PRE-SERVICE AND IN -SERVICE PREPARATION " PROGRAMS FOR URBANSGHOOL SUPERMEN'DENTS’ AS ~\IlEWEi) BY PRACTITIONERS. AND A SELECTED PANEL 0F AUTHORiTlES' Thesis for the Degree of th D". rn ,) . E; 3%? .1 «S. g » MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ROBERT P. WEISS: inuavl 1 .p.e.nu..r .333 it. . .. .. u. .23.......:.Z‘.v....1..)x....3$, 1.“ Date 0-7639 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Pre-Service and In-Service Preparation Programs For Urban School Superintendents AS Viewed by Practitioners and a Selected Panel of Authorities presented by Robert P . Weiss has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. 1)- degree in Jdncationel Administration (2/11/71 - . .I . '_ " r '—'V.E.\' W 2”; 3':'.‘ “‘6'?" ABSTRACT PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE PREPARATION PROGRAMS FOR URBAN SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS AS VIEWED BY PRACTITIONERS AND A SELECTED PANEL OF AUTHORITIES BY Robert P. Weiss The thesis of this study was that new and viable preparation programs for educational leaders must be designed that are relevant and that will help develop the competencies needed by educational leaders to survive and succeed on the -job in a rapidly changing society. The problem of this study was threefold. First, to explore and assess the effectiveness of existing prepara— tion programs. Second, to study and analyze the new demands and/or professional competencies needed by educational lead— ers. Finally, to propose guidelines and basic patterns for new pre-service and in-service preparation programs in edu- cational administration. The design of the study was basically built around an open-ended interview schedule format. A series of inter— views was conducted with a selected panel of nine authorities in school administration and with 21 superintendents in districts of 5,000 or more students in Northern California. Robert P. Weiss Effectiveness of existing programs was assessed by both groups as being inadequate, in view of new problems and new skill needs. Weaknesses and strengths of existing programs were elicited from each group, and analysis of these responses showed a wide variety of opinions. Generally, the major weaknesses, as viewed by the superintendents, were in the areas of theory-practice linkage, skill development in human relations and conflict management, field experiences, and programs that were inflexible and not individually prescribed. Weaknesses as viewed by the panel of authorities were in the areas of recruitment and selection, task area emphasis, con- straints of legal licensing requirements, faculty resistance to change, and lack of emphasis on full-time study. Major strengths were viewed by both groups as inter- disciplinary approaches, independent study programs, and field or internship experiences. Suggestions and recommendations from both groups for improving preparation programs were numerous and varied. Both groups emphasized the need for changes in preparation programs and strongly indicated a desire to see such changes implemented. Problems and skill needs were found to be varied in nature. The most emphasized skill needs were conceptual rather than technical. The superintendents emphasized the following general skill needs: understanding of the Robert P. Weiss environment, perceiving trends, sensing community needs, political expertise, managing conflict, building effective and efficient organizations, human relations skills, techni— cal competencies, personal considerations, and managing change. The panel of authorities emphasized the abilities needed to respond to societal change, purpose defining, con— flict management, organizational behavior, and self-awareness and self-confidence, as the competencies required to survive and succeed. Planning skills in all areas were also empha- sized. The recommended guidelines offered as a model for preparation programs consisted of General Goals and Operating Principles. The common core of goals toward which the program design should be directed is as follows. All students of educational administration must: 1. Be familiar with the relationships between the school and the environment. 2. Be aware of the contemporary forces and prob- lems confronting education. 3. Be able to relate basic values and value sys- tems to the role and function of the educational organization in society in a manner that reflects flexibility and adap- tiveness to change. Robert P. Weiss 4. Understand the characteristics ahd behavior of individuals and organizations. 5. Be familiar with the processes of purpose defining, goal setting, and goal achievement. 6. Be familiar with the newest technology, method- ology, and capabilities of planning and achieving increased effectiveness and efficiency. 7. Be familiar with the human relations aspects associated with successful leadership, including the under- standing of the human needs of others as well as self. 8. Be able to view people as human resources. 9. Be able to develop a positive self-concept. 10. Be able to manage conflict, crises, and change. The following Operating principles are intended to be a general structure for designing meaningful adaptive learning experiences with specified and verifiable perfor- mance criteria: 1. The study of administration would be centered in a separate college. 2. Each student of educational administration would have an individually prescribed program. 3. Traditional courses would be replaced by indi— vidual learning experiences and problem-oriented seminars. 4. The role of the professor and faculty would be that of learning resource manager, planner, diagnostician, Robert P. Weiss and evaluator, and resource person in one or more areas of expertise. 5. Learning experiences would be mutually developed between faculty and student to meet goals and objectives. 6. Resources of the university and total commu- nity would be utilized whenever possible. 7. A period of directed field work or internship would be a common requirement. 8. A wide variety of instructional techniques would be used by faculty and students. 9. Counseling, individual and group experiences, modified T-group experiences, and other techniques would be an integral and ongoing component. 10. Life-long education, self-renewal, and in- service training would be an integral part of the program. 11. The program would have built-in evaluation and feedback devices. 12. Recruitment and selection procedures would consist of identification of high-talent personnel and diag- nostic procedures to assist in program planning for each individual. 13. Full-time study would be required of each student. 14. Dissertation requirements would be flexible. 15. There would be extensive opportunity for inter- disciplinary study and experience. Robert P. Weiss Future studies at a later time were recommended as follows: 1. An analysis and synthesis of the proposed program should be simulated, using the techniques of systems analysis. 2. Specific courses should be redesigned from lecture-type courses to individual and separate learning packages. 3. A program budget format should be developed and simulated to test the feasibility of various alternative strategies inherent in the proposed guidelines. 4. Continued assessment of current problems and demands faced by practicing school administrators should be conducted to suggest further program needs. PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE PREPARATION PROGRAMS FOR URBAN SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS AS VIEWED BY PRACTITIONERS AND A SELECTED PANEL OF AUTHORITIES BY Robert P} Weiss A THESIS Submitted to . Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1971 PLEASE NOTE: Some Pages have indistinct print. Filmed as received. UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author has benefited greatly during the course of this study from many people. First and foremost, the solid support and strength of my wife Joy, my son Lane, and my daughters Jeri and Gini are here acknowledged. Their sacrifices probably cannot be fully comprehended by the author; however, his gratitude is matched only by his love for them. The members of the author's guidance committee, composed of Chairman Dr. Stanley Hecker, Dr. Samuel Moore, Dr. Glen "Pete" COOper, Dr. C. Keith Groty, and Dr. Michael Moore, are here acknowledged for their guidance, expertise, interest, and stimulation. During the early stages of the study, the author was privileged to have received wise counsel and assistance from Dr. Kal Gezi, Sacramento State College; Dr. Gene Lamb, San Jose State College; and Dr. I. Carl Candoli, The Ohio State University. Their professional guidance was a major factor in this study and is here acknowledged. The Board of Education of the Santa Clara Unified School District provided the author with time and financial assistance by granting a sabbatical leave. The author ii extends his most sincere appreciation to the Board and citi- zens of the District. Finally, the author here gratefully acknowledges the friendship of Dr. Donald J. Leu, San Jose State College, whose initial influence, continued motivation and guidance, and leadership throughout the entire doctoral program have been a source of inspiration. The author's debt to this warm human being can never be adequately repaid except by extend- ing a similar helping hand to those who might need or request it in the future. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O 0 LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES O O O O O O O O C O O O O C O . Chapter I. II. III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design and Methodology . . . . . . . . . Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . Definition of Important Terms. . . . . . Significance of the Problem. . . . . . . Summary and Overview . . . . . . . . . . REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Review of Selected Literature on the Development of Preparation Programs for Educational Leaders in the Past Half-Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forces Affecting Educational Leadership. Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current Trends in Preparation Programs for School Administrators. . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Interview as a Research Technique. . The Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . . Criteria for the Conduct of Interviews Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page ii vii viii H WONWAWNH 15 16 27 32 38 45 47 47 47 53 55 56 60 Chapter IV. PROBLEMS AND SKILL NEEDS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems and Skill Needs of Public School Administrators as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. . . . . . Problems as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. . . . . . Skill Needs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. . . . . . Problems and Skill Needs of Public School Administrators as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration . . . Problems as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration . . . Skill Needs as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EFFECTIVENESS, STRENGTHS, AND WEAKNESSES OF EXISTING PROGRAMS FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS AND SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT. . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effectiveness of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. . . . . . Weaknesses of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. Strengths of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. . . . . . Effectiveness Programs as Authorities Weaknesses of Programs as Authorities of Existing Preparation Viewed by a Panel of in School Administration Existing Preparation Viewed by a Panel of in School Administration Strengths of Existing Programs as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration . . . . . . . . . Suggestions and Recommendations for Improving Preparation Programs for School Administrators as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents. . . . . . Page 62 62 63 63 71 78 79 82 85 89 89 89 90 91 91 92 93 94 Chapter Page Suggestions and Recommendations for Improving Preparation Programs for School Superintendents as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 104 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Recommended Guidelines for New Preparation Programs . . . . . . . . . . . 109 General Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . lll Suggestions for Further Study. . . . . . . . 117 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O 0 C O O O O O O O O O O O 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o o o o o 146 vi Table 1. LIST OF TABLES Page School Districts in Northern California by Grade Organization, Size and Sample. . . . 51 Average Daily Attendance in Sample Districts. . 51 Age of Superintendents in the Sample. . . . . . 52 Education of Superintendents in the Sample. . . 52 Administrative Experience of Superintendents in the Sample . . . . . . . . 52 Categories of Data Desired and Questions from the Interview Schedule Designed to Stimulate Response . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 vii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Interview Schedule, Authorities in School Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . 122 B. Interview Schedule, School Superintendents . . 125 C. Patterns of Leadership Attitudes . . . . . . . 128 D. Background Information -- Interviewees . . . . 130 E. Summary Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 F. Final Report, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies -- Summary of Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 viii CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction The task of preparing educational leaders for the 1970's and 1980's will depend heavily on colleges and univer- sities. Institutions of higher learning will have to channel their resources into preparing educational leaders who must be competent to deal with the crucial and rapidly changing socio-economic, political, and legal problems now confronting public education. The competencies needed by educational leaders to resolve such problems and to be able to survive and succeed in a society characterized by rapid change will also be continuously modified. Therefore, colleges and uni- versities must be responsive to that change by offering appropriate and effective preparation programs for educa- tional leaders, continued specialized in-service training, and renewal programs. New and changing skills, knowledges, and competencies will be required of the training institutions. As new evidence is discovered which will tend to improve the preparation of individuals for educational leader- ship, these findings should be incorporated into the efforts and programs of colleges and universities entrusted with the responsibility for preparing competent, effective, and suc- cessful educational leaders. The study of existing preparation programs, the changing role and function of educational leadership, and the sensitivity to the forces affecting change in our society should be a constant concern of those educational planners dedicated to preserving and furthering the concepts of public education in America. The thesis of this study is as follows: New and viable preparation programs for educational leaders must be designed that are relevant and that will help develop the competencies needed by educational leaders to survive and succeed on the job in a rapidly changing society. The Problem Assuming that traditional programs for preparing educational leaders are inadequate and inconsistent with emerging professional competency needs in a rapidly changing society, the problem with which the researcher in this study is concerned is threefold: 1. To explore, in brief form, the philOSOphy, charac- teristics, and objectives of traditional preparation programs for educational leaders. A qualitative assessment of the relative effectiveness of these, as suggested by the literature and as viewed by leading authorities in school administration and practicing school district superintendents, is also an objective of this study. 2. More important, to study and analyze the new demands and/or new professional competencies needed by edu- cational leaders as viewed by leading authorities in school administration and practicing school district superintendents. 3. From an analysis of one and two above, to propose guidelines and basic patterns for developing new cur— ricula and quasi-professional experiences for pre- service and in-service preparation programs in educational administration. Design and Methodology The design of the study was basically built around the open-ended interview schedule format. Two professional groups were selected to respond to the schedule. A series of in-depth interviews was conducted with a selected panel of leading authorities in school administration. Coordinated with these interviews, a series of in-depth interviews was made with practicing school district superintendents in Northern California. These superintendents were selected at random and represent school districts of 5,000 or more students. A more complete description of the interview method— ology employed in this study is found in Chapter III. A copy of the interview schedule is located in Appendices A and B. In order to maintain consistency, control for inter- nal validity, and assist in the heuristic development of a proposed preparation program for educational leaders, an intensive analysis was made of the literature in the field of preparation programs for educational administrators. Selected literature also was reviewed in the areas of social, economic, political, legal, and extralegal forces as they relate to the problem of this study. Selected literature on leadership also was reviewed. A synthesis of results of the interviews and the review of the literature provided the data from which con- clusions and recommendations were made. Delimitations of the Study While the results of the interviews with leading authorities in school administration and the review of the literature may reflect opinions national in scope, the results of the interviews with practicing school district superintendents may be limited by the nature of their geo- graphic isolation. The random sampling technique provided for the selection of a cross-section of school districts in the northern half of the nation's most populous state. It is therefore reasonable to assume that typical responses from typical school district superintendents were recorded. It is quite conceivable that the reliability of the responses of the practitioners perhaps would have been enhanced had the researcher had the opportunity to interview school district superintendents representing every type and size of school district in various geographical areas across the nation. The study is further delimited by the fact that its focus was on the superintendent, with special emphasis on the large district superintendency usually found in urban or metropolitan areas. Therefore, the implications for prepara- tion of school administrators at other levels of the school program must be qualified. Finally, even though the conclusions and recommenda- tions may not be the result of experimental research, they should have applicability through the power of suggestion to those educational planners seeking to improve preparation programs for educational leaders. Definition of Important Terms In order to aid in understanding important terms in this study, the following definitions are offered at this point and should serve as a reference for the remainder of the study. The Educational Leader in this study is defined as the superintendent, who is the chief administrative officer of the local school district Board of Education. Large District Superintendent is defined in this study as a superintendent of a local school district with an average daily attendance of 5,000 pupils or more in an urban or metropolitan area. Preparation Programs for Educational Leaders in this study are defined as those formal preparation programs offered by colleges and universities that are designed to prepare educational leaders by apprOpriate post-graduate study. For the purposes of this study, it is assumed that these programs lead to the doctoral degree, as well as the minimum legal licensing requirements for the chief administrative officer. Competencies are defined in this study as those capa- bilities, proficiencies, and skills that are needed to carry out successfully the functions required of the educational leader in the local school district setting. Heuristic is defined in this study as serving to guide, discover, or reveal. Significance of the Problem Public school systems deserve the best educational leadership possible in times such as these, when such heavy demands are being placed on public education. In the past century, the superintendency has changed in scope, as has the emphasis in the preparation programs for that position. Griffiths (1966) has described the development of the super- intendency in three stages. From 1837 to 1910 the responsi- bilities ranged across the entire spectrum of running the schools. From 1910 to 1945 the "businessman" superintendent emerged as the prototype. The period from 1945 to the present has been called one of ferment. According to Griffiths, the strongest influence in this third stage, in terms of preparation programs, has been the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. Its interest and resources spearheaded a period of intensive self-study during the 1950's, the result of which was little change in practice but the beginning of theories in school administration. In this era of change, new skills are being required of educational leaders to move successfully the total resources of the community toward the goals of public edu- cation. New demands requiring new leadership skills neces- sarily require new schemes for preparing the educational leaders of tomorrow. A look at the immediate future was offered by Havighurst (1966), when he pointed out the probability of strife in metropolitan areas and its implications for educa- tional leaders. For the next decade there is bound to be tension and conflict in the metropolitan area over school poli- cies and practices, because social change will require new practices which must be worked out by people who have differing interests and attitudes. The Board of Education and Superintendent must adapt their roles to each other and the changing situations. . . . The superintendent in the key actor in the situation. He needs to understand the whole complex of social systems and subsystems. This is difficult for the modern super— intendent whose training has disposed him toward working for efficiency within his own subsystem of teachers, pupils, and administrators. (p. 241) Some of the more apparent issues resulting in new demands on educational leaders can be briefly summarized here in order to accent the rationale for this study and the need for continued improvement of preparation programs for edu- cational leaders. The urbanization trend in America has brought with it such accompanying issues as racism and integration, decen- tralization of large districts, and the increasing demands of the community to influence educational policy and practice more strongly. The days of public school officials running the schools in a vacuum under the cloak of professionalism are in the past. Communities are now demanding more respon- siveness from their school systems, and educational leaders must be prepared to face the problems of matching educational programs to the goals and desires of the community. The competition for scarce financial resources has raised several issues in terms of local, state, and federal priorities regarding public education. Not only are there questions about the quantity of public resources which should be devoted to public education, but there is an increasing demand for accountability for those resources already allo- cated. Program budgeting systems are being instituted throughout the states to assist in determining the effec- tiveness of educational programs. The so-called voucher systems and the movement of private firms into contracting for educational services are further evidence of the search for more accountability in public education through schemes designed to promote competition for financial resources. Significant issues creating demands on educational leaders also include the continuing struggle for power between community groups, teachers, and students. Each of these partners in public education is asserting its strength to determine the future course of educational systems. While not attempting to analyze or evaluate the motives of these various forces, many of their actions have been described and defined as a "growing militancy." Teacher, student, and parent negotiations and the resultant adversary roles have caused new concerns for educational leaders. The widening diversity of opinions, ideas, and actions most certainly challenges every educational leader. The ability to cope with and manage conflict may well determine the entire future of public education in America. In the arena of legal issues, there are many which have had