceived

 

as having negative expectations of all levels of formality,
yet the focus of six responses is on the irrelevance of the
learning experience. The women's expectations are based on
their view Of the formal schooling as prestigious but
unattainable. Formality is defined as the teacher control
and structured environment expected Of the classroom. The
only positive scores are recorded for those situations where
the teacher is in complete control. Students consider them-
selves "stupid" and rely totally on the teacher for input,
answers and direction. Learning is submitted to as a painful
and disciplined experience as the "natural" fight stemming
from their "whole way of life" is against it. The women
consider the respondent's "lessons" in their courtyards as
enjoyable diversions from their humdrum ruts, not as "classes."

The students are perceived as being only marginally

positive to input learning experiences, and negative to both

 

self-awareness and sharing experiences. However,all types of
learning experiences are interpreted in terms of the degree
Of input from the teacher. Thus self-awareness, defined as

a review Of the teacher's notes, is considered positively.

125

"The absolute fact" is required, not personal relevance or
reflection. Valued sharing is concerned with the ideas from
the authority, not from the students' peers or from their
own reasoning processes. The village women consider this
whole system of correct answers with remote awe.

When measured against the disciplined authoritarian
rote learning system inherited from the French colonists,
seven learning situations are considered negatively. The
ones considered as contributing to important learning are
those that indicate the teacher's control of input.
Formality and input from the authority are characteristics
of "civilized" schooling, with which village women cannot
identify.

The differences in the expectations of respondent and

 

students are traced to the contrast between learning
stimulated by internal motivation and learning imposed by6the
outside authority. The respondent prefers learning to be
applicable to life and not "superficial" (i.e. produced by
external motivation). The students expect learning to be a
"parroting of the absolute facts" received from the teacher
and are thus convinced they cannot learn. The respondent
realizes that the women have no intentions of personally
applying her spiritual messages to their experiences. However,
she has "enough faith in an all-powerful God to do something
with this knowledge.“ In contrast to her own faith, the
Muslim religion Offers the women only "material values" and

requires no logic.

126

The main accommodations by the respondent are through
simplified "mainly child" techniques. Intuitively, she makes
their learning "fun" and even gives them candy as rewards
for memorizing Bible verses. She knows they do not resent
this. Cassettes with short gospel messages are effective in
aiding their learning. The respondent has accepted the
women's perception of her role as a "symbol" of medical and
general help. Yet she wonders if the incessant demands for
material goods will be lessened if the peOple realize her
different perception of her role ("to get the facts of the
gospel to them"). However, these culturally-based perceptions
become an advantage to the missionary. Parents do not Object
to Bible classes for their children because "children can't
learn"; several households welcome her visits and Bible
lessons because she is "a bearer of good fortune."

As the respondent accepts herself as an effective
teacher, she has overcome her feeling of inadequacy from lack
Of formal training. In contrast to the "old-fashioned
paternalistic" missionaries who told peOple how to change,
she views the Christian message as "authoritarian," not the
missionary. She believes in teaching "people not lessons"
and with "gentleness and persuasion." Thus she has lost
her desire to quickly condemn another culture as "wrong"
because it is different. All cultures need to be examined
from the Word of God, and the "Christian culture" has to
become a "subculture" within any culture. Through political

crises, she has become aware of effects of the varied

127

barriers between cultures. Getting to know the peOple better
has enabled her to understand the "disrupting" results of
conversion on the "beautiful organism of the extended family."

The effects "hoped" for in the respondent's teaching
are related to her main desire to get across "the facts of
Christianity as a necessary prerequisite to faith in Christ."
She hopes to "attract peOple to the Savior.“ However, she
realizes that some peOple only want her material goods.
Muslims are considered "hard to reach" so the missionaries
expect disappointments. Some young men became Christians and
are having a "real influence." All converts are warned to
expect persecution. A few people have told the respondent
that she is not a foreigner any more but "one of us." This
is an encouragement.

In the future the respondent aims to use traditional
communication means (e.g., fables) to teach the gospel. She
considers these powerful tools for developing attitudes to
change conduct. She is also interested in tying health care

and literacy more closely with her Bible teaching for women.

Respondent 8: Ray Norton

 

In his 25 years as a missionary, this respondent has
determined to be a learner and to avoid the role of an
authoritarian propagator of a foreign message.

His scores indicate an equally positive preference for

low and medium formality levels and a marginally positive

 

attitude to high formality. Informality in a learning

128

situation is associated with sharing with peers, student
participation and freedom from "worry about being on the
spot." The respondent has personally resisted playing the
role of the "expert," the one who knows it all. He appreciates
the need for the teachers to have a clear idea of the
direction Of the class. But the teacher's effectiveness is
determined by the degree to which he stimulates interaction,
not feeds input to students. Exams are not expected to be
associated with teacher enthusiasm. Thus high formality

is defined as the degree to which the teacher perfOrms as
the expert and to which the student is put on the spot. All
of the learning situations reflect a preference for low
teacher control and active student participation.

The respondent is positive to all learning experiences
with a slight preference for sharing over self-awareness and
input experiences. Sharing is associated with passing on
what one has learned "at least in a cautionary sense," not
with displaying expertise. Sharing is a valued way of
self-review or of being exposed to a new viewpoint from peers.
Developing the ability for concise expression is an important
facet Of learning. Sharing is aided by meaningful listening
and adequate preparation. Self-awareness, defined as an
exercise in personal application or in determining self-
progress, is considered positively. But when defined as a
review of input exercise, it draws a more negative response.
The respondent does not value learning exercises which stress

only the transferral of input from teacher to student. But

129

he recognizes that this is what some people expect in a
learning experience.

The facts considered by the respondent in making his
responses are his own strong desire to avoid the controlling
role of the expert, his teaching through stimulating discus-
shmuand monitoring the feedback, his own formal and informal
learning experiences, his lack of training in "techniques."
His most favored learning situations are those that encourage
interchange between peers, not the mechanical transfer of
input from the teacher.

The sources of his expectations are traced to his view
of himself as a continuous learner. In his mission situation
his experiences in seeing "pointless formalism" being stressed
over "effective communication and personal growth" increase
his sensitivity to the need for a "constant search for new
forms" and for avoiding stereotypes with little meaning.

His linguistics training has also confirmed this.
The students are perceived as being positive to low

formality but negative to high and medium levels of formality.

 

The informal sharing of equals is considered culturally
harmonious within the "still largely oral society.'l High
formality is associated with distance between people, a
perfunctory response to the control of an outsider, and no
identification by the outsider of his role in the culture.
frhus formality is defined in terms of cultural identification.
CDhe insider's confidence of his role in the culture is demon-

sstrated by his low formality. A teacher's enthusiasm

130

and an informal physical setting seem incongruous with an
outsider's imposition of input.

Students are perceived as positively preferring sharing
experiences and as negative to both self-awareness and input

learning experiences. Sharing defined as "dialogue" is

 

considered a culturally harmonious and a "valuable learning
tool" for Christians. They, unlike non-Christians, "volunteer
the truth" because of their confidence in the missionary.
Sharing in groups is considered a "good learning device"

for the missionary to glean a well-rounded picture of matters
related to his translation from various individual experiences.

Self-awareness defined as "having opinions or applying
it to themselves" presents difficulties as a learning tool
for students. Only gradually do they become familiar with
missionaries' content and develop confidence in him as an
"insider.T Defined as a review of notes experience,
self-awareness becomes a "motion" with limited meaning for
the few who have been to school. Input experiences related
to schooling exercises are considered irrelevant. However,
when given in the context of informal one-to-one communication,
input is viewed positively.

The responses of the student are based on the cultural
relevance of the learning situations, their degree of response
to the teacher as an "insider" and their familiarity with
schooling. Thus oral sharing, informal one-to-one or group
discussions are considered positively. Situations related

to the strangeness of formal classroom exercises,

131

unfamiliar content, lack of personal communication are
considered negatively.

Differences in the expectations of the students are

 

related to their tradition of "oral indoctrination" and
unfamiliarity with "book learning." Some traditions have
become meaningless rituals and thus some of the missionary's
efforts to give meaning to religious exercises are resisted.
Other differences are traced to the respondent's not fulfill-
ing the foreigner's usual "authoritarian," "ecclesiastical
role." He rather prefers to acquaint them with the Scriptures
and encourage them to "trust the Lord to make their own
decisions." Living in the culture also gives the respondent
a different view of the value of centralized training for
church leadership. He considers it very difficult to modify
the effects of the resultant "cultural dislocation." Thus he
claims that training should take place in the culture and
relate to daily life.

The main method of accommodating to the different

 

expectations Of the students is considered to be through
achieving an "insider's" role in the culture. This involves

a thorough facility in the vernacular. Such an understanding
of the culture is necessary before the missionary begins to
prOpagate his message. This, he admits, is contrary to the
usual rapid evangelization schedule of the missionary.
Presenting the Scriptures within the concepts and analogies
of the culture is the only way to transmit the message

effectively. The key to overcoming cultural barriers is the

132

missionary's sympathetic treatment of the people.

In the respondent's determination to avoid the role of
the foreign change agent who expounds on things only from
his own point Of view, he realizes that he was tOO reticent
in following up some "natural openings" tO form relationships
with key peOple in the culture. He realizes this reticence
could have been changed earlier by "simply tracing out
important features in the culture" to discover what role
»he could have adopted. Yet the political uncertainties
at that time increased his desire to be "no threat at all."

The encouraging effects of his teaching have been seen
in "major breakthroughs" when the peOple realize that through
reading the vernacular Scriptures "God really wants to talk
to them." When the peOple act on faith in the Scriptures,
Christianity becomes part of local experience. The respond-
ent is also gratified by successful efforts to encourage the
government to introduce vernacular education for Indians.

As a spinoff to his main aim of Bible translation, this and
other efforts attempt to improve the dignity of Indians in
the society.

In the future the respondent hOpes to encourage the
people to accept more Of the responsibility of teaching
themselves from the Scriptures. He plans to maintain his
"nonauthoritarian, nonecclesiastical" role, yet to be more
”aggressive" in presenting "scriptural alternatives to

IPresent customs" and in training Christian leaders. He hOpes

tub encourage leaders to understand that "being a Christian

133

does not mean rejecting peOple." If the local church
recognizes the culturally important rites Of passage and
"puts Christian content into cultural problems,” this, he
considers, will tie Christianity even more closely to their

every day experience.

Respondent 9: Lisa Rohr

This respondent describes her teaching as "authoritarian"
and "old-fashioned" (i.e. expecting no arguments from child-
ren)- This is reflected in her reference to the need for
teacher control and direction in seven of the nine learning
situations.

Her scores demonstrate a positive response to all

formality levels with stronger preference for both medium and

 

high levels. Teacher control ensures students' interest,
guidance, and actual completion of their required assignments.
A structured seating arrangement is considered to aid listen-
ing and to prevent "socializing." The lessening of choices
is particularly necessary for the important learning of
younger students. The respondent considers her strong con-
trol a sign of caring for students. For older students the
cost Of the course and the reality Of examinations supply the
motivation to learn. Yet even for these students motivation
is likely to diminish when the teacher's control relaxes.

In only one group sharing experience is the absence of the
‘teacher not considered a detriment. The usual tendency is
for students to please the teacher rather than speak their

minds .

134

For the learning experiences the respondent's scores
show a slightly more positive attitude to input than to
self-awareness and sharing. However, in all but one of the
learning situations the emphasis is on input. Important
learning is aided by specific directions from the teacher,
his preferences for a text for clarification, his use Of
media, and his assigning specific exercises. The effectiveness
Of self-awareness experiences, when defined as a required
list-making or review exercise, is only ensured by the
presence of the teacher. Another self-awareness experience
("expressing strong feelings") leads to "getting their
money's worth," presumably of input. Sharing experiences also
focus on sharing the teacher's information or on the
reinforcement of his input. Sharing "what they think" is Of
doubtful significance to important learning as "self-opinionated"
students tend to "hog the situation."

The respondent's readfly formed answers are based on
her unashamed confession of the necessity of being
"authoritarian" with younger children. "Rules make learning
easier for all." Far too often she has "to pick up the
pieces” of the results of teachers allowing permissive
classroom behavior.

The sources of the respondent's present expectations are
traced to her "very good" teacher training where the strict
supervision of her student teaching has made her "very secure"
in teaching. Planning and setting objectives for lessons
became a habit. From her own teaching experience she developed

the expectation of a well-functioning classroom where all

135

students have their particular roles. "Most educational
books are terrible," she states, thus these have not
influenced her teaching practice.

The respondent has taught students from many different
nationalities in international schools. Thus she chose to
focus on the perceptions of Korean college students
concerning the levels and formality and types of learning
experiences which contribute to important learning.

Students are considered decidedly positive to high

formality situations, marginally positive to medium levels

 

and suspicious of low formality. Formality, the focus of
seven of the nine responses, is defined as teacher control.
The role of the teacher is considered the focus of all
legitimate learning experiences. Learning by other means
(e.g.,learning from peers) is merely "accidental."
Teachers are respected, responded to implicitly. Students are
perceived as "used to a totally structured program without
much freedom," and unable to take initiative in learning
situations. They always aim to "feel the teacher out" and
to give an apprOpriate and pleasing response. This causes
the foreign teacher to be "frustrated" and to liken teaching
to "fencing" because she has to "distrust their responses."
Students are perceived as favoring input learning
experiences above self-awareness experiences to which they
are marginally positive. Sharing experiences are considered
suspiciously. The basis for responses is the "culture" which
is wholly focused on the school. Even the family's honor is

at stake in students' examination results. No study is

136

"for fun" but for receiving and memorizing the teacher's
input. Self-awareness experiences when defined as exercises
to please the teacher and not as "discussions" are viewed
favorably. Discussions are "against their culture" and not
understood. Sharing ideas are not expected to produce
important learning. Rote learning rather than learning with
understanding is the expected classroom practice.

Though the scores vary, both respondent and students
express a strong expectation for teacher controlled input in
preferred learning experiences. The reason for the students'
preferences is traced to the "culture," while the respondent's
reasons are traced to her own training, experience and
personality (i.e. being the type of person who "speaks with
authority" to whom peOple "sit up and listen").

The students' scores show a strong variance between
those situations demonstrating teacher controlled input and
those lacking such. Situations requiring student initiative
and responsibility in learning are viewed negatively.
Discussion skills take years Of painstaking effort to deve10p
in students.

The students' differences in expectations are explained

 

mainly in negative terms as the reverse of the respondent's
expectations. Students do not "volunteer information"?

or take initiative. Relationships with students tend to
"get out Of hand" because of the demands of the "culture."
‘These differences make it difficult for missionary teachers

‘tho are "geared to responses" and interested in knowing if

137

their beliefs have actually been accepted. These "barriers"
between cultures are not expected to disappear completely.
But the respondent has had no difficulties in "adjusting"

to the external features of the culture (e.g. wearing a sari,
eating the food). She rather enjoys "doing as they do."

The respondent's policy in making accommodations to the
different expectations of the student is to "give them what
they expect at first" and gradually "work it around to my
methods." After a year in her class children of all
nationalities are responding in the same way. In the
international school students are expected to fit in with
Western culture through the American curriculum, though the
respondent aims not to make the American culture predominant.
Some learning experiences (e.g. discussions), though perhaps
"American," are "beneficial for all cultures tO learn."

More mature students only develOp an ease with these methods
after extended and close relationships with the missionary.
It also takes a long time for them to realize that their
class distinctions are against the Scriptures. Before this
happens, their social values, though sometimes hurtful to
missionaries, have to be accepted.

Changes have come about in the respondent's expectations
as a 'growing experience by trial and error." She has learned
that a quieter approach and more individual attention are
more effective with students. Her ability to bring together
many cultures in the one classroom has developed through

experience. However, her philosophy of education remains the

138

same: children still need a structure to be secure in their
learning.

Other teachers appreciate the positive effects of her
teaching. Her students are "able to settle down and work
straight away." International students, particularly
missionaries' children, value the extra attention Of the
teacher. Those embarrassed by this individualized care
gradually learn to enjoy it. True caring is the key to
effectiveness in all teaching and relationships. The local
Bedouins being less SOphisticated quickly sense the
missionaries' sincere interest in them.

In the future the respondent considers it increasingly
essential for students to be able to make their own decisions,
especially concerning a commitment to Christ. This decision
cannot be made just to please the missionaries. The students
are perceived as realizing they have no hOpe or satisfaction
in their own religion. It is essential for the missionaries

to "back up" their words with action.

Respondent 10: Ed Kerr

 

"In theology classes," says this respondent, "I don't
believe that students' contribution will detract from the
truth. It's independent of me or anybody else. My aim is
to get students to think of all issues involved in a
problem, rather than to lead and protect them.”

He expresses a totally positive preference for low

formality, but is also positive to medium and high formality

 

levels.

139

A relaxed atmosphere and the relieving of the students'
personal problems are considered conducive to important
learning. Spontaneous student sharing is desirable but not a
usual activity expected in classrooms, so students need to be
forewarned. The teacher's embarrassing students with requir-
ing new and unexpected classroom activities is viewed as
"not a very noble motivation." The teacher is not considered
a "guardian of the truth" who monitors students' personal
reflections. A desire to control the input indicates a "lack
Of confidence" in students. Any teacher participation is to
be exercised without condescending control. Low physical
formality in the classroom is not a "fetish" for this
respondent. However,he Objects to learning which merely aims
to satisfy external criteria (i.e.exams).

Strong positive preferences are recorded for both

self-awareness and sharing learning experiences, but the

 

respondent is negative to input experiences. Students'
personal interaction and efforts to understand relevant
material are considered very positively when free from
external monitoring. He values the personal involvement and
responsibility stimulated by sharing experiences.

Input experiences that indicate the teacher's personal
interest in the students and desire for high academic
standards (i.e. with low formality) are considered positively.
However;the respondent is negative to mere "content-oriented"
input, lacking personal application.

Thus the only learning combinations considered negatively

140

are the two which demonstrated high teacher control, no
student interaction, and no application of the content. The
bases for forming these responses are the respondent's own
varied experiences in studying in the USA, Israel and Germany
and in teaching in the USA and Brazil. His own view of
theology, the value of the personal relevancy of learning,
and the teacher's interest in the students also influence

the answers.

The sources for the respondent's expectations are traced
to positive teaching models,who emphasized the necessity of
examining broad trends and making personal application of all
input. From his own experience as a student, he has learned
the extent to which negative emotions can hinder learning.
His German experience has impressed on him the necessity of
grasping underlying presuppositions of different views on a
subject. Several key books have stressed the need to
challenge, to ask questions,and to apply learning to life.
However, his wife, the daughter Of long-term missionaries in
South America, is his chief source of learning about cross-
cultural issues.

The respondent views the students as negative to all

levels of formality, but with a slight preference for high

 

formality. In situations interpreted as demonstrating
complete teacher control in feeding input, confirming
answers,and the students' awe of the teacher, completely
positive answers are recorded. The lessening Of the

teacher's control through his encouragement of individual

141

or peer learning is considered suspiciously.
Students are perceived as being totally positive to

input learning experiences. The teacher's direct input or use

 

of textbooks is commonly expected by Brazilians to bring

about important learning. Self-awareness, defined as the
personal application of knowledge, is considered "confusing"
and not an important learning exercise as knowledge comes only
from the prestigious authority. Receiving the diploma is the
main aim of learning. "They do have ideas," the respondent
says, "but it is a real job to unlock these." His experience
in using topics of high personal interest has helped. Sharing
equated with personal expression is "embarrassing" and not
part of classroom learning. The valued and "real" answers

come from the authority figure.

All responses of students are assessed on the basis Of
similarity of the learning situation to the formal schooling
system in Brazil. The only three totally positive scores
indicate a preference for high teacher control of input.

All other situations indicating an absence of these features
are considered very negatively.

Thus all differences between the teacher's and students'
expectations are related to the disparity between the
teacher's preferences and the traits of the Brazilian
schooling system. To the student, an education means a
successful "filling in of all the blanks," or COpying
answers. The memorization of right answers is aimed at

getting the certificate which leads to a job or promotion.

142

Thus the classroom is the place to receive from the teacher
and to study. In contrast, the respondent does not want the
responsibility of being the authority with all the answers.
He values learning from peers. Knowledge is to be understood
and applied, not merely absorbed. The role of the teacher is
to "provoke students to ask their own questions" and
generate the answers from discussion.

The respondent's positive experiences in accommodations
came through first "plugging more into their problems"

(e.g. the common understandings of the "folk religion")-

But attempts to train students to think methodologically

and examine presuppositions in theology are considered
suspiciously by students. With their "black-white" mentality,
they want a fixed content and a fixed method. However,the
respondent views the content as fixed but the method as
"totally flexible."

Through a growing respect of many different types of
peOple, the respondent's "misconceptions about uneducated
peOple" have changed. He has learned that there are many
other ways of gaining knowledge besides "academics." He
realized the ineffectiveness of trying to train students to
”raise up local churches" before he had been involved in the
local church. However,becoming a pastor made him aware
that missionary training institutions are "not in touch with
what is happening in the society." Missionaries,generally
politically conservative,have a responsibility to be sensitive
to social issues in South America and promote proper directions

in history, not merely teach personal piety. Missionaries also

143

have to share mutual gifts with the church as part of the
"body of Christ" rather than offer their higher training.

In the seminary he has attempted to get students to
think for themselves. Through painfully "going down trying,"
he has discovered the need to give them more "comfort level"
memorization exercises. Changing their expectations of
important learning he began to see is a "developmental
process."

The encouraging effects Of his teaching are noted in the
increasing ability of the students to apply the Scriptures
to their own problems. He aims to make students decision-
makers, rather than dependent on his resources.

In the future the respondent realizes the need to be
less "purist" in his avoidance of memorization exercises for
students. He also realizes that he will have to accommodate
to this "craving" yet wants to "provoke" them out of it and
overcome their insecurity. He hOpes for further efforts to
”Brazilianize" the seminary program and challenges the
mission's foreign concept of their "wholesome atmosphere"
for students. He needs also to reconcile his frustrations of
feeling like a "paid prOpagandist“ as a missionary. His future
work will either be directed to maintaining the seminary
program or to having "authentic existence" as a layman
effectively in touch with the concerns of society. Yet
changes in the mission policy are likely to modify these

alternatives.

144

Summagy

In this chapter the main features of the responses to
the audio-visual instrument are noted. These responses are
then interpreted within the larger context of the interview
data for each missionary teacher.

In Chapter 5 the presentation of the research findings
are continued with an analysis of significant themes from

the interviews.

CHAPTER 5

RESEARCH FINDINGS II

This chapter examines the research findings according
to significant themes common to all respondents. Observations

on these themes are also presented.

Overview

The previous chapter reviewed each case study. The data
Obtained from the two uses of the expectations of learning
instrument was interpreted in terms of the descriptive
interview data.

The concern of this chapter is to trace the significant
themes Of these case studies by categories which represent

both extreme and central tendencies of interpretations.

Formality

Both respondents' answers and their perceptions of
students' answers focus less on the formality aspect of
learning situations in eight of nine cases. It is only the
exam orientation of situation 9 (MF-I) that causes them to
stress the formality aspect to a slightly greater degree.

Six respondents perceive a wide contrast between their

145

146

expectations of low formality in important learning situations
and their students' preferences for high formality. Two
respondents consider that their students share their
preferences for high formality, while another two respondents
view their students as sharing their preferences for low

formality.

According to Teachers' Expectations

The respondents generally define formality as the degree
Of teacher domination in the classroom. The physical setting
is of little influence in the definition. The formality
levels of the total 90 learning situations are interpreted in
this way: 37 as high formality, 6 as medium formality, 47 as
low formality. Thus medium formality is not a significant
consideration for respondents. Input experiences are mostly
associated with expectations of high formality. Low formality
situations are more commonly associated with sharing and
self-awareness learning experiences.

Preferences for Low Formality. Eight respondents expect
lower formality in important learning situations. This is
associated with the teacher's "creativity," (encouraging the
student's personal growth), the student's participation, high
motivation, and freedom from external restrictions. To these
.respondents, high formality indicates the teacher's control of
standards, input, and "putting students on the spot." It
.implies the teacher's desire to play the role of the expert,
61nd be the only source of knowledge when learning is an

i_nternalized process which cannot be externally forced.

147

However,these respondents value a type of teacher
control that is geared to the best interests of the student
as the particular respondent views these. Thus low formality
does not mean the teacher's lack of involvement. Rather the
teacher's high sense of responsibility towards students
indicates the need to aid but not dominate personal develop-
ment. Two respondents (Wilson, Gegner) claim that lower
formality is more conducive to achieving "growth to maturity
in Christ" and the mutual aim of both teacher and students.

Several qualifications are placed on these respondents'
preferences for low formality. Johnson, the only science
teacher, associates low formality with the teacher's dealing
with broad concepts or reasoning processes based on personal
values. Even these issues are not "efficiently" handled
within the teacher's framework. Committed to institutional,
academic excellence, Johnson claims that science demands the
teacher's precise definition and guidance in the "rational
selection of those areas of knowledge of broadest application."
Bowers associates low formality with her teaching ideals.
However,she admits that in the rush of getting information to
students in the classroom, high formality is more usual in
teaching practice. Bowers and Johnson, together with three
other respondents who teach in institutional settings (Wilson,
Gegner, Kerr), expect the loss of some student interest with
lower formality. They contrast general student motivation
with their own highly develOped motivation. Gegner and Kerr,

‘who comment on the greater motivation of their students in

148

out-of-school settings, associate this with lessening the gap
between students and teacher.

The two respondents (Gross, Norton), who express a more un-
qualified expectation of low formality in their own learning
and teaching situations, prefer to teach in out-of-school
settings. To them student motivation is only a problem when
the teacher does not have a culturally acceptable role or use
relevant linguistic analogies. Becker also prefers low
formality and teaches in nonformal modes. However,she clings
to the "old-fashioned idea" that the teacher should be the
“final deciding factor," particularly in directing courses.

Preferences for High Formality. Beach and Rohr, who
expect high formality in important learning situations, also
consider themselves "old-fashioned.” They contrast teacher
control with student control. The latter involves confusion,
disorder and "classes of no basis." Both relate the need for
teacher control to the nature of their students' limitations.
The possible miscomprehensions of Beach's "theologically
illiterate" students need to be clarified by the missionary's
greater knowledge of the Bible. Rohr's young students in
international schools need fewer choices and more structure
to make them secure in their learning. Rohr unashamedly admits
that her "authoritarian" methods have been successful. The
sign of her care for students is "having my finger on exactly
what they are doing." However,Beach is concerned that
missionaries be less authoritarian and stresses his own

development in this direction.

149

It is interesting to note that in the learning situations
with which Beach identifies personally he recognizes his own
high preferences for low formality (i.e. no monitoring or even
preplanning for effective learning). Yet both he and Rohr
assume that a lack of such student motivation is more common
in actual teaching practice. The presence of input experiences
is valued or their absence criticized in most high formality

situations in their responses.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

* Low formality is associated with the teacher's concern
for students' personal growth over performing the
role of the expert.

* Low formality is associated with sharing and self-
awareness experiences.

* Low formality is associated with high student

motivation in nonformal learning.

3|-

Low formality is associated with possible loss of
student motivation in schooling settings.

* High formality is associated with input experiences.

3|-

High formality is associated with a view of students'

abilities as limited.

According to Students' Expectations

In contrast to the expectations of the majority of the
respondents for low formality, more students are perceived as
expecting high formality in important learning situations.

Preferences for High Formality. Eight respondents

150

perceive students in other cultures as preferring high formal-
ity in situations producing important learning. This type of
high formality is unmodified, authoritarian teacher control
with student subservience. Three respondents (Wilson, Gegner,
Rohr) trace this preference mainly to the hierarchial
structures of the culture, while the three other respondents
(Bowers, Johnson, Becker) trace it to the outmoded, extant
colonial structures of education. The students' preference
for high formality is always associated with a strong
preference for input received directly from the teacher.

Low formality is perceived by the students as the
abdication of the teacher's legitimate role. It is associated
with personal reflection and peer-sharing which are of
doubtful value in Obtaining right answers, the main purpose
of learning.

A wide variance between very strong preferences for high

formality and very weak preferences for low formality is noted
in all the responses of these students. Some degree of school-
ing in institutional settings has been experienced by seven
groups of students perceived as preferring high formality.
The other students are unschooled, illiterate women, whose
children attend school. These mothers are denied the benefits
Of this prestigious system. Becker objects to the power of
the formal educational system to make these women feel
"stupid" (i.e. incapable of learning).

Two respondents (Bowers, Gegner) stress that their

students' preference for lower formality increases as they

151

become used to the more "positive structures" of the
missionary's learning environment. "After they get over the
shock of it" they learn to prefer the smaller gap between
teacher and students. A decreasing of the authoritarian role
of the teacher is interpreted by four respondents (Bowers,
Wilson, Johnson, Gegner) as part of the missionary's
responsibility in teaching biblical values. However;time and
patience are required for developing such relationships.
Wilson concludes that elitism is so ingrained in the schooling
structures that the features of grading and competition be
eliminated or the structures themselves be abandoned for
biblical principles to prevail in mission institutions.

Even when theological education is conducted in
nonformal modes, students who have experienced some schooling
still prefer a leader with "stature" (i.e.foreign). Beach
agrees with his students that someone Of "higher training"
always monitor nonformal learning sessions to prevent the
erroneous interpretation of biblical truth.

Preferences for Low Formality. Two respondents (Gross,
Norton) perceive their students as expecting lower formality
in important learning situations. Their learning occurs in
the traditional method of sharing of group members. Unfamiliar
with a classroom, these students view higher formality as the
imposition of ideas by someone outside of the immediate group.
Schooling associated with higher formality shifts the focus
Of students' learning from themselves to the teacher with

whom they only slowly are identifying. Students becoming

152

used to schooling tend to impose highly formal structures on
their peers (e.g., church services with preaching from pulpit.
and invitations for repentance). If accepted by the unschooled,
these are meaningless rituals. Thus for these students a

wide variance is noted between the greater preferences for

low formality and the lesser preferences for high formality.

In the experience of Gross and Norton, the foreigner,
who has no significant role in the society, adopts a high
formality role. This indicates a lack of cultural identifica-
tion and is associated more with implementing a program than
with being concerned for the peOple. This is considered more
a pattern of former than of present missionary endeavor.

Gross and Norton recognize that the people's definition
of low formality is different from their idea of a mutual
sharing Of equals. The low formality desired by the people
requires freedom from outside control but involves indoctrina-
tion and domination by significant peOple within the group.
Low formality is the culturally harmonious way of a powerful

leader enforcing group consensus.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

* A wide variance in preferences of high and low formality
levels is associated with students of other cultures.

* High formality is associated with colonial schooling
patterns and hierarchial structures in other cultures.

* Low formality is associated with closer relationships

between the foreign teacher and students in other

153

cultures.

* Low formality is associated with biblical values.

* High formality is associated with input experiences
in schooling settings.

* High formality in nonschooling settings is associated
with the imposition of ideas foreign to the group.

* Low formality is associated with consensus decision-
making processes in other cultures.

* Low formality is associated with a foreigner's

adOption of an accepted role in the other culture.

Learning Experiences

 

In eight of the nine learning situations, the focus of
both respondents'and students' responses is more on the type
of learning experience in describing their expectations of
important learning. In fact, the following learning situations
lend themselves more strongly to a focus on the type of learn-
ing experience feature in over half of all responses of
respondents and students (N=180): HF-SA (#1); HF-S (#2);
LF-SA (#3); LF-S (#5): MF—S (#6); LF-S (#7).

Respondents readily assess their students' expectations
of learning experiences. The complex task of determining their
own preferences demands the weighing of many influencing
factors (e.g., type of input, nature of class, students'
preparation). However, the expectations of eight groups of
students are seen to be governed by one factor - the desire
for the teacher's input. Students' responses also demonstrate
a greater variance and more negative attitudes than the

teachers' more evenly distributed responses. Beach is the

154

only respondent who gives more generous scores to his students
than to himself. However, this reflects more his suspicious

attitude to the first use of the instrument.

According to Respondents' Expectations

Six respondents interpret the learning experiences as they
are defined by the research instrument. Thus in input experi-
ences students receive new information from an external source.
Self—awareness is "thinking for yourself," "chewing the cud,"
"clarifying personal values." Sharing is the interchange of
ideas between peers. From his science teaching orientation,
Johnson relates sharing and self-awareness experiences to the
development of concepts or reasoning processes, and input to
the giving of specific facts. Three other respondents
interpret the three learning experiences more in terms of
their preferences for input (e.g., sharing involving sharing
the teacher's input).

No Marked Preferences. Two respondents (Wilson, Gegner)

 

value all types of learning experiences especially when
these are associated with personal application, high student
motivation, and lack of teacher domination.

Preferences for Self-Awareness and Sharing. Five
respondents (Gross, Johnson, Norton, Becker, Kerr) prefer
self-awareness and sharing over input experiences. Becker and
Kerr are particularly negative to input experiences because of
an assumed orientation to external criteria (exams) and lack
of dialogue between teacher and students. Gross and Norton

appreciate the immediate relevance and personal choice in

155

self—awareness and sharing experiences. They also value input
that is related to students' interests and is not imposed in
a mass, regimented way.

Johnson also prefers self-awareness and sharing over
input experiences. To him, important learning always relates
the clearly defined items of specific knowledge (of input
experiences) to their broader concepts (of self-awareness and
sharing experiences). However, in his experience self-
awareness and sharing experiences are less commonly associated
with the lower motivation in the classroom and can become
quite "inefficient" if not structured by the teacher.

Preferences for Input. Input experiences are valued

 

highly by three respondents (Bowers, Beach, Rohr). They also
express a preference for high formality. Beach and Rohr
interpret all learning experiences in terms of the teacher's
input. They are negative to learning situations where no

fresh input comes from outside the students (i.e. students are
"just using their internal processes" or "sharing what they
think"). Bowers, however, appreciates the personal stimulation
of "thinking for myself" and of sharing personal ideas freely
and confidently. But in her Opinion most students are not highly

motivated and teachers concentrate on just giving input.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

* A positive attitude to all learning experiences is
related to the personal application and relevance of
learning.

* A positive attitude of all learning experiences is

156

Students engage in these activities outside the classroom
among their own peers but consider them "recreational."
Within the classroom they comply with any teacher request
for these types of experiences but consider the learning
comes afterwards as the teacher resumes control.

However,five respondents (Bowers, Wilson, Gegner, Rohr,
Kerr) claim that preferences for sharing and self-awareness
experiences increase as students become more comfortable with
the missionary's schooling environment. It is a painstaking,
lengthy yet necessary process to develOp these preferences in
students. Half of Gegner's responses for students are
marginally negative as she perceives her students to be in
this transition away from former rote learning practices to
the "positive" learning experiences of her college. Three
respondents (Wilson, Gegner, Rohr) consider that their
students' conversion and spiritual growth depend on the
development of these independent, critical thinking processes.

It is interesting to note that the seven of the eight
respondents who perceive their students as strongly preferring
input expect their students to value the same type of learning
as they value ("relating facts to broader concepts," "thinking

methodologically," "critical processes,' "discussions like
Americans"). It is a frustrating and even surprising
experience to find out that students do not have such prefer-
ences. Becker, who appears less frustrated, is content for the

illiterate women to think of her lessons of little value

other than "enjoyable diversions from their humdrum routines."

157

related to high student motivation.

* A positive attitude to all learning experiences is
related to low formality situations.

* A preference for input experiences is associated with

high formality.

According to Students' Expectations

In 54 of the total 90 learning situations, the perceived
degree of relevancy of the learning experience is the complete
focus of students' responses. Input experiences are considered
to be represented in 65 of these learning situations. Self-
awareness and sharing experiences are not commonly associated
with important learning, particularly in schooling settings.

Preferences for Input. Eight groups of students are

 

considered to value input most highly and to interpret 67 of
the 72 learning situations in terms of input. Seven of these
groups are in institutional settings and have already
experienced some schooling. The other group has no access to
schooling, but highly prizes its social and economic benefits.
Input is expected to be received directly from the prestigious
teacher. It is absorbed and regurgitated in examinations.
Knowledge, the "real answers," is not expected to be
personally relevant or generated through self-reflection or
dialogue with peers.

Some respondents trace the desire for input to the
students' hierarchial cultures which stress acquiescence and
lack of reflection. The rote learning of the formal schooling

system confirms the desire for the authority's input considered

158

to be bred by the culture. Three respondents (Bowers,
Wilson, Kerr) lay some blame on the missionaries for confirm-
ing this content-oriented system in their own teaching

by not sufficiently stimulating thinking or "critical
processes."

The strangeness of the schooling exercises (list-making,
note-taking), the lack of relation of the subject matter to
their previous knowledge and learning in a foreign language
are factors considered by these respondents to increase the
students' focus on input. As Wilson says, “They're so used
to ingesting stuff that they don't understand. Words come at
them instead of ideas. A partial picture seems normal-"

These same respondents consider their students negative
to sharing and self-awareness experiences when they interpret
these as discussions or reflections on personal ideas. Becker
claims that her illiterate students lack "the world Of ideas,"
Three other respondents (Bowers, Wilson, Rohr) comment that
their students are not expected to have ideas in their cultures.
Kerr credits his students with having ideas, "but it is a real
job to unlock them." Another group of students has "a natural
desire for communication" but it is to be "curbed" and directed
towards "profitable" input, according to Beach.

Bowers is aware that her students feel they have nothing
to contribute from their village backgrounds and are confused
when asked to do so. Kerr's students find sharing
”embarrassing" and suspect he is trying to "do something to

them" in his efforts to get them to think for themselves.

159

Unlike the other respondents, she does not have the pressure
of institutional schedules and examinations.

Preferences for Sharing. Beach and Norton perceive their

 

unschooled, illiterate or marginally literate students as
viewing only two of the nine learning situations (#4, #9) as
input experiences. These students are negative to input if

it is imposed by those outside the group and not relevant to
their concerns and given in their context. Any learning
experiences directly related to the skills of schooling_(e.g..
review of notes,preparation for exams) are considered irrelev-
ant motions. Learning is traditionally done through sharing
within the group. The most forceful person attempts to
establish the superiority of his ideas. Both respondents base
their teaching in nonschooling settings but within traditional
learning patterns, and attempt to encourage mutuality between
their students and themselves. For Norton's purposes of

Bible translation, sharing is a preferable learning experience
for Christians as non-Christians are in the habit of "never
first volunteering the truth." Both Gross and Norton see
problems with self-awareness experiences. To Gross they
represent individual thinking, unconfirmed by the group and
thus are culturally irrelevant. Norton realizes that his
students cannot use their conceptual skills until the

missionary's foreign content is expressed in their analogies.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* Fewer factors are necessary to consider in determining

the learning expectations of students in other cultures.

160

* A preference for input experiences is associated with
the schooling system.

* A preference for input is associated with a stress on
acquiescence in the other cultures.

* Preferences for sharing and self-awareness experiences
develOp with increasing relationships with foreign
teachers who also prefer these.

* A preference for sharing is associated with the
traditional learning patterns of nonschooling

settings.

Role of Teacher

 

The respondents perceive the role of the teacher in two
contrasting dimensions: as a presenter of knowledge, and as
an encourager of the students' own discovery processes.

A Presenter of Knowledge

 

The five respondents (Bowers, Beach, Johnson, Becker,
Rohr) who consider the teacher as a presenter of knowledge
stress several common features: the achieving of the teacher's
aims, the ordering of the classroom and the students'
attention to the teacher: the teacher's precision in defining
the knowledge; the teacher's closely monitoring the students'
intake of knowledge. Student participation is less emphasized
though all respondents infer that this is an ideal which can
be incorporated in a.well-functioning learning situation.
Becker particularly stresses that knowledge be presented

enthusiastically.

161

This knowledge is not totally theoretical and unrelated
to students' concerns. In fact, Beach sees the need for this
knowledge to be increasingly applied to the students' daily
lives. Johnson is concerned to overcome compartmentalizing of
scientific concepts from the "oriental view of life." Bowers,
too,realizes the need to make both medical knowledge and
practice culturally relevant but admits the confusion of both
students and teacher in attempting to relate scientific
procedures to a "primitive" background.

All respondents view their knowledge as unfamiliar to the
students, particularly those in other cultures. The teacher's
responsibility is to generate this new knowledge in the
students. Limitations in the students' backgrounds (e.g.

primitive culture, "theological illiteracy,' interest in facts
over wider concepts, Muslim religion) cause such knowledge to
be remote from them. These inadequacies are only overcome by
the teacher's contributions. The students are expected to
absorb the teacher's knowledge so that teaching aims can be
fulfilled. This view of the teacher's role is compatible
with the role expected of teachers in the schooling settings
of the respondents' students. However these settings are
perceived as demanding unmitigated authoritarian control.
Three of the respondents (Bowers, Johnson, Becker), who

prefer lower formality learning situations, actually exercise
greater teacher control (higher formality) in performing their
overseas teaching. The other two respondents (Beach, Rohr)

expect the teacher to exercise firm control in all learning

environments.

162

The relationship between teacher and students is not a
matter of unconcern for those holding this view of the teacher's
role. Closer relationships and the students' enjoyment of
learning appear more possible to achieve in Becker's non-
schooling setting (Bible lessons for the Muslim women in their
courtyards).

An Encourager of Students' Discovery Processes

The five respondents (Gross, Wilson, Gegner, Norton, Kerr),
who view the teacher more as an encourager or stimulator of
the students' own discovery processes, stress these common
features: the relevance of materials to students' interests;
the students' desire for learning and personal development;
the teacher's stimulating the students' thinking abilities.
Students' capabilities are emphasized over their limitations.
This role is associated with close student-teacher relation-
ships and the teacher's avOidance of being an "expert." To
different degrees they consider themselves learners with their
students as well as teachers. To these respondents, learning
involves more the development of the person, change in behavior,
rather than the mere acquisition of knowledge and skills. To
Gegner, the teacher's giving of input is an inferior method of
teaching which she "falls back on" when she encounters
difficulties in fulfilling her preferred teaching role.

The respondents (Wilson, Gegner, Kerr) who feel compelled
to modify their preferred role, or even abandon it completely
when teaching students Of other cultures, Operate in a context

which is associated with teaching as absorbing knowledge

163

(schools)- Wilson and Gegner also teach in a language which
is not the students' vernacular. This forces students to
grasp at words and become accustomed to "incomplete pictures,"
says Wilson.

The frustration of not fulfilling their preferred
teaching role causes these respondents to make concerted
efforts to modify the effects of schooling structures on their
students' learning. These five respondents have all experienced
that the teacher can Operate as a stimulator of the students'
own learning more harmoniously in nonschooling contexts.
However,in the schooling environment they are forced to adopt
roles more oriented to higher formality and to the imparting
of input. Though they personally value teacher-oriented roles
less, such are expected by their students in these environ-
ments.

The two respondents (Gross, Norton),who operate in the
traditional context of the students (their homes, farms),
are not forced to abandon their preferred teaching role. Using
the language of the peOple they are able to respond to
specific points of interest and in the peOple's valued modes
of learning (sharing with low formality).

Influence of Missionary Status

 

For all respondents the perception of the teacher's role
is influenced by the fact that they are missionary teachers.
Though variously defined, their main aim is to influence people
to become Christians and to "grow to maturity in Christ.“

It is generally recognized that this is a "spiritual"

transformation and cannot be achieved by the missionary.

164

The "spontaneity" desired by the missionaries of "the Word
of God taking hold of peOple's lives" can only be achieved by
the Holy Spirit, says Beach.

Though this overall aim is readily acceptable to all
respondents, there is a wide divergence on the nature of the
preparation to achieve this aim. It appears that those with
a student-centered view of the teaching role make greater
efforts to ensure that the materials they present are
relevant to students and expressed in their cultural analogies.
They encourage students to weigh alternatives through develop-
ing their own discovery processes. All these efforts involve
the students' participation. These respondents express the
desire not to make students dependent on them and not to
appear "responsible for the truth."

Three of the respondents (Beach, Becker, Rohr) with a
more teacher-oriented view of their role claim that the facts
of the Gospel have to be presented by the missionary clearly,
simply and protected from the students' miscomprehensions. It
is assumed that, as the Scriptures "fit all cultures," "the
all-powerful God will do something with this knowledge" pres-
ented by the missionary. This "something" is the desired spirit-
ual transformation. Beach is concerned that scriptural knowledge
be divested of the missionary's cultural baggage to be presented
in a "positive" way. The Holy Spirit, not the missionary,
becomes the real teacher. However,at this point ideally the
missionaries stOp. This "pure" presentation is sufficient to

lead people to the point of faith (spiritual transformation).

165

It is interesting to note that the two respondents with a
more teacher-oriented view of their role (Bowers, Johnson) and
who are not primarily involved in Bible teaching, show more
concern that the teacher make efforts to make knowledge
relevant to their students. Thus Johnson's efforts at over-
coming compartmentalization are considered to offer students
more hOpeful alternatives both in faith and life. To Bowers
cultural relevance is an important but a necessarily neglected
aspect of her program because her time is so limited. She

barely has time to prepare the basic facts to give to students.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* The role of the teacher as knowledge-giver is
associated with an emphasis on student limitations.

* The role of the teacher as knowledge-giver is
associated with higher formality, particularly in
reaching students of other cultures.

* The role of the teacher as an encourager of the
students' own discovery processes is associated with
an emphasis on student capabilities.

* The role of the teacher as an encourager of the
students' own discovery processes is more harmoniously
fulfilled in nonschooling learning contexts.

* The role of the teacher as an encourager of the
students' own discovery processes is associated with
‘efforts by the teacher to prepare students for
"spiritual transformation."

* The role of the teacher as knowledge-giver is associated

166

with a greater emphasis on presenting the "pure"
facts of the Gospel to prepare students for

"spiritual transformation."

Sources of Expectations

 

All respondents find it a difficult task to trace the
wide variety of the sources of their expectations. SO many
diverse and contrasting influences have molded their prefer-
ences that it is almost impossible to specify the learning
expectations which stem from clearly definable sources.

In contrast, the sources of students' expectations of learn-

ing experiences are readily traced to one or two broad causes.

Sources of Teachers' Expectations

Two broad categories are noted for sources of teachers'
eXpectations: sources related to schooling (e.gu experiences
both as students and as teachers; preScribed reading; models
of teachers; specific missionary training), and sources not
related to schooling (e.g. observations of personality
characteristics, informal eXperiences, reading chosen by
respondent)-

Sources related to Schooling. The six respondents
(Bowers, Beach, Wilson, Johnson, Rohr, Kerr), who trace their
expectations concerning learning to mainly schooling sources,
are involved primarily in institutional teaching. However,
these respondents are by no means locked into these sources
only. For Beach, Wilson, and Kerr specifically, their

teaching experiences in out-Of-school contexts have increasingly

167

convinced them of the advantages of nonformal extension type
learning and teaching over the more traditional institutional
training. The teacher models admired by Wilson and Kerr are
those who demonstrate how the students' personal development
instead of the more usual authoritarian control of the teacher
can characterize a more effective learning environment even in
a schooling context. Wilson and Kerr are most conscious of
the need to modify the negative effects of schooling.

Sources Unrelated to Schooling. Gross, Becker and

 

Norton, who are involved in teaching in out-Of-school contexts,
trace their expectations concerning learning mainly to sources
not specifically related to schooling. They emphasize
completely informal experiences (e.g. "keeping my eyes and
ears Open"), as well as planned programs (e.g. cooperatives).
It is significant that these respondents stress more highly
the importance of experiences in the other cultures as sources
of their expectations (e.g. a study of communication patterns
reveals the most effective role for the missionary teacher).

It is interesting that Gegner, who considers "unstructured
church training and formal Bible college training" in the
Philippines to be equally valid and complementary, traces her
expectations to both schooling and nonschooling sources.

