A STUDY OF THE PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES OF FOUNDATION-SUPPOR‘IED INNOVATIONS IN ORGANIZATION FOR INSTRUC‘I‘ION EN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMs Thosis for the: Dawn e-I' Ed. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Kenneth W. Rabat I964 515 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES OF FOUNDATION-SUPPORTED INNOVATIONS IN ORGANIZATION FOR INSTRUCTION IN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS presented by Kenneth W. Reber has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Major professor Date November 3, 1964 0469 LIBRARY Michigan State University z u , h r I: I I I . I X... I .I. . L . n, 4.39. ”I I}. s . V ‘ II I .3” . Ifl. .. l I, ~ .. hwy- ; . .1 . .\ n.‘ V . . I . I . . I H . I... ‘ .v i, r. I I .slo‘d.. 2.- A w: I I: . I. r .17 V I. .. ‘6. .. v I 1 'I . a Ir ‘. I I. . . H .. A. 3W9 55.. H. .I .3... 11.553“ 51.}. r. .1. s . Man... .I.\..... ._..0A4....: ...I. .‘ HT. I‘|l'lll!'? T' ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES OF FOUNDATION-SUPPORTED INNOVATIONS IN ORGANIZATION FOR INSTRUCTION IN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS by Kenneth W. Reber The purpose of this study was to gain insights into the effectiveness of creating changes in organization for instruction in public secondary schools through foundation- aupported studies in the better utilization of the staff. The staff utilization studies were sponsored by the National Association of Secondary School Principals with financial support from the Fund for the Advancement of IEducation and the Ford Foundation. The staff utilization studies, consisting of a great number of innovative practices, were carried out in volun- tear public school systems between 1956 and 1960. The primary hypotheses in this study are (1) that the partici- pating schools have retained the basic features of the innovative practices in their organizational structures, find (2) that the participating schools are using more of these innovative practices than are schools which did not take part in the staff utilization studies. In the study, attention was given, also, to how the project originated, how foundation support was secured, haw the project was administered, how the individual school I tices, l. 2. 5. 1. Kenneth W. Reber projects were selected, the nature of the innovative prac- how the studies were carried out, how they were evaluated, how the results were reported, and the relation- ship which existed between the sponsoring agencies and the I participating schools. The research procedures consisted of the following: A review of the literature relating to the staff utilization studies and to the results. The construction of a questionnaire through which information pertinent to the study could be se- cured from the staff utilization schools. The development of a checklist which contained a list of the innovations with which the staff utilization schools had experimented to determine which innovations are still found in the staff utilization schools and which of the innovations are also found in selected other school systems. An analysis of various primary documents relating to the activities of the NASSP Commission which administered the staff utilization project- Interviews with the individual who served as director of the NASSP Commission during the life of the staff utilization project. The major conclusions reached in the study are as follows: The great preponderance of innovative practices are continuing in the staff utilization schools and some of these have become a part of the regu- lar organization of the school. L The staff utilization schools are using more than twice as many of the innovative practices than are the schools with which they were compared. Respondents from the staff utilization schools would be willing to engage in a similar project again under similar circumstances. 7. Kenneth W. Reber Many of the school systems failed to anticipate the actual increased costs to the district of conducting the experimental studies. Termination of the project and of financial support placed some hardships on schools still in the midst of experimentation or in the pro- cess of expanding their experimental projects. There is no indication that the sponsoring agency or the foundations interfered in any significant way with the development or the conduct of individual school projects. There is some evidence to indicate that evalu- ation of the experimental projects was a diffi- cult task and was not always carried out objec- tively and well. Most of the experimental projects involved the greater use of mechanical and electronic equip- ment, team teaching, the use of various kinds of instructional aides, and organizational patterns calling for large group instruction, small group discussion, and increased independent study time. Foundation-supported studies carried on under the auspices of a national agency such as the NASSP appear to be effective in creating some changes in instructional methods and techniques. Iron! OF THE PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES or - FOUNDATION-SUPPORTED INNOVATIONS IN A ORGANIZATION FOR INSTRUCTION IN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS By NRA” Kenneth W} Reber M o .‘e-.- ‘.;l ”H A THESIS submitted to . liehigen State University 31 fulfillment of the requirements ..~ for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION .1- 7.