a dramatic impact on school programs. New laws and court decisions have taken some of the options out of the hands of educational leaders completely. The processes pre— scribed in our democratic system for effecting change have been used all the way from Supreme Court decisions to state laws, to local ordinances. The skills required to under- stand and work within the legal framework are of increasing importance to educational leaders. These are but some of the social, economic, political, and legal issues currently placing heavy demands on educa- tional leaders. Solutions to these major problems, and many others, at some point in time probably will rest with local boards of education and the administrative staff of local districts. Boards of education have every right to expect highly qualified educational leaders who are adequately 10 prepared to deal with issues affecting the educational opportunities of all children of the local school district. The profession has partially recognized the rapid changes in society. The Educational Policies Commission (1965) stated that: Educational leadership is at the center of virtually all the current social revolutions, shaping them and being shaped by them. . . . The superintendent must be a person of considerable knowledge. Much of that knowledge is specific to education and educational administration and can be derived initially from tech- nical courses specifically designed for the preparation of superintendents. In this category is a knowledge of management techniques and of pertinent laws, regu- lations, and policies. But this is only part of the preparation. Because of the range of competencies required in the superintendency, preparation for that office calls for much more. The professional perform- ance of a superintendent is directly affected by the degree to which he possesses understanding of his soci- ety and culture and of the forces affecting them. Only a student of the world can sense what the future is likely to require of young people. Only a man who is at home in the world of ideas can meet the complex responsi- bilities of educational leadership. (pp. 1-3). Perhaps it would be easy to generalize and say that what has been done in terms of preparing educational leaders in the past has not been adequate and successful, as some critics of public education have charged. But this indict- ment is not realistic in the final analysis of our rapidly changing society. What should be said is that there should be a recognition of the need for change to meet the problems of the present and the next decade, and new preparation programs for educational leaders should be designed to help assure the continuance of the proper role of public educa- tion across the nation. ll Prominent authorities in the field of school admin- istration have traced the development of school administra- tion and have analyzed the nature of preparation programs for school administrators. They have attempted to look ahead to the future and pose probable trends in the preparation programs of the next decade or two. For example, Culbertson (1964) stated that: To be sure, much remains to be achieved in attain- ing apprOpriate balance and needed depth in preparatory programs. In focusing more upon the study of the real world during the last decade, for example, scholars have tended to neglect the "ought" aspects of adminis- tration. That has meant that scientific content of administrative process has been highlighted and devel- Oped during this period. Efforts to organize content which would update educational purposes and logically relate them to national goals have been much less prom- inent. (p. 310) Many colleges, universities, foundations, individ— uals, and government leaders have addressed themselves to the task at hand and have dedicated their wisdom and energy toward the improvement of preparation programs for educa- tional leaders. Campbell, Cunningham, and McPhee (1965) suggested that there is some evidence that preparation pro- grams for superintendents will be improved in the years to come. They stated the hoped-for trend in the following manner: These improved programs will probably be character- ized by a number of other elements. Great reliance on the related disciplines in the social sciences and the humanities seems rather certain. Greater use of theory and research seems to constitute another emerging emphasis. Since administrators must not only know but be able to do, an increasing emphasis on field experi- ence, especially for the younger candidates, will 12 probably characterize the programs. For many candidates a full—time internship for a year may become a very important segment of their preparation. (p. 224) Melbo (1970) pointed out the critical problems of the 1970's and what the superintendent of the 70's must be able to handle. He described them as the five R's: Rebellion, Race, Revenue, Relevance, and Reaction. He pointed out that the preparation programs must be designed in terms of the projected problems of the 70's. In describ- ing the future design, Melbo stated: . . . he will pursue specialized courses in Educa- tional Administration and related disciplines. Such studies should culminate in a doctorate which has been redesigned to recognize a mix of applied, theoretical, clinical, and field—oriented studies. Among the spec- ialized studies will be those which focus on the nature of organizations and institutions, the social forces and political patterns which apply, the whole field of Educational Economics, the Techniques of Administrative Leadership, the Social Psychology of Education, the nature of the crowd and power. There will be much more of course, related to the structure of the educa- tional objectives for a future time, to patterns of governance in a participating democracy, to the assess- ment and develOpment of productivity, and to the organ- ization of change. The Superintendent of the 70's will need particu- larly to know the realities of politics. He must know how prestige is won and lost, how confidence is gained and destroyed, how cooperation is enlisted and rewarded. All of this is essential to his role as an Educational Statesman rather than that merely of a manager of an enterprise. Above all, he must know the nature and application of power, the interplay of social forces, and the nature of the social institution (Education) with which he is identified. (pp. 8-9) This, then, is what must be done--new programs which prepare for new demands and new competencies which will be required of the educational leader. That this task will be l3 done rests most heavily with the colleges and universities entrusted with the responsibility of providing preparatory programs for educational leaders. This study is another effort to continue and perhaps contribute to the improvement of public education in America by focusing on the problem of preparing educational leaders for the challenges of tomorrow. Summary and Overview The need for revitalizing the redesigning prepara- tion programs for educational leaders is apparent in light of current social, economic, political, and legal issues which are placing new demands on public education and edu- cational leaders across the land, particularly in urban and metropolitan areas. Investigation of the forces affecting educational leadership and the relevance of existing preparation programs for educational leaders in terms of developing the compe- tencies required to survive and succeed on the job in times of rapid change can lead to the development and design of new programs for preparing educational leaders. In Chapter II, the literature pertinent to existing preparation programs; forces affecting the educational leader in the areas of social, economic, political, legal, and extralegal forces; and leadership behavior is reviewed. Chapter III is devoted to a description of the meth- odology employed in this study in conducting in-depth 14 interviews with selected authorities in school administra- tion and practicing school district superintendents. The findings of a critical analysis of the litera- ture and of the interviews are to be found in Chapters IV and V. A summary of the study, conclusions, and recommenda- tions are found in Chapter VI. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE Introduction In this chapter, selected literature is reviewed in the following areas: 1. Development of Preparation Programs in the Past Half-Century 2. Forces Affecting Educational Leadership 3. Leadership 4. Current Trends in Preparation Programs for Educational Leaders The focus in the first section is upon the forces affecting preparation programs and position statements regarding what should be included in preparation programs. The second section deals with forces of the past decade and their projected impact on educational leadership in the 1970's. The third section includes definitions and descrip- tions of leadership. The final section is a summary of current trends in preparation programs for school administrators and a brief look at the future needs of educational leaders. 15 16 In total, the chapter is a reflection of the impact of society on preparation programs and the ability of the society to respond. Gardner (1963) put it this way: "In the ever-renewing society what matures is a system or frame- work within which continuous innovation, renewal and rebirth can occur." (p. 5) Hopefully, this can occur in preparation programs in light of today's conflict and protest. Review of Selected Literature on the Development of Preparation Programs for Educational Leaders in the Past Half-Century The very first yearbook of the Department of Super- intendence (NBA, 1923) reported the professional and econ: omic status of city superintendents of schools. The functions of the superintendents which they reported as most frequently performing were quite technical in nature, and included such items as appointment of teachers, super- vision of classroom instruction, and purchase and sale of buildings and grounds. The major recommendation of the study called for a larger amount of professional training. Specific recom- mendations included: (1) Graduation from a standard college. (2) From one to three years of specialized professional grad- uate work designed especially for the technical train- ing of school administrators. The work should include such courses as such lines of work as state and city school administration, principles of supervision, educational psychology, history and philosophy of edu- cation, general and educational sociology, economics, 17 finance, and other such courses. . . . This graduate work should give them through direct instruction, observation, supervised practice, participation in sur— veys or organized apprenticeship, a mastery of the actual technique of administering school systems of various sizes. (pp. 400-401) Obviously, the chief school officer was to be eSpec- ially well trained in the technical aspects of keeping school. The scientific management movement of the times affected public education and the administration of the System. Cubberly (1929) commented as follows concerning the preliminary education of the prospective superintendent: The exact nature of the preliminary training is perhaps less important than that it should be good, and that it should challenge the best efforts of the stu- dent, awaken worthy ambitions, and stimulate the develop— ment of a high ideal of service. The preparation should be broad, and should provide early opening to the stu- dent's permanent interests in fields of music and art, literature, history, science, economics, and human wel— fare. These he needs for health and understanding. His future success as the head of a school system will, to a large degree depend on his intelligent understanding of the scientific and industrial world about him, his broad human sympathies, and his ability to meet people of culture and refinement on their own plane. (pp. 223— 224) A decade after the first yearbook, the Department of Superintendence authorized a Commission on Educational Leadership to review the progress and possibilities of edu— cational leadership. Recognition of changing conditions caused the Com- mission to suggest: The restlessness and discontent portrayed in the press of 1931 and 1932 seem, however, portentous of changes which will have many implications for public 18 education. Here educational leadership must resort to the technic of the skilled medical man. (NBA, 1933, p. 17) The Commission reported no less than 25 or 30 insti- tutions offering important training for school executive officers as of 1933. Specific training of at least three graduate years was required to prepare adequately for the entire field. Intensive emphasis was placed on problems of finance, business administration, school housing, and school law. (p. 271) The Commission called for stronger preparation of the educational leader in terms of developing courage to champion the causes of a more vitalized educational force. It looked to the educational problems of the future in the social needs of the day, and concluded: A changing society will prosper as it entrusts the responsibility for its educational progress to an enlightened and well-trained leadership into whose thinking and planning have been interwoven the ideals of service for the common good. (p. 23) Growth in leadership should be in two directions, the Commission concluded. "The progressive superintendent of today is giving particular attention to making his leader— ship more scientific and more democratic." (PP. 165-166) Job analysis and problem attack, as outlined by Strayer, and field work experiments at several institutions were viewed by the Commission as practical plans to be used in the training of school executives. ‘ The Commission on Educational Leadership concluded its foreword by presenting this challenge: 19 What progress will the leadership of American edu- cation be able to show by the end of the next decade? Will the present depression leave its destructive mark on the leadership of the next few years? Or will our educational leaders, through their Vision, their prep- aration, and their enthusiasm, rise above the present social and economic handicap to social progress? (9. 4) In the two decades between the eleventh and thirtieth yearbooks of the Association, the country survived the depres- sion and World War II. These dramatic events in the United States gave way to new pressures in the late 1940's and early 1950‘s. Conflicting social pressures; channels of social pressures; administrative, financial, and legal restric- tions were all reported by superintendents in the thirtieth yearbook as blocks to leadership. (AASA, 1952, pp. 251-280) Broader pre-service and in-service training were viewed as one of the best ways of helping to overcome these blocks to effective administration. The Cooperative Program in Educational Administration was viewed as a promising milestone in the development of professional education for school administration. The need for a comprehensive program of further improvement consisting of varied elements from manpower planning to accreditation was a conclusion of the Yearbook Commission. It cited the early emphasis on the technical aspects of administration and the failure to read the signs of the times as major factors retarding progress in develop- ing satisfactory pre-service programs. (pp. 386-387) 20 The Commission argued for a new orientation for edu- cational administration by stating the competencies needed in the areas of community leadership; instructional program development; specialized administration in personnel, busi- ness, and finance; planning and providing for facilities; and democratic leadership. (pp. 389-390) To prepare prospective administrators with these competencies, the Commission proposed a future professional curriculum con- sisting of a blend of classroom instruction, field experi- ences, and research. (p. 392) Classroom instruction should consist of content from the social sciences, and business and public administration. Knowledge of other educational field and technical courses in school administration should be streamlined. Field experiences, such as internships, were viewed as being of considerable value. Research experiences should center around interpreting studies and participating in actual projects. Thus, it was concluded that changing conceptions of leadership, the mounting size of the educational task, the increasing complexity of the school program, the growing costs of education, the focus of social conflict, and the multiplying pressures on the superintendents of schools were forces leading to the increasing awareness of better pre- service programs for educational administration. In 1960, the American Association of School Admin- istrators concluded that "the professional preparation of 21 school Superintendents is badly in need of complete over- hauling." (AASA, 1960, p. 84) This conclusion was reached after surveying almost all (97 per cent) institutions having programs of preparation in 1958. The survey revealed the elements of the typical program to be: (1) course work in the organization and administration of education, (2) the curriculum, (3) supervision, (4) finance, (5) history and philosophy of education, (6) school law, (7) research, (8) educational psychology, (9) human growth and development, (10) school plant, and (11) personnel. Many institutions reported that they required courses outside the field of professional education, such as in the behavioral or social sciences. Criticism of the typical program in 1960 by AASA included such comments as "The programs appear to be bookish to the ultimate, . . instruction is classroom bound. . . mediocrity comes from the sterility of methods reported." (p. 83) Further, methods of entrance were considered more as admission rather than selection procedures. There was no discernible selection process. Full-time study was rela- tively rare. Eighty-eight per cent of the programs reporting had fewer than 25 full-time students. Concerning the programs for preparing superinten— dents in 1960, AASA summarized its feelings this way: Generally speaking, schools of education and depart— ments of school administration have not formed ways of 22 bringing their students into contact with professors from other disciplines; they have not made use of the public schools as laboratories; and they have not revised preparation programs to include cases, role—playing, field study, simulation, or any other of a multitude of techniques. (p. 84) In 1963, the American Association of School Admin- istrators called for professional preparation programs with more depth and breadth. It stated, . . . the evidence on every hand suggests that the program should be lengthened, broadened, and designed to penetrate deeper into the comprehensive understandings needed for effective school adminis- tration. (AASA, 1963, p. 33) It suggested three major facets of a preparation program at the graduate level, including: (1) Problems, developments, and issues in the American culture. (2) Theory and practice in planning, organizing, and administering the program of a school system. (3) Research and evaluation, together with skill in communication, particularly as related to school-community relations. (p. 17) Five years after the publication of the Thirty—eighth Yearbook, the AASA (1964) conducted another survey of prep- aration programs. In that span there was little change in courses recommended or required in administration. There were, however, two notable changes -- a completely new empha- sis on instruction in administrative theory and additional stress on student competence in research. In 1962-63 there was more use of related disciplines such as economics, political science, and sociology than before. 23 About four times as many institutions offered intern— ships in 1962-63 as in 1958-59, even though less than half the institutions reported offered internships and only a small percentage of students was involved. The requirement of full-time resident study was emphasized by more institutions than before. The survey indicated that 90 of the 103 institutions offering doctoral programs in educational administration required a year of residence. There was no general agreement on specific courses which should compose a particular type of program. In gen- eral, courses were not offered that were unique to the prep- aration of the superintendent of schools. Instructional methodology had changed in the five- year period, with more emphasis on the use of case studies, simulation materials, and field experiences. Moore, in summarizing developments in school admin- istration from 1947 to 1963, stated: Perhaps the chief contribution of the period 1947- 1963 was its success in focusing the spotlight on edu- cational administration. . . . The significant outcomes were: (a) administration was established as a scien- tific study; (b) the profession of school administration took a clear, open stand for high standards of quality; (c) curriculum innovations in preparation programs slowly became or began to become widespread; and (d) a new breed of leaders in educational administration were taking over important posts and bringing about changes that would shape the future. (pp. 32-33) Three events converged almost simultaneously to create a ferment in school administration in 1946-1947. The W. K. Kellogg Foundation decided to support the improvement 24 of school administration. (Kellogg Foundation, 1961) The American Association of School Administrators included in its goal statements the initiation of studies and programs looking toward further professionalization of the superin- tendency. The third event was the formation of the National Conference of Professors of Administration (NCPEA). In 1950—51, the Cooperative Program in Educational Administration, supported by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, began projects for the study and improvement of school administration at eight major regional centers. Two organ- izations were the offspring of the Kellogg grants —- the Committee for Advancement of School Administration (CASA) and the University Council for Education Administration (UCEA). Common and specialized learnings for school adminis- trators was the topic of a UCEA Seminar. Three dimensions were covered by contributors to the Seminar, including the social, institutional, and professional context. (Leu and Rudman, 1963) Particular attention was given by Culbertson (1963) as he proposed the following components of a model program. One-fourth to one-third of the content of a two-year program should be devoted to developing competence in the process aspects of administration, such as communicating, making decisions, handling morale, and coping with change. This content would be common to all administrators. From one- third to one-half of the content in programs would be 25 organized to help administrators be more competent in pur- _pose setting and policy making. Appropriate classifications would include philosophical concepts, economic, political, and sociological trends. One-fourth to one-third of the content would be technical in nature, and offer opportuni- ties for specialization. (pp. 34-60) Engleman (1963) listed the common elements in the preparation of superintendents, and the minimum time period for achieving competency in each area. The three comprehen- sive block areas were: (1) Problems and Issues In Our Culture (one-half year); (2) Theory-Practice in Organizing, Administrating, and Planning (one-half year); and (3) Research - Evaluation - Field Studies - Cases - Simulations - Writing (one—quarter year). The specialized elements should take a minimum of three-quarters of a year, depending on the scope of specialization. In a detailed analysis of the superintendency, Miller (1963) defined the superintendent as a perceptive generalist. His preparation should consist of an education which provides the basis of generalizing perceptively. He suggested that superintendents participate in common learnings programs with other administrators, with specialty training in areas of interest. In defining the perceptive generalist, Miller stated: The perceptive generalist must know enough of the general field and enough of the nature and problems of the specialist so that he can communicate with them with understanding, be comprehensible among the 26 specialists as a collective group, and meaningful between specialist and the general public. (p. 103) Various social science fields and the specific con- tributions each can make in approaching problems of educa- tional administration are reported by Tope and others. (1965) The concern for understanding the social forces in American life was a characteristic of preparation programs in the 1960's. Tope, et 31. argued that the school adminis- trator needs to know many things, but above all, adminis- trative processes such as recognizing and formulating problems, communication, decision making, and imvolving others in problem solving. All of these have one common denominator -- working with people. "The school adminis- trator above all else needs this ability." (p. 26) Tope suggested the use of interdisciplinary seminars to bring the methods and aims of social scientists to school administrators in a meaningful setting. Thus, in the past decade, some changes have been made in preparation programs for school superintendents. To derive from the literature the scope and depth of change would be impossible. Suffice it to say that each institu- tion offering a pre-service preparation program for school superintendents has developed its own particular program, and to generalize about the typical program might necessar- ily inaccurately describe a particular institution and its efforts. 