Other Sources. All respondents trace some of the sources
of their expectations to their positive personality character-

istics (e.g. being a "people lover,' "continuous learner,"
an "authoritarian person," a highly motivated person)-

The formal schooling resources of their home country tend to

168

be the avenues for finding solutions to the major hindrances
to the fulfilling of their expectations towards teaching in
other cultures (e.g. a formal course in cross-cultural nursing
would help Bowers to understand better what she could expect
her students to contribute to her program from their own
background)- Johnson and Norton also consider it important
to relate their experiences to the associated disciplines at
home. The lack of formal training (e.g.,in anthrOpology or
teacher training) is viewed in varying degrees a limitation

to the effective performance of the missionary role.

Sources of Students' Expectations

 

The sources of the expectations of the seven groups of
students involved in the mission institutional training are
traced to their former rigid schooling patterns, remnants of
colonial education systems. The values of these systems are
so socially prestigious that they establish the criteria for
"real learning" even for the unschooled, according to Becker.
The consequent expectation of the authoritarian role of the
all-knowing teacher is further cemented by the hierarchial
structures of the students' cultures, according to five of
the respondents.

Gross and Norton consider that the expectations of their
unschooled students towards learning stem from the traditions
of "oral indoctrination" in their cultures. Gross notes that
the people's strong preference for freedom in discussion is

also a reSponse to past colonial domination.

169

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* Respondents view the sources of their expectations as
diverse.

* Respondents view the sources of students' expectations
as limited.

* Respondents in schooling settings trace their
expectations to mainly schooling sources.

* Respondents in out-of-school settings trace their
expectations to mainly nonschooling sources.

* All respondents trace some of their expectations to
their positive personality traits.

* The sources of the expectations of students in schooling
contexts are traced to former schooling experiences
and confirmed by similar features in their cultures.

* The sources of the expectations of students in
nonschooling contexts are traced to their cultural

traditions.

Respondents' Views of Students

 

Being missionaries, the respondents are committed to the
fact that an ultimate change (conversion) through faith in
Jesus Christ is necessary for all people, irrespective of
their culture. However, even with this overall purpose as
their motivating force, the respondents appear to adopt two
different basic premises as they view their students of other
cultures: students need to be accepted or they need to be
changed. It is interesting to note how this basic perception

of their students in fact affects the way in which the

170

respondents consider their main purpose can be achieved.

Students to be Accepted

"Sure there are lots of ways by which we can make life
easier for the peOple," observes Norton. "But missionaries
should go into a community and find some roles whereby they
can be accepted and not come on as change agents from the
first day." The language and the culture are to be thoroughly
learned before any "active propagating of a message" is begun.
Otherwise the missionaries misrepresent the gospel by their
ignorance and superior attitudes and the peOple destroy their
relationships by adopting meaningless Western formalisms.

Only after 25 years of adopting the role of a learner in the
culture, Norton began to feel more comfortable in presenting
"scriptural alternatives." He recognizes that he was probably
too reticent but feared to multiply the "tragic cases" resulting
from missionaries' attempting to change people without
understanding their culture.

After experiencing failure in attempting to change Korean
farming practices, Gross too stresses the approach of
"starting from where the peOple are" and working through
their desires for changes.

It is significant that these two respondents view their
expectations of learning-teaching situations as similar to
those of their students. They also both Operate in the
students' environment, not within an institutional setting.
The respondents realize that they have been conditioned to

conform to the high formality input learning situations in

171

their American schooling experiences. Even though they have
benefited from schooling to considerable degrees, they prefer
freedom and informality even within schooling structures.
Thus they perceive their preferences for learning situations
to be similar to their unschooled students. In fact, they do
not label the Indians and Chadians as "students," but as their
co-workers, friends, and, indeed, teachers. The ultimate change
Of conversion and becoming strong Christians is only effected
by the spontaneous desires of the peOple in response to the
Scriptures and to the missionary's care.

Operating also in an out-of-school context, Becker too
is more accepting of the peOple's present expectations. In
contrast to Gross and Norton, she perceives these as being
completely different from her expectations. The illiterate
women view "real learning" as a painful, highly structured
system of getting the right answers in formal schools. Her
classes are enjoyable entertainment in their homes. Yet this
is an advantage in fulfilling her missionary aim. The women
do not expect to learn but, in fact, the respondent believes
she is "building up a reservoir of scriptural knowledge" that
they will be "ready to respond to when the right moment comes."

Students to be Changed

 

Seven respondents (Bowers, Beach, Wilson, Johnson, Gegner,
Rohr, Kerr) view their students as needing to be changed,
prodded into different ways, or challenged to confront their
present misconceptions. Changes are assumed necessary in both

the students' expectations towards learning situations and their

172

basic values because of the inadequacies of their backgrounds
‘(primitive or authoritarian cultures, exam-oriented schooling).
The respondents consider themselves to varying degrees to be
key figures in either stimulating or directing these changes
within their institutional settings.

It is interesting to note that three of these respondents
(Wilson, Gegner, Kerr) perceive their students' expectations
of high formality-input experiences in important learning
situations to be markedly different from and the negative of
their expectations. The other four respondents (Bowers, Beach,
Johnson, Rohr) consider their students' expectations to be
similar to their own. Yet they consider that their students'
expectations lack significant dimensions which to them are
important (e.g. sharing or relating ideas to wider contexts).

The changes desired in students are necessary to produce
skills or attitudes which the respondents highly value. Thus
the "little Dyak nurses" have to develop medical judgment;
African church leaders must make their own applications of the
Scriptures to their daily lives: Filipino theological students
must develOp "critical processes" to become "mature Christians";
Koren students need to express individual opinions, not to just
please authorities; Brazilian students have to become
"decision-makers." All of these changes are essential if the
missionaries' ultimate aim of encouraging "Christian growth"

is to be achieved.

173

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* A premise of accepting students is associated with
operating in nonschooling settings.

* A premise of accepting students is associated with
similar preferences by teacher and students for lower
formality sharing learning situations.

* A view of students as needing change is associated
with operating in schooling settings.

* A view of students as needing change is associated with
wide differences between the learning preferences of

teacher and students.

I-

A view of students as needing change is associated with
the students' expectations eventually becoming similar

to the teacher's expectations.

Differences in Expectations

 

Most respondents are aware of only gross differences
between the expectations of teacher and students concerning
learning situations. According to eight respondents, the
students' different expectations are described as the negative
of the respondents' expectations (e.g., the students do not
value peer sharing). This assumes that the teacher's expecta-
tions are the norm, the standard to which students' expecta-
tions must be raised. These Opposite expectations of the
students display extreme preferences for high formality-input
experiences which the respondents have either modified or
abandoned. The respondents link these Opposite expectations

with broad categories of values, views of relationships and

174

thought patterns. Thus fear of authority, disrespect for peers,
lack of reflection, preference for absorbing facts over deal-
ing with concepts, lack of personal applications, lack of
internal motivation are all associated with the students'
expectations.

It is interesting to note that the respondent Norton,who
is most aware of specific differences in students' values,views
of relationships and thought patterns, shares similar expecta-
tions towards learning situations with his students. Norton
notices that when students are removed from their culture and
made to conform to schooling values, they develop these opposite
expectations which other respondents identify in their students.
Norton regards these expectations conditioned by formal school-
ing and their associated values as "worthless formalisms" and
signs of "cultural dislocation." The missionary who Operates
only in Western schooling contexts sees only these formalisms
in students and does not have an insider's view into the
culture to appreciate its complexity and richness of linguistic
and cultural differences. To Norton, these were exciting to
discover and not representative of any inferiority or wrong.
Thus he does not stress how far student differences were
removed from his own preferences. Rather he attempts to
discover the logic of their actions and preferences which
counter Western logic.

Other respondents (Bowers, Becker) attribute some of the
basic appreciation of their students' different expectations

to their understanding of linguistic differences through

175

learning of the vernacular. Political crises (e.g.national-
ization of the church) have forced an awareness of different
expectations on two respondents (Beach, Becker). Others appear
to discover these differences as they encounter difficulties

in fulfilling their teaching aims. Most respondents readily
trace these differences to one or two broad causes (e.g.the
authoritarian culture or the formal education system). The
causes of their own expectations are more complex and related
to individual preferences.

Differences in expectations are variously viewed in these
ways: hindrances to the students' operating in the teacher's
environment; features to be Observed for the teacher's harmon-
ious operating in the students' environment: and items of
decreasing importance with the teacher and students

appreciating the need to learn to "grow together.“

Differences as Hindrances for Students

Six respondents view the students' different expectations
as those features they consider the students lack. Three
respondents (Bowers, Beach,ROhr) focus on the students'
deficient mechanical abilities to Operate efficiently in the
missionary's institutional setting (e.g. poor notetaking,low
reading ability, inability to discuss).

UndevelOped conceptual abilities (e.g. lack of critical
processes, inability to relate specific facts to wider
concepts) hamper students' developments according to three
respondents (Wilson, Johnson, Kerr). Respondents trace

some of the students' different expectations to lacking values

176

(e.g.,desire to alleviate suffering and to personally apply
lessons). All respondents encounter these different expecta-
tions as students attempt to function in their schooling
settings.

Differences as Items for Respondents' Study

Three respondents (Gross, Becker, Norton) view the
students' different expectations as features to be closely
noted, studied and accounted for if the missionary is going to
operate harmoniously in their system. It is interesting to
note that Gross notices more similarities than differences in
his students' expectations. It is these three respondents
who also see more differences among individual students'
expectations and are interested in accounting for varying
causes for these. They also seem more aware of how the
teachers' expectations are viewed by the students.

Dissppearinngifferences

Gegner views the differences in the students' expectations
as merely individual differences which she broadly categorizes
as those possessing or lacking "internal motivation." She
views the expectations of students in America in the same way.
Culturally-imposed differences in expectations, she claims,
fade as she gets to know her students as "people, not
Filipinos" and they gradually learn to value what the

teacher values in teaching-learning situations.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* A view of the students' expectations as opposite to the

respondents' expectations is associated to the students'

177

extreme preferences for high formality—input learning
experiences.

* A View of the students' expectations as opposite to the
respondents' expectations is associated with
explanations in terms of broad causes.

* A view of the students' different expectations as
deficiencies is associated with their functioning in
the respondent's formal learning environments.

* A greater awareness of differences is associated with

a greater cultural awareness.

*

A view of the fading differences in students'
expectations is associated with their expectations

becoming similar to those of their teacher.

Accommodations

 

Accommodations to the different expectations of teachers
and students are approached in these general ways: the students
need to accommodate to the teacher's expectations; the teacher
needs to accommodate to the students' expectations; both the
teacher and the students need to accommodate to the best

method to achieve the highest purposes of learning.

Accommodating to Teacher's Expectations

The seven respondents (Bowers, Beach, Wilson, Johnson,
Gegner, Rohr, Kerr), with a view of students as needing to be
changed, focus attention on students' accommodations to the
expectations of their teachers. Students coming into the

institutional learning environment of these respondents have

178

two types of accommodations: they have to increase their
preferences for the positive values (e.g. desire to apply
learning to life) and skills (e.g.notetaking) which the
respondents associate with schooling; they have also to
decrease their preferences for negative schooling values.

The respondents consider that the latter (e.g. desire for

rote learning exam orientation, awe of teacher) are conditioned
by the students' former schooling experiences and authoritarian
cultures. Students are therefore expected to accommodate

to the missionary's schooling environment and at the same time
reduce the accommodations they made to former schooling
environments.

Four respondents (Bowers, Wilson, Gegner, Kerr) consider
that the institutions of the missionaries display more of the
"positive" features of schooling (e.g. less distance between
students and teacher, discussion and self-expression, more
application of content). These features are completely lacking
in the students' former schools.

Johnson believes his institution displays Christian
values (e.g. dependable weights in the science lab are to
remind students of an unchanging God). However,his institution
is restricted by an external examination system and thus has to
conform to its demands as do other institutions in India.

Both his own and student accommodations are made within the
strictures of satisfying external criteria, but creatively
capitalize on Opportunities to "do the system better" (e.g.

use of semimicro methods, low-cost electronic technology,

179

relating of exam facts to wider concepts). Johnson is the
only missionary in his institution, which has a long history
of national control.

Respondents are aware that students cannot accommodate
to the "positive" schooling features of the mission institu-
tions immediately. Modifications are necessary to make the
transition from the students' former backgrounds less abrupt
(e.g.,sharing is to be "structured," and "the penchant for
memorization" is to be satisfied). The respondents desiring
an immediate transformation of students' learning expectations
only produces frustration and failure (e.g., Kerr "went down
trying" to get students to think for themselves). It is
interesting to note that those respondents (Beach, Rohr) who
view their students' accommodations as getting used to new
methods, consider that students can quickly adapt to these.
These respondents also prefer higher formality in the class-
room just as their students do. High teacher control ensures
that changes in the classroom are accepted.

The respondents who emphasize a lengthy, painstaking
development for the students to identify with the respondents'
learning preferences realize that the students' first experi-
ences in adjusting to these institutions are "shocking,"
"embarrassing," and "painful?" Bowers, Wilson and Kerr believe
that some discomfort is part of the necessary accommodations
of the students. However, it is also these respondents who are
most sensitive to the "massive" changes required of students.

It is significant that although students are expected to

180

modify their values, there is less recognition of the need for
teachers to make any accommodations in their values. However,
Wilson and Kerr are particularly concerned to modify the
elitist values of their theological institutions. Beach

asks that missionaries not impose their "cultural baggage"

on biblical interpretation. To Bowers the issue is confusing:
what should be "sacrificed" in making accommodations -
standards of "progress" (i.e. technological advancement in
hospital care) or the preferences of the people? It appears
that the respondents Wilson and Kerr, who have experienced
higher degrees of schooling themselves, see a greater need

for radical changes, both of the methods and values of the

schooling environment of missionaries.

Accommodating to Students' Expectations

To Gross, Becker and Norton the issues surrounding
accommodations are less confusing. They work closely with
peOple in their contexts and use their methods. This is only
possible after the respondents achieve an insider's role in
the culture through a thorough facility in the vernacular. It
takes several years to win the confidence of the peOple and
be afforded this role,as the foreigner is expected to desire
control and a superior status. Even though Becker has been
assigned a "symbolic role" (as a "bearer of good fortune"),
she is prepared to accept this role as it enhances her
Opportunities to get the facts of the Gospel to the women in

the courtyards.

181

Accommodating to the Best Method

To Gegner, accommodating to either teacher's or students'
expectations is not the real concern of missionary teaching.
In her understanding both students and teacher must accommodate
to the best method that enhances their "growing together" and
applying biblical truths to their daily experiences. Teaching
is "continued character building." The teacher is to demon-
strate in her behavior the lessons she aims to impress upon
students. Thus Gegner is concerned that students practice
immediately what they are learning (e.g. in planting churches
or having quiet times) as they are "setting patterns for
eternity." Any method that ensures application and practice
is acceptable, particularly "creative problem-solving
exercises," drawing on the experiences of the students in

local churches.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* Students' accommodating to the teacher's expectations
is associated with schooling environments.

* Students' accommodating to the teacher's expectations
is associated with developing preferences for the
"positive" features of schooling in the missionary's
institution.

* Students' accommodating to the teacher's expectations
is associated with reducing the negative features of
their former schooling.

* Students' accommodating to the teacher's expectations

is considered a gradual process by those respondents

182

desiring less teacher control in schooling contexts.

* Students' accommodating to the teacher's expectations
is associated with the modification of more students'
values than of teacher's values.

* The teacher's accommodating to students' expectations is
associated with nonschooling environments.

* The teacher's accommodating to students' expectations
is associated with an insider's role in the culture.

* Accommodating to the best method is associated with

ensuring the actual practice of scriptural principles.

Changes in Expectations

ReSpondents link their changing expectations to various
causes: an initial Openness to change: a realization of the
limitations of formal schooling; political crises. The actual
types of changes relate more to methods of increasing teacher
effectiveness. Changes in the relationships expected between
student and teacher are associated with the awareness of the
need to change both the underlying values and wider effects
of missionary teaching.

Causes of Change

Openness to Change. The realization that change in the
respondents' expectations concerning teaching in other
cultures is necessary and to be anticipated appears to be an
apprOpriate starting point for the actual acceptance of
change. If missionaries immediately assume responsibility in
formal teaching settings and have a fixed "progression" of

materials necessary for the students, they are less sensitive

183

and open to change, Norton claims.

Three of the four respondents (Bowers, Johnson, Norton,
Kerr), who claim they began their missionary careers with an
openness to change, chose to work in out-of-school settings
and to learn the local language. Two of these respondents
(Bowers, Kerr) found this experience of "getting to know
people" invaluable when they later became involved in
institutional teaching.

Realization of Formal Schooling Limitations. Three
respondents (Gross, Wilson, Gegner) became very sensitive to
the need for change in their expectations as they experienced
the limitations of formal schooling environments in contrast
to the advantages of nonschooling learning environments. Two
(Gross, Wilson) consider these limitations so restrictive,and
indeed, adverse to their main purposes that they prefer to
teach in out-of-school settings. Gegner believes that one
environment can supplement the deficiencies of the other and
thus harmoniously function together.

Political Crises. Two respondents (Beach, Becker), with

 

long term missionary experience, have had changes forced on
them through political crises. Both discovered then the need
to have closer contacts with peOple and for learning to be
more relevant to their situations. It is interesting to note
that Beach, who works in a country that has not experienced
national revolution, still feels that high teacher control is
necessary. At the same time he claims missionaries should be

less authoritarian in telling people how to apply their learning.

184

Types of Change

Rather than the respondents' first attitudes towards
change, it is the developing consciousness of the need for
changes both in relationships and methods that are of more
significant influence on their practice of teaching.

Changes in Relationships. An increasing awareness of

 

students as individuals rather than as a mass appears to be
associated with some decrease in preference of nine respond-
ents for giving Students high formality-input learning
experiences. Five respondents (Gross, Wilson, Gegner, Norton,
Kerr) claim that the mutuality of students' and teachers'
contributions is more conducive to fulfilling the missionaries'
ultimate spiritual aim. These who stress mutuality also
emphasize the need to change or modify the values underlying
structures in mission training schooling.

Changes-in Methods. Changes in teaching methods become
necessary as respondents encounter the inapprOpriateness of
their preferred methods. These are described in terms of
both scaling down of existing procedures and making them more
apprOpriate to the students. Seven respondents (Bowers,Beach,
Johnson, Wilson, Gegner, Kerr,Rohr) imply that there is some
midpoint between the teachers' and students' expectations
which has to be reached to give students more "comfort level"
experiences in their training in the mission institutions
(e.g. less content, more memorization exercises). However,
these experiences are considered temporary stages in the

students' deve10pment to being able to fully identify with

185

the teachers' preferred methods. Thus this scaling down of
methods implies undevelOped rather than inferior abilities in
students.

It is interesting to note that the two reSpondents (Gross,
Norton)*who did not have to scale down their methods,
work closely with the peOple in nonschooling environments and
are more accepting of their learning preferences. In fact
Norton has the reverse concern of most missionaries: he feels
he has been too reticent in offering scriptural alternatives.
His teaching is done through translation projects in sharing
sessions with small groups of individuals. For him the
mutuality of the teacher-student relationship means that he
must adopt a more "aggressive role" and be not only the

learner.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* A decreasing preference for giving students high
formality-input learning experiences is associated
with viewing students as individuals rather than as a
mass.

* A decreasing preference for giving students high
formality-input learning experiences is associated
with realizing the need to change or modify the values
underlying mission schooling structures.

* A "scaling-down" of teachers' expectations is associated
with giving students more "comfort level" learning

experiences in institutional settings.

186

* Fewer changes in methods and relationships are

associated with working in the local context.

Effects of Teaching

 

The main effects of the respondents' teaching are
described in terms of increasing knowledge and changing
behavior. Seven respondents also express some awareness of
the larger effect of their own presence and training programs.

Increasing Knowledge

Three of four respondents (Bowers, Beach, Johnson, Rohr),
who stress improved knowledge or better study habits, also
express a greater preference for high formality-input
experiences. For Johnson's students, the improved knowledge
involves the relating of specific facts to their broader
concepts, the main aim of his science teaching. Thus
respondents who focus on the effects of knowledge building
and have a preference for a stronger teacher control, assume
they can achieve their desired effects in students. Bowers is
amazed at the "almost miraculous amount of nursing knowledge"
that she was able to achieve in her students from such
primitive backgrounds.

ChangingtBehavior

 

Respondents who look more for behavior changes in their
students have less security in the success of their teaching
effects if they are involved in institutional Bible teaching.
Those outside of institutions (Gross, Norton) can focus more
on the immediate applicability of learning and on learning

that arises out of the intense desires of the peOple to solve

187

specific problems. They are able to see specific examples of
changes in peOple's beliefs, behavior and welfare.

It is noted that the "biggest breakthroughs" in achieving
the missionary's ultimate aim of christian conversion and
growth are considered to have occurred in spontaneous people
movements where missionary control was minimal. In these
cases the "right atmosphere" had been prepared by the
missionary's translation of the Scriptures, and encouragement
of decision-making in response to reading the Scriptures.

This ultimate aim remains a hoped-for effect of all mission-
aries. It is interesting that the missionary (Norton) with
the greatest number of specific examples of such "breakthroughs"
is the one who least desired control and the role Of the expert.

The respondents in institutional settings who focus on
the behavior change and personal deve10pment of students
(Wilson, Gegner, Kerr) have to wait to see if their teaching
has any effect on the lives of their students. They are
gratified when they see students later practice what they are
taught in class (e.g. work in a team ministry, apply Scriptures
to their own context). Gegner tries to overcome the delayed
effects of institutional learning by ensuring her students
practise immediately what they are taught (e.g. have "quiet
times"). However,personal deve10pment is considered difficult
to encourage in a schooling environment as the students are
largely sheltered from the pressures of outside reality which
challenge that deve10pment. In fact the separatist structures

of the missionaries' institutions are seen by Wilson and Kerr

188

to negate the scriptural truths they present to students
(e.g. integration between faith and life, oneness of the
Body of Christ).

Larger Effects

 

Three respondents (Beach, Becker, Norton ) express a
particular awareness of the disrupting effects of conversion
on traditional relationships and power structures. "Christians
should not become traitors to their own peOple," warns
Beach. He believes that these negative effects can be
modified as the national church leaders themselves give
"Christian content" to those features in the culture which
are opposed to biblical values. Though discouraging, these
negative effects are not considered sufficient cause to
abandon their missionary roles. Rather these effects prompt
further efforts to examine the culture, the structures of
mission institutions or greater spiritual commitment in the
high purposes of their missionary calling. These efforts are
aimed at modifying as much as possible any negative effects,
yet a "confrontation" of all cultures by the Christian gospel

is still considered necessary.

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

 

* Increasing knowledge is an effect of teaching
associated with more a preference for high formality-
input learning situations.

* Changing behavior is an effect of teaching more readily

achieved and observed in nonschooling situations.

189

* Changing behavior is an effect of institutional teaching
more associated with students' future actions.
* Wider negative effects of teaching do not prompt the

abandonment of the missionary role.

'Modifications of Future Teaching

Respondents view their future teaching either as an
intensifying of their present activities or as a modifying
of these to moderate or radical degrees. These effects are

directly related to the larger aims of spiritual growth.

Intensifying Present Effects

Five respondents see their future role as maintaining
and widening the present positive effects of their teaching.
Thus more Bible teaching is considered essential to prepare
students for practical crises (Beach); more integration
between learning and life is desirable (Johnson); individual
decision-making is to be fostered to prevent mere outward
compliance to the missionary's ways.

Modifying Effects

Moderate Modifications. Two respondents (Becker, Norton)
realize the need to tie Christianity even more closely to the
daily experiences of the peOple. To Becker, this can be
achieved by using traditional modes of communication (parables)
for teaching the gospel. Norton intends to encourage church
leaders to recognize the culturally important rites of passage.
In contrast, Bowers believes that the future of medical

practice and training among the Dyaks probably involves some

190

"bucking of the culture" by the introduction of more Western
oriented practices (monetary work incentives) and technology
(humidicribs) so that "progress and standards" can be
maintained.

Radical Modifications. Wilson and Kerr plan for a very

 

different future in their teaching roles. Their main concern
is to challenge the accepted functioning of mission theological
training, especially its elitist and socially conservative
orientations. They realize the anomalies inherent in
attempting to train peOple for essentially "serving" roles

in institutions geared to degrees, the marks of social
prestige. These make them reflect on their own "authentic
existence" as missionaries. Their ultimate purpose is fixed
yet the methods of achieving these within present mission
institutional structures are in doubt. Both are encouraged at
the possibilities of change in mission policy, particularly to

allow them to teach in other than mission institutions.

Observation on relationship suggested by the data:
* Future modifications of teaching practice are related
to modifying the wider effects of the respondent's

teaching.

Culture

Culture is recognized as an important and determining
issue as respondents describe the different expectations of
their students. In contrast, respondents explain their own

expectations in terms of specifically individual preferences,

191

backgrounds and experiences instead of the larger construct

of "culture."

Culture as a Barrier

Five respondents (Bowers, Beach, Wilson, Becker, Rohr)
consider the culture of their students primarily as a barrier
to the missionary's purposes. To different degrees, the other
cultures are viewed as barriers to learning, to relationships,
and to becoming Christians. Three of these respondents
(Bowers, Beach, Wilson) realize that their own Western culture
is a barrier particularly to the students' learning. It demands
that students submit to foreign learning environments (schools),
"massive reorganizations of their minds," and adapt to complex
administrative structures.

Four of the five respondents who view the other cultures
as obstacles are involved in primarily mission institutional
or administrative roles dealing with peOple who have experi-
enced several years of schooling. Two have no fluency in the
vernaculars and little experience working outside of the
mission-run institutions. Wilson is particularly concerned
to change this in the future because he considers the present
institutional education confirms rather than challenges, as
the Scriptures require, the hierarchial trends of the culture.

The one respondent (Becker), to whom the cultural barrier
is perceived primarily as an asset to her successful function-
ing, is involved in very informal teaching in the courtyards

of illiterate women whose language she speaks fluently.

192

Culture is recognized as a barrier by three of the
respondents (Bowers,Wilson, Rohr), as they encountered
Obstacles to their classroom effectiveness. These cultures
encourage acquiescence, orientation to authority, and similar
negative features, which frustrate the teaching of those
"geared to responses-" The other two respondents (Beach,
Becker) are forced to confront the cultural barrier in
crises (national control of the church and war of independ-
ence). These dramatic events, they claim, modified their
whole orientation which Beach terms "getting rid of my
cultural baggage," to consider more carefully the preferences
and abilities of peOple in the other cultures.

One of the main concerns of these respondents is how to
overcome these cultural barriers to their effectiveness.
Limitations imposed by the culture on learning proficiency
(e.g.rote memorization, lack of "critical processes") are
gradually removable by the persistent efforts of the teachers
and the students' increasing familiarity with the teacher's
methodologies. However,cultural values (e.g. fear of spirits)
that Oppose the missionary's "biblical" values have to be

"confronted by the Scriptures, (either through reading, the
missionary's teaching, or preferably through the "strong
stand" of the local church leaders against such practices)-
It is assumed that an acquaintance with the Scriptures is
sufficient to make preferable values evident. The people

then "apply the Scriptures" to life situations in the

culture. The missionary's task is to "present the Scriptures

193

in a positive way" so the people will be "attracted to the
Savior." As Rohr says, "We're interested in changing people,
not cultures." It is assumed that as peOple change they will
eventually desire to change those antibibilical elements of
their cultures.

Respondents recognize that all cultures need to be
examined in the light of the Word of God. Becker believes
"Christian subcultures" should be created within every
culture. By this she does not infer that separatist
enclaves be formed. Rather those values and practices which
are clearly antibiblical (e.g. the "Muslim way of allowing
patients to endure pain because it helps them religiously"):
should be substituted for those more in harmony with the
Scriptures. Other cultural features that are not clearly
antibiblical should be left alone, most respondents claim.

Culture as a Complex Set of Differences

Three respondents (Johnson, Gross and Norton) place no
value judgment on cultural differences. "Different" does not
mean "inferior" or "wrong," states Norton. In contrast to
those who consider the other cultures as barriers, these
respondents have no "monolithic view of culture" as an
unreasoning obstacle frustrating the missionary's high
purpose. Cultural differences are to be studied, accounted
for seriously in all teaching and planning and even "enjoyed,"
in Norton's view. These differences are anticipated and
searched for in language learning and in their increasingly

closer relationships with people.

194

Johnson attempts to integrate the conceptual differences
between cultures, particularly between the concepts of
science and the "oriental mind." In his teaching, he
deliberately tries to overcome some of the students'
"compartmentalization" by showing them the relevance of
scientific thinking to the rest of their lives.

Gross and Norton teach in nonschooling settings
(agriculture extension and translation). They are more
concerned to understand the cultural differences so they can
find appropriate roles by which they can Operate harmoniously
in the cultures. Both insist that any changes be desired
by the people who can also most effectively define the nature
of those changes (whether in agricultural practice or church
decision-making). Such changes are acceptable to the people
and are not rejected as foreign impositions. An "insider's
view of the culture" has given these two respondents a very
positive view of capabilities of the peOple. Norton is
particularly aware that a thorough preparation of language
learning and cultural awareness precede the missionary's
propagation of any new message. To him, the gospel becomes
part of local experience as the people realize that God's
Word is relevant to them, expressed in their own forms and
analogies. This view does not emphasize the outsider's
taking a strong stand against the other culture, but the
offering of alternatives and encouraging the local church
leaders to give Christian content (e.g., rites of passage),

to those areas of culture not compatible with the Scriptures.

195

The Individual above Culture

Two respondents (Gegner, Kerr) focus more on relationships
with peOple than on cultural differences. Kerr considered his
first missionary term as orientation, the Opportunity to get
to know individuals who would be important in his ministry.
His references to culture are limited to a few "tricks" which
the foreigner must understand if he wants the local people to
OOOperate with him (e.g. in stores and government offices)-

Though Gegner views many culture traits as negative to
both learning and Christian growth (e.g.lack of self-discipline,
face-saving), she believes that cultural differences fade as
teacher and students "grow together" in close relationships.
Her task is to "mold her own cultural upbringing into more
conformity with Jesus Christ." It is the biblical concept
of what a person should be that is most important. Hence in
her teaching she does not contrast her values with those of

her students but tries to "emphasize biblical values.“

Observations on relationships suggested by the data:

* A concentration on culture is associated with describing
the expectations of students.

* A view of culture as a barrier to learning is associated
with teaching in schooling settings.

* The overcoming of the cultural limitations on learning is
associated with the persistent efforts of the teacher
and the students' increasing familiarity with the
teacher's environment.

* A replacing of antibiblical elements of a culture is

196

associated with Christian conversion.

* A View of culture as a complex set of differences is
associated with the respondents' search for an
appropriate role in that culture.

* A view of culture as a complex set of differences is
associated with the respondents' taking a less active
role as a prOpagator of a new message.

* A view of cultural differences as fading is associated
with a preference for biblical values by both students

and teachers.

Language of Missionary Teaching

The respondents, particularly the five primarily
involved in Bible teaching, describe their teaching in terms
which reflect their theology. Thus their teaching practice
is "a ministry," implying that the respondents have special
authority to serve the needs of their students, particularly
those related to their spiritual welfare. This ministry
implies a special and close relationship with students
("having a part in their lives") in which they are encouraged
increasingly to trust the Scriptures and develOp the qualities
of Jesus Christ. This process is termed "discipling" and is
aimed at the development of "spiritual maturityfi! Bible
teaching is considered to promote life-changing experiences
based on faith in this authoritative Word of God.

It is interesting to note that the other respondents

not primarily involved in Bible teaching use less theological

197

language to describe their teaching practice. It may appear
that the teaching of these respondents carries less of an aura
of a spiritual ministry. However, these respondents all view
their teaching as directed to the achievement of similar
spiritual aims (e.g., deve10pment of Christian compassion

in nursing care: belief in the dependability of God through
science training: stimulating interest in the gospel through
offering agricultural services).

The overall purpose of the missionary endeavour of these
respondents is variously interpreted as "planting Christianity"
in local cultures, or as "offering biblical alternatives."
This means that missionaries aim for the daily practice of
faith in Christ to become part of local experience and to
effect the quality of living. This occurs as the Word of God
(Scriptures) has "an entrance into their being" (i.e. people
experience the reality of God's power and love for themselves).

One respondent (Beach) refers to non—Christians in
negative terms (i.e. as "degenerate people"). By this he
indicates their position as unbelievers according to his
theology. They need to be "reached" by the gospel (i.e.
have it presented to them) so that they can have an
Opportunity to have "their sin dealt with" (i.e. forgiven
by God on confession of faith in Christ). Other respondents
refer more to the antibiblical features in the culture that
need to be "confronted" by the Scriptures (i.e. shown to

possess inadequate values according to biblical standards).

198

In their relationship with non-Christians, the respondents

emphasize the need for patience, gentleness and care.

Observation on relationship suggested by the data:

 

* The teaching practice of missionaries is associated

with viewing it as a spiritual ministry.

Meaning of the Interview

To Respondents

 

Most respondents expressed appreciation of the Opportunity
to reflect on their missionary involvement. Some had previ-
ously reflected on their own teaching perceptions. However,
before the interview none had consciously considered their
students' learning preferences. Speaking in detail of their
experiences, frustrations and hopes became a creative exercise
in viewing problems and attitudes in new ways. Wilson
termed the interview process a "real catharsis-" Becker
discovered the significance of conflicting perceptions of
her role in her relationship to the village women. The
interview process stimulated her to realize the possibilities
of using the traditional fable form for the communication of
the gospel.

It is interesting to note that the respondent (Rohr),
who offered to "tell everything," was the one who resisted
prodding on her readily formed answers. After six hours
she felt she had nothing more to tell. Beach, the mission
administrator, tended to relate his remarks to broad general

conditions and volunteered few personal anecdotes. As he

199

treated the McKean instrument as an amusing set of "little
pictures," the researcher had to rephrase issues as general
concerns for a mission administrator. To this method, he
responded warmly and Openly.

It is significant to note that the respondents who prefer
high formality input experiences expected the researcher also
to initiate all questions and discussions. In contrast, those
who prefer low formality resisted direction from the researcher.

These respondents ranged spontaneously over all topics.

To Researcher

 

During the interview process, the researcher continuously
discovered more insightful questions related to the focus of
the problem under study. These were kept in mind in
successive sessions.

It is Obvious that the chosen terms of "teacher" and
"student" forced the two respondents (Gross and Norton),
involved in nonschooling settings, into artificial dichotomies
which they did not wish to make. However, it is recognized
that all terms are value-laden, and when interpreted in the
context of the descriptive data, specific meanings become
clear.

The complexity of the task of missionary teachers became
increasingly clear during the interview. The researcher was
aware of the respondents' fluent articulation of their
concerns. All respondents demonstrated ability to reflect
on their own expectations, and to explain these in detail.

Even though they had not reflected on their students'

200

expectations before, they felt confidence in assessing these.
Only one respondent (Gross) expressed considerable doubt as to
possible lack of congruence between his perceptions of
students' expectations and their actual expectations.
Generally, respondents claimed to be conscious of student
behaviors stimulated by their expectations, and gave complex
rationales to justify these. All respondents struggled to
some degree with the authoritarian stance expected of Western
missionaries and sought to modify this. The researcher
wondered if this ready and confident articulation and role
consciousness were characteristic of other American
missionaries. The degree to which these features are also
common to non-American missionaries is also a matter for

further investigation.

Summary

This chapter presents analyses of the main themes
associated with the research findings. Observations on
relationships suggested by the data are made.

Chapter 6 presents a summary of the findings, and
notes the implications of these for missionary teaching.

Recommendations are also made for further study.

CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study is to describe the development
of the expectations of 10 missionaries concerning their
teaching in other cultures. To achieve this purpose, an
audio-visual instrument was used as a projective technique
to help respondents focus on any perceived differences
between their expectations concerning important learning
and those of their students. In the process of focused
interviews, the respondents explored their accommodations
to these perceived differences in expectations. They also
examined changes in their expectations, as well as actual
and desired effects of their teaching on students in other
cultures.

In this chapter is a summary of the main findings.

These findings are presented as comments about sets of
relationships which are suggested by the data. Some of the
factors represented in these relationships are as follows:
students' expectations and respondents' expectations;
students' expectations and schooling contexts; respondents'
expectations and schooling contexts; respondents' expectations
and nonschooling contexts; respondents' expectations and the

practice of the missionary role.

201

202

The implications of these findings for missionary
teaching are then suggested. Recommendations are made for
further study. In conclusion. some personal reflections of

the researcher are noted.

Summary of Main Findings

Findings Related to an Overview of the Data

 

These findings are suggested by an overview of the data:

1. Students' expectations are perceived to be

 

associated more with clustering at the

extremes than are respondents' expectations.

There appears to be a tendency for respondents to
perceive their students' expectations in terms of the
extremely positive and the extremely negative. Twice as
many negative reSponses are recorded for the students as for
respondents. These extreme positions of the students are seen
to be generally unmodified. However, several features are
considered to modify respondents' positive or negative
answers.

2. Students' expectations of important learning

are perceived to be associated with fewer and

broader sources than are respondents' expectations.

For students who have experienced some schooling, their
expectations concerning important learning are traced directly
to their former schooling experiences. These schooling

patterns are derived from colonial education systems and

203

emphasize the authoritarian features of the cultures. For
the nonschooled, their expectations concerning important
learning are derived from their oral traditions, colonial
experiences or from an awe of the formal schooling system.
In contrast, the sources of respondents' expectations
are many and varied. Their formal and nonformal learning
and teaching experiences, admired or unadmired teaching
models, books, their positive personality characteristics,
experiences in relating to peOple of other cultures, have
all combined in a complex and largely undefinable way to

form their present expectations concerning important learning.

Findings Related to Schooling Contexts
The data suggests that these findings are related to
schooling contexts:
3. Respondents' expectations concerning important
learning for themselves are associated.with
lower levels of formality than are students'

expectations.

 

The respondents' expectations concerning important
learning for themselves are based on their assessment of
their own high motivation, diligence,and interest in
following up their own concerns. They resist authoritarian
control over their own learning, though four respondents
(Bowers, Johnson, Becker, Rohr) recognize the need for the
teacher's direction to issues of wider significance. Not

all American students are credited with having the

204

respondents' high degree of motivation, diligence and interest
necessary for learning in less formal modes. Thus lower
formality is viewed more as an ideal which is characteristic
of optimum learning environments and suited to highly
motivated students.

Students in other cultures, however, are perceived as
expecting important learning to occur in high formality
situations. Of the eight respondents teaching in schooling
contexts, six feel forced to exercise more control over
students than they actually prefer. Only gradually can they
accustom their students to expecting a less authoritarian
teacher role. The other two respondents (Beach, Rohr)
consider firmer teacher control is necessary for all students,
irrespective of their cultures.

4. Respondents' expectations concerning important
learning for themselves are associated with
more self-awareness and sharing experiences
than are the respondents' perceptions of

students' expectations.

TO varying degrees eight respondents recognize that all
three types of learning experiences (input, self-awareness,
sharing) can lead to valid learning for themselves. Sharing
and self-awareness experiences particularly contribute to the
important learning of those students who, like the respondents,
are highly motivated and prefer less teacher control.

The respondents, teaching in schooling contexts in other

205

cultures, perceive their students as expecting only input
learning experiences to contribute to important learning.
Neither the students' peers nor their own reflections are
sources of valid learning. The teacher is the only legitimate
information giver and is expected to fulfill this role. The
schooling process makes new and difficult demands on
students' abilities, yet is the recognized access to goals
unattainable through traditional learning systems.

5. The negative features of schooling are

associated with the students' former

schools.

The respondents view some of the negative features of
schooling as teacher domination, student subservience, rote
learning, exam orientation. These are considered character-
istic of the students' former schools. The inherited colonial
education system together with the hierarchial features of
the traditional cultures enforce the awe of authority figures.

The schools of the missionaries, however, reflect the
more positive features of schooling: less distance between
teacher and students; more application of learning to life
situations; promotion of reflection and individual decision-
making. It is these features which students must learn to
value above the negative features of their former schooling
environments. Both the valuing of the positive features of
schooling and the devaluing of its negative features are
assumed to be promoted simultaneously by the teaching of

the respondents.

206

6. The respondents' recognition of differences
between their expectations and those of
their students is associated with their

encountering difficulties in their teaching.

It seems that most respondents began their careers in
schooling contexts with the assumption that the students'
expectations concerning important learning were generally
similar to their own expectations. Missionary training, and
cultural orientation in the country, alleviated to only an
apparently small degree the surprise or shock at the major
difficulties they encountered in their teaching.

ReSpondents view themselves as altering their teaching
methodologies to intuitively reflect the different expectations
of their students about learning and teaching. Though they
had well formulated ideas of their own expectations concerning
important learning, it was only during the interview process
of this study that they clearly enunciated any different
expectations of their students.

The respondents' realization of methodological difficul-
ties often stimulates the recognition of students' difficulties.
Generally this promotes efforts by respondents to make it

easier for students to adapt to their learning environments.

207

7. The learning of the students in the
respondents' schooling context is
associated with their expectations
concerning important learning
becoming more like those of the

respondents.

 

For students to function successfully in the respondents'
schooling environments, they must learn to expect these
features to be more frequently characteristic of important
learning situations: lower levels of formality, more
self-awareness and sharing learning experiences. These
features reflect more the respondents' expectations
concerning important learning.

Even the respondent (Gegner), who claims that accom-
modating to the "best method" is the real issue (rather than
accommodating to the teachers' or to the students'
expectations), suggests that this method is characterized by
lower formality and more self—awareness and sharing
experiences. The two respondents (Beach, Rohr), who have
greater expectations for higher formality-input experiences
in important learning situations, still recognize a degree
of transition to lower formality levels and self-awareness
and sharing experiences as necessary for students. As the
students' transition from their former expectations to these
preferred expectations is lengthy and often painful, a

temporary midpoint in the process is considered necessary.

208

At this stage the students are offered "comfort level"
experiences to make such transitions less harsh and abrupt.
8. The respondents' schooling context is

associated with more value changes ny

students than by respondents.

In the schooling environments of the respondents,
students are expected to develop schooling skills as well as
change many of their values. Their revered awe of the
teacher is expected to decrease while their respect for
peers and their own thinking ability is expected to increase.
It is assumed that they will develop an appreciation of the
dignity of all peOple as well as for the applicability of
biblical principles to their daily life. They are expected
to value their own culture as well as recognize the necessity
of assessing it according to biblical standards.

Respondents recognize the need for fewer value changes
for themselves. The changes assumed necessary for respondents
are mainly methodological. It is implied that their values
already reflect to a considerable degree those they are
attempting to present to their students.

9. The respondents' awareness of the limitations
of schooling is associated with difficulties

in achieving their spiritual aim.

To these missionary teachers, their spiritual aim is
achieved not when students merely absorb biblical knowledge

but when they practice its principles. Four respondents

209

who teach in schooling contexts are particularly aware of the
limitations of this environment for achieving such an aim.

The schooling context tends to delay the students' application
of knowledge and is remote from the social reality to which
biblical principles are supposed to be applied. The generally
Western living standards tend to "soften" the students so they
are unwilling to return to their more rigorous home contexts.
One respondent (Wilson) considers the very structures of
schoOling to promote antibiblical values (e.g. elitism,
competition). It is this respondent who proposes that
missionary teachers abandon the schooling model and develOp
other learning modes which can more harmoniously represent

the principles to be taught. Four other respondents expressed
some appreciation for alternative learning systems to
supplement the schooling mode,but saw less need for such

drastic measures.

Findings Related to Nonschooling Contexts

 

The data suggests these findings are related to
nonschooling contexts:

10. An expectation by both respondents and

 

students of low formality-sharing in
important learning situations is associated
with learning and teaching in the students'

traditional modes.

 

The two respondents who use the traditional learning

modes of the peOple teach in their nonschooling contexts.

210

They, like their unschooled students, expect low formality-
sharing situations to bring about important learning. The
respondents recognize that the mutuality inherent in their
concept of sharing does not fully correspond with the
traditional practices of "oral indoctrination." The latter
involves the most persuasive person enforcing his point of
view on the group. The respondents prefer to encourage more
reciprocity in sharing. Yet in accommodating to the tradi-
tional learning modes,they have experienced less need to
modify their expectations than the missionary teachers in
schooling contexts.

The concern of these respondents is to accept the
preferred learning modes of the people to teach in contexts
familiar to them. They do not attempt to force the develop-
ment of different expectations concerning important learning.
These, they claim, lead to "cultural dislocation."

11. The respondents' practice of low formality

is associated with the adoption of accepted

 

roles in the students' cultures.

The practice of a high formality role by an outsider
to a culture is considered an authoritarian posture by two
respondents (Gross,Norton) who teach in nonschooling contexts.
This role of the expert, usually expected of Western
missionaries, is not adopted by these respondents. They aim
to identify closely with the people and to be one with them
in their learning processes. This low formality role is

only achieved after gaining the acceptance of the peOple

211

and learning their language.

The other respondent (Becker), who exercises more
control in her teaching of village women, realizes they have
assigned her a symbolic role (a "bearer of good fortune") and
do not intend to identify with her message.

12. The encouragement of the studentsflppersonal
development is associated more with learning

and teaching in nonschooling contexts.

The role of the leader as encourager Of students'
personal development is seen to be more harmoniously
fulfilled in nonschooling contexts, according to five
respondents. For students in other cultures, the schooling
context is so equated with absorbing knowledge from the
prestigious teacher and satisfying external criteria, that
it is difficult for teachers to stimulate the students'
personal growth in this environment. The nonschooling
context has the advantage of allowing students to immediately
practice their learning and of offering topics of optimum
concern to the student. If the respondents choose to teach
in the students' local contexts, they appear more likely to
start at a point of learning relevant to students' interests
and understanding and to use learning modes preferred by
students. In these situations the teachers are more likely

to be co-learners with students.

212

Findings Related to the Missionary Role
The data suggests these findings are associated with
carrying out the role of a missionary teacher:

13. The respondents' encouragement of the students'
increasing preferences for lower formality-
sharing and self-awareness learning situations
is associated with their purpose to stimulate

the students' spiritual development.

There is a general realization by respondents that
the students' penchant for accepting the word of a foreigner
as authoritative is not conducive to the development of
their own decision making processes. In the opinion of
the respondents, these abilities need to be fostered if
students are to become mature Christians. To varying
degrees, respondents recognize that lower formality-
sharing and self-awareness learning situations are more
likely to encourage the deve10pment of such skills. Yet
these situations are less characteristic of the respondents'
teaching,particularly in schooling contexts.
14. The practice of missionaty teaching is
associated with viewing it as a spiritual

ministry.

Respondents consider their teaching has the significance
of a spiritual ministry to students. They are not merely
teaching cognitions, they are fulfilling a divine calling.
All of their teaching activities are ultimately related to

the wider purposes of evangelization and encouraging the

213

practice of biblical principles. These wider purposes provide
the motivation of missionary teachers. To varying degrees,
they are conscious of attempting to alter their teaching
methods to more effectively achieve these purposes.

Respondents recognize that their teaching is aided
by the authoritative nature of the Bible and the power
of the Holy Spirit who is able to convince students of
its truth.

15. The role of the teacher as encourager of

students' own discovety processes is

 

associated with greater efforts by the
teacher to‘prepare students for

"spiritual transformation."

Respondents recognize that the goal of "spiritual
transformation" is beyond their power to achieve. Those
who view the role of the teacher as an encourager of the
students' own discovery processes, consider that they can
make specific efforts to prepare students for such a
transformation. Materials can be made relevant to the
students' contexts and presented in their cultural analogies.
There is some recognition that the Scriptures as explained
by the missionary may not be immediately applicable to their

students.

