ABSTRACT THE CREATIVE PROCESS AS A VEHICLE FOR PERSONAL GROWTH: A SMALL-GROUP EXPERIENCE FOR WOMEN, REVOLVING AROUND THE COOPERATIVE CREATION OF A SLIDE/TAPE SHOW By Carol C. Weinberg Investigated in this study was a treatment called the Creative Process Group, an experience designed to pro- vide students with the opportunity to explore. within a group setting, relevant issues via an alternate means of expression. A major purpose of the current study was to evaluate changes in self-perception and self-acceptance, as measured by Interpersonal Check List scores, for indi- viduals participating in the Creative Process Group treatment. The Creative Process Groups in this study were designated as women's groups and were Offered as an Option for female students to deal with some of their feelings about women and about themselves as women by creating a slide/tape show together. Music and photog- raphy were the media combined, as the task became a vehicle or stimulus for group members to experience a creative process; explore women's issues; explore their '5‘ §-. Carol C. Weinberg own feelings about these issues; and learn about their own feelings and functioning in a group situation. The volunteer sample consisted of 16 female students at Michigan State University. Groups were made up of three to five members, and were co-facilitated by different pairs of advanced graduate students in College Counseling or a related area. Groups met for eight two-hour sessions during either Winter or Spring term, with a follow-up meeting after their final session. A staggered pre-test post-test control group design with random assignment to either the experimental or control condition was used. The experimental subjects experi- enced the treatment during the Winter term, and the other subjects served as the control group that term, while receiving the treatment during the Spring term. The Interpersonal Check List was the measuring instrument in this study. Pre- and post—test data were collected for each individual's perceived, ideal, and observable self (average of other group members' descrip- tions of her). Self-acceptance and self—perception variability indices were calculated from these data. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance was run on the experimental (Winter groups) post-test and control (Spring groups) pre—test data. A multivariate approach to the repeated measures ANOVA, with one factor in design over group (Winter and Spring treatments), and Carol C. Weinberg one repeated measures factor (pre- and post—tests), with multiple measures (the four Interpersonal Check List quadrants) was used. A univariate post hoc analysis was performed on these data to determine whether any traits on the Interpersonal Check List were more significantly affected by the treatment. The same analyses were also run using the dominance/submission and love/hate scales in place of the four quadrants. Patterns of personality change were explored using Leary's (1956) process of comparing diagnostic code pairs and the amount Of discrepancy between them as measured at each point of testing. A secondary purpose of the study was to explore the content and process of the Creative Process Groups themselves, in order to learn more about this particular treatment. This was accomplished by discussions with group leaders and members after the termination of their groups, and by examination of audio tapes of the group sessions. Results and Conclusions 1. The only significant pre- to post-test difference was that post-test perceived self/observable self discrepancies on the dominance dimension were sig- nificantly smaller (p < .001) after the Creative Process Group experience. Carol C. Weinberg 2. Subjects whose perceived self diagnostic scores fell within the cooperative or competitive octants tended to benefit most from the experience. 3. The time structure used did not adequately allow for both completion of the task and measurable personal growth. 4. The Creative Process Group was an effective medium for generating a cooperative work situation. THE CREATIVE PROCESS AS A VEHICLE FOR PERSONAL GROWTH: A SMALL-GROUP EXPERIENCE FOR WOMEN, REVOLVING AROUND THE COOPERATIVE CREATION OF A SLIDE/TAPE SHOW By Carol C. Weinberg A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1977 C.) / CAM; Cr"; 0 © Copyright by CAROL C. WEINBERG 1977 This is dedicated to the memory of my grandmother Dora Weinberg a woman of commitment stubbornness courage strength ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In a 1937 letter to playwright George S. Kaufman, John Steinbeck wrote: "To say thank you is ridiculous for you can't thank a man [woman] for good work any more than you can thank him [her] for being himself [herself]. But one can be very glad he [she] is himself [herself]. . .” (Teichman, 1972). In that spirit, I am very glad that the follow- ing people are themselves and have given to and shared in this experience with me: The Committee Dale Alam--for providing the space and encouragement for me to "do it my way"...for always being honest with me...and for caring Joanne Hamachek-—for helping me to get this project Off the drawing board and into practice...for period- ically reminding me that I didn't have to Change the world...and for a mellow walk in the woods Bob Wilson--for guiding me through that "Twilight Zone" of statistical design and analysis...and for putting in so much time and effort Max Raines-—for his interest, enthusiasm, and dreams Chuck Blackman——for his questioning mind, and support iii The Group Leaders Judy Ellickson, Melissa Agerstrand, Julie White, Pat Forman, Mary Nowack, Barb Gortych, Jan Bowles, Fran Stott--for exploring and taking a risk on something new ...for being willing and able to step into a relatively unknown area with relatively little direction and still make something happen...for putting in time and effort above and beyond what they originally agreed to...and for sharing their reactions and experience with me Mary Ann Stehr-—for the time and energy she spent work— ing with the group leaders each term...and for provid- ing a special spark of enthusiasm and interest which often gave me an added burst of strength when I most needed it All the women who participated in the Creative Process Groups--for their willingness to volunteer...and for putting so much into it Peg Geggie and Marilyn Foren--for administering pre- and post-tests to the group members The M.S.U. Counseling Center-—for approving this pro- ject, and especially the Fee Counseling & Growth Center-- Sam Plyer for supporting the idea and Vicki Campbell for helping with the details necessary to find volunteers and screen them iv Justin Morrill College—-for providing rooms for the groups to meet, and much of the audio-visual equipment Dick Correnti and Jim Dance—-the people at State Univer- sity of New York College at Cortland who planted the seed of the idea that grew into this study, by giving me the opportunity to work with them on the slide/tape show Beautiful People My friends here at M.S.U.—-for allowing this project to share, and at times intrude on our relationship--Joanne Hamachek...Howard Seiler...Julie White...Glenn De Biasi... Mary Nowack...Vince Cornellier...and especially Judy Ellickson, whose friendship, honesty, and talent have added so much, not only to this project but also to my own mind, spirit, and growth My family--for their support, even during those times when they didn't fully understand Those people who have made, and continue to make, such an important difference: a1, carl, dianne, joanne, judy, sam, and Vicki This dissertation might not have been completed without the help of: Coca—Cola Sanders Chocolate Chip Cookies Excedrin G.T.F.D. V TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Need . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Assumptions . . . . . 5 Rationale for Methodology . 6 Slide/Tape Show as a Mode of Expression . . 6 Music as a Mode of ExpressiOn 7 Poetry of Song Lyrics as a Mode of Expression . . . . . . 7 Slide Photography as a Mode of Expression . . . . . . . . . . 8 Why Use a Group Setting? . . . . . . . 10 Scope of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Hypotheses and General QuestiOns . . . . 20 Hypotheses . . . . . 20 General Questions to Be Explored . . . 20 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . 22 Descriptive Studies . . . . . . . . . . 23 Experimental Studies . . . . . . . . . . 26 Review of Personal Experience . . . . . 31 The Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 The Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 vi Chapter III. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY Sample . . . . . . . Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures . . Why Used in This Study Development, Revision, and Validation Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reliability . . Data Collection Design . . Testable Hypotheses Analyses . . . Summary IV. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA Hypothesis 1a Hypothesis 1b . . Hypotheses 2 a, b, c Hypothesis 2a Hypothesis 2b Hypothesis 2c . . Hypotheses 2 d, e, f Hypothesis 2d . ' Hypothesis 2e Hypothesis 2f Additional Analyses Dominance/Submission Love/Hate . . Post— Test to Post- Post- Test Change for Winter Subjects . . . . Discussion of Methodological PrOblems of the Study . . Test Administration . Non-Uniformity of the Experimental Treatment Summary V. DESCRIPTIVE TREATMENT OF DATA "Success" Classifications . . Self- -Perception (Perceived Self/ Observable Self Discrepancy) Self— —Acceptance (Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancy) Observations of Creative Process GrOups. Group Composition/Drop-Outs/ Attendance . . . Vii Page 38 38 41 45 48 49 51 51 52 54 58 61 65 69 69 71 71 71 74 74 76 77 78 78 79 85 90 91 91 93 94 99 99 100 104 109 110 Chapter Page Commitment/Task Completion/Time Limits/Structure . . . . . . . . . . 113 Approach to the Task . . . . . . . . . 118 Stages and Process . . . . . 121 Content of the Creative .ProduCts . . . 135 Feelings Expressed . . . . . . . 138 Participants' Reactions to the Creative Process Group Experience . 139 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 VI. SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Conclusions . . . 154 Discussion of Results and COnclusions . 155 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . 158 Implications for Research . . . . . . . 159 Implications for Practice . . . . . . . 161 Some Final Personal Reflections . . . . 165 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 A. CREATIVE PROCESS GROUPS FOR WOMEN WINTER OR SPRING TERM, 1977 . . . . . . 168 B. GUIDELINES FOR SCREENING INTERVIEW . . . . 171 CONSENT FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 CREATIVE PROCESS GROUP PARTICIPANT INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 E. QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 F. COST PER GROUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 G. COORDINATION OF SLIDES AND SOUND . . . . . 183 H. THE INTERPERSONAL CHECK LIST--FORM IV . . 185 I. INTERPERSONAL CHECK LIST ILLUSTRATING THE CLASSIFICATION OF INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIORS INTO l6 VARIABLE CATEGORIES . 191 J. CREATIVE PROCESS GROUP INDIVIDUAL FEEDBACK SHEETS . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 viii Table 4.1 LIST OF TABLES Means and Standard Deviations, by Quadrants, for Perceived Self/Observable Self Dis- crepancies for Winter Subjects (T1 Post- Test) and Spring Subjects (T2 Pre-Test) Summary Table for Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Experimental Group's (Winter Subjects) Post—Test and Control Group's (Spring Subjects) Pre-Test P-O Discrepancy Scores Across Quadrants Means and Standard Deviations, by Quadrants, for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepan- cies for Winter Subjects (T1 Post-Test) and Spring Subjects (T2 Pre-Test) . . Summary Table for Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Experimental Group's (Winter Subjects) Post-Test and Control Group's (Spring Subjects) Pre—Test P-I Discrepancy Scores Across Quadrants Means and Standard Deviations, by Quadrants, for Perceived Self/Observable Self Dis- crepancies for Subjects on Pre- and Post—Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Table for Multivariate Approach to Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Treatment Groups x Tests Across Four Quadrants for P-O Discrepancy . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Quadrants, for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepan- cies for Subjects on Pre- and Post-Tests Summary Table for Multivariate Approach to Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Treatment Groups x Tests Across Four Quadrants for P-I Discrepancy . . . ix Page 70 7O 72 72 73 74 75 76 Table 4.9 Summary Table for Univariate Analysis of Group Factor Across Four Quadrants for P-I Discrepancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Dominance/ Submission, for Perceived Self/Observable Self Discrepancies for Winter Subjects (T1 Post-Test) and Spring Subjects (T2 Pre—Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Table for Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Experimental Group's (Winter Subjects) Post-Test and Control Group's (Spring Subjects) Pre-Test P-O Discrepancy Scores Across Dominance/ Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Dominance/ Submission, for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancies for Winter Subjects (T1 Post- Test) and Spring Subjects (T2 Pre-Test) Summary Table for Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Experimental Group's (Winter Subjects) Post-Test and Control Group's (Spring Subjects) Pre-Test P-I Discrepancy Scores Across Dominance/ Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Dominance/ Submission, for Perceived Self/Observable Self Discrepancies for Subjects on Pre- and Post-Tests Summary Table for Multivariate Approach to Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Treatment Groups x Tests Across Dominance/Submission for P-O Discrepancy Summary Table for Univariate Analysis of Test Factor Across Dominance/Submission for P- O Discrepancy . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Dominance/ Submission, for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancies for Subjects on Pre- and Post-Tests . . . . . . . . . . Page 77 79 80 80 81 81 82 83 84 Table 4.18 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 Summary Table for Multivariate Approach to Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Treatment Groups x Tests Across Dominance/Submission for P—I Discrepancy Summary Table for Univariate Analysis of Group Factor Across Dominance/Submission for P—I Discrepancy . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Love/ Hate, for Perceived Self/Observable Self Discrepancies for Winter Subjects (T1 Post- Test) and Spring Subjects (T2 Pre- Test) . . . . . . . . . . Summary Table for Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Experimental Group's (Winter Subjects) Post-Test and Control Group's (Spring Subjects) Pre-Test P-O Discrepancy Scores Across Love/Hate Means and Standard Deviations, by Love/ Hate, for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancies for Winter Subjects (T1 Post- Test) and Spring Subjects (T2 Pre- Test) . . . . . . . . . . Summary Table for Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Experimental Group's (Winter Subjects) Post—Test and Control Group's (Spring Subjects) Pre—Test P—I Discrepancy Scores Across Love/Hate Means and Standard Deviations, by Love/ Hate, for Perceived Self/Observable Self Discrepancies for Subjects on Pre- and Post-Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Table for Multivariate Approach to Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Treatment Groups x Tests Across Love/ Hate for P-O Discrepancy . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations, by Love/ Hate, for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancies for Subjects on Pre- and Post—Tests . . . . . . . . . . xi Page 85 86 86 87 87 88 88 89 Table 4.27 5.2 5.3 5.4 Summary Table for Multivariate Approach to Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Treatment Groups x Tests Across Love/ Hate for P-I Discrepancy . . . . . . . "Success" Classifications for Perceived Self/Observable Self Discrepancy Change, From Pre- to Post-Test, Summarized by Pre—Test Perceived Self Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Subjects, by Octants, Quadrants, Dominance/Submission, and Love/Hate, Classified as "Successes" on the Perceived Self/Observable Self Discrepancy Change . . . . . . . . "Success" Classifications for Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancy Change, From Pre- to Post-Test, Summarized by Pre-Test Perceived Self Diagnosis Percentages of Subjects, by Octants, Quadrants, Dominance/Submission, and Love/Hate, Classified as "Successes" on the Perceived Self/Ideal Self Discrepancy Change . . . xii Page 90 102 103 105 106 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.1 Summary of Overall Design . . . . . . . . . 55 3.2 Summary of Design for Null Hypotheses 1a and 1b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.3 Summary of Design for Null Hypotheses 2a-f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 xiii The very day I purchased it I christened my guitar. As my monophonic symphony six string orchestra. In my room I'd practice late, and they'd leave me alone. My mother said "You're nothing yet to make the folks write home." I'd play at all the talent nights. I'd finish they'd applaud. Some called it muffled laughter. I just figured they were awed. So I went up for an encore but they screamed they'd had enough. Maybe I just need a group to help me do my stuff. ——Harry Chapin Harry Chapin, "Six String Orchestra," Verities and Balderdash, Elektra/ Asylum/Nonesuch Records. ((3 1974 Story Songs, Ltd. Lyric reprinted with permission of publisher. All rights reserved. Shake the wall down let it fall down Let's get into where we've been to all along Bring everything that we can sing together If we sing together we might get a song. --Carole Bayer Sager & Peter Allen Carole Bayer Sager and Peter Allen, "The Other Side," Tenterfield Saddler, Metromedia Records. (§) 1972 Valando Music, Inc. Lyric reprinted with per- mission Of publisher. All rights reserved. xiv CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Creating with someone is one of the most intimate types of relationships. It takes incredible honesty. -—Peter Yarrow Introduction Individuals often have different ways of most effectively expressing themselves...of taking what is felt inside and communicating it to others. This whole concept of communication is an integral part of the edu— cative and the counseling processes, both of which might be facilitated by expanding the modes of communication available to people to include more than just verbal interactions (Newton, 1976). These different modes of communication, such as photography, music, dance, and art, have usually been considered of secondary impor- tance within our educational system, which stresses written and spoken verbal ability (Dilley, 1971). The fact that these alternatives are primarily those modes of communication often classified as artistic or creative leads to the question of how the current educational priorities deal with the creative instincts of the indi- vidual. The lofty goals of education often extol the need to "develop the whole persod'(Sanford, 1967) and help the individual realize his/her fullest potentials (Taylor, 1964), yet the creative potential is often a low priority. Creative potential refers to the capacity of the individual to form new relationships among already existing ideas, knowledge, and perceptions (Hasfele, 1962; Stein, 1974). This act of reorganization is called creativity, and the stages through which such new combi- nations are formed, and products produced are defined as the creative process (Hasfele, 1962; Stein, 1974). Research indicates that as formal schooling increases, creativity decreases (Robbins, 1973), yet there are indications that a positive relationship exists between the development of creative impulses and a healthy personality capable of coping with the world (Taylor, 1964). The fully functioning or self— actualizing individual would be working toward realizing her/his potential. That would include his/her creative potential, which might best be reached by giving stu- dents the encouragement, tools, and space to explore their own creativity (Giannini, Gleason, MacKinnon, Trent, & Webster, 1968). An increasing number of studies have focused on the use of alternate modes of expression. Although there is little in the way of hard research data coming out of these studies, the results do seem to indicate that non—verbal and more artistic verbal means of com- munication have been effective ways of expressing hard to reach feelings in a number of situations. Positive results have been reported in therapeutic or counseling group settings with the use of art (Denny, 1969; Norris, 1972), creative writing (Lauer & Goldfield, 1970; Mitchell & Campbell, 1972), and poetry (Lessner, 1974). In individual counseling situations, the use of photo- graphs as a facilitative mode of expression has come into increased use (Akeret, 1975; Gosciewski, 1975). Photog— raphy has also been studied in an educational context, as an aid to communication and self-exploration in school counseling and adolescent development groups (Hedges, 1972; Lasser, 1972; Nicoletti, 1971; Schudson, n.d.; Schudson, 1975). Other areas which have also been mentioned as alternate means of communication are song lyrics (Santiago, 1969), personal poetry (Harrower, 1972), play (Nalpant, 1975), and music (Copland, 1952). Most research on alternate modes of expression has taken the form of individual therapists, counselors, or educators describing their own particular experiences and observations. Few studies have provided hard evidence, and only those by Nicoletti (1971) with ele- mentary students and Schudson (n.d.) with junior high schoolers provide any experimental data at all. Both Nicoletti (1971) and Schudson (n.d.) measured changes in self-concept and found that students involved in groups using photography as an aid to counseling showed trends toward positive change in self-concept. Although so many peOple seem to support the importance of creative expression, there has been little done to document its worth experimentally. 