27 Past emphases in programs for preparing administra- tors have been related to the dominant values in society. The scientific management movement early in the century reflected society's concern for productivity. The human— relations movement of the thirties grew out of a concern for people and their welfare. The 1940's and 1950's have seen the science of administration is a reflection of man's for- ward thrust in the physical sciences. Each of these eras has had an impact on preparation for educational leadership. Culbertson (1963) proposed that concepts from anthro- pology, economics, political science, psychology, and sociol- ogy could be incorporated into programs "to illuminate such administrative processes as communication, decision-making, change, and morale building and can help update definitions of educational excellence and quality of learning opportuni— ties." (p. 329) If this trend continues, the dominant values of society will probably play a major role in shaping the nature of preparation programs in the future. The next section reviews some of the major forces shaping educational leader- ship today. Forces Affecting Educational Leadership The past decade has seen conflict and protest, vio— lence and riot, militancy and demands of the public school system beyond its capability to meet. Some of the forces at work in the 1960's will probably persist in the near 28 future. This section will include a summary of some of these major forces affecting educational leadership. Reller (1962) predicted basic societal trends having implications for educational administration, including increased mobility of population, increased citizen involve- ment in policy formation, a redefinition of equal educational opportunity, more varied services, fewer school districts, a growing commonality of educational administration with other types of administration, and an increased attention to research as a basis for policy decision. He concluded that "educational administration is caught up in a changing world. . . . The new administrator must be aware of and be able to provide leadership within this setting." (pp. 108- 109) Goldhammer, et 31. (1967) grouped problems faced by superintendents into six major categories. These problems were identified through interviews of 47 selected superin- tendents in 22 states. The problems were those perceived by the superintendents in their own school districts. 1. Educational change, including societal and com- munity changes, federal influences, state and local pres- sures, and organizational change. 2. Teacher militancy and the power of teacher organizations. 3. Instruction, including the quality and supply of personnel, curriculum, evaluation, and in-service education. 29 4. Administrative leadership, which was defined as political involvement, board-superintendent relations, decision making, organization change, and the changing role of the superintendent. 5. Critical social issues, such as racial problems, cultural deprivation, religion, and extremism. 6. Finance, with special emphasis on taxation, legislative control, and federal aid. Goldhammer concluded that: The problems appear to arise from relatively few sources. They arise from the major dislocations affect— ing American society; from the rapid social changes affecting American communities which impose changes upon the schools; from cultural changes which necessi- tate new role definitions for educational administrators; from individual characteristics of superintendents; and seemingly, from the persistence of traditional modes of organizational behavior and governmental structures and practices. (p. 53) The Commission on Preparation of Professional School Administrators of the American Association of School Admin- istrators reported (Education USA, 1970b) that a sampling of superintendents and professors agreed the following problems were of extreme importance: school finance, school staffing, negotiations, race relations and integration, demands for educational change, and changes involving behavioral norms. The superintendents agreed that courses dealing with these problems ". . . should definitely be included in the prepara- tion of administrators." (p. 16) New skills needed by superintendents, according to the report, are in the areas of public relations, knowledge 30 of curriculum trends, knowledge of public finance, human relations, and computer technology. Culbertson, 33 31. (1969) identified six major soci- etal forces having an important impact upon the organization and administration in the last decade. They believed that the ones selected will likely continue to have significant impact in the next decade. The forces are: l. The federal thrust in education. 2. The growing pressures to meet more effectively the needs of the racially segregated, the poverty-stricken, and the disadvantaged. 3. The changing character of the "business-education interface." 4. The increase in teacher militancy. 5. The diffusion of Special management technologies into education. 6. The growth of research and development in educa- tion. (pp. 4-6) Culbertson concluded that "In a number of ways, the world of the superintendent is being turned upside down. . . . Today, authority figures, including superintendents, are being challenged as never before." (p. 299) The urban school crisis, the problem and solutions, were proposed by the Health, Education, and Welfare Urban Education Task Force in their final report. (Education USA, 1970a) The chairman of the task force was Wilson C. Riles, new State Superintendent of Public Instruction in California. 31 After documenting the financial crisis of the urban schools, the urban environment factors, the lack of success in urban education systems, and a description of the impoverished urban student, the task force proposed a new federal role in urban education. The new role would demand a higher national priority for education and would call for additional funds, a master plan, community determination, performance stan- dards and improved assessment, and racial and ethnic inte- gration. Havighurst (1971) called for the reorganization of urban education, and for increased options for parents and children with respect to education, delegation of substan- tial responsibility to local community groups, and increased c00peration among school districts in metropolitan areas. He optimistically stated that: Given this kind of "live and let live" policy, we believe that the decade of the 1970's will provide experience on the basis of which many disagreements of today will be resolved and a more coherent and generally satisfactory school program will emerge. (p. 358) Johnson (1969), after reviewing developments since the Brown Decision of the U. S. Supreme Court, observed that educational policy makers are being overtaken by creeping legalism in searching for quality education in our plural- istic society. One of the most startling forces has been the increased teacher militancy in the past decade. The pres- sures of conflict and protest have resulted in new roles 32 (Scott, 1966), and altering existing role relationships in school organizations. The National Education Association (1970) reported that teacher strikes had risen from three in 1960 to 180 in the 1969-70 school year. It is evident that "conflict management skills will become even more critical for chief school administrators." (Culbertson, 33 31., 1969, p. 276) Systems analysis in schools (Pfeiffer, 1968); plan— ning, programming, budgeting systems (Hartley, 1968); and management information systems (Miller, 1969) have placed more emphasis on defining and measuring educational output. This thrust indicates that there will be more questioning of values, alternatives, and programs in educational policy making. Changes in the environment, such as those reviewed above, suggest that schools are moving away from a predomi- nate emphasis on pattern maintenance, toward increasing emphasis on goal attainment. There are changing roles and structures and an increasing politicization of education. It seems clear that the educational leader of the seventies will need to know who he is and what he believes in. He will need strategies to cope with conflict. And he will probably need a cast-iron stomach. (Culbertson, 33 31., 1969, p. 305) Leadership Lipham (1964) stated ". . . that while administra— tion and leadership may have many factors in common, they are indeed not synonymous." He defined leadership 33 . . . as the initiation of a new structure or pro- cedure for accomplishing an organization's goals and objectives. . . . The administrator . . . may be identi— fied as the individual who utilizes existing structures or procedures to achieve an organizational goal or objective. (p. 122) He went on to state that: . . . to better understand leadership, we can no longer afford to ignore extra-organizational variables -- the relationship of the leader to the larger social structure of which the organization is a part. (p. 140) French (1970), after reviewing recent research deal- ing with leadership patterns, concluded that: Effective leadership —- leadership associated both with high workers' performance and high workers' morale and with the development of human resources rather than their dissipation -- results from a com- plex combination of traits, behaviors, and conditions. Effective leadership is a multi—dimensional matter, involving attention to a wide variety of factors.. (p. 124) Hampton, Summer, and Webber (1968) have defined leadership as the key to direct influence. They stated that: "The sum total of the behavior of an executive in his direct relations with subordinates could be termed leadership." (p. 495) Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1968) have suggested a con- tinuum of leadership behavior related to the degree of authority used by the boss and to the amount of freedom available to his subordinates in reaching decisions. Forces in the manager, the subordinate, and in the situation are the variables affecting leadership behavior. The successful leader is keenly aware of these forces and behaves approp- riately in light of these perceptions. (pp. 501-510) 34 A formal leader was defined by Etzioni (1964) as "one who commands both positional and personal power." (9. 61) After a comprehensive review of recent research, Ritchie (1967) contended that leadership is two things: (1) The leader's attitude toward subordinates, and (2) The decision-making strategies employed by the leader. These behaviors can be formulated in a matrix of descriptive dimen- sions, any one or all of which may be used by the leader depending on the situation. The models used in describing patterns of leadership attitudes are the traditional, human relations, and human resources models, as formulated by Miles, Porter, and Craft (1966). The assumptions, policies, and expectations of the superior are discussed within the framework of each of these models. The human resources model most clearly matches the modern conception of the leader's attitudes. (See Appendix C.) Among the attitudes from which the leader's behavior might be influenced are his basic assumptions. McGregor (1960) described two sets of assumptions called Theory X and Theory Y. According to McGregor, Theory X is traditional in nature, and Theory Y is consistent with recent research in behavioral science and shows promise of permitting much more individual growth and development than has been possible under Theory X. (pp. 33-49) Other contemporary behavioral scientists parallel McGregor's philOSOphies. Likert (1967) prOposed four 35 management systems on a continuum. For example, Likert's "System 1" features lack of confidence and trust, while the "System 4" features a high degree of trust and confidence in subordinates. (pp. 3-10) Underlying the leadership phil- osophy of Likert's "System 4" is his principle of supportive relations. This is illustrated by his "linking pin" concept of organizational relationships. Blake and Mouton (1964) suggested five general styles, depending on the manager's concern for production vs. people. Their "Managerial Grid" showed a high concern for both in the 9, 9 style, and a low concern for both in the 1, 1 style. Herzberg (1966) developed a motivation-hygiene theory of worker satisfaction and dissatisfaction, which has been an important contribution in affecting leadership atti- tudes and decision-making strategies. The major conclusions drawn by Herzberg are that achievement, recognition for achievement, work itself, responsibility, and advancement are key factors in job satisfaction. Argyris (1957) described the response patterns of people in various organizational situations as attempts to cepe with the frustration and conflict characteristics of their jobs. He argued for more employee-centered leadership to modify directive leadership and to prolong organizational health. Drucker (1966) stated that effectiveness is the job of the executive, and effectiveness can be learned. There 36 are five habits of mind that have to be acquired: (1) Know where the time goes, (2) Focus on outward contribution (results), (3) Build on strength, (4) Set priorities in major areas that really count, and (5) make effective deci- sions. The task of the executive is not to change human beings . . . but to multiply performance capacity of the whole by putting to use whatever strength, what- ever health, whatever aspiration there is in individ- uals. (p. 99) Halpin (1966) stated that effective leadership is characterized by high Initiation Structure, which implies an emphasis on attaining organizational goals, and high Consideration, which implies emphasis on "friendship, mutual trust, respect and warmth in the relationship between the leader and members of his staff." (p. 86) The two dimen- sions of leader behavior were seen as being independent of each other, and occurring in different mixtures in different leaders. Gibb (1969) also suggested "The key to emergent leadership centers in a high degree of trust and confidence in people." (p. 321) I Schein (1965) proposed that the relationship between the leader and the group is important. Management's assump— tions about people have evolved from the "rational-economic man" assumption to the "complex man" assumption. The latter implies a managerial strategy that requires the leader to be a good diagnostician and to value the spirit of inquiry, in order to deal with the differing needs and motives of 37 subordinates. Above all, he must be "flexible, and will be prepared to accept a wide variety of interpersonal relation— ships, patterns of authority, and psychological contracts." (pp. 60-61) Leu (1969) described a leader as an innovator, nor- mative decision maker, cosmopolitan in nature, a team member, one who has learned to live with conflict, who understands politics and power, and who has, above all, a high percep- tion of himself and of others. The writing of Barnard (1938) contributed greatly to the general theory of administration. On leadership he stated: The strategic factor in cooperation generally is leadership, which is the name for relatively high per- sonal capacity for both technological attainments and moral complexity . . . . The strategic factor in the dynamic expression of leadership is moral creativeness . . . . (p. 289) Griffiths (1969) summarized the present condition of educational administrative theory by contending that ". . . while theory building has declined, the work neces- sary for theory building in the future is underway." (p. 21) New sets of problems have appeared, such as col- lective negotiations with teachers, and methodological prob— lems in transferring behavioral science models to education. This section has included some of those models, even though there may be some difficulty in their transfer to educational administration. 38 In summary, effective leadership is a function of a complex combination of factors, including the external envi- ronment, traits and behaviors of subordinates and of the leader himself. Finally, effective leadership requires the integration of individual and organizational goals and a high concern for both. Current Trends in Preparation Programs for School Administrators This section includes summaries of several disser— tations which deal directly with the thesis of this study, and a review of the recent major studies in the field. For the most part, reports on the effectiveness of university-based training programs are hard to come by. Precious little has been written about the experiences of those engaged in the training of school administrators in universities. With few exceptions, most of what has been written focuses on in-service or internship programs. According to Gregg (1969), "There has been very little concentrated effort to evaluate particular prepara- tion programs over a period of time." (p. 999) He stated that six significant issues related to the preparation of administrators in the past decade have received the most attention. These included: (1) Role of the Social Sciences, (2) Research in Educational Administration, (3) Theory and Educational Administration, (4) Common and Specialized Learnings, (5) The Professorship in Educational Administra- tion, and (6) In-service Education of Administrators. 39 An early study by Dawe (1953) to determine the rela- tionship and value of subject-matter content from fields of study other than education showed that the broad fields of public finance, techniques of research, techniques of commu- nication, problems of sociology and population change, pub- lic administration, and economic foundations had greatest significance, according to professors of educational admin- istration. An examination of the preparation programs at the eight universities that received original grants of money from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation concluded that changes had occurred in all institutions, some common to all and some changes unique to the particular institution. (Brubaker, 1960) Wicke (1961) discovered that commitments regarding placement and supervision of prospective administrators in a field-experience program would not allow the students opportunities to experience all aspects of administration. He concluded that unless there was a better understanding of administrative theory, and appreciation and recognition of the importance of theory in preparation programs by all par— ticipants, the field—experience program would be of little value. Using the competency pattern developed by the Southern States Cooperative Program in Educational Adminis- tration to identify problem areas of educational administra- tors, Seawell (1963) concluded that the critical task areas 40 of Instruction and Curriculum Development, Pupil Personnel, Community-School Leadership, and Staff Personnel were common problem areas. It was recommended, on the basis of data in the study, that first emphasis be placed on developing skills, values, and concepts in the critical task areas of Community-School Leadership and Instruction and Curriculum Development, in planning an in-service program for superin— tendents in Virginia. Second emphasis should be placed on the critical task areas of School Plant, Staff Personnel, Pupil Personnel, and Organization and Structure. Third emphasis was recommended for the development of skills in the critical task areas of School Transportation, School Finance, and Business Management. Barnes (1964) concluded, after developing case studies to research problems confronting superintendents, that problems in human relations and school publications were identified in every category employed in the study. He further concluded that preparation programs for superinten- dents must be comprehensive and interdisciplinary in nature. He recommended a program consisting of: (l) a foundation program in the related disciplines of economics, sociology, psychology, and communications; (2) a general core of courses including general educational administration, general super- vision, curriculum development, and personnel administration; (3) a specialized component with emphasis on business and finance, law, human relations, public relations; (4) an interdisciplinary approach to include management, 41 communication, and sociology, (among others); and (5) field experiences, such as consultant services, school surveys, workshops, practicum, seminars, conferences, and other similar experiences. A nation-wide study of school districts conducting administrator pre-service training programs concluded that coordination between school districts and colleges and uni- versities is confused. McGrew (1966) urged more cooperation in coordinating to organize and define properly the approp- riate role of each institution in the administrator training process. A study of the professional background and experi- ences of Alabama superintendents by Sparkes (1965) led him to the conclusion that minimum standards should be raised, and that preparation programs for superintendents should be designed with their needs in mind. There was evidence that the internship would be a valuable experience, and that superintendents should be required to continue their gradu- ate study as a condition of keeping their certificates valid. Purpose-defining skills and values were perceived as important functions of graduate training programs by doctoral students in a study by Foster. (1965) The perceptive gen— eralist role was perceived by the students as most approp- riate for the future superintendent. A balanced curriculum was supported, favoring con- tent from the social sciences, studies in the administrative 42 task areas, and content from the humanities, in that order. Respondents supported the use of content from the modern novel as constituting a valid approach to preparation in purpose-defining skills and values. Goldhammer, 33 31. (1967), after interviewing facul- ties in 34 colleges and universities, found that preparation programs tend to be remarkable similar from institution to institution. Most programs required a general administra- tion and organization course, followed by a series of courses organized around special aspects of administration. The emphasis on the study of the behavioral sciences was found in about two-thirds of the institutions surveyed, and practicum experiences were provided in about one-half the programs. Goldhammer concluded that: It is apparent that universities face many unre- solved problems relative to their roles in the prepara- tion of educational administrators. . . . Few universi- ties seem actually to have developed a balanced program for administrators in which all required skills and knowledge receive proper emphasis. (p. 113) The following perceived trends in doctoral programs for preparing public school superintendents are derived from the summary of findings in a major study of the UCEA in 1969. The study encompassed responses from 47 major American uni- versities, 181 school superintendents who had received their doctoral degrees in 1963-68, and concepts derived from an extensive review of the literature dealing with the prepara— tion of school superintendents. Culbertson, 33 31. (1969) reported these trends: 43 1. There is an established trend toward incorpora- tion of content material from the social and behavioral sciences and to a lesser extent, from business and public administration. 2. There is an emergent trend toward new courses in topics which deal with contemporary problems. 3. There is an established trend toward both greater flexibility and increased internal structure in preparatory programs. 4. There is a trend toward more aggressive efforts to recruit talented persons in expanded talent pools. 5. There is an established trend in instructional approaches away from the traditional lecture-textbook method and toward a variety of audio-visual materials, reality- oriented materials, and alternative instructional strategies. 6. There is an established trend toward increasing the quantity and quality of field-related experiences. 7. There is an established trend toward the increased sophistication of student research. 8. There is an emergent trend toward increased Opportunity for nondissertation training and experience. 9. There is a trend toward full-time residence, elimination or reduction of foreign language requirements, and course work in other disciplines. 10. There is an established trend in staffing from the adding of professors who are generalists with previous 44 administrative experience, to specialists with particular competencies. 11. There is a trend toward increasing in-service Opportunities. (pp. 492-495) Implications Of the various forces affecting educa- tion and the perceived trends and needs in preparation pro- grams led Culbertson to project the following four critical behaviors Of effective superintendents: Effective school superintendents will: 1. . . . communicate a moral vision and a commit— ment to education larger than any given societal force or special interest. 