 

 

214

16. The students' increasing familiarity with the
Scriptures is associated with their recognition

of antibiblical elements in their cultures.

Respondents claim that no culture fully embodies biblical
values. All cultures, even their own, have to be evaluated
according to biblical principles. Those elements in cultures
shown to possess antibiblical values need to be given
"Christian content." Such content is to be determined by those
in the cultures, who alone can appreciate the specific
application of the Scriptures to their context. Ideally,
the role of the missionary according to these respondents is
to present the biblical alternatives, not to define the nature

of their application to the students' cultures.

Imp1ications for Missionary Teaching

The findings suggested by the data raise some important
implications for missionary teaching. It is clear that
missionary teachers have clearly defined expectations concern-
ing important learning. They also intuitively hold perceptions
concerning their students' different expectations, and the
sources of these. Whether or not the missionary teachers'
perceptions of their students' expectations are accurate is a
vital matter for their consideration. If their expectations
are inaccurate or inflexible, they are more likely to act as
self-fulfilling prOphecies. It is necessary for missionary
teachers to be aware of the relationships and attitudes of
students that are engendered by their expectations. They also

need to be conscious of the presuppositions on which their

215

own expectations are based, and not assume that their ideal
values are automatically transferred into their teaching
practice. If their expectations do reflect implicit theories
of personality, missionaries need to ask these questions:
what view of man is assumed in these expectations? Is this
view of man consistent with professed biblical principles?

It is obvious that not all this awareness building
concerning the expectations of missionary teachers can be
achieved in pre-field orientation. The inherently develOp—
mental nature of missionary expectations stresses that this
must be a continuous process of assessment throughout the
practice of the missionaries' training. Instruments similar
to the one used in this study could probably aid this process.

Missionaries need to be increasingly aware of the
inevitable development of "third cultures," through their
interactions with students. Yet missionaries, particularly
in schooling contexts, claim to be training students to "go
back to their own cultures" and to replace those cultural
elements that are antibiblical. The expectations concerning
learning and teaching that deve10p out of the third culture
interactions need to be recognized and assessed according to
whether they are functional within the students' own cultures.
However, a static view of the students' cultures as objects
to be wrestled against on their return, inhibits the recognition
that viable third cultures can be created by those who maintain
long term commitments to them. It is perhaps this view of
culture which is more harmonious with the missionaries'

concern that all cultures reflect biblical values.

216

It appears that the schooling contexts of the missionary
teachers are viewed as arenas of conflict between their
expectations concerning important learning and those of their
students. Until the students' expectations conform to those
of their teachers, the conflict continues. The teachers'
expectations are normative and are associated with the
achievement of their overall "spiritual" purposes. The
question remains as to whether particular learning situations
are in fact more conducive to the achievement of the
missionaries' aims.

In the schooling context of the missionary, the persons
of the other cultures are primarily perceived as learners or
students. Thus,characteristics related to their performance
as learners become the strongest features that contribute
to the missionary teachers' perceptions of their expectations.
This may account for the tendency to view the students'
expectations in terms of extremes and to recognize only
limited sources for these expectations. _There is some
suggestion that as teachers get to know students as
"peOple," the extremes are modified and broader sources of
their expectations are recognized. The nonschooling context
is considered to be more conducive to this.

This perception of the students' expectations in terms
of extremes may also reflect the missionary teachers'
recognition of the students' limited awareness of learning
preferences outside their traditional learning modes. The

desire to broaden the horizons of students to recognize

217

wider preferences may represent less an attempt to mold their
expectations to those of the teachers, but to introduce them
to viable learning alternatives. However, the prestigious
role of Western schooling and its stereotyped learning

methods are difficult to modify. Any such efforts are often
interpreted by students negatively. Yet the degree of
conformity of missionary teachers to these stereotyped methods
may relate inversely to the credibility of both their roles
and their message.

The uneasiness arising out of the conflicts recognized in
schooling contexts leads to the search for learning modes more
concordant with the missionaries' aims and values. Increasingly
nonschooling contexts are stressed. There is almost a tendency
to idealize such contexts. Yet even in these contexts, if the
values inherent in the practice of missionary teachers are not
brought under scrutiny, the context alone can produce no
solutions. As in institutional settings, the missionaries'
educational philosophy is not necessarily harmonious with
their theology (e.g., belief in the dignity of man, the
community of believers, the servant-role of the leader).

They cannot expect greater value changes in students when
their teaching practice does not reflect the principles of
their teaching.

This study suggests important areas of concern for the
makers of mission policy, particularly in regard to
institution building. It is clear that, whether for better or
worse, the expectations of the missionary teachers are normative

in their institutional settings. Students, on entering these

218

settings, bear the main burdens of conforming to the
expectations of their teachers. This process of adjusting to
structures of the institution and to the learning behaviors
desired by teachers, is capable of becoming more significant
than the students' responses to the teaching content. In
fact, this adjustment process may even teach more powerful
lessons (e.g., value of competition and of leadership
prestige), which conflict with the biblical principles of the
missionary teachers' lessons. Policymakers need to look
beyond the stated content of institutional cirricula to the
structures of the learning environment, and to the student
behaviors elicited by teachers' expectations, to see what is
actually being taught in missionary institutions. Orthodoxy
of curricula cannot simply be equated with the students'
learning, or indeed, the practice of biblical principles.
Mission policymakers need to further reflect on the
implications in institutional settings of the roles of
missionary teachers as "ones sent to serve." How this serving
role can be harmonized with the prescribing of normative
expectations in learning-teaching situations is a matter of
urgent consideration. This question also needs to be examined
in the wider context of the relationship of the missionary
teaching to the church and to the community. The missionary
teachers' expectations condition their enactment of the
biblical mandate to "commit...to faithful men who shall be
able to teach others also" (II Timothy 2: 2b). Their
expectations also have the awesome potential of influencing

successive enactments of this mandate as these "faithful men"

219

teach the people.

Recommendations for Further Study

This study explores a wide subject on a limited basis.

It introduces many areas requiring further study. Among

these areas are the following suggestions:

1.

The processes of the development of the expectations of
specific types of missionary teachers (e.g., theological,
medical, evangelistic) need to be described. A categor-
ization system is required to explain the bases of their
judgments.

The processes Of the deve10pment of the expectations of
specific sets of students of missionary teachers need also
careful description. A comparative study between these
expectations and those of their teachers would reveal
actual differences and lead to the assessment of
accommodations undertaken.

The contribution of specific learning situations to the
personal deve10pment of students in other cultures needs
to be explored.

With the increasing emphasis of missionaries on extension
education, it is important to study the influence on the
deve10pment of both teachers' and students' expectatiOns
of nonschooling contexts.

Expectations concerning other aspects of learning situations
(e.g., nature of content) considered to contribute to

important learning need to be explored.

220

6. The awareness of the degree to which the teaching
practice of missionaries is perceived to reflect their
ideals is another vital area of study.

7. The influences of features outside the learning situations
of the missionaries (e.g., requirements of mission boards,
and sending churches) on the development of their
expectations also need clarification.

8. The factors that lead to the students' recognition of
antibiblical elements in their culture need to be outlined.
It is important to investigate the comparison of these
factors, with the factors leading to the missionaries'
recognition of antibiblical elements both in their

students' cultures and also in their own cultures.

Personal Reflections

As a missionary teacher herself, the researcher is very
keenly aware that her comments about missionary teachers also
apply to herself. She is sensitive to her tendency to project
her own content into her perceptions of the expectations of
her students. Yet even a sensitivity to this alleviates only
to a small degree the pain involved in attempting to modify
her expectations. Arising out of her preferred perceptions
of herself and out of treasured past experiences, they are
not quickly modified. In fact, they are grasped the more
tenaciously as the distance from home increases. If the
missionary role is to mean anything to the researcher, it
essentially requires the willingness to abandon her comfortable

perceptions and stereotypes and to accept the instruction of

221

the joys and pains of missionary involvement. It is this
willingness that she recognized in her respondents. As she
attempts to maintain a responsiveness to students and the
spontaneity of faith, she will always respect the contribution

of these 10 respondents in stimulating her to do so.

Summary

The 10 missionary teachers in this study do have clearly
defined expectations concerning situations that provide
important learning. They also intuitively perceive the
expectations of their students in the other cultures concerning
important learning. Their students are perceived to prefer
higher levels of formality and input learning experiences.
During their learning in the schooling context of these
respondents, their expectations become more like those of
their missionary teachers. These changing expectations of
students are also associated with more value changes than
their teachers' changes in expectations.

In nonschooling contexts, the practice of low formality
by missionary teachers indicates their functioning in accepted
cultural roles. The personal deve10pment of students, a
valued missionary aim, is considered by some respondents to
be more readily fostered in nonschooling contexts. Yet
above all, these missionaries consider their teaching a
spiritual ministry in which they can play significant roles

in life-changing transformations.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A1

PICTURES AND TEXT OF TAPE RECORDED TEACHER

INSTRUCTIONS USED IN RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Picture 1

High Formality -
Self—Awareness

Caption: "Class, I
would like you to
make a list of 20
things that are
important to you
concerning this
topic."

Picture 2

High Formality -
Sharing

Caption: "Pair up
with the person
across the aisle
from you and tell
each other your
answers for the
reading assignment."

Picture 3

Low Formality —
Self-Awareness

Caption: "During our
break tonight, look
through your notes
and see if there are
any areas that are
still confusing to
you."

 

236

237

APPENDIX Al(Cont'd.).

Picture 4

High Formality -
Input

Caption: "If you will
look at page 54 in
your book, you can
see better what I am
talking about."

 

Picture 5

Low Formality -
Sharing

Caption: "After class
tonight, talk with
some other people
about two helpful
things you learned
tonight."

 

Picture 6

Medium Formality -
Sharing

Caption: "Give each
person in your group
a chance to explain
how he or she would
answer the question."

 

APPENDIX Al(cont'd.).

Picture 7

Low Formality -
Input

Caption: "Fred, if you
get the chance, I would
like to meet you for
lunch some day this
week and I can explain
this better."

 

Picture 8

Medium Formality -
Self-Awareness

Caption: "Make a list
of about 10 things
you feel we should
talk about in this
class."

Picture 9

Medium Formality -
Input

Caption: "What I am
going to say today
will be very helpful
for your exams, so

you should take notes."

 

239

APPENDIX A2

ANSWER SHEET FOR RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

NAME

 

Question

1. Do you think these peOple are learning something important?
(Circle your answer).

Answers Picture

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Yes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Probably are PA PA PA PA PA PA PA PA PA

Some are, some aren't S S S S S S S S S

Probably not PN PN PN PN PN PN PN PN PN
No N N N N N N N N N
Question
2. Would your students think these people are learning
something important? (Circle your answer).
Answers Picture

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Yes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Probably are PA PA PA PA PA PA PA PA PA
Some are, some aren't S S S S S S S S S
Probably not PN PN PN PN PN PN PN PN PN

NO N N N N N N N N N

APPENDIX Bl

SCORES ON MCKEAN

INSTRUMENT

240

 

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JIGS

 

WILSON JOHNSON GEGNER BECKER NORTON

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BEACH

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GROSS

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JIGS

 

 

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241

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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242

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Hume «mnmq Hum: Hus Hume Hume mum: «mums
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namesum msmm namesum oemm unmesum mamm unmosum memo ucwvsum msmm
mmmoom
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243

APPENDIX C

INTERVIEW SESSIONS

 

 

RESPONDENT DATES £83251.
Sylvia Bowers April 3,5,11,13,19 10
John Gross April 3,4,12,18 11
Carl Beach February 3; April 4,15,28;

May 7; September 29 13
Jim Wilson June 6,7,8,30; September 13 11
Bill Johnson May 10; June 8,9,12,13 12
Karen Gegner May 25; June 8; July 12;

September 23 11
Maggie Becker June 19,20,21,22 10
Ray Norton June 16,19,20,21,22 10
Lisa Rohr June 15,16,17 7
Ed Kerr September 5,6,7,8,20 12

 

 

 

 

 

244

APPENDIX D

DATA ON RESPONDENTS

 

 

 

L . Teaching Highest Years of
Name ocation Specialty Degree Experience
Sylvia

Bowers Kalimantan Nursing BA 8
John

Gross Chad Agricul- BAGSc 10

ture

Carl South Theology - 23
Beach Africa

Jim

Wilson Philippines Theology MDiv 12
Bill

Johnson India Science PhD 12
Karen Christian MA

Gegner Philippines Education - 11

Music

Maggie Bible -

Becker Senegal Medicine BA 27
Ray

Norton Guatemala Linguistics BA 25
Lisa Missionary

Rohr Abu Dhabi Children BA 9
Ed

Kerr Brazil Theology MTh 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX E1

RESPONDENT: SYLVIA BOWERS

Since 1969 this respondent has
worked in a mission hospital
in Kalimantan and supervised
the training of local nurses.

Before I went to Indonesia in 1969, I had built up my
confidence that I was a good teacher. After university and
nurse's training, I joined the staff of my nursing school. I
was entrusted with a whole course and had an entire summer to
prepare for it. SO I had plenty of time and freedom to be
creative. There was a prepared syllabus and many types of
media to get the point across. The staff cooperated well in
teaching the course. At the end of that year, they gave me a
very positive evaluation. I sure needed this confidence when
I began to struggle with the language in Indonesia and couldn't
do things to the same quality as before. At least I knew I
was a success in one teaching situation.

But this situation puffed me up. I now cringe when I
think I once had the courage to point out other teachers'
mistakes in front of students. At the Bible school where I
prepared for missionary service, the Christian Education staff
seemed to want to knock me down a peg or two. My experience
told me I was a better teacher than they were. My Bible school
supervisors didn't have a syllabus and different media like I
had at the nursing school. I thought they should be listened
to because they had gotten to their positions. I tried to
conform, but their classes weren't as interesting as mine. So
I really questioned whether these people had the right to
make me knuckle under. They seemed to know it all and not
respect my abilities.

I wasn't able to be creative in this authoritarian
atmosphere. I didn't fit the mold, and I felt if I needed all

245

246

these restrictions, there must be something wrong with me. My
self-confidence was so squashed. The philosophy of the bible
school was to get people to obey God by obeying their super-
visors. But they went against what I thought good teaching
should be. They were sticklers for perfect details, busy work,
and not ideas. However, their goal to harness me to serve God
was accomplished, even though it squashed my creativity. Now,
in Kalimantan I can knuckle under to God and do things that are
, difficult. And I think it gives my students a bit more courage
to, say clean the johns when they see their supervisor in there
scrubbing away.

But it was not necessary to squash my creativity to get to
the point where I obeyed God. I don't think the two go together.
I believe each student should be made to feel respected and free
to contribute. The teacher should enjoy the student's abilities.
There is a need to overlook a student's bad points and appreciate
his unique contribution for what it is. I experienced this in
secular schools. So I think in Christian schools there should be
more leeway to accept what the students create, even if it's not
exactly what the teacher expected.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

 

Picture 1

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It looks like some of them might be thinking. But you
can't tell for sure. Everyone has their pencil out. But that
doesn't mean too much. If the teacher has asked them to make
a list of 20 things, hOpefully they are thinking. But it
doesn't necessarily mean that they are learning something
important, or that the teacher has stimulated their minds
before they started.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Here you have active participation because the teacher has
asked them to do this. I wonder what the right answer to this
is. I wonder if they did their homework and how interested they
are in the reading assignment.

Probably if the teacher had motivated them to discuss a
topic and to come up with creative ideas, there would be more
learning than in just telling their answers. There wouldn't be
much learning if they weren't actively involved before the
class but were just writing down what the other guy said.

247

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably are.

I think if the students review their notes immediately,
the chances are that the information will stay in their
minds. That's a good idea, if they will do it. But there is
competition here between the coffee pot and the notes. If
they are mature students, this would probably be a worthwhile
learning experience.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It would have been good if they've had page 54 as some
of their reading before class to get them actively involved
and get their minds going before this point. The teacher
obviously has given them some information and then wants them
to look at possibly a graph in the book. But, if he says,
"Better," he's not giving much confidence to what he just
taught because it's better in the book. He should have just
had them read the book. I wonder what the real answers are.

Picture 5

 

Answer: Probably are.

If they actually did that, it would be helpful. It's a
sociological principle that if you quickly express to
someone what you've just gotten into your head, the act of
making your brain work to get out the words intensifies the
learning experience. The only problem is that most people
after class are on their way home and engaged in other things.
They may have forgotten to do this.

Picture 6
Answer: Probably are.

I think that's good because each person is actively
involved. I know that my best learning came when I was not a
passive learner but had my mind working. When I've had
confidence and freedom to express my ideas, I've done well.
But at Bible school, I felt I had nothing to offer, so I
didn't do too well. I enjoy thinking and reasoning with no
one necessarily the leader. Just getting students to do
things in a perfect manner goes against my idea of good
,teaching.

248

Picture'?

 

Answer: Yes.

Very important learning is occurring here because the
person is interested in the beginning or they wouldn't be
talking. It's a one-to-one teaching situation. So the teacher
can find out where the student is to begin with. Then he can
go along at that person's speed and get instant feedback from
the person in the discussion.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Yes.

In this situation the student is taking some responsibility
for his learning experience, if he actually takes it seriously.
So if he is interested in learning, he has a chance to say what
he wants to learn. But the teacher has to have time to actively
think and be creative to get students involved in the classes
better.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Probably are.

I've said that to students many times. There's incentive
to learn because everyone wants to do well in their exams. They
will take notes and they will study them. It's more passive
learning because they wouldn't have the chance to explore their
own thoughts and feelings on the subject. But it's active
listening in that they wouldn't be sleeping.

Sources of Expectations About Teaching

I just enjoy watching people teach and noticing things
that seem to get the point across. It seems I absorb these
things. The Lord has given me an enjoyment of teaching and
some gifts, not necessarily for teaching the Bible as for other
subjects. I have a sensitive nature, which sometimes gets me
in a mess, but other times I can use it for good. With this
ability or intuition, I can perceive where the learner is and
meet him there. I notice I have this ability in general
relationships too. It's more a perception of my own skills
rather than copying others.

But I feet a bit uneasy when I talk about my abilities
because I might be all wet. Maybe I'm completely up the wrong
tree in the way I teach. I might be outmoded. Here you are

249

with your latest educational methods. Here I am out in the
struggle and I haven't kept up as well as I should have. But
I guess I'm doing what I can with what I know.

I feel pretty good about teaching in Indonesia,especially
if I have time to prepare so that I know where I'm going and
what I want to get across. I feel good if I have time to get
the information and to figure out ways to get the students'
minds moving. This is why I was so grateful for that year of
teaching nursing in America. I had had a good syllabus, a lot
of time to prepare and a great amount of leeway to try out new
methods.

My main talent is teaching because I am a creative person.
By that I mean I don't like to stick to traditional methods if
there are better ways of reaching the goal. If I achieve what
I want to in the student, then I have some idea of whether my
methods are effective. That sounds like pride. But in teaching
in another culture, you're in oblivion as to ways of bringing
students into an understanding of a new body of knowledge.
There's so little written on that subject.

My university education courses may have given me some
useful information about teaching, e.g. learning styles and
learning levels. But I confess I don't remember an awful lot
from these courses. I think I dexeloped.most of my ideas
about what is good teaching from the year of teaching nursing
when I had plenty of time, good‘materials and freedom to be
creative. I had time to collect materials, formulate goals,
and arrange for guest speakers. I tried to narrow the distance
between teacher and students in developing closer relationships
with students. But I had to maintain some kind of distance for
the sake of respect. This made out of school relationships
with students, e.g. in the Christian Fellowship group, a bit
difficult. Calling me "Sylvia" was not in keeping with the
philosophy of the school.

Another staff member said I had too close a relationship
with one mentally disturbed student I was counselling. I
agreed. But the psychologist said I was doing a better job
than he could. Objectivity in teaching is necessary for
fairness. Some students, close to the teacher, might feel
they have an "in" to get better grades. On the other hand,

I mdght be tempted to downgrade a student, say on nursing
performance, if I know about her personal problems.

Probably I'm.a better teacher when I'm working individ-
ually with students in the hospital wards. I enjoy these
spontaneous teaching sessions. We can discuss a patient's
problem and then I can see how far a student can reason. Some
of my students have really progressed in these sessions.
Respecting the student's feelings and individuality is so
important. I learned that when I was denied it in the Bible
school. Now, if I have to spend in preparation, I try to be

250

creative, and leave my students some room for expressing them-
selves . I give them positive feedback that I appreciate their
unique contribution which reflects their personality.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Before I went out I had quite a few courses in.anthropology
and linguistics, so I realized that I didn't want to be ethno-
centric. I tried to get a grasp at how they looked at things.
For example, when I first arrived, my Javanese language teacher
asked me to save overseas stamps for her. But I was already
saving them for a friend's father in the States. So I honestly
told this girl that this man needed the stamps for his hobby
as he was depressed. She was insulted and started to cry. In
her eyes I was saying that others in the world were more
important than her. So I learned that respect was different
in this culture. The Eastern way is to almost give undue
respect to other peOple. So I try in my teaching never to
insult, even if I think my actions are not insulting. I had
to revamp my whole idea of the person's concept of himself and
the concept of the teacher's respect for the student.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Probably not.

Because of his background in Indonesian schools, he would
probably say a flat out "no." After he's been with us for a
while, he might still feel this way. I don't think he would
realize that his input is also part of the learning experience.
But he would be more apt to think it was after he's been with
us missionaries.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably not.

For those who had not done their assignments, it would be
a chance to get the answers down real fast. From their previous
experience in Indonesian schools, they would not think they
could learn from other's thinking. In Indonesian schools they
get from the.teacher,not from each other. SO they would not
think of this as important learning. They might be surprised that
the teacher was asking them to share answers that they might say,
tongue in cheek, "Let's look like we're doing it." But they do
share in an informal way, e.g. trying to figure out what the
teacher meant or what the information was all about. So there
might be even less learning if the teacher instigated it.

251

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably not.

Many of the students wouldn't look through their notes.
They don't realize that going through their notes immediately
after you write them down is a positive learning experience.
I try to impress on them how much learning is lost if they
don't go through their notes, and give them practical examples
from patient care where that type of learning is essential.
But after sitting for two hours in a class, they would rather
have a good time goofing off with their friends than looking
at their notes. They want to get out and get the wool out of
their brains.

They have a segmentalized idea of learning. The classroom
is one thing, but the break is something different - for social
things. You'd better not bring the classroom into the break.
That's a reflection on our teaching too. If they are more used
to writing notes down than to stimulated thinking, then it's
easier to put their notes down when they walk into a break.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably not.

Because the Indonesian language has evolved quickly, the
language of the textbooks is strange and difficult for students.
Textbooks are printed on another island where standards of
language are higher. When I first started teaching, the resource
materials were rotten, e.g. they advised cleaning the umbilicus
with gasoline. Now the government Health Department has outside
funding, so textbooks have improved. But students can't under-
stand the technical language. They would rather get it straight
from the teacher, even if the teacher is foreign and hasn't the
best language. They complain of some missionaries' language,
but they would still rather take the teacher's word than to
delve for themselves in the textbook. But the midwives, nurses
with a lot of experience, get all excited when they see a good
textbook. They just pore over the textbook and wish they had
more. So there's a gap between the experienced nurses and the
inexperienced students.

Picture 5

 

Answer: Probably not.

I can see older people in this picture doing this. But our
students are still quite young, between 18 and 20 years. So I'm
not sure that they would still be talking about what they
learned in class, for example, in the cafeteria.

Especially in their public school learning and even since

252

they've come to us, they haven't grabbed the idea that their
thinking and discussions with others outside the classroom
make up worthwhile learning. If a teacher tried to instigate
it, there might be negative results. But before a test, they
sometimes study together and everybody shares information as
they go through their notes. We give them some positive
structures for learning in the study hall time. They'll sit
in the study hall in small groups and discuss their notes,
especially if there's an exam coming on.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably not.

The girls in the group would blush and say, "I don't
know," and shyly pass the buck if there were boys or the
teacher or some other authority figure there. The boys
would be more apt to participate but they would think, "What
kind Of a joke is this?" Because I'm a foreigner and haven't
gotten into all their experiences, I often try to do that kind
of discovery to get information, e.g., ask them if they remem-
ber ever seeing the effects of habituating drugs. I felt
that was a positive experience. But I'm not sure that they
would have enough confidence in their knowledge inventory to
consider this a worthwhile learning Situation. They are
stepping into a fairly US type hospital from a different
culture. So they are overwhelmed and feel they have little to
offer from their previous experience because it's so different.
Maybe they are feeling the experience I had in Bible school
that what I had to offer was nothing. The situation was so
different that I lost confidence. They feel they have nothing
to offer, so the best thing to do is to soak up quickly what
the teacher says so they can feel more a part of the place.

The midwives would consider this more of a learning
experience because they have confidence after having performed
in the setting with us. But I think the students perform so
well even after a short time when I think of where they've
come from.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Probably are.

Before they came to us at the hospital, I think an Indo-
nesian student would be dumbfounded if the teacher said that.
The teacher-student gap is very great. The teacher is up on
a pedestal and the student is not singled out in any way
except for favoritism. They would be quite shocked if the
teacher approached them in that way. Once they got over the
shock, they might perceive it as being a positive experience.
Once they're in our setting (and we've been criticized for
this), the gap between student and teacher is not so great.

253

We try to get closer to the student especially in the ward
situation. So if they've been with us for a while, they
wouldn't be so shocked. But if their friends were watching,
they would be very embarrassed if the teacher singled them
out. Their friends might feel they were in trouble. The
group pressure is so strong that they would have difficulty
trying to learn. If we could get rid Of all this group
pressure, they might consider it a positive learning
experience. If the teacher had something to say, and if she
could do it without the other students realizing, the student
would come out feeling he'd probably learned.

Picture 8

 

Answer 3 NO .

New students wouldn't be able to do that. They don't
have any background so they don't have any basis for making
a list. They might, if it was their second or third course.
But the nurses who've been with us up to eight years know
what information they are lacking in the work setting and
what they need. They would write like mad because they would
take responsibity for what they wanted to learn. The younger
students have only had rote learning situations, so this would
be a very strange experience. The more experienced nurses
would shout for joy if they were given the Opportunity to say
what they wanted to learn.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Probably are.

They would grab their pencils and write madly because they
are very rote and test-oriented. They are like us because we
put so much emphasis on tests. Whether they make it in school
depends on whether they pass their tests and the government
exams. They like to know what's going to be on those exams.

I don't know whether they think they are learning or not,but at
least they can pass their exams.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

I think my answers were a bit optimistic. But even if I
toned them down, there would still be marked differences from
my students' answers. Part of this is because the Indonesian
education system is a carry-over from Dutch ways of many years
ago, which haven't been updated.

Another reason for this is that the Dyaks are a primitive
peOple, not a modern people like us. Primitive peOple tend to

254

stick with old ways rather than change at the enormous rate

of modern people. It takes them a little longer to actually
believe that something we're telling them is actually the

truth. You don't know if someone has learned anything until
you see a change in their behavior. Actually we expect them to
change at a more gallOping rate than we ourselves do. We take
them out of their primitive society and shove them into a

modern hospital and expect them to perform. And they want to
get ahead so they grab it all as fast as they can. We expect
them to grab everything in a matter of weeks. On the first day
we start on a massive reorganization of their mdnds. We expect
them to quickly develop medical judgment in crises to a greater
degree than you'd find in the States. There are a lot of
disappointments, especially when we focus on what we'd like them
to be rather than realizing and being thankful for where they've
come from.

Because of their background, my students are not used to
taking responsibility for what they want to learn. They're
most used to having a teacher spoon-feed them, writing it
down, memorizing it and parroting it back, not necessarily
ever having it change their behavior. They don't realize
they have anything worthwhile to put into the learning
situation. This is because of their previous education and
sometimes they get that feeling from us. Some of us have
an ethnocentric idea of who knows what he is talking about
in this game. We may make them feel they don't have much
to offer, especially when we try to radically change the
student because he has to start functioning in the hospital.
But they have so much more background, e.g. in knowing their
peOple and knowing how to reach them. In some things we want
to change them so drastically and in other things we want them
to contribute from their own background. They get confused.

I wonder if they really learn in a lecture situation.
They don't really get emotionally involved in what they're
getting, so learning really isn't taking place. So on the
breaks they completely close it out. In taking notes, they
often lose the point in all the mechanics of trying to write
things down.

The newer textbooks have good information and it's quite
modern. But it's such involved language. It's difficult
for them to grasp facts without someone spoon-feeding them
what the text is actually saying.

In their own culture, our students have never been asked
for their opinion in their lives. So this is something strange
for them. In their previous schooling and family, they're kept
quite humble. Some of them who've been around us for a while
start having more confidence in their own brain.

They are embarrassed by being singled out by the teacher.
But older students, especially those who are outgoing, are more

able to bridge the cultural gap and would probably gain from a

255

one-to-one teacher-student relationship. Absorbing knowledge
fits more in with their traditional way of learning.

But I like getting close to students to see if that know-
ledge is actually getting into their heads. I like to have a
goal for what I want the student to learn in class and then
zero in on the goal by varied methods. I like to use creative
ways of learning that make the student more involved. My
thoughts on teaching were often swallowed, not because they
didn't work, but because I didn't have time to do it the way
I like. So I was unhappy with myself as a teacher because I
didn't have the time to teach Indonesians in the way that was
true to my philosophy of teaching.

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Indonesian Students

I lecture like I do here in the States. But sometimes it
doesn't work. I find out in the tests that they haven't
applied even what they know. In that culture, they can't take
notes and absorb them. They're so busy writing, they don't
have the main points. So I have to figure out ways to get the
point across so they won't be so tied to their notes. I have
not arrived yet on how to reach them.

I've seen good national pastors or lay preachers get
their point across with a beautiful story that knocks it home.
Sometimes I think of using their methods instead of my own
Western methods. When I have time to think it through, I
do try this. But usually I'm so busy I can barely grab some
information and run to class with it.

Every day in class I really hammer away about the need to
review their notes. I give quizzes but I don't berate them
because they don't like to be embarrassed. It's important for
them to take a more active part in their learning. But I
couldn't get them to share during the break. If I included
sharing, it would have to be fairly structured like the last
10 minutes of each class period for groups to tell the things
they've learned. That sounds like I'm being authoritarian in
this, but I'd do it this way because I understand where they
are and that this is unusual for them. This might solve the
problem of fitting the knowledge into their own thinking
framework before it gets cold. It would also cause them to
think about how they feel about the knowledge.

They have a tremendous lack of respect for their own
thoughts on a subject. I've had to gradually show them that
I did respect their thinking by asking for their thoughts.
There hasn't been enough time for me to plan to do this much.
But in the ward setting, I can encourage more discovery and
creative thinking. One day we ran out of adhesive for sticking
a bag to a colostomy. I asked the students to find something

256

in their setting which could be used as an adhesive. They
jumped to the occasion and went out into the jungle and got
various things. It was trial and error working together.
But they came up with something useful from their setting.
This might account for the mutual respect we have for one
another.

It seems that learning is a group effort. There might be
more input from peer contributions than we realize.Once one
of them has gotten the idea of what we mean, then he can
translate it so that the rest of them can pick it up. There's
a lot of this trading outside the classroom. It's not an
activity for the classroom in their eyes. They would be just
trying to please me if we did it in the classroom. If it's
important information, they'll share it naturally outside the
classroom. Structuring it in the classroom would be strange
and new. I'd leave it for the upper level students.

My main job is to make sure that the knowledge I am try-
ing to get across is perceived as important knowledge. To
achieve this, I need to spend more time in preparation. I
do a lot of talking to people to see what problems should
be presented to students. It's a constant struggle to get
theory and practice together. I've achieved this in a
course I call "ward class." Here we discuss nursing care
for a specific patient. I stress that the patient must be
treated as a whole.

Indonesian students are born actors and love humor.
I learned that when I first arrived in the country from
seeing a Sumatran man teaching. So I try to use a lot of
role playing and act out situations myself. They enjoy this.
But I need time to prepare so I can involve them.

Some transformations are very necessary in the students.
For example, one nurse would nevercxil the doctor in a
crisis if he knew the doctor was exhausted. The Indonesian
ethics teacher told us it was the Muslim way to allow
patients to endure pain because it helped them religiously
somehow. But that's not our philoSOphy. We teach the
student to snap to it and do everything in his power to
alleviate suffering. He has to learn thattJis is more
important than pleasing authorities.

Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

My first experience in Indonesia gave me a tremendous
advantage in getting a grasp of how Indonesians looked at
things and what they felt was needful to learn. When I arrived
I was made housemother for a girls' dormitory.There were no
other missionaries around, so the Sumatran man in charge of

257

the boys' dorm, became like a brother to me. He taught Bible
and got the point across beautifully with a lot of humor.
Language-wise, this year was murder. But I wouldn't have the
understanding I have today if I hadn't been through this
experience.

I've had dilemmas as to how far I should escape from the
traditional Indonesian respect ration between student and
teacher. Indonesian teachers put their students on a low
level. Students respect teachers greatly and stand when
teachers enter a classroom.

Before Indonesian teachers arrived on our staff, we had
been trying to put over US ways, a really informal classroom
setting with students almost on the same level as teachers.
But the Indonesian teachers complained that the students
didn't know respect. So we had to temper the informal class-
room and bring it back to a mddline. That was quite an eye
opener for me. It wasn't that I didn't want the students to
repect me. I wanted to show them christian love and humility.
But I followed the Indonesian teachers so the transition
between their former ways to our school wouldn't be too
harsh. They can learn to respect their teacher as they did
in earlier times. But they also learn mutual respect when
they know I value their ideas too.

In my changes I don't always know where I'm going. It's
a matter of observing how I affect the students and modifying
what I'm doing by how they respond to me. One thing I've
realized is that students' progress a lot more quickly than
we give them credit for. We must not expect a student to
respond like a US student in a crisis. We'd be disappointed
then. But if we focus on where that student is and remember
where he has come from, then our expectations are more
realistic and we're not too hard on him. In a real crisis
I may lose my cool. But the longer I'm there, the more I'm
able to realize the capabilities of the students and be
more generous.

It hurts me to see a student in pain because he has not
met my expectations. I like to encourage peOple and not see
them squirm.. So when I see a student feeling badly because
he hasn't met all our expectations, I try to step back and
see if our expectations have been too high. Then I get a
better idea of how they think and how their minds work. Then
I'm not as hard on them as I probably was before. It's been
a gradual process of forming more realistic expectations.

There are some things that are just plain Western, and
we may as well drOp them from hospital training. But it's
hard to know what is Western and what is needful for patient
care to teach the students. I had hoped to do a course in
cross-cultural nursing this furlough, but I wasn't well
enough. That course would have helped me to work out what
‘was cultural and what was Western.

258

Effects on Teaching on Indonesian Students

I would hope that the students see a Christian in action
and that my concern for patients would become their concern.
I hope this will help them to overcome some of the cultural
things, like letting a patient suffer. As they become more
Christlike, they gradually pick up that they must help all
people, whether rich or poor.

We have achieved an amazing amount of nursing knowledge
in our students, and they feel quite responsible in nursing
situations. It's almost miraculous when you think how they
can function as compared to how they acted before. Part of
this is that we expect them to and give them responsibility
early. We're forced to do this because there is no other
way to meet the health needs of the peOple around us.

It's a usual thing in the culture to give a person of
the age and understanding of our students that kind of respect.
One of our medical students, who is training in the city,
came back and was dumbfounded to see what involved things
these little Dyaks were doing in our Operating room. He said
that in other situations not even doctors get to do these
things. And some of these kids come to us with sixth grade
education. Maybe our respect for them is paying off.

Sometimes I think we overdo it.

When they first arrive they wander around quite lost,
but don't hurt anything because we teach them not to do
anything before they're checked by their supervisor. After
they've been around for a while, they gain.more confidence.
At first they have no respect for their own ideas. They feel
they have nothing to offer. But gradually they realize that
we respect their brains.

In some ways we want to change them so drastically. In
other things we want them to contribute from their own back-
ground, because it's so much richer than ours for that
situation. So they get confused as to what is of value in
their backgrounds and what isn't of value.

We have tried to reach towards the peOple and their
culture in our hospital setting. A lot of things we do are
quite primitive -- the family cooks for the patient, and we
leave them in their own clothes. We don't throw them into
hospital clothing and strip them of everything that gives
them identity. Some authorities from Dutch hospitals look
‘down their noses at us. Then a lot of people come from the
city for our nursing care because of our good results. The
city peOple think our hospital care is backwoodsy. The Dyak
:peOple just want to get better and appreciate the setting
lbecause it is more Similar to their village setting. The
.students are confused about who they should be trying to
please with their patient care.

259

After students have had a lot of experience with us,
they start to take more responsibility for their learning.
They eat up any new textbook that comes along. But at first
the students expect the teacher to spoon-feed them.

Modifications in Future Teaching

I would like to allow myself a more reasonable workload
so I could prepare better. Sometimes I've jumped too soon
to crises - quicker than other missionaries. I'm going to
jump slower in the future. Then I would have more time to
think and define what I wanted students to learn and figure
out ways in keeping with their culture, that I could help
the students get where I wanted them to be. I want to show
the students how they can integrate what they know with what
they are learning now. Then they would feel they had some-
thing to offer. They feel that somewhat now, but it would
be nice if it wasn't quite so foreign. Something like that
course in cross-cultural nursing would have helped me get
it all together and be a better teacher.

We need to develOp better work attitudes in nurses and
students. They need to be willing to go beyond what is just
required. But there's no incentive for them to do anything
but the ordinary. They all get the same amount of money,
whether they're rotten workers or good. A nurse who strives
to outstanding work should get at least some recognition or
monetary reward. I've read that in some cultures monetary
rewards are no incentives at all. I don't know how it is
in Indonesia. They like the money, but it's hard for them
to realize that they don't automatically get more if their
buddy does. They like to progress in groups rather than as
individuals. We'd be bucking culture if we gave incentives.
But it's needful to get nurses who really try to be good
nurses.

Sometimes we've been awfully Western and idealistic in
the things we do that are not in keeping with what is possible
in this country. I slaved my head off trying to set up a
premature baby procedure and teach everybody how to care for
premi babies much like we do in the States. We had an
incubator, isolation, highly specialized feeding, sterility
just like USA. Those kids (students) pretty much learned
it and did a good job. But one mother just let her child
starve after she got it home after two to three months.

She couldn't feature that child as her own because she'd
been isolated from it. It wasn't hers in her heart. We
even got that mother to express her milk and give it to the
baby right in the incubator. But she had to go home to look
after other children.

260

I stopped in Bangladesh to see a mission hospital not
unlike ours. They don't do anything unusual for premi
babies. No isolation; if it's strong enough, it survives.
We'll have to discuss incubators when I go back. I hate
to let them completely go because to me it seems like
progress to have gotten to that level of nursing care with
our nurses. So I don't think we should overthrow it. We
shouldn't do anything hastily, but think about it for a
while.

A characteristic of a primitive culture is that they
don't like change. So if you try all these wild things,
throwing out methods and none of the new ones work, you've
completely confused these poor peOple and you've backed
many steps from progress. You've got to think a long time
before you introduce change and then modify it to see if it
fits their thinking. The main thing is to talk it over with
them.

APPENDIX E2

RESPONDENT: JOHN GROSS

This respondent taught for three years

at a Korean Christian college, where he

introduced an agricultural program.

Since 1974 he has worked in the Chad,

where he has established a c00perative
to assist local farmers.

We began the coOperative in 1974 as a program of the
Evangelical Church of Chad. Interest in the cooperative is
so high that we don't have nearly enough resources to handle
the farmers who would like to participate. Our goal is to
assist Christians in their economic and nutritional troubles.
One of the first things we noticed was how dependent the
farmers are on a very limited grain market. Because of their
pressing need for cash to pay workers and buy necessities,
farmers have to sell their grain immediately at harvest.
Grain merchants take advantage of the low prices and buy up
large quantities to store and resell later at much higher
prices. Later the farmer does not have enough rice to feed
his family or for next year's planting. Then he must buy
grain, perhaps even his own, at the higher prices. The
problem has been especially severe in recent years because
of the long drought south of the Sahara. The farmers' income
has plunged so they are caught in a bind.

We began to think that a grain cooperative could alleviate
part of the problem. The cooperative buys grain from its
members immediately after harvest, stores the rice and resells
it at a later date. The profits, minus costs, are returned to
the farmer. This gives him a greater income and also cash in
hand at two different times of the year. Once the grain is
resold, the original capital is put to work again in the
cooperative, buying lumber to fix oxcarts, giving loans for
new oxen, buying hand tools in bulk and other projects
suggested by the peOple.

261

262

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Picture 1

 

Answer: Probably not.

The artificial mechanics hit me stronger at first than
the apprOpriateness of the overall results. Pe0ple could
just go through the routine. They might find some new points
useful for the future, but I don't think learning would be as
strong as when they had to choose their own subject and write
down 20 points. It may enhance the learning in the class
because the feedback helps the teacher to teach what is
relevant for the class. But I question whether these people
are actually learning something at the minute of writing down
these 20 points. Here they are all writing about the same
subject, and coming up with the same number of things.
Obviously they are going to please the teacher to get the
most credit. But it is doubtful whether these are so pertinent
and move the person to think about the subject.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Yes.

To me there is more learning taking place here than in
No.1. Here they are talking about the same subject, but
there is a little bit of freedom for the learner to discuss
the areas that motivate him. In discussions his ideas are
either confirmed or rejected. He may have to go to someone
else and question why the other person saw it so differently.
It leads to more immediate learning. The relaxed atmosphere
is very important, because if a person is under stress to
perform and compete, his learning is affected. He may go
along with a group but deep down he may have mental reserva-
tions. In an intense situation, the teacher's questions put
him on the spot. The most important part here is the students'
interest in the subject and motivation to find the answer. Of
course, the teacher is still looking over them. But this does
not matter if they are intensely interested in the subject
matter, and are not mechanically following the teacher's
directions.

Picture 3
Answer: Yes.

This is very closely related to No.2. It is even higher
because here they are intensely interested in getting an answer

to questions that concern them. But they are going through a
broader range of the material, not just a reading assignment.

263

The most important thing is for the students' interest to be
captured. For example, a fellow talked to the Chadians about
planting lemon trees. The peOple sat there, took it in and
had the papers in front of them. But I wonder if they were
really concerned. The possibility of their ever having a
seedling was not very great. Did they then ever see the
importance of planting them? If they had seen lemon trees
and wanted to have some, they would have listened because
they were motivated. If somebody comes with something remote
and not related to that environment, I wonder how much the
peOple are going to retain. Learning is retention. I think
it is important for the students to see the immediate effects
of the learning.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Somebody probably raised the question here about some-
thing that was not too clear. Possibly it is not clear to
more than one. So the teacher goes back to this page. But
not all of them have that problem. The ones who understand
the question may be relaxing at that time and not learning.
For those who brought up the question, learning may be taking
place. I am not against formal classrooms, but his question
just hit me that way. Some don't understand, others do.

Picture 5

 

Answer: Yes.

Picture 5 is related to Picture 2. The confirming or
contradicting of your idea is real learning. The intensity of
the process is very good. Personal freedom is very important
to me. The students must want to discuss, not be forced to.

Picture 6
Answer: Probably are.

The only reservation I have is that the two severe looking
people in the back of the group seem to be not participating
but evaluating the discussion. If a subject is imposed upon
the group and they are told to discuss it, there may be learn-
ing taking place as they share different ideas. But it comes
back to motivation. I am happier if the topic arises out of
a group. This relates to the problems of the missionary. The
peOple will listen to him and even agree with him. As in the
situation with the lemon trees, the peOple sat there with the
papers in their hands, and listened all the way through,but it
was not related to their needs.

264

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

This seems very close to No.5. He singled out Fred,
because he knows Fred is interested in this particular point,
and is looking for help. No.5 is a bit weaker because they
shared only two points. They look quite intent. There are
lots of possibilities. There is a relationship here, and
there is also someone with some knowledge to impart.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Yes.

It is similar to No.1, but there is a little more freedom
here. They are formulating what they want to get out of the
subject. The subject is so broad that they can branch out and
discuss what interests them. Freedom is very important to me,
because it influences relationships and motivation. If I am
limited, my thoughts are going to be narrowed to a particular
viewpoint. But if I can fix the subject, I am going to do a
lot more research because I want to learn about this partic-
ular thing. This is how freedom and motivation are tied
together.

The biggest obstacle to working with the Chadians is
motivation. When the need comes up from the peOple, like
mending oxcarts, it is a matter of their concern, something
they really want to do. If they could not see the advantage
of having the carts repaired, then we would be up against a
deadend in introducing such a program. But when they see the
advantage for a couple of people, they see what it can do for
them. That is learning. I want to move in that direction,
and there are positive not negative results. It was nothing
to start a program about something they wanted and could see
its economic benefit. This is very important when working in
another culture because I might not understand what their need
is. I did not see the need for hand sickles as great as they
did. They recommended buying 200. I was afraid that they
were expressing a great need and just putting a number on it.
So I bought 100 first, but they went in four days. In two
weeks 250 were gone.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Here I was tempted to go down to "No." Retaining something
for a week is different from putting it into action for the
next section of life. That's real learning. Memorization is
not learning to me. Relevance is then secondary. The student
learns it because he needs to know it. For some they may be

265

the very thing that they consider to be important. I would
be surprised if anyone marked that too high. It kills motiva-
tion, but somebody may learn a point or two. It sounds like
learning under a threat. When I think of "important," I
think of how it fits my need and how it is relevant to me.
I'm not just learning it for the class. In this case I may
not learn even though the teacher mentions examinations.

Sources of Expectations about Teaching

I have to draw on a lot of different aspects. It is not
something you can read and apply it. The method is confirmed
by the need of it. This is confirmation through experience,
rather than merely trial and error. When I was in high school,
I gave myself to the Lord to serve Him on the mission field in
agriculture. The teaching concept then and when I was an
agriculture teacher was learning by doing, with a U shape of
desks in the classroom. When we studied something, e.g.,
dairy cattle judging, we would go out to a barn and judge
some cattle. This proved in my mind that doing confirmed the
application of learning. Book learning may get something
in your memory, but unless you see the importance of it, you
don't identify with it and do it.

This teaching experience was a tremendous help, especially
in the country of Chad, where you're working with more mature
peOple who haven't been in a classroom situation. There has
to be learning for people to change themselves. The other way
is under brute force. In a university project on introducing
change through using agriculture, I studied the effects on
social life. Tracing village structure and communication
lines helped me to be more sensitive to how people change.

People have to see that there is an advantage in their
learning. This can be financial motivation, a desire to
eliminate drudgery or to improve health. To achieve motivation,
the learning has to be relevant to them. So many expensive
demonstration farms collapse and the peOple don't see results
come from them. Cattle are kept on cement or perhaps are given
feeds that the people don't use. But the people can't buy the
cement, so immediately they cut off any further learning because
they are not motivated. These things don't identify with their
problems. -

I use no classroom situation in Chad. Here I work through
the advisory committee. My goal is that these people will
learn how to organize the cooperative so it will continue
after we withdraw. The problems of the people make up our
textbook, and they know the factors which might solve the
problem. In this case, the committee members learn by
contemplating, listening, jotting down the things they think
are important. We discuss actual, not theoretical, problems.

266

They draw the conclusions, then eaSier and immediate learning
takes place. PeOple just don't store up new ideas to use
perhaps later.