‘ allege of Education 196k J ‘a I 3 ‘ g Qé'f: :1 . ._',r ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge with sincere appreciation the assistance of the many persons who have contributed in one way or another to the completion of this study. Sincere appreciation is expressed, first of all, to Dr. William H. Roe, chairman of my doctoral committee, who has provided counsel, advice, and much encouragement throughout my entire doctoral program. Sincere appreciation is expressed, also, to Dr. Stanley Becker, Dr. James Costar, and Dr. Orden Smucker from the Michigan State University staff for their en- couragement and counsel and to Dr. James Tintera, an original member of my doctoral committee and a former member of the Michigan State University staff, for his advice in structuring the study. I wish to express my gratitude, also, to Dr. J. Lloyd Trump, Associate Secretary of the National Associ- ation of Secondary School Principals, for the many materials he made available to me; to Dr. Alex. Jardine, Superintendent of the South Bend Community School Corpo- ration, for permitting me to use the prestige and the facilities of the school corporation in securing data; and to officials from the University of Notre Dame for their help in securing materials from the University's Library. ii ~.. , 4, VI'» " . y 1‘:- . ‘3 ‘ ‘1 43%.. I I" fgjppreciation is expressed, also, to the Ford .ffifi‘tion's Office of Reports for the many materials SVEfidbd without cost; to the school officials who took §:fl“;¥out_from busy schedules to complete the question- 13 i'Vs and return them; and particularly to those school . ale from Arlington Heights, Illinois; Jefferson thy, Colorado; Urbana, Illinois; and the Evanston _‘¥,hip High School District, Illinois, for the special :féérestthey took in the study and for the wide range “fi‘fihaterials they provided. ‘ " Finally, deep appreciation and gratitude are thgaed to the other two members of the family, my K. W. R. 111 TABLE OF CONTENTS LISTOFTABLES CHAPTER I. II. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedural Steps and Methods . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . Organization of Remainder of Study REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . The NASSP Staff Utilization Project . . . Selection of Projects . . . . . . . . . Descriptions of Projects . . . . . . . Supervision by the Commission . . . . Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Financial Support . . . . . . . . . . . Publicizing the Studies . . . . . . . . The Ford Foundation . . . . . . . . . . The Fund for the Advancement of Education Concern Over Directions in American Education and the Role of Foundations iv PAGE viii 20 21 21L 25 28 29 3O 36 I41 60 62 61+ 65 69 73 77 Concern of the AASA . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II'IETHODOLOGY.............'..... Method of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . Open-End Questionnaire . . . . . . . '.' . The Checklist . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Selection of School Systems for Study . . . Sampling Process .. . . . . . . . . . .‘. . Analysis of the Data Collection Process . . Summary of Methodology . . . . . -.- . . . gar ANALYSISOFDATA Introduction . . . . . . . . . . °.‘ . '.' Schools Surveyed . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . °.' 'Procedures Used in Introducing Innovations ' into Selected School Systems . . . . . . Foundation Support . . . . . . ... . . . Selection Process_ . . . . . . . . . .p. . Supervision, Control, and Evaluation . . Dissemination of Information . . . . . . Grants-in-Aid . . . . . ... .fi. . . .g. . Supporting Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . ersiatence Tendencies of Innovations in Staff Utilization Schools . . . . . . . . ”I“ Side Effects . . . . . . . . . . . .‘. . PAGE 79 83 89 89 9h 97 99 102 109 112 1111 11h 115 116 117 117 121 123 128 129 131:. 1N1 149 CHAPTER Comparative Study . . . . . . . . . . . Most Popular Innovations . . . . . . . General Summary . . . . . . . . . ; . . . Factors Relating to Implementation of the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foundation-Supported Research . . . . . Persistence Tendencies of the Innovations V. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Related to the Introduction of Experimental Innovations into Selected School Systems . . . . . . . . . ._ Factors Related to Foundation-Supported Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Related to the Persistence Tendencies of Innovations in Selected School Systems . . . . . . . . . . Factors Related to Problems in Research Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions for Further Study . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions for Further Study . . . . . vi ~5fitra A?" PAGE 150 16h 170 171 173 1711 178 178 180 180 183 185 190 191 19h 195 195 PAGE (it"m‘eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 197 QUESTIONNAIRE: PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES OF STAFF UTILIZATION STUDIES . . . 20h CHECKLIST: INNOVATIONS IN ORGANIZATION FOR INSTRUCTION e e e e e e S 5' e e 208 ‘ADDITIONAL INNOVATIONS LISTED BY STAFF UTILIZATION SCHOOLS . . . e . e . e 217 ADDITIONAL INNCVATIONS LISTER sY NON-STAFF UTILIZATION scnooxs e . . 221 NASSP SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING PROPOSALS FOR EXPERIMENTAL PROJECTS 225 NASSP CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF EXPERIMENTAL PROJECTS e . . . . . . 229 a» 6 ¥5g . . v11 TABLE I. II. III. IV. V. VI. L VII. VIII. LIST OF TABLES PAGE Analysis of the NASSP Staff Utilization Schools Surveyed in This Study . . . . . . . 10h Analysis of Schools Surveyed in This Study Which Did Not Take Part in the NASSP Staff Utilization Studies . . . . . . . . . 106 Respondents' Estimates of the Extent To Which Grants—in-Aid Took Care of Total Additional Expenses of Conducting Experimental Projects . . . . . . . . . . .133 Number of Innovations in Organization for Instruction Checked by Fifty-One School Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Number of Innovative Practices Checked by Each School System . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Status of Innovations Checked by Selected School Systems in Terms of Full or Partial Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Innovations in Organization for Instruction in Selected School Systems by Categories . 161 Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Forty-Five School Systems-—Secondary Level . . . . . . . . 