11.292 The authors of many of the descriptive articles cited above stress the importance of using those media (art, photography, creative writing, etc.) which have been effective in therapeutic situations as part of a preventative mental health approach in educational set- tings. In other words, we need to consider providing, within the present school curriculum, opportunities for students to experience alternate modes of communication. The current study will provide such an opportunity. The predominance of descriptive over experimen- tal studies also suggests that the need exists for more research, in order to investigate what changes actually do take place for people as they experience alternate modes of expression. Purpose The purpose of this study is to evaluate changes in self—acceptance and self-perception, as measured by Interpersonal Check List scores, for individuals par- ticipating in the experimental treatment. This treat— ment, called the Creative Process Group, consists of an experience designed to provide students with the oppor- tunity to explore, within a group setting, relevant issues via an alternate means of expression. The Creative Process Group will be offered as an option for female students who would like to deal with some of their feelings as women via an alternate mode of communication. Music and photography will be the media used, as group members explore women's issues, their own feelings about these issues, and their own functioning in groups, by working together on the task of creating a slide/tape show. The slide/tape show will attempt to express their feelings about women and about themselves as women. A secondary purpose of the study is to explore the content and process of the Creative Process Groups themselves, in order to learn more about this particular treatment. Assumptions The following assumptions have been made in this study: 1. Everyone has some degree of creative poten- tial that can be released and developed (Denny, 1969; Hasfele, 1962; Kubie, 1958; Stein, 1974; Taylor, 1964). 2. It is still possible to develop this creative potential during the college years (Sanford, 1967). 3. The development of creative potential is positively related to the process of self-actualization (Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1961). 4. Technical skills in photography and/or music are not necessary for a group member to partici- pate in and add to the creative process. Encountering creations, by Observing and sharing reactions to others' photographs and musical selections, is also a creative act (Akeret, 1975; Copland, 1952; May, 1975; White, 1971). Rationale for Methodology The development of creative potential can be considered an integral part of the total development or self-actualization of the individual. Even if this total development can be accepted as a legitimate goal toward which to strive, several questions still remain as to why this study takes the specific approach it does to providing an opportunity for creative expression. Slide/Tape Show as a Mode of Expression The slide/tape show concept permits the use of several different media of expression-—photographs, music, and the poetry of song lyrics. This variety can provide the opportunity for reaching peOple who prefer any of these as modes of communication. The combination of slides and music can also result in a finished product that has a multiplied impact, with the images, sound, and lyrics serving to reinforce the power of one another. The equipment used is relatively simple, and the production of such a potentially powerful and high quality show can be accomplished without a great deal of technical skill or money. Music as a Mode of Expression Both Arieti (1976) and Copland (1952) speak about the emotional power of music, and its ability to provoke emotional responses and revive dormant feelings in the listener or interpreter. The capacity Of music to reach people at a more primary, emotional, pre-conscious level is also noted (Arieti, 1976; Copland, 1952). This is a possible way in which to evoke the free flowing of thoughts, feelings, and sensations characteristic of the initial stage of the creative process. Poetry of Song Lyrics as a Mode of Expression Santiago (1969) has actually used the lyrics of Beatles songs to facilitate his therapeutic relationships with adolescents. The poetry of song lyrics which deal with women's feelings might serve a similar communicative purpose in the Creative Process Groups for women. The lyrics could be used the way Lessner (1974) employed poetry as a catalyst in group counseling. She has found that by entering and experiencing symbols in poems, people have been able to find hook-ups to their own feelings. They are then able to gradually open up these feelings and bring them to a more conscious level so they can begin to explore and work on them. As Creative Process Group members share pieces of music which reflect their own feelings, the lyrics might well serve other groups members as the type of catalyst described above. This is an example of the kind of personal growth experi— ence that can be stimulated and facilitated by using the various media of expression that make up a slide/ tape show. Slide Photography as a Mode of Expression There is an encouraging amount of support for the use of images in counseling. It is a mode of commu- nication that might be less threatening for some (Schudson, 1975), and more potent for some. Mintz (1973) has noted the inhibitory effect that words can have on the free flow of vaguely formed ideas and sensa- tions. He states that the use of non-verbal means of expression is a way of circumventing the need to find the "right" words for something that is vaguely felt inside, and for reaching parts of the personality that might otherwise go unexpressed. Mintz (1973) feels that if a dimly perceived idea or sensation can be expressed by an artistic medium that can present an external, concrete, observable form (i.e., a painting, sculpture, slide photograph, etc.), this product can then be viewed and reacted to by the individual who has expressed it, and by others. From this examination, the vague sensation expressed could become more fully formed and understood. Kreinheder (1973) applies Jung's theories to the value of developing creative non—verbal expression. He sees creative expression as a process which facilitates individuation, a goal characterized by the harmonious unity of the parts of the individual's personality. Kreinheder (1973) states that, in accord with Jung's teachings, awarenesses Often occur first as symbols and images. If these symbols and images can then be repre- sented by pictures, they might eventually be made con— scious, understood, and assimilated back into the individual, who grows as her/his consciousness thus expands. This type of growth experience might be stimu- lated by the use of slide photography in the Creative Process Groups. As women share pictures which express their own feelings—-feelings that they are perhaps 10 unable to verbalize as yet--these feelings may become more understood, accepted, and assimilated. The use of photography as a mode of communica- tion provides an image that can be recorded and reviewed over and over. The picture is relatively free from the distortion or distraction of words (Akeret, 1975), and it serves as a reflection of the individual who takes the photograph, since he/she decides what to record on film. The picture can express both conscious and uncon- scious parts of the photographer (Akeret, 1975), and the sharing of photographs within the Creative Process Groups could stimulate interaction and understanding. Those who do not actually take slides to share with the group can also be actively involved by disclosing their reactions to the images taken by others. Just as the photograph is a reflection of the photographer, so the response of the viewer is a reflection of her/him. The use of the three modes of expression com- prising the creation of a slide/tape show-—music, poetry of lyrics, and slide photography-—would seem to be able to reach a number of different people at the producing and/or the responding levels described. Why Use a Group Setting? Despite the limitations that group work imposes on the nurturance of individual creative development 11 (which will be discussed in the next section: SCOpe), there are specific reasons why, in this study, a crea— tive project is being worked on by a group. Perhaps the strongest reason for using a group approach is the belief that people can learn from one another through both interaction and observation. White (1971) stresses this viewpoint as he speaks of how each individual's response to a particular picture can serve to add to everyone else's experience. As each individual shares his/her responses, interpretations, and points of View, so the perspectives of others in the group may expand as they see the image in a variety of new ways. A second reason for using a group approach is to expose the participants to a cooperative work situa- tion. Since much time is spent in school and in job settings working in groups, there might be valuable insights learned by experiencing the potential rewards to be gained from working on a task cooperatively. In addition, Johnson and Johnson (1976) have done research to support the contention that cooperative learning situations have a positive effect on self-concept. Johnson and Johnson (1975) have also stressed that COOperative experiences are a very vital part of the development of psychological health. They note that a number of by-products of cooperative interaction are 12 qualities such as development of trust, self-confidence, and identity, all of which are considered basic to men- tal health. Cooperative interaction is seen as promot- ing appreciation of the individual's feelings about her/himself, and of the differences of others and what they have to offer (Johnson & Johnson, 1975). These types of appreciation would seem to be worthwhile goals, achievable in this study by using a cooperative group approach to the creative process. Scope of the Study The research on creativity, and its relation to personality, has focused primarily on identifying those individuals or groups who would be considered creative, and then testing them in order to note what personality characteristics they possess that "non—creatives" do not (Stein & Heinze, 1960). For the research approach of this study, no distinctions will be made between so-called "creatives" and "non-creatives," nor will attempts be made to measure changes in creativity. The focus will be on the effects (as measured by Interper- sonal Check List changes in self—perception and self- acceptance) of the creative process experience upon individuals who choose it as a vehicle for exploring and expressing themselves. 13 There is also some question about the extent to which the creative process is a purely personal experi- ence. Hasfele (1962) has noted some of the ways in which working in groups can limit creative expression. He particularly stresses that individual contributions may tend to go unrecognized and unrewarded as they become a part of the group creation. These rewards, says Hasfele (1962), are important for continued moti- vation and production. Although he sees groups as being able to spark ideas, only individuals can actually £222 them. Taylor (1959) describes five levels of creativity: 1. Expressive Creativity--skills, originality, and quality of product unimportant...spon- taneous freedom of expression 2. Productive Creativity--more skilled and pro- ficient expression...freedom more controlled ...acquired techniques for producing finished works 3. Inventive Creativity--ability to perceive new relationships among previously separated parts...new ways of seeing Old things... invention and discovery 4. Innovative Creativity--improvement through modification...requires much abstract con- ceptualization ability 14 5. Emergentive Creativity--emergence of entirely new principles or assumptions...a rare occur- rence Taylor (1959) feels that the most highly creative achievements are, in the end, essentially individual efforts. He states that group methods are not the most effective approach for achieving the higher levels of creativity. Although the structure Of the Creative Process Group would seem to allow for both group and individual work (time and effort spent by members selecting photographs and music to share with the group, and time spent in thought and reflection), it is pos- sible that the use of a group setting in this study may limit the scope of individual creative expression to the lower three of Taylor's (1959) creativity levels. Limitations In the writings on creativity and the creative process, there often seems to be an almost mystical aura about the subject. Rogers (1961) has called the creative act "indescribable," and non-behavioral expres- sions such as "intuitive," and "flash of insight" are also used in explaining what happens during the act of creation. Arieti (1976) is critical of the many theorists who accept the occurrence of that flash of insight or "Eureka" experience without being able to 15 explain how it happens that way. There could well be some aspects of the creative process that might never be behavioralized, measured, or proven. Perhaps that is how it should be. However, that also leads to the question of just how accurately the instrument used in this study (or any instrument, for that matter) can be said to measure those changes in self-concept that occur for people as they experience the creative pro- cess. Second, the length of time for which the groups meet (eight sessions of two hours, with a follow-up session) might not be sufficient for the experience to have maximum effectiveness. As a task-oriented approach to affective change, there might be some question as to the effect of the task focus and time limits imposed on the groups. Is there the opportunity for the develop- ment of enough trust and cohesion for the treatment to produce measurable change in self-concept? A third limitation of this study involves the validity of the self-perception measure. It cannot be assumed that more accurate self-perception scores on the post-test as compared to the pre-test are neces- sarily an indication of the treatment's effectiveness, since there is a shifting group standard, and group lnembers' ratings of one another may change just because 'they know one another better. 16 Definitions For the purpose of this study, the following definitions will be used: Slide/Tape Show: This is a presentation designed to communicate an idea, concept, feeling, or message by coordinating visual images shown on slides with musical, lyrical, and/or narrative accompaniment played on a tape recorder. Creativity: Through the manipulation and rear- rangement of data, ideas, and perceptions that already exist, new relationships and combinations are formed that have not previously existed. The resulting product is novel, significant, and useful to society (Hasfele, 1962; Kneller, 1966; Kubie, 1958; Rogers, 1961; Rothenberg, 1971; Stein, 1974). In this study, the definition of creativity will be modified, as suggested by Miehl (1961) and Taylor (1964), so that the signifi- cance and usefulness of the product need only be for the individuals who created it, and not necessarily for the larger society. Since the images and music will surely form a new and novel combination which can be assumed to be useful and significant for the group, the creative product in this study is the slide/tape show developed by the Creative Process Group. 17 Creative Process: The stages through which a creative product (as defined above) evolves will be called the creative process. Wallas' (1926) four stages, which have been widely replicated and accepted, with slight changes in wording, in a variety of fields (Arieti, 1976) will be used in this study to describe the process of creating a slide/tape show. Generally, these stages tend to overlap and be repeated, but there are qualities distinctive of each. What follows is a list of the characteristics of each stage (Gordon, 1973; Hasfele, 1962; Stein, 1974; Taylor, 1959) and a descrip- tion of how the specific task of developing a slide/tape show follows these stages and qualifies as an example of the creative process: 1. Preparation--collection Of raw material from the environment...openness to experiences, percep- tions, data...free flow of data with judgments temporarily suspended...immersion and absorption in the problem... desire to solve the problem...anticipation of recogni- tion and success. This stage in the work on a slide/tape show would involve the group members' collection of data from their environments in the form of slides photographed and music selected. Sharing of these data within the group could provide additional immersion in the problem, 18 and a free flow of a wide variety of experiences and perceptions. 2. Incubation--withdrawal from overt struggle with the problem...work proceeds at an unconscious or pre-conscious level...unconscious shifting around of data into new combinations...parts begin to fit together, but it takes time for a meaningful combination to develop...fee1ings of discomfort and frustration over not having been able to solve the problem. Although time may be spent in the Creative Pro- cess Group consciously trying to put slides and music together in a meaningful, satisfying way, much of this stage would probably occur within individuals both in and out of the actual group meetings, as they uncon- sciously work at the problem. 3. Illumination--moment of insight when incu- bated parts fit together in a recognizable, meaningful combination...sudden flash of inspiration...e1ation accompanies insight...feelings of anxiety parallel feel- ing of separateness about being alone in the new terri- tory of the creation...feverish work activity follows illumination. In the Creative Process Group, the points Of illumination would be those moments when a slide, a sequence of slides, an image and a piece of music, etc., fit together in a meaningful combination which expresses 19 for the group something felt internally. This illu- mination may never happen in some groups. It might happen often in others. It might happen for some indi- viduals and not for others. The feverish work activity following illumination would be time spent transferring the insights into parts of the slide/tape show itself. 4. Verification or Communication--idea or product is shared and communicated to others...value is tested by its impact on those with whom it is shared... satisfaction of reward or recognition...removal of anxiety of separateness. This stage would be reached by the Creative Process Group sharing its creation with significant others of their choice. Personal Growth: This will be measured accord- ing to Leary's (1957, pp. 254-55) operational defini- tions of the following variability indices: 1. Accurate Self-Perception--decreasing dis- crepancy between average of other group members' ratings of the individual on the Interpersonal Check List, and the individual's perceived self-ratings on the same instrument. 2. Greater Self-Acceptance-—decreasing discrep- ancy between ideal self-ratings and perceived self- ratings on the Interpersonal Check List. 20 Hypotheses and General Questions The hypotheses tested in this study will use average individual data from the Interpersonal Check List. The questions to be explored will focus on indi— vidual data, and differences among the traits on the Interpersonal Check List. Hypotheses 1. Individuals participating in a Creative Process Group during winter term will show greater individual self—acceptance and more accurate individual self-perception at the end of winter term, as measured by the Interpersonal Check List, than individuals who do not have such an experience. 2. Individuals participating in a Creative Process Group will show greater individual self-acceptance and more accurate individual self-perception from the time of their pre- test scores to the time of their post-test scores on the Interpersonal Check List. General Questions to Be Explored 1. Do any of the traits measured by the Inter- personal Check List seem to be more signifi- cantly affected by the Creative Process Group experience? 2. Looking at individual as opposed to group data, can any conclusions be drawn as to what outcomes might be expected from a Creative Process Group experience for individuals with particular Interpersonal Check List profiles? 1These individuals will participate in a Creative Process Group during spring term. 21 Overview In Chapter II, the related literature is reviewed, and the background leading up to the development of the present study is explored. Chapter III will include des- criptions of the sample, treatment, and measures, as well as an outline of the experimental design, testable hypotheses, and analyses to be used on the data collected. In Chapter IV, the results of the hypotheses tested will be presented, as will a discussion of the methodologi- cal problems and limitations of the study. Chapter V will provide a descriptive treatment of individual data, and observations about the experimental Creative Process Groups. Chapter VI will present a summary of the study, results and conclusions, a description of the results, and conclusions and implications for future research and practice. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview of previous work done in the areas relevant to the treatment under investigation. The existing research on creativity and its relationship to personality has primarily focused on those individuals or groups who would be considered creative, and has then tested them in order to note what personality characteristics they possess that "non-creatives" do not (Domino, 1971; Heinze, 1960; Taylor, 1964). The focus of this study, however, will be on the effects of a creative process experience (developing a slide/tape show) upon indi- viduals who choose it as a vehicle for exploring and expressing themselves. This chapter will be divided into four major sections: (1) a summary of several descriptive studies involving the use of various alternate media of expres- sion, (2) a more detailed presentation of two experimen- tal studies measuring self-concept change as modified by programs involving the use of photography, (3) a subjective review of the investigator's own experience 22 23 with a creative process involving the particular medium of expression being used in this study, the slide/tape show, and (4) a summary. Descriptive Studies To a large extent, the literature produced in the area of alternate modes of expression has been des- criptive. Neither statistical measures, large numbers of subjects, nor the standards by which conclusions of "success" were arrived at are evident in the following studies. The work in this area tends to take the form of individual therapists, counselors, or educators pre- senting their own experiences using alternate media of expression in a particular situation, and their general observations about the process. Fred Newton (1976) has reported increased effec- tiveness in a counseling setting by expanding the modes of communication beyond just verbal interactions. He has found that allowing clients to interact via their preferred modes of expression (i.e., poetry, self- portrait, collages, songs, etc.) has permitted him to establish contact and experience the client's world more quickly. Newton (1976) also states that the counselor's responding to the client by using that client's preferred mode of expression can be an effective way to communi- cate empathy and stimulate deeper exploration. 24 Roger Lauer and Michael Goldfield (1970) have used group sessions involving creative writing, oral reading, and discussion with inpatients on psychiatric wards, a youth drug study unit, and psychiatric patients at an outpatient clinic. The creative writing part of the group experience involved a variety of warm-up exercises, and then either writing on a common theme or writing freely without a common topic. Poetry and prose were most often used. Individuals' writings were read aloud in the group, and typed copies shared later pro- vided the opportunity for additional discussion. Lauer and Goldfield (1970) found that the participants' writ- ing expressed a wide range of emotions, and that reading aloud conveyed these emotions dramatically. The group discussions led to the exploration and clarification of thoughts and feelings, and became a starting point for group interaction. These therapists found that the use of creative writing: (1) facilitated self-understanding, (2) provided an entry into individual problems and psyches, (3) facilitated group interaction and group discussion, and (4) elevated self-esteem, as feelings of pride, mastery, self-actualization, and fulfillment were generated by the process (Lauer & Goldfield, 1970). Poems have been used as a catalyst in group coun- seling by Johanna Lessner (1974). She has found pub- lished poetry to be a powerful stimulus for opening up 25 feelings and bringing them to a more accessible aware- ness level so that group members can begin to work on them. Lessner (1974) encouraged individuals to enter and experience rather than analyze and intellectualize about the poems. By identifying with a symbol or image or part of the poem which most reflected an individual's here and now sensations, hook-ups were made to underlying feelings, which could then be explored and discussed. J. M. Denny (1969) has worked with art counseling as a vehicle to stimulate, focus, and deepen the verbal interaction in group therapy. He cites techniques such as free drawing, drawing recent problems or feelings, drawing to music, self-portraits, drawing the family, drawing the group, portraits of individuals in the group, and a group mural, and suggests that at least one-half of the meeting time be used for discussion of the art work produced during the first half of the session. Denny (1969) describes art counseling as a shorter term therapeutic approach than art therapy. He sees art as a medium of expression introduced into the counseling relationship in order to facilitate the release of feelings, promote self-understanding, strengthen personal resources, and encourage constructive action. The effectiveness of art counseling depends on the extent to *which the client is encouraged and allowed to find her/his 26 own creative directions, try individual solutions, and respond in the presence of the counselor and the group (Denny, 1969). Although none of the above studies provide any experimental data, the authors urge that such research be undertaken, and they also suggest that those media which have been effective in therapeutic settings might also be growth producing in educational settings (Denny, 1969; Lauer & Goldfield, 1970; Mitchell & Campbell, 1972; Robbins, 1973). Experimental Studies A review of the literature yielded only two studies which specifically investigated self-concept change in subjects taking part in programs involving an alternate medium of expression. Donald Nicoletti (1971) has developed, imple- mented, and evaluated self-directed photography as a method to modify self-concepts Of fourth grade students. Self-directed photography, a combination of non-directive therapy and photography, is defined as "a total process of the individual selecting perceptions, using photog— raphy to record these perceptions and verbalizing about the photographs with a discussant in such a manner that the individual's self-concept may be open to new per- ceptions and he may be free to modify his self-concept" (Nicoletti, 1971, p. 7). According to this study, 27 determining what in his/her phenomenological field gets recorded for discussion may well be the first step in reorganization of self-concept, and Nicoletti (1971) notes that Rogers, Combs, and Snygg suggest that for self-concept to be modified, a method needs to be used that allows the individual to reorganize her/his phenom- enological field. Using the photographs as the focal point of reflection, the discussant provides assistance for the student by facilitating the process of opening up his/her self—concept to new perceptions so that she/he might be free to reorganize and modify his/her views of her/himself. Nicoletti's (1971) study used all the fourth grade students (N = 90) in a suburban rural elementary school district in central New York. The Self-Social Symbols Task (adolescent form) was used to measure self— concept before and after the experimental treatment. Four grups were used in Campbell and Stanley's Nonequiva- lent Control Group Design. One group (T1--N = 22) was provided with camera and film to use, but were not involved in any discussion process; one group (T2—— N = 22) participated in individual talk periods with a teacher or some other certified adult, but did not have any structured photographic experience; one group (T3-- N 22) completed the total self-directed photography process; and one group (C--N = 24) was a control, 28 experiencing none of the components of the self-directed photography program. The study lasted for a period of eight weeks, and each child in groups T1 and T3 was provided with four film cartridges to use. Sessions with the discussant were conducted individually and lasted approximately 10 minutes per session. The results of Nicoletti's (1971) study show that the self-directed photography treatment seemed to modify some dimensions of fourth graders' self-concepts. The instrument used, the Self-Social Symbols Task, yields data on 11 major constructs, five of which were used in this study. Among the three treatment groups, the one experiencing the complete self-directed photog- raphy process (T3) had the greatest number and strongest degree of significant differences between pre— and post- test scores (self-esteem p < .01; social interest p < .05; identification with father p < .10; group identification p < .10). The group using only the camera part of the treatment (T1) showed a significant difference (p < .05) on only the self-esteem construct. The talk period treatment group (T2) showed significant differences on social interest (p < .10) and group identification (p < .05). Nicoletti (1971) states that the data indicate trends rather than definite answers. One weakness of the study is that subjects could not be randomly assigned 29 to treatments. The first four fourth grade teachers who volunteered for the study Chose which of the four groups they wished to be associated with, and it appears that each group then consisted of their complete class. Nicoletti's (1971) research is limited in scope, and he recommends that other self-concept measuring instruments be used and that various grade levels be studied. Nicoletti (1971) also collected no data to indicate the permanence of the modifications in self-concept made between pre- and post-tests. In his review Of the lit- erature, Nicoletti (1971) notes that he found little in the way of investigation of media as a means to modify students' self-concepts, and he stresses the need to develop this area of research. Karen Schudson (n.d.) has conducted a study to determine whether adolescents using cameras in develop— mental counseling groups demonstrate more positive self- concept change than participants in counseling groups which do not use cameras. Her sample consisted of 57 seventh and eighth grade junior high school students who had volunteered for developmental counseling groups. She assigned subjects to one of four types of conditions: (1) two developmental counseling groups used cameras to aid in the discussion of counseling topics, (2) two developmental counseling groups did not use cameras, (3) eight individuals used cameras for science projects 30 but did not participate in group counseling, and (4) 19 individuals served as the controls and experienced no treatment. Each of the counseling groups was composed of 6 to 10 students with a counselor/facilitator, and each group met once a week for 11 50—minute sessions. The groups discussed issues of concern to adolescents, and the experimental groups used the pictures they themselves took, to facilitate their discussion in areas such as family, personality, and school. Schudson (n.d.) used the Dinkmeyer Child Study Technique for pre- and post—tests, and the results indi- cate change in the predicted direction but with mixed statistical significance. The only three t scores of significance at the .05 level were the seventh grade camera group, an eighth grade non-camera group, and the individuals using cameras for science projects. Schudson (n.d.) arrives at the conclusion that the use of cameras does seem to influence self-concept scores, and the strong improvement among the science students using the cameras without participating in developmental counsel- ing groups seems to support the idea that developing the skill of photography might in itself build self-confidence and self-esteem. Schudson (n.d.) Offers several explanations for 'the lack of clear-cut results. The sample was small (N'= 57), and it was hard to determine whether it was 31 truly representative of the 163 students who had volun- teered for group counseling. Group composition may have been unequivalent, as pre—test self-concept means varied quite a bit among groups, and the camera and non-camera group members were chosen semi-randomly. Counselor leadership may have had an effect on the results, since the two counseling groups demonstrating significant self-concept change were facilitated by the same counselor. In addition, the non—camera groups used visual media to some extent, and that might have helped account for the lack of clear difference between camera and non—camera groups. Review of Personal Experience There appears to be very little literature about the effects of a creative process experience on self- concept (the Nicoletti [1971] and Schudson [n.d.] studies come closest), and no pertinent literature about the slide/tape show as a medium of expression. The impetus for the present study comes from the investigator's own personal experience as co-creator Of a slide/tape show, and a review of this experience and some reflection on its contribution to the present study would seem to be appropriate at this point. Since this involves a subjec- tive narrative, the style with which this section will be written will also differ from the form used throughout 32 the rest of this dissertation. What follows is: (l) a brief explanation of that experience, (2) the effect of that experience on the investigator's feelings about herself, and (3) the knowledge gained which contributed to the present study. The Experience During the 1972-1973 academic year, as a staff member at the State University of New York College at Cortland, I was part of a group which worked on the task of putting together a multi—media slide/tape show for the next year's freshman orientation program. We worked for a year deciding what we wanted the slide/tape program to say, writing a script, selecting music, taking slides, mixing the soundtrack, coordinating slides to music, and electronically programming the show so it would play through automatically. The tangible result was a 20- minute, three-screen, stereophonic sound presentation called Beautiful People, which attempted to communicate through pictures and music the range of feelings evoked during freshman year at college. The show was presented continuously during the three days of Orientation 1973 to audiences of freshmen, upperclassmen, and parents. The reaction was overwhelmingly positive. 33 The Effect This experience had a tremendous impact on my self-concept. Perhaps the most important thing I felt was the fulfillment which came from starting with a vague idea of feelings that we wanted to communicate, working on doing that through music and images, and then finding that the finished product did exactly what we wanted it to do. The most gratifying feedback I received was hearing people say that they experienced a roller coaster of emotions as they watched the show. The slide/tape show medium also introduced me to a highly satisfying means of expression. Before this experience I had always had ideas, but needed others to express them artistically for me. Now I no longer had to stand in the background and watch other peOple per— form what I had written or selected. I also did not have to stand up on a stage and try to sing and dance myself. In a sense, I found that I could "sing" through the songs I selected and put on tape, and I could "perform" through the pictures I took or chose. I began to believe that I could entertain other people, and that I could also communicate to them some of what was inside me. The Contribution This experience very directly led to the develop- lnent of the current research. First, I became strongly aware of the fact that talent can take many different 34 forms, and I grew to believe that everyone can be talented in their own way and can contribute something unique to a group effort. I recognized the potential benefits to be derived from a group of people working on a product as opposed to an individual doing it him/herself. This introduction to the slide/tape show medium left me with the firm belief that it could provide a way for indi- viduals who had never considered themselves to be tal— ented in the traditional sense to bring out those creative parts within and appreciate what they have to offer. I also saw that the process of creating as a group could provide a valuable source of interaction, and was a potentially effective task to focus on in developing a cohesive working group. Another major influence of this experience at Cortland involved the effects of the process of creating the slide/tape show on the individuals working on it. We were a very varied combination of individuals. We not only held different jobs and roles in the college community (from Director Of Residence Life to student), but we also lived a variety of life styles, held differ- ent values, and had varying work styles. Some of the original eight people quit, and several of the others worked mostly on their own in their specialty areas (i.e., taking pictures, technical aspects, etc.). Among 35 the rest of us, some really significant things began to happen as we worked as a group. The traditional power hierarchies based on job position faded as individuals and their skills became more and more acknowledged and appreciated. I watched these people develop a healthy and genuine commitment to and respect for one another and what they each had to offer. The idea that involvement in creating a slide/ tape program could be growth producing for the individ- uals working on it was supported for me in the following excerpt from a letter I received from one of the other people involved in the project: Guess you know me mostly as the straight, objective administrator and in many respects I am just that. However, I found our experience throughout the year, culminated by the completion of the show, to be a personal growth experience for me--one I wouldn't trade for anything. Really, what I'm saying is that I was as sentimental about it as you, and I know the others were also. ************** Somewhere along the line I came across an interesting quote that reminded me of our work on the show. I've been saving it to write to you: "Creating with somebody is one of the most intimate types of relationships. It takes incredible honesty. You need that if you want real freedom and happiness anyway, but in a creative relationship the honesty is demanded. When you have that, you also have to accept each other and that's not always easy because we're all grossly imperfect human beings. We're vulnerable and we have human failings." (Peter Yarrow) We had alot when we started, even more at the end. (Correnti, 1973) 36 Summary The literature in the area of the relationship between alternate means of expression and personal growth is primarily descriptive in nature. Several such studies are cited in this Chapter, all of which claim positive results, and none of which have any experimen- tal data to support these claims. Two statistical studies are presented which spe- cifically investigated self-concept change in subjects taking part in programs involving an alternate means of expression--photography. Both studies indicate positive trends, but no Clear-cut answers. Nicoletti (1971), working with fourth graders, found that those students participating in a self-directed photography program showed pre- to post-test improvement on the self-esteem construct of the Self-Social Symbols Task significant at the .01 level. Schudson (n.d.) studying seventh and eighth graders found inconclusive results with pre- to post—test improvement in self—concept as measured by the Dinkmeyer Child Study Technique. She discovered differences significant at the .05 level for one coun- seling group using cameras, one counseling group not using them, and individuals using cameras for a science project but not participating in a group. 37 A personal experience, with the group creation of a slide/tape show, which led to the present research is also presented. The current research, which is explained in Chapter III, is an attempt to learn more about what kinds of personal growth Changes, if any, take place for college women who work together to create a slide/tape show. This media form has apparently not been studied in this context before. This study is designed to go beyond the descriptive and investigate experimentally the relationship between experiencing a creative process involving alternate means of expression, and change in self-concept (specifically self-acceptance and self- perception). CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY This Chapter is divided into the following sec- tions: (1) sample, (2) treatment, (3) measures, (4) design, (5) testable hypotheses, (6) analyses, and (7) summary. Sample The sample consisted of 16 female students at Michigan State University who volunteered to participate in a Creative Process Group. Their ages ranged from 18 to 51, with 10 between 18 and 22, 4 between 23 and 35, and 2 over 35. These age divisions were selected in order to distinguish among those students within the traditional undergraduate age range; those women some- what older (1 to 13 years) than the general undergraduate population; and those quite a bit older (20 to 29 years) than the traditional undergraduate. Of the 16 subjects, three reported having had no previous experience in counseling or growth-oriented groups; six reported having ,had one such experience; and seven reported having been involved in more than one. Class standing ranged from .freshman to graduate student. The use of a volunteer 38 39 sample appears acceptable, since the treatment being tested is considered an alternative to be offered to people rather than imposed on them. During the last half of Fall, 1976, term, flyers describing the Creative Process Group (Appendix A) were circulated on campus through the following channels: Posted in residence halls Posted in various buildings on campus Posted in the Women's Resource Center Announced in Education 200 classes 0115me Announced at meetings of various women's organizations and classes 6. Distributed to sorority representatives By the end of Fall term, 20 volunteers had gone through an initial screening process (Appendix B), signed consent forms (Appendix C), completed information sheets (Appendix C) and questionnaires (Appendix E). They were also each given a code number (70 through 90) in the order in which they came in to be interviewed. 