Our Bible Institute in Chad is for training church
leaders. There is a 10th grade French entrance level. There
was some talk of having agriculture in the program. But I
preferred to work with the peOple outside the school in the
villages. The training of the leaders through the Bible
Institute was through a very deep scholarly approach, and
they would not have time for all the field work. These
students are trying to achieve something educationally. The
peOple in Chad want to escape from their local village, and
these bible school students are not going to be ultimately
supporting themselves with agriculture.

These leaders must learn to research for themselves.
Farming will only take them away from the learning through
the textbooks in the classroom. I don't see these processes
as necessarily Opposite, but it is a matter of priorities.

At this particular time in the Chad, what agriculture can we
use in the classroom? We can't teach them the use of
fertilizers because they don't have them available. The

most valuable use of my time now is not tying myself to these
students but to get out with the community and make it
applicable. My idea was misunderstood quite a bit. It seemed
that I was against the school. I have not overcome this
problem yet.

Each of us has different ways of reaching peOple. Some
use Bible teaching, some preach, and some use consultation.
I feel that we can use agriculture as a means of stimulating
peOple's interest and as an Opportunity for witness. In the
deeper part of our advisory committee work together, we also
have a time of Bible study and prayer.

With agriculture, peOple immediately think of a
social gospel,1 and any potential for outreach through
agriculture is lost. Some Of our first missionaries who
were strong Bible teachers put little value of what I am
doing. Somebody said from the field council, "Let us not
forget that we must tie the spiritual aspect to this." So
many new loads have been dumped on our heads: colportage
work, literature distribution, bookkeeping.

How do agriculture and spiritual teaching go together?
These service projects are the biggest means of outreach for
the church. We help somebody with a particular need. This
takes away a lot of the barriers between the church and the
individual outside the church. One fellow, who had never
been to church, was so satisfied and happy with these agri-
cnflturalthings available to him that he said, "I just might go
by the mission one day and see what this is all about." So
even though we do not know what comes of it, we will never reach

267

this fellow within the church. It is true that in agriculture
we are also helping in their spiritual life. I don't see why
one is less spiritual than the other. 1 John 3:17 asks us -
how can we shut up our bowels of compassion for someone who

is in need? Christ showed this compassion. The need for our
agriculture program came from the mission but many missionaries
wonder if we are doing missionary work. It's not strict
evangelism, but we're directly affecting the church outreach,
tithing, and the Christians in their livelihood.

A Dr.Moomaw's book on problems to avoid in agriculture
on the mission field confirmed in my mind that you had to
work very closely with the people or waste a lot of time. A
book on culture and change by Dorothy Lee showed me the
importance of totally identifying in the culture. How can
missionaries begin to teach until you have a starting point
that the peOple can identify with? This is why I work with
the local advisory committee. The peOple in the community
and the church districts propose the projects. Then we reflect
on these things together and thus we have eliminated areas for
potential failure.

A professor at my university said that the success of an
economic decision is in direct prOportion to the number of
factors that you take into consideration. So, for example,
we must consider what tools these people are going to be
working with, and start from that point. The individual's
input is a very strong factor. I think this should be
important in all phases of teaching, even in the classroom.

So my ideas have not really come from a class. My
reading and university studies have been confirmed by experience
in classrooms, or on projects when we work together.
Vocational type agriculture and industrial arts have used this
approach for several years. For the COOperative,I drew on some
of the ideas of the farm bureau when the farmers cooperated
together to get electricity. I realized that I could not go
to a select group of Chadians and set something up for them.
It is good to involve as many peOple as possible and to use
many different ways.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

 

The most important part of teaching involves change.
These guys in Chad have almost an attitude of defeatism. They
feel nothing gets done to help them, so when they see a
possibility of our working together to bring in things that
they normally would not have, then they begin to realize the
value of COOperation. This is learning, that is teaching. I
feel very strong about this. I would even go as far as to
say we can see quicker learning take place in a non-formal
situation. They may reject what we are doing. They may come

268

up with a better way of doing it, which is good,too.

I'm a bit fuzzy about non-formal education. But we are
doing non-formal education with these committees going out
into the villages. This is also how we repair oxcarts.
PeOple learn from the joint effort and the mutual benefit.
One guy begged us to buy his grain at harvest so he could
have the money right away to repair his oxcart. Later he
came with two chickens as a gift in appreciation for getting
immediate cash. I offered him $15 for the chickens. He was
amazed to discover this money was the profit on the later
resale of his grain. When we say learning takes place that
way, believe me it does.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

I would like to use this instrument with bible school
students because I feel there would be a more positive
attitude to the classroom after their training than before
it. They would identify their learning as occurring in the
classroom. Their thinking would be altered through the
classroom experience. Yet for the Chadian, unused to the
classroom, formal training would be very artificial and not
identified with learning. Sitting in rows of chairs, having
to respond to something that isn't too concrete, forming
questions that are not reinforced by others would not lead
to important learning.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

This is a tough one. There would be learning if we
eliminate tribalism. When they share, they prefer to do it
with their own tribe. Other tribes might think they'll never
change their mind and their thoughts don't count anyhow. In
the church we still run into it, sad enough. So if there were
different peoples together, I wonder how much learning would
take place and whether they would consider it important.

As in No.3, a discussion which gives them a chance to
talk is in keeping with all their village learning. From
that standpoint, I think they would learn much more by
sharing with someone than if they would just put down the
answers to questions based on what they've read. I would be
interested to hear what others say. I have only been in
Chad for a few years and I'm not sure I understand well what
Chadians think. Maybe others have found it to be completely
different.

269

Picture 3

 

Answer: Yes.

If Chadians were given a similar situation, they would
consider this important as it gives them a chance to voice
their opinion and share with everyone else. Their thinking
would either be reinforced or cut down by the other person.
If there are enough others who think differently, they would
change their thoughts. Just accepting someone else's talk
doesn't indicate learning. Remember that example of the
fellow trying to introduce the lemon trees. In this picture
they are able to express their views and it might change
the other person or themselves. Even if they reject ideas,
they've learned much more than when someone is telling them
to learn because it's on a test.

Picture 4
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It has a lot to do with peOple's interest in what the
teacher is talking about. When things are explained in that
way, it helps them better understand. The teacher is trying
to cover the problem from a different aspect. It shows that
this person is more interested in me as an individual than
in just presenting it. This is important to the Chadian.

Moving so much step by step is a slower way of learning.
When you're trying to change traditional ways Of doing things,
there's a more ready acceptance through sharing than by allowing
no feedback. It might be possible to have more lecture methods
later on. But when you get into a classroom, you are dealing
only with the theoretical aspect. The methods we're using
are better for the church's witness. When you're working with
curious peOple, you have the time to share. But if you take
these peOple away from their home and into a classroom
situation, I don't think the people would identify with it.

Picture 5
Answer: Yes.

People get together automatically in little groups and
after a church session talk over important matters. A Chadian
put it this way: "When I was in France, I saw that the
Christians prayed about problems together. But in Chad the
most forceful person influences the decision." Force is used
in small groups, by talking strongly and convincing people
to get excited about your Opinions. In this way you gather
power and you win. Then more peOple are changed and
convinced.

270

Picture 6
Answer:Some are, some aren't.

There is a direct relationship between Pictures 2 and 6.
The teacher wants the student to reinforce his learning by
sharing it with somebody else, and having it contradicted or
confirmed. This is a kind of a rigid situation put up by the
teacher. Often things are done because we tell them to do it
like this. They disagree 100%, but they do it that way.
They have been told to share. It has not arisen spontaneously.
As in No.2, the learning is pretty well directed into a channel
that the teacher is looking for. Some may move in that
direction but they may not really see the reason in sharing
answers. It is not a matter of whether they enjoy it or not.
But this is our method of forming concepts.

Picture 7
Answer: Yes.

It's very direct with one person. This is how their
learning has taken place over many years. In the church we
feel we have achieved more by this type of interaction than
through a group meeting. It is better to convince one man
of the need and let him in turn convince another, rather than
deal with 12 church leaders at once. I suggested to a pastor
that he form a committee to organize the distributing of books
which had formerly been locked up on the mission station. But
he chose to work through the student president of the bible
school. This student in turn delegated the responsibility
to selected students and the distribution greatly increased
through selling books in the market place. I believe that if
I had tried to work through a meeting of all 12 church leaders,
and suggested a method, there would have been no success.

Picture 8
Answer: Yes.

I consider this one higher than the situation in No.1, as
here they feel very strongly about it. They have already had
an opinion which would be brought up before the whole group.
So they would be very interested in the outcome of the discusr
sflmlof their question. Opinions are quite important for the
Chadian, especially if they can be victors and convince some-
one else that their ideas are the important things.

271

Picture 9
Answer: No.

For the Chadians in the church who have been in a school,
it would not be hard. But the average person in the village
wouldn't go for that. There's one person who is pushing his
idea. If they were sharing or arguing in the circle, they
may be able to take it. But here is one guy who is not even
close to them telling them to learn it. The village people
would react against the dominance of one person. It's always
been the outside influence with somebody else telling them
what they should or shouldn't do. Whether they agree or
disagree, they have to do it, like working on the roads, so
they would be quite negative about what learning is taking
place here.

Church leaders educated in France look at things
differently. There is a problem of position. They were
taught by the missionaries and so teach this way. They use
the lecture type method, not the village type. There is not
too much opportunity for feedback.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

Chadians prefer learning situations where they are
sharing with someone and drawing conclusions from that. They
do learn by sitting around together discussing things. Listen-
ing motivates them or at least plugs them in. The Chadians
wouldn't identify with making concrete points on paper. For
myself, I can see the value of it having taught and used this
system. I think it is too linked to the c1assroom.for the
Chadian. Those in the leadership of the church, who have gone
through school overseas, would know the teacher is aiming at
something. Others would find it is a total waste of time.

It is an irrelevant exercise as they would not know how to
rate it to what they are supposed to be learning.

I value instant learning where you immediately confirm
or reject your answers and check what others have. The
Chadians would not be able to get the point of answering
questions on assigned reading. They have stories but they do
not make up questions on the story. They have never done
this so they would be slow to learn from this type of
activity. In the agriculture program we get this interaction
between the teacher and the students, talking back and forth.
But in the classroom situation, they are interacting with the
material and not with the teacher.

I am motivated to wonder more about something confusing,
but not to the point of frustration. I discuss this with
others, so I give up. Chadians too meet together and discuss
problems in the church. When we get together, whoever has

 

272

the most force can uncloud the thing and win them over. But
in finding answers to problems, I would turn to a book to get
the answer, but the Chadian would turn to a person. But, of
course, it depends on the person and the book. We have these
sorts of resources available, but a Chadian's first resort
would be to go to peOple. Both the Chadians and I feel that
the problem being dealt with must be relevant. But when the
teacher deals with a certain problem area with a group of
peOple, only some would identify with it. Some may be
daydreaming because it is not relevant.

Sharing in small groups or one-to-one fits in with the
culture. Three or four pastors go to another pastor's house
to discuss our church problems. Two hours later they would
leave, then this pastor will go to his neighbor. So both
Chadians and I think important learning occurs by sharing,
but we both prefer this to arise spontaneously rather than be
directed into a channel preferred by some authority.

Both Chadians and I prefer learning situations because
they are more personal and less rigid. Thinking about our
own concerns is preferable to doing it because the teacher
commanded. I am beginning to learn a few things from these
pictures myself. In a primitive culture people's learning
centers on themselves. The things that they learn have to be
important for their existence. We have never to really think
about existing. The focus in our learning is away from self
and more on the teacher, who is not close to you. To the
Chadian, the teacher is set apart because he already knows
these things andthey can't identify with him. They are only
working towards that.

I am used to exams and being told to jot things down. I
know this is something that I have to respond to. So the test
is enough motivation for me. But the Chadians have been given
orders when they had colonialism. So this may sour them a bit,
and they might say, "If you are going to force me, I just may
not do it."

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Chadian Students

Most accommodations have been through small group
situations. In the agriculture program, we work together to
get the feeling of what the needs are. If we approach it
through a large group, often things can be misunderstood, and
easily rejected because peOple do not understand the purpose
well.

But it is very hard to categorize methods. For example,
in one area I used a change agent approach in silage improve-
ment. I tried it myself in the yard and a few curious passers-
by wondered what I was doing. One fellow was very interested.

 

273

I agreed to help him if he paid for the labor. I thought we
had it made because he was a leader and would get more people
interested. Well, he did not keep the air out of the silage,
so the silage was spoiled. So my change agent was the wrong
agent in that case.

There is no one system that works in all the cases. I
found that in agriculture it is very important to get out and
get the peOple to learn by doing, either by using a change
agent or in a group project where they learn together. In
some cases a demonstration setup may work. It's hard to tell.

With the OOOperative it seems that the more people
involved the better. Both the peOple who set the COOPerative
up and the peOple who participate learn. I can see no
reason why the cooperative should not continue without me
if the capital is treated carefully. There are cultural ways
of working together, e.g. three families will work together
in thrashing. They can see the benefit in group effort in
what we do. It does not take much convincing for these people
to see the advantage of buying many grain bags cheaply.

Transferring more responsibility from the mission to the
national church is going to be a far greater struggle if the
missionary says, "You are unable to lead until we get enough
of you with my standard of education. Until then you are not
really at a level where you can undertake this church program
on your own. You are going to mess it up." Then we are going
to run into some serious problems in this whole idea of
missions and change. It runs into a class war rather than a
takeover by an educational process. You must have the
involvement of the two groups working together. Perhaps we
have gotten ourselves involved with titles and wrapped up with
the importance of education here at home, and this has
influenced our thinking.

Changes in The Teacher's Expectations

We don't like to look at our failures. But in Korea I
learned from a failure that there is a need to make things
relevant. I wasn't sure of the background of the high school
students, and introduced brush control with weed spray. At
the time I wondered how relevant it was to talk about some-
thing foreign which they can't get. I learned that we
should start with the resources they have. This idea has
been reinforced with students in the classroom and worked
with groups outside the classroom. For the introduction of
change, it is more feasible to work where the problem exists,
and with a procedure acceptable to them rather than introduce
a new procedure.

274

In agriculture, things are tied with culture. PeOple
accept things from their parents, and it is passed down in
their society. The older people are slow to change.
Younger peOple are more Open to change, but they are not
the ones who effectually change the community in which we
are involved.

In Chad we want to do something effective with immediate
results. In the college situation in Korea we were more
concerned with "down-the—roadism." I haven't abandoned this
philOSOphy. But in Chad these peOple only live from day to
day. I found the best use of our time is to make changes in
the agricultural community now. This should be done quickly
because the peOple are already in the situation where they
can't take care of themselves. It was different in Korea
because they were producing food and had the possibilities
of making large changes. In Chad none of these things are
available for making change.

I follow the same principle in preaching, whether in the
market place or church. I use a Scripture that deals with a
particular problem, e.g. how we can have release from the
spirits. That is why I say that preaching is teaching. We
must be careful to apply the message to the real needs of the
peOple. For example, one foreigner in Chad saw a real need
for pneumatic tires on oxcarts. He showed them how much
easier oxcarts would go on bearings, and used parts from an
Old pickup. But if you consider the number of old pickups
that are available to these peOple, and the number of peOple
who would like to have a cart like this, immediately you are
defeated. I think we miss the boat sometimes between our
ideas and their feasibility.

 

Effects on Teaching of Chadian Students

For the grain marketing, we were able to buy the bags in
a great quantity for half the price. The peOple got two
incomes for their grain - one through selling it to the
cooperative, and a second income when we later sold it.
Once we completed the whole cycle of storing and selling
grain, the peOple saw the advantage of several working
together.

One of the recognized leaders came to me with a proposal
for buying a tractor. He had 15 who would give $100 each.
They were going to move around from farm to farm. This is
before I ever mentioned any ideas about machinery hire. We
discussed it and agreed that it was not possible because
parts weren't available and customs rates were too high.

I saw their need and I thought this idea of working it out
together was great. But if it did not work out, too many
people would be upset. I explained that if they put out

275

that much money they had to make sure it was going to work.
I would like to think that suggestion came from the OOOper-
ative idea. It is their project, yet the missionary was
involved in it and making it go. They are the ones who
formulate ideas that are applicable to their situation. I
think that this COOperation is going to be important in the
church too.

As these peOple have more responsibility and direct
involvement in the project, the more responsibility they can
undertake. How can we suddenly turn over to them the
mission's responsibilities? It can't be done that way. But
we must put more and more responsibility on these peOple
and let them be in charge of setting up the policy and
formulate a workable plan. We can't really measure the
effect of the COOperative at this point.

They haven't continued while I was on furlough because
the program is new and if we make a mistake with the govern-
ment, it could seriously handicap the whole thing. The
other point is that sometimes a foreigner here is an advan-
tage. The government might look on it more favorably on our
request. The committee agreed with this.

Modifications in Future Teaching

In some way we want to better understand what we are
doing by working with a small group. It just takes time to
communicate and get enough of the peOple to understand what
the program is. We have met on several evenings for a
couple of hours and set up the objectives. They are the ones
that understand who can explain the process to those in the
community who want to participate. It is slow but we are
reaching the whole community by word of mouth. Misunderstand-
ing can creep in because not everybody knows what the program
is at this point. That is an area we would like to change.
It will just take some time. We are just drOpping a stone
in the pond, so to speak. These little waves have not
spread out far enough, but we are not planning any mass media
blitz or anything like that.

The grain marketing is the biggest and most important
project for the peOple. But the peOple appreciate the ox
loans and buying tools at decent prices. Repairing their
oxcarts is also helpful.

In the future we hOpe to introduce a machinery hire or
custom work plan, paying by the hour or acre for the use of
a machine to thresh the grain. Those are the major areas we
have been in. But we are concerned about little things like
even grease for their oxcarts, which costs a lot because
they have to get a big quantity. If we buy up a big amount

276

and put it in little plastic bags and sell it in a quantity
they can afford, they are very happy.

Footnote ----

1. Social gospel refers to emphasis on humanitarian activities
over evangelistic.

 

APPENDIX E3

RESPONDENT: CARL BEACH

This respondent went to South Africa in
1954 and has been involved in village
church supervision, business management
for a Christian magazine, and both
residential and extension theological
education. More recently he has

assumed responsibility for the mission's
administration in two large regions.

—.-—-fl.

Wuu..u.s_ _. .2" v

Presumably all our teaching is done with the guidance
and power of the Holy Spirit, which you don't have available
in other realms of teaching. The Holy Spirit helps both the
teacher and the student to understand. Ultimately the Holy
Spirit is the teacher in Bible teaching. You ask God for
wisdom and guidance and to make these people receptive through
the Holy Spirit's working in them. But this doesn't lessen our
responsibility to work out methods of teaching. We need to be
the best and most effective for God in all of our service. I
found out these better ways of teaching through my own process
of learning by being alert to the effectiveness of my teaching
and being willing to change. This is not against any principle
of God. It pleases God when we impart His Word. So if we can
do it in a better way, so much the better.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures
Picture 1
Answer: Probably not.

They're not getting any instruction from anyone. They're
just using their own internal processes to list things they
already know. It could be impressing things upon their own
minds, but there is very little learning. When they're

finished, they would be just about where they started because
they are only writing down what they know.

277

 

278

Picture 2

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

This means they should read the assignment. It depends
on how diligent they are and what sort of class they're with.
Even if they were in a university lecture, they may not be
necessarily learning. Just because they're in something does
not mean they're learning something important. He isn't
giving them a test. These are just some notes they've taken
during their reading.

 

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably are.

. -.——-z-~“-“.--- ‘1'!

Well, they're certainly showing their interest. If it
wasn't important, they wouldn't be doing it. I'm.not very a
talkative. I have never learned this way, and it has never i
been done to me. It has only happened spontaneously. From
my experience at missionary conferences, I do think I have
learned important things by comparing notes in this way.

There's a possibility for an individual to understand what
has been said by discussing it with someone else. I don't
think I would suggest that it be structured.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably not.

It looks pretty dull. If the students were genuinely
interested, they could probably learn. But thatt:not very
good learning to follow the textbook with the teacher stand-
ing up there in front of you. It's very easy to turn Off
your mind in that kind of situation. If they can better
understand what he's getting at by looking at their book,
what kind of a teacher is he? I wouldn't approve of that
method of teaching. There's no discussion. It would be
better if a student had read the material beforehand. Just
going into it cold would not have any value. It could be
handled in a live way. Just reading from the book would turn
me Off.

Picture 5
.Answer: Some are, some aren't.
I would say here that it depends on who you're talking
to and whether they can provide the information you need. The

fact that they are doing it straight after the class would
help to impress it upon their minds.

279

When I am attending a workshOp, I share ideas with a
variety of peOple from different mission fields. I find this
very helpful. There's a danger of_getting only one point of
view from the pulpit, and you have such a body of experience
sitting in the group. It's a pity not to draw on this and to
compare ideas. I have learned lots of things like this, but
it has been on my own initiative. It would be difficult and
a bit artificial to structure.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

Yes, I think that's a good way to learn something. But
again it depends on what the question is and on how knowledge-
able any of them are. But if they have Opportunity to express
themselves, they would be learning. You don't tell me who
these people are and how much knowledge they have on the
subject. That type of situation does have possibilities,
assuming that there is a leader of the group to keep every-
thing in order and not let them get off the track.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Probably are.

I find the whole concept of these questions amusing.
Perhaps I don't understand the reasoning behind it. I'm Old
fashioned. If the teacher is using one-to-one relationship,
he must be giving important instruction. If there is a mutual
confidence between the student and the teacher, the student is
likely to really Open up,where he wouldn't in a group. You
can get deeper into a subject that way. To me the teacher
would naturally be in control of the situation. He would
have the respect of the students, and he would guide the
discussion. But the value is in allowing the pupil to Open
up, while the teacher keeps control of it.

'Picture 8
Answer: Probably not.

The important learning wouldn't take place here, but in
the class period to follow. This is preparation for learning.
No amount of time to do this is mentioned. But surely the
class is not just for taking things off the top of their
heads to talk about. I feel these lists shouldn't determine
what happens in the class. Do you have classes that have no
basis? So you just say, ”O.K. We're going to have a discuss-
ion here so you just write down things you want to talk
about." The only possibility of learning would occur if the

 

280

instructor or teacher is really on the ball on his subject.
He could then make it work.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Probably not.

It seems to me that if a teacher says that sort of thing,
then important learning is probably not taking place. If I'm
learning something, it's something that I want to learn. Then
it's important. I usually take notes whether there's an exam
or not.

'Tfl

Sources of Expectations About Teaching

I just love to hear a gifted African Bible teacher. The
lessons they get out of the Scriptures are fantastic. They
have contributed greatly to my own ministry. I'm sure I have
changed because of that. I can't say in what way. We are
conditioned to interpretations of Scripture and here someone
comes along with a completely new interpretation and Opens
up whole wider vistas. Because of this ability of African
pastors, I think the missionaries should be less authoritarian
about what the Scriptures say.

__l .-____._. “A cums-Ago; .

me»

We had an experienced missionary who was more Zulu than he
was a Swede. He remarked about my reference books, "I have
long since given up using books. I am frightened to read
commentaries. They just tell you what to think." I haven't
stopped reading commentaries, but I have made it a very
important matter over the years that I don't transfer anything
from our American way of life. I just say to the African
people, "This is what the Bible says. You establish your own
churches." This has been a gradual change in my life. The
experience at the Bible school taught me a great deal about
the people that I didn't know, even though I had lived with
them for several years.

In classroom discussions a lot of cultural issues come
out. These just don't come out when you are preaching to
peOple, or having casual conversations. I learned more about
their thought patterns, religious beliefs and fears. Their
religion is a system of fear. It is only Christianity that
has a basis of love.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

People are spontaneous and take initiative when the Word
of God really takes hold of their lives. This is the goal
missionaries have aimed at for centuries. It's not because
of the knowledge they have received from the teacher,but this

281

is what God has done, like the people's movements in Angola.
It was continuous revival. Spontaneously every month two to
three hundred people would come and say, "We want to be
Christians." This is unusual in most of our fields and
continued for 10 to 15 years. Of course, that station was
destroyed. Spontaneity will happen through the implanting
of the Word of God, not through our teaching. You can't plan
for spontaneity. It is induced by the Lord. We just have to
make the right conditions through our own spiritual life and
understanding.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It certainly wouldn't work in an African situation.
They could possibly list 20 things in a formal class period, _
but with their level of education, they would find it very 1
hard. They couldn't write that fast. If it was oral, there 5
wouldn't be any problem. The literacy difficulty seems to .
sharpen their minds to retain more. A person who prepares a ’
sermon knows his outline, notes, the whole thing. There are
varying degrees of intelligence, but there wouldn't be any
difficulty recalling 20 things. It's quite a normal physical
setting for a school. Young people coming into bible school
would be able to do that sort of thing,but the older people
couldn't. The older people could do it orally. The young
people are accustomed to learning and studying for themselves.

--—1-- .
.1. I. "IAI- ‘-.‘:

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

I think the African peOple would learn something from
that. They are quite happy interacting like that. They are
natural communicators and like to express themselves. The
amount of direction necessary from the teacher would depend
on the purpose of the discussion. It would be good if it
were followed by a class discussion. Here is another situation
where misconceptions can arise, and a person can carry them out.
If they were discussing a subject which had fairly clear limits,
and this was followed by a class discussion, guided by the
teacher, then this could be important. If there is no checking
back with the teacher, there is danger of miscomprehension.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Some of them would learn something important from that
kind of study, but it would depend on their intellectual
ability to go to their dormitories and take out these notes
and learn from them. Some of them would do it, others would

 

282

not attempt it because they just have a lackadaisical
approach to life and schools and so on. Their attitude is:
if there is confusion, let it be. Those less lackadaisical
had had more Opportunity. Some of the students have only
gone to school for two years. Even reading is wearisome.
It's a matter of deciphering word by word these difficult
sentences, then finally getting the thought together. It
isn't reading as we know it. We comprehend a whole sentence.
The difficulty lessens motivation. But high school graduates
would do it easily so would have more of a tendency to do
this. We have a wide range of entrance qualifications in the
Bible school. We hold strictly to the idea that we have the
students that God wants here. So we in turn vary the
qualifications. 3

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably not.

‘J__-_... “AAA.- -_ 0A

It wouldn't do any good. With their sort of average
ability, they couldn't look at a page in a book and quickly
read. I don't think this kind of approach would capture their
interest. It is a common method in missionary teaching but I
don't think it's very good. I had a teacher in bible school
who taught like this, and I went to sleep. The student has
no opportunity to participate. The teacher's directing them
to the exact page and reading are important to those who
have been out of school for a long time.

Picture 5

 

Answer: Probably are.

This is probably a good learning experience because it's
on a one-to-one basis. They do that all the time, sitting
around in the dormitory, but not necessarily one-to-one. I've
never thought of assigning them to do this sort of thing. But
it could be done. They would learn from each point of
clarification. I believe God leads people in groups. So if
someone has a misconception in the dormitory and he verbalizes
it, the others are going to pounce on him and straighten him
out. Here the help gets done by the students themselves. It's
a real source of learning, but the teacher is talking about an
assignment to discuss two things before they go home. I prefer
this to happen in a larger group, because in Christianity there
is more chance of a right decision if many people are discussing.

It's traditional for a chief to be surrounded by his
council so they would appreciate this method in school, and
would feel they were learning. In a recent church conference
I arranged for different tribal groups to discuss together.
They had never done anything like that before and were really

283

enthusiastic about it. Many of them remarked how.much.more
was accomplished this way. My missionary co-workers doubted
that they would Open their hearts before people of other
tribal groups. There were differences between the regions
represented, but there was a warmth that we had never had
before. I gave them first some very easy questions to
discuss to see how they would respond to the method.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Yes.

This is the method we used in my teaching of TEE.
There was a spontaneous contribution from each man. We just
went round in a group and gave each person a chance to
answer the question. It's very excellent as long as there
is someone to guide them. The guide should have higher train- 4
ing. They normally come to a group concensus, but would feel L
it necessary to have someone recognized as the leader. The i
leader does not make the decision for them, but if they don't
have one, there is chaos because no one would be willing to
put himself forward as the leader unless he was appointed.
The students would not necessarily expect the teacher to be
there. They would recognize the student who was outstanding.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

I take it this is an instructor meeting with a pupil to
get points across. For the African one-to-one instruction
would be an ideal situation. This does happen outside the
classroom when a student will come and ask if he can talk
with you. I think this is important. But you don't always
have that much time. You like to help those who have that
much perserverance.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Probably are.

From my experience they have questions on various subjects
that I didn't expect them to have. So if I only lectured, I
wouldn't answer these and they'd walk out without the answers.
I always did give Opportunity for questions. A lot of our
students were older and were real exhibitionists. They all
had many things to express. They were very eager to offer
ideas. If it was a controlled situation, that is if the
questions were related to a specific chapter, not just to
things they wanted to talk about, I think it would be very
profitable. There's not much profit if the questions come
off the top of their heads.

 

284

Picture 9

 

Answer: Probably are.

Folk I've taught would respond to that kind of situation.
They are very oriented to exams, much more so than here. It's
a process of memorizing and writing the exam back. We don't
necessarily agree with that type Of educational process, but
that's what they know. We have to fit in with what they know.
The school is set on traditional lines by the staff in the
school. The churches sending their students there would all
agree that this is the way it should be done. I don't think
there would be any question about it.

 

Early on when I was teaching at the Bible Institute, I
used some "true or false" questions in an exam. I was
reprimanded for that because it was said it would bring
confusion into the minds of the students. The right kind ;
of exam was considered the essay type, e.g., write five é
sentences on this tOpic. In the village there were no a
exams, and peOple couldn't write, so the situation is 9
irrelevant to the village.

Differences in Expectations Of Teacher and Students

Africans think very differently from us, but it is
difficult for me to say how. For example, we would never
think of having 50 peOple praise a person at his funeral.
Their system of paying respect is so foreign to us. But when
they start school, the way of teaching breaks down their
customs. So the African way Of thinking does not need to
affect our Bible teaching so much. The things that mission-
aries must be careful to do from the beginning is not to carry
over into our Bible teaching our own cultural baggage. Even
if the missionary is not aware of African culture, Scripture
fits in with their culture. As he goes along and sees
particular problems in their culture, he addresses himself
more to those problems. Anyone going into a cross-cultural
situation must really learn that culture so he can minister
to the problems. But until he learns the culture, he must
just teach the Word of God in a positive way.

What the church expects from missionaries is different
from when we first went there. In the last 25 years there
has been a transition, and the church has been bewildered
over so many things. A lot of things suffered because we
had not taught them how to do it, e.g., administration skills.
In those days Bible teaching was considered to be the concern
of the missionary. But now they expect to do the Bible
teaching. They want to take over all the things that the
missionaries formerly did.

285

The Africans would still expect the lecture-type learn-
ing but they are changing their perspective as they see the
effectiveness of TEE and learning by discussions. The advan-
tages of the TEE method are too great to ever go back to the
lecture method. My experience is that students accept the
new method immediately when they see how quickly they are
learning. They had been taught these same things for years
by the other method, but they had never learned them because
they were not participating. If you learn something by
discussion, you will never forget it. You learn if you par-
ticipate in coming to a conclusion. PeOple in areas where we
have not started TEE are pleading for it.They know what it P
can do. .

Accommodating to Different Expectations of African Students

I have given tests and examinations where you can hardly
read whether they know the material or not. I feel more
comfortable in TEE with an oral method. So I've changed my
method of testing because I have seen how difficult it is for
the students, and how important it is that you get across the
knowledge, otherwise it is a waste of time. This is where
the TEE methods are important, because you have so much inter-
action you can discover whether they are learning or not. I
have changed in my teaching method from the ones that were
imposed on me in America to more interaction.

‘1‘...__ . ...,‘J .1.

The trouble in teaching Scripture is that we have been
guilty of bringing in a whole lot of irrelevant tradition
from the West, which has no basis in Scripture. We have to
throw those out in teaching Bible, e.g. insisting on special
sacraments for communion. You have to plant Christianity
there in the way it can flourish locally.

Discussion must be guided in a group of peOple who are
theologically illiterate. They may be giving each other the
wrong answer unless someone were there to point out from
Scripture what God says. I feel discussion is good in Bible
teaching, because you may not realize they have a wrong con-
cept unless it comes out. But peOple go away from discussion
like that with wrong ideas, which may affect their lives.
We're not dealing with things that are a matter of opinion.
We are dealing with truth, eternal things. As Christians,
in teaching we have a motive far beyond any other teacher
because God is watching us and we are pleasing Him. We are
not pleasing the students. We are responsible to Him. The
Word of God is eternal and the souls we are dealing with
are eternal. These things, together with the potential of
teaching one person to pass the Word on to untold numbers,
make out teaching all the more important. It is not like
teaching a skill. Passing on this knowledge to bring about
the evangelization of the world is the goal.

 

286
Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

In our field it is not so much our changes but more an
evolvement of the church. When we first went there, they
depended on us almost entirely for teaching and preaching.

They did not share problems from their own experience. There
was little interaction. But in 1962 the church became auton-
omous. They they did not lean on us for anything. We had

to be invited to come in. It was a complete change. In
teaching we are now concentrating on extension. Only the
minority of the teachers are missionaries. In the beginning

it was this way: I am a white man, and you're black. I was
teaching Old men who had been Christians for twice as long as

I had lived. They spoke among themselves, "This is white man's
teaching. We don't have to listen to that. We know the Bible."
In fact, one man told me, "I don't need to learn about the
Bible. I already know it." They resented the fact that I was
telling them things. We went straight out to Bible school.
That was the attitude of our generation of missionaries. _J
Following the war there was a tremendous upsurge of mission F
activity in USA. During the war we had six missionaries on

the field. Now we have 350. We were sending out hundreds of
missionaries, all of them straight out of Bible school and
knowing everything. With that kind of influx the blacks
wondered what in the world was happening. It was overwhelm-
ing. There were barriers built up.

I don't have the same confidence that I know everything
now, but young peOple do. We learn from our own background
the form of christian services, but they don't necessarily
work overseas. We struggle to get the peOple together for a
service at 11 o'clock, but what is so special about 11 o'clock?
I have to adOpt to their time, rather than making them change.
That's what I have learned. What's wrong with anything that
is not really against Scripture? Young missionaries have not
learned from the past. When they arrive among these poor
illiterate people, the missionaries wish the people knew and
try to tell them in the only way they know. I am afraid
schools of mission are not teaching peOple any differently
from my Bible school. If I were to change my career and
teach missions to young peOple, there might be some possibility
of learning from the past. But would they accept it?

These cross-cultural problems are fantastic, and we just
bulldbze our way into a culture when we are not necessary. I
thinRLthat the approach should be a study of the people to
dlscover how effectively we can reach them with the Gospel
Wlthout causing turmoil among them. Obviously they're
degenerate peOple. They must have sin dealt with, and must
COme to know the Lord through a real conversion experience.
<BUt too many times we go and win them and insist on our ways
50 Strongly that they're alienated from their own peOple.

287

They become black traitors to their own society. That's

quite an extreme word, but it really amounts to that. Many
times they are outcasts. That shouldn't be necessary. With
the young missionaries coming to the field, there's more
awareness of cross-cultural problems and more goal orientation.
But in other ways they are just the same as we were. They feel
the doddery old missionaries who have been doing things for
100 years have got to be changed. So they become very vocal
for change, but as missionaries we are not the ones to lead

a revolution. We must temper it, and move along with it.

But that's not acceptable to some young missionaries.

The residential Bible Institutes are excellent for
preparing peOple for the ministry, but they are not meeting
the need of the African churches. So few are being trained.
You can't build a strong church like that. Most ministry
comes from untrained, probably illiterate deacons. They
might have one sermon they preach, which they preach every
Sunday. This is why we felt we had to engage in an extensive
program for TEE for appointed leaders in congregations. In
the culture young graduates of bible schools aren't accepted
as leaders. Nobody would take them as pastors. They may go
away to the city, get into difficulties and their training
is wasted. The older leaders can't drop their responsibilities
and go to Bible school.

I feel that TEE is an answer because it does not take
peOple out of their culture into an artificial situation.
The difficulty is that most Bible colleges are Operated by
missionaries, and there is quite a different standard of
living and schedule for the African. All these are completely
foreign. TEE brings the school to their home. There you don't
have to worry about closing your class on time. If you're
having a good discussion, you can keep on going. The results
of TEE students are startling. It's a better process of
learning. They have to put their lessons into practice. It
is remarkable the difference it has made in the life of the
local congregation. The secret of these TEE courses is not
in the content of the courses,but in its application to life.
The subject and the answers are not cut and dried. You batter
things back and forth to seek how to apply the lesson in
actual situations. It made a difference in my own thinking
about teaching. When we are discussing a Scripture, they
would find applications that I had never thought of.

Effects of Teaching on African Students

When we turned the administration and all the church over
to them, we helped with Bible teaching in the background and
with the things they needed. They have been in a terrible
struggle since then to keep their heads above water. There
has been very little aggressive evangelism. They have been

 

VF”‘

288

bogged down with administration and never plan for the future.
Every man must have his position. Now we realize the need
for training in the practical aspects of running a church
(e.g. filing). I was shocked a couple of years ago to find
that we had not really taught the African peOple how to have
a christian home. So many of them were carrying on the
tribal customs, so the father remained the dictator and
wasn't the spiritual leader. The places of the mother and the
children were not emphasized. That needs to be taught in the
TEE program, which reaches the grass roots of the churches. I
have also found that ancestral worship is so prevalent and
engrained in them from childhood. An experienced pastor once
told me, "We will never give up the worship of the ancestral
spirits." This was a real revelation to me that he was able
to hold those those two belief systems together. The African g
Christian generally feels this is wrong, but they are afraid 2
to cut if off. I don't know whether it is fear of the super- ‘
natural or the neighbors. With Independence, a return to the ,
old practices is officially fostered. The only way for the *
church to deal with this is to take a strong stand by preach-
ing against it but they have been frightened to do this. Until
recently they would say, "That's white man's teaching, but

we don't have to listen to that. Missionaries can take a
strong stand against this, but we must take care of our
ancestral spirits." But this is changing. There are now
several prominent African leaders who are willing to stand
out against it. They can see that this is making the churches
weak. There is no question that Satan is very busy. His

power is displayed in ways we don't see in our homeland.

‘D‘ I

Bible teaching in primitive areas will bring about real
spiritual growth on an individual basis, but it can also
alienate the peOple from their communities. Christianity
should not make peOple traitors to their cultures. There's a
very great need for understanding of culture. Where there's
evil in the culture and it is against the Scripture, it has
to be exposed. But where there are things that don't matter,
we should be willing to overlook them.

A basic principle is that there's a point in the teaching
of the Scriptures where the missionaries should stOp and the
local peOple take over the interpretation. Of course, mis-
sionafies have violated this principle all over the world. I
don't know if we could practice it now. There are no places
left. Even in places we consider unevangelized, like Botswana,
they have had the influence of the church. Missionaries have a
set pattern of huge churches. I hope we can change this
pattern, and encourage the people to meet in houses. If the
houses aren't sufficient, I would ask for their suggestions.
If they want a large church, I would ask them how they
would finance this. If they realize that we just don't

 

289

have the money to give to them, this might help them to make
a decision. I know it will work, because in the areas where
we have the TEE they have taken the initiative themselves in
building new churches without any reference to us. These
churches are not so much different from their houses.
Anything like that would tend to break down the alientation
between Christianity and culture.

I suppose we make mistakes in going to the mission field
with our own standard of living so that the example we have
set is too high for their limited resources. Should we go
with fewer resources and set regulations that our missionaries
live like the peOple? I don't think that is realistic. The
peOple aspire to higher things, so if you come and put your- 1
self on their level, then they will despise you. They prefer E
to see you living at a higher standard and try to reach that
themselves. The message can be effective, despite the differ-
ences in living standards, but you have to maintain some con-
trol. You can't be lavish. The real work of the ministry is
in the attitudes of the missionaries themselves.

_ _ ____._._‘ —-_A ADS v.-

Modifications in Future Teaching

 

The trouble is that time is running out. Communism is
pressing down on the southern tip of Africa.South Africa will
probably be the last ditch stand. Outrageous things are
happening to Christians in communist lands, but we must pre-
pare the church for that kind of onslaught. So now we see the
training aspect as the mission role entirely. In a recent
reevaluation of all of our training programs, we realized that
the teaching ministry is the weakest in the national church.
Of course, it is not easy to remedy the situation. We feel
our training programs have been hung up on the traditional
lecture—type residential program when more practical methods
should be used. Our training program must meet the needs of
the local peOple and not just transplant programs from over
here. A change in our own training program may prove to
others that there are more effective ways of training. For-
tunately a freeway is being built right through the campus
of one of our urban Bible Institutes so we have to start all
over again. This is an excellent time for conferences with
church groups represented by students. Drastic changes are
likely. There will be probably more practical courses like
church growth, christian education, church planting,2 book-
keeping, tying and carpentry. These practical things have
usually been done for the people by missionaries. There will
be a greater emphasis on field work, too.

We have also decided to send out mobile units to the
churches from our communications center to teach church members
how to use available equipment. The problem has been in the

 

290

past to relate this center to the grass roots level of the
church. Like TEE, the trend these days is to take education
to the peOple.

We haven't begun to see the potential for TEE. The
improvement in spiritual tone of participants is fantastic.
The main way the African church can prepare for a worsening
political situation is to emphasize training for Bible
teaching ministry. The leaders must be prepared to face
things that are going to come. The people in Angola were
hungry for Bible teaching during their crises. So it must
be the same here. In Angola the mission institutions have
been destroyed, but the Word of God lasts. I recently
spoke to students at a South African Bible Institute and
asked them if they knew that within a day's drive terrorists
were kidnapping people. That is what they must be prepared
to face. It's all right for us missionaries because we can
always leave the country, but this is home for them.

Footnotes

1. Church growth is a term to describe the study of how
churches expand qualitatively and quantitatively to
develop new congregations.

 

2. Church planting refers to the starting of new churches.

 

APPENDIX E4

RESPONDENT: JIM WILSON

This respondent has taught theology in a
Bible Institute in the Philippines since
1967. He has also been involved in
Theological Education by Extension. On
furlough he was pursuing a doctorate in
education.

I knew from my experience in sunday school teaching that
I had the gift of teaching. A good teacher has to be able to
identify and analyse the extraneous and to communicate the
essential. I saw that I had this capacity. This isn't
waving flags for myself because any gifts come from the Lord,
and he's the one who deserves the praise. He's gifted every-
one. This happens to be mine. I found in various contexts
that I was able to explain things so that people understand
them. You don't have to start out by lecturing systematic
theology in order to find this out. Some people can communi-
cate, and other people can't. This is just something that I
can do. I recognized this is a part of what's involved in
being a teacher. From the time I was in high school, I have
prayed that God would lead me through the process of prepara-
tion into the ministry that he has for me. So I've had a
real sense of God guiding. There are three things that
contributed to this sense of commitment to teaching ministries.
One is based on past experience, the second is my perception
of my abilities, and the third is my sense of guidance from
God to this particular ministry.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Picture 1
Answer: Probably not.

This depends on what the teacher does with his list.
These situations are so complex. I know from my own experi-

ence in the classroom that some students' responses would be
perfunctory, basically insignificant. They don't feel free

291

 

434

to make themselves vulnerable in terms of how these things
do relate to them. Other students would see this is an
Opportunity for reflection and perhaps do some very highly
productive analysis both of the material and of themselves.
The odds are that there are few classes with that kind of
creative analysis and integration of learning with life.
There is a possibility that something really exciting is
happening here. But most teachers are such poor teachers.
I have a very anaemic perspective. I've been burned too
often. I'm protecting myself from everyone else.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

a. I r. an.rv In- .1“

I can read positive and negative indicators into that:
either the teacher is concerned about student insights, or
the teacher is unprepared. I've been in classes where I've
felt we were sent into small groups because the teacher didn't
have any more to say. But I tend to feel more trusting of
this teacher and assume that he is interested in the students
sharing their insights. He contrasts with the teacher who
says it doesn't make any differences what the students think.
It is only important for them to listen to what he thinks.
More probably this teacher in the picture would not teach
things that were trivial or unimportant. He is not only
interested in content, but in the process by which they come
to their understandings. Important learning can take place
in structured environments. But their talking to the person
across the aisle doesn't tell me anything about the value of
the materials. To me, significant learning would develoP
a student's understanding, his value structure towards
Christlikeness, and his capabilities to use his gifts.

..--“'9 . ~‘ .:I_I“u

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably are.

A desire to clarify issues to resolve students' confusions
reflects significant concern by a teacher. Sending students
out confused is not the objective of teaching. I appreciate
his desire to help them. There is more chance that the
students are doing something significant because of that
teacher's understanding of his responsibility. He has a more
valid concept of what constitutes important education.

There are two questions here: are they learning something
important? Are they going through a valid learning exercise?
There is a content focus and a learning exercise focus. It
is a valid learning experience to Observe your own mental
processes and to assess our own understanding levels. But I
have no way of judging whether the content is relevant to

293

their own life experience or not. So I have to make a kind of
a faith statement based on the assumption that a teacher who
is interested in clarifying confusions would not be teaching
things that are basically irrelevant.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Yes.

 

I'm at a loss here because sometimes significant learn—
ing does take place through a better understanding of concepts
in a text. What impresses me here is how everyone is sitting
in neat little rows. I think what's significant in determin-
ing what's really happening in the classroom is not merely a
function of the content, but of the teacher's comprehension
of the relationship of the content to students' lives. The
students are kind of a given. I hadn't thought all this
stuff through ahead of time. As I'm talking about it, I'm
understanding better how I'm making some of these decisions.
This teacher is concerned about students' comprehension and
understanding as he directs them to that page. He is not
just interested in sharing his own insights. He wants these
insights comprehended.

If there is some real close contact, the teacher can
often direct learning more competently than the learner can
identify his areas for growth. Methodology doesn't have a
real high priority in my own perception of the teaching-
1earning process. There may be situations in which lecturing
becomes a very efficient way to meet some needs of a group of
peOple who are more or less at the same point. There may be
other situations in which discussions become very valuable
tools. So when I look at these pictures, I need to know the
content, the teacher's relationship to the students, and why
the student is in that particular situation. It could be all
the way frOm a required course for a degree to a completely
nonformal situation such as a young adults' church retreat.
where peOple perceive their needs will be directly met by this
kind of interaction. With all these balls in the air at one
time, I have to try to grab one of them and form an answer.

Picture 5
Answer: Probably are.

Again. I think the kind of teacher who would encourage
this kind of sharing is probably concerned with the student's
insights and with touching student concerns and needs. Probably
he will deal with significant important materials. If he was
only interested in laying a bunch of facts or his own bril-
lhnce on his students, he wouldn't make that kind of request.
That teacher is apparently interested in the kind of

294

integration between learning and life that makes learning
important.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

Again, it seems to me that this kind of method would
probably be employed by a person who is interested in helping
learners to identify the importance of what's happening
in themselves. What's important in the learning process is
for something to happen internally in each person. This
individual contribution has two functions: it forces each
person to do some reflecting on the content; and his
perception often becomes a stimulus for someone else to
consider a new facet of the content or truth under discussion.
So there is the possibility of learning and growth taking
place as a result of interactions with the content, the teacher
and the other learners. That I think is why it's significant
that each person should be encouraged to participate.

 

3.1
J
i
I

5‘”

*

Surface level verbalization of something does not
constitute significant learning. Learning becomes important
only as a truth or an insight or relationship is developed
to the point where it moves the person towards his learning
Objectives, his standards or goals.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Probably are.

Saying, "Is he learning something important?" is different
from, "Can he learn something important?" The "can" question
is answerable. I cannot answer the "is" question. I undere
stand the question to be, "Is it possible for important things
to be learned over lunch?" To that I can give a definite,
positive answer. However, most lunchtime discussions are of
trivial and unimportant things. But I assume here that a
teacher who is willing to take time with his students sorting
things out probably teaches things that are important.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Yes .