2. . . . help communities chart clear educational directions amid marked conflict and ambiguity. 3. . .7. help generate and implement new programs designed to achieve school system Objectives and policies. 4. . . . help create organizational arrangements designed to facilitate program improvement and change. (Culbertson, 3E 31., 1969, pp. 501-503) Extensive guidelines for selected basic aspects of preparatory programs oriented toward the 1970's concluded this comprehensive report. (See Appendix F.) A new program aimed at preparing leadership in urban public school systems is in its early stages Of development. Centered at The Ohio State University, the program design includes a rich set of experiences to students recruited from various sources Of leadership talent. "The expectation for the program is clear: New people, deeply committed to educa— tion, prepared in unconventional ways to meet unconventional needs." (The Ohio State University, 1970, p. 27) 45 The 1985 Committee of NCPEA prepared papers describ- ing the characteristics Of educational administration in 1985. Implications for programs designed to prepare educa- tional administrators in the future included general and specific criterion statements. The Committee reported the program components most likely to contribute to program design for survival are: (l) a research model, (2) a pro— grammed theory - experience interaction process, and (3) a laboratory approach to instruction. The Committee concluded their report by calling for meeting the competition Of external forces in preparing administrators through demonstration Of superior program. (Hack, 1970) Summary In this chapter, selected literature was reviewed in an attempt to show that preparation programs for school administrators have changed over the years in response to societal forces. Current forces affecting educational leadership indicate that future programs will also need to respond to the macro-environment, perhaps more than ever before. The lack Of a clear definition of leadership is somewhat limiting, if indeed preparation programs are designed to prepare school administrators as leaders. The current trends in preparation programs indicate a recognition Of the need to alter further and renew both 46 pre-service and in-service programs for educational leadership. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES Introduction In order to gather data relevant to the problem Of this study, in-depth interviews were conducted with a selected panel of authorities in school administration and practicing school district superintendents. In this chap- ter, the methods and procedures employed in conducting these interviews will be presented as follows: Population, The Interview as a Research Technique, The Interview Schedule, and Criteria for the Conduct of Interviews. POpulation The population under study in this thesis included authorities in school administration, and practicing school district superintendents. It was determined that these were the two kinds of people who might have relevant answers to the questions posed by this study. Authorities in school administration were selected with the assistance Of Dr. Donald Leu, Dean Of the School Of Education, San Jose State College. The panel was selected on the basis of their expertise and research in the field. An attempt was made to include individuals with a variety 47 48 Of backgrounds and experience. The panel of authorities was as follows: Dr. Jerry Bellon, formerly Chairman Of the Depart- ment of Administration and Counselor Education, Sacramento State College, and now Head Of the Curriculum and Instruction Department, The University Of Tennessee, Knoxville. Dr. I. Carl Candoli, Professor of Educational Admin- istration, The Ohio State University. Dr. James Corson, Executive Secretary Of the Cali- fornia Association of School Administrators. Dr. Luvern Cunningham, Dean Of the College Of Educa- tion, The Ohio State University. Dr. Richard Featherstone, Chairman Of the Department of Administration and Higher Education, Michigan State Uni- versity. Dr. Donald Leu, Dean Of the School of Education, San Jose State College. Edmund Lewis, Assistant Executive Secretary, Cali- fornia School Boards Association. Dr. William Odell, Professor Of Education, Stanford University. Dr. Theodore Reller, Dean of the College of Educa- tion, University Of California, Berkeley. School district superintendents who were interviewed in this study were selected after taking the following cri— teria into account: 40 1. Geographical considerations 2. District size considerations 3. Sampling considerations The process Of selecting the school district super- intendents who were interviewed went as follows, based on the criteria listed above: Geographical Considerations As stated in the delimitations Of this study in Chapter One, Northern California was selected as the geo- graphical area tO be studied. While there are virtually no precise definitions Of what area constitutes Northern Cali- fornia, it was possible to define the area with the assis- tance of the California Association Of School Administrators (CASA) Office in Burlingame, California. According to a map supplied by CASA, which showed the organization of CASA into 13 sections in California, there are six sections defined by CASA as being in Northern California. Forty Of California's 58 counties were included in Northern California by this definition. District Size Considerations Since the study focused on the urban or metropolitan area school district superintendent, who has been defined in this study as the superintendent Of a school district Of 5,000 students or more, it was decided that only those dis- tricts meeting that size criterion would be considered. The California School Boards Association (CSBA) Salary Study 50 (1970) was used to determine which districts had a current Average Daily Attendance (ADA) Of 5,000 or more. It was found that 75 districts in Northern California had a current ADA of 5,000 or more, out Of a total of 370 districts in Northern California. The districts were classified by CSBA according to their grade organization pattern and demographic definition based on regional influence. The grade organization patterns were: Unified (grades K-12); Elementary (grades K-6 or K-8); and High School (grades 7-12 or 9-12). The demographic clas- sifications within which each Of the districts with 5,000 ADA or more were found were defined as Metropolitan or Medium Metropolitan. There were no districts of 5,000 ADA or more in either of the other two classifications in Northern Cali- fornia. Sampling Considerations Since in-depth interviews were used as the research technique, it was decided to sample the 75 school districts Of 5,000 ADA or more in Northern California. It was deter- mined that 25 school districts would be an adequate sample. A table of random sampling numbers (Kendall and Smith, 1939) was consulted and used to identify the sample. (pp. 2-5) A relatively normal cross—section Of districts by size and grade organization pattern was indicated by the sample. See Table l. 51 Table l.--School districts in Northern California by grade organization, size, and sample. School Dist. School Dist. School Dist. in Northern in Northern in Northern California by California California Grade Organ. Over 5,000 ADA Rep. by Sample Unified 107 49 14 Elementary 223 17 6 High School 40 9 5 Totals 370 75 25 Table 2 shows the Average Daily Attendance in the sample districts. Table 2.--Average daily attendance in sample districts. Average Daily Number Of Attendance Districts in Sample 5,000 - 9,999 9 10,000 - 14,999 13 15,000 - 19,999 0 20,000 and more 3 Tables 3, 4, and 5 show some of the personal char- acteristics and background Of the superintendents Of the sample. 52 Table 3.--Age of superintendents in the sample. Age Number 20 - 39 years 0 40 - 49 years 11 50 - 59 years 11 60 - 65 years 3 Table 4.--Education Of superintendents in the sample. Level Number AB degree 1 MA degree 4 In Doctoral Program 7 Doctorate l3 Table 5.--Administrative experience of superintendents in the sample. Years Number 1 - 4 10 5 - 9 4 10 - 14 l 15 - l9 5 20 or more 5 53 The Interview as a Research Technique Interviewing as a tool of research is not new or unusual. Mouly (1963) referred to important interview stud- ies affecting everyday American life, such as those connected with the Federal Bureau Of Census; polls such as Gallup, ROper, and Harris; and the Kinsey studies as examples Of accepted interview studies. There are some disadvantages as well as distinct advantages in employing the interview as a research tech- nique. Van Dalen and Meyer (1966) pointed out that "many people are more willing to communicate orally than in writing, and therefore, will provide data more readily and fully in an interview than on a questionnaire." (pp. 306-307) The personal, face-to-face aspects Of the interview were cited by Van Dalen as the major advantages of the technique, as well as the ability Of the interviewer to probe more deeply into the problem, and the ability Of the interviewer to Observe the subject and use auditory and visual cues to elicit personal information and gain knowledge about the attitudes and beliefs of the subject. Van Dalen also pointed out the limitations of the interview technique. If the interview is rigidly standardized and formal, "collect- ing quantified, comparable data from all subjects in a uni- form manner introduces a rigidity into the investigative procedures that may prevent the investigator from probing in sufficient depth." On the other hand, in the interview that 54 is informal and unstructured, Van Dalen pointed out that "quantifying the accumulated qualitative data, however, may be difficult." According to Barr (1953), the interview technique is more revealing than other techniques, while at the same time it may be an uneconomical method for Obtaining data. Mouly (1963) and Good (1966) agreed that the major advantage and strength Of the interview technique is the flexibility in obtaining information that is personal and confidential. While flexibility can be counted as the major strength Of the interview technique, Mouly cautioned that it is also the major weakness, inasmuch as it allows the inter- viewer to vary his approach and project his Own personality and influence the reSponses of the subject. Although there are some problems in using the inter- view technique, there are also some important values to be considered, which become especially important when consid- ering the subjects that were interviewed and the nature Of the questions that were posed. It was decided to use the interview technique to provide for face-to-face, personal communications; to enable the subjects to express their thoughts freely and completely; to allow the interviewer the Opportunity to probe more deeply, depending on the responses of the individual subject being interviewed, by asking related questions; and to enable the researcher to tailor the pace and intensity Of the interview to the individual subject. 55 The researcher was mindful of the limitations of the interview technique and made every effort to overcome these limitations through the development and use Of an interview schedule, and by close Observance of criteria for conducting interviews. The Interview Schedule The interview schedule was develOped after a review Of related literature, and with the guidance and counsel Of Dr. Kal Gezi, Associate Professor of Education, Sacramento State College, and Vice-President Of the California Educa- tional Research Association. A copy Of the interview sched- ule can be found in Appendices A and B. While the major purpose of the interviews with the panel Of authorities in school administration was to deter- mine the relative effectiveness Of existing preparation programs for educational leaders, other questions were posed to stimulate responses in other related areas. While the major purpose Of the interviews with school district super— intendents was to determine the new competencies needed by educational leaders to survive and succeed, and the adequacy of their own college or university preparation for educa- tional leadership, additional questions were asked to stimu- late responses in other related areas. Both groups were asked to Offer suggestions and recommendations for improving preparation programs. 56 Questions asked of both groups were similar, although the interviewer took the Opportunity to enlarge or reword certain questions if required, and some questions were not asked Of each subject if sufficient answers had already been provided by the subject when responding to another question. Table 6 lists the categories Of data desired to focus on the problem Of the study and the questions from the interview schedule designed tO stimulate response in each category from both groups Of subjects. Table 6.--Categories of data desired and questions from the interview schedule designed to stimulate response. Questions Posed to Elicit Category Responses from Each Subject l. Competencies needed by urban or metropolitan area superintendents l, 9, 10, ll 2. Effectiveness, strengths, and weaknesses of existing preparation programs 2, 3, 4 3. Suggestions and recommenda- tions for improving prepara- tion programs 5, 6, 7, 8 Criteria for the Conduct of Interviews Criteria for planning and conducting interviews were Offered by Van Dalen and Meyer (1966) as follows: (pp. 309— 310) 57 1. Preparing for the Interview 2. Establishing Rapport 3. Eliciting Information 4. Recording Data Every effort was made to standardize the approach by application Of these criteria as discussed below. Preparing for the Interview An interview schedule was prepared with appropriate questions designed to extract the desired data. Prior to the actual interviews, preliminary interviews were conducted with several school administrators who had recently com- pleted a doctoral program. The purpose Of the field-testing was to detect possible weaknesses or unclear terms in the interview schedule. Appointments with the actual subjects were made by direct telephone contact, and, after the purpose of the interview was described, a one-hour block Of time was reserved to be able to conduct the interviews in private and uninterrupted, if possible. NO more than three interviews were scheduled for any one day. This enabled the researcher to arrive early for each appointment and allowed for the travel time required between school districts. All Of the interviews but one were conducted during the months Of June and July, 1970. The one remaining was conducted in December, 1970. Four Of the 25 school district superintendents were either unavailable 58 or unwilling to participate in the study. Therefore, 21 school district superintendents of the sample Of 25 were interviewed. Each of the panel Of nine authorities in school administration agreed to participate in the study. All interviews were conducted in the Office or con- ference room of the subject, and only upon a few occasions were the interviews interrupted by other business. None Of these interruptions was for more than five minutes. Each Of the interviews was conducted within a time period of one-half hour to one full hour, depending on the responses Of the subjects. Even though appointments were scheduled for a one-hour block, each and every one of the subjects took the Opportunity to spend extra time in dis- cussing the interview itself, the significance of the study, and the problems now confronting school administrators. These "extra sessions" lasted from a minimum Of ten minutes, to a maximum of two hours. Establishing Rapport The procedures used to establish rapport with the subjects varied, depending on the individual being inter- viewed. In general, the following steps were followed: 1. The nature of the study was briefly described and the purpose of the interview was defined. Background information was recorded on a form prepared in advance (Appendix D). 59 2. The subject was assured that anonymity Of reSponses would be guaranteed, and the data gathered were confidential in nature and would be available only to the researcher. 3. The interviewer attempted to assume an approp- riate attitude and to maintain a neutral questioning manner throughout the interview in order to assure maximum freedom Of response. 4. Permission to tape-record the interviews was requested before the interviews were started. Only one Of the subjects stated that tape-recording was "uncomfortable" and the researcher complied with the wishes Of the subject by recording the data on paper. Eliciting Information The interview schedule was used as a guide in direct- ing questions to the subject. If necessary, questions were repeated or reworded. Every effort was made by the inter- viewer tO control the tone Of voice, facial expressions, phrasing, and timing Of the questions to avoid implying the types of responses preferred. Recording Data It was decided to record the data by use of a tape recorder. This technique provided the interviewer with more flexibility in both asking questions and listening to responses. Additionally, this technique provided for an accurate record Of the interview, in order to verify the 60 responses after the interview at a later date. Furthermore, the technique also provided the evidence of the findings, should anyone be interested in checking the validity of the study. A small cassette-type recorder was used, and was operated either by battery or by connection to a nearby electrical outlet, if one was available. A small microphone was placed unobtrusively to one side on a desk or table near the subject, which permitted a free atmosphere for both the subject and the interviewer. After the interviews, the researcher listened to the entire tape recording Of each interview and utilized a sum- mary protocol, upon which were written the most relevant responses to questions posed by the study. (Appendix E) Summary In order to gather data regarding preparation pro- grams for educational leaders and the competencies required by school district superintendents in a rapidly changing society, in-depth interviews were conducted with a panel of authorities in educational administration and with practic- ing school district superintendents. The panel of nine authorities was selected on the basis of their expertise and research in the field. Twenty- five superintendents were selected from the 75 largest school districts in Northern California. Twenty-one responded to the interview schedule. 61 In-depth interviews were conducted, in order to enable the researcher to receive the benefits Of personal, face-to-face communication, and to allow for flexibility in gathering data. An interview schedule was developed, and every effort was made to standardize the conduct Of the interviews. Data were recorded via the use of a tape recorder, and responses to the questions posed by the study were tran- scribed to a summary protocol. An analysis of these data constitutes the findings to be found in the succeeding chap- ters Of this study. CHAPTER IV PROBLEMS AND SKILL NEEDS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Introduction Problems and new demands faced by educational lead- ers, and new skills and professional competencies needed to survive and succeed on the job, as viewed by practicing school district superintendents and a panel Of authorities in school administration, are reported in this chapter. The context Of the questions posed in the interview schedule, and the nature Of the interviews themselves, led to the identification of significant problems and critical skill needs. The basic criteria for significance were: the emphasis given by the interviewees; length, intensity, priority, and frequency Of response. It was exceedingly difficult to transcribe all Of the responses and comments made in the Open-ended interview schedule. Therefore, only the most significant and highly underscored points will be dealt with, as they have a direct bearing on the problem Of this study. 62 63 Problems and Skill Needs Of Public School Administrators as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents Four questions were posed within the context of the interview schedule to stimulate response in this category. The questions numbered in the interview schedule were: 1. From your perspective, what are the competen- cies you think are needed by superintendents to be able to do an effective job? 9. What do you think are the characteristics or qualities Of an effective superintendent? 10. What professional job experiences do you think would help prepare for the superintendency? 11. What do you feel are the most important tasks performed by superintendents? Problems as Viewed by Practicing School Di§trict Superintendents Almost all of the superintendents interviewed empha— sized the societal changes Of the past several years as the most difficult and perplexing problems they face. They viewed the environment Of the public schools as becoming more hostile in this period Of rapid social change. The following problems were emphasized as having the most dra- matic and forceful impact on the superintendency. There is no priority intended in the list below. 1. Integration and minority group problems 2. Political forces 3. Public demands 64 4. Teacher militancy and negotiations 5. Student concerns 6. Organizational goals 7. Human relations problems 8. Technical changes 9. Personal considerations A brief description Of each of the problems is fol- lowed by some direct quotations to emphasize the character of the problem. Obviously, there is some overlap from one problem to another; however, for the sake Of clarity, each will be dealt with separately. Integration and Minority Group Problems While each of the superintendents interviewed served in different communities, almost all were faced by some kind of integration problem and/or demands from minority groups, either Blacks and/or Mexican-Americans. The integration problems in almost every instance dealt with school district plans to achieve racial and ethnic balance in the schools, as mandated by the State of California guidelines. The demands of the minority groups were usually for organiza- tional, curriculum, and personnel changes. As one superintendent stated, "There are diverse problems of ethnic background which have for a long time been dormant. The different kinds of publics, minorities for example, are emerging and using the school as a sounding 65 board for all Of the social desires which they're trying to attain." The specific problem Of integration was discussed by almost all superintendents. Their perplexity can be reflected by this comment: "In the past four or five years we've been confronted with some problems with which most Of us have had a minimum Of experience. We're being asked to solve some problems Of society that aren't our responsibil- ity alone, and yet these problems have been dumped in our laps. Integration is a total community problem." Political Forces This term was used by many superintendents to des- cribe several phenomena, including dealings with govern- mental agencies at the national, state, and local levels; dealing with community pressure groups; and the emerging tactics of confrontation by community and student groups. One superintendent, well versed in dealing with these forces, summarized his feelings by saying, "The politics of confrontation is a new ball game. Now, the power is where the picket is put." Another put it this way: "The super- intendent is a political figure. Anybody that says he isn't is being naive. He's going to be pushed and buttressed by all of the forces in the society." Public Demands Closely allied to political forces and integration and minority group problems are the demands Of the various 66 other segments of the public for educational excellence, change, and in some cases, a demand for the status quo. The trend to influence the public schools by pressure group tac- tics and militant action has disrupted the normal routines Of many school systems. One superintendent summarized what almost all had said when he commented, "The citizenry is demanding a right to be heard." Teacher Militancy and Negotiations Each superintendent was concerned about increasing teacher militancy and negotiations. They viewed this prob- lem as serious enough to demand an increasingly greater portion of their time and energy. They felt that they were caught up in a national and state-wide trend without the ability or resources to deal effectively with the problems associated with the trend. This problem has caused major alteration of many functions of the superintendency. One superintendent summed it up by stating, "Teacher militancy has created a new relationship." Another viewed the problem this way: "I think the teaching profession has lost the trust of the public. We've got to work together to regain it." Student Concerns Events taking place in the world, nation, state, and community have had an impact on students, particularly at the secondary level. Student concerns were viewed as a 67 major problem for school superintendents for several reasons. First, they felt there were not enough avenues open to stu- dents tO share, discuss, and analyze their concerns. Second, student concerns sometimes resulted in student confronta- tions, and many times disrupted the normal educational pro- gram. Third, there was recognition that today's student is different, but today's schools have not changed correspond— ingly. A typical comment was, "The kids we are educating are different than those of five years ago." Another was, "We must be sensitive to student rights." Another Observa- tion was, "Students are demanding the right of involvement and they are going to get it. Administration had better work with them and plan some sort Of intelligent involve- ment." Organizational Goals Almost equaling any other problem in difficulty and perplexity were problems dealing with setting and achieving organizational goals. While these problems are not new to school administrators, many are rapidly changing, in response to a changing environment. Board/superintendent relationships; demands from all sides for involvement in decision-making processes; organ- izing human, physical, and financial resources; establish- ing priorities among various alternatives; and Obtaining consensus were the most emphasized and critical problems in this area. 68 Relationships with the Board of Education were con- sidered to be fundamental. One superintendent stated, "The success and survival Of superintendents will depend on their alliance with school boards." Another viewed the problem Of working relationships with an ideologically diverse board in this way: ". . . to serve all, but be the captive of none." Demands for involvement in decision-making processes are coming from all sides. Community, special interest groups, parents, teachers, and students are all demanding a voice in setting and attaining organizational goals. One superintendent stated that "There is a necessity to be con- sistent in both philosophy and Operation. This is a new arena. We must take an involvement stance rather than authoritarian stance. We're going to have to find ways to share power." Resources and their allocation were viewed as another qualitative and quantitative problem. A typical comment was: "TO me, there is only one task, and that's to have a district that can get the most out of its resources." A more negative view was, "Without enough money you might as well close up shop." Another was: "We must view people as our most important resource." Another typical comment was, "Let's face it, money is always a problem, and without appropriate financial support, we're forced to look closely at other means to accomplish our goals." 