165 Most Popular Innovations in Selected School Systems Based on Items Checked in the Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The changing nature of American society, the threat gpaeed by the Soviet Union's progress in science and tech- . iplegy, and our own rapid advancement in these fields fffifive contributed to demands for improvement in American jliiahfl‘t1030 3,] . Improvement implies change. The concept of change {flu public school education, however, is not a simple one. {imp concept may relate to organization, finance, curricu- iyn, instruction, teacher training, teacher recruitment, ;s‘igyfimdstrative leadership, or to all of these. 8 _} r " This particular study is concerned with one major gig.“ of change, innovations in organization for instruc- ’.*gfiw, More specifically, it is concerned with the persis- ? f. tendencies of a number of selected experimental “ :rvations introduced into school systems between 1956 13:60 as part of a study on the better utilization of A turf in the secondary school. The staff utilization _k e fibre carried out in volunteer school systems ;§heiauspiees of the National Association of Secon- ‘v‘el Principals with financial support from the -the Advancement of Education and the Ford . H' ' l ¢' _- ,! L‘ 1 .“” (33 The study appears to be timely in view of the . r “V iiéds for change in public school education, the problems lyrent in efforts to effect change, and the increasing ” lgbndiness of private foundations to make funds available ipf6r experimentation, pilot studies, and demonstration 9 projects. I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . .‘ L 1' The specific problem is to gain insights into the I I - V' {j\éftcctiveness of creating persistent changes in organi- if nation for instruction through projects sponsored by an 't' 7. ‘ L‘agency such as the National Association of Secondary 3.C.° NASSP Commission on Utilization of Staff, 1959), p.h5. lZSanford, 93. cit., p. 18. 37 showing interest in a variety of innovations. During the late spring and summ er of l956, I visited many of these schools and explained the project to them. Proposals then were sent by many and I presented them to the NASSP Commission appointed to supervise the project. ,The Commission had three meetings in the spring and summer of 1956 to discuss and approve projects submitted to them. This same procedure was used in later years. Actually, the Commission held twelve meetings from 1956 to 1960. Most of the projects submitted to them were approved because I did much screening. However, several proposals were not approved by the Commission. After Commission approval, the projects were submitted to the Fund for the Advancement of Education for additional grant support. During the four years, only one project (p3,000 request) was turned down by the FAE.13 The NASSP Curriculum Planning and DevelOpment Committee had suggested earlier, however, that the experi- mental projects or demonstrations be concerned with such factors as the use of teaching assistants, reorganized administrative patterns, the use of modern instructional equipment, and with the use of organizational patterns which would include the role of the master teacher as a factor in interesting more young people in teaching.1u The NASSP Commission had also developed a list of criteria for the selection of experimental projects. This 13Letter, J. Lloyd Trump to the Writer, May 1h, 196M. lL‘National Association of Secondary School Princi- pals, A Proposal To Demonstrate How Improved Teacher- Utilization Can Helpro Solve the Problem of Teacher Shorta e 32 the High Schools of the United States Washington, D. C.: tie Association, Aay 2}, IV E), (Aimeographed). 38 list, shown in the Appendix, states that there should be a depth of community involvement that would make eXperi- mentation possible and productive. All projects were to be approved by the central administration and the board of education of the school system in which the experiment is located. School authorities were expected to make available enough of the time and energies of the staff that reasonable experimentation would be possible. Also, it was assumed that improved practices demonstrated by eXperimentation would continue after financial aid from the Commission would no longer be available, and the school systems should have such quality in resources of staff and physical facilities that other schools would be likely to follow similar practices if the experimental projects proved to be successful. The school systems in which eXperiments were located were expected to serve as observation centers. Projects were to be located in as many different types of schools as possible in terms of size, type of community, major curriculum emphasis, grades included, and the kind of student body in terms of social, economic, and cultural ,..1 factors.19 15NASSP Commission, Criteria for the Selection.2f Experimental Projects (Washington, D. C.: the Commission, August 18, 1936), (Mimeographed). 39 In addition to the bulletin on criteria for the selection of experimental projects, interested school systems were also sent a bulletin entitled Suggestions for 16 Preparation of Proposals for Experimental Projects. Schools submitting proposals were eXpected to describe the locale of the proposed study, the purpose of the study, the procedures to be followed, the anticipated cost, the extent of commitment by the school system, a request for assistance, and a statement in reference to local approval. This bulletin is also shown in the Appendix to this study. The bulletin states that funds might be requested for such items as extra staffing, local supervision, tests and other evaluative materials, clerical help, unusual supplies, consultant help, special workshops, and travel eXpenses. Grants did not ordinarily cover equipment or supplies which wouldlast beyond the experiment or for the salaries of regularlyéemployed personnel. The Commission was particularly interested in knowing how much belief responsible persons in the school system had in the potential worth of the changed procedures re- presented in the proposed experimental study and if the new procedure, if successful, would be incorporated into the regular program of the school. 