What really determines whether or not learning is important
is the relevance of the content and process to the learner's
goal. You've got to start with the learner himself. The
learner's identification of his own goal is critical. The
assessment is also critical, either a self-assessment or it
can involve others. For example, in terms of the Christian

295

life, there's the goal of full maturity as demonstrated by

the life of Christ. The next step is to look at myself and
ask in relation to this standard, "Where are the areas that
I need to see God working in my life, and where I need the

ministry of other brothers and sisters in Christ?" As you

minister to me, I grow towards this objective.

The teacher is so important in my responses because his
voice on the tape is my only positive indicator of his con-
cern to help learners identify areas for growth and to address
those areas. There's nothing on the tape and very little in
the photographs that indicate whether the learners have been
even sensitized to the question and whether it is relevant to
them. I think that the teacher is an important part of the
learning process. But his part is much less important than
what I've been forced to give him in these pictures.

Any content is important that addresses the students'
needs or facilitates growth. I think "growth” is better
than "need". I don't mean to imply that all good learning
goals are of equal value. As a Christian I think that
Spiritual maturation is the level demonstrated by Christ
as the ultimate. Other goals are relative. This whole
business of talking about this today has been a real
catharsis for me.

Picture 9
Answer: Probably not.

When things are introduced with that formula, it
usually reflects an inadequate view of what really is
important in life. In my experience learning aimed at pass-
ing exams tends to be superficial. If they are learning
anything significant, it is in spite of the teacher's percep-
tion of what's important. The fact that one guy has a micro-
phone aimed at the professor and there happens to be an over-
head projector there doesn't really indicate important learn-
ing. The largest clue to whether they are talking about
something important is the teacher's statement because it
reflects his values. Passing the exam is what's important
to him. I think that exams are necessary evils at best.

Sources of Expectations about Teaching

 

There have been major influences on my own conception of
the teaching-learning process. The most significant of all
has been the model that I have been exposed to in graduate
school. One professor has sensitized me to the larger issue
of personal deve10pment as a learning goal. I had recognized
large unshaped problem areas in my own teaching experience.

é
i
l

 

‘E

296

He hasn't planted new ideas as much as he's suggested some
categories by which I can identify problems. The categories
themselves seem to suggest access routes to answers to pro-
blems. I can think of a couple of teachers that affected me
negatively. In a high school bible class I used to check the
teacher's references in my RSV (Revised Standard Version)
Bible. The RSV was very recent then and also widely looked
down upon in evangelical circles in this country. At one
point when I asked the teacher to explain how his interpretr
aflion related to my translation, he said to me, "I don't
want you to ask any more questions like that." He just shot
me right off. This forced me to realize that if truth has
any validity, it has to be open to discussion. Truth state-
ments lose their validity when they're accompanied by an
unwillingness to scrutinize them.

i u ..q-m-A“-A.-——l“r

To counter that experience, another professor in graduate
school was so committed to the validity of certain issues
that he was prepared to entertain any kind of question. He
showed me that we're not committed to this or that particular :
statement. We're committed to truth, so we must be completely ‘
Open to interaction and to seek what truth might be in a
situation. My approach now is very similar to the latter,
and I have no patience with teachers who are unwilling to
scrutinize.

The other influence on my teaching has been my own
experience in the classroom. In my first year or two in a
classroom, I was much less aware of the personal dynamics in
the teaching-learning situation,and much more prone to focus
on content. I viewed students as empty jugs to be filled
with content, instead of looking at them as individuals. In
the process of teaching, I've develOped some personal rela—
tbnships with some of my students, and it sensitized me to
the importance of being sure that I am addressing my students
where they are.

Some reading has also formed my perceptions about teach-
ing. At one point Robert Mager helped me over a hump to
identify the importance of specificity and teaching objectives.
Now I'm not satisfied with his approaching everything in terms
of skills. There is much more to be considered. The whole
deve10pment of the person is a much bigger thing than just the
skills part. His little book, Developing_an Attitude Towards
Learning, sensitized me to the attitudinal aspects of the
teacher-learner relationship. I found that learning doesn't
have to be adversive in order to be effective.

 

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

In my first year teaching in the Philippines, I asked a
student how he was going. He said, "Sir, it's hard here.

297

It's really hard. In high school the teacher lectured and
we took notes and we went home and memorized our notes.
When the teacher called on us to recite, anyone who could
memorize could do well. Here at college the teachers don't
want you to memorize, they want you to think, and it's hard
to think." That illustrates the traditional Filipino
approach in high school education which emphasizes the
authority figure, the prestigious individua1,the teacher,
the professor. He does the thinking. He tells you what's
important. It's your job to ingest these goodies he gives
you. At our college, not only in my classes, but certainly
in my classes I wasn't asking students to simply ingest the
materials that I had previously ingested for them. Instead,
I was asking them to think. Gradually the students changed
their perceptions, and eventually some senior students
challenged me in class. But an incoming Filipino student,
whose professor told him something was important, would
take it as important.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Probably not.

This is close to something that I did in my introductory
theology course. My observation was that only at the end of
the course did they take it seriously. We talked about Asian
theology and used Tillich's definition of theology as anything
that relates to ultimate concerns. So Asian theology is
giving biblical answers to Asian questions. Then I explained
that, as a non-Asian, I didn't even know what the questions
were. So I broke the students up into small groups where
they made a list of questions. I gave them some suggestions,
and left it openended. They came up with crazy things like,
"Why aren't babies born from eggs like chickens?" But there
were also some very good questions dealing with death,
demonism, and other Obviously real concerns. I don't think
they took it as an assignment as such. It was sort of a
jovial time in groups. This is because significant learning
to them is that which comes from the outside. It is not
learning that I generate within myself or that which I
generate through interaction with peers. So they would not
think this situation is particularly important, but to pacify
the teacher, they would give him what he asked for. They
are very patient peOple, and would resign themselves to the
fact that the teacher would make some sense out of it later.
They really wouldn't expect to learn in the process of
doing this.

 

298

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably not.

This would be considered a legitimate classroom activity.
but not an important one. They trust that the teacher knows
what he's doing when he asks you to check with the person
across the aisle. He is going to make use of this in some
way. But again, they learn not from costudents, but later
from the teacher. Anything that the teacher wants to do in
class is legitimate. It is not that the activity is intrin-
sically valuable.

Picture 3

 

Answer : NO 0

I don't think that would be considered important by my
students because the emphasis is not on understanding but on
being able to reproduce and deliver. But there is some
deve10pment in the process of learning to think and to
challenge. Students do discuss controversial subjects in
dormitory bull sessions, but they would think of these as
learning sessions. It's more recreational.

I think we underestimate the fact that my students in
the Philippines do all their work in a second, third or
fourth language. So part of the reason why they focus on
being able to reproduce rather than to understand is that,
to a certain extent, they're used to ingesting stuff that
they don't understand. Words come at them instead of ideas.
Some they catch and some they don't catch. They're trying to
fill in the blanks just to make some sense. That is a much
more serious problem than most instructors are aware. We try
to get the whole of the picture together. But because of the
language problem, a partial picture seems normal to my'
students. It would go right over their heads. I don't think
they would take this situation seriously.

They don't go to another peer for learning. He may not

be right. Learning takes place between the teacher and the
student. Something learned from the teacher is always right.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Yes.

Yes, this has some significance for learning in the
Filipino perspective because it is teacher-directed. It is a
nonparticipating class.Students are sitting in rows and they're
well behaved and it's book-oriented. Books and teachers are
things that teach.

299

Picture 5
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Helpful things are learned from the teacher. Sharing
helpful things with peers is not on a learning level. Peer
relationships have a low place in the hierarchial structure.
The good flows downward. The value of the sharing would be
in reminding one another what the teacher said, rather than
in learning from one another's insights. Students may
function as playback systems, but the teacher gets the
credit as the source of learning.

I'm interested in how I'm seeing Filipino student
responses. I"m not trying to be analytical. I"m giving gut
level reactions as to how I perceive my students. Maybe I
was trying to be analytical when I talked about my own
responses. I felt that I was aware of my own analysis of
what's important. I don't think that I've sat down and
thought through carefully what makes learning important to
Filipino students. This is forcing me to do that, and I
appreciate that.

A _ ..‘JT—‘ff—r“ *‘Vi

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably not.

Again, I think it's very doubtful. Contributing something
yourself is basically foreign to a situation where signifi-
cantlearning takes place. To a certain extent Filipinos do
not value their own insights. Children from the time they
first talk are taught they are not expected to think. They
are expected to simply acquiesce. It's hard for them to
think, because they aren't used to processing information.
They take it in and repeat it, but they aren't used to
processing it. On the other hand, they are capable of
learning. It is strictly a cultural thing. They aren't
incompetent. Some very good thinking is done when students
are stimulated to think and taught how their thinking
processes are demonstrated.

I had one very exciting experience in a course on Romans
and Galatians. The Romans part was on inductive Bible study
methods, based on what I had learned in graduate school. It
was really a course in perception and thinking. Kids groaned
about that course, but said that they really appreciated it
because it taught them to think. It was like pulling teeth
for a while. But I really encouraged the students as they
began to respond and make more Observations. They continued
with this exercise until they made 20 observations on one
verse. By demanding this type of intensive work of them,
they were able to make good observations on their own. Then
we were able to lengthen out the passages, so that we finished

 

300

Romans in half a semester.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

Definitely, he's learning something when he meets with
his teacher to discuss it. It's quite common in our college
to call students to your office to talk. The place doesn't
make the learning important. They don't think learning
only occurs in the classroom. It might be a slight exaggera-
tion to say that learning to them only occurs between teach-
ers and learners. What's important is that there is a
teacher, one who knows, and someone who is available to be
taught. A European teacher gives higher validity to the
learning. Anything imported is better than anything domestic.
There is more prestige and consequently more value attached
to learning that takes place between Americans and Filipinos.

a... --F

_. - --.—...
1 ‘ '

Picture 8 3
Answer: Probably not.

For the Filipinos, significant learning takes place from
teacher to learner, and not from learner-initiated activities.
So when the teacher asks the learner to make a list of things
that ought to be discussed, he's abdicated his role as the
teacher. Then probably what is happening is not significant
learning.

Picture 9
Answer: Yes.

I think you'd get a very affirmative "yes" from.most
students. The whole society is very authority structured
and hierarchial. That's the way their mothers train them.
There is tremendous respect for anyone that is in an author-
itative or a prestigious position. If an instructor says,
”This is important," then this is important and no more
questions are asked. SO there is a real sensitivity to score
high on exams in order to be a successful person. From
beginning to end in our college, there is a very high value
attached to scoring high on exams.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

The reason for the conflict between my judgments and my
students' judgments about when significant learning takes
place is that I perceived them not inclined to think of learn-
ing in terms of critical processes. I am very inclined to

 

301

think this way. It is easier to explain why they are not
critical, than to explain why I am. I think they are not
critical because their culture has not valued those kind of
skills. It is a very authoritarian culture. It has not
placed a value of any kind on the critical or reflective
thinker.

To a certain extent I suppose I am doing something
culturally unharmonious by stressing critical processes.
But I feel it is necessary. The scriptural charge is to
grow to maturity. Paul says in the Epistle of Ephesians
that we must not be "like babes,tossed to-and fro with
every wind of doctrine." What is the foundation of the kind
of stability which can withstand these winds of doctrine?
It is the capacity firstly to understand the intent of
Scripture; secondly, to be able to perceive what others are
saying; and thirdly, to be able to measure what others are
saying against the criteria of Scripture. It seems to me
that these are all critical processes. There is no escape
from develOping critical processes if church leaders are
going to be able to function as the kind of mature peOple
God wants them to be.

 

The Catholic church has traditionally said, "It is not
your job to think. That is the job of the clergy." The
forces of modernization are changing things somewhat in the
Philippines. There is more reflective thinking now than
there was. But still it is just a dr0p in the bucket
compared with what there is in Western societies. Students
come to us not at all prepared to exercise a critical faculty.
The Filipinos would think critical thinking is Western, but
from my own perspective I think it is transcultural. Our
culture has valued critical thinking partly because of the
biblical values that were built into our culture centuries
ago. Also we do have the heritage of Greek philsophy too.

I assume someone who lectures and is exam oriented is
not interested in critical processes. He is interested in
data retrieval. This corresponds very closely with Filipino
concepts of education. Most of my colleagues would agree
with me that critical processes are most important, but
whether this comes out in their actual teaching practice
would be an interesting thing to see. I have never sat in
on any classes of my colleagues in the eight years I have
been on campus. I have never had a teacher sit in on my
classes. There is absolutely no interaction among the
faculty on these issues.

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Filipino Students

In the last couple of years in my teaching, I was using
work sheets, instead of getting up and lecturing material

302

authoritatively. In the work sheets the students could look
up the references, and I would ask leading questions about
the passage. What I was hoping to do in the process was

not only to acquaint them with content, but to force them to
be active in the acquisition of that content.

I have had to accommodate to the heavy academic load of
the college. Students are not inclined to do assignments
unless there is something to hand in. They will also not
generally work ahead on assignments that are due sometime in
the future. Rather they tend to live very much in terms of
the immediate demands upon them. Consequently, I have gone
to an approach which requires students to hand in something
almost every class period. I find if they know they have to
hand something in, they will do the assignments. There is
a tremendous amount of embarrassment in coming to class
without a paper to hand in, if one is expected.

Because my students have a penchant for memorization,
I look for things that they can memorize, and take advantage
of this. So I get them to memorize the order of the books of
the Bible, and key ideas of certain chapters. I explained
to them that the purpose of this memorization was not to
recite the facts to their churches, but to make it easier for
them to help people from the Scriptures. There is a place
for rote learning.

I have also experimented with take-home tests because I
appreciated these as a student. I found out that with the
pressure to do well in their society, combined with the lack
of personal discipline, it is absolutely impossible for them
to resist the temptation to cheat on a take-home test. I
discovered that I was considered naive to think that students
would do a take-home test without cheating. So I had to
abandon them and go strictly to classroom tests.

I have been able to teach some critical processes by
example. In a theology class I outlined a methodology for
study. We went over the methodology many times, using
different materials. I explained how we turn a tOpic into a
question, get the biblical data to form an answer to the
question, and then list unresolved questions. Now I realize
one of my mistakes in doing this is that I never tested them
on the methodology but only on the content. But in a
students' oral presentation on these topics, I found that
they immediately adOpted my methodology.

Filipino society is so very power-oriented. The point
of debate is not to establish truth, but to establish domi-
nanmaover the other person. So there are dangers building a
theological methodology on these cultural aspects. I am
quite willing to admit that there may be better elements
underlying Filipino culture that I have not discovered. I
want to meet Filipinos who are interested in the quest for

 

303

objectivity and truth. We will only get Filipino theology
as we permit Filipinos to raise the questions and allow the
Scriptures to give the answers.

Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

 

It has been more an evolution with me. Some might say
I have got soft in my old age. When I first started teach-
ing, I was much more demanding on my students. Another way
to look at it is to say that when I started teaching, I was
very "content" oriented. The longer I taught the more I
became aware of the personal element. SO the more responsive
I became to my students. This was my first teaching experi-
ence, so I had to have my nose in my books. Because I was
driving myself and because content was the only thing I was
comfortable with, I tended to emphasize it. As the
necessity for continually cutting new ground was relaxed, I
started to look at the kids in my classes and at myself. I
also realized there is only a limited number of things that
you can communicate in any one semester. So I would lay out
the basics that I thought were important for the students to
know, and then wait for their questions. If they followed
up their questions, I would go into more detail. I was will-
ing to go as far as they keep pushing the issue, but I wanted
to stop at the point where they were satisfied. At first I
tended to unload everything on the students. I now also
warn my students that many times questions mean more to the
bearer than they do to the questioner.

 

_ I. _-._—-.n u;o-~..‘.—“‘.V 3‘4".

-Lil'.

It is almost frightening at times to realize the respon-
sibility that we teachers have for Filipino students.
Within the first two or three weeks with new students, I have
to be very careful because I am aware that they will accept
what I say very uncritically. Some of them are only 16 to 18.
I quickly became aware of their receptiveness to anything I
had to say. So I found it necessary to guard myself because
I did not want to abuse that relationship. On the other hand,
I tried to use it constructively by challenging some culturally
based misunderstandings of what Christianity is. I did studies
of wealth and poverty in the life of Christ, and on the
triumph theme in the life of Christ. The demonic is very much
evident and feared in the Philippines. I did one on Jesus in
the Scriptures and the Holy Spirit in the life of Christ,
speaking to the humanity of Christ. With the history of
Catholicism in the Philippines, the humanity of Christ is
generally dismissed.’ So the whole concept of Christ as
example or model is lost. Any references are immediately met
with, "but He was God. That is fine for Him, but it does not
fit our situation."

These are some of the things on which I was trying to
spend some of my goodwill with the students in order to force

304

them to confront their own comprehension of Christianity and
its meaning in Filipino society. Their tendency was to
accept uncritically what I had to Say in spite of all my
attempts to force them to integrate this with their life
situation outside. They accepted what I had to say in the
classroom at a superficial level so it did not really reach
down. It made no difference in the way they interacted.
There may have been some who reflected on these things more
critically. By far most did not. At first I was not frightened
about the power of my influence because for the first two
years on campus: I only taught upper division courses where
there is more reflective activity. I was not conscious of
my role at that time.

I am realizing too that the theolOQical institutions are
the worst things we missionaries have imposed on the church
in the Philippines. This is a bit exaggerated, but at the end
of the graduate level program we hand a man a degree, and in
so doing we put on him our imprimatur. He is now prepared to
be a pastor. We know in our heart of hearts that cognitions
are not the criteria of being an efficient pastor. But we
have bestowed upon and within this person a sense of an
elitist posture in relation to the church. The whole thing
is very destructive in terms of how God intended the church
to function.

Effects of Teaching on Filipino Students

At the beginning of the inductive Bible study courses on
Romans and Galatians, several students complained that the
course made their heads ache. I responded to them with
Elizabeth Browning's quote: "If heads that think must ache,
then Lord give us headaches." But at the end of the semester
several students came to me and said that that semester they
had learned to study the Bible. I felt this course accomplished
more in the direction of moving them from rote processes to
critical processes than any other course.

I am not dissatisfied with my teaching experience. That
sounds prideful. I tried to be responsive to students and I
have seen them respond to me. I could never begin to recount
the number of testimonies that students have given about my
teaching. Two of my students are building a radio Bible
teaching ministry for Vietnamese speakers using my theology
notes as the basis. They expressed that their theology courses
with me have been the most significant thing that has
prepared them for this ministry. I am thankful to God that
He has let me have this part in the lives of these men.

Students who have elitist aspirations do not respond to
me. Students know that I do not want to throw my weight
around in class, but want to let ideas and ultimately the

“Li-cud M .14 av)"

“f“ . .- —-l. A." _-_

305

Scriptures to be the authority. I don't model an elitist
posture that attracts those from a power-oriented society.
The majority of students respond very warmly to me. But

I have been rejected by some. My observation is that the
more confident a person is, the less authoritarian he needs
to be.

Modifications in Future Teaching

My involvement in a seminar on Theological Education by
Extension was the first step in my eventually doing graduate
studies in education. As I have had an opportunity to with-
draw from the situation, and to think in a more concentrated
way, I have come to the conclusion that schooling is not an
apprOpriate approach to theological education. If we face
some of the issues in Theological Education by Extension,
there will be radical changes. If we believe our theology,
we have to bring our educational practice into line with it.

I think it is a lost cause to try to overcome the
elitist structure within the Bible college situation. Pe0ple
involved in the seminary program are so committed to what
they see as their mission that they are blind to the
detrimental effects. I feel a good place to begin change
would be to st0p granting degrees. If you would stop granting
degrees, there would be no prestige advantage in coming to
the school. Those who would come to the school would be
those interested in developing their sense of ministry.
There would be no compulsion to go through a particular set
of subjects or reasons for giving grades. They would not
be competing with one another. The model of the church is
certainly not the competitive model. Then perhaps we could
take off our academic gowns and get down to dealing with
some of the real issues involved in developing leadership
of the church in the Philippines.

In the future I want to be involved in extension
education. But I need to do some more growing in terms of
my own perceptions, too. The ways of introducing change and
of taking advantage of the nonformal learning situations
are critical. If we formulate an extension program, with
the instructor and not the church as the beginning point,
we are off on the wrong foot.

Just recently I have had the insight of planning
curriculum to respond to the needs of the students'
congregation. But I don't see how this can be done within
the context of formal education. That has to be done in a
small group discipling relationships.

 

------r

 

APPENDIX E5

RESPONDENT: BILL JOHNSON

Since 1959 this respondent has t
taught chemistry in India at a f
christian college. E

This may be a generalization, but I think that in India 3
they are centered in the here and now. The immediate human 5
situation is more significant than situations farther away. b
For example, it is quite understandable to keep people waiting
for a meeting if you are entertaining unexpected guests at
home. This is a constant tension for me because I am much
more institution-orientated. I feel that you don't destroy
the institution for one individual at this particular moment.

I see the institution as a tool of constant assistance to
many over a period of time. It's a larger picture rather than
the immediate situation. I may be too institution-orientated.
I may get the job done, but may have missed the person in the
process. I am sure this is a Western value.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Picture 1

 

Answer: Probably are.

The idea of a student thinking through his own particular
values and writing them down could be very valuable, particularly
if you are trying to help a student understand himself. I would
rate it high where the student's opinion is required and there is
not one particular answer. This would come up in moral and
religious education, not in chemistry teaching. But I have some
reservation because recently I was in a group for a whole hour
discussing the ideas of people. We would have been much further
ahead if the teacher had asked the people to rank a list of ten
points, rather than ask the group to generate the ten points.

The kind of situation where you throw it open and ask people to
write their reactions can be inefficient. This might have
eliminated some spontaneity and a trivial suggestion which a
person was embarrassed to make. But if the teacher is really
aware of his class, he should make up a list to accommodate even

306

 

307

the trivial responses. People take a long time to warm up to
this kind of thing.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

Here students may or may not benefit. Discussing answers
which are cut and dried is not very profitable. It could be
quite efficient in helping one another to decide the method
of reasoning to get to the answer. But it could also be a
waste of time if a few words of guidance from the teacher
could have given them the answer. I did try this as an
experiment in laboratory work, getting two or three students
to work together on a problem, so each could add to the
knowledge of the others. I like this method. The problem is
that Indian students have to do lab work silently in the exam
so the method of cooperation may not be a good way to prepare
them for the exam. This method is particularly good when more
reasoning is required, rather than rote memory, e.g. in
weighing alternatives.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Yes.

They are both concentrating on what the teacher said
previously. They're still involved in what was happening in
the class. Going over your own material, it is a valuable way
to learn. The teacher is not going to provide learning
necessarily, so you have got to go over your notes, certainly
to reinforce it. Reinforcing is a very good learning goal.

I would encourage them to go through their notes to see if
they can understand. They can only do that themselves.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably not.

Learning is probably taking place, but the technology is
poor. If he is just referring to a paragraph of written
material, it will probably be a waste of time. It must be an
illustration or a diagram, so he should have used an overhead
projector or started with it.They all seem very relaxed and
not very engrossed. He seems to be getting some concept
across, not a lot of detail. None of them is particularly
looking at the book. At this stage you would think the
students would be right with him. The approach seems to be
very inefficient, so he is not using his time well.

i!

...-s an e. .M"-’.‘.~. ..-

 

308

Picture 5

 

Answer: Probably not.

I can see how this should reinforce whatever the teacher
talks about, or for a person to get a point he has massed.
Unless there was a very highly motivated group, they would not
be talking about the subject at all. Something at the low key
level of "helpful" would never last through the doorway. If
emotions were very high concerning the topic, the students
would be likely to discuss it as they were going out. But the
majority of learning-teaching situations don't have that kind
of motivation.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

It would be appropriate for the type of question where
the process of reaching the answer was more significant than
the solution. The method of reasoning then comes out of the
person's values. It is unlikely that I would use this in
Chemistry teaching. The maximum value of this would come
from the participants understanding and appreciating the
values of others. The teacher would be trying to get the
students to develop the whole concept, rather than let them
disagree on separate points.

I have been in a lot of learning situations where I felt
that two thirds of the time was wasted. The amount of material
to be imparted to students always exceeds the available time,
so I have to make a value judgment to exclude material. Then
if I use my time in the classroom inefficiently, this is an
injustice to the students. A classroom is used as an
inexpensive, inefficient mimeograph machine a great deal of
the time, and I feel it's wrong. What really happens between
the teacher and the students could have been mimeographed and
handed to the students in 30 seconds. Instead, the teacher
spends that hour talking, and the student tries to copy that
information, making many mistakes.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

This involves value judgment of some kind, or weighing of
alternatives. One may have contrasting opinions. This could
be a very inefficient setting if you are trying to solve a
mathematical problem, where you need pencil and paper and to
work through things. But this is a low-pressure situation,
which could help with decision making or with overcoming
emotions interfering with learning.

I 71.7”“ ‘W
I

...... ...... u" n

‘f

309

It may be helpful for working with a concept like
relativity, which is not hard to understand but hard to
believe. So when there is something foreign to the person's
thinking, if he sits with pencil and paper and keeps working
at it, he may never come to a position of believing it.

Picture 8

 

 

Answer: Probably not.

If it is really important to them, it shouldn't be
necessary for them to think about it very much, particularly
if they knew about the topic in advance. What is important is 5
how the teacher tabulated the points and dealt with those 3'
particular issues.This is more feedback to the teacher rather
than actually learning by the students. It is a guide to the
learning that will take place later on. Learning might take !
place as the student ranks the ten things. Then he might '
see how much he values one thing in comparison to another. L
Reinforcement is a part of learning. But learning occurs when '
something new is generated in the person or when something is
placed on a higher or lower level of awareness.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

The statement about examinations seems incongruous with
the casualness in the picture. In my experience in teaching
science, when they are talking about examinations, it would be
more a formal situation with students writing down specific
details. The casual atmosphere seems more appropriate for
dealing with concepts. The teacher's emotions contrast with
the boredom of some of the students. You don't use this kind
of gesturing for exam facts because gestures can't be conveyed
on to paper. But you use gestures to get across a feeling
beyond the bare facts. It is good for the teacher to say,
"This is important." I think we cheat students too often if
we are fuzzy about what is or is not important. The teacher
here is giving the nutshell of the body of infommation,which
the students can easily transcribe in a few lines. I think
that is a worthwhile thing we need to do. You can be so
broad that the student does not know where he is going.

Sources of Expectations About Teaching

As an undergraduate, I took a couple of teaching method
courses. I can't particularly say how they helped me, but I
know they exposed me to a number of new ideas. Then as a

 

310

graduate student, a couple of these gave me a new under-
standing of the breadth of alternatives in higher education.
I think these made me more open for alternatives, rather
than giving me actual choices to employ.

I think models have been very important. One of my
graduate teachers always opened his huge notebook at the
place where he would begin teaching that day. So you always
felt that he knew what he was doing. Then he lectured for an
hour and hardly looked at the notebook. He didn't use the
notebook as a crutch. He decided what was important for us to
learn and he eliminated a lot of material because of his more
mature judgments. He was able to point out what areas of
knowledge had wide applications and what were deadends. As a
student, I could not have made those judgments. I think we
allow the students too much choice in many cases because they
are not able to recognize these deadends. The teacher, with
his experience, should guide the learning because he can see
ahead into the future.

I also read a good journal on chemistry teaching, which
has a reputation for its excellence in content and method.
I have learned a lot through trying to apply American things
to India and finding they did not work. Building low cost
instruments for use in Indian college laboratories has taught
me so much. We have very few faculty meetings to discuss
teaching ideas, but we have recently started a teaching
seminar, where a faculty member can share something of his
experience to other faculty members. We have only had two of
those in my 18 years at the college, both very recently. This
is an area that has been lacking.

I learned from a YMCA camp that a lot of energy goes into
maintaining discipline at the younger age group level. In
India I found that the discipline in college was about the
same as in a USA high school. So I have had to learn how to
cope with the very things I went into college teaching to avoid.

During my first furlough, my experience as an assistant
editor for the National Science Foundation's Advisory
Council on college chemistry was also a rich experience
because I attended several national conferences on chemistry
teaching problems. One of the projects I have worked on was
the low cost library for college chemistry.

My experience with open-ended discussions has made me
very hesitant about using them in teaching, so I want to be
sure that they are within well-defined limits. The scope of
knowledge is far greater than any one person can comprehend.

So I feel we should make a rational, not an irrational,choice
about how to handle the small amount of information that

comes to us. To put it in the worst light,I, as a teacher,
select information on the basis of what everybody else is
doing for exams. But I also enjoy giving students a feel for
chemistry and for things I consider important for their future.

311

I can project the broad application Of particular pieces of
information. They can deal with specific issues without ever
realizing there is a common cord to them. So efficiency in
teaching is a conscious selection from all material available.
We are not whittling down knowledge, but it is an ever-
expanding circle, and the area of the unknown is the circum-
ference of the circle. So that the more we learn, the more
we become exposed to what we don't know. The unknown and the
known are both growing. Knowledge has infinite possibilities
for direction, so we have to choose the direction we want to
go. This is the critical factor in what we accomplish in the
end. [

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

I would be hard pressed to define an Indian student. '_
It's only when we are looking at something that is foreign v
to us that we see it as monolithic. It is only a lack of
perception that lets us define characteristics and overall
patterns. It means you have a well-defined pattern to compare
this against. When you begin to see the pressures of the
academic system on Indian students, generalizations do not
seem very valid. It is not so very different from the USA.
It is just more open in India. An Indian student can't relax
and enjoy a lesson which the teacher says is not related to
the exam because the exam is set by an outsider. He knows
that in another classroom the students are getting content
that is directly related to the exam. American students too
would not stand for the teacher not discussing subjects that
were on the examination. I don't think the Indian student is
any more examination-orientated, though they are much more
orientated to content than to understanding attitudes and
Opinions.

The oriental mind has been separated from their education
right up from the first grade. They are living in two different
compartments. The world of flowing into a reality beyond them
that is too big to understand is not related to their academic
life. With school, they start with specific reality and
concrete answers and definite ways to get the answers. Even at
the upper level they may not have a comprehension of what they
are dealing with. Their scientific thinking is compartmentalized
and they do not try to relate it to their more philosophical
thinking. One of our Indian teachers who teaches archeology‘
and ancient Indian history says the main difference between
Hinduism and Christianity is that Christianity deals with
reality not myth. He tries in the classroom to separate
historical reality from myth.‘ But as a Hindu he recognizes
that the myth may be useful and important to people.

 

 

312

Picture 1

 

Answer: No.

In science the importance to the student of the subject
is irrelevant. There's no attempt to establish direct personal
relevance in any of the material beyond relevance to good
examination results and future job prospects. This statement
is irrelevant to the examination material because that is a
fixed body. It would be quite relevant in extracurricular
activity. But in the normal academic stream and especially
in chemistry the student would be expecting cut and dried
answers. The student would not consider his Opinion important.

 

 

-___'u*

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably not.

_ ... .-. ...—....“

The Indian student would consider it this way that,
"There must be an answer, and the teacher should tell us. If
I ask my friend and he's wrong, we have wasted our time. We
have no confidence that either of us has the right answer."
This situation would probably degenerate into chaos in the
classroom. Some of the students are socially immature. They
anticipate rigidness in the classroom. An invitation to start
talking would be an invitation to an instant hubbub. It would
not work without a great deal of preparation.

‘rw

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably are.

This is not a common pattern, though we have help sessions
where the teacher tries to answer individual problems. Generally
we have no trouble getting students to come to such sessions,
even though they are extra periods. Students get together to
discuss problems in their learning and very often solve their
own problems. But they generally expect knowledge to be cut
and dried and not confusing. In the classroom the teacher
assigns the material he considers important, and only briefly
covers the material. But the necessary recall, memorization
for the exam is the real learning and goes on outside the
classroom often with the help of a tutor. .In the classroom
students expect to get notes, which they may or may not
comprehend. Comprehension is not necessarily important, and
may almost be a waste of time. Even the exam questions are
standard and considered unfair if they are changed slightly.

So the classroom is for teaching and accumulating material to
be learned at home.

313

Picture 4

 

Answer: Yes.

If the teacher was explaining interrelationships between
parts as in a botanical drawing, it would be relevant for the
classroom. If he was referring back to something that was
related to the present issue, it would be legitimate to refer
to the textbook. It would help the student understand the
textbook better, and isolate the significant content.

E
Picture 5

 

Answer : NO. 5

motivate a student to go ahead and discuss. I can't conceive

of a situation where it would work. The peOple would be talking ,
about something more interesting and learning would not take 3
place.

When it's just two helpful things,there is nothing here to j
i .

Picture 6

 

Answer: No.

In science teaching rarely would two different thought
processes be significant. There's one way to solve the problem.
There's no need for everyone to tell the process of arrriving
at that answer. The teacher should have explained the approach,
so there's no need to sit and listen to several students.

Picture 7
Answer: Probably not.

Personal help always has the negative overtones that the
teacher is going to be selective in helping the student prepare
for the examination. Our college has the reputation of taking
more interest in students and they can come to the teacher's
Office and discuss their problems. But in this situation, if
the student were learning something significant, it would be
considered unfair. The information should have been given to
the whole class. The students would not be too impressed with
the informal atmosphere because for important learning they
need pencil and paper to write down in a paragraph or two
something well defined. Chatting like this would not be very
effective. The syllabus is too large for the student to ever
grasp, so he has to have very specific direction as to what
is significant within the large body of information.

 

314

Picture 8

 

Answer: NO.

This goes back to the efficiency issue. The students
would feel that the teacher should have asked them to bring
in those 10 things as an assignment. This is not a good use
of the classroom time. In the students' minds the 10 things
would be related to the information in their notes, so they
would have to dig into those to find out the right items.
It is hard to relate this to any kind of question in chemistry.
Questions about the subject are a low priority in the college.
Nommally the student does not expect to fully comprehend or to
ask questions. He merely is receiving content in the class-
room.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Yes.

This is just the way to generate interest in a student.
Often I have to justify why some broader concepts not actually
in the syllabus will be on my examinations. I tell them how
this knowledge will improve their examination results. One of
our teachers, in fact, left the college because students
objected to his teaching something not directly on the
examination syllabus. Students could have even had a strike
if they feel they are not getting what is necessary for the
examinations. Teachers have a limited time with students,
and the students feel cheated if all class periods are not
directly related to exam preparation. The same applies to
American students. But Indian students have a single
examination in which the teacher's opinion and classroom
performance have nothing to do with their grades. I think
the outside examination system is unfortunate. It is an
attempt to control standards.

You don't have to motivate students any other way than to
tell them this material is going to be on the examination. I
call this the British pattern of education. It is a cause for
fame if the teacher guesses examination questions. Our college
is considered a good college because the teachers do not teach
selectively for examinations as do the teachers in coaching
colleges. But the student expects the teacher to pick out the
important questions for the examinations. They are a little
bit ambiguous. They want to go to the academic college,but
they want the results that often come from the narrower
training at the coaching college.

 

315
Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

It may be only in chemistry teaching only, but the Indian
student would think that it does not matter what is important
to him. In the American situation the personal significance
to the student beyond the examination contributes to learning
and motivation. ’

In the American situation,aontent has less significance
and understanding is the important part. There is less
insistence on a right answer. In India also there is a
greater emphasis on specific answers and content, rather than
on general concepts. Informal sharing would just deteriorate
into bad discipline. There is a common approach to problem-
solving in science. The situation of having significantly
different approaches does not come in India, not even in art
subjects, and certainly not in chemistry.

There is a great difference in teaching between the
content and the concept emphasis. The teacher's approaching
the student is appropriate where concepts or emotions inter-
fering with learning are important. It is inappropriate
where you are trying to deal with content.

The Indian student considers the classroom is the place
to get notes, not to make lists. As an American, I can
understand why time would be spent on such a matter, but I
feel the classroom time could be used more efficiently if the
items were ranked. The Indian student would think this was
not only inefficient but also irrelevant.

I put less importance on learning just for examinations
than Indian students, but I feel that if it is a good exam!
ination, it should provide important learning. We often do a
poor job of examining. This is why we don't associate
important learning with examinations. We should be able to
examine important things.

In the guru tradition in India, the students were subject
to the teacher almost as slaves. He magnaminously gave what
was necessary and good for the student, no matter how poor it
was. But the whole freedom movement meant that the individual
could make choices. Perhaps that's the result of Western
education. The old structure of complete paternalism and
submission to authority is starting to break down. The personal
situation dominates his thinking. This attitude comes in with
the students too. Some think, “If I have been sick, I should
be allowed to cheat." They expect us to see the human side of
the situation.

316

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Indian Students

The formal education of the Indian student is compartment-
alized from the rest of his experience. Other things in his
life may be inconsistent without his trying to evaluate them.
One researcher has stated that the majority of Christians said
that their Science studies did not influence their faith.

As in America, the expression "good luck" has not disappeared,
although we have a lot of exposure to scientific things. People
continue to compartmentalize. Some people consider luck as a
reality that actually operates and can be controlled. People
don't stOp to rationalize this, but it is implied. This is
evidenced more so in India, where they are at a lower stage of
having thought about these problems. Indians are exposed in
their homes to much more ancient traditions.

I am very interested in trying to get students to relate
their scientific thinking to the rest of their lives in courses
in moral and religious education. It's not specifically
christian indoctrination, but we deal with idioms that have
grown out of science, like "good luck", and "seeing is
believing", or "everything is relative." These carry the
aura of being scientific, modern and correct,but are used in
a very unscientific way.

Their science concepts are pretty weak, so we use,for
example, materials on relativity prepared for American school
students. When we discuss relativity, I explain our
responsibility to choose frames of reference accurately
because we are bound by the framework we set up.

There is a despondency in India that it is impossible to
escape from problems. We don't deny the uncertainties surround-
ing the student, but we also try to stress their potential.

We try to encourage the students to see needs and to employ
themselves in meeting these. The self-employment projects
help students to develop their vocational skills, and to
consider alternatives to the traditional vocations. We try to
get the students to think that their demands should not be
"give us jobs", but that they should have the capabilities to
create joys and make themselves useful in the community. So
this is a very different type of education. Most American
graduates would be lost in this.

We set up a contest for the students to demonstrate ways
they have found of making themselves useful. One biology
student applied his scientific background to raise chickens.
Another group of biology students worked on the layouts of
local publications. They are making enough money to put
themselves through college. We encourage students to see
their skills as an investment that can be of use to other
people. Several students got involved in photography, and
one is supporting his whole family this way. So these projects

317

encourage them to find employment in areas where they will not
easily find it. We have never given them any starting capital.
We want them to do it with the resources they have available
or else they will depend on us. Students don't need to be
discouraged by the situation. Discouragement should create
opportunity. Our college also tries to give leadership in

the national service scheme, which involves college students
in digging wells and building roads.

I haven't had much success in encouraging Indian colleagues
to allow students to share in the governing of the college. I
was concerned that there be.more working together, which I guess
goes against the whole authoritarian structure of Indian society
with its British rule. Teachers did not know how to react to
the students. They either gave them whatever they wanted, or
authoritatively told them what they ought to do. The students
didn't know how to react. They either demanded or pled. They
didn't know how to talk to one another and work out their
problems.The committees disappeared when I went home for
furlough. I would not try them again, because the attitude of
the teachers was that they had failed. If they were going to
succeed, there would have to be training for the teachers. I
think it was just too big a scheme and too radically different
to work. The committees attempted to cover all of the campus
life. I think if we did it again, we would work through the
existing structures of the student government.

One of the ideas of the students out of a committee was to
start a students' bOOkbank. I realize now I made a complicated
system to maximize meeting the needs of the students. It has
become time-consuming and difficult for the students to operate.
So while I am away I have a hunch that they are not letting the}
students choose the books themselves to make the system
easier. If the students run off with the books, they would look
on it as charity. They would not be concerned about the future
usefulness of the project.

Fifteen years ago a group of American scientists recommended
that Indian Science education be improved by adopting semimicro
methods of analysis. At first I considered this was too little
change. I thought the changes should be more concerned with
the purpose of science rather than with a mere change in method.
I wanted applied chemistry that dealt with immediately
important problems like soil conservation rather than classical
analyses. I realized we couldn't start teaching this because
of the examination system, but my hope was that the examinations
would change. So I dealt with these applied issues in extra-
curricular time and made suggestions to the examination
committee, but nothing happened. As I tried to do these bigger
things and our budget got tighter, I realized that these micro-
methods were a start. This meant a quite significant saving to
us. Other colleges are becoming interested in these methods
too. The idea had been approved by the government of India,
but it had never got down to the grass roots of college

318

administration. So I've been writing up these courses to
share with other colleges. It will be interesting when I
go back to see if the larger equipment has been introduced
into the classroom again. I don't know how convinced my
colleagues are of this method, so it will be interesting
to see if it has been maintained.

I have also been working on developing electronic
instruments for teaching chemistry. They are prohibitively
expensive in India. The answer is not to import one or two
machines from.America. We have a budget of $1,500 per annum
to teach 400 students, so we have no resources for expensive
equipment. My goal has been to make instruments for under
$50. My idea is not to just use simple things, but the best
products of modern science with a cheaper design. A lot of
instruments are overdesigned and have a lot more capability
than is actually needed. I have tried to work on developing
one recording station for all students in the lab, involving
a mini computer. I am developing a low-cost spectrophotometer.
The electronics part is sophisticated but very cheap. Part
of a grant from the Indian government to improve Science
teaching has been allocated to inexpensive instrument building.
I am.making every attempt to keep the number of imported parts
as small as possible. So this is my attempt to deal with
this major problem, as science students increasingly must
have contact with modern electronic equipment. In the smaller
instruments I may be able to get even more capability for the
value. One of the main ways I accommodate to teaching in
India is the development of these new instruments.

There is an accommodation somewhat at the conceptual
level too, because Indians are much more interested in facts.
So part of my job is to justify why they need to understand.
Most of the time I rationalize this by saying they will get
better results in the examinations. That immediate payoff
is important because 40% of students fail.

I use a lot of illustrations and demonstrations to try
to bring out concepts. This is rarely done in India, but I
feel it is important to introduce these within the limits of
the examinations and what the students and teachers expect.

Being an Indian situation makes me more aware of
people's positions and the proper channels through which to
achieve things. There certainly are cultural habits like
asking those in authority if you can enter the room. Then
I have to stay and have tea.

Changes in The Teacher's Expectations

 

In my missionary orientation it was very much impressed
On me the need to adapt and to realize that our sensitivities
are not the sensitivities of other people. I have probably
gotten away with a lot of mistakes because Indians tend to

319

excuse the foreigner. Now it is very hard for me in America
not to display the habits I have learned in India, e.g., in
asking permission to enter an office. I think I have been
fairly sensitive right from the beginning. I am not so
extraverted that I would have gone in and blasted people.

I was open to try to learn.

I suggested a rotation of the department headship
among the faculty members at our college. One teacher
objected because he said the servants won't known who to obey.
He felt that it would be impossible for him to tell me to do
things after I had been the leader. Relationships had been
established with proper authority and submission. The idea
of colleagues switching roles becomes very unacceptable. It
is very difficult to talk about things as equals. This is one
of my concerns, and it would be nice if it were different. I
may be able to bring up this matter at a later date, or we
may think of dividing authority.

Learning Hindi has affected my teaching and attitude
towards peOple, though I certainly miss a lot of the implications
in what people say. Hindi forces me to be simple, but this has
only been to my good. Any language is capable of expressing
scientific thought, but science requires the language to have
clearly defined limits to concepts. A whole scientific process
may be contained in one word. Technical language is useful
so I don't have to go through and communicate all that'
conceptual background each time. One of my jobs as a teacher
is to build up the aura around words. When the meaning is
established, you can go ahead and use the word like a tool.
It's not a matter of the language not being able to express
either abstract or concrete thought, but it's more a matter
of giving the language precise definition. Because we have
not struggled to break concepts down into smaller units, we
often hide behind technical language because we don't fully
comprehend.

Effects on Teaching Indian Students

I would hope that students would have some better
comprehension of concepts and the unifying link between things
that look superficially different. I would also hOpe that
students would be aware of alternatives that didn't exist
before. In Chemistry or lifestyle or religion, it is an
important part of growing to be exposed to variety. In our
city there were no alternatives in the study of .hemistry
before the micro method. I want to constantly open up
students to a variety of possibilities.

The message of salvation is that there is hope. But with
all the hunger and problems in the world, people often have a
feeling of hopelessness. To have an alternative, you can't say,

320

"Be hopeful." You have to give the possibility of some alter-
native to the situation. We may not have the answer, but at
least we know there are a number of possibilities. Then we
can give people the reason to go on searching for answers. But
if there aren't any possibilities, there is nothing that can
be than what is. There's not even the possibility of looking.
So if we point out possibilities, we will turn closed doors
into open highways. This will surely help people to face
problems in all areas of life.

I don't separate science teaching from my missionary role.
Most of my time is spent in the lab. The college was founded
with the idea that if peOple got Western education, they would
naturally become Christians. It was a cultural identification
of Christianity with Western culture, and the way to convert
was to bring in Western culture. But it has never worked.
Christian colleges have never been agents of conversion. They
have been well aware of this for 50-75 years, so the college
probably feels a little bit guilty. The mission sending groups
from America and the church still ask, "How many converts are
coming out of the institution?" The college has redefined its
goals as affording an Opportunity to expose students to the
gospel. Only 10% of our students are from a christian back-
ground, 30% are from Muslim backgrounds, and 60% from Hindu
backgrounds. But they are there out of choice because there
are 17 colleges in the city. So there is a good deal of
sympathy for Christianity, and a number of non-Christians
come to chapel service. We have Scripture distribution, and
find out that many years later they are still reading the Word.
They would never have this exposure to Christianity in any
other way. This may still be evangelism, but it is very much
'a redefinition of the original purpose that the gospel and
education are just tied together. This way they have been
separated. There is the hOpe that there will be conversions,
but it is combined with the belief that the Word of God is
working even while these students are being offered secular
education.

__ . ...m n.- r-mn‘. an — ‘1‘ v I
‘— . h-na *v

The college sees the major part of its role as meeting
human need. It represents one arm of the total ministry of
the church in a country where there is a great need for
material deve10pment. So in this sense an important mission
of the college is good education. An individual without skill
or education would probably barely survive in India. As long
as there is a great demand for education, we can help a thousand
of the many thousands who want help. Mission work in the past
has often been limited to say giving out medicine and going
away and leaving the person sick.But to leave a doctor there
is a more definite way of meeting the need.

We are reexamining the kind Of education we are giving to
our students as they can be of maximum usefulness in the
country. But we are very.much tied into the university system,
so in some respects we can only do the system a little bit

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better. The system.is becoming more flexible, so we are having
more room for innovation. Some of the Indian staff have not
been trained abroad. I have been encouraging teachers to take
further studies outside of the city, and we have developed a
scholarship fund for this purpose. Some have Obligations to
the extended famdly so they can't get away.

Modifications in Future Teaching

 

Some of the problems I still don't know how to solve, but
I may go ahead with more determination to bring about change
in broader areas beyond my own classroom, e.g. in helping
other teachers to improve science teaching in the college.
Maybe the teachers now are more interested in trying new
things, so I will be able to encourage them in this. It will
involve in a sense more leadership, but I would also like to
be free of leadership as mmch as possible and support Indian
teachers' initiative. In the past I have not had much response
to suggestions for change. Only one or two of the Indian
teachers used the overhead projector I built. I don't know
whether I have not convinced them that this is not my little
thing but that it belongs to the chemistry department.
However, another department has now ordered one. Some may
feel that this is the only thing that can be classed as an
educational improvement, so I must have had some influence.
This is why it is difficult to introduce changes.