'Those numbers were then put in a pile, and the first 10 randomly drawn were assigned to the experimental condi- tion for the Winter term, and the other 10 to the Spring 'term. These subjects were notified of their assignments, ‘by'telephone, at the start Of the Winter term. In order to increase this initial pool of 20 ssubjects, at the beginning of Winter, 1977, term an 4O announcement recruiting additional volunteers was made in an Adolescent Psychology Class. Since the Winter groups were scheduled to begin shortly after the start of the term, a slightly different method of random assignment to Winter or Spring conditions was employed with these new subjects. Code numbers 91 to 100 were randomly pre-designated for Winter or Spring term according to the following pattern: #s 91—93 (two Winter, one Spring) 94-96 (one Winter, two Spring) 97-100(two Winter, two Spring) The nine additional subjects acquired at the start Of Winter term were screened and told at the time Of the interview which term they had been assigned. One of those subjects Chose not to participate when she learned that she had been assigned to Winter term. All 13 women assigned to Winter term groups were contacted at the start of that term. At that time, one decided not to participate, and one's schedule necessi- tated her drOpping out. The other 11 subjects were placed in one of the two Winter groups, depending on their schedules of available times. Of these 11 sub- ,jects, 7 completed the program consisting of the 8 ses- sions, and the pre- and post-tests. At the end of the (eight-week program, neither of the Winter groups had (nompleted work on their slide/tape show, and both decided 41 to meet additional times in order to finish the task. Five subjects continued until the task was completed, experiencing the full four stages of the creative process. The 15 women assigned to Spring term groups were contacted at the start of that term. One decided not to participate at that time; two had schedules that necessi- tated their dropping out; and three of the volunteers could not be reached. The other nine subjects were placed in one of the two Spring groups depending on their sched— ules. Of these nine subjects, all nine completed the eight-week program, including pre- and pOst-testing. All nine subjects also experienced the full four stages of the creative process, as both groups completed the task, each group using about one hour of time beyond the eight weeks. The women who participated in the treatment in the Spring served as the control group during the Winter term. Treatment Creative Process Groups were composed of three to five members (three1 and four2 in the Winter groups and four and five in the Spring groups), and met for 1Began with six members; two dropped after first session; one dropped after sixth. 2Began with five members; one dropped after second session. 42 two-hour sessions weekly for eight weeks, with a two- hour follow-up session. The purpose of the Creative Process Group was for members to work together on the task of creating a slide/tape show which would be their attempt to express their feelings about women and/or about themselves as women. The task of creating the slide/tape show was then used as a vehicle and/or stimu- lus for group members to: 1. 2. Experience a creative process Explore women's issues Explore their own feelings about these issues Learn about their feelings and functioning in a group situation The following supplies and equipment were provided for each group: 1. 2. Slide projector and carousel tray Cassette tape recorder with inaudible sync mechanism Light stand for viewing numbers of slides at one time Turntable for playing records Two Instamatic cameras Cassette tape for recording sound portion of the slide/tape show Slide hand viewer Rolls of 20-exposure color slide film 43 Each group was allotted a number of rolls of film equal to the number of group members plus facilitators plus one (i.e., a group of four members with two co- facilitators was entitled to 4+2+1=7 rolls of film). Distribution of film within the group was to be decided by the group members. An arrangement was made with a photography store having several locations and a local finishing plant, whereby group members could bring in rolls of film to be developed and charge them. Par- ticipants could also have duplicate copies made of slides they already owned and wanted included in the group slide/tape show. In addition, the investigator's own personal file Of approximately 300 slides was made avail- able to groups at the very final stage of their process. This was done to allow them to fill spaces at the last minute when there was no time left for them to go out and take their own pictures and have them developed. If additional equipment was needed, it was either pro- vided upon request, or group members were referred to on-campus media resources. The approximate cost per group for supplies was $32.47, and a breakdown of expenses is presented in Appendix F. All groups were assigned initially to meet in classrooms in the basement of a Michigan State Univer- sity residence hall. The rooms were large, carpeted, and had movable tables and chairs. One of the Winter 44 groups (Friday 2-4) met there all term, while the other Winter group (Thursday 4-6) met at an off-campus apart- ment for session four and at a member's apartment on- campus for sessions five through seven. One of the Spring groups (Thursday 6:30-8:30) met in their assigned room all term. The other Spring group (Monday 3-5) met once at one of the co-facilitator's apartments off- campus, and once at the Instructional Resource Center to tape and mix their music. Each group was CO-facilitated by a different pair of leaders whose responsibilities were to: l. Facilitate the group's development into a cohesive working group (this might have included facilitating the creative process at times) 2. Facilitate exploration of women's issues 3. Share Observations of the group process 4. Share observations of, and facilitate feed- back about individual behaviors in the group 5. Provide information about supplies, equip- ment, and resources Of the eight co-facilitators, one woman was recently graduated from Michigan State with a master's degree in higher education, and seven were Ph.D. can- didates in the College Counseling program (one in the fourth year; two in the third year; two in the second 45 year; and two in the first year). Each term's facili- tators were supervised for one hour weekly, as a group, by a staff member at the Michigan State University Coun- seling Center. Before groups began each term, the facilitators attended a briefing session where they were given details about the supplies provided and instructed in the use of the necessary audio-visual equipment (Appendix G). They were also provided with copies of the definitions of slide/tape show, creativity, and creative process used in Chapter I of this study. Measures The Interpersonal Check List, by LaForge and Suczek (1955) is a 128-item check list which yields data on eight octants or pairs of interpersonal traits (Appendices H and I): 1. managerial--autocratic competitive—-narcissistic aggressive--sadistic rebellious--distrustfu1 2 3 4 5. self-effacing-—masochistic 6 docile-—dependent 7 cooperative--over-conventiona1 8. responsible—-hypernormal This measure is based on Leary's Interpersonal IPersonality System and was designed to measure changes 46 in personality (Leary, 1956). Although often used in clinical situations, the Interpersonal Check List can be used in a wide variety of settings (Lake, Miles, & Earle, 1973). These interpersonal variables are listed along a Circular continuum (see Appendix I) and test scores on the Interpersonal Check List can be handled in several different ways. Raw scores can be analyzed by octants (1 through 8) or by quadrants (octants 8 and l; 2 and 3; 4 and 5; 6 and 7). In addition, the subject's octant scores can be summarized by Leary's (1956) formula and converted into standard scores along two perpendicular dimensions--Dominance/Submission and Love/Hate. These two dimensions form a grid (with Dominance/Submission as the vertical axis, and Love/ Hate as the horizontal axis) set within the circular continuum, with the center of the grid representing the mean of a normative psychiatric clinic admission group. A subject's Dominance and Love standard scores can be plotted on the grid as a single summary point which reflects her/his position in relation to the normative group. The number of the octant within which that summary point falls becomes that subject's diag- nostic score. The position of that summary point within the octant indicates a moderate intensity of the trait if the point lies within one standard deviation of the center of the circle. An extreme intensity of the trait 47 is indicated if the summary point falls more than one standard deviation away from the Circle's center. The closer to the perimeter of the circle the point falls, the more intense the subject's possession of the trait. The Interpersonal Check List has an intensity dimension built in, allowing for the use Of raw scores in the analyses. The Check List is constructed with 16 interpersonal variables or items for each octant, with the breakdown as follows (Leary, 1957, p. 455): number of items per octant intensity meaning of intensity 2 l "a mild or necessary amount of the trait" 6 2 ”a moderate or appropriate amount of the trait" 6 3 "a marked or inap- propriate amount of the trait" 2 4 "an extreme amount of the trait" The Interpersonal Check List was used in this study to Ineasure behavior at the following three of Leary's (1957) five levels of personality: 1. Level I--ratings of individual's behavior by others...indicates his/her social impact ...gives evidence of her/his blind areas 2. Level II--individual's conscious descrip- tions of self and others 48 3. Level V-—individual's descriptions of his/ her ideal self Lake, Miles, & Earle (1973, p. 117) describe the Interpersonal Check List as more useful than most check lists for research, as it provides a "systematic conceptualization of underlying [personality] dimensions," and in Buros' Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook, Bentler (1965, p. 128) states that the Interpersonal Check List measures "replicable dimensions of interpersonal beha- vior." Why Used in This Study The Interpersonal Check List would appear to be an appropriate instrument for this study for several reasons. First, the interpersonal personality system is especially designed to measure personality change, and can provide data about which personality types change and in what directions. This would allow for the for- mulation of predictive statements about expected out- comes Of the experimental treatment for different types of individuals (Leary, 1956). Second, this study took place within the con- text of an interacting group, and part of the data collected consisted of group members' perceptions of one another. The Interpersonal Check List selects for analysis those aspeCts of personality involved with 49 the individual's relationship to others (Lake, Miles, & Earle, 1973), and since the same dimensions are used for describing self and others, the Interpersonal Check List is considered highly appropriate for sociometric use (Bentler, 1965; Lake, Miles, & Earle, 1973). Third, the use of the same interpersonal vari- ables at each level allows for comparisons and the for- mulation of variability indices reflecting discrepancies and conflicts among the various levels of the person- ality (Leary, 1956). Several years of research on developing these variability measures have produced validated operational definitions of self—acceptance and self-perception, the variability indices used in the present research design (Leary, 1957). Developmenp, Revisiony and Validation Robert Suczek, Rolfe LaForge, and members of the Kaiser Foundation staff subjected the Interpersonal Check List to five years of empirical study, including three major revisions, before the current Form IV was published (Leary, 1957). The statistical data used for the revisions came from samples Of prospective patients at a psychiatric clinic, college students, dermatitis patients, and overweight women. These individuals were asked to use the Interpersonal Check List to des- cribe themselves, their ideal selves, and significant w:— ' 50 others (Leary, 1957). Those samples meeting in groups (11 psychotherapy groups, 4 weight-reduction groups, 2 groups of seminary students, and 1 top management group) were also asked to use the Interpersonal Check List as a sociometric device to describe other group members (Leary, 1957). According to Leary (1957), the three revisions of the Interpersonal Check List were designed to: 1. Build in an intensity dimension to enable the variables to be compared 2. Eliminate words which were unintelligible to much of the sample pOpulation 3. Discard words subject to differing inter- pretations ‘ 4. Minimize the effects of the tendency of subjects to mark more "friendly" than ”hostile" words. This was accomplished by setting up the revised test so that "intensity one words should be answered 'yes' by about 90% of the population, intensity two words by about 67%, intensity three by about 33%, and intensity four by about 10%" (Leary, 1957, p. 459). Luckey (1960) did a construct validity study relating self and ideal self Interpersonal Check List scores with marital satisfaction. She found that dis- crepancies between self and ideal self profiles 51 significantly (p < .01) differentiated between "happy" and ”unhappy” marriages. No_rr_n§ Additional normative data are needed for more varied samples; however, some information is presently available for clinical samples of patients tested dur— ing six months of intakes at a psychiatric clinic (Leary, 1957). Leary (1957) provides some normative data in the form of diagnostic codes and amounts of discrepancy for 11 psychotherapy groups, 4 weight-reduc- tion groups of women, 2 groups of seminary students, and 1 tOp management group. Norms are also available in the Oregon Research Institute Report (LaForge, 1963) for psychiatric out-patients, San Francisco State Col- lege students, Air Force Survival instructors, and University of Illinois psychology students. Reliability LaForge and Suczek (1955) found initial test- retest reliabilities that ranged from .64 to .77. Test-retest reliabilities over a two-week period averaged .78 for octants for a sample of 77 overweight females (Lake, Miles, & Earle, 1973). These figures suggest that the Interpersonal Check List is a stable enough instrument to be useful for personality research (Leary, 1957). Schopler (1959), using a five-month 52 test-retest gap, found reliability scores of .95 for the dominance summary point and .62 for the love sum- mary score with self-descriptions, and .74 and .72 reliability scores for the dominance and love summary points as perceived and described by others. The correlations between pairs of variables or octants were found to decrease as more distant variables were correlated, and this would seem to support the theory that a Circular arrangement of the Interpersonal Check List's interpersonal variables does seem to des- cribe their relationship to one another (Leary, 1956). The correlation coefficients between octants, as calcu- lated for samples of obese females and psychiatric out- patients, were found to decrease as the distance between the variables increased (Leary, 1957). Data Collection In the present research study, subjects were asked to fill out the Interpersonal Check List to des- cribe their perceived self and ideal self. They were also asked to describe, on the same instrument, their gperceptions of each of the other group members. This ;provided data about each individual at three of Leary's (1957) personality levels: 1. Level I Self--ratings, on the ICL, of individual's behavior as perceived by others in the 53 group...referred to by Leary (1957) as "18," and in this study by the letter "O" (observable self) 2. Level II Self-—individual's ratings of self on the ICL...referred to by Leary (1957) as "ZS," and in this study by the letter "P” (perceived self) 3. Level V Ego Ideal Self--individual's ratings of her/his ideal self...referred to by Leary (1957) as "51," and in this study by the letter "I" (ideal self) These data were then used to determine the two variability indices used in this study for assessing personal growth: 1. Self-perception--discrepancy between observ- able and perceived selves 2. Self—acceptance—-discrepancy between ideal and perceived selves Pre-test data were collected by an outside test administrator at the beginning of each group's second meeting. Winter term groups were given the post—test at the beginning of their eighth, and supposedly final, session. Since this original plan resulted in post- test data being gathered before subjects had completed their task and before they had been able to experience the total creative process, a different plan was imple- mented to collect post-test data from the Spring term groups. Instead of the tests being administered during group time, the Spring subjects were instructed to take 54 the post—test on their own time, in the Counseling Center Testing Office. They were asked to delay taking the test until their group had completed their work on the slide/tape show. Pre-pre-test data on ideal and perceived self descriptions were collected from the Spring subjects by having them take the Interpersonal Check List in the Counseling Center Testing Office at the end of Winter term. Post—post-test data at those same two levels (ideal and perceived selves) were col- lected from the Winter participants by asking them to take the Interpersonal Check List in the Counseling Center Testing Office at the end of the Spring term. At the time of each group's follow-up session, individual participants received, in writing, feedback about their own pre— and post-test data from the Interpersonal Check List (Appendix J). Additional information was solicited from par- ticipants by having them fill out a questionnaire (Appendix E) at the time of their screening interview. Design. A staggered pre-test post-test control group design with random assignment to the two groups was used (see Figure 3.1). In this design, a comparison was made between the experimental group's (Winter groups) post-test at 55 T1 and the control group's (Spring groups) pre-test at T2. source of internal invalidity, The time gap between the two measures provided a as the control group was subject to maturation and historical influences that the experimentals were not. significant change that occurred during this T To determine whether there was l-T2 time gap of approximately five weeks which included Spring term break, the control group was administered a pre- pre-test for two of the variables to be measured (ideal and perceived selves). This pre-pre—test at T1 was administered during the same week that the experimental group received the post-test. (hxmps 'I‘ilme(3 6xmxks Iflmel 5xmxks lime; 6xwxms lfimes Winter Pre— Treat- Post- Spring Post- test ment 1xst Ihemk post- I,PJ) I,PJ) test I,P Spring Pre- Spring Pre— Treat- Post- pre— Break test ment test test IJAO IJLO I,P Figure 3.l.——Summary of overall design. The change from pre-pre-test to pre-test in ,perceived self/ideal self raw score discrepancies was subjected to a correlated t—test (D = -.6667; df = 8; 56 t = -.4l48), and proved not significant at the .05 level. The change from pre-pre-test to pre-test in discrepan- cies between perceived self/ideal self diagnostic scores was similarly subjected to a correlated t-test (D = -4; df = 8; t = -.448), and was also found to be not signifi— cant at the .05 level. Examination of the changes from pre—pre-test to pre—test on diagnostic code scores for both perceived self and ideal self also supports the finding of insignificant Change. Leary (1956) states that a shift of more than one unit within the interper- sonal circle is considered to indicate a change, while a shift of zero or one unit is looked upon as indicative of no change. Of the nine Spring subjects, none shifted more than one unit on the ideal self diagnostic score between pre-pre- and pre-testing. Only one of the nine Spring subjects shifted more than one unit on the per— ceived self diagnostic score between pre—pre— and pre- testing. All of these results support the validity of comparing the experimental group's post-test scores at T1 with the control group's pre—test scores at T2 despite the time gap between these two measures. An additional reason for administering the pre- pre-test to the control group was to compensate for the practice and learning effects Of the experimental group's pre-test . 57 The pre-tests immediately preceding Creative Process Group participation (ideal, perceived, and Observable selves) were given by an outside administrator at the beginning Of the eighth group session, although both Winter groups continued to meet for two or three extra sessions in order to complete the task. Post- tests for the Spring subjects were administered in the Counseling Center Testing Office. Each group met one additional time after the final meeting in order for individuals to receive and explore feedback from their Interpersonal Check List results. Pre—pre— and post-post- tests were administered in the Testing Office of the Counseling Center. Assignment to Winter or Spring groups was random. Within these terms, assignment to groups was determined by individual schedules, and an attempt was made to include at least one person with access to a camera in each group. Leaders were assigned to Winter or Spring groups depending on their preferences and to specific groups based on their schedules. The original design of this study called for the formation Of enough groups to allow for the analyses to use average group data. The small number (n=l6) of subjects recruited, however, forced a revision of those jplans. Therefore, although the treatment was a group 58 treatment, the data used for the analyses were average individual data. Testable Hypotheses The testable hypotheses were originally written to deal with Interpersonal Check List data across the eight octants. The small number of subjects in the study, however, forced a Change in this plan also, and a quadrant analysis rather than an octant analysis was substituted. To test the question of whether the Creative Process Group treatment was more effective than no treatment, in terms of self-acceptance and self- perception, the following hypotheses were tested: la. 1b. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) when post-test scores for Creative Process Group participants are compared to pre-test scores for non-participants across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) when post-test scores for Creative Process Group participants are compared to pre-test scores for non-participants across four quadrants. The figures used in this section use the general heading of "variables” to refer to the octant measures originally planned, the quadrant measures which were used to test the hypotheses, and the Dominance/Submission and Love/Hate summaries which were also examined. 59 Figure 3.2 summarizes the part of the design to test null Hypotheses 1a and 1b. P-O discrepancies are used for testing Hypothesis 1a, and P-I discrepancies are used for testing Hypothesis 1b. Experimental Tl/Control T2 Scores Variables Winter Exptl. Group T1 Post-test Spring Control Group T2 Pre-test Figure 3.2.