16NASSP Commission, Suggestions for Preparation 23 Proposals for Experimental Pro'ects (Washington, D. C.: the Commission, January 13, 19 , Mimeographed). hO Despite the statement that the NASSP Commission did not Sponsor any particular approaches to the solution of the problem for which it was created, it is obvious that the two bulletins, Criteria for the Selection 2: Experimen- tal Projects and Suggestions for Preparation pf PrOposals for Experimental Projects, were influential in the develop- ment of proposals and in their acceptance by the Commission. A review of the eXperimental designs of the studies which were carried out reveals that in general they adhered to approaches suggested by the director of the Commission. The schools of the future, he had said, will be organized around three kinds of activities; large-group instruction, individual study, and small-group discussion. These kinds of activities will come about through better utilization of the staff, i.e., utilizing the services of master teachers to a greater extent, the formation of teacher teams, the use of clerical assistants and instruc- tional aides, the use of mechanical and electronic equip- ment, and the development of organizational patterns which provide for large-group instruction, individual study, and small-group discussion. These, in general, would be the emphases through which better utilization of the staff and improved instruction would materialize.17 17Trump, Images pf the Future, gp. cit., pp. 7-11. hl Descriptions 23 Projects A brief description of each of the first nine staff utilization studies Sponsored by the NASSP Commission is illustrative of the types of projects which were attempted. Evanston, Illinois. The project was an effort to demonstrate how capable teachers could use closed-circuit television and teacher assistants to give effective instruc- tion to an increased number of pupils per teacher. The students were enrolled in typing and English-Speech classes. Omaha, Nebraska. Sound tapes and tape recorders were used in Westside Community High School. The first eXperimentation involved classes in junior high spelling and in Spanish. EXplanatory materials, drill exercises, and other aids to learning were placed on tape and pre- sented to students of different levels of ability and achievement and in different class sizes. Students listen- ed and followed instructions through earphones. Roseville, Minnesota. In the Alexander Ramsey High School, science laboratories were kept cpen after school and on Saturday mornings. Students were supervised by cadet science teachers and scientists from local industry. Newtonville, Massachusetts. English classes in Newton High School were grouped across curricula and grade levels for such common learnings as study habits, spelling, vocabulary building, letter writing, and speech. uz Beecher, Illinois. Efforts were made to discover ways in which a small high school could utilize staff members more effectively through the use of lay assistants, clerical aides, and the use of modern teaching equipment. Richwood, West Virginia. The use of laboratory assistants in driver education was tried in Richwood. The behind-the-wheel phase of the training was handled by carefully-selected bus drivers. The objective was to find ways in which the regular teacher could spend more time in the classroom phase of the instruction. Syosset, Egg X933. In this specially-constructed high school, the staff experimented with a greater use of mechanical and electronic equipment, clerical assistants, and team-Sponsored approaches to the development of Special curriculum materials. §§. Paul, Minnesota. The project in St. Paul was one of the few oriented Specifically to increasing the number of teachers that would be available. Students in the high schools who ranked in the upper one-fourth of their graduating classes and who appeared to be qualified to enter teaching but who did not plan to go on to college were provided scholarships and were enrolled in teacher training institutions in the city. They were permitted to work from five to fifteen hours per week as teacher assistants in the St. Paul schools. 11,3 Snyder, lgggg, In Snyder, Texas, eXperimentation was carried out in large-group instruction, the utilization of teacher assistants, and increased use of mechanical and electronic equipment. Other projects were approved in subsequent years. A brief description of several of the projects shows that they did not, in general, adhere to a single eXperimental design but combined several innovations or injected more than one experimental variable into the instructional pro- gram. This was in keeping with a desire of the Commission that more "across the board" studies be carried out. Jefferson County, Colorado. One of the most exten- sive series of eXperimental projects was carried out in Jefferson County, Colorado, School District R-l, involving eight high schools. As in most of the other projects, the eXperimentation was not confined to a single aspect of instruction. That is, eXperimentation with class size also involved schedule modification, team effort, and adjustment of materials used in the instructional process. In general, however, the first year of eXperimentation in Jefferson County was oriented to class size. The follow- ing ideas were tested: A group of twenty students with one teacher achieves better results than a comparable group of thirty-five students with one teacher. A class of seventy students taught by two an teachers working as a team shows better results than one of seventy students taught by two teachers in two separate classes of thirty-five each. A class of seventy students taught by two teachers working as a team achieves better results than a class of twenty taught by one teacher. A team of two teachers produces better results in a class of seventy than a team consisting of one teacher and one paraprofessional or clerk. Classes of various sizes will produce better results in certain subjects than in others. A group of ten superior students with one teacher will accomplish more than a group of students in a class of twenty, thirty-five, sixty, or seventy students. Morale of teachers working as a team with a larger group of students is higher than the morale of teachers working individually with average-size groups. Two teachers working as a team can identify their areas of proficiency to the benefit of the educational program. The class-size experiment can produce or refine instructional techniques to the benefit of the total instructional program.18 Despite the obvious difficulties of obtaining reliable data from such a broad eXpanse of eXperimentation, some generalizations were made. It was determined that the size of the class did not in itself make any signif- icant difference. There were no significant differences 18Utilization of the Staff i2 Education: A Report of a Three-Year Study—TJefferson County, Colorado: School District R-l, June 1960), p. 13. 