I tried to stress with my teachers the need to draw out
students because the ones that have problems may not be the
ones that come to you. I've learned a lot in this area, but
it must be a constant process of learning.

In this course on science and faith the students are doing
a lot of integration. Probably the degree of interest in this
depends on the ability of the teacher. My feeling was that the
students have not really comprehended the basic facts of cience,
much less than allowed them to affect their lives. The Indian is
.more exposed to what might be the opposite Of rational thinking.
There is more compartmentalization in India, but I don't think
it's unique to India. Scientific thinking has to be reinforced
in a lot more ways, and perhaps emotions have to be overcome.

The Science lab, if any place, should confirm that God
can be depended upon and that we are not just dealing with
a fluid. The lab should stress that the individual is
significant and can discover alternatives. SO I spend a lot
of time checking the balances in the lab and repairing them.
This is something that I don't know that the teachers will
continue while I am on furlough. They are not convinced of
the importance of it. They are also not convinced that the
practice is just as important as the examination. They don't
realize that the self-confidence of the student is related to

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examination success. So I can sit and repair a balance for an
hour and feel I am doing the Lord's work and not necessarily
be out preaching and distributing food. I can see God's
calling and purpose for me at the moment.

APPENDIX E6

RESPONDENT: KAREN GEGNER

This respondent taught music and Christian
education at a Bible college in the
Philippines since 1967. She has also
conducted Bible studies and home visits
for a Filipino church.

I am a very positive person. This comes from a
realization of who I am and who God is. Problems are
conquerable, so this must come across in my teaching.

I have basic beliefs that people can learn and change

and communicate. There is a place for everyone in life.
God didn't make any misfits. Society has made the misfits.
Each person can adjust to his limitations or capacities.

I try to help peOple to accept goals that are realistic,
yet challenging and reachable. I try to treat each
student as an individual, and I expect everyone to achieve
some basic learning. I expect success in learning.
Failure may be their fault or my fault. I may not have
motivated them or the chemistry of my personality may not
click with them. I see the student as a growing person
and a teacher to me. The more we interact, the more we
grow together.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

As a teacher, I am not a drillmaster,but I am a concept
person. I like to run with a concept, according to the
level of interest. But I can tend to get away from the
structure, and I have got to be careful not to cheat the
students out of a presentation of the basics. This is
the way I get creative ideas, and do courses differently
each time. The teacher must encourage students to
become independent. Students often first see the
teacher as an ideal person or as full of knowledge. The
teacher could manipulate them, but I want to be the
stimulus, the reflector, and set up projects to help
students grow eventually without me. I need to show them
the materials where they can get help. You go from a

323

324

teacher-student role to a friend, cosharing because you
can always learn from your student. More important than
the physical setting in teaching is how you relate to
students and make them feel that their contributions are
worthwhile. No question must be invalid and their partic-
ipation is vital to the functioning of the classroom.

I teach primarily by example, as well as through
spoken instructions. I don't see my role overseas in any
different way from my role at home. At this point in my
life I have settled down to realizing what my strengths
are, and I don't think this will change with geographical
location.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Some will be really going through and evaluating
what the professor has asked them to do. Some will be
in a dream. Again, it depends on what value the student
has placed on that course, and the teacher's stimulation
of ideas within that person. But most learners appreciate
an opportunity to reflect. It's a good technique. It
reflects where the student is and maybe where he is to go.
But some will just doodle, or do it because they have been
asked. You don't know whether it has been important in
their life or not until they interact about it. Just
because I say, "DO" does not guarantee learning or that
the students will put the same priority of importance on
it that I do. This privacy of a self-evaluation without
the stimilii from other people is good. It depends on
what heTstrying to do with the information. If it is just
an exercise without his thinking where it is going to take
him, it's no good. The fact that the teacher is behind
the desk here does not bother me as it does in No.2. In
this one the teacher can't be involved in the individual
thought processes.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Sharing answers, the buddy system is a good technique.
It would be very obvious if you did not do it. Those
learning are doing so through the interaction of ideas
with others. It confirms answers or shows where ideas
are different. But it depends on the motivation of the
of the student. It is a formal structure and the teacher
is not away from his desk and involved in the sharing.

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I feel this detracts from the learning. He is removed.
So hovering over students shows distrust. But I try to do
the exercises as well to show I am a learner too. I
don't want to sit like a judge. Availability of the
teacher is a key. The teacher is the resource. The
barrier that I know it all and you don't must be broken
down. I admit the new insights I get from students.

I stress we're all learners. In spiritual things the
Spirit of God can speak to everyone. They come to the
Scriptures with a different background. So it would be
better for the student's learning if the teacher were
milling around. But that does not guarantee learning. It
depends on the teacher and whether he communicates well
and is stimulating. In my concept of learning, a desk
can separate you, but not necessarily. If the teacher
were milling around, it would reinforce the importance

of what they were sharing.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Yes.

I have been in many coffee breaks and asked to respond
to that same stimulus. So the class must be stimulating
because they choose to be involved. It is important to
them. To me learning has to start from the inside desire.
Why it is important to them could be varied: passing an
exam, finishing a course. The highest reason they could
be doing it for is for clarification, the desire to
understand more, not just to pass an exam.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Again, I want to know what the teacher will do with
page 54. If he would explain the illustration and have
them interact about it, the value of the situation could
even go higher. But with the structured situation and the
large class, there is probably a good chance that only
some are learning. It again depends on the personal
desire to learn. The teacher can't know what they are all
thinking. Probably if there is good interaction, everyone
can take part. It does not mean that those who don't speak
don't learn. It is going to be hard to judge unless there
is a test later on, or the teacher watches them function.

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Picture 5

 

Answer: Probably are.

They're reflecting on concepts and ideas and evaluat-
ing the input. They're mulling over it like chewing on the
cud. So it is important learning. They would be talking
about the class or how it would be related to them.
They've stayed behind so they've made a value judgment
that they want to learn. That's fine if they're highly
motivated. But I could not say "Yes" because I still
don't know quite what is happening. The informality of
the situation may enhance the learning and encourage the
students to express their own ideas. They don't have to
raise their hands and wait for the right time to say some-
thing. The informality may also detract from important
learning because the class is dismissed and somebody may
be detracting them. It's totally unstructured whereas
Picture 3 is still in a structure. Some structured
situations are a hindrance to learning. The teacher does
all the talking and the student does all the listening.

To me that is not conducive to knowing what is happening
in the student's head.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

It is small enough to give everybody a chance to inter-
act on their concept. They're involved. This is a gener-
alization, but I have often said if you can't verbalize a
concept, or write it, you don't know it or really have it
all together. There's an opportunity here for fellow
students to disagree.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Probably are.

The positive points of this situation are: the avail-
ability Of the teacher, the student's desire to learn, the
student's desire to meet with the teacher, and the
teacher's desire to take extra time to go over the material
again. But I don't think you can ever be sure it is
important learning until a change has taken place in a life
because of the learning. They may be in the process of
gathering and discipling. This goes along with my concept
of learning, as change in behavior, putting my concepts
into practice, not just being a computer and absorbing all
of this. I don't know that you have really understood
until you have tried to do it.

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Picture 8
Answer: Probably are.

This is like No.1, where they are asked to write down
their concepts. It is a similar idea of interaction, with
not such a formal setting. What he is asking them to do
and how he is involving them are the important things, not
so much the setting. It does not have to be a casual
atmosphere for important learning. The real potential of
this situation is not the listing of the concepts but the
interaction afterwards.

Picture 9
Answer: Probably are.

It depends on what the teacher meant. It could be a
threatening situation, or it could be helpful. If he
meant, ”This is where we are going. Watch out," it could
be helpful. I have often done that. It could be threatening
if he said, "If you don't get this, you are going to be the
loser." The informal structure of the classroom is good.

I like that. I like his visual media setup, which shows
creativity. There are certain things that have to be
lectured, as well as acted on. It's a good review
technique. It would give the students a clue to ask
questions on this area.

Sources of Expectations about Teaching

The church situation where I worked was a very neat
team experience. There was no jealousy. It was safe to
fail. You didn't have to beat yourself. The team uplifted
you. This has been a rich experience in my life because my
teaching was in the classroom and was supported in the
church ministry. It was a demonstration to myself and to
the students of the discipleship we were studying in the
classroom. It was not a stale "lab" presentation. We
said what worked and what didn't, and changed to meet needs.
It was a constant growing. While teaching in an institution,
I see it is important to have that continuing contact with
the local church. That's reality. I had to make this a
priority. Working with peOple is the most important thing
I could be doing.

The students who worked with me in the church brought
experiences back into the classroom. I tried to structure
my classroom to make it as creative as possible with

328

problem-solving experiences. But I have concluded that,
like any other school, there are peOple who are just
riding through. I can't expect all of them to put things
into practice. NO matter how hard you try to stimulate,
they just sit there and dare you. I have concluded that
I will pour my energy into students who are teachable and
who want to learn. I have not closed these other kids
off, but let them know that when they do church work with
me, there are the commitments of time. It is exciting
because it draws people. Some will try to get by with the
least preparation. But they learn to schedule their time,
to deny themselves to reach people outside the group.

I feel that both the unstructured church training and
the formal school training are valid. As a result of the
church ministry, I have tried to adapt my classroom to a
more "doing" type of learning. In the church we don't
try to cover five courses in one semester, but concentrate
on one area of learning, put into practice and then come
back and share about it. Every team member is important,
no matter how small his area of contribution. It is a
united effort, not one person's grandstand. I could think
there's more productivity in the church training than in
the school, but it is just because I am seeing the immed-
iate results in the church. A student may not put his
learning into practice for years. There's no guarantee
that the student will ever put his learning into practice
unless we go out and do it together until he is confident.

I have always tried to analyse why teachers I have
strongly admired are effective. I have really studied
why Christ succeeded as a teacher. He took the students
from where they were. He saw what they could be. This has
been a great challenge to me. I pray, ”Lord, show me the
spark you see in each student so I can fan the right one."
Then I can anticipate my students will be something. Christ
was also a strong example. He was in touch with God. The
strong concept of "He was with them" has influenced me.
He tested them and didn't get all shook up when they failed.
He knew what he was teaching. So I must know my content.
It's easy for me to talk but I have to be a worthwhile
resource. These are the basic concepts I see of a good
teacher.

My formal teacher training was the foundation for my
later learning. For about 10 years before I went to the
field, an effective educator discipled me. But I want to
learn from everybody who comes into my life. I want to
teach others to be Open to the peOple God brings into
their lives. I want to continue to be open and to be a
learner Discussions among our teachers are more on
character problems than on learning problems. I don't do

, 329

as much professional reading as I would like to.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

It has been an adjustment for me in changing cultures.
My sheer size is boggling to people. I am a very author-
itative person. As a new teacher I was very insecure and
did all the talking. One brilliant student accused me of
being an imperialist. This cut me to ribbons. I evaluated
this because I wanted to change if this was true. It
haunted me, so I discussed this with others. I realized
my sheer bigness gave this impression. But I couldn't
change this. I could change my style of walking fast and
talking so much. This acted as a caution, not as self-
condemnation. I realized it was important how I came
across. I had to learn to be more Filipino. It has taken
me a long time to be a relaxed person and not a driver,
and yet still keep that inner drive for something I want
to accomplish. Often my freshmen will say, "Mum, we are
afraid to come to you." My upper classmen are not. It
has always been that way just because of who I am. I am
an upfront person. Gradually they see what freedom we
can have in the class.

I share with my students that I have come from rely-
ing on lists of rules. Many of the students' lists
they've got from missionaries are based on my culture.

They tend to throw them out when they find a flaw. So I
have to train students to dig out principles. I can't
guard young people. But these principles build their
fiber. I'm not with them in all situations as the teacher.
But they always have the Holy Spirit and the Scriptures.

Picture 1
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It depends again on personal motivation. The ladies
at church want to learn, so they would be able to
verbalize more things about themselves. Whereas the
students would not all put their effort into thinking of
things that relate to them. It depends on rapport with
the teacher. If it was a vitally stimulating concept,
they could think through many things that were important
to them. But I would never call on an individual to read
her list. That makes her vulnerable and that isn't
acceptable. We have to earn a right to ask in those areas.
It does not depend whether you are in the Philippines or
not. Different personalities are more open across all

330

cultures. I am a very open person.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Again, the students' personal interest is the key.
Some would take initiative, others wouldn't. We do a lot
of interaction with seniors and the teachers validate the
student answers. I think there has to be motivation by
student and teacher for real learning to take place. I
have problems with motivating students because they are
overloaded with work. It is a drowning kind of experience.
I didn't cut back on projects that I thought would be
very positive experiences. It's frustrating for the
teacher. I don't want to just get the students through.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably not.

They generally would not take that self-discipline.
Lack of self-discipline comes from the culture. The
church women and I have built rapport and they want to
learn. It is voluntary with no demand. I think a core
of the seniors would want to learn too. Life is very
casual in the Philippines. Some of them work very hard.
Others have little discipline. But that is the same in
America too. The break is their time. They separate
class time from their own time. My Opinion is that
learning should be total. Maybe they view learning as
something unpleasant. It must be got out of the way so
they can do something pleasant. Grade schools are always
overcrowded. If there was fantastic stimulation in the
classroom and they were involved, probably they would be
willing to continue discussing class issues in the break.
If it is directly related to their experience, they will
continue to discuss it. It's the same for us.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

This is an average statement for a teacher. It is a
formal situation. The ones who are learning may have had
their thinking stimulated by the teacher. The ones who
didn't think it was important may be just doing a required
course. The authority of the teacher and his use of a
book will give more weight for some peOple. I try to tell

331

my students that just because something is written, it is
not necessarily right.

Picture 5

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Here it is an individual and a group stimulus. The
growing person would take time to share. Others would talk
about anything. If I felt it was of value to my growth as
person, I would do it. Someone said to our student body
that a leader can never st0p thinking, and I agree.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably not.

They probably would not think they are learning any-
thing important, but at the end analysis they may see how
involvement had helped. It would depend on the maturity
of the group. The beginning kids would think it was a fun
kind of thing but would wonder what right they had to be
giving their ideas. They would think, "I just came here.

I came with nothing and I am getting what I need from here.‘
The upper classmen would think that this would be important.
The students are changing their attitudes to learning as a
result of being at our college.

Picture 7
Answer: Yes.

For a student, this one-to-one relationship would
produce very important learning. I do this a lot. They
value the concentration on their particular problem. But
some would not take this up. They would be too shy and
threatened. But for those who were highly motivated, some
really good learning could come. Many peOple seek me out
concerning concepts from class, and ask how these relates
to their lives and problems. But these relationships take
a long time to build.

Picture 8
Answer: Yes.
They would think they were involved. They are not

passive peOple. Things are changing in the culture.
Students are more vocal now than they were 10 years ago.

332

H0pefully we are working with leadership, not kids who are
always going to be passive. The informal seating arrange-
ments would not be upsetting to them. I think they would
just do the exercise because I said it. It is not as if
they were valuing their own input. They would be respond-
ing to the authority structure, and would think it would
be neat to do. The value of what they had written down
might come out later, as we discussed the 10 things. I
don't think they would have analysed it at this stage.

Picture 9
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

My freshmen would be very eager and say "Yes.” My
seniors would probably give a snicker like me and say,
"Oh, no. Not again." I think the ladies in the church
would clue in and learn because the rapport level would
be different. They know me better as an individual than
the students. Filipinos have structured classroom
situations where the teacher is the authority. By the time
students are seniors, we would have developed the
attitude that learning is not just what I say and the
test is not the ultimate. They are more internally
motivated. I trust this is the result of going through
our college.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

I think a young teenage student in America could
understand more abstract concepts than a Filipino student
of the same age. But it is not a matter of ability, it
is a matter of exposure. Our learning is set up for
abstracts right from the beginning.

I have passed the stage where I think they're from
the Philippines and I'm from America. They are learners
and I am the teacher. It is a blend after a number of
years. I don't think I would do anything basically
different in an American classroom.

I believe involvement is important. Students do
value the Opinion of the teacher, not their own Opinion.
If they shared more, they may value the experience more,
but not as high as I would.

My students have great respect for the authority of
books. I have too, but I am more concerned with how
this authority interacts with what we are discussing.

333

I am more concerned with the backing-up process. They
are more concerned with the authority of the content.

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Filipino
Students

 

The schooling structure does not allow for this
immediate response. So I try to give assignments that
are related to their present christian service. In Bible
teaching I am concerned about the utilization of facts in
life. Bible teaching in college is preparing them for
the future, but it should have an entrance into their
being now. When they approach a new situation, they
should know how to use it because they have already
applied it.

I can ensure that my students are putting their
learning into practice by checking if they are having
their quiet time or private devotions. I collect their
quiet time notebooks but I never read them because I do
not want to invade their privacy. That is one way I
stimulate my students to act on what they have been
taught. I also encourage students to share what they
have discovered in their quiet times. I also encourage
students to form more informal groups of Bible study
outside of the classroom so they can share the applica-
fion of Bible passages. In class we discuss the value of
this and whether it is something that is worthwhile
continuing in later life. I encourage them to think about
whether the groups function on a "we-them” basis or on an
"us" basis. It is a matter of setting patterns while they
are at school, which they can continue later, for
eternity. Students rarely go back to their old college
notes. It is what we utilize that is important.

It is a face-saving culture. But I use educational
games to build up a trust. I try to show them that
learning is fun being Open and by accepting different
answers if they can back them up. I don't want either
myself or the book to be the ultimate authority. They
come from a background where the teacher is the god. But
this is breaking down, and we see it at the college too.

I encourage them to always test if principles are biblical
or not. My list of rules may not always work for them.

I am concerned about student involvement, and am
constantly trying new ideas to upgrade my teaching. The
others on the staff are more traditional. The students
listen while they tell. They are older and more content
than involvement structured. But it's not impossible to

334

learn by listening.

I think the students want a teacher with standards, who
will be available to them and whom they cannot manipulate.
If they have standards for a secular school, they should have
them for a mission school. I'm noted on campus for the
quantity of work I give the students. Students prefer
learning with involvement and enjoy learning games. They
like a good lecturer. They are good notetakers. Sometimes
I give a bare outline of my lecture so my students can fill
in the points. I am not so much interested in imparting facts
but how the students interact with those facts. I have
become a better communicator to students by assuming that the
problems in communication are my fault and not because of
their dullness. I'm not afraid to try many doors. I think
in pictures, and tend to illustrate with pictures. I find
this very helpful in getting over concepts.

If I am going to introduce a new experience like
reflecting on their own ideas, I don't try to explain what
we are going to do. We just do it and discuss it later.

I know eventually they'll catch on. I found new methods
worked best when I take time to work with group leaders
first. I think as teachers we blame our kids for a lot of
failures when they are our own responsibility. I teach very
spontaneously. So if an exercise does not work, I try
something else. I may not have another plan on paper, but

I can spontaneously think one out on the spur of the moment.

I would not be at the college if I did not have
something to share. They wouldn't be there if they didn't
want to learn, so there are no major problems in accommodating.
I know a book is very important to them so I try to
accommodate by using a book. But I'm not going to use a
lousy book. I know they expect lectures, but I know from
reading that they'll learn more through involvement. It
is not "me-them" relationship, but it is what we are going
to do together. It's not my authoritative structure. It's
what we learn and put into practice.

I don't think accommodation is the issue. It's not
accommodating me to them or them to me, but both of us
learning and growing. It's not accommodating to a method
but finding the best method and discovering together what
the issue is. It's not so much method as application -
seeing them change. I have to accommodate so the students
understand. I have to accommodate to their rate of learning
and to their interest. The growth of the student is the
issue, not the method of teaching. I don't focus on
method. My goal is to have the student expand and grow

 

335

and put this into their lives. Some methods are only

content and have no application, and they are not conducive
to growth. All my methods will fail if I don't bring

students to the point of application. I don't want to deaden
factual growth because some are going to be leaders in that
area. But I challenge them to relate theories to their
personal lives. It's a challenge to me as an educator to
broaden that person another step.

Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

After you work in a culture for a while, the cultural
differences fade. You see peOple as peOple rather than as
Filipinos. You think of all that makes up a person. Culture
is very important, but it's not the whole thing because
you have the same problems in America, e.g. affluency and
poverty. The value structure of Filipino culture is
different from that of the American culture. Personal
relationships are very important, whereas in America self is
very important. I come back to the biblical concept of what
a person should be. I have no right as an American to go
over there and tell them what to do. I am not superior.

The only right I have is that I have got Christ to share.
To show I am conforming to His image is the only reason I
have to be there. I have to mold my cultural upbringing to
bring it into more conformity with Jesus Christ. It is not
American culture, it is biblical culture. It's what God
wants us to be. If the culture does not conflict with the
biblical concept, then it's fine.

After 10 years of teaching I find myself constantly
cutting back on the amount of content. But we are governed
by an accreditation system so I have to be loyal to those
requirements. At first I lectured in the way I was taught
and was afraid of interaction because I might not know the
answer. I was not safe with my material. Now I am not
afraid of hard questions any more because there will always
be things I don't know, but it's wrong not to find out. I
often say to students, "Let's investigate this together and
come back and share our findings." I think I would have
changed whether I was in the Philippines or not. It is just
a process of education growth and personality. It's coming
into your own.

I have always admired people who had learning, so
consequently I went out with the idea that I had to be the
authority. I still have standards, but I think they are
more realistic. They are not so boxed. I went to the
extreme for a while and gave them no boxes, and that was
totally frustrating for them. To me it is safe to fail

336

but it is not safe not to try new ideas. I like to try new
ideas. I came back to a middle road, and now I give them
about 10 boxes and allow freedom for those who would like
to design something differently.

I have found security in myself with God. Before it
was the security with other peOple. Now I don't have to
apologize for who I am and what I am doing. I think this
self-confidence is an important part of being an effective
teacher because we communicate our hangups. But I have made
the big realization that I am sure teachers have through
history that I am not the master teacher and the students
are not all going to reach the highest. It is not always
my fault if they do not succeed.

Effects on Teaching on Filipino Students

I don't try to contrast the students' values with mine.
But I try to emphasize biblical values. For example, is it
only honesty when it is convenient? Teaching is continued
character building through life. There is no set course in
it. It hurts me deeply when we have to dismiss senior
students for basic character flaws. Teaching is not being
up front. Teaching involves my living and communicating in
everything I do. Living on campus used to threaten me, but
it is a good check to keep me constantly humble. My behavior
is reflective of what I am inside. It worried me that first
year when students were afraid to approach me, but by the
time they were seniors and knew me, they didn't have this
fear. I asked them why they were afraid to approach me at
first, and they said, "It's because we did not know you."

The sad thing is that because our students have been
through our gates the churches think they are authorities.
SO they are put in positions they should never have. Our
graduates are leaders in the country. But some have been
bombouts. More and more now students are going into an
internship program rather than a leadership position, and
I am happy about this. They are not at the maturity or
concept level to handle a struggling new work. They just
need encouragement. There is a very strong concept in the
country of the professional versus the laity. We are
trusting in the church that I am involved in to change
this. I would tell my students, "You go out as a learner,
and admit when you don't know something, and go out and
learn it." It is very embarrassing for them to fail. They
will cover up and do anything to get through the situation.
SO we are asking for a major change.

In one class I threw out the traditional content and
helped the students develOp to set goals for Christian
growth. They also learned the value of working together

337

as a team on the concept. This was very important prepara—
fion for their ministry. I always wondered if it was a waste
of time. But I heard of two who put the concept into action
in their churches. Another grabbed the team idea and refused
a job where she had to work alone. I expected my students
to be able to function beyond the input level. Their brain
is no different to mine. It's a matter of showing how they
set goals in daily life. Americans have verbalized goal
orientation more, but it's valid world-wide. Filipinos are
more flexible, which is of value in relating the goal to the
person.

Modifications in Future Teaching

I want to continue to be a creative person and see
students as persons, not just learners. I can't meet the
need of all students in a large class. I used to strive
for this but now I know I'm not the only input into that
person's life. I want to continue to do creative, problem-
solving experiences with students. I let them do the
content digging and reflect on that. My students complain
that I don't give them enough content but expect them to do
this outside the classroom. When they fail me, I have to
go back to lectures.

My continuous conflict is not their lack of ability,
but their lack of time. They are so overloaded. I'm
stifled by 45 minute class periods. This is why home study
groups, where time is no problem, are so exciting.

I plan to continue to live under the tension of working
part-time at the college and part-time in the church. The
problem is that two full-time mobs are involved. But one
enhances the other. I don't know how long I can survive this.
It's valuable to stay at the college because of the wider
scope for my ministry in training leaders. To get the right
balance in life is very important. I want to use my abilities
to the maximum use.

APPENDIX E7

RESPONDENT: MAGGIE BECKER

This reSpondent worked as a missionary nurse
in Zaire from 1951-61, then in Morocco for
16 months. Since 1963 she has been working
among women in Senegal.

I did not have enough anthrOpology in my missionary
training, and that is the reason why I think it took me so
long to tumble to the fact that peOple do think differently.
I discovered this in Zaire in my first year through one of
the most traumatic experiences I ever had as a missionary.
We had built a mud-brick house for the African girls who
worked in our hospital. I had a message for them, so this
was my excuse to go visit them in their home. It was over
the noonhour. I walked in the front door and they ran out
the back door and hid. I never found them. They later
confessed to me that they were ashamed to have the white
woman catch them eating their food. I was terribly hurt.
I knew they were hiding from.me. After several months I
could talk about this with them. I said I would never come
to see them again, but they pled with me to come back.

"We will close our spirits," they said. A literal trans-

lation of that is, "We will grit our teeth." That means,

"We will feel like running but we will just grit our teeth
and hang on," which was a sad commentary on the situation

there.

The colonial attitude was: we Belgians have the culture
and the Africans have none. We have to see them evolve.
In the Belgian system when the African got to the place where
he ate prOperly on a table and dressed properly like the
Belgians did, he was given a special legal standing as an
"evolved one." That was still going on in the fifties.
Frankly, we would not have dared to wear African dress at
the time because we probably would have been thrown out of
the country. We would have been setting them a bad example,
because the Belgians were trying to get them to be like
EurOpeans. -

In the long run I think this was a good experience, but
I was bitter that they didn't accept me as a person.

338

339

It was one of these cultural clash situations. I didn't
understand until I began to wake up to the fact that even
right up until Independence the white man had his little
culture and the black man had his little culture, and the
two never met except in in-between situations as in schools
and institutions where they mostly learned to do things our
way on our terms.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

I was in a new hOSpital where I first went to the Congo
25 years ago. Imported plaster of paris bandages were
expensive and arrived in poor condition. So the doctor told
me to learn how to make them. As an American nurse, who
always had everything well prepared, I did not have the
slightest idea how to do this. But soon the doctor liked
mine better than the professional ones. He told me imme-
dbtely to train one of the African nurses to make them.
These girls could barely read and write. There were no
particular problems in showing the nurse how to make
bandages. Teaching by doing not by telling makes sense to
them. Soon she could make them better than I could, and
she was teaching me. I have often laughed and said, "I
must be a pretty good teacher because practically every-
body I teach ends up 'reteaching me." I enjoy teaching,
but I feel inadequate as a teacher because I have never
had any training. In Zaire we did on-the-job training.
There was no formal nursing training. Training was in a
very practical way, doing it together, answering questions
and checking up afterwards.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Yes.

I have no doubt about that one. When you are required
to think for yourself, that is good learning. I have
recently been on a course in cross-cultural nursing where I
was required to do this kind of thing. We had to list our
10 highest values. It was not graded but it was a tremendous
learning experience. It clarified my present values and will
make me conscious for the future of my values. The teacher
told us to check them in a year to see if we would change
the priorities. This is similar to what is happening in
this picture. This is active learning.

340

Picture 2

 

Answer: Yes.

Pooling of ignorance may cause learning of something
important, but peOple do learn from each other in just
discussing a tOpic. Someone who has had a perfectly good
answer may find something better from another person. I
have learned a lot this way.

Picture 3
Answer: Probably are.

This sounds like a good learning situation, because
they are looking for something that is important to them.
The woman is certainly giving it deep thought. Some of the
best learning occurs during the break. I think some of the
best spiritual results that came of my ministry in Morocco
came through just casual remarks. Our formal Bible study
was the basis. But some of these casual remarks led some
girls to make an Open confession of faith. The same has
happened in Senegal. After 15 years there we have only
six young men converts, but several times these young men
have said how one of my casual remarks had made all the
differences. I can't even remember what I said.

Picture 4
Answer: Probably not.

That is a rough one. You don't know what they are look-
ing at in the book. I would certainly hOpe it was something
they had been assigned. If it was, they probably are not
learning anything new. If they have read it before, they
should see what he is talking about anyway.

Picture 5
Answer: Yes.

It looks like they are doing this in a student center.
It is good learning when you share what you have learned.
Those who are sharing are definitely learning. The ones
listening may or may not be learning. We have no way Of
knowing. They would have to react to be learning. They
seem to be listening. If they later went back and inter-
nalized some of it, they would learn something.

341

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

Each one has done some thinking or study on this
question, and has his own concept of what the answer is.
But if they are not thinking too deeply, or have not done
much study on the subject, they could spend their time
sharing their ignorance. I have seen that happen. Then
they won't really be learning. So it depends on both the
preparation plus the calibre of the student. Some peOple
never see it through, and remain superficial on any
subject. I don't know whether this is to intelligence or
motivation or interest in life in general. Some people
really get involved and others just do things that are
expected of them. I place a high value on motivation
and getting involved in a subject. I get so enthusiastic
about something I am teaching that it is bound to rub off
on peOple. I don't have to worry about motivation of my
students because I am enthusiastic.

Picture 7
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

I don't think right at that spot there is any learning
going on. The fact that he is explaining something does
not necessarily mean that the fellow is hearing it. For it
to be good learning, there has to be more dialogue between
them. It sounds too much like a monologue to me. That
does not usually lead to effective learning. It has to be
question and answer.

Picture 8
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

That is an interesting one. If the students are decid-
ing on the things they should learn, sometimes there is
good learning and sometimes there is not. Some students
don't have enough insight themselves to know what they
should be learning. In this case the students are almost
controlling what is going to be discussed in the whole
class. I guess I am old-fashioned enough to believe that
the teacher must have some concept of what he is going to
teach. The class would have a hard time discussing all the
things the students wanted to discuss. I have some negative
reaction to that but I realize that that is kind of the
modern way of doing it. I have been involved in something
like this, but it was all right because the teacher already
had her syllabus made up. She asked us for our goals, but

 

 

342

it was interesting because most of our goals fitted into
her syllabus. The assignments were already printed out.

Our goals did not sway things very much but they could

have a little bit. We knew that we weren't the final
deciding factor, but it was a very good thing to do. It gave
us some idea of what we were going to be learning as she
shared how these goals probably would be met. I feel that
if this is used, it needs a lot of teacher direction.

Picture 9
Answer: Probably not.

I think that is very funny because that is not the way
to teach. You don't take a course just to get a grade on
an exam. And yet the teacher's position looks as if he is
saying something important. It is evident that one girl
is listening, but three of them are not too interested.
Learning just for a test is not good learning. Some of them
could not care less, because they are not looking at the
teacher. If they were really interested, they would show
it in their faces.

Sources of Expectations about Teaching

 

I got my ideas partly from keeping my eyes Open on
situations, and partly from being a student most of my life.
I observed others teaching and I have my own experience in
teaching. I can remember two t0p teachers. My high school
French teacher gave us translations of several common teen-
age expressions, e.g. "scram." That made me really thrilled
since I was saying these things every day of the week. It
was something that had meaning in my own experience. He
used to explain grammar as if his life depended on it. He
was also very approachable. We felt like he was our friend.
He put our learning to practical use. He knew how to tease
around and yet make it a worthwhile class. The other top
teacher was a Belgian who taught us missionaries about human
parasites. He gave us very good examples. They were some-
times crude to help us to remember the point. He used to
act out the situation to help us to learn. I have also had
a very negative experience. My French teacher in college
would stick rigidly to translating a book and just went
from page to page. I don't think he knew any better. He
just wanted to get through the book. We got no feel for
French whatsoever.

I have also got some concepts from our missionary
teachers, both those teaching nationals and those teaching
missionary children. I have learned a lot from their casual

343

conversations. One missionary had a number of cute little
tricks for teaching Scripture memory. They were ways of
making repetition a game so it was not too dull. She also
used flannelgraph and a hand puppet to get concepts across.
To me she is an excellent teacher.

One thing I have learned from working with Muslim
ladies is patience in the face of many interruptions. It is
real hard to teach them because they have never been in a
formal classroom situation and they are not used to concen-
trating on one thing for very long. They are sitting out in
a yard where peOple come and go and there are many interrup-
tions. Another thing I have learned is the realization that
they are not mentally awake the way we are. They have not
been used to learning in our way. There is need for prac-
tical demonstration rather than trying to tell them.' But in
Bible teaching, you can't do much more than tell. I believe
that something happens when a child goes to school and he
begins to use his little brain. He wakes up, as it were.
These women have never been through that process. They are
awake to those few basics in their life that are important -
going to the market, fixing their food, being concerned
about their children, and the social amenities. They are
not used to using their brains to consider the broader
aspects. It is not that they can't learn, but they think
they are stupid because they have never been to school. That
is a mistaken notion. That institution of formal school has
some power over peOple. But there is certain value to this
institutional training because it seems to sharpen one's
wits.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Picture 1
Answer: Probably not.

I think they would be so confused by what the teacher
was asking for. They wouldn't be able to believe that a
teacher would ask students what was important to them. The
important learning is the absolute fact given by the teacher.
Whether it is important to the student is not important.
I have never asked the women for what is important to them
and then talked about those things. I go to teach them
what the Bible says, and they have not the slightest idea
what is in the Bible. It would be interesting to ask them
if I should continue about the life of Christ or teach them
about the ancient prophets. Some African women have never
had to make a choice in their life. They find it very hard.
For example, one woman,who had very little contact with
whites, took half an hour to choose a reward stamp for her

344

reading assignment.

Though I feel I have made some real progress in getting
down underneath the culture, they would still feel that the
white woman doesn't understand them. They wouldn't offer
personal problems to be discussed at our lesson in the court-
yard. I am sure I would be able to help them with physical
problems in raising their children. It would be interesting
to see if they would come up with some suggestions for that.
I am not sure that they do have ideas about topics for
discussion. They do have ideas because they will ask

 

 

. . . . . ll,‘
questions like, "Don't you know any mediCine to make my hair F
grow long?" So often the illiterate, unschooled ones F.
particularly feel that the white man does not understand g
the answers that affect their daily lives. 3

g
Picture 2 3
Answer: No. V

They would say that was terrible. That would be almost
like cheating. You don't learn from one another. In the
first place your answers are in the book or in the notes of
the professor. There would be a definite yes-no answer and
no areas for discussion. Your fellow students have no
contributions to your learning. After all, you're both
stupid and that is why you are there to learn.. The only
thing they would discuss is what the teacher meant in their
terms. But I learn how they think from hearing them discuss
what I say. One lady thought that when I said, "Jesus died
for our sins," I meant Jesus died for the sins of the
Christians. So I have learned to say, "Jesus died for the
sins of all the people of the world." The Muslims don't like
to think that Jesus died for their sins. They don't want it
to get personal.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably are.

They would say they are probably learning because they
are looking through their notes from class. The confusing
areas are things they did not understand from the teacher's
explanation, or their own poor handwriting. In a lot of
classroom situations they would not be quite sure what was
going on anyway. But if it is to do with notes and teach-
ing, they would really feal it was important learning. They
have an awe of the formal institution. They aim at getting
a diploma, any kind of paper that shows that they have
accomplished something in a formal school.

345

You often see a certificate showing, "A.B....Failed."
After all, the work has been done. This helps us when it
comes to Bible correspondence courses because they love to
get certificates and display them. The women have no
certificates and feel very inferior.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably are.

 

They might think they are learning something because
they learn out of books and with the teacher's direction.
This resembles more their formal classroom. They are all
lined up and they all have their books. So they are really
learning something.

 

Picture 5

 

Answer: Probably not.

"What good would that do?" would be the reaction. I
wonder if the origin of this idea isn't in the French system
of education. They have been forced to revere the teacher
and to learn facts by rote, without too much deve10pment of
the reasoning process.

Picture 6
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

I am not quite sure as to how they would respond to
that. They would expect the question to be an absolute
fact, with a black and white answer. There is only one
answer. Some might know the answer, and some might not.
They would not expect any discussion of the answer. It is
a very rigid system. The women have no part so that is
what makes them feel very inferior.

Picture 7

 

Answer: No.

They would say there is not much learning going on
there. They are just going to sit and drink and eat, and
not pay any attention. It is too informal. For learning to
take place, it almost has to be painful. When you are in a
class in Senegal, the teacher is rough on you. The whole
way of life is against discipline. Yet they know they need
a certain amount, so the natural fight is against it. The

346

women in the courtyard are very proud when they can repeat
the lesson or the Bible verse. They don't usually expect
to be able to answer. But to them that is not the real
learning that their children have at school. They would
not describe our times together as a class or a school,
but as a lesson.

Picture 8
Answer: No.

That is not learning. The students don't know what
they should learn in this class. The teacher is the only
one who knows. They would not like the seating arrangements.
They would expect it to be more formal.

"CI-J «0. Cal

.__ -.H. -
‘ I

Picture 9
Answer: Yes.

Studying for exams is a way to learn, they think.
Learning is by rote memory. You don't have to be able to
think a thing through logically. You have just to be able
to reproduce what he has told you. I may have got some of
my ideas of what poor teaching is from observing some of
the Senegalese students. The French system of rote memory
is Still used. (There is no vernacular schooling in
Senegal, because the way of writing the language is not
settled yet.) They would like this situation and think it
is real learning, because the teacher is in control and
getting them ready for an exam.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

In my perception you study something that is going to
to be of some practical value. Studying for an exam as in
Picture 9 is a very superficial motivation, but in the
African perception you study to get a certificate. They
have different goals. They are interested in getting jobs
so they can earn more money. The ladies in the courtyard
have these perceptions too because they get upset with the
high prOportion of their children who flunk government
exams. Exam time is so pressured for these peOple. Part
of it is the French ideology of education that a few are to
be Educated highly, but most knocked down. It is a terrible
sys em.

These women have only been used to informal teaching on
matters related to the home. The only learning that they

 

347

are exposed to from the outside is through me and other
religious teachers. I have adopted an informal method
because it is the only way that it would work. They would
not come to my house. Going into their homes puts it in
their context, and makes them feel that this belongs to
them. It makes it less foreign to them. It is foreign
teaching anyway. I try to constantly give illustrations
from the lives of African Christians to show that it is
not just white man's affairs, but that God is doing some-
thing in the lives of Senegalese.

 

For me, real knowledge must be internalized and applied
to daily living, whereas with the Senegalese it does not have
to have any practical application. You just need to be able
to parrot in order to get a certificate in order to get a
job, to have prestige. That is the basic difference here.
You will find this many times in my answers.

 

For me, learning takes place in the sharing of concepts,
whereas with the Senegalese they are only learning absolute
facts that are in the book or notes from the teacher. So
there is no reason to share. There is only one answer
possible for any question. The greatest sharing would occur
in studying together and quizzing one another for a
written exam. Women talk things over, but they have no
concept of learning in this. It is almost a gossip
session, and young peOple and children learn from this talk.
Even though some information they share might be vital for
their children's health, they would not consider it learn-
ing. Learning is done out of books and at school, and the
women think they can't learn. I think this is one reason
why some of the women are interested in my visits because
it gives them the feeling that they are learning something.
It does something for their ego. I am interested in the
internalizing process, applying the knowledge to life. But
Senegalese women would be more impressed by looking over the
notes from the professor. To them, memorizing facts is more
important.

The average Senegalese student prefers formality. I
think informality is more important. I think I have accom-
plished much more through informal discussions than if the
professor purely lectures. Informality breaks down when
peOple only share their ignorances. There has to be some
good study and thought done on the subject, or some relevant
past experiences to share. The whole ideology is complete-
ly different. The African carries it even further than the
French do.

We have come up with some interesting differences -
the difference between formal and informal, between motiva-
tions and concepts of learning (acquiring absolute fact
or sharing ideas). I have not stopped to analyse that

348

before myself.

In Senegal learning has to be painful, and you have to
be concentrating. You can't be doing something as pleasant
as eating lunch while you are learning. Eating is a business
you get over quickly. It does not matter if they under—
stand as long as they go through the externals. I try to
get understanding by asking leading questions and getting
their reactions. I almost have to trick them into finding
out what they don't understand. There's a tendency to not
expect the white man to understand their way of life so
they don't open up to you. There's also a cultural habit
to give a lie in the first answer, so you are never quite
sure when you have the truth.

Islam is a religion of duty, and what is going on
inside a person does not seem to matter. You don't have to
be logical to be a good Muslim. The women are bound to get
more logic as they bump into more Western civilization. The
Western logic that they learn in high school is a world
apart from the reasoning of their religion. They don't
expect to apply logic to their religion. There may be a
problem that the women might keep what I teach them separate
from their daily lives. They are interested, even attracted
but it does not really apply to them. But I have got enough
faith in an all-powerful God that He will do something with
this knowledge. You're left in limbo because it is the
cultural thing to agree with the foreigner. You don't know
how far you've got until something comes out on its own.

I am old-fashioned because I am convinced that the
student does not always know what he needs to learn. The
Senegalese would hold this concept even more strongly
because he believes it is the teacher who knows and the
student is absolutely stupid. That is all part of this
basic ideological difference. There is a feeling of inad-
equacy unless you have been through the schooling system.
The French influence is very strong in the adoption of
so-called "civilized" things like schooling.

There is another point of difference. Material things
to me don't matter, whereas the material to them is their
only value. They don't have the spiritual world. They
don't have the world of ideas, which is rather unfortunate.
You never hear them discuss ideas. For example, I try to
ask them during their month of fasting, "Why are you
fasting?" It is a rare woman who can come up with any
answer for you. They say, "We are just fasting because God
commanded it." They don't talk about the value to them.

I only met one woman who was capable of discussing the
subject. She was uneducated, but knew a little bit of
French. Even after women have finished school, their lives
seem to revolve around only basic things.

 

 

349

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Wolof Students

For the unskilled women I would use mainly child
techniques, but with the adult vocabulary. I use flannel-
graph pictures and flash card pictures,and they love it.
It is almost childlike. They will ask what the pictures
are, and you have to explain to them because they do not
know how to look at pictures. We do alter some pictures
to put in more local content. I love to use the
Wordless Book1 in the early stages with the women. It was
develOped in America, but the Bible concepts are not
typically American. There are culturally adaptable.

Some people question the black page of the Wordless
Book, but I believe I understand their ideas of black.
Sometimes you think you understand the people, and then
suddenly you realize you don't. They use expressions
like, "He has a black heart," to mean "He's no good."

I have no problem with black as the representation Of sin,
but use it more with the idea of darkness. To them dirt
still is basically black, and includes the idea of contam-
ination. I also spend a great deal of time teaching the
doctrine that black is beautiful. Unfortunately in years
past, and it still carries over, Africans have honestly
drunken the idea that black is not beautiful. So, the
African with the lightest tone of skin is beautiful.

I am conscious of trying to adapt culturally, but I
may not have adapted as much as I should with these Muslim
women. Their mental training is on the level of children.

I even go as far as to give them a piece of candy if they
have learned last week's Scripture verse. And they love it.
They react positively to it. It's real ridiculous. We
have almost adopted this as a mission just to give some
external motivation. It is a great game for these adult
women. They don't seem to disrespect me because of this.

They are used to listening to radio, therefore cassettes

are effective. We thought up a few dialogues between a
Christian and a Muslim. I pushed for our young christian
fellows to think up dialogues for themselves because they
know naturally what would really hit. The ones that have
been appreciated in the courtyard have been on the fear of
death; God's true son: and the Christian life. But you

must adapt your method and have programs of only four to

five minutes to keep their attention.

I have automatically done what I knew to do without
having stopped and thought about all of this. Perhaps
without realizing it I have been teaching them that gaining
knowledge is fun and not painful. We have a good time
together. But because it is fun, it probably has less value

 

350

in their lives. The women consider their lessons an
interesting diversion from their humdrum rut.

I don't think I should make the learning painful to
adapt to their ideas of what so-called "real" learning is.
They're learning anyway. My basic goal to get them to
internalize the basic facts of the Christian life is so
that they will be ready to respond to them when the right
circumstances come. I trust that the Holy Spirit will have
a reservoir of knowledge to draw on. So far as I am
concerned, they don't have to value these lessons as
important or not. The facts are possibly going in more
because they are enjoying it.

I have been greatly helped by Ward Goodenough's book
Cooperation in Change, particularly concerning the nationals'
concepts of the fOreigner and why you are there. These
concepts may be entirely different from the concepts of
the agents of change. This has been part of our basic
problem. If you don't realize this, you're frustrated and
ask, "Why don't they see things as I see them?" I realize
that the ladies want to use me. I can give them some
medical help and I am a nice, pleasant person to have
around. They accept me as a symbol, not a person. One family
decided that I was the bearer of good fortune because I
had been there teaching the Bible and a baby was born very
easily. They really opened their home and their hearts to
me. I had regular Bible studies in that home week after week.
Yet I get a very uncomfortable feeling when a woman says,

"I want you to be my friend." Some are interested just in
material possessions.

 

My conception of my role is to get the facts of the
gospel to them so that they will come to saving faith in
Jesus Christ. They have no intention of doing this. But
I enjoy being with these women because God has made me a
"people lover." That perhaps goes for making a good
teacher. I realized that I was a people lover about five
or six years ago, so I started to consciously work on it and
enjoy it. Awareness of the different role perceptions has
been very helpful to me. If you figure out these different
perceptions, at least you know what you are working with, and
it relieves some of the tension. Now knowing their perceptions,
I don't deliberately try to conform to them or to change them.
It is something in between. There has to be a limit to just
giving material things, but I have tried intuitively to get
over to them some perception of what I consider my role to be.
I tell them that God has sent me there to teach them about
Jesus Christ, and this is the way three households opened up.
They asked me what my work was, and then told me to start
doing it.

 

351

So the first step in accommodating is the realization
of the different role perceptions. It would be ideal to
work with them and get them to change their role perception
some and you change your role perception some, so that you
could come together.

The second point is the enunciation to the nationals
of my role perception. I wonder how honest they would be
in telling their perception of the missionary. There's the
problem. They would say what they think that you want them
to say.

A third step would be just being able to discuss with
them the differences. I feel very happy with this. But
frankly, I still have a real problem. There is a constant
demand at my gate for things or services. If I gave in to
all these demands, I would not be doing the job I went out
to do, but would be taken up with secondary things. My
problem was learning how to gracefully say "No." But the
people will not take "No" for an answer, so I found myself
getting nasty with people and I knew I should not be this
way. But it was the only way to get them to accept "No."
I don't know how I could have done it differently, but I
wonder if some discussion on roles would have helped.

I don't want to conform to their ideas about teaching
because it is mainly negative. The only way I could con-
form would be to give them some kind of a certificate
which would give the classes value in their eyes. It
might give learning the gospel social standing.

They feel that children can't understand anything
religious. This works to our advantage because we can
have children's classes. They are not concerned what we
teach their children as children can't understand. At the
same time they teach their little girls things about the
material culture from the very beginning. I probably could
combine some of the traditional ways of teaching with my
teaching. But how do you teach people to act in my kind of
teaching? There is not that much to do. While I am at the
house and situations arise with the children, I can say,
"This is the way a Christian would do it." I have done
this without really realizing I am doing it, for example, in
teaching about scabies.