—-Summary of design for Null Hypotheses 1a and lb. To investigate the question of whether the “treatment could be replicated in terms of self-perception Fund self-acceptance, with new groups and new leaders, the following hypotheses were tested: 2a. Null hypothesis: NO difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) when Winter groups are compared to Spring groups across four quadrants. 2b. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) on the pre- and post—tests across four quadrants. 2c. 2d. 2e. 2f. 60 Null hypothesis: No significant interaction will be found between groups and tests (pre— and post-tests) for P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: NO difference will be found between P—I discrepancy scores (self—acceptance) when Winter groups are compared to Spring groups across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) on the pre- and post-tests across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: NO significant interaction will be found between groups and tests (pre- and post-tests) for P—I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) across four quadrants. Figure 3.3 pictures the part of the design tested by Hypotheses 2 a-f, using P-O discrepancies to test Hypotheses 2 a-c, and P-I discrepancy scores to test Hypotheses 2 d-f. Pre-test Post-test Variables Variables V1 V2 ...... Vn V1 V2 . ..Vn Winter . Groups Time 0 Time1 Spring . . Groups Time2 Time3 IFigure 3.3.--Summary Of design for Null Hypotheses 2 a-f. 61 In addition to testing these hypotheses, the following questions were explored: 1. Do any of the traits measured by the Interpersonal Check List seem to be more significantly affected by the Creative Process Group experience? 2. Looking at individual, as Opposed to group data, can any conclusions be drawn as to what outcomes might be expected from a Creative Process Group experi- ence for individuals with particular Interpersonal Check List profiles? Analyses To test Hypotheses la and 1b, a one-way multi- variate analysis of variance was run on the experimental T post-test and control T2 pre-test data, once for the l P-O discrepancies (self-perception) and again for the P-I discrepancies (self-acceptance). A univariate post hoc analysis was then performed in order to answer the question of whether different traits on the Interpersonal Check List were more significantly affected by the Creative Process Group experience. To test Hypotheses 2 a-f, a multivariate approach to the repeated measure ANOVA, with one factor in design over groups (Winter and Spring treatments), and one repeated measures factor (pre- and post-tests), with Inultiple measures (the four quadrants) at each point of 62 repeated measurement was used. This allowed for simul- taneous analysis across four quadrants. A univariate post-hoc analysis was then performed. The question of whether predictions could be made about the potential effectiveness of the treatment for individuals with particular Interpersonal Check List profiles was explored by analysis Of individual data. For this analysis, the Interpersonal Check List pre- and post-test data were summarized via Leary's (1956, p. 3) formula, converted into standard scores, and plotted on a grid in which the octant it fell in became the summary diagnosis score. Leary (1957) has stated that comparing different pairs of diagnostic codes can yield variability indices which reflect the discrepancy between different levels of the personality. This study used the vari- ability index for self-perception, which compares per- ceived self and observable self diagnostic codes, and the variability index for self-acceptance, which compares the perceived self and ideal self diagnostic codes. Leary (1957) has described the work of the Kaiser Foundation in developing discrepancy measures consistent with the meaning Of change within the inter- ;personal trait circle. The result of the work of the JKaiser Foundation was the formulation of discrepancy :scores to reflect the distance between the two diagnos- 'tic.codes being compared within the interpersonal Circle. 63 The intensity of the diagnostic scores being compared is also taken into consideration (moderate intensity scores falling within one standard deviation from the center of the grid, and extreme intensity scores lying more than one standard deviation from the center). A geometric formula using the vertical and horizontal discrepancy values was used to calculate the total mea- sure of discrepancy between any two points within the interpersonal circle (Leary, 1957). In this way, 14 possible discrepancy scores, ranging at unequal inter- vals from O to 114 (0, 23, 26, 41, 44, 48, 62, 66, 68, 81, 84, 91, 105, 114) were obtained, with the higher numbers indicating a greater discrepancy. Leary's (1956, pp. 96-97) Table 35 presents discrepancy scores for each pair of diagnostic scores being compared. The original design called for subjects who showed a post-test discrepancy score greater than their pre-test discrepancy score to receive a "success" classi- fication of -1; subjects who remained the same on dis- crepancy scores were to receive a O notation; those 'whose discrepancy scores decreased by one, two, or three jpoints on the continuum were to receive a +1 classifi- cation; and those subjects who decreased their discrep- ancy scores by more than three points on the continuum twere to receive a "success" classification of +2. 64 Upon further reflection and reading, these classifications seemed to be too severe to provide a realistic picture of individual change; therefore the process was revised. Leary (1956) notes that the Kaiser Foundation sample of psychiatric clinic admissions pro- vides enough data to designate which Of four quartiles any variability index falls. This quartile breakdown, listed below, was used in setting up the revised "suc- cess" classification process: 1. First quartile --discrepancy points 0-26 2. Second quartile--discrepancy points 41-44 3. Third quartile --discrepancy points 48—66 4. Fourth quartile--discrepancy points 68-114 Leary (1956) states that a discrepancy of 44 or less indicates that no conflict is present; therefore any score which changes while still remaining within that "no conflict" range will be considered a "success." The following is the revised process by which the "success" of the Creative Process Group treatment for individuals *was determined, using the Change in variability index (iiscrepancy scores (for both self-perception and self- acceptance) from the pre-test to the post-test: 65 "Success" Classification Criteria +2 moves from fourth quartile to first or second quartiles - +1 remains within first or second quartiles -0r- moves from third quartile to first or second quartiles -or- moves from fourth quartile to third quartile 0 remains in third quartile -0r- remains in fourth quartile -1 moves from first or second quartiles to third quartile -or- moves from third quartile to fourth quartile -2 moves from first or second quartiles to fourth quartile These classifications were used to identify possible pre- test patterns among individuals who seemed to be most significantly affected by the Creative Process Group experience. Summary The Creative Process Group for Women was defined as a.small group experience in which members work together (Hi the task of creating a slide/tape show. This slide/ tape show was to be their attempt to express their feel- ings about women and/or about themselves as women via an alternate medium of expression. This task then became the vehicle or stimulus for group members to: 66 1. Experience a creative process Explore women's issues Explore their own feelings about these issues IbeN Learn about their own feelings and function- ing in a group situation The sample in the study consisted of 16 female students at Michigan State University who volunteered to participate in a Creative Process Group. A staggered pre-test post-test control group design with random assignment to either the experimental or control condi- tion was used. The experimental subjects experienced the Creative Process Group during the Winter term, and the other subjects served as the control group that term, while receiving the treatment during the Spring term. The Interpersonal Check List was selected as the measuring instrument for this study because of its potential for measuring personality change, its approp- riateness for use in group settings, and its ability to [provide data which yield variability indices reflecting discrepancies and conflicts among various levels of the jpersonality. Pre- and post-test data were collected for each individual's perceived, ideal, and observable self (average of other groups members' descriptions of her). Self-acceptance and self-perception variability indices were calculated from these data. In addition, perceived 67 and ideal self descriptions (and the self-acceptance variability index) were collected in a pre-pre-test of Spring participants, and in a post-post-test of Winter participants. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance was run on the experimental post-test and control pre-test data to test the following hypotheses: 1a. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) when post-test scores for Creative Process Group participants are compared to pre-test scores for non-participants across four quadrants. lb. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) when post-test scores for Creative Process Group participants are compared to pre-test scores for non-participants across four quadrants. A univariate post hoc analysis was performed in order to determine whether any traits on the Interpersonal Check List were more significantly affected by the treatment than others. A multivariate approach to the repeated measures ANOVA, with one factor in design over groups (Winter and Spring treatments), and one repeated measures factor (pre— and post-tests), with multiple measures (the four quadrants) was used to test the following hypotheses: 2a. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) when Winter groups are compared to Spring groups across four quadrants. 2b. 2c. 2d. 2e. 2f. 68 Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) on the pre- and post-tests across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: No significant interaction will be found between groups and tests (pre- and post-tests) for P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self—acceptance) when Winter groups are compared to Spring groups across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) on the pre- and post—tests across four quadrants. Null hypothesis: NO significant interaction will be found between groups and tests (pre- and post—tests) for P-I discrepancy scores (self- acceptance) across four quadrants. A univariate post hoc analysis was also performed on these data. Individual patterns of personality Change were explored by using Leary's (1956) process of comparing diagnostic code pairs and the amount of discrepancy between them as measured at each point of testing. CHAPTER IV STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA This chapter presents (1) an analysis of the research data, (2) a discussion of the methodological problems encountered during the study, and (3) a summary. In this first section, each hypothesis will be restated, in null form, and will be followed by summaries of the data and the analysis results. Hypotheses la and 1b test the question of whether the Creative Process Group treat- ment was more effective than no treatment, in terms of self-perception and self-acceptance. Hypotheses 2 a-f test the question of whether the treatment could be repli- cated, in terms of self-perception and self-acceptance, with new groups and new leaders. Hypothesis la Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.1, and analysis of variance results in Table 4.2, provide the data for testing Hypothesis 1a. No difference will be found between P—O discrepancy scores (self—perception) when post-test scores for Creative Process Group participants are compared to pre-test scores for non-participants across four quadrants. 69 70 There was no significant difference, on P-O discrepancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre—tests of non— participants across four quadrants. Table 4.1.—-Means and standard deviations, by quadrants, for perceived self/observable self discrepancies for Winter subjects (T1 post-test) and Spring subjects (T2 pre—test). mehants I II III IV E SAL X SAL Y SAL i SAL Whfier Experimental 4.52 3.43 3.83 3.88 3.95 3.48 3.71 1.64 Sflflecus fiwhg Obntrol 5.62 5.92 3.85 3.32 4.00 4.69 4.32 3.90 SNQkxms I = responsible/mnagerial; II = carpetitive/aggressive; III = rebellious/self—effacing; IV'= docile/cooperative Table 4.2.--Summary table for multivariate analysis of variance comparing experimental group's (Winter subjects) post-test and control group's (Spring subjects) pre-test P-O discrepancy scores across quadrants. Source of Multivariate , , Variance df F P< Dec1SIOn Groups 4 .0631 .9916 n.s. df for error = 11 71 Hypothesis lb Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.3, and analysis of variance results in Table 4.4, provide the data for testing Hypothesis lb. No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) when post-test scores for Creative Process Group participants are compared to pre—test scores for non-participants across four quadrants. There was no significant difference, on P-I dis- crepancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre-tests of non- participants across four quadrants. Hypotheses 2 aL by c Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.5, and multivariate analysis results in Table 4.6, provide the data for testing Hypotheses 2 a, b, and c. Hypothesis 2a No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) when Winter groups are compared to Spring groups across four quadrants. There was no significant difference between the Winter and Spring groups on P-O discrepancy scores across four quadrants. Hypothesis 2b No difference will be found between P-O discrepancy scores (self-perception) on the pre- and post-tests across four quadrants. 72 Table 4.3.--Means and standard deviations, by quadrants, for perceived self/ideal self discrepancies for Winter subjects (T1 post-test) and Spring subjects (T2 pre-test). (Mmdnnms I II III IV S.D. 2K S.D. K S.D. i S.D. NI Whfier Experimental 3.57 3.99 4.29 3.90 8.57 3.91 3.29 2.81 Subjects Spring Control 4.89 3.48 2.78 3.11 5.89 3.72 2.89 2.47 Sflflecus I = responsible/managerial; II = competitive/aggressive; III = rebellious/self—effacing; IV = docile/COOperative Table 4.4.—-Summary table for multivariate analysis of variance comparing experimental group's (Winter subjects) post-test and control group's (Spring subjects) pre-test P—I discrepancy scores across quadrants. Source of df Multivariate p< Decision Variance F Groups 4 1.2444 .3483 n.s. df for error = 11 73 ww.m Hm.v m¢.¢ mo.m ®O.m ¢®.m o¢.¢ vH.m v®:mabgw wvgwmmgw mwgwmwgw mwgwmmiw O>Hpanmcooo\OHfiOOp n >H uwfigmmmumaoflmzofidonon u HHH mmfiwmonmmfiofifipoflso u E ”HaaumwmngHflmcocmon n H omngva mmJVOOJw mmgwmwgw mmfiwmmxw QH.v wH.b vN.m.om.w m®.m mm.m wo.v mm.w $835 3.88 38 Sam n35; .>H HHH HH H MBHSBHBG 53:58 _>H HHH HH H mficwuxaa umofilfim memo» pmoa and loud no mpoohnam now mmflondcmnomflp waom mand>Hmmno \Haom CO>HOOMOQ you .mpqanumSG an .mcofiuaw>mc Chaddmum cam madozll.m.v cance 74 Table 4.6.--Summary table for multivariate approach to repeated measures analysis of variance for treatment groups x tests across four quadrants for P-O discrepancy. Source of Multivariate . Variance df F P< Dealsion Groups 4 .2882 .8796 n.s. Tests 4 .5992 .6710 n.s. Groups x tests 4 .5388 .7107 n.s. df for error = 11 There was no significant difference between pre- and post-tests on P-O discrepancy scores across four quadrants. There was a tendency, however, for the Winter group's discrepancy scores to decrease, but the Spring group showed almost no change. Hypothesis 2c No significant interaction will be found between groups and tests for P—O discrepancy scores (self- perception) across four quadrants. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests on P-O discrepancy scores across four quadrants. Hypotheses 2 d, eLpf Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.7, and multivariate analyses of variance results in Table 4.8, provide the data for testing Hypotheses 2 d, e, and f. 75 om.N mm.m mm.v mm.v NH.H mm.m efl.m b®.¢ Hw.m mm.m Hm.m hm.w om.m mN.v mm.m hm.m .nqm hm. .oum .mw .n.m .m. .aum MM _>H HHH HH H maqmnumno pmoaupmom O>HQSAOQOOO\OHHOOO u.>H 85830138353338 n HHH umfimepwmmFfifipmfibo u E "EflowmgFHflmdocmon u H b¢.N mw.N Nb.m mm.m HH.m wb.m mv.m mw.¢ om.¢ mv.® Hw.N mm.m mm.m oo.m hm.m oo.v .owm _MW .nqm MM. .n.m .mw .aqm Mm >H HHH HH H muqannasa HHOGIEAE .mmepupmom was long do mPOOnnzm AOH mmfloadconomwp “How HSOUH\HHOm cm>fioouoc you .mvndupRSU an .mnoflumfi>op cnmcampw can mawmslu.b.¢ wands mPOOnnsm wetafi mpownnsm Houses 76 Table 4.8.--Summary table for multivariate approach to repeated measures analysis of variance for treatment groups x tests across four quadrants for P—I discrepancy. Source of Multivariate Variance df F P< Decision Groups 4 5.3762 .0120 * Tests 4 .4959 .7395 n.s. Groups x tests 4 .4821 .7488 n.s. *Test is significant at .05 level. df for error = 11 HypotheSis 2d No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) when Winter groups are compared to Spring groups across four quadrants. There was a significant difference, at the .05 level, on P—I discrepancy scores between the Winter and Spring groups, with the Spring group showing the smaller discrepancy. Table 4.9 presents the results of the uni- variate analysis, performed in order to identify whether the four quadrants were affected differently. This analysis indicates that the third quadrant (rebellious/ self-effacing) shows the only significant difference (p < .05). The Spring group, then, shows a significantly smaller P-I discrepancy in the rebellious/self-effacing quadrant than the Winter group. The Spring group also shows, in Table 4.7, a smaller P-I discrepancy in 77 quadrant IV (docile/COOperative), but this difference is not significant, scores, since the two groups' equal. and seems to be limited to the pre-test post-test means are about Table 4.9.--Summary table for univariate analysis of group factor across four quadrants for P-I discrepancy. 3531:: 02f 32132.3? ‘ df Univgriate p < Decision Quadrant I 15.501 1 .4541 .5114 n.s Quadrant II 68.6200 1 1.5689 .2309 n.s Quadrant III 197.3373 1 7.2624 .0175 * quadrant IV' 48.0159 1 3.7982 .0717 n.s Immor:fin'l 34JKEB l4 Furor for II 43.7369 14 Error for III 27.1723 14 Error for IV' 12.6417 14 *Test is significant at .05 level. Hypothesis 2e No difference will be found between P-I discrepancy scores (self-acceptance) on the pre- and post-tests across four quadrants. There was no significant difference between pre— and post-tests on P-I discrepancy scores across four quadrants. 78 Hypothesis 2f No significant interaction will be found between groups and tests for P-I discrepancy scores (self- acceptance) across four quadrants. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests on P-I discrepancy scores across four quadrants. Additional Analyses Robert Carson (1969) has reviewed much of the literature on interpersonal behavior. He found that "on the whole, the conclusion seems justified that major portions of the domain of interpersonal behavior can profitably and reasonably accurately be conceived as involving variations on two independent bipolar dimen- sions . . . dominance-submission . . . [and] H322 versus lpyg" (Carson, 1969, p. 102). The apparent universality of these dimensions would seem to provide a strong reason for looking more specifically at these particular areas in the current study. Therefore, the multivariate analyses performed to test Hypotheses la and b, and 2 a-f across quadrants were also performed across the dominance/ submission and love/hate dimensions. In this section, first the dominance/submission and then the love/hate resulsts will be examined. The hypotheses will be pre- sented by number (they will not be restated) and will be 79 followed by summaries of the data and the analysis results. Dominance/Submission Hypothesis la.--Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.10 and analysis of variance results in Table 4.11 provide data for testing Hypothesis 1a. There was no significant difference, on P-O discrepancy 'scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process group participants and the pre—tests of non-participants across dominance/submission. Table 4.10.--Means and standard deviations, by dominance/ submission, for perceived self/observable self discrepan- cies for Winter subjects (T1 post-test) and Spring subjects (T2 pre-test). Dominance Submission K S.D. Y S.D. Winter Experimental 8.36 7.17 7.10 4.38 Subjects Spring Control 9.14 7.25 7.88 7.65 Subjects T2 v2 pc sec in lb. ere; Proc part Tabl Subm. for 1 80 Table 4.ll.--Summary table for multivariate analysis of variance comparing experimental group's (Winter subjects) post—test and control group's (Spring subjects) pre-test P-O discrepancy scores across dominance/submission. Source of df Multivariate p< Decision Variance F Groups 2 .0319 .9687 n.s. df for error = 13 Hypothesis lb.--Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.12, and analysis of variance results in Table 4.13, provide the data for testing Hypothesis lb. There was no significant difference, on P-I dis- crepancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre-tests of non- participants across dominance/submission. Table 4.12.--Means and standard deviations, by dominance/ submission, for perceived self/ideal self discrepancies for Winter subjects (T1 post-test) and Spring subjects ' (T2 pre-test). Dominance Submission 3? S.D. i S.D. Winter Experimental 6.71 6.34 11.29 5.15 Subjects Spring Control 7.67 3.90 8.33 5.27 Subjects ti va: tes Tab sub 81 Table 4.13.--Summary table for multivariate analysis of variance comparing experimental group's (Winter subjects) post-test and control group's (Spring subjects) pre-test P-I discrepancy scores across dominance/submission. Source of , Multivariate Variance df F p< Decision Groups 2 .8197 .4621 n.s. df for error = 13 Hypotheses 2 ay_b, c.--Mean and standard devia- tion scores in Table 4.14 and multivariate analysis of variance results in Table 4.15 provide the data for testing Hypotheses 2 a, b, and c. Table 4.14.