69 Obtaining consensus and support has been exceedingly difficult, according to many Of the superintendents inter- viewed. "Every time you turn around you're challenged in an area that demands a depth Of study. There appears to be less confidence in people to accept anyone's vieWpOint but their own." Human Relations Problems This problem was difficult to define for most Of the superintendents who viewed it as a critical problem area. A simply stated perception was, "The important problems are people problems." Many superintendents suggested that effec- tive two-way communications were a major factor in what they described as human relations problems. Technical Changes New management techniques are being assimilated into school district management at a rapid rate. Problems cited by almost all of the superintendents fell into this cate- gory. One additional problem that was perceived as requir- ing technical skill was the problem Of employee negotiations. The most emphasized technical problems were: computer tech- nology and data processing, systems analysis, program budget- ing, and negotiations. While these problems were emphasized to a great enough degree to warrant their reporting, it should be noted that their importance was minimized by the superintendents interviewed. The problems cited were creating demands for 70 new competencies at the superintendency level to the extent that he understand and appreciate the functions that would probably be delegated to some other Office in the organiza- tion. Computer technology and data processing problems were viewed as more Of an Opportunity than a true problem. The only major problem faced by superintendents was the lack of a comprehensive understanding of the capabilities of the newer technology. Systems analysis and new approaches to the problems of goal setting, problem definition, development of alter- native solution strategies, and allocating resources to meet specified objectives have also caused problems for superin- tendents. The major concern was the newness Of the vocabu- lary, processes, and methodology contained within the new approaches. Program budgeting has been all but mandated in California, and its implementation has caused unique prob- lems for most superintendents. Attempts to change tradi- tional resource allocation methods have been hampered by resistance to change, in—service training problems, and the complexity in identifying and isolating the multitude Of variables in the learning process. The advent of employee negotiations has caused many problems for most superintendents. From the technical view— point, the problem was seen as one Of unfamiliarity with the vocabulary, processes, and their consequences. The problem 71 of devising short- and long-term strategies was viewed as critical. The actual negotiating process was considered to be important enough to develop staff competency in this area and delegate that function to some other Office. Personal Considerations Many responses indicated a concern for personal well-being. The effects Of new pressures and rapidly chang- ing personal requirements were expressed in comments such as: "Emotional stability, self-confidence, a sense of humor, and a sense of perspective is essential for an administrator to be able to live with himself." The physical, mental, and emotional strain elicited this response: "You've got to play the lonely role of leader." Long hours, complex prob- lems, protest, and conflict were most Often mentioned as some Of the causes Of personal stress. Skill Needs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents All of the superintendents interviewed felt that new skills were needed as a result of new problems they have had to face, especially the problems that have emerged in the past few years. Concurrent with the identification of major problems, practicing school superintendents suggested what they felt were the competencies needed to deal effectively with emerg- ing and current problems. The following skill and/or com- petency areas were viewed as the most critically necessary 72 to be able to do an effective job: 1. Understanding Of the environment 2. Perceiving trends 3. Sensing community needs 4. Political expertise 5. Managing conflict 6. Building effective and efficient organizations 7. Human relations skills 8. Technical competencies 9. Personal considerations 10. Managing change A brief description of each needed skill and/or com- petency area will be followed by some direct quotations to emphasize its nature and character. There are overlapping areas; however, these categories were determined to be unique enough to be dealt with separately. Understanding of the Environment More than ever before, superintendents are being affected by the forces of the environment surrounding the public school. The ability to comprehend the origin, mani- festation, and consequence Of these societal forces plays a major role in determining the effectiveness of the superin- tendent. No longer can superintendents expend their energies interacting within the confines of traditional school dis- trict Operation. They are being forced into an intense interaction with the environment tO the extent that one of 73 the major roles has become an intermediary, a translator, an interpreter Of the environment to the schools, and the pur- poses Of the schools to the environment. This understanding of the environment was stated by one superintendent in the following manner: "The things that are bugging us today in society are not whether Johnny can read, but can Johnny relate to his next-door neighbor. A superintendent must have a much broader vision Of what makes society tick." Another typical comment was, "We must be able to read the signs Of the times." Perceiving Trends Not only must there by competence in understanding the many facets Of rapid social change, there must also be an ability to perceive trends as they evolve. Many superin- tendents indicated this was a most difficult skill to develop. They cited many reasons for not being able to per- ceive trends in society, but, in general, it was viewed pri— marily as a consequence Of not actively seeking the problems likely to affect the public school when such information was available. Coupled with this was the inability to recognize the characteristics Of a societal trend until it was already well established. The need for this ability to anticipate and perceive trends was stated by one superintendent as "We're living in a new civilization, a time Of multiple revolutions and tremendous and profound social dislocation. Unless you have a vision of where our society is trending, 74 you're lost." Another simply stated, "We have to be aware Of the trends in our environment." Sensing Community Needs While understanding societal forces shaping public education and being able to perceive trends is important, many superintendents felt that the relationship Of those forces and trends to the local community needs to be sensed and articulated by the local superintendent. The different characteristics Of each community, while a microcosm Of the total environment, are still sufficiently unique to require localized action and reaction. Typical of the comments in this regard was, "There must be a sensitivity to the commu- nity you serve." Political Expertise Almost all Of the superintendents interviewed felt the need for sharper skills in the political arena. These skills were difficult for superintendents to define, although the feeling was strong. For example, one statement was, "A new dimension that I don't think we were trained for was political expertise. There are those who say there shouldn't be politics in schools and that's hogwash. This is cold- turkey politics." The ability to deal with various govern- mental agencies was the most-Often-discussed item in this area. Another superintendent observed, "We must have the political skills to make the system change whether you're an insider or outsider. The art of compromise must be learned." 75 Managing Conflict Perhaps the most-often-mentioned competency that superintendents felt was needed was the ability to manage all types of conflict. Throughout the listing Of societal problems, there is the Opportunity for conflict, crises, and confrontation. The ability to deal with these problems was considered an absolute requirement. The new types of con- flict have caused great concern among superintendents, and is a source Of frustration and helplessness to many of them. This mood was conveyed by one superintendent, who said, "We need the ability to face militant crisis. We were never taught these things; we've never faced them before. It's only in the past five or six years that we've had to face a hostile environment. I don't know how to cope with this." Another response was, "We need to develop the abil- ity to manage conflict. Whatever you do in administration, you're going to have trouble, no doubt about it. Let's not be afraid Of that. The question is, how do you manage it and make the best of it? How you deal with crises is the name Of the game in school administration these days." Another response was, "You've got to be tough enough to hang in there and keep your cool. You've got to develop the abil- ity to roll with pressure." Building Effective and Efficient Organizations This area was considered to be one of the major tasks Of the school district superintendent. Some responses 76 were emphatic in a general way, such as, "We've got to move rapidly to better organizational skills." Another general comment was, "My major task is to weld a team Of the school community together to put on an educational program." The most highly emphasized skill need was in plan- ning and incorporating new planning techniques. "I need tO learn new management techniques to increase my ability in marshalling resources towards the goals of the district. PPBS and computer technology are tools that are now impor- tant to me." Another comment with regard to new management approaches was, "Systems analysis is a good tool but serves a limited purpose.". Emphasis was added by this response, "You've got to have a vision and a plan and flexility to change." One superintendent reacted this way, "Research is subordinate to planning. This skill should superimpose on all issues we face." Another needed skill area in achieving organizational goals was the understanding and basic assumptions Of the leader. One view was, "I'm an adviser, a pilot, using my experience and sensitivity to prevent disaster and estab- lish direction. I need to be a catalyst that makes things happen." Personnel selection and allocation was Often men— tioned as another necessary skill in achieving organiza- tional goals. In addition, one superintendent stated, "We've got to have the guts to weed out incompetents." 77 Human Relations Skills More depth in developing human relations skills was emphasized many times. For example, "You've got to be extremely skillful in working with other people in helping them arrive at decisions." And, "We need the ability to work with a whole variety Of people, different kinds of people. We must be able to relate to people and be flexible with people." Another comment included this phrase, ". . . we've got to learn more about the job Of human engi— neering so you can implement ideas." A more broadly stated suggestion was, "I'm convinced that the ideaS‘of understand- ing and empathy really need to be developed." Another needed skill suggested was ". . . the ability to listen." Technical Competencies The technical problems identified earlier relate primarily to changes in traditional Operations and tradi- tional ways Of thinking for superintendents. Most responses to these problems indicated the need to adapt to the newer concepts. While some superintendents felt they actually needed some specific skills in some of these new areas, most felt they needed the ability to comprehend the new problem and its effect on the total educational program. Most superintendents minimized the need to develop traditional technical skills. 78 Personal Considerations Competencies in this area were difficult to define, even though the need was pointed out many times. The need for self-confidence was expressed in many ways. For example, "If you're secure, you're not threatened in this job." And, "Keeping problems outside yourself will give you a good chance for survival." Other needed personal qualities men- tioned were trust, curiosity, Openness, honesty, and luck. One superintendent summarized his feelings this way, "My impression is that there is a good deal Of art involved. You must make a whole bunch Of guesses that are based on your background or something." Managing Change Throughout the interviews with school superinten- dents, one Of the most-used words was "change." To most of them, the ability to manage change was a basic task of the educational leader. One comment was, "What you need is common horse sense, and I don't think anybody can teach this. You've got to be flexible." Another statement was, "You've got to develOp a sensitivity to change and involve people in the change process." Problems and Skill Needs Of Public School Administrators as Viewed byia Panel of Authorities in School Administration The same four questions used to stimulate response in this category from practicing school district 79 superintendents were posed to the panel of authorities in school administration. The questions, as numbered in the interview schedule, were: 1. From your perspective, what are the competencies you think are needed by superintendents to be able to do an effective job? 9. What do you think are the characteristics or qualities Of an effective superintendent? 10. What professional job experiences do you think would help prepare for the superintendency? 11. What do you feel are the most important tasks performed by superintendents? Problems as Viewed byra Panel Of Authorities in School Admifiistration Problems emphasized by the panel of authorities tended to be quite similar to those identified by practic- ing school district superintendents. However, the major emphasis was in fewer areas. Each of the authorities has written about, or been intimately concerned with, problems facing school administrators and the competencies required to survive and succeed as an educational leader. Each Of the panel strongly emphasized that many of the problems they viewed as important now were the result of very recent soci- etal changes. One Of the panel succinctly stated, "Major changes have recently occurred that have pointed competency 80 needs in a new direction." The following problems were emphasized as having the most dramatic and forceful impact on the superintendency: l. Societal changes 2. Goal setting 3. Conflict 4. Organizational relationships 5. Personal considerations A brief description of each Of the problems will be followed by some direct quotations to emphasize the char- acter of the problem. Societal Changes Each Of the panel Of authorities regarded societal changes in the past few years as having the most impact on the changing role of the superintendency. One Of the major problems discussed was the difficulty in understanding the social, economic, political, and economic changes surround- ing education, and their effect on school districts. One stated, "There is a diversity Of ethnic makeup and the lack of understanding. This diversity calls for reorganization of our thinking and our actions." Another said, "We must find ways Of dealing with pluralism." Goal Setting Closely related to the problem of understanding societal changes is the problem Of goal setting. Differing 81 needs of differing communities complicate the problem fur- ther. Planning was viewed as a part of goal setting, as well as problem definition in complex areas involving basic values and philosophies Of ". . . the silent majority, minority groups, and pressure groups Of other kinds." Allo- cation Of scarce resources has caused concern for planning procedures, development Of alternatives, and priority deci- sion making; these have become critical areas. Conflict This one word stood out in each of the interviews with the panel Of authorities. It crossed over all attempts to list, define, describe, or relate problems facing school district superintendents. "Confrontation politics and tac- tics," a "hostile environment," "controversial issues," "militancy," and "demands" were typical descriptive comments. Organizational Relationships The problems discussed above have caused changing patterns of organization, both internally and externally with the larger environment. This was viewed as a problem, primarily because of the new skills and competencies required to reshape the direction Of the school district organization. One Of the major forces affecting new organi- zational relationships was described as, ". . . a growing and changing role of the teaching staff. Let's just call it militancy." Another said, "The initiative has passed to 82 other groups. A superintendent cannot control the organiza- tion as before." Community desires and demands for involve- ment in decision-making processes have caused other changes in organizational relationships. "There is a cry for sharing Of power from all quarters," was the conclusion Of one authority. New techniques and methodologies were also affect- ing organizational relationships. Planning techniques, such as systems analysis, program budgeting, and computer appli- cations have caused communication and decision-making pro— cesses to change dramatically. Once again, this was viewed as a problem only because it required changed skills and competencies. Personal Considerations Deep concern was expressed by each authority about the physical and emotional stress being caused by problems as discussed above. Their concern was reflected in the emphasis they placed on newly required skills, abilities, and qualities that superintendents must possess if they are to survive and succeed. These are described at some length in the next section. Skill Needs as Viewed by a Panel Of Authorities in School Administration The identification of broad problem areas caused the panel Of authorities to suggest many competencies required to deal effectively with current problems. Because 83 Of the diverse responses Offered by each individual authority, each will be reported separately. The order Of presentation is not alphabetical, in order to provide anonymity. Authority number one felt that the capacity tO deal with goal setting was most important. He also felt that the superintendent should be comfortable with confrontation and challenges from all quarters, particularly with regard to dealing with problems Of race relations. Finally, skills are needed to relate resources and allocations to the needs of all of the public. "The unpopular allocation of scarce resources must be coupled with process decisions and changes in organizational structures." Authority number two felt that policy-development, goal-setting, and purpose-defining skills were of much higher need than ever before. Involving other people, sharing power, and decentralizing decision making were also critical abilities. With regard to personal considerations, this authority stated, "He needs to have the ability to get away from the job at the 100 per cent level. That, and a sense Of humor, will keep him personally healthy." Authority number three felt that, "A deep understand— ing of himself in dealing with conflict" was the most impor- tant ability required. This suggestion was preceded by the observation that new skills were indeed needed, ". . . none that we've emphasized in the past." New managerial skills such as management by objectives, program budgeting, and computer technology were also considered essential. 84 Authority number four emphasized the necessity to ". . . anticipate and recognize the signs of the times and the ability to be flexible in adapting to new needs. He must be willing to encompass change." In addition, addi- tional skills in personnel relations and employee organiza- tion negotiations are needed. Authority number five emphasized most strongly the need for improved human-relations skills. "Self-awareness leads to better and more effective leadership." Confronta- tion management, Openness and sensitivity, and managing human resources were also strongly emphasized. Authority number six stated that, "Technical compe- tencies are fast disappearing from the superintendent's job. The role has changed to leadership and coordination of specialists. The whole concept has changed from technician to leading and stimulating people." This authority felt that planning skills and processes were absolute essentials to be able to ". . . cope with change and controversy." Authority number seven stated that, "While we've attempted over the years to develop taxonomies of needed competencies, I am now convinced that the prerequisite requirement for success in the superintendency is an inner security and serenity. He must be sympathetic to other people's demands, be able to communicate, and above all, be a listener." This authority felt that these personal con- siderations were of such high priority, that no other skill needs were suggested by him. 85 Authority number eight suggested the following skill needs: "There is a need for the superintendent to be able to understand the environment around him, and then, be a theoretician and apply his theories. He must understand himself. He must be able to communicate, and be highly skilled in problem resolution, and decision making. The job is changing so dramatically that he needs virtually no tech- nical skills. He must also possess good physical and mental health. Above all, he must exert leadership to bring about significant change." Authority number nine stated the need for skills in planning and policy development, based on different commu- nity needs. "The major quality one should develop is commit- ment. In this period of great change, the superintendent must be one who can bring changes and know how they are brought about." Summary The problems and new demands faced by educational leaders, and the new skills and professional competencies needed to survive and succeed on the job, were reported in this chapter, as viewed by practicing school district super- intendents and a panel Of authorities in school administra- tion. Analysis of responses by both groups to an Open- ended interview schedule format showed a wide variety Of new problems and new competencies to face them effectively. 