If there is one thing the Lord sent me home to do it is
to bubble out and tell the peOple that the missionary is a
fulfilled person and not the burdened,self-sacrificing
creature so many peOple think we are.

 

352

Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

I have changed in the acceptance of myself as a teacher.
I never did this before. I only consciously thought of myself
as a teacher when I went to Morocco and started teaching in a
formal situation. Of course, I had been teaching before in
Zaire on the job. I still find myself wishing I had had some
formal teacher training. I probably have the same attitude
towards formal training for teachers as the Senegalese have
towards book learning. I may think there is much more than
there is. I probably could have relieved my mind a bit if I
had gotten a few textbooks. It is only in recent years that
I see what happens when I teach people, so I realize I am a
teacher. I wonder if a good teacher is one who enjoys
teaching.

One big change in my teaching is that I do not teach
lessons. I teach peOple. There is a big difference. There
are some teachers who are so concentrating on their subject
material that they are oblivious to the pupil. This also
makes it easier for me to discipline without too much trouble.
I am also more keen now to get student response now. In the
first days I would have got up and lectured until I tried to
find ways in their culture. In teaching Senegalese, I wonder
if it is more important to decide on a method ahead of time
and then you can concentrate on the people while you are
teaching.

HOpefully, as Christians we are more centered on the
other person than on ourselves. So the method used in
Christian teaching would be more person-centered rather
than lesson-centered, and with more gentleness and persuasion.
It is the message that is authoritarian, and not the
missionary himself. We have known old-fashioned, paternalistic
missionaries who tell the people how to change, but those
days are gone.

I would never let the children handle the flannelgraph
figures before, but I am willing now because it makes the
story live for them. I have probably just developed an
attitude to the students because I have been a develOping
teacher. Before I had the old-fashioned concept derived
from my schooling. I was there to pour it into them. I
had authoritarian teachers. But I have changed as I have
listened and observed other teachers. In Zaire I was afraid
of failure, but a turning point came when I actually was able
to achieve something. I did not feel I was a teacher. In
those days nurses were not given the concept that they were
teachers as well. There is much more teaching done in
nursing now. Concepts in all phases of life are growing and
broadening in the last 30 years.

 

353

As I got to know Africans better, I have learned how
not to teach them. I have looked for ways to learn to teach
them better. I have been frustrated in being taught the
language by some Africans because generally they don't
explain why the language is like it is. They just know that
is the way they do it.

Some of my methods have become second nature to me, e.g.
stOpping often to get their concepts, reviewing at the end,
and the necessity for simplifying. The new missionary does
not understand that his high abstract thoughts have got to
be brought down to earth. The more scholarly they are in
America, the worse they are when they come out. They just
don't get across. It is hard for them to get down to the
concrete level. But it is not a matter of up and down.

It is an entirely different set of concepts. When we're
not getting through, we should listen to them a bit more.

 

 

Somehow we whites could never cross that barrier into h;
their culture. I say it took me 10 years in Zaire before I V.
began to get the message about cultural differences, and to
want to get down underneath the surface. One of the things
that made me conscious of this was all of the upsets in the
last few years before Independence, when a few who remained
faithful to the Lord really Opened up to us and we began to
be one in spirit. We did cross the barrier a bit. I got a
real taste for their food.

Having learned from the culture in the Congo, I went
to Morocco looking with my eyes and ears open, and I found
that one of the girls was wide Open to give information and
willing to receive it. I learned a great deal about the
life of a woman in Morocco, and I found that I was accepted
when I was willing to learn. Some of the missionaries were
disgusted when I went to the public bath with the Moroccan
girls. The older missionary said it was sinful, so after
she dealt with me, I went back to my Arab informant and
told her. She was very puzzled and said, "That is very
strange. The Lord has dealt with me about many things in
our Arab way of life, but He has never dealt with me about
that thing." So I stOpped doing this, not because I
thought it was sinful, but because of the other missionar-
ies and I was a guest of their mission.

In Senegal, where I've been since 1963, I am attempting
to reach women for Christ. I was not anxious for a fulltime
medical work as in Zaire, because I felt I had been called
to a spiritual ministry and medical work took up too much
time. But we make contact with people and you can't resist
showing compassion to peOple, especially because the
government dispensaries are not equipped.

354

Any real ministry to the women would be hopeless without
knowing the local language.. I learned the language partly
from lectures at the University of Dakar, but basically by
just being with the people, keeping my ears and eyes open.

If you only speak French, you are restricted to the people
who have been to school. Most of the women have no schooling.
I learned to think as they think by just keeping my mind open
to differences. To do this you must have the language that
they think in, and then constantly make comparisons with how
they say a thing.

 

I changed because I am more open to consider another
culture. This has been a growing openness. I'm not quite
as quick to condemn another culture as being wrong because
it is not like my own. I now examine any culture including
my own from the standpoint of the Word of God.

 

I have had a growing recognition that no Christian can
go along with any culture 100%. In a sense a Christian has
to have a culture of his own. The Christian culture becomes g,
a subculture within any culture. Any culture is capable of if
expressing the Christian life. We thought we were being
cultural in getting an African tom-tom in our services, when
an African brother told us that they would never use a
tomrtom in religious services. But that may be something
we can introduce because the idea of anything joyful is
not in Muslim religious ceremony. You have to deal with any
culture as a non-Christian culture, and sort out what is
antibiblical. You can't go along with that.

I have concentrated particularly this last term in
getting down underneath the surface of the culture. I have
made some definite progress in understanding the importance
of the extended family. I thought it was an awful thing,
but I have come to realize that the family is a living
organism. So if anyone breaks away like the fellows who
become Christians, they are in essence committing murder.
They are disrupting the beautiful organism of the family.

It takes almost our whole missionary life to understand this,
and when we get to the place where we have made a little bit
of progress, it's time to retire. But it is a very
interesting and fulfilling process.

Effects on Teaching on Wolof Students

I hope to get across some knowledge of the facts of
Christianity which are a necessary prerequisite to faith in
Christ. I also trust I can attract people to the Savior.

I would like to see a real conviction of sin. This has to
come before there is real conversion. Another effect
would be a greater tolerance for Christians, and an

355

understanding of us. I want to tell them how Christ loved
the peOple and the children. I also give personal testi-
mony of Christ's work in my life, and in the lives of
others. My best friend is really attracted to the Savior,
but is kept back from becoming a Christian because she
fears divorce and her children suffering. The man automat-
ically keeps the children. A couple of the women have

said they believe in Jesus, but I am pretty sure this has
been just to please me.

One negative effect of my teaching was in a young
fellow I taught to read. He became quite my little shadow,
but then he started to steal and it was obvious that he was
only interested in material things. Eventually he said,

"I have had enough of the things of Jesus." Possibly his
motivation to begin with was for this world and this world
only. He seemed very interested. He turned into a
ne'er-do-well, and does not stick to any job. I may have
avoided this problem by not being so good to him materially.
I did not do much more than give him breakfast a few morn-
ings a week.

My mission board is very keen for anything that would
be more as the nationals do it. We tried having women's
classes in our home, but they never were successful. We
learned through this that the women would not respond to a
formal EurOpean type class. We were discouraged and knew we
would have to try some different methods, but we went into
Senegal expecting this type of thing. Muslims are hard to
reach, so we were ready for disappointments. But it is
interesting that one of my present classes requested to go
to my home one day. But I want to make their homes, not my
home, the center.

I mention in my teaching that their becoming Christians
would be unpoPular, but that I'm sure God will take care of
them. We would like to get whole families into the church.
Even with these young men converts, we have encouraged them
to be the best kind of sons to their family. We are thrilled
that one of the younger brothers of a convert has accepted
the Lord. The resistance is in the adults. Adults tell us,
”That's for our children, not for us."

We have religious liberty in Senegal, so we need to take
advantage of it as long as we have it. Christians will face
persecution, but legally there is nothing wrong with become
ing a Christian. We have two young Christian men in the
University of Dakar. One has managed to get permission to
show Moody Science films once a week. He is having a real
influence there.

I know that I am getting some Bible truths across
because one of the husbands told me that these women love

.- ——\"J_ y— 7}]

. x- 4 1""- 'T\-V.. r.

 

356

Jesus. I know he was only teasing me, but at least it shows
me that some of the basic facts are getting through. These
people are great teasers. It is a kind of a serious tease.
But I responded to that by saying, "When they really have
Jesus in their hearts, you will know it because they will
become better wives." I had a few peOple say to me, "You
are not a foreigner any more. You are one of us." This

is an encouragement.

Modifications in Future Teaching

The Senegalese traditionally teach concepts through
their fables. That has escaped me before. One missionary
got the idea of using a fable of his own to get some good
spiritual teaching across. Most of the time they don't have
to teach after their fables as the message is obvious in
the fable. Just as we talk, I can see that I should use
some fables. If I am going to do this, I would first of
all talk to some of my good Senegalese friends many times
about fables, and also to our linguist. Fables are used
for teaching about attitudes, but Wolof need the historical
facts of Christianity too. It would be interesting to try
drama also. My question about fables would be - can they
be used for factual material because they are usually used
for mythical stories? The advantage of fables would be
that the peOple are used to responding to them. Fables
are used to develOp attitudes to change conduct. They are
powerful tools. That is what we want in the communication
of the gospel. But we are also interested in introducing
peOple to a personal relationship with Christ. It would be
good to get the same subtlety of the Africans into our

fables. We get so taken up with other things so that we don't

st0p to think of some of these things that can be done.

It is an advantage that I am not conforming to the
expected teacher role that is associated with pain. The
informal atmosphere is associated with joy and with fun.

If we start literacy training, we would do well to do it
this way. I have done some thinking on this furlough on
tying in teaching of the Bible with the teaching of health
care for children, and I think this will make it even more
attractive. I think the best way to make some inroads into
their lives is by talking and listening and by showing that
you are not completely closed to their ideas.

Footnote

1. Wordless Book is a visual aid made of a series of colored
pages. Each color is linked with an aspect of Christian
doctrine (e.g. the black page indicates sin, the red
page indicates the death of Jesus Christ.)

 

‘Lusvwr-z: . .- .. . ..

APPENDIX E8

RESPONDENT: RAY NORTON

This respondent has been a linguist in
Guatemala since 1953. He has also acted
as a technical consultant for other
linguists and as a mission administrator.

When we first went to the area, the political situation
was extremely delicate. We tried to be inoffensive and to
avoid laying rules on peOple. My interest was to be a friend
and help where I could. Because of some anthrOpological
awareness and a deep concern that we not misrepresent things
by our ignorance, we were much slower than many others in
actively trying to propagate the gospel. Missionaries should
find roles in the community whereby they can be accepted and
not come on as change agents from the first day. Learning
the language is very important to avoid a superior attitude
of "we can teach them how to boil the water, be cleaner, or
harvest in a better way." Sure there are lots of ways we can
make life easier for them, but it wrong to come on with that
so strongly at first that you have no two-way communication.
Maybe I have gone too far the other way. I find the cultural
differences exciting. I've learned a lot from them, and
they have learned from me.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Picture 1
Answer: Probably are.

It's more a review than a learning situation. In my mind
learning is having exposure to new material. What they are
learning here is now this applies to them personally. The
teacher's motivation for asking this kind of question may be
partly for the benefit of the student, and partly for his own
benefit. He would want to find out how well he has communi-
cated, or he wants to get a sounding of the students'

357

P” ‘J m-‘r-h'! .o‘lu‘“.rl
\

 

358

thinking on the subject.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

I do not feel competent to answer this one. Presumably
each of the students has done some reading, and now they are
discussing what they have found. The importance of what they
are reading might be an entirely separate question from -
is this a good way to get something across? For me, this is
a foreign situation. I am just not trained in techniques.

My teaching centers around small discussion groups. I try to
present a problem for discussion, and then monitor the feed-
back. I try to stimulate communication. This situation could
do that. The interaction is good. But my experience has shown
that you always find someone who immediately clams up, or one
who dominates. So Often there is not two-way communication.
The important something they are learning would probably be
the ability to encapsulate and express concisely the important J
point. Listening skills are important here too. I find some- V'
times it is hard to concentrate. If I know in advance what is

going to happen and come prepared, then I can more likely

listen meaningfully. I am usually reticent to speak up in the

early stages. I have had a few experiences where I have spoken

up prematurely, and found that as the discussion went on, I was

beside the point. I am.more a reactor than a stimulator.

:" (fl,

- J h-fiflmfm‘whho

.
...

Picture 3

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

I find it difficult to respond to that one. These people
are scanning their notes, but I don't know whether they really
are learning something important. Certainly I want to clear up
confusions. I want to understand to see what is significant for
me. I would mark it lower than No.9, where the lecturer is
actively presenting something about which he is enthusiastic.
Here these people are looking at their own notes. Reviewing
something that has been communicated to me is a less important
type of learning situation. To me, learning is receiving some-
thing for the first time. At college I always had a full-time
job. I never had time to review notes. So from my own
personal experience, this has been a very secondary type of
learning. Even in my translation work, the initial translation
is what excites me the most, although the review is very
important. It is a growing experience of exciting discovery
of new expressions.

 

359

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably not.

My impression is that the best possible teaching situation
is an eyeball to eyeball situation. So if a person in that
situation has to appeal to the textbook, he is probably not
getting anything very useful across.

Picture 5

 

Answer: Yes .

 

Here it is partly a matter of interchange with somebody

else. You can get viewpoints from the other person and

engrave on your own mind what is important to you. There is a
good chance of learning because peOple's background experiences
are different, so what they think is important is also different.
I have never thought of applying it in that way. There is not
only a review but it has the possibility of exposure to a new a
viewpoint.

.1 -_|_’tiw 9of‘.‘1i'...*r";l ' Ha

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

I first thought that the two at the end of the table were
monitoring the student answers. It is probably a good situation
because each of the students gets an opportunity to listen to
the views of the other students. The younger students can learn
from the experience of the older people. At the same time the
older people have a chance to tune in to what the younger peOple
are thinking. The group is small and the setting is informal
so that they would not be worried about being on the spot as in
a formal setting. My wife and I once found ourselves in such a
group. We got quite a shock because we were not used to think-
ing of ourselves as veterans or experts. We still tend to think
of ourselves as learners. But we should have learned something
that is worth passing on at least in a cautionary sense.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

This is the kind of informal situation where I often find
significant communication takes place. Interchange makes it
far more effective than the formality of a classroom or church.
If I am on the learning end, I have a chance to direct the
person who is teaching to places where I specifically want
help. .Most of my life I have tried to shirk the spotlight or a
formal situation where I am supposed to be the expert, the one
who knows it all. It is not that I don't respect the formal
teaching role. Most of my training has been this way. I have
also been a teacher of linguistic students. But even in a
classroom situation, I much prefer the smaller group laboratory

360

situation to the larger group lecture, in which there is less
chance for interaction.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Yes 0

The peOple have an Opportunity to say what they think is
important about the subject. If I have this list in front of
me as the lecture progresses, I can find out if the teacher
has covered these areas or if I am off on the sideline. I can
find out if other peOple think of more important things. This
is a good advance way of turning the mind to be looking for
Specific things. If I am leading a discussion, I like to have
interchange. I usually have in mind a certain core of things
that I want to see covered to keep the discussion from going
too far afield. But as a student I want to see how my ideas
compare or contrast with those of other people. If I am given
the opportunity, I like to express what I want to get out of
the course and the reasons for it. I feel the teacher should
mainly control the direction of the course. If he has not got
some idea of what he wants to get across, he should not be
there in the first place. You have probably heard education
defined as something that is transferred from the notebook of
the teacher to the notebook of the student without going ‘
through the head of either one. I have been in a few situations
where that seems to be happening. There are students who are
merely taking a course because it is required. I think the
teacher needs to keep himself up to date, and he needs to know~
just what the students are bringing to the class.

a nan- mum“ Innis-av ,x_ 1%

‘ "fi‘l.” 'g".fi.

i

'i

Picture 9

 

Answer: Probably are.

The teacher is very enthusiastic. But the one face you see
does not show all that much enthusiasm. He does not seem
convinced that it is important. They are paying attention. My
reaction is that that particular statement does not really fit
this picture. If he was really talking about exams, he would be
more formal about it. These students don't look as if they
have responded to that kind of statement. I do not respond
well to that kind of teaching myself. If I am studying some-
thing, it is because I am interested in the subject matter, not
because I have to pass an examination on it. This would
motivate the kind of person who is after grades. I would tend
to overlook that statement and see whether it was something
important to me. But I did not mark it lower because I know
from experience that such a statement does motivate people to
learn. With those gestures certainly the instructor thinks he
is communicating something important.

361

Sources of Expectations about Teaching

I was on the field 10 years before I came back to
graduate study. During that time the whole theoretical approach
had changed so radically that this study was very painful for
me. Often I had to approach a technical article sentence by
sentence. I think this pain has made me sensitive to the
problems of other slower learners. I can understand if some-
one is having trouble because I have been there. My trouble
is not entirely over yet.

 

I don't know how I developed my present ideas about F
teaching because I have certainly learned a lot from lecture
situations. I guess it is partly a hesitation of thinking of
myself as a person who has sufficient knowledge that I could
stand formally before a group as the one who knows it all.

As I have got older, I have looked at peOple who I formerly
thought of as authorities in a different light. I realized
that they are the product of what they have learned. They
have their own doubts and are doing their best to communicate y
things they feel important. I don't like adopting this

authoritative teacher role. Some institutions almost require

people to adopt this role by requiring formal dress. Perhaps

they consider "Sunday type dress" is more apprOpriate for

working on a subject that is solemn, dignified or spiritual,

but I don't agree with this. A person's spiritual life or

the communication of spiritual truth does not depend on what

he is wearing.

 

Because of my own experience I feel there should be a high
degree of relevance between what is taught in the classroom and
potential life situations. I have seen vernacular speakers
indoctrinated through a trade language which they understood
only imperfectly. Then they adopt mere trappings as of major
importance. When your Bible school student returns and thinks
that the important things are his hairstyle, dress, a rigid
order for worship services, and communication of valuable
things only in the trade language, I conclude that his teachers
have emphasized a formalism.and not effective communication.

I tend to feel that form and formalism are very wrong.

Certainly form.is worthless without content. Teachers misunder-
stand what they are really communicating. When students are

in awe of their teacher and treat him as an authority, then

this becomes a substitute for spiritual life or character.

So the student decides that he will adopt these forms and in
turn the people consider him to be someone with authority.

Once in our village we were invited to a service in the
home of a shaman. His wife was ill, and in his cloudy mind he
got the impression that prayer would help. We arrived early
and had a tremendous time of answering this man's questions
about the christian faith. When the Indian leader of the local
congregation arrived, he started to lead a service in Spanish,

362

which only we could understand. The message was irrelevant

to the situation. It had to do with reasons why they were
foolish not to become evangelicals. In the end he gave a

formal invitation to accept Christ just as if he had been in
church. Of course, the shaman had to respond to be polite to
his visitors. The only requirement placed on him was that he
should attend all the Spanish church services. In was assumed
that now he was Christian. My wife and I later commented that
there was no communication in the service. It was unthinkable
for a man in the shaman's position to show his face in an
evangelical chapel. We followed him up several times, but we
never felt that he had made an intelligent commitment to Christ,
although he was reported for some time as being a new convert.
He was eventually forgotten. He was no longer productive.

This encapsulated for us what not to do. The young leader
thought something magical had taken place. They had a service,
and to this day he does not realize that he interrupted 1
meaningful communication. We thought that everybody's time 1
had been wasted.

 

‘ -..!
...

 

In 1954 an evangelical mission hired a very fine Spanish
pastor for our local village. He did a lot of home visitation,
but he could not communicate in the Indian language. He
hired a hall, made some benches and a makeshift pulpit, and he
preached. The audience consisted only of him and his wife.
The door was Open and sometimes passersby would stare in.
After we arrived, we were part of his audience. We learned
some Spanish in that way. After a year and a half he left
through discouragement. The three or four people who did
come to the meetings were the result of his home visits, not
of these meetings. We felt we were playacting - we were
"having services." We deliberately tried to cooperate with
that mission, and not compete with it in any way.

vhl-bk.“ .n . -_
.

Over the years we have had a ministry among the members
of that mission, and they have increasingly come to see our
viewpoint. It would have been difficult for this pastor not
to have services. I could not tell him to stop because I
had nothing to replace them with. At that stage in the
history of that mission there was tension regarding this
pointless kind of formalism. The earlier missionaries still
largely interpreted their work as starting churches with a
formal organization and a list of things forbidden to
Christians. These formalities had been communicated to the
pastors and encapsulated evangelical Christianity for them.
Later missionaries came to the area who, like us, were more
interested in effective communication and personal growth and
maturity. Some of these missionaries had encounters with the
national church organization because they were not rigidly
following the formal pattern.

It is difficult to say where my sensitivity to these
matters stems from. I think by temperament I was pointed in
this direction. Linguistics training and experience seemed

363

to confirm it. Right from the beginning I had very high
ideals and was sort of exhibit "A" in the church. But
conversion changed my outlook on quite a number of things.

I had an immediate realization that spiritual life and
religious form were not necessarily the same thing. They
don't have to be contradictory, but sometimes they are. This
has given me a sensitivity to examine forms. Then I had a
good grounding in biblical studies, so this has given me a
concern for what the Bible does teach. In my own thinking,
form versus meaning is not the right way to say it. It is
[more form and.meaning. A lot of the forms embody things that
once had deep and significant meaning. They can become
stereotypes and lose their meanings. That is why there is a
constant search for new forms.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

There has been a long tradition of European missionary
activity in this area. During the 1800's a catholic missionary
wrote on the fly leaf of a Bible, "God help the missionaries
who come to this area because after 300 years of evangelization
these people are more animals than when the process started."
The present priest has very little concept of the traditional
religion. If I had not learned their language, I would have
had very little idea too.

Picture 1

 

Answer: Probably are.

It is hard to underemphasize the critical importance of the
fact that we are communicating brand new content. Because a
number of these situations come from outside their cultural
experience, the jump in learning is very great. For centuries
they have learned by handing things down from one generation to
another and responding to tribal authority, but always within
their own context. As an outsider, I have difficulty because
I am speaking from a different cultural background, language
and thought forms.

Repetition is very important, and I hope that my listeners
will remember two things, possibly three. I would only ask for
this list in 10 different sessions. In some situations they
won't open their mouths, let alone express a personal Opinion.
It depends on their degree of confidence in you and their feel-
ing of whether you are an insider or an outsider. In the early
years peOple would answer my questions by saying, "NO, we don't
know." But now I am using their language and already know
something about the subject at hand so they lose their reticence.

Someone who considers that primitive peOple don't have
Opinions has not identified himself linguistically or has no
particular role or relationship to the peOple. One missionary

 

 

364

who had been.many years in an area claimed that there was no
shamanism, but the peOple also knew that he considered such
subjects were too sinful to talk about. Another missionary
found quite a deal practiced. Once I was introduced to an
audience as a missionary who had gone down to give these
peOple a language, and another time as one who went down to
give them a religion.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

: *r;

I have a higher answer for the Christians. For the
non-Christians I would say, "No," because lying is an
expected cultural practice. You never volunteer the truth
if there is some untruth which will serve the purpose. It is
hard for us to get used to. You can only get to the truth
by developing a relationship in which people feel confident
with you. Dialogue is a valuable learning tool. It is
largely still an entirely oral society, so dialogue outside
the formal classroom situation is extremely important.

 

-x. .un.‘ (mu-‘13.: .-

‘

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably not.

The few people who have been in a formal classroom
situation have written down what seem to be key words or
catch words but are often not able to associate them with
meaning. To review your own notes and hope that you caught
what was said would be a difficult experience. They would be
going through a motion or a form to obey a teacher's order.
In my Bible translation I often type up a tentative translation
for my informant. We have no clarification of confusing points
in the times when the informant has compared this translation
with what is the King James version in Spanish. Those situations
have been ludicrous. Clarification has usually come from
imagining situations which likely include that word or phrase.
So the clarification comes right out of their own experience.

Picture 4
Answer: No.

It is out of context in a culture where books aren't used.
Where a person can't explain orally what he is trying to get
across, it is very inadequate teaching. There is some benefit
in a precise definition or phrase. But if he is just trying to
find help to get across something he is trying to explain,
that is different. It is a prop.

365

Picture 5

 

Answer: Yes.

There is a great deal of personal interchange after a
session or service. A lot of oral sharing takes place. This
would rank high as a method.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

From my standpoint, this would be a good learning device.
From the Indians' standpoint, this will become a better learn-
ing device as we get more and more into the subject matter.
This kind of activity would reveal to me what they do not
understand and would help pinpoint the way I need to explain
what terms and passages mean. I usually deal with peOple one
at a time and then I can compare and contrast. But on some
subjects, I have two or three people together and ask each one
to help me to understand what I need to know. They answer from
their individual experiences and I can get a well-rounded
picture.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

The Indians' answer would be the same as mine, though the
cultural setting would be different. It is like No.2, though
there is a formal setting with everyone doing it at the same
time. In No.7 there are just two together. A lot of oral
communication does take place in this culture. I also prefer
the informal meeting to the formal setting.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Probably not.

I think it would be'a good tool to alert students to some
things you might be talking about. For the Indian, much of the
material is new and being looked at in a different way. Before
they have ever been exposed to it, they don't know how it will
apply to them. But I think it will be increasingly a useful
tool. If I were leading a group, I would tend to describe the
subject and try to relate it to their situation, rather than
just announce it.

Picture 9

 

'Answer: No.

This is not really relevant. Sitting down around the
table with paper and pencil is not a common practice for our

 

 

366

people. They are not accustomed to exams. The one thing that
would come across strongly is the interest and excitement of
the teacher. He is doing it in an informal yet forceful way
so this likely would communicate well. If we leave the exams
out of the picture, this would come across as an important
learning experience.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

We both expect enthusiasm out of the learning-teaching
situation. Traditionally, learning is handed down by word of
{mouth from one generation to the next. The father and the
grandfather have huge roles in transmitting information to the
younger generation. A lot of the teaching takes this form and
is reinforced by all kinds of stories and legends, and things
you don't do to avoid offending the spirits. These warnings
and negative teaching in the traditional culture largely explain
the form that the pastoral teaching has taken. You are left in
no doubt what you are and are not expected to do.

KM" — "m '

They expect oral indoctrination, not book-learning. They
have had limited exposure to books, only the prayer book and
the catholic Latin Bible which is chained to a post in the
church. They are told, "Don't even touch it," much less read
it. The reason the priest can use the Scriptures and they can't
is that he is celibate. Sin is sexual intercourse unless
otherwise designated, even among marriage partners. So the idea
that they can own a book and that God encourages them to seek Him
through this book is a new thing.

In the catholic services and in the traditional practices,
both priests and prayermakers go through rituals which the people
have paid for but are not expected to understand. As a result
the early Indian believers were prepared to sit through Spanish
meetings they did not understand. This part of their background
was confirmed in their new evangelical experience. When they
complied with the ceremony, their needs were taken care of. So
it was a kind of a priestly system by remote control. It was a
real hurdle for them to understand that God can communicate to
their own mind through Scriptures in their language and that
someone does not have to manipulate words on their behalf.

When I began teaching in the vernacular, there were two
reactions: some people were thrilled and could not get enough
of it; others understood far too well and were threatened.
They would have preferred to comply with something that they
only vaguely understood.They felt they had fulfilled all the
requirements. Some of the ethical implications made them very
uncomfortable. All their lives they have been conditioned to
distrust their neighbors, and now they found out they should
love their neighbors. I only wanted to emphasize positively

 

367

what the Scriptures say and not come on negatively about what
they had to do. Up until this time the Lord's Prayer had been
a magic formula, a set of gibberish to keep away evil spirits
on the trail at night. When I translated the Lord's Prayer
into the vernacular, no one was interested. An understandable
Lord's Prayer did not serve the function of the old one. We
are not over this problem entirely yet, but at least the
christian leaders understand what it is for.

A lot of the Spanish terminology has connotations from
colonial times. At first we were happy to find that many of
the Christian terms were already being used by the Indians,
until we began to realize the meaning of these words to the
people. We found that "Jew” and ”devil" were synonymous.
The first time that I explained that Jesus and the Virgin
Mary were Jews I thought I was going to be attacked.

Jesu Cristo is the folk hero in our area, so there are more i
stories about his adventures than about any other folk hero. ‘
So this made me aware that I could not simply use any Spanish
term,even other than religious terms, until we deliberately 5g
unwrapped what they understood by them. All Spanish words ’
have cultural, situational and emotional trains. So in our
translation we have had to deliberately bypass all the
Spanish terms and find ways to express these thoughts in
vernacular. I don't know if our area is extreme in this,
but my advice to anyone working in a trade language is to be
aware what vernacular speakers understand by trade language
terms.

 

 

The people assumed that I, as a Westerner, would take the
leadership in the church. But I explained that the leaders in
the area would be responsible for the nurture of these peOple.
It has been a problem for some of the congregations because of
the things that I would not do. I prefer mmch more to see
church leadership in the hands of the local leaders than to see
them wait for the foreigner to come and instruct them on their
problems.

I was invited to a home of some Christians, whose daughter,
also a Christian, had run off with another man after only being
married for eight months. I went there not intending to lower
the boom on them, but to answer some of their questions. I
read them the Scriptures concerning marriage, divorce, and
adultery, and said ,"I cannot tell you what to do. The decision
is up to you and the church leaders. You have heard what the
Bible teaches, and now you.must decide on a solution with the
help and courage of the Holy Spirit. Nobody involved must be
forced away from the fellowship, but the thing must be handled
in a proper way according to the Scriptures." Then I told the
leaders of the church that we are not interested in wielding
authority just because we could. I still do not know to this
day hOw they worked it out. I hope I will have a letter before
too long telling me. They expected me to adopt an authoritar-
ian role. I would have been the "expert" in the situation.

368

I did not just refuse to do it, but tried to help them to
understand that, even thOugh I could lay down the law, I

would be gone soon. It would be better if they followed the
Lord and made a decision for themselves. In this way they
will be able to continue to help their people meet their needs.

This to me was a real stage of growth for the church as
an organization. I am not officially authorized by the local
mission to have an ecclesiastical role. By nature I react
against an outsider coming in and being authoritarian in a
situation like this. But probably I have neglected some
Scriptures, like the Old Testament prophets who were authoritar—
ian. I would much sooner see the time come when the leaders I»
of the local congregation came to this position themselves. I
would much rather fully acquaint them with the teaching of the
Scriptures and leave the decisions to them. Our time in the
village has been so broken and I don't think it is healthy to
be an absentee authority. What will they do when we are not a
there? Life and death have a way of going on. Relationships ’
don't hold still waiting for authoritarian answers. The extent :
to which we exercise authority as outsiders to the culture,then }:
to that extent we feed the idea that Christianity is a foreign
religion after all. Our experience has been that when we have
acquainted them with the Scriptures and encouraged them to trust
the Lord to make their own decisions, we have seen some remark-
able Christian growth.

 

If you live in the culture, you see things from a different
standpoint. We have had several promising young men leave our
area for training outside their culture and language. Their
communication was not good and the cultural setting was entirely
different. What they were learning was more of the lifestyle
of the missionary. This was associated somehow in their mind
with the gospel. They returned to their villages and started
telling the pastors what was wrong. Soon they were complete
misfits and were rejected. They bounced from one place to
another and never really fitted in anywhere. For one fellow,
it has taken 20 years to settle down again. The process of
his finding peace of mind and a relationship to his own wife
and family and father has been a tragic thing to watch. This
fellow came back from a Spanish Bible school and would not
even use the vernacular Gospel of Mark which he had helped to
translate. He told us, "If you want to know anything, just ask
me." He used all the key Christian terms in Spanish, which he
said could not be said in his language. He had Western style
dress and had to find somebody below him to carry his bag.

The missionaries tended to blame the community for not
accepting him. They said,"Here is this fellow, well-trained,
and you won't take him." We began to help them see that it
was not the fault of the institution. It had a legitimate
ministry to Spanish speakers. The problem was taking the
fellow from his own culture and language, training him in
another culture and language, and expecting him to come back

369

to his own place. The institution had little awareness of

the culture he was coming from and what he would be going

back to. It would be very difficult to modify the effects

of such cultural dislocation. The training should take

place in the culture and relate both in language and in

culture to daily life. The argument against that is that it

is expensive and a waste of time for missionaries to learn

all these languages. A central institution is considered
adequate for the whole country. They say that vernacular
training is fragmenting the church, and through one institution
they can encourage fellowship and train people who can make a
wide contribution. That is very fine if you are at that

stage, but we are at the very beginning. The wider perspective
is an alternative for peOple once they have had the beginning
of an effective education in their own language. But to make
this the only alternative is counter-productive.

We offered church services in the Indian language in our
village, and we got tremendous opposition from the Spanish-
speaking churches. The rallying cry was, "You are dividing
the church. All these years we have been one nice fellowship,
and now you want to split this church." We were misrepresented
entirely. The Indians had attended church and not understood
anything for as long as 15 years. One pastor explained the
differences between having a Spanish translation of the Bible
and a vernacular translation this way, "It is like watching
somebody eating, smelling their food and being able to eat
yourself."

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Indian Students

The missionary will face great difficultyif he continues
to teach in his own language. Early in his career, if he is
more interested in teaching than in asking questions, he will
not realize what the difficulties are. One of the first rules
of teaching is to begin where the student is. But quite Often
the outsider does not know where his student is. He has a
certain progression he wants to teach, but how does he know
that he is starting at the right place without knowing the
culture? It is difficult to ask students how their thought
patterns differ from ours. This is why I think it is a
mistake to put someone in position of responsibility, say in
the Bible school too early before he has a chance to get the
language and culture under his belt. It is the usual thing.
For example, I consider reading a missiology journal or a
good course on descriptive linguistics is a "must."

I start from the presupposition that cultural differences
are linguistic differences too. But we must try not to project
the impression that "different" means "inferior" or "wrong."If
you start from there, you can be friendly and not condemnatory.
We have seen some trade language speakers browbeat vernacular

 

370

speakers because their categories are different. Some
peOple feel if they don't have a classroom, with all the
equipment, they can't teach. But I have seen instances
where very effective teaching has taken place with no equip-
ment at all, not even chairs. The student's perception of
the teacher is very important. He must feel the teacher has
something valuable to communicate, and will do it sympathet-
ically. Even if there is no language barrier, attitudes
come through. I think the same thing is true in a mission
teaching situation. They know your attitude, and your degree
of sympathy for them as people. Only then can you accomplish
something and teach because the peOple are willing to listen.

 

I found that the understanding of tithing was closely
related to the concept of making payment to the spirits to
avoid sickness, death or crop loss. In a situation like
this, sometimes I start teaching with the commonly held
conception of the subject, and other times I start straight
with the Scriptures. If I start from the cultural concept,
I try to show sympathy with what is happening in the culture 5
and then move on to what the Bible says. I try to show Q’
sympathy and an insider's knowledge as well as point out
what we Christians believe. There is no need to point home
the differences.

Jeri—T T—‘T—f'

m—‘ _ih

It is not difficult to teach abstract things in other
cultures. The real difficulty is to find how other cultures
express abstract things. Because there is no one-to-one
correspondence, the tendency is to feel that they don't
think about it. They have the same emotional gamut as
anyone else. The figures of speech are based on cultural
analogies, but if you don't know the cultural analogies,
you don't know how they are expressing them.

Large institutions, as a Bible school, are not native to
this culture. Granted they can serve a purpose, they do not
fit local cultural patterns. The more effective way is to
communicate on the level where the peOple live and can
incorporate the gospel into their lives. Then you can use
their figures of speech and illustrate the way the gospel
applies to their lives. I would assume that the knowledge of
the vernacular is an essential prerequisite. It is the way
that you can understand the culture and the community before
you become an active prOpagator. This does not‘suit the
traditional role of the missionary who evangelizes this
village and then moves on so he can get back home. If a
missionary wants to communicate with a person, he should
train him in his own language. Being trained in another
language exposes him to a new culture. He has much wider
horizons Open to him, and knows the new economic opportunities
Open to him, whether in the Christian ministry or not. To
assume that this fellow is going to be committed to the
Lord and return to his peOple for the rest of his life is

371

unrealistic and possibly not even desirable. Either he does
return or his conversion and spirituality are suspect. It
does not work in our culture.

Changes in The Teacher's Expectations

I have been consciously modifying my methods of teaching
as I get to know the peOple better. But the trend is.more
towards confirmation of previous trends. I have been kind of
feeling my way, and being comfortable this way, where I wasn't
otherwise.

If I were to do it over, I would spend more time in the
earlier years following up natural opportunities to establish
relationships with cultural leaders apart from any christian
context. I can look back now and see certain natural openings
where I as an outsider would have been welcomed by people in
authority in the culture. I missed several of those because
of my reticence. In many ways I was rather naive. In the y
earlier years I tried to avoid situations in which I would be
called on to expound something from my point of view, when
I could not also learn something about theirs. I didn't want
to come on as the foreigner from outside who knew all the
answers and who could straighten them out. I was afraid of
trying to do too much too soon before I had control of the
language and understood the culture. I think this reticence
had some negative as well as some positive effects.

 

If I were starting again, I would simply try to trace out
some of the features in the culture (e.g. kinship, lines of
communication, authority, food supply): which are extremely
important. I would try to get this general outline earlier
so I would be more competent and confident to Speak sooner
to people of authority in the culture about things important
both to them and to me. I think now I waited too long. It is
true in some cases that Western missionaries don't wait at all
before they Speak out in a culture. I think there is a middle
ground that would avoid some of the problems of the missionary's
impetuousness or reticence.

I may have offended two or three of the leaders by not
calling on them in the early stages. If I had paid court to
some of the cultural leaders, it would have enhanced their
prestige. I was looking at myself as a novice and didn't
realize the extent to which my consulting them would have
added to their prestige.

These things are clear on hindsight, but I was rather
innocent when we first went there. At first we could not even
communicate in Spanish, and we had to set up a household with
three small children. Some of these realizations of what our

 

372

role could have been had come out of discussions in the Indian
language with Indians. But the political situation was tense,
so we deliberately tried to appear friendly and no threat at
all. Even so it was a long time before we gained the
confidence of the peOple. A growing understanding of the
language and an increasing anthrOpological awareness helped us
to understand what our roles should be. If I had time, I
would like to do some more anthropology. This would help me
to evaluate the data I have already received and help me to
set some strategy for the future.

Effects of Teaching on Indian Students F

Two of the major breakthroughs in our gaining the confi-
dence and interest of the peOple began to come as they
experienced some of the things in the Scriptures. ‘The illness
of one of the children of a new convert was blamed on their
breaking with the cultural tradition. There were extremely
large pressures from the family to get back into the flow of
ritual and relationships. But this couple refused, and the
baby recovered. It was a hard decision for the young father
to follow through on what seemed a foreign concept. To have
the Lord honor this was a very maturing experience. This was
both frightening and revolutionary to the community. It
enraged the baby's grandfather, who was a shaman. If the
child died, that would have proven his point. The repercussions
of this led to the formation of a whole Christian community
in an isolated area. Up tillthen Christianity was still a
foreign religion from outside, but now it was part of the local
experience, and it was being discussed widely in the local
language and we were part of it.

 

When we first arrived, the Indian children went to
Spanish-speaking schools so the communication in the class-
room was almost nil. They could obey commands,but they never
learned Spanish. In 1960 the dropout rate in rural schools
was incredible. As a result of a contact by one of our
colleagues with the Ministry of Education, certain designated
schools began to teach in Indian languages.. Even with that
minimum of a vernacular start, the results of the education
have been so much better. There are more Indians enrolling
and they stay longer. We have helped to design materials
used in this program, and have been consultants for it.

By cooperating with the government in their educational
effort, we can multiply our own effectiveness. The use of the
Indian languages in education could be greatly enhanced if we
can work with the government in making education more thoroughly
monolingual in the early stages prior to transition to Spanish.

We feel if this amount of progress has been made with basically
an unhealthy education system, how much better it would be if
the system were healthy. By pushing for a higher quality education

 

373

for Indians, there will be a higher quality transition to
Spanish. This aim is subsidiary to our main aim of Bible
translation, but if we can have this spinoff, we will be
very happy.

In 1955 we heard the supervisor of the educational
district comment on Indian students this way, "Here we are
actually seeing Indians learning as if they were peOple."

The attitude to Indians has changed but some of it has stayed
the same. Last year we offered an introductory course in
linguistics at the University. We were teaching in Spanish,
but relied heavily on teachers who were Indian language
speakers. The outstanding comment after the course was that
the students had never thought of these Indians as people
with feelings.

Modifications in Future Teaching

More than anything else, the people must teach themselves
through the Scriptures. You just have to depend on that. To
do this, one of our hopes is to use cassettes when we go back.
We will be reading on to tape sections of Scriptures, Bible
stories and hymns and need to train pastors to put their own
messages on tape. The ones we have done so far are extremely
pOpular and effective. They can circulate, repeat messages and
go places we cannot get to. The cassette is a source of
encouragement and evangelism, which we don't dare pass up.

I need to make some switch in the direction of becoming a
more aggressive teacher. I have been more a learner than a
teacher, and in some areas I probably have gone too far that
way and passed over some legitimate context in which I could
have taught or given alternatives to errors. Instead I chose
to try to learn. I still need to keep my antennae activated
to be sensitive to places where I need to learn more, yet take
a more aggressive role as a trainer of Christian leaders. I
will try not only to learn what people's present customs are,
but also to present scriptural alternatives. I don't mean
that by being more aggressive I will be more authoritarian,
because I feel that the peOple more and more can take authority
for themselves because of changes in the policy of the mission
in the area.

I want to continue to be nonauthoritarian and nonecclesi-
astical. I don't want to take over any other function which
they should be taking. I can see that I will be able to
influence not only what the leaders learn but the attitudes
with which they learn it. I have to help the people understand
that separation from some of the old rituals does not mean
rejecting people. They must make Christianity attractive and
winsome to others. They could easily start a tribal war by
preaching against traditional practices. I have always known

 

374

learning and teaching constitute a two-way process,but
feared to step into this teaching role and not still be
inoffensive and within cultural patterns. I could have
responded to the teaching role earlier if I had had the
courage and awareness to do so. I hOpe I will be balancing
these much more effectively in the future. But there are
several congregations there which started because I was
willing to respond to something they wanted to know rather
than to use so-called aggressive evangelistic techniques.

I plan to involve more of the Indian leaders in the
translation process, and make it a training course for
leaders. HOpefully, the interaction over the translation ?
table will be attractive enough that they will want to desire
this for themselves. Encouraging more knowledge of Scripture
and an understanding of how this applies to daily life will
be high on my priority list. Eventually there may be a
school where our OOOperating mission will have classes for
men from outlying areas.

W. 1 -.‘ _

n. .— . ntnfiiq‘txmf'ifis

We have plans to go out twice a year to areas at times i
when the men are not occupied in their fields. We'll have a
week or two weeks of intensive Bible training. My idea is
to train those who are already taking responsible church
leadership positions, and at the same time to make sessions
Open for anyone who wants to come. I don't know how I will
structure these sessions. I will specifically go over the
passage I am translating to get feedback. I will also encour-
age music and hymn writing so they can turn their pleasant
religious exercises into meaningful praise. There will be
sessions for responding to questions and problems they are
facing and trying to relate the Scripture to these. In
another session I will teach Spanish as they are all inter—
ested in it. In these training sessions we will be flexible
and open-ended.It will be a matter of having certain overall
purposes in mind and working as bestlican with the peOple
who come and go.

I have been very gratified in the last few years to see
some people deepen in their understanding of translation and
actually ask to help me. They are more and more aware that
God can speak their language. Now they realize that if they
are going to be fed Spiritually, it will have to be through
their own language. They are now in fact initiating the move
to separate the Indian church services from the Spanish. This
is exciting to me. There is a growing awareness that they
have to take responsibility for their own spiritual welfare.
I look forward to a time when there is an overt recognition
by the church of the culturally important rites of passage so
that they will realize that God is concerned about all things
that affect their lives. If the elders of the church can put
christian content into what are already serious cultural
problems,this will tie Christianity to their everyday

375

experience. Then it will become much more an indigenous
religion. In the leadership sessions we will work through
these issues.

The beauty of being a Christian is that you can be
yourself in the tribal setting. The Lord does not magically
change an Indian just because he is a Christian. There are
elements of his culture that will be changed because they are
not compatible with Christianity, but that is true of US
culture too.

If I hadn't learned the culture, I couldn't get down to
this depth and I wouldn't have known there was a need for it.
Time pressure is the greatest. I could fit six teams out
with fulltime jobs in our area without duplicating anything.
Ideally, the preparation of materials will be done by the
peOple. We need someone to do a thorough analysis of the
various discourse types in the language also.

APPENDIX E9

RESPONDENT: LISA ROHR

This respondent has taught for five
years at a school for missionaries’
children in Korea, and for four years
at an international school in Abu Dhabi.

I am authoritarian as a teacher. I expect children
to do as I request with no arguments. I am very old-
fashioned. I have got good results this way. There's
a lot of give and take. Every year I start off with the
same speech: "I will be as nice as you let me, and as
mean as you make me. It's up to you." There are certain
rules that we set down to make learning easier for all.

I feel my authoritarian attitude helps the learning. As
children mature, they should be given more choices. But

I don't agree with what's going on in the educational
system today because I have had to pick up the pieces.
They need to be structured to begin with to learn study
habits. Some of them have to be forced to learn these,
but when they know how to do it properly, then they can

be given choices. They also need to know the consequences
if they don't use their freedom wisely.

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

Picture 1
Answer: Yes.

They are learning something important because they
are having to make a list. They have to really think
about it and come up with a given number on a piece of
paper. They have goals. From my own experience, when
you are given something specific to do, you will often
produce more than if you are just thinking about it.
Writing it down forces me to give it a great deal more
consideration. The teacher has specified a certain
amount. I do this often. If you go over the amount:

376

 

 

377

that's fine. But if you are under the amount, maybe you
could do a little better.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably are.

They are going to exchange ideas, and that can be
very stimulating because their partner's ideas may be
different. The teacher's presence makes it more conducive
to having them go through and actually do the exercise.
There is less of a choice, as opposed to No. 3, because it
is teacher-directed. It is not a break time. It is part
of class time. I think teacher direction is necessary in
learning. How much teacher direction is needed depends on
whether the subject is vitally important to the student.
For example, if you dislike Maths intensely, you will need
lots of teacher direction. If you like Maths and under-
stand it more, you need less teacher direction. So it
depends on your system of likes and dislikes. With young
children, you learn the likes and dislikes very quickly.

I think those who don't understand or like the subject
need more help. It's up to the teacher to discover why
they don't like it.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It's left up to the individual because the teacher is
out of the way. It is a personal choice. Some peOple
would do what the teacher says. Others would just chat
with their friends over coffee. Some would take it very
seriously and make it a learning experience, but others
would not. Breaks are for relaxing, but two people dis-
cussing together can learn. It all depends on the decision
they make. I have been in situations like that. Sometimes
I would look over my notes if we were going to have an
exam, or if there was something I had not understood in
the lecture. If I didn't immediately have any questions,
I would just relax, especially if I had a good friend to
talk to.

Picture 4

 

Answer: Probably are.

The page in the book is a visual aid to help clarify
what the teacher is saying. Visual aids are important,
especially in our television age. The teacher's direction

378

saves them having to hunt. The morezstructured the seat-
ing arrangement, the more regimented you are so you tend
to listen and not socialize. Listening and socializing
can be opposites in the classroom. He said, "If you turn
to page....," so some of them might not do that. This
gives them a choice. Some peOple are lazy and would not
turn to the page. I don't usually give choices in my
classroom directions. I make it definite. It depends on
who you are dealing with. I deal mainly with younger
children. As they get older, they get more choices. When
I give a direction, I usually check to see if it has been
done.