--Means and standard deviations, by dominance/ submission, for perceived self/observable self discrepan— cies for subjects on pre- and post-tests. Pre—test PCst-test Dominance Submission Dominance Submission i S.D. i S.D. x S.D. if S.D. “Guam: Ehmflects 12.63 7.09 12.73 8.02 8.36 7.17 7.10 4.38 Spring Subjects 9.14 7.25 7.88 7.65 7.83 7.18 8.63 7.59 WM; 82 Table 4.15.——Summary table for multivariate approach to repeated measures analysis of variance for treatment groups x tests across dominance/submission for P-O discrepancy. Source of Multivariate Variance df F p< Decision Groups 2 .2245 .8020 n.s. Tests 2 16.4509 .0003 * Gr°ups x 2 1.0367 .3822 n.s. tests *Test is significant at .001 level. df for error = 13 Hypothesis 2a--There was no significant differ- ence between the Winter and Spring groups on P-O dis- crepancy scores across dominance/submission. Hypothesis 2b--There was a significant differ- ence, at the .001 level, on P-O discrepancy scores between the pre- and post—tests across dominance/ submission, with a smaller discrepancy on the post-test. Table 4.16 presents the results of the univariate analy- sis performed. This indicates that the dominance factor shows the significant Change (p < .0001) between the pre- and post-tests. In addition, the Winter group seems to show, in Table 4.14, a substantial decrease in P-O discrepancy scores on the submission factor also. 83 Table 4.16.--Summary table for univariate analysis of test factor across dominance/submission for P-O discrepancy . Smucecfl? Ikmn Unrwuiaue . . Variance Square df F p< DeCISion Dominance 1820.3022 1 35.2882 .0001 * SUhmission 66.6672 1 .7193 .4107 n.s. Eh'or for Dan. 315.3491 14 Error for Sub. 111.6180 14 *Test is significant at .0001 level. Hypothesis 2c--There was no significant interac- tion between groups and tests on P-O discrepancy scores across dominance/submission. Hypotheses 2 d, e, f.--Mean and standard devia- tion scores in Table 4.17, and multivariate analysis of variance results in Table 4.18, provide the data for testing Hypotheses 2 d, e, and f. Hypothesis 2d-—There was a significant differ- ence, at the .05 level, between Winter and Spring groups on P-I discrepancy scores across dominance/submission, with the Spring group showing the smaller discrepancy. Table 4.19 presents the results of the univariate analy— sis performed. This indicates that the submission factor P—I discrepancy is significantly different (p < .01) between the Winter and Spring groups. 84 Table 4.17.--Means and standard deviations, by dominance/ submission, for perceived self/ideal self discrepancies for subjects on pre- and post—tests. Pnedest Pbsbdest Dominance Submission Dominance Submission x SAL i SAL Y SAL Y SAL Wbuer Subjects 7.86 4.49 15.71 4.23 6.71 6.34 11.29 5.15 Swans SUbjects 7.67 3.90 8.33 5.27 6.78 3.67 7.56 7.63 Table 4.18.——Summary table for multivariate approach to repeated measures analysis of variance for treatment groups x tests across dominance/submission for P-I discrepancy. Source of Multivariate . Variance df F p< Decis1on Groups 2 4.7460 .0284 * Tests 2 .6431 .5416 n.s. Gr°ups x 2 .2953 .7492 n.s. tests *Test is significant at .05 level. df for error 13 85 Table 4.19.--Summary table for univariate analysis of group factor across dominance/submission for P-I - discrepancy. Source of Mean Univariate ‘Wnflance tanre df F p< Deauflon Dafinamxa .0635 1 JXHO £fl53 ILS. Submission 486 . 1111 1 9 . 5733 . 0080 * Error for Dom. 63. 8526 14 Error for Sub. 50.7777 14 *Test is significant at .01 level. Hypothesis 2e--There was no significant differ- ence on P-I discrepancy scores between pre— and post- tests across dominance/submission. Hypothesis 2f--There was no significant interac- tion between groups and tests on P-I discrepancy scores across dominance/submission. Love/Hate Hypothesis la.--Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.20, and analysis of variance results in Table 4.21, provide data for testing Hypothesis la. There was no significant difference, on P-O discrepancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre-tests of non-participants across love/hate. 86 Table 4.20.--Means and standard deviations, by love/hate, for perceived self/observable self discrepancies for Winter subjects (T1 post-test) and Spring subjects (T2 pre—test). Love Hate Y S.D. Y S.D. Winter Experimental 4.81 5.27 6.60 7.03 ‘Subjects Spring Control 8.46 9.80 7.30 6.82 Subjects Table 4.21.--Summary table for multivariate analysis of variance comparing experimental group's (Winter subjects) post-test and control group's (Spring subjects) pre-test P-O discrepancy scores across love/hate. Source of Multivariate Variance df F p< Decision Groups 2 .4182 .6669 n.s. df for error = 13 Hypothesis 1b.--Mean and standard deviation scores in Table 4.22, and analysis of variance results in Table 4.23, provide the data for testing Hypothesis 1b. 'There was no significant difference, on P-I discrepancy scores, between the post—tests of Creative Process Group 87 participants and the pre-tests of non-participants across love/hate. Table 4.22.--Means and standard deviations, by love/hate, for perceived self/ideal self discrepancies for Winter subjects (T1 post-test) and Spring subjects (T2 pre—test). Love 8 Hate it S.D. '7: S.D. Winter Experimental 6.57 5.06 9.14 7.13 Subjects Spring Control 6.22 6.06 6.44 5.15 Subjects Table 4.23.--Summary table for multivariate analysis of variance comparing experimental group's (Winter subjects) post-test and control group's (Spring subjects) pre-test P—I discrepancy scores across love/hate. Source of Multivariate Variance df F p< Decision Groups 2 .3670 .6998 n.s. df for error = 13 Hypotheses 2 a, b, c.—-Mean and standard devia— tion scores in Table 4.24, and multivariate analysis of variance results in Table 4.25, provide the data for testing Hypotheses 2a, b, and c. 88 Table 4.24.--Means and standard deviations, by love/hate, for perceived self/observable self discrepancies for subjects on pre- and post-tests. Pre-test Post-test Iowa Ihte wae Ihme x S.D. x S.D. 3? S.D. if S.D. Whfier Subjects 15.66 6.29 9.85 6.92 4.81 5.27 6.60 7.03 Spring Subjects 8.46 9.80 7.30 6.82 8.57 8.07 7.44 7.23 Table 4.25.--Summary table for multivariate approach to repeated measures analysis of variance for treatment groups x tests across love/hate for P-O discrepancy. Source of Multivariate Variance df F p< Decision Groups 2 .1693 .8462 n.s. Tests 2 1.7007 .2208 n.s. Groups x tests 2 2.2175 .1484 n.s. df for error = 13 Hypothesis 2a-—There was no significant differ- ence between the Winter and Spring groups on P-O dis- crepancy scores across love/hate. 89 Hypothesis 2b--There was no significant differ- ence between pre- and post-tests on P-O discrepancy scores across love/hate. Hypothesis 2c--There was no significant interac- tion between groups and tests on P-O discrepancy scores across love/hate. Hypotheses 2 d, e, f.--Mean and standard devia— tion scores in Table 4.26, and multivariate analysis of variance results in Table 4.27, provide the data for testing Hypotheses 2 d, e, and f. Table 4.26.—-Means and standard deviations, by love/hate, for perceived self/ideal self discrepancies for subjects on pre- and post-tests. Pre—test Post-test wae Ihme love lute if S.D. i" S.D. 32' S.D. 32 S.D. 'Whuer Subjects 10.43 5.22 10.29 6.97 6.57 5.06 9.14 7.13 Spring subjects 6.22 6.06 6.44 5.15 7.11 5.88 5.89 5.64 Hypothesis 2d--There was no significant differ- ence between the Winter and Spring groups on P-I discrep- ancy scores across love/hate. 90 Hypotheses 2e--There was no significant differ- ence between pre- and post-tests on P—I discrepancy scores across love/hate. Hypothesis 2f--There was no significant interac— tion between groups and tests on P—I discrepancy scores across love/hate. Table 4.27.--Summary table for multivariate approach to repeated measures analysis of variance for treatment groups x tests across love/hate for P-I discrepancy. Source of df Multivariate Variance F p< Decision Groups 2 1.1256 .3542 n.s. Tests 2 .2187 .8065 n.s. Groups x tests 2 .6999 .5145 n.s. df for error = 13 Post-Test to Post-Post-Test Change for Winter Subjects In order to test whether any changes experienced by the Winter subjects from their pre- to post-tests were lasting, these seven participants took a post-post-test (perceived and ideal self scores on the Interpersonal Check List) approximately 11 weeks after their post-tests. The change in perceived self/ideal self raw score dis- crepancies was subjected to a correlated t-test 91 (D==-5.7l4; df = 6; t = -.9827). Although the mean dis- crepancy showed a decrease, this change was not significant at the .05 level. The change from post- to post-post-test in dis- crepancies between perceived self/ideal self diagnostic scores was similarly subjected to a correlated t-test (D’= 2.286; df = 6; t = .4553) and was also found to be not significant at the .05 level. While it appears that raw score discrepancies showed a tendency to decrease, and discrepancies measured by diagnostic code differences showed a slight increase, the basic finding was that subjects' perceived self/ideal self discrepancies did not change significantly during the 11 weeks following their Creative Process Group experience. Discussion of Methodological Problems of the Study Two major types of methodological problems were encountered in running this research study, one or both of which may have affected the results. Test Administration There were several variations in the time and manner of the administration of the Interpersonal Check List to subjects. Although the pre-tests were uniformly administered at the beginning of each group's second session, two subjects (one from the Winter/Friday group 92 and one from the Spring/Monday group) missed these ses- sions and were administered the test outside the group, several days later. A major problem developed with the timing of the post—test for the Winter groups. The test was given according to the original experimental design-- at the beginning of each group's eighth and supposedly final session. Unfortunately, both Winter groups were still putting their slide/tape shows together, and instead of taking the post-test after the completion of the task, they wound up taking it in the midst of a most frustrating part of the process. The post-test data for the Winter subjects, then, are indicative of their perceptions in the middle of, rather than at the end of, the complete creative process. The decision was then made to make every effort to gather post-test data from the Spring groups after they had completed the entire creative process, even though this meant that the testing procedure would not be con- sistent between Winter and Spring terms. The Spring sub- jects thus took their post-tests on their own, in the Testing Office of the Counseling Center, rather than in the presence of the other group members in their regular meeting room. Another methodological problem which occurred involved the time of the term at which the post-test was taken. The administration of the post-test fell during 93 the last week of classes, at a time when subjects were studying for their finals, taking some exams, and writ- ing term papers. It is possible that some of these experiences, outside of the Creative Process Groups, might have affected subjects'descriptions, on the Inter- personal Check List, of themselves and their ideal selves in particular. Although there were many external variables which could have affected participants and their Interpersonal Check List scores, the theory of self—concept as rela- tively enduring and stable would seem to offset some of the influence of outside variables. While this study used a small number of subjects (n = 16), increasing the size of the sample might further help to reduce the effects of external variables and provide data to speak more adequately to the questions raised. Non-Uniformity of the Experimental Treatment A second major methodological problem encountered was guaranteeing that the administration of the Creative Process Group experience was standard among all the groups. This was relatively impossible. Although all the group facilitators were provided with the same materials, information, and list of responsibilities, they naturally approached the task with their own unique styles. The 94 relationship between the two co-facilitators, and between them and the participants, also differed among groups. Although the four Creative Process Groups met in similar classrooms in a university residence hall, these rooms were not identical. In addition, one group (W/Th) switched their meeting place for one session to the off-campus apartment of one of the facilitators, and for three sessions to the on—campus apartment of one of the group members. One of the Spring groups (Monday) met once at the off-campus apartment of one of the facili- tators, and once at the Instructional Resources Center in another building on campus. Although the investigator tried uniformly to stay away from the groups during their actual meetings, this uniformity was broken when she went into the Winter/ Friday group, at their request, to take pictures of them as a group. Summary The hypotheses in this study were analyzed across the four quadrants and the following results were found. la. lb. 2a. 2b. 20. *2d. 2e. 2f. 95 There was no significant difference, on P-O discrep- ancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre-tests of non-participants. There was no significant difference, on P—I dis- crepancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre—tests of non-participants. There was no significant difference between the Winter and Spring groups on P—O discrepancy scores. There was no significant difference between pre- and post-tests on P-O discrepancy scores. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests on P-O discrepancy scores. There was a significant difference (p < .05) on P-I discrepancy scores between the Winter and Spring groups, with the Spring group showing the signifi- cantly smaller discrepancy. The univariate analysis indicated that this significant difference (p < .05) was in the rebellious/self-effacing quadrant. There was no significant difference between pre- and post-tests on P-I discrepancy scores. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests on P-I discrepancy scores. *Significant group difference. 96 Additional analyses were conducted to test the same hypotheses across the dominance/submission dimen- sion, and then across the love/hate dimension. The following results were found for the dominance/submission dimension. la. lb. 2a. *2b. There was no significant difference, on P-O discrep- ancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre-tests of non-participants across dominance/submission. There was no significant difference, on P-I discrep— ancy scores, between the post-tests of Creative Process Group participants and the pre-tests of non—participants across dominance/submission. There was no significant difference between Winter and Spring groups on P—O discrepancy scores across dominance/submission. There was a significant difference (p < .001) on P-O discrepancy scores between the pre- and post- tests across dominance/submission, with the smaller discrepancy on the post-test. The univariate analy— sis indicated that the dominance factor was the one showing the significant change (p < .0001). *Significant test difference. 2c. *2d. 2e. 2f. 97 There was no significant interaction between groups and tests on P-O discrepancy scores across dominance/ submission. There was a significant difference (p < .05) between Winter and Spring groups on P-I discrepancy scores across dominance/submission, with the Spring group showing the smaller discrepancy. The univariate analysis indicated that the submission factor was the one showing the significant difference (p < .01) between Winter and Spring groups. There was no significant difference on P-I discrep— ancy scores between pre- and post-tests across dominance/submission. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests on P-I discrepancy scores across dominance/ submission. Testing of the hypotheses across the love/hate dimension showed no significant differences. Post-test to post-post-test changes for Winter subjects were measured by correlated t-tests and it was found that perceived self/ideal self discrepancies did not change significantly during the 11 weeks following their creative Process Group experience. *Significant group difference. 98 A discussion was presented dealing with the two major types of methodological problem encountered in the study--test administration and non-uniformity of the experimental treatment. The conclusion was reached that the effect of outside variables on test results could be reduced by increasing the number of subjects in the sample. CHAPTER V DESCRIPTIVE TREATMENT OF DATA This chapter is in no way meant to replace the statistical treatment of the data, presented in Chapter IV, which indicated that the Creative Process Group did not produce much measurable personal growth. What will be presented here is, first, an exploration of individual data in an attempt to identify some incoming character- istics of participants for whom the Creative Process Group treatment was "successful,” based on the procedure described in Chapter III. The investigator chose not to examine in similar detail, at this point, the character- istics of those individuals for whom the treatment was not a "success." The word "success," as used in this chapter, should not be interpreted as an indication that the Cre- ative Process Group treatment itself was a proven "suc- cess." The second purpose of this chapter is to describe the Creative Process Group experiences of the four groups in this study, exploring similarities and differences. "Success" Classifications In this section the "success" classifications assigned.to subjects by the process described in Chapter 99 100 III will be summarized for both the self-perception (perceived self/observable self discrepancy) and self- acceptance (perceived self/ideal self discrepancy) variability indices. Percentage data regarding those participants classified as ”successes" will also be presented. Results will be discussed by looking first at the more general diagnostic categories of dominance/ submission and love/hate, moving on to a discussion by quadrants and then by octants. The small number of subjects in the sample would make it impossible to identify definite patterns which might be used in the future to help predict the chances of a "successful" outcome from a Creative Process Group experience for individuals with particular perceived self diagnostic scores. However, these data might yield some information about individuals more likely to benefit from this treat- ment. This information needs to be looked at as indica- tive of possible trends, and interpreted cautiously. Self-Perception (Perceived Self/ Observable Self Discrepancy) Of the 16 subjects, 1 received a "success” clas- sification of +2; 11 received a +1; 1 a 0; and 3 a -1. This would indicate a tendency for the Creative Process Group to be seen as "successful" for 12 of the 16 subjects, resulting in more accurate self-perception as measured by decreasing perceived self/observable self discrepancies. 101 Table 5.1 summarizes, according to "success" classifi- cations, the pre-test perceived self diagnostic scores of subjects by octants, quadrants, dominance/submission, and love/hate. Percentage data about the 12 subjects for whom the treatment was "successful" are presented in Table 5.2. Observation of the more general diagnostic cate- gories of dominance/submission and love/hate indicates no clear-cut differences in percentage of "successes," although those subjects falling within the submission half of the interpersonal circle show a slightly higher (83%) rate of ”success." Within the quadrant summary, the docile/cooperative quadrant, IV, and the competitive/ aggressive quadrant, II, show the highest percentages of "success" (100%, 100%) in achieving more accurate self- perception. Examination of the octant percentages further reinforces the picture of subjects whose diag- nostic scores classified them as cooperative personali- ties (octant 7) as being most "successful” (100%) in developing more accurate self-perceptions. The two subjects with diagnostic scores in the competitive category (octant 2) also showed a high rate of ”suc- cess" (100%). This octant breakdown also reveals an 80% "success" rate for subjects in the managerial (octant (octant l). m>Hu5HoQooo\mHHooou>H uwfigmmmlfiommcoHHHBmHuH H H uofimmemwflofi uwuwgbou: m RfluowaqmimHn—Hmsommmnfl "man—mg magmaoammauw ”mg pancaoooub mmHHoocum uwfioflwmlflmmnm ”93:onan 658$an ”933$ ”Hawnowuqufia “manage 102 HWE N' "a m m m m H mH- H H H H HM "a m w H. H. H. m H. Hy H m H. HHH+ "G H H H H Hm+ >HHHH HHH_wsmmwmmH noHaoHHmma oHSH 92:” .QEW :iHH mflnfifiggu mfififibo .mmkmwawmo $8:me HHmm EH8§H 53.0.5 .mwmoamdflu mamm om>floonmm amoplmua >9 cmNHHaEEdm .pmmplpmoq 0» loan Bony .mmaaso hoadaonomwo HHmm mHnm>Homno\HHmm om>HmoHon How muofipaoflmfimmaHo :mmmoozm:||.H.m oHnme 103 m>deHoQooo\oHHoovu>H mwfigmmmlhmflmsoflflwnmuuafl 6332339333": 3383:333qung “$5536 mHQngoommHnw mm>HHmawmoooub MoHHooono ”wcHQmHMmumemum ”msoHHHoannHV Ho>memewmnm ”93305 #333ng "35300 : mmmOO : ms as me mm 2. 02 o 8H fin o 8H u o 8H 8H asow Mafioomwm :mmvmmmoo NH mm msmomvom -onHV 595“? 6H memOHmHmsmm oHHmm 82:2 EHHHHHst memmH H.“ “OH. mflg ®>QH £6 £8 mpgg mpg P8 38:35 How 8>HSH9H 3.85.95 .owndno moamnoaomfio HHmm mHnd>Hmmno\mHom uo>Hmonoa one no :mommooosm: we cofiwwmmdao .mpdn\m>oH and .aOHmmHEQ:m\oonm=HSoo .mpndnowsv .mpsduoo ha .wpoomndm Ho mwdpaoonmmll.m.m mapwe 104 In summary, the pattern that emerges from these data is that subjects with pre-test perceived self diag- nostic scores in octants 7 (c00perative), 2 (competi- tive), and l (managerial) tended to show the highest rates of "success" in decreasing the discrepancy between their view of themselves and other group members' perceptions of them. This pattern should be interpreted cautiously, as it is based on results from a small number of subjects. Self—Acceptance (Perceived SelfIIdeal Self Discrepancy) Of the 16 subjects, 2 received a "success" classification of +2; 6 received a +1; 3 a O; 4 a -1; and one a -2. This would indicate that the Creative Process Group experience was "successful" for 8 of the 16 participants, resulting in greater self-acceptance as measured by decreasing perceived self/ideal self dis— crepancies. Table 5.3 summarizes, according to "suc- cess" classifications, the pre—test perceived self diagnostic codes of the subjects by octants, quadrants, dominance/submission, and love/hate. Percentage data about the eight subjects for whom the treatment was "successful" are presented in Table 5.4. Observation of the more general diagnostic categories of dominance/submission and love/hate indi- cates that subjects falling within the hate half of the interpersonal circle show the highest rate of "success" w>demeooo\mHHooon>H mwcHoammwlemm\m=oHHHmanuHHH um>HmmmHMWd\o>HpHuwgsoouHH mHdflnomdqu\manflmcoamoHnH ”munahumsa mHnchoamoHuw Hw>dethoooub moHHooouw qufiodwmwlmammnm ”macaHamanum mo>Hmmwammdnm mw>HpHpogEoonN ”adfipwwmqmuua ”mpqapoo 105 "C H H H H Hm- IQ H m H m H H m H H H H Hm] m H w. H m H m muo IQ H m w m m H m m H N 6W m m m m NW >HHHHHHH whomvmmH . . 