86 According to the superintendents who were inter- viewed, the following problems were emphasized and deemed Significant. There is no priority intended in the list. 1. Integration and minority group problems 2. Political forces 3. Public demands 4. Teacher militancy and negotiations 5. Student concerns 6. Organizational goals 7. Human relations problems 8. Technical changes 9. Personal considerations Within each of these general problem areas, more specific problems were reported, as viewed by the superin- tendents. Many of the general and specific problem areas were viewed as being the result of very recent changes in the public school environment. After the identification of new problems faced by superintendents, skills, abilities, and competencies were suggested that would enable a superintendent to deal effec- tively with the problems. Analysis Of skill needs as viewed by practicing school district superintendents as being critically necessary resulted in the following list, which is not necessarily in any order Of priority or importance. 87 1. Understanding of the environment 2. Perceiving trends 3. Sensing community needs 4. Political expertise 5. Managing conflict 6. Building effective and efficient organizations 7. Human relations skills 8. Technical competencies 9. Personal considerations 10. Managing change Within each of these general areas, specific skill needs were also suggested by the superintendents. Responses to the Open-ended interview schedule from a panel of leading authorities in school administration were also reported and analyzed in this chapter. The panel empha- sized the newness of most problems they discussed as being a result of very recent societal changes. The following general problems were emphasized as having the most dramatic and forceful impact on the superintendency. There is no priority in the list. 1. Societal changes 2. Goal setting 3. Conflict 4. Organizational relationships 5. Personal considerations 88 Skill needs and competencies required to deal with these problems effectively were suggested by each Of the panel. Because Of the diverse nature Of each response, each was reported separately. A summary Of such diverse and individually unique responses is almost impossible to compose. However, it can be stated that the panel Of authorities felt that conceptual abilities in dealing with the problem areas they discussed were more critically necessary than technical skills in the traditional sense. Responding to societal changes, purpose defining, conflict management, organizational behavior, and self- awareness and confidence can be Offered as a general sum- mary Of competencies required of superintendents, as viewed by the panel of authorities. The next chapter includes a qualitative assessment of traditional preparation programs for educational leaders, and suggestions for revitalizing those programs in view of the problems and skill needs reported and analyzed in this chapter. CHAPTER V EFFECTIVENESS, STRENGTHS, AND WEAKNESSES OF EXISTING PROGRAMS FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS AND SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT Introduction In this chapter, the relative effectiveness, strengths, and weaknesses Of existing preparation programs for school administrators are reported, as viewed by prac- ticing school district superintendents and a panel of author- ities in the field. Suggestions and recommendations for change and improvement from the same two groups comprise the remainder Of the chapter. Effectiveness Of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents The question asked in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this category was: 2. As you look back at the college or university program you went through, how well did your program prepare you for the competencies that you indicate are needed as a superintendent? In response to this question, only two superinten- dents interviewed felt their college Or university training 89 90 had prepared them effectively. The remaining 19 superin- tendents who were interviewed felt their college ur univer- sity training had not prepared them effectively for the present-day superintendency. Weaknesses of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by Practicipg School District Superintendents The question asked to stimulate response in this category was: 4. What were the shortcomings Of your training? In response to this question, the following short- comings were emphasized. 1. Too much emphasis on technical aspects of school administration, such as school law and school finance, which are now completely outdated. 2. Not enough relationship between theoretical and practical aspects. 3. Not enough experience in leadership skill develOpment, such as human-relations skills, communications skills, and skills in managing conflict and change. 4. Not enough field experiences. 5. TOO much emphasis on traditional teaching tech- niques, such as lectures on technical matters. While the above areas were emphasized as shortcomings in the preparation programs for the subjects in this study, almost all superintendents interviewed were eager to qualify their responses in the following three ways: 91 1. Rapid changes in society and in education have outdated much Of the content of preparation programs. 2. The superintendency is developmental in nature, and only after some experience in the position can an indi- vidual diagnose his own personal competency needs. Most superintendents have learned mostly on the job. 3. The role Of the superintendent has changed rapidly in the past few years, thereby demanding new skills. Strengths of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents The question asked in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this category was: 3. What were the strongest, most relevant aspects of your training: In response to this question, the following were most emphasized: 1. Contact with outstanding professors and other students, permitting the exchange Of ideas and Opinions. 2. Field experiences and internships. 3. Small group seminars. 4. Fundamental understanding of law and finance. 5. Course work in social sciences. Effectiveness Of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by a Panel Of Authorities in School Administration The question asked in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this category was: 92 2. As far as you know, how well do existing prepara- tion programs contribute to the competencies you indicate are needed? In reSponse to this question, each of the nine author- ities agreed that the overall effectiveness of existing prep- aration programs was inadequate in this current period Of rapid change. However, it was the general consensus that some parts Of existing programs were partially meeting today's needs. Each of the authorities agreed that program effectiveness was most difficult to assess. The lack Of criteria by which to measure effectiveness was viewed as a major problem in program planning and evaluation. Weaknesses Of Existing Preparation Programs as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration The question asked in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this category was: 3. What are the general shortcomings, or even inad- equacies, in existing preparation programs for educational administrators? In response to this question, the following short- comings were most emphasized: 1. Recruitment and selection methods and procedures have not been as effective as they should be. 2. Certification requirements in some states are in disharmony with program needs. 93 3. Many programs place too much emphasis on task areas. 4. There have not been enough meaningful intern- ship experiences. 5. There has not been a close enough involvement between the field and the colleges and universities in pro- gram planning and implementation. 6. The resistance Of many university faculties to change preparation programs. 7. There has not been enough emphasis on full-time study and residency. Strengths Of Existing Programs as Viewed by a Panel of Authorities in School Administration The questions asked in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this category were: 4. What are the trends evolving in administrative training programs? 7. What are the earmarks Of the successful or relevant preparation programs for superintendents? In response to Question #4, the panel Of authorities emphasized the interdisciplinary approach as a strong com- ponent of many existing programs. They also perceived recruitment and selection of minority group students as being a recent strength. Most Of the panel viewed the trend toward more independent study programs as being desirable. 94 In response to Question #7, there was no particular emphasis placed on any criteria for judging a program other than placement and success Of the graduates of the program. The panel did agree that not enough study has been made Of the career successes and failures of graduates. It was gen- erally agreed that, at the present time, there is no spe- cific assessment of program effectiveness available. Suggestions and Recommendations for Improving Prepara- tion Programs for School Administrators as Viewed by Practicing School District Superintendents Three questions were posed in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this area. As numbered in the interview schedule, they were: 5. What types of innovations do you think would be possible to implement in college or university preparation programs for educational administrators? 6. What are some Of the ideas you would try if there were the Opportunity to shelve present programs and start completely anew to design, build, and implement a preparation program for superintendents? 8. What suggestions do you have for superintendents to keep up with the new demands Of the job? While these three questions were designed to stimu- late response in this area, the interviewer discovered dur- ing the course of the interview that responses to some questions were given in response to other questions. There— fore, a synthesis Of suggestions and recommendations for 95 improving preparation programs for school administrators will be reported, rather than reporting responses to each separate question. The interviewer further discovered a wide variety of suggestions and recommendations was Offered by almost all superintendents interviewed. Only those suggestions and recommendations that were most highly emphasized by a major- ity Of superintendents will be reported here. There is no priority intended in the listing Of suggestions and recom- mendations. Individualized Programs There was great emphasis placed on tailoring prog- rams to fit individual needs. It was strongly suggested that more complete diagnosis of individual strengths and weaknesses would lead to programs designed for individual development. This suggestion was coupled with the recogni- tion Of the need to establish specific Objectives for each student, and to design a flexible program to meet those Objectives. Theory and Practice Almost all superintendents interviewed felt there should be stronger ties between theory and practice. The most emphasized suggestion was a closer working relation- ship between school districts and college and university faculties. 96 Faculty-Student Relationships . It was strongly suggested that faculty and student relationships be strengthened by more interaction and involvement in planning programs, identifying problems and needs, developing alternative strategies, and assessing per- formance in a wide variety Of experiences. Internships By far, the most highly underscored suggestion was the inclusion of some type Of directed internship experi- ence. The use of school districts, governmental agencies, community groups, and the like as laboratories for learning leadership problems and skills was suggested. The experi- ences in the field could be combinations Of Observing, par- ticipating, and evaluating. Most superintendents felt the internship experiences should be varied in nature, and interspersed throughout the preparation program, depending on individual needs and Objectives. Courses and Seminars Most superintendents suggested less formal course work and more seminar-type experiences. The emphasis here was in terms of providing students with more Opportunity for closer interaction with faculty and other students. In addition, it was felt that more could be learned by building the seminars around the needs Of students as they saw them, rather than on traditional course patterns. 97 Related Disciplines Most superintendents emphasized the important role Of other disciplines, such as sociology, economics, indus- trial relations, and political science. The need for a broad and varied background in these areas is becoming greater and greater, and it was suggested that better meth- ods for interdisciplinary experiences be jointly developed by students, school administration faculty, and faculty from other disciplines. Periodic Renewal It was highly emphasized that constant, continuous, and planned in-service experiences should be a part of preparation programs. The need for keeping up with new developments in the field is growing, and this component rightfully belongs within the framework Of an advanced degree program, according to many practicing superintendents. Suggestions and Recommendations for Improving Preparation Programs for School Super- intendents as Viewed by a Panel Of Authorities in School Administration Three questions were posed in the interview schedule to stimulate response in this area. They were: 5. What types Of innovations do you think would be possible to implement in college or university preparation programs for educational administrators? 6. What are some Of the ideas you would try if there were the Opportunity to shelve present programs and 98 start completely anew to design, build, and implement a preparation program for superintendents? 8. What suggestions do you have for superinten- dents to keep up with the new demands of the job? A wide variety Of innovations, ideas, and sugges- tions was Offered by the panel Of authorities for both pre- service and in-service programs for school administrators. Because of the diverse responses Offered by each individual authority, each will be reported separately. The order Of presentation is not alphabetical, in order to provide anonymity. Authority number one stressed the need for more individualization and the use of Specific performance cri- teria to measure growth. He strongly suggested a better blend of theory and practice, and to accomplish this goal, he suggested an increased use Of people in the field serv- ing as clinical professors. Authority number two emphasized internships that required practical and specific problem-solving Opportuni- ties. He advocated more attention be paid to developing political perspective in prospective and practicing admin- istrators. He further urged development of more laboratory and simulation techniques. Authority number three felt that all "courses" should be taken out of preparation programs, and be replaced by "apprOpriate experiences," particularly in the areas Of 99 conflict management and human behavior. This would specify a completely individualized program, drawing on university- wide resources. He also suggested that intensive counseling and analysis be a part Of the program, employing the exper- tise Of psychologists and psychiatrists. Authority number four urged a closer working rela- tionship between the field and university. He suggested that, "Changes come too fast to let the program crystallize into traditional courses. The program should be flexible throughout for each individual to develop on his own." Authority number five suggested most strongly that individualized instruction with individual contracts based on competency levels replace existing courses. Experiences should be provided for developing group processes and self— awareness. The peak experience would be a full-time intern- ship in many different public and/or private agencies. In addition to the concept Of allowing each individual to pro- ceed at his own pace through the program, there should be an obligation for continuous renewal experiences. Authority number six suggested the elimination of all task area courses and substituting programmed individual- ized learning units after brief introductions to the task areas. Seminars based around issues raised while progressing through "learning packages" would place the professor in the role of a manager Of resources. He suggested that programs should be developed to get professors back in the field and 100 practitioners back in the university as clinical professors. A multi-disciplinary approach with other behavioral science departments was also suggested. Experiences should also be provided in urban planning and in field experiences with other social agencies. Authority number seven recommended that school dis- tricts develop their own on—the-job development programs, using the resources of the university when necessary. He suggested that experiences be provided to better understand minority group problems, and to manage confrontation. He stated, however, that "I am puzzled at the present time as to what a program should be. We've got no way to tell or prove what works best." Authority number eight suggested the establishment of a university-wide center for administration based on the assumption that administration in other segments of the pub- lic sector and private sector are more common than different. He also recommended replacing traditional task area courses with experiences with specific performance Objectives. He emphasized the need for better methods Of diagnosing compe- tencies, abilities, and skills, and prescribing individual- ized programs. He also suggested that periodic renewal be a part of the student's contract with the university, and that professors and administrators in the field exchange places from time to time. Counseling should also be an important part Of the program. Credit should be granted 101 for experiences, no matter where they took place, as long as learning growth matched performance Objectives. Authority number nine emphasized the need for con- tinuing to select materials and concepts from the behavioral sciences. Case studies and internships should be closely directed to carry out the intent Of the program. A high level Of academic excellence, better selection Of candidates, continuous renewal, and a lengthier program were also sug- gested. He stated, "The success Of a program is tested by how well its graduates perform in the field. TO my knowl- edge, no one has studied this carefully enough to state without hesitation, what should constitute a model prepara- tion program." Summary A qualitative assessment of traditional preparation programs for school administrators was reported in this chapter. Suggestions and recommendations for improvement Of programs were also included. Both the assessment and suggestions were results Of Open-ended interviews with prac— ticing school district superintendents and a panel Of author- ities in school administration. Effectiveness Of existing programs was assessed by both groups as inadequate, in view Of new problems and skill needs. Weaknesses Of existing programs were suggested by superintendents as lacking linkage between theory and 102 practice, skill development in human relations and conflict management, field experience, and program individuality and flexibility. Weaknesses perceived by the panel Of authorities were in the areas of recruitment and selection, constraints in some states of licensing requirements, task area empha- sis, interaction between the field and university, resis- tance of university faculty to change, and lack Of emphasis on full-time study and residency requirements. Strengths Of existing programs were suggested by superintendents as outstanding professors, contact with other students, field experiences, small group seminars, and interdisciplinary courses in the social sciences. Strengths cited by the panel Of authorities included the increased interdisciplinary approach, recruitment Of minority group students, and independent study programs. NO satisfactory assessment for program effectiveness has yet been devised. Suggestions and recommendations for improvement were numerous and varied. Analysis of the responses Of school district superintendents yielded the following sug- gestions as the most highly emphasized. 1. More individualized programs 2. Closer relationships between the field and university 3. Strengthened faculty-student interaction 103 4. Inclusion Of directed field or internship experiences 5. Fewer formal courses and more seminar-type experiences 6. More exposure to other disciplines 7. Periodic renewal as a regular component in the framework of preparation programs. Suggestions and recommendations from the panel of authorities were diverse in nature. It was exceedingly dif- ficult to derive general areas Of consensus in this cate- gory. The suggestions were very similar to those offered by practicing superintendents. It can also be stated that each member Of the panel Offered creative, unique, and lengthy proposals. A general summary of the responses Of the panel of authorities should also include their realization of needed changes, and their desire to see such changes implemented. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The task Of preparing educational leaders for the 1970's and 1980's will depend heavily on colleges and uni- versities. The thesis of this study was that new and viable preparation programs for educational leaders must be designed that are relevant and that will help develop the competencies needed by educational leaders to survive and succeed on the job in a rapidly changing society. The problem Of this study was threefold. First, to explore and assess the effectiveness of existing preparation programs. Second, to study and analyze the new demands and/ or professional competencies needed by educational leaders. Finally, to propose guidelines and basic patterns for new pre-service and in-service preparation programs in educa- tional administration. The need for revitalizing and redesigning prepara- tion programs for educational leaders is apparent in light of current social, economic, political, and legal issues which are placing new demands on public education and 104 _.. 105 educational leaders across the land, particularly in urban and metropolitan areas. The design of the study was basically built around an Open-ended interview schedule format. A series Of inter- views was conducted with a selected panel of nine authori- ties in school administration and with 21 superintendents in districts Of 5,000 or more students in Northern California. A review of pertinent literature traced the develop- ment Of preparation programs over the past half-century and the response of program planners to societal trends. Current forces affecting educational leadership were reviewed and suggest that there will be an increasing inter- action between the schools and the total environment, and that educational leaders Of the future will need new compe— tencies and abilities to achieve organizational goals. Selected literature in leadership behavior tended to reflect the emphasis that leadership is hard to define and describe. Leadership can be thought of as a complex combination Of factors, including the external environment, traits and behaviors of subordinates and of the leader him- self, and requires the integration Of individual and organi- zational goals and a high concern for both. The leader's basic assumptions about people and his decision-making strategies are important factors in describing and defining leadership. Current trends in preparation programs reflect the need for further revitalization Of both pre-service and J 106 in-service programs. Evaluation of program effectiveness has been particularly elusive. Problems and skill needs, as viewed by practicing school district superintendents and a panel of authorities in school administration, were found to be varied in nature. Many Of the problems and skill needs are the result of very recent developments in society. The most emphasized skill needs were conceptual rather than technical. The superin- tendents emphasized the following general skill needs: 1. Understanding of the environment 2. Perceiving trends 3. Sensing community needs 4. Political expertise 5. Managing conflict 6. Building effective and efficient organizations 7. Human relations skills 8. Technical competencies 9. Personal considerations 10. Managing change The panel of authorities emphasized the abilities needed to respond to societal change, purpose defining, con- flict management, organizational behavior, and self-awareness and self-confidence, as the competencies required to survive and succeed. Planning skills in all areas were also empha- sized. 