145 in the achievement of pupils in classes of 20, 30, 60, and 70. Small groups of high capacity learners were found to be not academically or economically feasible, and students had not been harmed by participating in large group work. Observations indicated that team teaching had possibilities. Experimentation continued a second and a third year with the following reported results: Extensively modified schedules, adapted to the teaching function, produce as good or better re- sults in pupil achievement than the usual pro- cedure. Teams made up of teachers, paraprofessionals, pupils and parents or other adults produce as good or better results in pupil achievement than teachers working alone with regular classes. A team composed of teachers qualified in differ- ent subjects produces as good results in pupil achievement in those subjects as teachers working independently with regular classes. Guidance personnel, working as a team in concert with a subject area group, are more successful in their program than those functioning independently within a school. Non-graded English classes, adjusted to the educational develOpment of the students, produce better results in pupil achievement than regular graded classes. Pupil placement, the consideration of individual differences, is accomplished more satisfactorily in team teaching situations than in those with regular schedules. Material and personnel resources are used more frequently and effectively by teachers in the eXperimental program than by those in regular situations. M6 Increased opportunity for independent study is an effective procedure in teaching senior high school students. Attitudes and morale of teachers and pupils in the eXperimental situations are more favorable than those of persons in regular classes. The adaptability of teachers improves as a direct result of participating in the experi- mental program.l Evanston, Illinois. Evanston Township High School is another school which eXperimented widely with team teach- ing. In 1957 and in 1958 there were three teacher teams in the school. These grew to twelve in 1960, to eighteen in 1961, to twenty-two in 1962, to twenty-three in 1963, and to twenty-five in 196b,.2O A report from Evanston identifies four directions which some teaching teams have taken, directions which can be considered essential components of this new pattern of instructional organization. The first direction is the development of further specialization in teaching. In the secondary school, teachers may develop specialties within a subject such as English, one teacher in grammar, another in literature. Such specialties may lead to improvement of instruction and more effective use of existing talents and may help to identify steps in training for teachers who have not yet Specialized. The second direction is that team teaching can 19Ibid. 20Team Teaching gt Evanston Township High School, Evanston, Illinois (December 1963),_(Aimeographed). M7 provide a way of improving the quality of super- ' vision in our secondary schools. Within teaching teams it becomes possible to assign greater respon- sibilities for the curriculum and for the work of other teachers to those experienced teachers who are more knowledgeable, more eXpert, and more willing and able to accept leadership. Less able and begin- ning teachers can study and work under these team leaders, assuming more responsibility and heavier teaching loads as they develop on the job. The third direction is the utilization of non- professional aides to teachers. Team teaching pro- vides the kind of organization in which non- professional teaching assistants and clerical aides may be used with maximum efficiency. These non- professional members of the team can perform many tasks that do not require professional competence. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the duties typically done by most teachers could be done as well or better by teaching assistants or clerical aides. The final direction is the eXpanded use of mechanical aids to teaching. The teaching team can be a unit that is large enough to merit its own audio—visual and other mechanical aids to teaching. Tape recorders, film and overhead pro- jectors, and other equipment can be assigned perma- nently to teams in a way that is not possible under the typical school organization.21 Despite these advantages found in organizational patterns built around team teaching, the Evanston Township High School found, as did the Jefferson County Schools in Colorado, that team teaching does not necessarily result in significant differences in pupil achievement. The report goes on, however, to identify characteristics 21Our Attempts :2 Assess New Practices, hvanston Township High School, hvanston, Illinois (December 1963), (Mimeographed). us that lead to the creation of lasting and effective teaching teams. 1. 2. 3. 9. 10. 