8383888 Sam 93 gm 58 Banana $538 .888? 38535 Hme 8385a $8.8m .mHmoawdHc “How uo>fimonom pwmplmnm ha uoNHHd885m .pmmulpmom ow noun Scum .owndno headmmnomwo “How Hdoufi\mamm Um>Hwoqu Ham wnOHumOHMHmmaHo :mmooosm:|l.m.m anme , w>deHoQooo\wHHoocu>H mwuHoaHHoIHHmm\m=oaHHmnohuHHH um>memhwwa\w>HpHpmaficonHH aHdHHmmaqu\mHnHmnoammHuH “macaHUdso mHQHmaoammhuw m®>HudHoQooouh 106 mmHHoouuo ”wnHodHHoIHHmwnm “monHHwnoHu¢ um>Hmmonwdum uo>HuHungoouN ”HdthwdadEuH "wpqmuoo :wmmmmoosm: om mm mm hm ow om ooH mm mm 0 cm I I 00H 0 ooH How owwpcwonmm :mwmmooo _ m mmvvammomluHomm 895mm. ®H m NH m 0H m H m b m o H Honssz >H HHH HH H h m w Hmpoe oudm o>oH .QSm .Eoo mandaudsa mpqwuoo mHmonwwHQ HHom uo>Hmonm pwoulopm .wmcdso hoadmonowHo HHom HwovH\HHom oo>Hmona on» no :mommwoosm: ma cwHHHmdeo .op«n\o>oH was .conmHEQ:m\ooqm=HEOo .muqduumsd .mgadpoo up .muoonnsm Ho mommpnoOHomnl.v.m oHQdB 107 (75%). Those who initially fell within the submission half also show a rate of "success" (67%) greater than the total rate of 50%, in the area of self-acceptance. The percentages by quadrants are much less decisive than they were on the self-perception data in the previous section. Although quadrant III (rebellious/self- effacing) shows a 100% "success” rate, that is based on only one subject. Quadrant I (responsible/managerial) shows a very small (29%) rate of "success,” while the two other quadrants (competitive/aggressive, and docile/ cooperative) demonstrate "success" rates greater than the 50% total (67%, 60%). Looking at octant data in Table 5.4 reveals a 100% "success" rate for octant 4 (rebellious), but this is also based on only one subject. The two octants with rates of "success" greater than the average total of 50% are octant 2 (competitive), with 100%, and octant 7 (cooperative), with a 60% rate. In summary (and eliminating those diagnostic categories with an n of just one), the pattern that emerges from these data is that subjects with pre—test perceived self diagnostic scores in octants 7 (coopera- tive) and 2 (competitive), and in the hate hemisphere and the submission hemisphere seemed to show the highest rates of "success" in decreasing the discrepancy between how they View themselves and how they describe their ideal selves. 108 Again, these conclusions are very tentative, and in need of replication with a larger sample. The data presented thus far in this chapter have indicated that subjects with pre-test diagnostic scores in the competitive and cooperative octants (2 and 7) generally had the best rates of "success" on both increasing their self-acceptance and developing more accurate self-perceptions. In addition, those subjects falling into the managerial category (octant 1) showed a good likelihood of "success" on the self— perception variability index. This could be explained by the possibility that the specific task focus of the Creative Process Group might bring out more strongly issues of cooperation, competition, and management. The results explored in this section might be seen as an indication that individuals whose descriptions of themselves on the Interpersonal Check List place them in either the cooperative or competitive octants are those who are more likely to benefit from the Creative Process Group experience. Although this pattern seems to emerge from the data, the conclusions offered are, at best, highly tentative, since they are based on such a small sample and many of the percentages were probably inflated by that fact. Perhaps further research on the Creative Process Group, using the Interpersonal Check 109 List and/or other measures, will support or refute this trend. Observations of Creative Process Groups The following observations and discussion are based on several sources of data: (1) informal comments made by group leaders during the course of the study, (2) more formal discussion with the group leaders after the termination of their groups, (3) discussion with group members after the completion of their experience, and (4) examination of audio tapes of the actual group meetings. Seven specific areas relating to the Creative Process Groups have been chosen for discussion here, and relevant data about the experience of each of the four groups run in this study will be presented. Both similarities and differences among the groups will be explored. The following abbreviations will be used throughout this chapter to refer to each of the follow- ing groups: W/Th = Winter term/Thursday 4:30—6:30 group W/F = Winter term/Friday 2:00-4:00 group Sp/M = Spring term/Monday 3:00-5:00 group Sp/Th= Spring term/Thursday 6:30-8z30 group 110 Group Composition/Drop-Outsi Attendance Despite the random assignment of volunteers to either the Winter or Spring conditions, there seemed to be a difference in the composition of the Winter groups as compared to the Spring groups. This differ- ence appeared to affect the type of experience had by the W/F group in particular. This group was originally composed of six women, and the mean age of the members was 29.66 (three members were 20 years old; one was 25; one was 42; and one was 51), which was between 5 and 10 years older than the mean ages of the other three groups (W/Th-24.5; Sp/M-19.5; Sp/Th—22.6). Four of those original six members of the W/F group were mar- ried, while the only other married woman in any of the other groups was one of the co-facilitators of the W/Th group. Two of the youngest members of the W/F group dropped out after the first session (one because she felt that she did not have enough time, and the other because she got a job and had to work at the time that the group met), and the third 20-year-old member dropped after the sixth session (she stated that she was dis- satisfied with the experience and the group). This left three women, all graduate students, with a mean age of 39.33, as the members of the W/F group to finish 111 the program of eight sessions and pre- and post—tests. When the slide/tape show was not completed at the end of the eight weeks, they all agreed to meet once dur— ing the following term to finish. Only one of these three members (25 years old) showed up and participated in the final completion of the task. Attendance in this W/F group was very sporadic, partly because the woman who dropped after the sixth session had missed several meetings before making her decision, and partly because the two oldest women both had families and commitments to them which, at times, came before their commitment to the group. An interesting observation can be made about the mortality pattern in this W/F group. Increasing homogeneity, on several superficial characteristics, seemed to be the result of each successive drop in mem- bership. After the first session all the members left were married women (except the two co-facilitators); after the sixth session the group members (including the co-facilitators) were all graduate students older than the traditional undergraduate population; and after the eight—week period, the woman who completed the slide/ tape show with the two co-facilitators was the indi— vidual who had the most in common (age—wise, profession- wise, and style—wise) with them. Despite the fact that 112 the four group members who were left after the first session all seemed to agree on their approach to the slide/tape show, people's commitment to the group and the task might well have been affected by how strongly they identified with and liked one another. The three individuals who completed the task (one group member and two co-facilitators) were certainly the most cohesive segment of the original group, as all three of them were the only ones to show up for every meeting. The W/Th group started with five members, one of whom dropped, without explanation, after the second ses- sion. The remaining four women, with a mean age of 24.5, were all single. Two were traditional-age under- graduates; one had returned to undergraduate school after a 10- to 15-year absence; and one was a graduate student. Attendance in this group was excellent. Absences were rare, even during the several extra sessions scheduled to complete the slide/tape show. There are several possible explanations for this phenomenon. First, this group became extremely cohesive after the members worked through conflicts among themselves and with the co- facilitators. Second, one of the members referred to them all as "perfectionists,” and it is possible that once they got involved in working on the task, this 113 "perfectionist” attitude kept them all coming and work- ing. Third, there was a great deal of diversity among group members, and individuals may have felt that they needed to be present in order to make sure that their point of view was expressed and incorporated into the group's slide/tape show. The two Spring groups were generally younger than the Winter groups. The Sp/M group averaged 19.5 years old (two 19 year olds and two 20 year olds) and consisted of single woman undergraduates. There were no drop—outs and attendance was generally good, with each member missing about one session. The Sp/Th group had a mean age of 22.6 years (one 18 year old, two 20 year olds; one 21 year old--a11 undergraduates; and one 34-year-old woman working full time and taking classes toward a second degree). All were single. All of the participants completed the program and attendance was somewhat sporadic, with most members missing one [session and several missing two. Commitment/Task Completionl Time Limits/Structure Commitment to the task was evident in all four groups. Individuals put in time outside the group meet— ings doing work such as taking slides, having them developed, listening to and selecting music, taping 114 music, etc. As they neared the end of the eight-week program, both of the Winter groups expressed concern about whether or not they would be able to finish the task on time. Both groups subsequently decided to meet for additional sessions, above and beyond what they had originally contracted for, to complete their slide/ tape shows. As a matter of fact, the W/Th group decided that they were going to complete their show regardless of what the research design or the researcher might stipulate! The sounds of "rebellion" come across strongly on the tape recording of that meeting. This W/Th group met for approximately eight extra hours, while the W/F group put in an additional three hours to complete their task. Both Spring groups also chose to work to completion, with the Sp/M group finishing in eight sessions (using the beginning of the follow-up session to put in four last slides) and the Sp/Th group needing one extra two-hour session. Completion of the task seemed to become very important to most of the group members. Several expressed the feeling that if they did not get to finish the slide/tape show they would feel like failures. The consequences of terminating a group before they had finished the task might have been very frustrating, discouraging, and perhaps even destructive for them. 'This would seem to be an important point to be aware 115 of in planning such groups in the future. Many of the early Creative Process Group sessions were confusing and frustrating as members tried to figure out what they were doing. Frustration often surfaced again when the groups were in the final stages of sequencing and synchronizing the slides and music. It seemed very important that groups be given enough time to get through all the frustrating parts of the task and to experience the closure and satisfaction of finishing the slide/tape show. The four groups were given the option of stopping after their eight sessions, and all of them chose to work to completion. This would indi- cate the potential power of this particular task—- creating a slide/tape show—-for drawing people together into a cooperative work situation. The Creative Process Group was conceptualized as having four purposes for participants: 1. To experience a creative process 2. To explore women's issues 3. To explore their own feelings about these issues 4. To explore their own feelings and function- ing in a group situation The structure of eight, two-hour sessions used by the Creative Process Groups in this study proved to be too short for individuals to cover adequately all four of 116 the above areas. In general, the groups' top priority was the task--working on the slide/tape show--and so the first purpose, experiencing a creative process, was fulfilled in each group. The second and third purposes seemed to be the next priorities, particularly as discussion of women's issues was necessary for progress on the slide/tape show. The area that seemed to suffer the most from the eight—week time limit imposed on the program was the exploration of individual feelings and functioning within the group, and of the group as a whole. There simply was not enough time to both do the task and adequately process the group dynam- ics, and the task invariably won out in all four groups. Both Spring groups completed the task close to schedule, but they were also more resistent to the facilitators' efforts to process the group development and look at interactions within the group. Both Winter groups seemed to deal more with what was going on in the group, but both also needed additional time to complete the task. Even the W/Th group which, of the four, spent the most time dealing with group process and interper— sonal conflict expressed the feeling that once they got into working hard on the task they let a lot of personal reactions go unsaid rather than take time away from the slide/tape show. 117 In summary, then, the time limits and structure (eight two-hour sessions) used in this study for the Creative Process Groups proved insufficient for ade- quately achieving all of the originally stated purposes of the group. The impact of the follow-up sessions seemed to be affected by the lack of time groups had for ongoing processing and feedback. The purpose of this session was for the investigator to give group members infor- mation about their pre- to post-test changes and for them to have the opportunity to explore and check out the feedback in the group. In the W/F group, the mem- bers seemed not to feel the need to deal with feedback much at that time, preferring to spend the session in some personal sharing and discussion. There did not appear to be any strong unresolved issues in that group which needed to be followed up on. The W/Th group had incorporated some feedback into their earlier sessions, and a primary focus in their follow-up meeting involved the facilitators requesting and receiving much respon— sible and helpful feedback from the group members. The Sp/Th group had not given one another much feedback during the course of the term, and for them the follow-up session seemed to bring up some authority issues which might have more profitably been dealt “dim: earlier, and which needed more time than just the follow-up 118 session to resolve. The Sp/M group appeared to use the follow-up session to really follow-up on unresolved issues. Members gave one another feedback and also gave feedback to the facilitators. In addition, one impor— tant piece of unfinished business (some of the anger and frustration experienced during their taping session, but never discussed) was worked through at this point. In summary, it appears that the follow-up session was quite valuable for one group (Sp/M); somewhat valuable for another (W/Th); neutral for a third (W/F); and of questionable value for the fourth (Sp/Th). Approach to the Task There seemed to be much similarity in how each of the four groups approached the task of creating a slide/tape show. All initially tried to clarify and decide on a theme. For the most part, this was done by members talking about themselves, their experiences as women, and their thoughts about what they would like to communicate via the slide/tape medium. The W/F and Sp/Th groups also brought in pictures in books and maga- zines and personal photographs to help them generate a theme. Regardless of whether the group actually fol- lowed through on the theme they had originally chosen, the process of narrowing down the focus.seemed to be 119 necessary before participants felt free enough to actually go out and take slides with "group film." Although all four groups initially approached the task in a similar manner, only the W/F and Sp/M groups both decided on their theme and followed through on it. The W/F group had an idea that all of them agreed on; they decided what kinds of pictures they needed to take; and they took them, modifying their original idea when it seemed more practical to do so. The Sp/M group decided on a general theme; clarified it by the music they selected; and decided what pictures they needed, adding that dimension to the show at their last meeting. The Sp/Th group decided on a vague theme, but as they began to listen to music they became excited by one particular song and fit pictures to that song, forgetting about their original theme, as a new one seemed to evolve naturally from their choice of music.‘ The W/Th group had to approach the task differently because of their great diversity of opinion. Although they started out like the other groups, trying to decide on a theme, they were unable to agree on one idea. Therefore, each woman took a roll of film and, on her own, took pictures which would express her individual point of view. The group eventually decided on four pieces of music to interweave, and they then put all their slides together to try to fit them to the music. This W/Th group's theme then 120 became clearer as they listened to their music and sorted through their slides. Once that clarification occurred, the group decided what additional pictures they needed and they went and got them. A second approach to the task which was followed in all four groups involved the use of music as a stimu- lus. Listening to pieces of music and lyrics was a consistently effective method of evoking images for people. As these images and ideas were shared and dis- cussed, the women seemed to get a clearer picture of the kinds of slides they could take and this appeared to be the best starting point into the actual task of creating the slide/tape show. The one group that deviated somewhat from this pattern was the W/F group which decided what they wanted to do and what pictures they wanted before they decided on their specific music. However, during one of their early meetings a group member brought in instrumental music written by women, and the group played it, noting their reactions, feelings, and images, later sharing these with one another. The idea for the theme of their slide/tape show evolved directly from this experience. So, for this W/F group, music was similarly the key into the midst of the creative process, although in a slightly different way than it was for the other groups. 121 Stages and Process Group development.-—Tuckman's (1965, p. 396) model of group development is used here as a basis by which to examine the stages of develOpment experienced by the Creative Process Groups. Tuckman (1965) summarizes the four developmental group stages as follows: 1. Forming--orientation...testing to identify interpersonal and task boundaries...establish- ment of dependency relationships with leaders, other group members, or existing standards 2. Storming--conflict and polarization...resis- tance to group influence and task requirements 3. Norming--resistance overcome...group cohesive- ness develops...new standards and roles adopted...personal opinions more freely expressed 4. Performing--roles become flexible...energy channeled into the task All four Creative Process Groups went through a definite Forming stage, characterized by clarification of the task, expectations, and purpose of the group. Through more personal early discussion, participants seemed to be testing out one another and deciding just how much interpersonal sharing was desired, necessary, and apprOpriate. 