107 Effectiveness Of existing programs was assessed by both groups as being inadequate, in view Of new problems and new skill needs. Weaknesses and strengths of existing programs were elicited from each group, and analysis of these responses showed a wide variety of Opinions, depending on the indi- vidual being interviewed. Generally, the major weaknesses, as viewed by the superintendents, were in the areas of theory-practice linkage, skill development in human relations and conflict management, field experiences, and programs that were inflexible and not individually prescribed. Weak- nesses as viewed by the panel Of authorities were in the areas of recruitment and selection, task area emphasis, con- straints Of legal licensing requirements, faculty resistance to change, and lack Of emphasis on full-time study. Major strengths were viewed by both groups as inter- disciplinary approaches, independent study programs, and field or internship experiences. ‘Suggestions and recommendations from both groups for improving preparation programs were numerous and varied. In general, the following suggestions were most emphasized: 1. More individualized programs 2. Closer relationships between the field and university 3. Directed field or internship experiences 108 4. Fewer formal courses and more seminar experiences 5. More exposure to other disciplines 6. Periodic renewal or in-service training Both groups emphasized the need for changes in prep- aration programs and strongly indicated a desire to see such changes implemented. Conclusions While the findings of this study are not the results of experimental research, they should have applicability through the power of suggestion in the heuristic development of guidelines and basic patterns for pre-service and in- service preparation programs in educational administration. A review of selected literature, analysis Of inter- views with practicing school district superintendents, and with a panel of authorities in school administration tend to support the thesis Of this study. The thesis, as stated earlier, is: New and viable preparation programs for educational leaders must be designed that are relevant and that will help develop the competencies needed by educational leaders to survive and succeed on the job in a rapidly changing society. The following conclusions supporting the thesis were derived from the literature, and interviews with practicing school district superintendents and a panel of authorities in school administration. 109 1. Existing preparation programs are relatively ineffective because of rapidly changing socie- tal forces. 2. Preparation programs in the past have been strongly influenced by societal trends. 3. Future preparation programs will be influenced by many new and changing forces in society. 4. There are new demands and new problems faced by superintendents for which they perceive they are ill-prepared to manage. 5. New competencies are needed to survive and succeed on the job. 6. There is a need to develop new experiences and curricula to better equip prospective and prac— ticing administrators in pre-service and in- service programs. Recommended Guidelines for New Preparation Programs The following guidelines and basic patterns for a new model preparation program are Offered as a framework which educational planners in colleges and universities may utilize in preliminary planning efforts. The recommendations result from the writer's analy- sis of the suggestions and recommendations for improvement obtained in the interviews with practicing school district superintendents and a panel Of authorities in school admin- istration. 110 While the major focus Of the study was on the super- intendency in an urban or metrOpolitan area, many of the guidelines might easily be applicable to preparation pro- grams for other school district administrative personnel. The total framework could not be used by every col- lege or university; however, some of the suggestions might well apply to any existing or proposed new program. Finally, the framework is not intended to be a total solution to the myriad of problems associated with revitaliz- ing, redesigning, or starting completely new programs. Rather, it is an attempt to point out some new directions for consideration based on the emerging competency needs of educational leaders and the prediction that these needs will become more demanding, more complex, and more difficult tO meet in the future. The recommended guidelines Offered here as a model for preparation programs consist Of two sections, General Goals and Operating Principles. General Goals The general goals of the program are relatively broad in nature. Specific Objectives can be derived to meet each goal, depending on the specific characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses Of the particular university, department, faculty, students, and point in time. The common core of goals toward which the program design should be directed is as follows. 111 All students of educational administration must: 1. Be familiar with the relationships between the school and the environment. 2. Be aware of the contemporary forces and problems confronting education. 3. Be able to relate basic values and value systems to the role and function of the educational organization in society in a manner that reflects flexibility and adaptive- ness to change. 4. Understand the characteristics and behavior Of individuals and organizations. 5. Be familiar with the processes of purpose defin- ing, goal setting, and goal achievement. 6. Be familiar with the newest technology, method- ology, and capabilities Of planning and achieving increased effectiveness and efficiency. 7. Be familiar with the human relations aSpects associated with successful leadership, including the under- standing Of the human needs of others as well as self. 8. Be able to view people as human resources. 9. Be able tO develOp a positive self-concept. 10. Be able to manage conflict, crises, and change. Operating Princ1ples There are numerous strategies and methods available to achieve the foregoing general goals, and specific Objec- tives which might be uniquely derived from each Of them. 112 The following recommendations are intended to be a general structure for designing meaningful adaptive learning experiences with specified and verifiable performance cri- teria: l. The study Of administration would be centered in a separate college, devoted to the common elements of administrative and organizational theory in other fields Of study such as public administration and business adminis- tration. Faculty and students from each Of the fields of study would interact with each other. The intent of this recommendation is to better utilize resources in closely related areas outside the field Of education. 2. Each student Of educational administration would have an individua11y prescribed program. The emphasis would be on diagnosing strengths and weaknesses Of the individual and building a program to meet his needs. Another neces- sary component would be individual evaluation procedures at various check-points throughout the program. 3. Traditional courses would be replaced by indi— vidual learning experiences and problem-oriented seminars. Task area courses, such as law, finance, and plant planning, and conceivably other traditional courses as well, would be developed into individual learning units or packages. Stu- dents would be able tO proceed through the learning packages at their own pace and level Of interest. Seminars would be conducted periodically and would be reflective Of the learn- ings and problems Of the students. 113 4. The role Of the professor and faculty would be that of learning resource manager, planner, diagnostician, and evaluator, and resource person in one or more areas of expertise. Differentiated staffing would help redefine these roles. Clinical professors from the field could serve as resources in technical areas. Full-time faculty would devote their energies to diagnosing, planning, and preparing appropriate learning experiences. 5. Learningpexperiences would be mutually developed between faculty and student to meet goals and Obgpctives. The emphasis here would be on creating appropriate learning experiences to match the performance criteria of specific Objectives. Learning experiences might include course work, independent study, case studies, visitations, seminars, planning projects, or any other appropriate experience such as attendance at workshops or institutes on and Off the campus. 6. Resources of the university and total community would be utilized whenever possible. Based upon individual needs, students could participate in any activity Of the uni- versity if it matched previously agreed-upon goals and Objectives. The resources of the community could be used to help develop skills in understanding the environment and social, economic, political, and legal forces affecting edu- cational leadership. Experiences might be designed to work with city and other government planners. Social agencies at 114 local, state, and federal levels would also provide Opportu- nities for meaningful learning experiences. 7. A period of directed field work or internship would be a common requirement. This field work would be intensive, but not limited to one situation or one specific length Of time. It could be in a variety Of agencies over a long period of time, or in one agency in a relatively short period time, or a combination of both. 8. A wide variety of instructional techniques would be used by faculty and students. Simulation exercises, gaming, stress situations, varied audio-visual techniques, lectures, seminars, symposia, field experiences, and intern— ships would be used wherever the student and faculty decided they would contribute to achieving performance objectives. 9. Counseling, individual and group experiences, modified T-group experiences, and other techniques would be an integral and ongoing component. To develop an under- standing Of oneself, to develop self-awareness and self- confidence, this component should be carefully developed to allow personal growth and understanding at the highest pos- sible level. Physical weaknesses and strengths would also be diagnosed and evaluated. 10. Life-long education, self-renewal, and in— service training would be an integral part of the program. Students would not terminate their learning experiences upon receipt Of a degree, license, or certificate. Continuing 115 education is mandated by rapid societal change. By provid- ing individual learning programs, post-degree and nondegree practitioners could utilize the resources of the university to keep up with new demands. Likewise, by continuing the program beyond the normal terminal experiences, university faculty could keep abreast with the field and build more effective relationships with the field. A philosophical commitment to this principle would be required Of degree candidates. 11. The program would have built-in evaluation and feedback devices. From the very first diagnostic procedures developed to determine individual programs, through the stu- dent's professional experience in the field, strategies would be developed to continually evaluate and feed back information to program planners. Traditional comprehensive examinations would become pre-program diagnostic tools. 12. Recruitment and selection procedures would con- sist of identification Of high-talent personnel and diag— nostic procedures to assist in program planning for each individual. Techniques such as assessment centers in private industry would be utilized to Operationalize this principle. Faculty, practitioners from the field, and prospective stu- dents could attend short workshops Of one or two weeks in duration. During this period they would be exposed to broad introductory and diagnostic experiences to assist them in determining their own capabilities and desires with regard 116 to furthering their education and planning their professional administrative careers. 13. Full-time study would be required of each stu- 3333. The equivalent Of at least one full year of full-time study would be a necessary component to allow the student to concentrate on the task at hand. This could be broken up into halves, quarters, or eighths, depending on the intel- lectual, physical, and financial needs and capabilities Of the individual. 14. Dissertation requirements would be flexible. The Opportunity for students to do action research or study would be broad and varied. The emphasis for the student planning an administrative career would be threefold. First, to understand basic research design and be able to interpret research findings and apply them to new situations. Second, to provide the students the Opportunity to identify, design, and complete major studies in a team situation. Finally, to provide the Opportunity for significant, timely, and rigorous academic activities toward advancing the field of knowledge. 15. There would be extensive Opportunity for inter- disc1plinary study and experience. Introduction to many other disciplines would be available before selecting a Specific set of courses and/or experiences. Political science, sociology, psychology, economics, the humanities, communication sciences, and planning sciences would each be explored. 117 The foregoing guidelines are not all-inclusive, but could serve program planners with a model from which they could add, subtract, or modify to meet the general goals of the program. Suggestions for Further Stu3y_ The Opportunity for further research and study is enormous and Should be of prime concern to colleges and universities seeking to build programs that will meet the needs Of the times. Rather than specify a long and detailed list Of areas which need further investigation, as suggested by the findings Of this study and the proposed goals and recom- mended guidelines, a few readily apparent and Significant suggestions will be Offered. 1. An analysis and synthesis of the proposed pro- gram should be simulated, using the techniques Of systems analysis. 2. Specific courses should be redesigned from lecture-type courses to individual and separate learning packages. One course, for example, could be a traditional school facility planning course which could easily be restructured to consist Of Specific Objectives with verifi- able performance criteria tO allow individualized instruc- tion. 118 3. A program budget format Should be developed and Simulated to test the feasibility Of various alternative strategies inherent in the proposed guidelines. 4. Continued assessment of current problems and demands faced by practicing school administrators should be conducted to suggest further program needs. Many other studies could be suggested. However, the writer hopes that this study and the recommendations Offered will serve as a basis for discussion and debate among those faculties dedicated to revitalizing and redesigning prepara- tion programs to keep pace with a rapidly changing society. The future of public education as a cornerstone Of democracy may well rest on the leadership Of educational administra- tors Of the next decade or two. Their preparation should assist them in developing the competencies required to sur- vive and succeed. Our children Should expect no less than the very best educational Opportunities, and the leadership required to deliver such programs. Discussion At this point, the writer will take the Opportunity to reflect some personal Observations about this study. These comments are intended to give further insight to the thesis Of the study. First, the findings of this study were Significant enough to suggest that creative and bold approaches are needed in program planning for the pre-service and in-service 119 training of school superintendents. The findings might, however, be difficult to generalize because Of several fac- tors. The particular problems and skill needs viewed by both practitioners and authorities might well be situation-Specific. That is, the particular moment in time when the interviews were conducted could have caused the responses. Another point in time might cause a differ- ent set Of responses. This implies that the cycle Of prob- lems and skill needs is rapid and ever-changing and, in the Opinion Of the writer, should be the single most important consideration in program planning. Flexible programs based on individual needs and using a variety Of instructional approaches must be developed if practicioners are to survive and succeed on the job. Second, the writer found a great deal Of congruence in the responses from both groups, superintendents and authorities. The cause Of this congruence is unknown, but is a curious phenomenon. The congruence could be caused by many factors; however, the writer speculates that it is the result Of a greater awareness Of our rapidly changing soci- ety. The superintendents in the field certainly cannot escape the forces surrounding them, and university profes- Sors are not able to withstand the mounting pressure for change and relevance to individual needs. Third, the issue of conflict management was viewed as a negative force by most Of the subjects interviewed. 120 The possibility of conflict as a positive factor from which there might be profit and gain was rarely discussed. Whether the perception Of conflict as a purely negative force was intentional or accidental was not investigated further. However, the writer is Of the strong Opinion that conflict management and understanding of the nature, cause, and conse- quence Of conflict Should be studied and analyzed by all students of educational administration. The conception of conflict as a purely negative force is not realistic and is certainly a short-Sighted and narrow perspective. The type Of leader who will be successful and will be able to survive on the job will be the one who can view conflict in a broader and more visionary manner. He will be one who can seize every Opportunity to control his environment, rather than be controlled by it. Finally, this study was a great learning experience for the writer. The interest, cooperation, and Openness Of the persons who were interviewed were a major factor in studying and analyzing problems, skill needs, and sugges- tions for improving preparation programs. The writer feels that the time is ripe for change in preparation programs and senses an urgency for accomplishing that goal. If we are to see public education as one Of the cornerstones of democracy, we must seize the Opportunity for change while the opportunity exists. That man can control his own des- tiny is another tenet Of democracy which must be heeded if 121 success and survival on the job are to become a frequent reality. APPENDIX A INTERVIEW SCHEDULE AUTHORITIES IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 122 APPENDIX A INTERVIEW SCHEDULE AUTHORITIES IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION We are doing some research on the competencies involved in doing an effective job as a superintendent in an urban school district, and the types of college and uni- versity programs for administrators that are designed to prepare superintendents with these competencies. From your perspective, what are the competencies you think are needed by urban or metropolitan area superin— tendents to be able to do an effective job? As far as you know, how well do existing preparation programs contribute to developing the competencies you indicate are needed? What are the general shortcomings, or even inadequacies, in existing programs for educational administrators? What are the trends evolving in these administrative training programs? What types Of innovations do you think would be possible to implement in college or university preparation pro- grams for educational administrators? 123 10. 11. 124 What are some Of the ideas you would try if there were the Opportunity to shelve present programs and start completely anew to design, build, and implement a prep- aration program for superintendents? What are the earmarks of the successful or relevant preparation programs for superintendents? What suggestions do you have for superintendents to keep up with the new demands Of the job? What do you think are the characteristics or qualities of a successful superintendent? What professional job experience do you think would help prepare someone for an urban or metropolitan area super- intendency? What do you feel are the most important tasks performed by superintendents? APPENDIX B INTERVIEW SCHEDULE SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS 125 APPENDIX B INTERVIEW SCHEDULE SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS We are doing some research on the competencies involved in doing an effective job as a superintendent in an urban or metropolitan area school district and the types of college and university programs for administrators like yourself that are designed to prepare superinten- dents with these competencies. From your perspective, what are the competencies you think are needed by super- intendents to be able to do an effective job? As you look back at the college or university program you went through, how well did your program prepare you for the competencies that you indicate are needed as a super- intendent? What were the strongest, most relevant aspects of your training? What were the shortcomings Of your training? If you had to begin again, knowing what you now know, what type of program do you think would prepare you most effectively and efficiently for your present job? 126 10. 11. 127 What innovations would you like to see colleges or uni- versities employ in their programs? If you feel that your college preparation did not quite develop those competencies you indicate are needed, how did you go about developing them? What suggestions do you have for superintendents to keep up with new demands Of the job? What do you think are the characteristics or qualities of a successful superintendent? What professional job experience do you think would help prepare for a superintendency? What do you feel are the most important tasks performed by urban or metropolitan area superintendents? APPENDIX C PATTERNS OF LEADERSHIP ATTITUDES 128 APPENDIX C PATTERNS OF LEADERSHIP ATTITUDESl Traditional Model Human Relations Model Human Resources Model Assumptions Assumptions Assumptions 1. Work is inherently 1. PeOple want to feel 1. Work is not inher- distasteful to most peOple. useful and important. ently distasteful. People want to con- 2' People desire to tribute to meanin ful 2. What they do is less belong and to be . g , . . . goals which they have important than what recognized as indi- . . . . helped establish. they earn for deing Viduals. it. 2. Most people can exer- 3. These needs are more cise far more creative, responsible self- direction and self- control than their present jobs demand. Few want or can handle work which requires creativity, self-direction, or self-control. important than money in motivating people to work. Policies Policies Policies 1. The manager's basic 1. The manager's basic 1. The manager's basic task is to closely task is to make each task is to make use supervise and control worker feel useful of his "untapped" his subordinates. and important. human resources. 2. He must break tasks 2. He should keep his sub- 2. He must create an down into simple, ordinates informed and environment in which repetitive, easily listen to their Objec— all members may con— learned Operations. tions to his plans. tribute to the limits 3. He must establish de- 3. The manager should Of their ablllty' tailed work routines allow his subordinates 3. He must encourage full and procedures, and to exercise some self- participation on im- enforce these firmly direction and self— portant matters, con- but fairly. control on routine tinually broadening matters. subordinate self- direction and control. Expectations Expectations EXpectations 1. People can tolerate 1. Sharing information 1. Expanding subordinate work if the pay is with subordinates and influence, self- decent and the boss involving them in rou- direction, and self- is fair. tine decisions will control will lead to , . satisfy their basic direct improvements 2. If tasxs are Simple . g . . a needs to belong and in Operating effic- enough and peOple to feel important iency are closely controlled, ' ' ' they will produce up 2. Satisfying these needs 2. Work satisfaction may to standard. will improve morale improve as a "by- and reduce resistance product" of subordi- tO formal authority-- nates making full use subordinates will of their resources. "willingly cooperate." 1Raymond E. Miles, Lyman W. Porter, and James A. Craft, "Leadership Attitudes Among Public Health Officials," and The Nation's Health, Vol. 56, American Journal of Public Health NO. 12 (December, 129 1966). 