11. Members should have similar ideas about levels of student achievement being sought. It is important that team members understand that they are working toward developing within a student increasing responsibility for his own learning. Each team member must be convinced that this project is the best utilization of his time. It is important that all members know and feel that the effort being put forth is a c00perative enterprise. Team members need to become familiar with and develop new techniques for large group instruction. More than one team member should be held responsible for grades and grading--team members should make a group evaluation. Team leaders must be given a released time for over- -all planning purposes. Each member must feel that he is a part of the team and not someone who can be threatened or coerced. The role of the intern teacher or MAT teacher needs to be clearly defined in the team. The role of the department chairman needs to be clearly defined in cases of significant conflict between team members and the team leader. Department heads should make extensive use of scholastic profiles, educational backgrounds, and travel experiences when making preparations to form or reorganize a team. 221bid. M9 Urbana, Illinois. Another series of eXperimental projects was carried out in the Urbana, Illinois, Commun- ity Schools. The projects consisted of team teaching in English, the use of lay readers in English classes, and the use of teachers' aides in typing classes, shorthand classes, and general business classes. Team teaching in English and the use of lay readers continue. The large classes in typing, shorthand, and general business have been terminated. The large classes in typing would be continued, according to the acting superintendent of schools, if building Space permitted. The large classes in shorthand and general business, however, were felt to be unsatisfactory. The acting superintendent reports, also, that a study he completed failed to demonstrate the effectiveness of lay readers in the hnglish classes.23 South Bend, Indiana. The South Bend project was one which attempted to substitute tape-recorded programs for counselor-taught classes in group guidance, normally consisting of educational, personal, social, and occupa- tional information. The tape recordings were broadcast to large groups of students via the school system's FM radio station. This particular eXperimental project combined the 23Ray H. Braun, Evaluating the New 'Evaluators': The Use of Lay Readers, Urbana Community Schools, Urbana, Illinois—TMimeographed and Undated). 50 elements of team teaching, large or multiple group instruction, the use of clerical aides, and the use of mechanical and electronic equipment. Experiments of this nature in the field of guidance are particularly difficult to evaluate. Standardized tests of personality and social development were administered plus locally-develOped tests over educational and occupa- tional information. There were no significant differences in the scores of those in the eXperimental and the control groups. There was wide disagreement among staff members, however, regarding the merits of the eXperimental method versus the merits of the counselor-taught classes in group guidance. The schools have not gone back to the regular classes in group guidance, however, and instruction is given through counselor-developed convocations, tape recordings, and in Special interest groups in the current organization. Laboratory School, jniversity pf Chicago. One of the more SOphisticated studies in the better utilization of the staff and the improvement of instruction was a study conducted by the Laboratory School of the University of Chicago. The problem, according to the proposal which was submitted to the NASSP Commission in 1958, is that patterns of curriculum organization in high schools have commonly been categorized as belonging to one of 51 two polar types: the "traditional, subject matter, departmentally organized curriculum pattern and the more recent and increasingly accepted core-curriculum pattern."21+ The seeming conflict between these two patterns, according to the prOposal, has provided cause for one of the more impOrtant and continuing debates in education. The proposal itself suggests a plan to bring these two positions together. A third position is prOposed that attempts to retain the necessities of a disciplinary approach taught by Specialists able to keep abreast of the increasingly rapid developments in the subject areas and its teaching methodology, yet incorporates the demands of student needs, individual differences and sources of motivation, together with the educational potential of group process and group maintenance. To state it another way, the pattern of organization should provide for the values of a self-contained classroom approach 32d of the subject matter specialists. The proposed pattern of organization arising from institutional-individual interaction defines a new role in the hierarchfal structure of the school midway between that of the present subject- matter Specialists and the principal. For lack of a better term, it may be called the role of coordinator of instruction. It has both adminis- trative and instructional functions that allow for a greatly increased organizational flexibility able to accommodate pggsent findings on teaching and learning methods. 2”University of Chicago Laboratory School, The Role gf_Coordinator gf_Instruction 12 the More Effective Utilization pf the Teaching Staff, A PrOposal to the NASSP Commission (February 5, 1958), (Mimeographed). 25Ibid. 52 The instructional unit is seen as being made up of a class of hO-BO students, a coordinator of in- struction, two or more subject matter specialists, related staff specialists, student teachers, assistants and clerical workers. The key to this instructional unit lies in the definition of the functégns of the role of coordinator of instruc- tion. The University of Chicago Laboratory School experimental study is an excellent example of a design which was found not to function well but one which could be re-adapted. Shortly after the initial project was conceived, the term "coordinator of instruction" was changed to "facilitator," and in latter phases of experi- mentation with team teaching this specialized role was drOpped in order to get a real team approach. The school was not able to demonstrate statis- tically that the team approach resulted in increased student learning. At the same time, those directing the project were able to draw a great number of conclusions regarding team