 

Picture 5

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

 

When you vocalize or write down your own thoughts, it _
tends to cement your own learning. But the teacher is not ;;
there, so some would do it and some won't because it is not
an assignment. They don't have to turn in anything to
indicate that they did it. If they didn't learn anything
helpful, they would have nothing to Share, as has often
happened to me. The reinforcement is good. But my
answer shows it depends on their choice.

Picture 6

 

Answer: Probably are.

I first wondered if you have somebody in the group
who is very self-opinionated and wants to hog the atten- ,
tknuand do all the talking so others don't get a chance.
This often happens in a group. I have had situations
like this in my classroom. This situation is giving
great freedom, and depending on who is in the group,
everybody might get a chance to speak or they might not.
If everybody had a chance, it would'bea good learning
experience because you are vocalizing and so you have to
think about it. The teacher's absence is not a detri-
ment. Many times if a teacher is present we just say
what we think he wants us to say, not necessarily what we
actually think. It is very common in Eastern cultures
to do this, because you don't want to hurt the other
person's feelings or you want a good grade.

379

Picture 7

 

Answer: Probably are.

I think this is amusing because the decision is left
up to the student. It's a more relaxed atmosphere than
the classroom, although sometimes we get more accomplish-
ed over food for some reason. This would be more memor-
able because you don't sit down to a meal with every
teacher. It may turn out to be a strictly social thing.
Are they going to stick to the subject or are they
going to get off it? There are many possibilities as
to the direction they could go. If it was really
important learning, they would talk about the subject
from the classroom. But you can learn important social J
things from a contact like that, so I would expect them i
to be discussing a little of everything. Table conver- *
sations can change so quickly. Every situation can be a
learning situation. You may not learn the primary thing
that you are there for. But you can still learn some- if
thing by your contact with other peOple if you are a good
listener. Some people are not interested in listening.

All they want to do is talk. I don't think you learn a
great deal if you do all the talking and none of the
listening. Then you are only giving off with your own
ideas.

 

Picture 8
Answer: Probably are.

It would depend on how strongly they feel about the
given subject. Some may not have any strong feelings
about it. It depends on how controversial the subject is.
PeoPle feel strongly about something that involves their
money. The setting appears to be extremely casual. It
is not structured, and if you are Sitting that way, people
tend to be more casual in their reactions. Sometimes
that would hinder learning, other times it would be a help.
With an adult, it would not make that much differences,
but children would tend to talk to their neighbors. If
the adults are paying for the course, most peOple don't
want to waste that money. They would want to get as much
as they could.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Yes .

Usually we look for clue words like "exam" when
people are talking. When this is followed by lecturing,

380

it probably would be important. It might be a review of
what they haveaiready learned in the course, so it is
cementing the learning. I am also audio-visually
oriented, and he has got an overhead projector and a
tape recorder.

Sources of Expectations about Teaching

 

I felt I had very good college training in teaching.
In my supervision and practice teaching I was given lots
of good ideas, so I felt fairly secure before I went into
the classroom. We had to evaluate everything we did,
and had to have a detailed lesson plan with Objectives. .
So when I finished, it was a habit. I could make lesson F
plans with objectives in my sleep. Generally, I still ’
follow this method, though I don't write them down any
more. It is a thinking process that goes on. Some 1
students did not have as strict supervision, so after we u?
got out and compared notes, I found I was much more
secure in teaching.

 

I like best to be able to set up my classroom SO it
can function on its own. After we establish the teacher-
student relationship and they discover that I am the boss,
then the students understand my expectations of a higher
standard of discipline in the classroom. I don't force
them, but I expect this of them. Then I can set the class-
room up so that the students are appointed to take care
of all aspects of the classroom. Then the classroom can
function without me, apart from the teaching part. This
is the way they feel it is their classroom. I have had
it to that point when the substitute teacher can come in
and take over, and all the children know what to do. Books
have not influenced my ideas on teaching. Most educational
books are terrible. I once had a history teacher, who read
to us out of a book. I thought that was rather silly,
because we could all read. I try not to do that. PeOple
tell me that I do speak with authority. I have noticed
that when I am on deputation the children really sit up
and listen to me.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

This is more difficult because I have taught such a
variety of peOple. I got to know the Korean college
students very well. It probably would be best to focus
my answers on them. The others I taught were young
children. Though they are in a foreign country, all

381

students get to the point where they would react just
like American children in the international schools.
It's very easy for these children to adapt to the class-
room situation. When you are treated in a certain way,
you will react to the way you are expected to.

In my classes in Abu Dhabi, I had Irani, Japanese,
British, and Scottish students along with all the
American students. They come and go so fast. This is
the feature of the work in the oil fields, because the
husband of the family can be transferred so quickly.

So the class would flucuate between 12 and 25. It's 5'
unsettling if you are trying to maintain a program. You
just keep on going. I had one third grader who had never
been to school before. His mother was Spanish and his
father was German. He came for the last six weeks of the
school year. He was a very aggressive little boy as he
was not used to the social environment of the classroom.

 

 

.1“

fl...

There are tremendous pressures on the oriental child v
because if you don't do the best, it reflects on the
family name, and if the disgrace is bad enough, the whole
family commits mass suicide. This didn't affect the
American children as they are very gregarious and could
not care less. The Japanese and Korean children work
very hard. They are very concerned that they do every-
thing right and get all the right answers all of the
time. A child does not lead what we consider a normal
life because they are under pressure to do well. There
seems to be less pressure put on the Irani students.
Compared with children who have just stuck to the United
States, these children who have been in many nations have
a much richer background. They have many more experiences
to identify with. Some of these children have been in
three or four countries by the time they reach the third
grade. The parents ensure that the children know about
their own country.

My job is to mainly prepare missionary children to
come home. I do this by having a strictly American
syllabus. We use the same textbooks. This can cause
problems in international schools because the social
studies book for the third grade in Abu Dhabi had a
whole section on Israel. A Palestinian father felt we
should give equal time to the Arab culture. But they do
have some instruction in Arab culture every week. We
teach American children to pledge to the flag. We also
encourage the other children to bring in their national
flag and explain how they honor it. We can't have a
curriculum to suit every nationality, so the foreign
children come into the school knowing that they will
learn American history and geography.

 

382

Picture 1

 

Answer: Probably are.

Here it is teacher-directed, and it takes place in
the classroom so most people would feel they are learn-
ing something important. In their society,whether in the
classroom or out of it, they aim to please. They give
you what you want. They would be more conscious of things
that they thought were important to you. You see these
traits even in the little Japanese children.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Some are, some aren't.

Although it is teacher-directed, they are getting
the view of their peers. This is something that is L
foreign to them. They are used to lectures not discus- fl
sions. SO they have difficulty with this type of learning
in the United States. They don't necessarily learn from
their peer group. There isn't the respect there. If
they were learning it would probably be an accident, but
they might pick up something. In their own peer groups
they wouldn't hesitate to disagree, as the Japanese would.
They are freer in expressing their emotions. The Koreans
are a very curious type of peOple. They don't hesitate
to stare at you.

 

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably are.

Because they respect all oral directions given by a
professor, and are very concerned about getting good
grades, they will respond to anything teacher-directed.
They think it is something they are going to be tested
on. They will write it down as their whole system is
based on rote memory. Their system of education has
nothing at all to do with thinking for yourself. You
feed back to the professor what he has fed to you. The
authority figure is Older than they are. They always ask
how old you are, so they will know how to treat you.

You get preferential treatment if you are older, even by
a few months. We do not think that is anybody's business
in the Western culture, but over there it is a necessary
question. Then they will know how to respond and whether
they should respect you. It is not based on what you do,
but on how old you are. SO, even if this situation is
outside the classroom, they would still do it because it
is teacher-directed.

383

Picture 4

 

Answer 3 Yes .

This is a very definite learning situation because
you are directing them to something they can read and
memorize, and feed back to you. So they would definitely
do this and think of it as a learning experience because
it is very structured.

 

Picture 5
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It is teacher-directed, although there is no assign-
ment involved. Yet when they leave the classroom, they
often totally forget about school and be social. They
are used to a totally structured program without much
freedom. Teachers are very respected. The foreign parents
in Abu Dhabi listen to everything you say. Americans have
a very blaise attitude about education. The non-American
students work very hard because of the pressure from home.
Some of them would like to be as free and easy as the
Americans, but the parents keep a check on them.

- “J.L.—III “‘__-~'J-!

Y.“

Picture 6
Answer: Some are, some aren't.

It depends on the student. Here we are dealing with
their peer group, and they don't carry the same weight.
So they are contrasting Opinions, when they are not used
to giving Opinions.

My tutor in the Arabic language could not explain to
me the reason for forms of the language. It was just
learning by rote, repeating for three hours. I didn't
necessarily know what it meant. It was very frustrating
to me because that is not the way I am used to learning.

I wanted to know why, but my tutor didn't know why. The
Palestinian tutor could explain why and in my language
too, so that was very nice.

Picture 7
Answer: Probably not.
This probably would not be a learning situation

because the student would not take the initiative. It
would be up to the professor to arrange it. They don't

384

have lunch together. They go to the tearoom. This is where
most business is transacted.

Picture 8

 

Answer: Probably not.

The students are not there to discuss, they are there to
listen. So they feel cheated if you don't stand up and
lecture them. They don't know how to diccuss. It was very
difficult to get the Korean students to participate. After a
long period of time with the same teacher, perhaps you could
get them to participate. But they don't like to hurt the
feelings of the older teacher. No matter how much you want
them to discuss, they don't seem to understand because it is
against their culture. It would take years to get people to
be able to discuss and to give an opinion. If you are Older,
you are supposed to be wiser. This produces frustration
because they don't react to the things you want them to react
to. You feel like you are not getting any response, and
we're geared to responses. When you know they are going to
give you the answer you want, this causes you to distrust
their responses. You just keep trying. It's like fencing.
They are always trying to feel you out, and what answer you
really want. I understand why our diplomats have so much
difficulty because they are not geared to this.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Yes.

Korean students are very exam-oriented. Everything rests
on these exams. So they do everything in their power to get
good grades. Their whole culture is focused on the school and
the honor of the family is at stake in these exams. I have
never met any Korean college student who ever went to school
just for fun, as some Americans do. They go to study and
succeed. So "exam" will be the core word here.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

I have had some beginning anthropology and a course in
anthrOpology and mission in Bible school. This course
particularly brought out the differences in the cultures,
so it got you thinking of the differences you could expect.
It is necessary to learn the differences if you are going
to function among the local peOple. I have found that they
make plenty of leeway for foreigners.

385

I was not amazed or thrown off by the different customs
I found. I felt very much at home in both countries I
worked in. I suffered more culture shock in coming back
to the United States than in going to a foreign country.

In Korea, from a Christian point of view, it is
very difficult to know if they have actually accepted
your beliefs and become a Christian. For example, I
consider the statistics that mass evangelists put out in
Korea totally misleading because the peOple respond in
the way they think the person wants them to respond.
This is one of the frustrating things in working with
them in trying to get statistics for the mission. You
can only overcome this by working with them on a one-to-
one basis for a long period of time to find out if they
truly mean what they profess. I got to know people more
and more, but I don't think you ever get to the point
where there are no barriers whatsoever between the two
cultures.

 

. “--

 

I have a natural ability to adapt quickly. For
example, when I went to India for a few weeks and wore a
sari, the Indian peOple commented to my friends that I
wore the sari as if it was my natural dress. I conscious-
ly made up my mind before I went to the mission field
that if I were going to relate to the peOple, I would do
as they did. I had no frustrations in this. I rather
enjoyed it. I had many oriental friends in California
and so learned to eat with chopsticks so this was not a
strange custom when I went overseas. I think my exposure
to different cultures in America helped my adjustment
overseas. It's hard for me to understand that mission-
aries have difficulties in adjusting because I have had
no difficulties. But a goat head grinning at you from
the tOp of a pile of food is not always easy to accept.

Foreign students would not take the initiative to
meet the professor, as American students would. They
would think the professor should take the initiative.
So I take the initiative in inviting foreign students
to my home. Then in their culture they would feel the
need to invite me to their home. But this kind of
relationship can get out of hand, as in Japan with the
problem of gift giving.

In the learning situations requiring follow through,
the foreign student would not necessarily follow through,
as American students do. They are not used to casual
situations in the classroom, though they do discuss
casually among their peer groups.

 

386

Accommodating to Different Expectations of Students

In Korea we tried very hard to get the college
students to respond the way Americans would and to get
into discussions. It was very difficult because they
didn't want to do it. They weren't used to thinking but
to receiving all the information. They would discuss
among themselves. If you were their peer, it was easier
for discussion, but not if you were older than they. I
taught with a lady, another missionary, who was 13 years
Older than me, and the young peOple would not discuss in
front of her at all. There was no give and take between
them. There was much more give and take between the
students and me. They loved to play games, so we would
try to teach them games. We taught English this way
through the Bible.

BAIL-*1... emtr Th)?! - man—59.5w

With the radio scripts to teach English through
Bible passages, there was no special message for Korea but
a simplified version of what we would do in America. We
didn't get any feedback from the radio program, but the
station did, so we assumed we were doing O.K. because we
didn't get any negative remarks.

(“a __'.
‘.
4..”

My mother was in Korea as an adviser to a group of
christian college students. When they discovered my
father had been a postman, near the bottom of their social
scale, they told her she was not fit to be their adviser.
So she stopped seeing them. When this happened she was
rather hurt. The other missionaries were quite incensed,
but we could not do anything about it. That was just the
reality of the culture. It takes a long time to teach
them from the Scripture that your vocation does not make
any difference. They have a class distinction very differ-
ent from ours.

 

In teaching the American curriculum you have to adapt
when you are in a foreign country because you don't have
things available to you. For example, in field trips I
took them to the Pepsi bottling plant in Abu Dhabi, but I
could not take them to a bakery there because it is so
different. So I can't emphasize the Fire and Police
Department to the same degree as in America because these
don't work the same way there. There is no railroad,
but I can take them to an oil rig. You would not find
that type of thing readily available around the mid-West.
So we had to adapt the American curriculum to the country.
We can teach it but can't show it.

You have to call on foreign students to say something
because they won't volunteer any information. After they

387

had been there a while, they get the hang of it, and they
can begin to react like children in a class. After 12
months with me there is not much difference say between
an Iranian student and an American student.

Some Japanese parents told me that their children
should only speak English at school. We would have to
split them up when the Japanese children got together at
break time because they were speaking Japanese. They
were supposed to fit in with the Western culture. Towards
the end of the year there were no more problems and they
just fitted right in like all the other children.

At an international school you have all these different
cultures coming together and you don't want to necessarily
squash each one and make the American predominant. You
want to promote an interest in all cultures. The color
problem in America has caused problems because the majority
of Americans who work in the Oil fields come from the South.
So the children tend to make derogatory remarks about the
Arabs. They have been taught zero tolerance for other
cultures. The very young children with prejudices get over
them quickly as you try to share all the customs and
cultures. It can be a very interesting experience with
all kinds of possibilities. I have them try the different
dishes from the different countries and it can be fun.

These children are more adaptable.

Missionaries' children need a good education so they
can fit back into their own culture and be right where
they belong in the school setting. Sometimes they need
a little extra attention because they feel their parents
are so busy with the work that they have not got any
time to pay attention to the kids. Missionaries'
children have problems if their parents are not tuned
into them. There is often a constant parade of people
through the house, so the children are neglected and
they try hard to gain attention. They are also a
challenge. The majority of them are leaders and not
followers, so that makes it very interesting in the
classroom to have a whole lot of leaders and no followers.
They have very fertile brains which you have to channel
in the right direction.

Missionary children rank in the upper 20% of their
grade level. They are always at or above grade level.
Most of their parents are generally more highly educated.
Many have Master's degrees. The children are more
exposed to leading and cultural things. They are at the
tOp of their class in the United States too, even though
they are in the middle of their class in the international
school. It is a hard adjustment when they come back from
being an "A" student in America to the middle of the class.

7|- .L'JA , 'A

‘_ man 43".

 

 

388

 

In an international school, we teach about Christmas
as we do in America. I had one child whose mother was
American and father was Palestinian. They had decided
they were going to raise their child in Islam but didn't
like the morals at the Arab school. I also had the
daughter of the Minister for Foreign Affairs for the
United Arab Emirates. He was a local man but his wife
was Russian, and it was their daughter who suggested that
we have Mary, Joseph, the shepherds and the baby in the
manger at Christmas time. She had been in our school
since Grade 1, but communicating with her parents was
difficult because her mother did not speak much English.
So we have a very mixed bag.

If you are going to work with a group of students
over any length of time, my approach is to start out
giving them what they expect and gradually give them
a little bit of something new and make it almost like
a game in the beginning. You start out structured, .
and eventually work the class around to being freer. ;
So ideally you could work it around to your own particular
method of teaching. It is easy to get up and lecture all
the time, but are they really learning? You have to have
other experiences as well, discussions, ability to get
along in a group. I get children to make the rules for
their committee work, and at the end of each class
session to evaluate their effectiveness as a committee.

The non-American students COOperate just as well when

they are in the American situation. You could not start
this in an all-Korean class immediately. They are just
not used to it. I saw one group ostracize a little
American boy who was trying to push his ideas on them.

No matter what the culture is, it is important to students
to have experience in working in groups, because you can't
live as an isolated individual. This is why I am against
totally individualized learning.

. “maflikh-fis-l If

4_- . .N‘

Japanese and Korean education has great defects
because it does not provide opportunities for discussion,
and I think it is an advantage to experience this. They
can still function in their culture if they don't have
these experiences, but I think it is a nice, broadening
experience for them. It's true that say a Japanese child
who goes to an international school has trouble fitting
back into Japanese society. I had a Japanese student
who was most unusual for a Japanese. He was very vocal
in offering his opinions. He had mainly gone to inter-
national schools, so will have trouble fitting back into
a Japanese school. I think discussion is an American
characteristic and offering opinions, but I think it is
beneficial for all cultures to learn.

389

Sometimes playacting can help in learning. It's not
that they don't express emotions in the same way as us,
but I use playacting to get them to express it in the
classroom situation. They hold these things in more. The
Japanese, for example, are more reserved. They don't
express it outright as American students, but constantly
defer to the authority figure.

Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

After my nine years of teaching overseas, I probably
have changed but I could not put my finger on it. It has
been a growing experience by trial and error to find ways
to make things more interesting to come across to the
children for them to learn. It has been a learning
experience for me. Of course, what works with one does
not work with others. There is not as much in-service
training overseas, but I have learned more about putting
cultures together in classroom overseas. There aren't
the same educational opportunities overseas, so when I
come home I feel I need to pick up classes. Not that I
think the American education is improving, but I feel we
need to know what is going on. So my time overseas is a
time of standing still as far as educational methods are
concerned. I don't know that the methodology is chang-
ing, but the terminology is.

I have learned that working on an individual basis
with children has much better results than a harangue
to the whole class. More individualized instruction,
within limits, is good if it is prOperly organized and the
students have a minimum amount of work which must be done.
It is better to go about it in a quiet way. Because
their parents are extremely busy in a foreign country,
the children need individual attention. So every morning
I greet each child individually and say something to
them about themselves to assure them that I notice them
as an individual. They really love this.

I am not aware of any change in myself or in my
method. It has been a very gradual change. My philosophy
of education has not changed. I still think the children
need to learn, and that some of the learning needs to be
structured. As they grow older, they have more decisions
but you can't just turn children loose and say, "The
decisions are yours." You have to lead up to it, other-
wise they don't feel secure.

I am not conscious of any failure, but my program is
very close to what you would find in the United States.
I have not been responsible for setting up a program that

 

m.~_‘ '

 

 

390

could either go or fall. I go back to a smaller school

with three grades in one classroom, and perhaps fewer than

10 children. This can be very difficult. It makes it hard to
promote discussion, and the children don't experience the
important part of getting close with their peer group.

One of the big reactions from my colleagues in the
school was that I must be insane to teach in Abu Dhabi and
not receive a salary. It was difficult for them as
non-Christians to understand that I was doing it to benefit
somebody besides me. This gave me the opportunity to explain
to them that money does not mean that much to me. Most
peOple are there to make as much money as possible, and pay
mortgages on prOperty in the United States. But I have contact r
with the local people that these peOple never have. These
teachers were not as eager to have new experiences and visit
the peOple in their home setting, and I think that's fun.
When the Abu Dhabians find out we are from the mission
hospital, they welcome us. The Bedouins are the most
hospitable people I have ever met and have a marvellous sense
of humor. I didn't get to know individuals, but I felt I was
very well exposed to the general culture, and I would love to 4
learn the language. It all depends on how many extra jobs I
get to do in the mission.

 

Effects of Teaching on Students

 

In the medical work of our mission, we minister to the
needs of the peOple first. They realize that we care about
them as individuals because of the services we provide and
our visits to them in the villages. The doctor even set a
camel's leg, so the peOple say, "We know that the people from
this hospital love us. They even take care of our animals.”
So everything you do communicates to the people how you feel
about them. The less SOphisticated the people, the more
quickly they surely know how you feel about them.

So to be effective in teaching in their culture, you
have to let the people know that you really care. This
applies to the international students too. Part of this care
is reflected in the daily discipline of the classroom in
having your finger on exactly what they are doing. Oriental
classrooms are so crowded, so it is something new to them to
have this individual attention. They may be embarrassed by
it at first, but when they discover that everybody gets the
same treatment, then they want it.

It is difficult to talk about specific effects on my
students. They come and go so rapidly, so I don't see them

391

over a long term. If we are lucky, the students are
with us for two years. I have been encouraged that the
next year's teacher has said that my students settle
down and work right away.

In the international school in Abu Dhabi I had one
Korean student, a diplomat's son, who was educated in
Africa. He wanted to know where I was, what I was doing,
and why I was doing it, every hour of the day. He was
very hostile to me because I would not tell him anything.
But in the American system it's none of his business as
a student because I am the teacher, not him. I would
say very often to him, "Really, it's none of your
business," and that really got to him because he was not
treated that way in his own society. It was partly
because I was a woman, and the boys are not particularly
disciplined in the Eastern culture. I found the key to
that student was to give him responsibility of the
rabbits in the classroom. AS a result of that, he began
to respond to me. He was a totally different child by
the end of the year. So the way they treat male and
female in these countries affects teaching.

We go into a culture mainly to present the gospel
of Christ. Sometimes the teaching of the Bible runs
contrary to their practices. We do not go in to change
their practices on a grand scale, but if changes come
about because the peOple become Christians, that's a
different story. That's what we aim for, not to change
their culture but changing the total person because they
have become Christians. Once the become Christians,
they pretty much discover some of these things for theme
selves when they study the Scriptures.

Modifications in Future Teaching

I don't think I'll be teaching Abu Dhabians when I go
back because the Bedouin people don't understand English
and the women have never been to school. I may be able
to get into a home to teach women English on a one-to-one
basis. I probably would use the sight method and pictures
that she could recognize, learning English words for these
objects. You have to start with objects that are known,
and then progress to ideas.

In our culture we don't completely consider the
revering of the teacher a healthy thing. So we try very
hard to minimize this because the students need to be able
to express their own opinion though it is foreign to their
nature. For example, if you are dealing in the hristian
world, how can you get them to make a personal commitment
to Christ as something that they have to do, and not

 

392

something that you really want. You do want it because
according to our belief, if you don't have it, you don't
have eternal life. You could only encourage this
personal commitment through a long association with the
person. You can't also rely on yourself. It has to be
the conviction of the Holy Spirit of their need.

When they compare their religious beliefs with ours,
they realize that there is not a personal relationship
in their religion. They repeat prayers over and over
again. They don't have any hope that they will get answers
to their prayers. Even in consulting a scorcerer, they
don't have the assurance that his answer is correct. Most
of them admit that they find no sense of satisfaction.
They don't tell the truth even to members of their own
family. If you are abroad and your mother has died,
they won't tell you because they don't want to hurt
you. The first answer is never the truth, and it is
very hard to get around that. They also see how we live,
and this must back up what we say. They know that we tell
the truth .

 

 

 

APPENDIX E10

RESPONDENT: ED KERR

This respondent was an assistant pastor
and taught theology in a residential
seminary and in extension centers in
Brazil for three years.

After language study we moved out to a town where {
there were no missionaries. We had some lengthy hassles
with the mission administration because they wanted me to
go directly into the seminary. I told them I did not want
to teach until I had some first-hand experience in the
local church. But nobody had ever done this. Our staff had
always gone from language school to the compound. We did
not want to live on the compound, but wanted to demonstrate
that we could work with Brazilians as equals. We wanted to
work effectively without any kind of condescension. I had
seen our staff walk in and dominate a church situation. I
didn't want to do this. Living off the compound, this made
a difference in the type of peOple we could have through
our home. Our kids played in Portuguese because we put them
in Brazilian schools. The Brazilians were shocked at this,
and said we were the first missionaries who had done this.
But they knew then that we had confidence in them.

 

Perceptions of Nine Pictures

In Germany an American professor arranged us all in a
circle and threw a basketball to one of the students, who
immediately threw it back to him. After a while the students
started throwing the ball to one another, and the professor
said, "At last you are catching on. We have to learn from
one another, not just from me." This really threw the
Germans. I had another experience in an American Education—
al Administration class. We agreed to make decisions by
the consensus model. I learned to see real value in this
method of learning.

393

394

Picture 1
Answer: Yes.

It is always important learning if you are asked to
interact with the material in terms of what makes it
important to you. I am really suspicious of pure learning -
that is learning something just to say you've learned it.

I assume that later they will get into a group discussion.
So they can't miss, especially if the subject has great
relevance to them. Sitting in a circle always helps the
interaction, but it's not a fetish with me.

In theology classes I don't believe that student
contribution will detract from the truth. I don't feel
responsible for the truth. It's independent of me or
anybody else. I'm not a guardian of the truth of the
Scriptures, because the Scriptures say that when you know
the truth, the truth shall set you free.

Picture 2
Answer: Probably are.

That can be significant learning or it can be a waste
of time. It would be significant to me if the reading
assignment was relevant to my goals, and my partner who was‘
really involved. But I could provoke the other student to
realize why it was important learning. It's unusual for
the teacher to be sitting behind a desk. I would be walking
around the room. The students Should know ahead of time
that they have to share. It's not a very noble motivation
to embarrass a student.

Picture 3
Answer: Yes.

Here they are trying to understand the material, and
make an application. If they are drinking coffee, there
must be important learning. That's my bias. The Germans
say you can't do it without beer. It creates a relaxed
atmosphere, and that's important when you are there for a
long haul.

I found a way to overcome students' tension about
Greek by letting them talk about anything on their minds
for the first 10 minutes of class. This helped them relax
and brought us close together. It was a shock to them at
first because they expected a high tension level. But in
one week this dissipated, and students created identities

 

395

for themselves. I've worked under super high pressure but

it was never conducive to enjoyable learning. In a casual

atmosphere the teacher works a lot harder because he has to
be sensitive to students' needs.

Picture 4
Answer: Probably not.

I had a professor who taught like that. I didn't learn
anything. I am suspicious if the teacher refers back to the
book. It indicates a lack of confidence in the student. It
shows poor perception of what students are capable of doing.
It's killingly boring. A lot of theological training ends
up content-oriented, and students never have to make
applications.

Picture 5
Answer: Yes.

I have had a number of classes where this has happened
spontaneously. It's helpful if it is not too structured
but is the natural outgrowth of the class. You get a lot of
spinoffs from the reactions of others. But I prefer to be
warned at the beginning that this will happen. I enjoy
sharing with others and a cafeteria is a nice place to have
a class.

Picture 6
Answer: Yes.

If these are highly motivated students, it would be
important learning. If I have got to justify my responses
to my peers, I am much more cautious and thorough. The
teacher's absence does not matter. If the teacher is the
least bit condescending, it's better he is out of the room.
But it's fun to have a teacher around who is interested in
what you are thinking. If everyone is prepared, I find this
to be one of the most significant learning experiences.
That assumes everyone is not just there for the pay raise.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

Recently I met a group of Brazilian students in the
cafeteria and explained things exactly as I had in class.

 

 

396

But there they understood it better. So I realized if I
take the extra time to go and shoot the breeze with
students, things finally click with them. I know this kind
of a setting is very important for learning though it does
sound presumptious that the professor could explain some-
thing better over lunch. I have great respect for people
I have met, who have trained under the tutorial system in
Britain. They seem to be able to integrate wide areas of
knowledge into a beautiful whole. I think if a professor
takes an extra interest in a student it leads to important
learning. I certainly respond to suggestions for reading
that a professor says will especially help me.

Picture 8
Answer: Yes.

I always assume if you're interacting in this way the
learning is important. Otherwise it's a very sterile type
of experience. It's good to share similar basic concerns
with colleagues. The number of items is not particularly
relevant. It could be two or three. I would feel more
comfortable if no one looked at my list and evaluated it.

Picture 9

 

Answer: Probably not.

I am usually suspicious of people learning just for
tests. That's only good for short term recall. I have
taken courses where any grappling with basic concerns was
totally absent. I doubt if I will remember anything.

Important learning would occur if he dealt with the
"so what" questions. Here it's pretty much all one way.
But these peOple are all adults, so I assume that they all
have a lot to offer. It would be much more important learn-
ing if there were some interaction. I'm never happy unless
my students are explaining back to me what is significant to
them. I want them to be able to link their present learning
to other learning, and to their life experiences. None of
that is happening here.

Sources of Expectations About Teaching

I have some positive models for teachers. My college
psychology teacher was concerned that we be able to analyse
broad trends, not just digest minute facts. The dean of the
college was a very genuine and warm person. I would like to

397

combine both of these models in myself. My Hebrew teacher

in seminary insisted on our seeing how orderly and systematic
Hebrew was. He encouraged us to look for details as well as
to keep the broad picture in mind. Another Old Testament
professor was not interested in our spinning off all the
facts, but in answering the "so what" questions. He was
always concerned that anything we did academically had some
personal implications. These models made the drudgery of

the seminary worth it. A lot of teachers get to seminary
positions without having done a methods course in their life.

The big influence on my insistence on understanding
theological methodology came from my experience in Germany. F
In the German theological scene I was lost because I couldn't
critically analyse or interpret methodologically or see
trends. I had done that as a psychology undergraduate but
not as a seminary student. I never understood the different
positions in theology until I looked at the different bases
for presuppositions.

 

A lot of what I do is a negative reaction to what has
been done to me. After my brother-in-law died, I sat
through weeks and weeks of classes in a daze. The lectures
dich't really relate to me. So now I always start my classes
by giving students an Opportunity to share their concerns.
I am dead set against doing things that are strictly academic.
It must be life-related somehow. I assume that personal
problems either damage or enhance learning. Students comment
that they learn much more after they have had a chance to
get rid of all their burdens. I always get my students to
do some kind of application exercise at the end of an
academic assignment. I did these things basically because
nobody did them to me.

As a student there were a number of times when I should
have been back in my room asleep. So I don't make attendance
at my classes compulsory. I have a lot of confidence in the
integrity of students. I once had to fail five students.

One of them told me he held nothing against me for doing that.
But I told him how I had agonized all night long about fail-
ing them. He was shocked because he thought professors gave
out grades arbitrarily. But to me, both teacher and student
are responsible for the grades. I think that because I have
been positive to students, they always treat me positively.

Of course, they disagree with me.

I have been influenced in my thinking about Christianity
by Albert Camus' The Rebel. He says that when you ask a
"why" question, you kill God. But I am not an existentialist
and think "why" questions only enhance theological study.
A book called Meaningful Learning in the Church was also
helpful to me. This author confirmed my suspicions that
learning must have application.

 

398

I did have some anthropological training and some work
in missions in seminary, but the most helpful influence on
me has been my wife. She helps me with language and under-
standing the culture. She is very comfortable with Latins,
and helps me accept situations as they are. She has helped
me to understand that you can never get a Latin to do any-
thing for you if you demand the service. But if you make
it a matter of honor, they will do it or lose face. I have
seen this work every time.

Students' Perceptions of Nine Pictures

“*5

I don't feel my role is to protect students from error.
To me this is authoritarian. My goal is that students will
more adequately understand the Scriptures and be able to
make application with greater facility through controlling
detail more precisely. The students arrive at a position i
of a high View of Scripture (i.e. its infallibility as well 9
as its applicability to their own community) without my
imposing it upon them. I don't believe values can be
imposed upon people in a genuine and lasting sense.

 

Picture 1
Answer: Probably not.

In a biblical theology class I set up role plays.
Students liked these but they found it confusing to apply
their learning to their own situation. It hadn't occurred
to me that they didn't do this as a matter of course. A
student wouldn't be interested in discussing what's
important to him in a class. He wants to know what the
answers are. They have ideas but it is a real job to
unlock these. I found my students come really alive when we
discussed prophecy. So you have to figure out avenues of
getting them involved in the material. They are very
interested in reincarnation as it is a key to spiritism.
They see lots of references to this in the gospels. So I
finally had to start studying spiritism.

Picture 2

 

Answer: Probably not.

Brazilians would want the real answers from the teacher
after they had figured out their answers. They would be very
nervous about not having their answers confirmed by the
teacher. What they think doesn't really matter. I sometimes

399

refuse to tell them the answer because I want to get them
to think. They get really upset with me. If they get this
final confirmation from the teacher, it would be important
learning.

Picture 3

 

Answer: Probably not.

One student in our seminary was being considered not
eligible for graduation because of her bad attitudes. She
said, "I don't care what you do. All I want is the diploma."
Some of the more perceptive students would say this picture
shows important learning,but most would think it wouldn't
help in getting the diploma. They don't consider learning
occurs by themselves. You learn in a class with a professor.
I tried to get some experienced pastors who had finished
extension courses to teach these same courses, but they said
the students wouldn't come if I didn't teach the course.

They don't study outside of class and think the notes that
are given in class should appear on the exam.

Picture 4
Answer: Yes.
Usually they don't have standardized textbooks, but only

a small class outline. But the teacher's referring to this
would be considered an indication of important learning.

Picture 5

 

Answer: No.

By the time class is over, that is the end of the study.
They are usually very tired. The planning at the seminary is
done by the Brazilian administrators and each day is jammed
packed. This is a feature of Brazilian church life. There
are no diversions. Leisure time or time to reflect is not
part of the schedule.

Picture 6

 

Answer: No.

They would be embarrassed at having to do this. They
feel they don't know much and only want to know what the
teacher and a couple of good students say. It's a sad but

 

400

true point that this wouldn't be an important learning
experience. It would be interesting to use this instrument
with a random sample of missionary teachers in Brazil and
compare their responses with those of the students. I would
be interested to know the results because I realize that
even though I talk to students a lot, these are only my
perceptions.

Picture 7

 

Answer: Yes.

That would be an unusual situation in Brazil. If the
teacher would discuss the test or a paper, they would think
it was important learning. The students would be overjoyed
to meet the professor, but at the same time they would
wonder what was going on.

Picture 8

 

Answer: No.

That's the same problem as sharing answers with your
neighbors. Students are in class because the teachers know
what they ought to know. They would be suspicious of being
asked for their ideas. The majority of students think they
wouldn't have much to discuss anyway. From my experience,

' I don't think they're far off. They are just not programmed
to do that. I've worked at getting their ideas,but they
don't really consider this important, and think the teacher
should get on with sharing his knowledge. So there are

some big gulfs between these ideas and my ideas of signif-
icant learning. '

Picture 9
Answer: Yes.
My students think that is very important learning. They

always ask if something is going to be on their exam. If it
is not, they won't write it down.

Differences in Expectations of Teacher and Students

There are some violent differences that explain the
tensions in my teaching. As a missionary, I come in auto-
matically with a lot of excess baggage. I come in with the
name "missionary," so right away I am considered an

 

401

authority figure, a teacher who has taught in a seminary.
They consider I have the stature to teach where they don't.

Brazilians also come into the situation with a lot of
baggage about what a teacher is. He is an authority figure
who is going to tell them the right answers. In an extension
class I got upset with two of my students who were filling
out the answers to the programmed text in class. I wondered
why they had not done better preparation, and were wasting
my time when I had driven one and a half hours to get there.
They were over 50, and with only two years of formal schooling,
they had few preconceived notions about study. One fellow
kept going back to his text to find the answers even though I
told him that the test was to find out what he knew. It was
not cheating to him, so he kept on doing this for three weeks.
My wife explained to me that the whole goal of education was
to get the blanks filled in. This helped me to understand
what was happening.

There was a government promotion scheme on TV for
schooling. One shot was of a guy copying his test answers
from his neighbor's paper. These students were shown to be
studying to meet the needs of the new Brazil. This explained
to me the differences between my perception and the Brazilian
perception of learning. There was no suggestion that the
fellow was cheating, but for me COpying answers is dishonest.

I am interested in understanding, not in their memorization
of right answers or OOpying answers. The students don't care
where the answers come from as long as they are right. It's
simplistic to say that Latins are into memorization. It's
more true to say the goal of education for them is the
certificate. This means economic advancement and higher
status. I see a lot of this in America too. So there's
no necessity to understand knowledge.

Sharing of problems in class didn't work in Brazil.
They would tell me things out of class. The classroom is for
study, and problems are to be solved in personal prayer. The
effective domain is a very minor part of Brazilian education.

Other differences in perception are related to the role
of teacher and students. I learned a lot from my fellow
students. That's really fun. I've learned so much from
dialoguing with peers because we've been coming from
relatively the same place. There's no condescension in that
kind of learning. I've got some handles on some key concepts
that way. I've helped some students in bull sessions too.
The Brazilian is programmed to expect to learn important
things from the teacher, with very little crossfertilization
among students. I became more and more aware of this in my
teaching. It's a real tension. I'm afraid of the notion

402

that I'm supposed to have all the answers. I don't want
that responsibility. I'm not sure that the Socratic

method is the final word. But for me, a teacher is one

who can provoke students to ask their own questions. If it's
not a question to you, the answer means nothing. If you've
generated the question, and then out of discussion you can
generate the answer, then it's important learning.

As a teacher I see my role as provoking peOple to keep
asking the right questions. One Brazilian student got so
mad at me and said, "You never tell us anything." I told
him I could lecture, but I was not concerned with his
memorizing my words.

I have a suspicion that theological education is
different. You can have all the content in the world, but
still be an ineffective minister. It's the same in preach-
ing. You can have all the theoretical knowledge of
pedagogy but not understand what you're doing intuitively.
Then your effectiveness is really limited. I get really
obnoxious and say that learning facts is not what we're
about here. We have many effective pastors who have never
been inside a seminary.

Accommodating to the Different Expectations of Brazilian
Students

I wanted biblical theology to become more than a set
of proof texts for my students. I wanted to teach a way
of looking at Scripture and of applying it to society. But
after Six weeks I quit on methodology and started to plot
salvation history. That worked O.K. For a Brazilian it's
not really important unless you put it on the board and
draw a chart of it. My students found it very difficult to
deal with the "so what" questions, and apply the Christian
faith to daily living. These questions seem so elementary.
But with these kids, it was strictly a matter of listing
the characteristics of a Christian.

I had some success with the better students who could
understand my concern, but most students can't understand
why you're interested in methodology. They just want to
know what the answers are. It comes out of the black-white
mentality. There are no shades of grey.

I started with methodology because an understanding of
this in my German studies helped put together so many things.
I wish I had understood this earlier. SO I felt I could
simplify the issues so my students could understand. I wanted
them to grasp that peOple came at theology from many pre-
suppositions. But the students wanted me go give them a

 

403

biblical theology with all the answers. Their view of
theology was as a puzzle, and they just wanted all the
pieces fitted together.

The salvation history worked better than the methodol-
ogy because I started off with their understanding of
common key terms. They responded to me where they were.

We would talk about common understandings in the folk
religion of Brazil. Their ideas often shocked me. Then
we would look at the biblical perspective. I think this
was more effective because I was plugging more into their
problems.

My students were always wondering what I was trying to
do to them. I told them I didn't want to do anything to
them but just train them to evaluate and to check every-
thing out. We are in real danger of oversimplifying the
Scriptures and offering people a small corpus of principles
which they can apply to every situation. Brazilians see
a conflict between content and method. For me, the method
is totally flexible but the content is fixed.

I suspect that it is not particularly pleasing to the
Lord if missionaries are not concerned about social and
political issues. We are so passive and don't want to hear
a thing about politics. Most missionaries tend to be very
conservative, and consider their job is a Spiritual
ministry. But you can't avoid these issues once you get
involved with students. There's no middle ground for
young peOple. They are obligated to take a position. It
seems to me that Christian commitment goes way beyond
personal piety. When Wesley was agonizing over the shallow-
ness of Christians, he said, "Let the two so long divided
be at last rejoined - vital piety and true knowledge."
I really buy that. Christians have a responsibility to be
sensitive to the direction of history and promote prOper
directions.

Changes in the Teacher's Expectations

I had a lot of suspicions confirmed. I've always been
very academically oriented and had the normal misconceptions
about uneducated peOple. Yet one of the people I was close
to in Brazil couldn't read. He was a successful business-
man. I always thought reading was very simple and anyone
could pick it up. The pastor also didn't have a junior
high school education but was a master at human relationships.
I discovered from working closely with these people that
academics is just one way of gaining knowledge. These were
knowledgeable people. I've always been put in the role of

404

the resident intellectual. It always upsets me that people
defer to me because I've done a little more work in Greek.
I'm keenly aware that there are many other aspects that
are much more important than academics. One Brazilian
pistor I know equates success with advanced degrees. I
happen to have the degrees but I don't equate them with
success. I get scared of the responsibility that goes
along with the training.

When I had to make a decision to become more involved
in the seminary, the Brazilian pastor, who was my co-worker,
was very upset and said, “The seminary is basically a waste
of time." He suggested four more jobs we could do in case
we were not feeling fully involved in the church. I was
very tempted to remain in the church because he, as the
president of the church, didn't see the residence program
as very significant. But the mission leaders said I had
the stature to make an effective contribution to the
seminary. I considered my whole first term orientation
and not the time to make any judgments about whether I was
a "successful missionary." I was only concerned with
getting close to Brazilians who would be important to my
ministry.

With our mission the priority for missionaries is on
the institutions. One of the goals of the seminary is to
train students to raise up local churches. I asked how I
could train students to do this if I had never done it.
That was not considered the issue. Several of our key
pastors have never been to seminary. Many of the seminary
graduates have washed out so the church has not wanted to
send young people to go to our American seminary on the
mission compound. The people who get the job done are
laymen who get some extension training somewhere down the
line. The pastors think the life at the seminary is much
too soft: they have innerspring mattresses, three good
meals a day, get a scholarship and don't have to work. All
these creature comforts are considered to make them unwill-
ing to go back to their interior districts. The pastors
think the kids get spoiled. So our involvement in the
seminary was considered a real waste by our pastor.

I was very happy with the Greek I taught. To them,
Greek seemed more concrete. Even thoughfilwas working in
terms of implications, learning the specifics of Greek
was more comfortable to the Brazilian student. they could
take the implications because they could grab on to some-
thing definite to learn. This is why I would do biblical
theology differently. I would give them more comfort
level things so they could learn these and go on with what
I wanted them to do. I was meeting their expectations in
that they were learning Greek. I have always tried to make
it a no-threat type of thing. But it was good to see the

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students get excited about being able to translate because
I don't like passive students.

Because of my frustrations in teaching in Brazil, I
gave up my plan to finish off a German doctorate in
theology, and came to study Education. It's possible that
the degree in theology is really not so relevant anyway.
I didn't have these frustrations in the American seminary,
because I forced the students into thinking my way,but in
Brazil I could not get anywhere. The dean was very help-
ful and said that Brazilians needed to think for them-
selves, but that this was the ideal. He realized that the
students had been socialized into the old memorization
thing, and weren't ready for this. He said I couldn't do
what I wanted to do. I told him, "Maybe I can't, but I'm
going to go down trying." I did just that.

I see now that the process is very developmental. A
Latin theologian I know says that Western theology is very
philOSOphical and psychological, but Latin theology is
sociological. So the kingdom motif becomes very important,
and you work with a whole new set of models. I'm giving
a lot of thought to this.

My first cross-cultural experience with Arabs in an
archeological project in my student days was not very rosy.
I got really intolerant. They had no desire to learn
English, and I was there for a job, not to learn to
appreciate Arabs. It was really frustrating. I learned
a lot from those experiences, especially the fact that men
who hold hands are not necessarily homosexuals. I have
learned so much from the mistakes I've made.

Now I have more a concept of the body of Christ and
the sharing of mutual gifts. This helps overcome the
belief that missionaries have much more to offer because
of their training. When contentious issues come up, I see
my role is to help peOple to look at the whole of the
picture, not to lead them in the right direction and
protect them from their own thoughts.

Effects of Teaching on Brazilian Students

I made a number of students feel quite good about
themselves in terms of being able to follow through on
subjects. At the end of our sessions they could handle
some materials quite well. I also want to see precision
and method in study. I have seen as students get a
concern for detail they develOp a high view of Scripture.

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If we are equipping peOple for the ministry, we have
to help peOple become their own decisionmakers. It distresses
me when I see my colleagues lecturing students with the right
answers and then sending them out to minister. I don't think
it works that way. As history goes on, new issues come up
on which decisions are necessary,e.g.divorce. The Scriptures
are definite and authoritative, but decisions are necessary
on how that applies to us now. I don't want to be always
the resource person. I would like to see the church have its
own resource peOple who can understand and interpret these
issues. People are needed who understand the basics of the
faith and who can make decisions about the nonbasics. As a
theological educator, I want to train peOple who can answer
the "why" questions.

Modifications in Future Teaching

 

I think I was wrong in being such a purist in my
convictions that facts are not so important. I'll figure
out ways to accommodate to their craving for memorization,
but I'll do it a bit subversively. I want to provoke them
out of that. I'd let them feel good about memorizing
material. I was not aware that I was breeding insecurity.
But I was creating situations where they would feel
nothing but insecurity. They only wanted to know what I
would ask on tests. I kept on saying, "I don't care about
tests. They're not important." But to them, they were.'
If I could create a situation where they could relax about
tests, that would be ideal. But that won't work. So I
should tell them to learn specific things. Then I could go
ahead and work on understandings. They may by accident
learn something.

We must have a different policy towards the mission
subsidy of the seminary. The faculty is half American. I
feel the dormitories and cafeteria should be closed down.
These are not the usual features of Brazilian schools. The
mission wants to create a "wholesome atmosphere" for
students. But the students gripe about everything. There
are twice as many girls as fellows, but there are no jobs
for the girls. That's frustrating after you work for years
on a degree. A lot of these things could be changed.

The potential for the future is very good, provided we
can Brazilianize the program and pry the mission administra-
tomsloose from all the decisionmaking. The location of our
program is strategic.

I was also frustrated with what I call "authentic
existence." We were living on a high level in Brazil and
our professional neighbors were amazed that I would get paid

 

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for holding meetings around the country. I felt like a paid
prOpagandist. Working part time in the church, as in USA, is
authentic existence to me. I was always dissatisfied with
the authenticity of my traditional missionary role. You are
required to meet the demands of a local church and fulfil

the expectations of the missionary role. If our involvement
was that of a concerned layman, we would have a certain
latitude we wouldn't have as missionaries.

Our mission leader agreed with us but he hOped we would
stay with the mission for the sake of the institution. But
some time in your life you have got to ask the question:
what is more important - institution or effectiveness?

The trouble is that both missionaries and pastors are not
really in touch with what is happening in society. We may
see a change in the direction of the mission in Brazil,
which will allow us to function more harmoniously.

A 17th century French mystic said, "God instructs the
heart, not by ideas but by pains and contradictions."
I really identify with that. Missionaries have to be able
to tune in to the pains and contradictions of their
situations.