1990-2005. APPENDIX D BACKGROUND INFORMATION--INTERVIEWEES 130 APPENDIX D BACKGROUND INFORMATION--INTERVIEWEES Name Title District/College/University Address County Average Daily Attendance Schools Male Female Age College or University Attended Highest Degree Earned Year Post-Graduate Experiences Years on Present Job Total Years Administrative Exp. As Supt. General Comments - District/College/University General Comments - Interviewee Date of Interview Time Place 131 APPENDIX E SUMMARY PROTOCOL 132 NAME 1. APPENDIX E SUMMARY PROTOCOL DISTRICT/OTHER CATEGORIES Competencies needed by superintendents: 133 134 2. Effectiveness, strengths, and weaknesses of existing programs: 3. Suggestions and recommendations for improving preparation programs: 4. Other comments: APPENDIX F FINAL REPORT, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies -- Summary of Recommendations 135 APPENDIX F FINAL REPORT Project No. 8-0230 Grant No. OEG-0-8-080230-2695(010) PREPARING EDUCATIONAL LEADERS FOR THE SEVENTIES Jack Culbertson _ Robin H. Farquhar Alan K. Gaynor Mark R. Shibles University Council for Educational Administration 29 West Woodruff Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210 December, 1969 The research reported herein was performed pursuant to a grant with the Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment in the conduct of the project. Points of View or opinions stated do not, therefore, necessarily-represent official Office of Education position or policy. U. 8. DEPARTMENT or HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Office of Education Bureau of Research 136 137 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS Data presented in the final chapters of this study indicate clearly that programs of preparation have not remained unchanged during the sixties even though universities have been somewhat more shielded from societal forces than have the public schools. However, those in universities still face basic issues and challenges in attaining the organizational adaptations necessary to equip school superintendents for the 1970's. Recommendations suggesting directions for change in program, developedat greater length in the final chapter of this study, are summarized as follows: General Recommendation During the 1970's distinctions between those leadership behaviors which are to be sought largely through recruitment and those which are to be develcmed principally throughjrogrammed learning experiences durg preparation will need to be made much more explicit than thiaLam currently; Among the kinds of behaviors significant to leadership which are likely to be relatively stable by the time students enter graduate preparatory programs are the following: displaying courage: inspiring confidence in others; communicating a sense of social mission, displaying charismatic qualities; expressing a high degree of intelligence; showing a commitmem to social improvement and reform; tolerating ambiguity and stress; displaying social sensitivity; and expressing marked energy and drive. Recruitment and Selection procedures must do a better job of identifying and assessing the extent to which prospective school superintendents possess these behaviors before they are admitted to programs. Recommendations about Recruitment 1. During the 1970's those responsible for pgeparatompgograms will need to concentrate more upon the non-cognitive aspects of leadership in recruitment and selection than they did during the 1960's. Data developed in this study indicate clearly that both professors and superintendents recognize that to rely mumn traditional cognitive measures in selecting candidates for preparatory programs is not sufficient. Such measures ignore such importad: leadership qualities as courage, charisma, vision, energy and moral fitness. In the projected environment of the 1970's which will be filled with conflict, ambiguity, change, and risk, non-cognitive qualities in leaders such as those just noted will be essertial. 2. As clearer distinctions are developed between relatively stable and chaggeable leadership behaviors, those responsible for recruitment will need to delineate more specific situational and action indicators of stable behaviors in order to make reasonable judgments concernijng whether or not candidates 138 possess these behaviors before they enter preparatory pmgzgms. Given the list of relatively stable behaviors noted above, how can those responsible for programs identify these in recruitmett and selection activities? While it is not now possible to assess the presence or absence of these behaviors in 'any absolute way, improvemerts in current practice can be achieved. To-"do t his, systematic efforts to develop more specific situational indicators of behaviors will be required to provide bases for judgment. 3. Universities will need to make special efforts to identify and recruit outstanding leaders from amongminority groups_._ Leaders from Black, Chicano, and other minority groups will need to be aggressively recruited during the 1970's. The need to have minority group personnel in school leadership positions to advance equality of learning opportunities and to help improve the quality of learning in ways which majority group members cannot now do in many communities is increasingly recognized. In order to recruit minority group members more effectively, universities will need to be more flexible in the use of intelligence test scores and measures of verbal abilities since these tend to discriminate against mem- bers of minority groups. They will also need to develop special commuciation arrangemerts which link university personnel and leaders of the NAACP, the Urban League, Store Front Schools, CORE, and related organisations. Links with a_d .1322 community organizations will also likely be needed for effective recruitment efforts. 4. Those responsible for preparatog proggms should create special arrangements for identiying and recruiting prospective educational leaders from among undergraduate collgge populations during the 1970's. There are already many visible leaders in the large undergraduate populations in higher education institutions. The large majority of these leaders are concerned about problems of public policy, including those associated with education. They probably possess as high a degree of commitment to social change as any preceding generation of undergraduates. Those concerned with leadership development in education face unprecedented challenges and opportunities in encouraging and attracting young college leaders into education. Perhaps for the first time in history education 929 move into a more favored position in competing with the private sector for leadership talent. 5. Universities should allocate more resources and devote Eeater staff efforts to recruitment duringthe 1970's. Few institutions have actually allocated special staff and resources to ensure effective recruitment efforts. This fact helps explain why professors and superintendetta judge curred recruitment efforts to be unsystematic and unaggressive. In the future as the quantity of school superintendents required declines, the significance of the Quality of leaders entering preparatory programs will have to be recognised more clearly. When this occurs resources which have typically gone imo supporting expanding numbers of students and staffs will need to be allocated to ensure effective search for fewer candidates of higher quality. 139 Recommendations about Program Differentiation 1. Departments of educational administration in the l970'_s_yi11 need to differentiate more sharply than in the past between and among programs for preps ripg researchers , synthes izersL developers , and educational administrators, including school superintendents. The future development of educational administration is dependent upon skilled special-— ists who use knowledge effectively in different ways: researchers who use knowledge to create new knowledge; synthesizers who order existing knowl- edge in new, enlightening, and useful ways; developers who use knowledge to project and invent solutions to general administrative and leadership problems; clinicians who can use knowledge to diagnose and inform specific practices; and administrators who use knowledge to improve "everyday" demsions and to shape intermediate and long-range policies. If university programs are to develop effectively these differing skills, greater differen- tiation in learning experiences for personnel pursuing different specializations will have to be achieved. 2. Specific learning experiences should van considerably_from individual to individual dependifl upon a student's educational background, experiences in education or in other institutions,_ intellectual interesjgp, and career aspirations. Put differently, students should participate in decisions about particular learning options to be pursued and the most appropriate learning resources to be used in achieving program purposes. Let us assume, for example, that those responsible for a given program make a decision that each student should be able at given stages in his preparation to suggest clear relationships between selected societal ail- ments and the purposes of educational institutions. Clearly, there would be a range of societal ailments from which to select and a variety of learning resources both in the university and in field settings which students could use in studying the ailment(s) selected. These resources could be combined in many ways for individuals depending upon their previous learnings, the "societal ailments" of greatest interest to them, and their learning styles. In order to achieve such flexibility, greater use will have to be made of seminars, block-of—time arrangements, field settings, and electives in structuring programs. 3. In order to encourage students to take greater responsibility for their own learnflg, professors should des_i_gp instructional arrangements in which students canpursue their interests and motivations in situations where professors and students are co—learners. Independent study-arrange- ments, for example, could be developed which place major responsibility on students for the structuring of their learning and, at the same time, provide professors opportunity for helping guide learning activities. Still another approach is the seminar arrangement which could provide prospective leaders opportunities to structure and develop their own learnings in relation to more general program objectives. 140 Recommendations about Program Integration 1. At the same time that specialization will mquirpgmater differentiation in programs for prospective researchersL synthesizers, develgpprs, cliniciansI and administrators, there will also be agpeater need for structuflliggrogram elements to ensure that programs to prefire these specialists ar§:gu_ided by some common olmactives. Specialization is paradoxical in the sense that it increases the need for inter-independence and communication among personnel at the same time that it encourages independence and the development of unique skills in these personnel. Programs have a special responsibility to develop common bonds of knowledge and communication so that different specialists in the field of educational administration can function effectively as colleagues. Fundamental common bonds have to do with needed understandings bearing upon the purposes of education and upon the relationships of these purposes to societal needs. In other words, all specialists need to see how their own immediate purposes are related to the larger purposes of educational institutions and the society served by these institutions. Therefore, content to highlight and illuminate the purposive aspects of education should shape core learnings for administrators, researchers, developers , clinicians , and synthesizers. 2. Helping prospective administrators understand values --- both their own and those of various reference_groups in the schools --- represents another significant strategy for achieving integration in preparatory prog_rpms. Most components in programs should aim at developing an awareness of the changing nature of values over time, with reference to both society generally and to major interest groups specifically. Understandings should be sought about how such fundamental human values as the following evolve from and support education: individuality; independent thought; creativity; compassion; freedom; and self-renewal. 3. Content from the humanities designed to illuminate questions of :' value and p_urpose beari_ng tmon education and leadership should be studied by school superintendents, especially during their first year cipregration. It is clear that science can produce knowledge but scientists are not fully competent to tell society's educational institutions how to use it. Political scientists , for example, can help educational administrators understand "power structure" concepts, but they cannot provide final judgments about the human and educational ends toward which power should be directed nor can they authoritatively delineate the most ethical uses of power. Historians, philosophers, and students of literature, on the other hand, do come to grips with basic human values which are directly related to the purposes and processes of educational institutions and to the "human conditions" affecting these institutions. They do, for example, address the values associated with freedom, the "good" man, the "good" society, compassion, humaneness, and education. They also address basic value conflicts and dilemmas affecting educational leaders: law vs. conscience; virtue vs. power, personal vs. social ' benefit; truth vs. manipuliation; and so forth. Content from the humanities can help administrators understand, and discriminate among values and to apply these learnings in problem solving situations. 141 4. Those responsible for prpparatory programs should provide students special learning opportunities through the establishment and activation of "lea rninipeams. " Examples 'of "learning teams!‘ follow: students pursuing differing educational careers related to research, development , and administration and working on common problems bearing upon these differing ca reers, students from different professional schools in the university who are preparing for government, health, social work, business, education, or related careers and who are concentrating upon alternative solutions to problems which cut across the careers of team members, and teams of educational administrators (e.g. , elementary principals, secondary principals, personnel administrators, and superintendents) who are working upon problems which cut across these various positions in school systems. Appropriate experiences in graduate programs for "learning teams" could facilitate the future introduction and effective use of management teams in school systems and communities. Interchange among students with different knowledge and perspectives should also offer unique opportunities for learning. Finally, such teams could concentrate upon cross-role and inter-organizational problems and could help school superintendents gain "boundary spanning" skills which will be needed by them and other administrators during the 1970's. Recommendations about Programs for Administrators A. Recommendations about Selected Performance Objectives for Admini- strators. 1. Preparatorgpproggams should be structured to do more than to foster knowledge acquisitionghey should also provide prospective superintendents ppportunities to demonstrate creative uses of knowledgg in diagnosing and in seeking solutions to educational and societal problems. Since effective school superintendents will be required to demonstrate flexible and effective uses of knowledge in projecting and in implementing strategies of change, program structure should facilitate and develop creative problem' defining, problem solving, and decision-making on the part of prospective educational leaders. There are many areas in educational administration which offer opportunities for creative work. One example is represented in the conflicting expecta- tions and values associated with the Negro protest movement , with federal involvement in education, with teacher militancy, and with other forces impacting upon educational organization and administration. Another area has to do with the need for change in educational policy and programs, especially in the big cities. Still another has to do with inventing ways to attain greater human and financial resources to support education. If creative behavior is to be effectively expressed vis-a-vis areas such as those just noted, flexible programming which reinforces self-initiative and independent activity on the part of students will be required. 142 2. antgnt ghould be incogpgrated into prep_aratory programs which will enable prospective superintendents to be future-oriented and more visionary in their thinflig; To fulfill this guideline, it will be necessary to draw upon content which illuminates projected trends in society and which highlights alternative educational and societal futures. A variety of courses and seminars already exist in universities which can be drawn upon by students to obtain contort of this type. Special seminars or independent study arrangements can also be developed. Such seminars and study arrangements might incorporate content emerging from educational policy centers. Not only should such content help prospective school superintendents think concretely and constructively about such matters as urban congestion, technology, governmental structures, and population growth, it should also provide them clues about how the "good" school can be effectively related to the emergent needs of society. 3. Content designed to illuminate organizational behavior and the processes in which sbhool smrintendents enwhould be included in preparatorpprograms. There is a range of content on the processes of administration and on organizational behavior available 'for use in‘pn'opa'r- ator'y programs. Some of the content is in the form of such well-known classics as those produced by Frederick Taylor, Chester Barnard, and Herbert Simon. Other content on organizational behavior is found in more recent theories and research findings produced by social scientists. Such content should be used to help prospective leaders understand such basic processes as decision making, communication, motivation, change, and planning. B. Recommendations about Content to Achieve Selected Performance O_bjectives for Administrators . 1. Content selected from the disciplines of political science and economics should assume greater importance in preparatory programs for school superintendents. The federal force in education, the business- education interface, and the emergent management technologies all highlight the significance of economic concepts and modes of inquiry as they relate to the leadership challenges likely to face school superintendents in the 1970's. Since school superintendents are interacting more and more with municipal leaders and with leaders in state and federal levels of government, political science concepts and research findings for helping prospective superintendetts understand the formal structure and processes of government are clearly relevant. The need to understand the intonation between economic and political variables is suggested by issues involving such questions as the relationships of desired policy ends to economic conditions and political acceptance; the economic characteristics of a school district and political strategies to gain satisfactory financial support for schools; the economic rationality of planning modes and the political realities of public policy decision-making; and political strategies and budgetary processes. 143 2. A ranjg of reality-orierted materials which can provide common bases for students and professors to analyze and make decisions should be developed and used by those responsible for preparipggfhool superintendents. Cases, simulated materials, and managemem games can provide valuable tools not only for the exploration and understanding of values which shape decisions but also for the testing of theoretical concepts against the "facts of administrative life. " Such materials can provide bases for bridging theory and practice. They can also encourage studetts to develop and take positions on significant issues and to articulate their assmptions about the consequences of given courses of action. In a relatively risk-free environment, they can provide opportunities for prospective leaders to practice informed decision-making and to obtain feedback on choices made. Clearly, existing instructional materials are not sufficient for preparing school superintendents for the seventies. There is a great scarcity of materials related to urban school administration and to the Changing economic and governmental contexts of educational administration. Professors of educational administration face a major challenge in updating readily-oriented materials to meet emergent instructional needs of programs preparing school superintendents . 3. Field experiences should be used throgghout the period of pragm- aration to promote interaction between theory and practice. Traditionally, internships and other kinds of field experiences have tended to come near the end of preparation programs. However, preparation should not be sharply limited to academic experiences during the first part of preparation. Studetts should be able to go back and forth between academic and the field throughout the preparation period and explicit strategies should be developed to promote such interchange. Such strategies might serve such “purposes as the following: to help motivate and focus theoretical study on the part of students; to provide opportunities to observe and examiie administrative processes; to study relationships between the purposes of school systems and community needs and problems; to test and apply theory and research in leadership settings: to observe outstanding leadership behavior; and to prepare case materials. 4. Universities should experiment with olions which would encourage prospective superimendents dur_ingtheir last year of preparation to substitute special field experiences for the traditional doctoral dissertation requirement. The major function of school superintendents is to act toward the end of improving education. Their function is not fundamentally that of producing knowledge. It logically.follows, then, that culminating experiences should be designed to improve action within a context of applied decision making. Alternatives to the dissertation for school superintendents are: (1) supervised rotating internship programs complemented by independent study and seminar activities and (2) group development projects oriented toward defining policy problems in a selected district and toward projecting alternative strategies designed to help resolve these problems. .— _‘__._ 144 The recommendation that school superintendents should not be required to meet the traditional dissertation requirement does not mean that dissertations should be eliminated. They should be maintained for prospective researchers in educational administration and they should require even more sophisticated approaches to the advancement of knowledge than are currently being used. 5. As the number of institutions involved in education increase, multiple opmrtunities for learning about leadership can and should be provided in field situations. Illustrations of opportunities which have become more visible during the last decade and which suggest learning opportunities are: private-sector sponsored and managed learning activities; research and development activities in school districts; new types of educational institutions such as are represented in the "street academies", for example; situations in which leaders are involved in controversial decisions and in confrontation activities; and so forth. Special opportunities are also available in local, state, and federal govern- ment agencies. Selected internship experiences could be developed in agencies concerned with such functions as welfare, model cities programs, poverty programs, and other activities which are clearly related to education. "Living in" experiences in agencies concerned with minority group education (e.g. , the NAACP and the Urban League) also offer potential for advancing learning. Recommendations about Departmental Staffingand Functions 1. In helping students plan learning experiences designed to enable them to understand societal needs and the implications of these needs for educational purposes and programs , professors will need to draw upon the total resources of the university. Content, especially during the first year of preparation, should help prospective school superintendents develop competence in purpose setting. Social scientists in a variety of departments can provide content on the emergent needs and problems of society which have significant implications for education and its purposes. Humanists throughout the university and students of educational philosophy are concerned with important perennial and emergent value issues which face man and society. Only by studying with outstanding professors in a range of departments can prospective school supe rintendents develop the broad perspective needed to function in an increasingly specialized and pluralistic society. 2. Professors of educational administration will need to develcm the depth gpecializations needed to illuminate opganizational dynamics and leadership processes bearing upon and inherent in educational administration. Professors of educational administration are needed who have a depth of 145 understanding of the politics of education. The same is true for the economics of education, including issues of school finance. Others are needed who can illuminate the dynamics of organization, especially as expressed through the processes of pattern maintenance and institutional change. Specialists are needed to guide learning vis-a-vis such important group interaction and such basic processes as deciston making, morale building, communication, and planning. Finally, professors who can illuminate important internal forces (e.g. , student militancy) and administrative technologies (e.g. , systems analysis) are also needed. 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