teaching, relating particularly to inter- action of staff members. These are listed in the January 1960 issue of the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals. Snyder, Texas. The experiment in Snyder, Texas, mentioned briefly earlier in this study, was to test the 26Ibid. 53 hypothesis that teaching of students in large groups, making use of mechanical technology, including tele- vision, radio, tape recorders, and overviewers, and capitalizing on teacher-pupil planning of learning experiences for individual and small-group effort in unit- type activities is more economical, more acceptable, and more productive educationally than traditional methods 27 of teaching in the secondary school. The basic questions involVed were as follows: Can children learn more in large classes if teachers have more time for planning, are able to use modern technology in teaching and are freed to work in small groups with individuals as the need arises? Are teachers happier and more productive if they are given more time for making lesson plans to be presented in large classes, and does relieving the teacher from petty chores in other ways by secretarial assistance for purely clerical duties contribute to efficient teaching? Is the money saved by the reduced number of teachers required by the large class sufficient to justify providing the necessary closed circuit 28 television, overviewers and other mechanical aids? The evidence is not clear that the answer is "yes" to any of these questions. The January 1961 issue of the Bulletin of the NASSP presents an impressive list of improvements in instruction, however, in the Snyder 27Snyder Public Schools, Staff Utilization Pro'ect Summar Report, (Snyder, Texas, Public Schools, January 9 O , (Mimeographed). 28Ibld. 51+ project, which, the report states, can be substantiated by evidence collected during the latter phases of the experimental study. These relate in general to the physical or functional aspects of teaching and to staff motivation rather than to student achievement. Logan City, Utah. The Logan City High School ex- perimented with paraprofessionals in the language arts pro- gram and reached the following conclusion: The use of paraprofessional personnel in a language arts program has possibilities for a school district faced with problems of increasing enrollments and limited physical facilities. Objective evidence to prove the values of para- professional assistants by teachers of English classes with enrollments of forty or more students is not provided in this experimental study. Sub- jective evidence, however, leads one to conclude that, in Spite of numerous administrative and personnel problems involved, paraprofessional assistants can be used effectively in language arts teaching. Wahlquist Junior High School, Utal. An experi- ment in the values of team teaching as compared with traditional classroom practice was conducted in the wahlquist Junior High School in Utah. The eighth grade class consisting of 225 pupils was organized into two sections. Each section met daily in a large group fol— lowed by variable-sized sections for smaller group instruction. The subject areas of United States history, 29Paraprofessional Helpers in a Language Arts Program g3 the Logan City High_School_(Logan City High School, Utah, 1959), himeographed). 55 language arts, and guidance were integrated into a series of resource units prepared by the teaching team during the common preparation period. The data supported the following hypothesis and sub-hypothesis: The organization of language arts and social studies teachers into teams reaponsible jointly for large groups of students and the organization of such students into large and small groups for specified learning activities will result in an efficient use of both teacher and student time. The scheduling of certain faculty members into teacher teams is feasible in a large junior high school. The pupils of the eighth grade of the Wahlquist Junior High School in the subject areas of United States history and language arts scheduled in this program will achieve academically at a satisfactory rate in terms of national norms and textbook publishers' norms. The effects of this type of organization upon the pupils in the areas of social interaction, attention, and learning attitudes will be satisfactory.3 The projects described here are representative of the many that were conducted. Because of the combined use of teacher assistants, teaching teams, and use of mechanical and electronic aids, it is difficult to place the studies into meaningful categories. Brown and Moldtsad describe the NASSP Commission staff utilization studies as calling for new uses of instructional media, Team Teaching at the Wahlguist Junior Hizh School (Wahlquist Junior High School, 1959), Limeographed). 56 more flexible class schedules, functional variations in class size according to instructional purpose and method, and more varied learning activities--in classrooms, in 31 laboratories, or independently. The Ford Foundation suggests that the principal innovations in the staff utilization studies can be grouped under three categories. The Professional Partnership: the use of teaching teams, including senior teachers, less-experienced teachers, teacher assistants, graduate and undergraduate interns, and non- professional aides of various sorts. The Flexible School: variations in class size and scheduling, including groups that range from ten or less to several hundred, and schedules that allow for large lectures, double periods or larger blocks of time, and increased indepen- dent study. Electronics, Architecture, and Learning: the employment Of—modern visual andisound devices as an intrinsfig part of teaching and learning materials. In January 1961 it was reported that the studies were completed. Tompkins writes-- It is difficult to state exactly how the activities of the Commission have influenced secondary education. But a great deal of national interest has deveIOped in such matters 31James W. Brown and John A. Moldtsad, "Administration of Instructional Materials," Review of Educational Research, XXXIII (Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research Association, NhA, April 1962), p.19h. 32 Time, Talent, and Teachers, 9p. cit., p. 10. 