122 The W/Th group was the only one to clearly pass through all four of Tuckman's (1965) stages of develop— ment. This group experienced a definite Storming period during which they expressed distrust and hostility toward the group leaders, the structure (or, rather, lack of structure) of the task, and the experimenter. These feelings and conflicts were successfully worked through, and the group proceeded to the Norming stage in which their resistance was overcome. Individuals began to take responsibility which they had formerly been putting on the leaders, and they shared more openly their feelings and ideas about the slide/tape show task. The rest of this group's meetings (from session 5 on) were marked by the channeling of enormous amounts of energy into the task. The Performing stage was thus reached and sus- tained throughout the remainder of the group meetings. In the other three groups, the progression through all four stages of development did not seem to occur as clearly. The Sp/Th group seemed to sidestep directly from the Forming stage into work on the task. By the eighth session, however, their work style defi- nitely seemed to move toward more free expression of ideas, feelings, and opinions--a Norming stage, perhaps. For this group, a Storming phase seemed to occur during the follow-up session, at which time members gave one another primarily positive feedback, while focusing their 123 negative reactions at one of the facilitators. Had this happened and been worked through earlier in the group, it might have been a more productive experience for all involved. The W/F group Storming was very brief, and took the form of a "rebellion" against the task, when, after listening to music and sharing feelings, the group members stated, "The hell with the pictures; the hell with the task...let's just experience each other." The Norming phase for this W/F group might have occurred as their idea developed, and as individuals shared signifi- cant parts of themselves. The Performing stage for this group also seemed to occur as energy was channeled into the task. The development of cohesiveness in the W/F group seemed to be repeatedly undermined by the loss of members and this issue had to be worked through several times. The Sp/M group experienced some very brief Storm— ing at their fifth session as they questioned the motives of the experimenter, and the leaders dealt with the chal- lenge honestly and non-defensively. The Norming phase for this Sp/M group seemed to take place during their work taping and mixing their music. As the participants worked on this complex task, each individual played a specific role in the process, and there seemed to be a freer expression of feelings and opinions, as frustration 124 and anger were dealt with openly. The result of this session was a much stronger sense of cohesiveness and momentum which moved the group into the Performing stage. They then dealt with their hesitancy to take slides and were able to direct their energy into that area, taking pictures for their last session and completing the slide/ tape show task. There are some possible explanations for why group development of the Creative Process Groups seemed to by—pass or minimize Tuckman's (1965) Storming stage in particular. First, the task orientation of the group might have provided an alternate focus to group process issues. It is possible that in some groups the task was seen and used as a way to avoid dealing with hostility and conflict among group members or between group mem- bers and leaders. A second possibility is that partici- pants felt a stronger commitment to the task than to the interpersonal aspect of the Creative Process Group, and thus decided that dealing with affective issues was not as important to them. A third possibility might be that the roles the facilitators chose to play in the groups (active involvement in the task--pg£ set up as experts) cut down on some of the hostility that group members traditionally feel toward their leaders. The authority issues which normally occur between group participants and their leaders were certainly complicated in this 125 situation by the fact that the investigator was often seen as an authority figure above and beyond the author- ity represented by the individual pairs of co-facilitators. One consequence of this situation was that much of the distrust, hostility, and rebellion expressed was directed at this outside authority who was not present at group meetings. Thus group members really did not have the opportunity to work through and resolve these feelings directly with the experimenter. This distrust and hos— tility was often heard on the tapes either in the form of comments about the study and the investigator or as state- ments directly to her: i.e.: ”We know we're gettin' graded on this." "What are you looking for, Carol? "Let's talk abstractly so she can't figure out what's going on." It seems appropriate to offer a possible explana- tion for why the W/Th group might have been affected differently than the other three groups and why they were able to move clearly through all four of Tuckman's (1965) stages. It seemed that the personalities and conflicts in this group were so strong that it was becoming very difficult to work on the task until those feelings were dealt withzuuiresolved. While the other groups seemed able to approach the task without necessarily working through a lot of group process, the W/Th group almost had 126 to deal with their internal conflicts before they could get on with the task. Creative process.--The Creative Process Groups in this study can also be examined to see how closely their experience took them through Wallas' (1926) description of the stages of the creative process described in Chapter I under Definition of Terms: 1. Preparation 2. Incubation 3. Illumination 4. Verification The Preparation stage, characterized by the free flow of data, was experienced similarly by all four groups. Those sessions in which a variety of music, pictures in magazines, or old photographs were shared and reacted to are good examples of this stage. The free flow of images which often followed after hearing specific pieces of music also fits into this stage, as does the sharing of slides, in all groups, and the improvisations at the piano experienced by the W/F group. Because the Incubation stage is an internal process, it is impossible to label Clearly its occurrence in the groups. However, it is supposedly characterized by feelings of discomfort and frustration over not hav- ing been able to solve the problem, and it is possible to identify those feelings as expressed on the tapes. 127 The greatest amount of frustration seemed to occur in two general situations--first, as groups struggled to define a theme for the slide/tape show, and second, at those times when they did not quite have the slides they wanted or needed to fill a particular spot. These two kinds of frustration might very well indicate the Incubation processes when individuals are still trying to form combinations that make sense and that communi- cate what they want to say. Illumination refers to those moments when a meaningful combination falls into place. All of the groups experienced these moments and the feverish work activity to transform those insights into the slide/tape show. Some of the points of illumination seemed to occur when a particular piece of music would strike a responsive emotional chord in the members. The most consistently powerful points of illumination seemed to be those moments when images (either in the form of concrete slides, or as abstract images in someone's mind) fit and formed a meaningful combination with either a song lyric, musical piece, or an image previously expressed. These points of illumination seemed to come in quick succession for each group once they started. The Verification stage involved sharing the completed slide/tape show with someone outside of the group. All four groups expressed, in varying degrees, 128 curiosity, fear, or anxiety about how others would react to what they had done. Both Winter groups com— pleted the Verification stage by sharing their slide/ tape shows with the investigator. Their verification experiences were vastly different, very possibly due to how different their group experiences had been. The W/F group, which had had such a high mor- tality rate, reacted to their finished product with cheers and a sense of euphoria. It was like they were the "survivors" who had actually made it through to the end. They were anxious to show their finished product to the investigator and were really excited about being able to share it. The W/Th group, which had become so highly cohesive, experienced the Verification stage very dif- ferently. They reacted to their finished product with a mellow sense of nostalgia. They wondered about how others would react to the show but made no effort to share it. When the investigator told them: "If you're willing to share it with me, I'd sure like to see it," there was a brief silence, some surprise that she had not already looked at it, and then a nervous-excited ("I feel like I'm having a baby") move to run the show. The investigator seemed much more like an outsider intruding on a very tight group, probably because they 129 gag become a highly cohesive group and their slide/tape show was very significant for them. Both Spring groups also went through the Veri- fication stage by sharing their products with the experi- menter. The Sp/Th group seemed to be bursting with pride as they ran their slide/tape show. Many of them expressed anxiety about whether the investigator would "like it," and said that during the show they found themselves watching her reactions rather than what was on the screen. They became really excited when the experimenter reacted strongly to those parts of the show that they had hoped would have an impact on others. The Sp/Th group seemed very anxious to have other people see and experience their slide/tape show, and they loudly gave the investi- gator permission (or perhaps it was an order!) to show it to others. The Sp/M group watched their show once and then immediately began to make some changes in the order of the slides—-in a sense, they still seemed to be in a working stage. When asked about their reactions to the show, they seemed pretty calm in expressing their liking of it. When one of the facilitators suggested showing the slide/tape show to the experimenter, they seemed to become more animated and excitedly invited her in to be their "audience." With the experimenter present at their second viewing, the group members seemed to 130 become much more responsive 'ma their show. They did not appear to be particularly nervous or anxious about sharing their slide/tape show, and they were pleased when the investigator's reactions told them that they had communicated what they had intended to communicate. Additional stage in the Creative Process Group.-- It is generally considered important for group facili- tators to be aware enough of group development to be able to help move the group through the necessary stages. It would therefore seem important to spend some time here describing an additional stage found to occur in the Creative Process Groups run in this study. This particu- lar stage tended to be directly associated with the mechanics of the task itself, and usually occurred late in the life of the group-~afggg the members had become a working group and were most actively involved in the task. One W/F group member referred to this as the "obsessive" stage, and that label seems to fit. The characteristics of this stage include total immersion in the task; a conflicting sense of "it's gonna get done" and "is it egg; gonna get done?"; a great deal of frustration; losing track of time while working; expenditure of much energy; giddiness; and feelings like "I want to throw these slides against the wall," "If I hear that piece of music one more time I'll 131 throw up," and "If you change the order of the slides again I'll break both your legs." For both Winter groups, this stage occurred during the process of coordinating the slides to the music with the automatic sync mechanism described in Appendix G. The Sp/M group experienced it at a differ- ent point. They used the script method (Appendix G) rather than the automatic sync method and the final coordination process went very smoothly and easily for them. This might indicate that the "obsessive” stage is a product of the sync procedure itself. The Sp/M group, however, seemed to experience the characteristics of the "obsessive” stage when they taped and mixed their music at the Instructional Resources Center. Perhaps their having gone through the stage at that earlier point made it possible for them to do the final coordination of their show without having to experience the "obses- sion".again. The Sp/Th group appeared to experience the "obsessive" stage during their final session, which they spent working intensely on synching the show. They repeatedly ran through the song ("I've memorized this damn thing!"), practiced running through the slides, and made final decisions about what would go where. People began to become giddy and anxious about the passage of time. After difficulties with different 132 pieces of equipment, the show was synched, and as they prepared to play it back, the woman who had actually done the button pushing exclaimed, ”If it goes wrong, I quit...I refuse to do it anymore...don't hit me if it doesn't work right." It did work right and laughter, cheers, and applause were the response. Another important characteristic that seemed to accompany this intensive work stage was the development, in each group, of a c00perative division of labor. Dur- ing the more complex work of selecting, sequencing, and synchronizing, individuals often had different "jobs" (i.e.: working the projector, picking out slides from the light table, running the tape, reading the lyrics, etc.). This tended to intensify the feeling of a group working together and to emphasize to individuals the important role each of them played in creating the finished product. This was a very exciting process, often accompanied by a much freer expression of opinions, ideas, disagreements, and praise than was evident during the groups' earlier stages. Turning points.--Examination of the experience of the four Creative Process Groups provides some impor- tant data about particular points or events which tended to aid the group's development and progress. For three of the four groups, the clarification of a theme for the slide/tape show was necessary before individuals could 133 begin to take pictures. Even the group (W/Th) which decided to go ahead before they had a theme spent much time trying to agree on one and expressed anxiety as they took pictures without knowing exactly what their focus was. A second important turning point in all groups came when they began to listen to music and take the risk of sharing with one another the images they saw as they listened. This process often began to give people specific ideas of the kinds of pictures they wanted to take. A third important event for all the groups came when they actually had something tangible to work with (i.e., slides) rather than just talk about. Members uniformly expressed that they felt good when they finally ”got down to work" and actually started moving slides around and seeing what different combinations would look like. The W/F group was the only one to experience (and overcome) several negative turning points. Their momentum was broken early by the loss of two members; later by losing another; and then by having to wait until the following term for the duplication of a dozen slides before they could complete their slide/tape show. The loss of members was uncontrollable, but the difficulty ‘with having to wait for the slides could have been 134 avoided by waiting until after the show had been completed and viewed before getting the slides duplicated. This practice was followed for two of the other groups with positive results. Facilitative interventions by leaders.--Although all facilitators approached this group experience without specific directions of how to meet their responsibili- ties, it seemed that similar types of interventions proved effective in all the groups. Helping to clarify ideas expressed and decisions to be made seemed to facilitate the group's movement, especially during attempts in the early group sessions to focus on a theme. Leaders also tended to bring people back to the task at times, or at least offer the observation that they seemed to be staying away from it. Checking this out usually served to further the progress of the group. Another important type of intervention involved pointing out and validating both similarities and differences among indi- viduals in the group. Many members also seemed to experience some hesitancy in sharing things important to them (i.e., pictures, songs, ideas, feelings, etc.) and when these hesitancies were brought up and talked about they generally decreased. The facilitators' willingness to share their own images and fantasies often seemed to serve as a model and group members generally responded by beginning to share their own 135 images more freely. A final type of effective inter— vention involved labeling the various stages of the creative process as they happened and acknowledging and validating the feelings that might go along with them (i.e., the ambiguity and confusion of the Preparation stage; the scareyness of sharing the product with any- one else, etc.). Besides facilitating the group pro- cess, this type of labeling might also have served an instructional learning purpose, as people began to understand how their experience fit into the total creative process. Content of the Creative Products The slide/tape shows developed ran an average of 4 minutes and 51 seconds (W/Th = 6:00; W/F = 4:10; Sp/M = 4:15; Sp/Th = 3:40), and contained, on the average, 68 slides (W/Th = 78; W/F = 53; Sp/M = 65; Sp/Th = 74). The slide/tape shows created by the four groups were each powerful in their own unique way. The W/Th group's theme was an attempt to express where women have been and what they are now becoming. The music selected was done by women and the songs interwoven were: "The Girl You Think you See" (Carly Simon),"Women Loving Women" (Carol Etzler), "Peaceful" (Helen Reddy), "The Homecoming" (instrumental). The pictures used included a mixture of symbols and people, 136 and the group also took and used many pictures of them- selves, both individually and as a group. The W/F group developed the idea of putting together a slide/tape show which would communicate the process by which they developed as a group, and created a slide/tape show. They expressed this by using actual pictures of themselves interspersed with pictures of water in different forms to communicate symbolically the theme. This group was the only one not to use music sung by women, but instead of taping from a record, they used several pieces of classical music played on the piano by one of the group's co-facilitators. The music used was: "A Prelude" (Chopin), "Moonlight Sonata" (Beethoven), "Doctor Gratis ad Parnassum" (Debussy). Their water slides were selected from already existing slides which group members brought in, and they took the pictures of themselves as they worked. The investi- gator came in to take the group pictures of them all. The theme of the Sp/M group's slide/tape show was self-seeking and growth. They also chose music done by women and interwove one full song with pieces of two others: "I Am Woman" (Helen Reddy), "Beautiful" (Carole King), "I Am Woman," ”I Mean to Shine" (Barbra StreiSand), "I Am Woman." The pictures they took were primarily pictures of women doing a wide variety of activities and visually complementing the song lyrics. 137 The Sp/Th group started out with the theme of the exciting parts of being a woman, but when they selected their music they seemed to re-focus the theme to fit in with that particular song. The result was a powerful, humorous, and somewhat biting slide/tape show using the song "Did Jesus Have a Baby Sister" (Dory Previn). This group used more pictures from maga- zines and books than any of the other groups, and this proved highly effective. An interesting issue to look at, in all the groups, is their use of pictures of themselves. Such slides were an integral part of both the W/Th and W/F slide/tape shows. The Sp/M group had briefly discussed, during their second session, the idea of doing the slide/tape show on themselves. Although they did not decide to keep that focus, their finished product included a number of pictures of individual group mem- bers and friends of theirs. There were also two slides the group had taken of themselves when they were mixing their music and taping it. The Sp/Th group also talked briefly about putting in pictures of themselves but they never followed through on the idea. Although there was some initial embarrassment and giggling as group members took pictures of one another, in the end it seemed to be a very validating experience. Individuals cheered as 'they saw one another appear on the screen in the 138 finished product, and they often seemed really excited at having incorporated themselves into the slide/tape show (especially when their faces showed up at points in which the music expressed strength or togetherness). Describing the four slide/tape shows in this section cannot do justice to them. They need to be seen and heard to be fully appreciated. Feelings Expressed The Creative Process Group experience seemed to evoke similar patterns of feelings among participants in all four groups. The major feelings expressed during the early sessions were confusion (about the task), fear (of sharing), anxiety (about whether they would have enough time to finish), and especially frustration (about almost everything). Excitement was the most frequent feeling expressed in later sessions, as group members looked at slides, put pictures to music, and viewed what they had done. Pride and satisfaction were also expressed, and when group members were really pleased with their accomplishments there were often cheers, exclamations of "OH WOW," and applause. 139 Participants' Reactions to the Creative Process Group Experience Perhaps the best way to present the participants' reactions to their experience is to simply report some of their own statements taken off the tapes of their final sessions. "I feel so proud." "My God, we did it and it's good!" ”What a trip...what a high!" "Oh God, this is great!" "ALL RIGHT!” "It's just terrific!" "I can't believe it...we did it...we're done." "Let's see it again.” "I'm glad it's done." "I'm kind of amazed it turned out so well." "I got a real sense of accomplishment." ”I just feel real complete about it now that it's finished." "We could share not only the end product with each other but also all the things that went into it." "There's more in that slide show than we even knew when we were putting it together." "As the slides went through it evoked memories as to how we put that slide in, who took it, what it meant to us at the time, and things like that." "I'd never really done a group creative thing before. It's always been really individual for me, and the high of a group is so much higher 140 than a high of an individual...high...if that makes sense. The individual high is really neat, but it's more...it's quieter...it's mellower." "One thing I didn't realize until I saw the slides tonight and remembered all the trials and tribulations we went through...really how I learned to work in a group with a real definite thing in mind for the first time, I think... 'cause I've worked in groups before but never with that much intensity where you really depended on one another like we depended on you for the music and you guys to put the slides together and time it right...and pick up slides and be here...and everyone was." "There was a lot of respect for each other...for each other's ideas...really encouraging each person to develop what they wanted to and then hOpe we had something in common." "When I saw it for the first time today...I hadn't really wanted to come today 'cause I was just so antsy to get out