57 as team teaching, redeployment of students into larger—than-usual and smaller-than-usual groups for different purposes of instruction, employment of clerical and other assistants to relieve teachers of some activities, and the use of modern technology in education. As a result, much discussion, eXperimentation, and careful re-exgmination of secondary education is now occurring. 3 A survey carried out by the NASSP Project on Instruction substantiated, in part, the vieWpoint expressed by Tompkins. In a survey of 1,500 elemen- tary and secondary schools, principals anticipated a greater use of television, tape recordings, teaching machines, language laboratories, films and filmstrips during the next five years. Thirty-one per cent of the secondary school principals expect to have team teaching by 1966 as compared with five per cent in 1956. The use of language laboratories is expected to increase 137 per cent, teaching machines hOO per cent, and classroom 3h television 68 per cent in the secondary schools. 33Ellsworth Tompkins, "The NASSP Project to Study Ways of Improving Staff Utilization," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Prin— cipals, Volume MS (Washington, D. C.: the Association, January 1961), p. 10. 3”Ole Sand and Richard I. Miller, "Curricular Innovations," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, Volume h? (Washington,D.C.: the Association, May 1963), pp. 120-123. \51 CD A list of the school systems or schools which took part in the NASSP staff utilization studies is shown below along with each one's major area of eXperi- mentation. Arlington Heights, Illinois; Arlington High School and Prospect High School: Instruction assistants, team teaching, technology Beecher, Illinois; Beecher High School: Small- school improvement Chicago, Illinois; University of Chicago Labora- tory School: Team teaching and independent study Cicero, Illinois; J. Sterling Norton High School: Teaching tapes and team teaching Decatur, Illinois; Lakeview Junior-Senior High School: Faculty summer study, team teaching, tech- nology Evanston, Illinois; Evanston Township High School: Closed-Circuit television, team teaching, large and small groups, independent study Pairfield, Illinois; Fairfield High School: Independent study Jefferson County, Colorado; Alameda High School, Arvada High School, Bear Creek High School, Evergreen High School, Golden High School, Jefferson High School, Lakewood High School, Wheat Ridge High School: Class size, team teaching, instruction and clerical assis- tants, schedule modification Mattoon, Illinois; Mattoon Senior High School: Team teaching and science orientation Newark, Illinois; Newark High School: Small- school summer program Newton, Massachusetts; Newton Senior High School: Large—group instruction, staff assistants, technology 59 Norridge, Illinois; Ridgewood High School: All aspects interrelated in a new school Northbrook, Illinois; Glenbrook High School: Internship, large classes, team teaching, instruc- tion assistants, language laboratory A Omaha, Nebraska; Westside Junior High School and Senior High School: Teaching tapes POpe County, Illinois; Community High School: Material aids in a rural area Roseville, Minnesota; Alexander Ramsey High School: Instruction assistants, extended use of facilities Saint Paul, Minnesota; Five junior high schools and six senior high schools: Teacher recruitment with implications for teacher education, instruc- tion assistants, and scholarship aid (public school teachers and college teachers involved) San Diego, California; Will Crawford Senior High School, Abraham Lincoln Senior High School, Samuel Gompers Junior High School, Horace Mann Junior High School, Mabel O'Farrell Junior High School: Team teaching and instruction assistants Snyder, Texas; Snyder Junior High School and Senior High School: Team teaching and technology South Bend, Indiana; Central High School, John Adams High School, Riley High School, Washington High School: Educational broadcasts of group guidance materials Springfield, Illinois; Springfield High School: Improvement of guidance services Syosset, New York; Syosset High School: Use of project area in new building and team teaching Taylorville, Illinois; Taylorville Senior High School: Team teaching, teaching tapes, large groups Urbana, Illinois; University of Illinois High School: Independent study 60 Urbana Senior High School: Instruction assistants and services to gifted students Utah State Program: Use of films to teach physics (nine experimental high schools and eight control high schools), use of slide tapes for giving voca- tional information (12 junior high schools), use of junior high school evaluative criteria to improve schools and staff utilization (four eXperimental junior high schools plus others), instruction assistants and English reorganization (Logan High School), effects of core on staff (Wahlquist Junior High School and three others in Weber County), team teaching (Duquesne County: Roosevelt Junior High School, Duquesne High School, and Altamont High School; Hurrican High School and St. George High School; Wahlquist Junior High School) West Virginia; Richwood High School, Webster Springs High School, plus six other schools: Use of bus driggrs as instruction assistants in driver education. Supervision by the Commission. Once the experimental, demonstration, or pilot projects were introduced into local school systems, the NASSP Commission exercised minimal control and super- vision. School systems were asked to prepare reports each year that projects were being carried out for inclusion in the NASSP January Bulletins, Commission representatives attempted to visit each school systen1 once or twice a year, and the school systems were expected to give a financial accounting of the funds used in carrying on the eXperimental study. The Commission direc- tor writes: 3S . Tru a HBa nham Guide to Better Schools 22- CIt.,pp.T§1-l§> y ’ “—- — ’ 61 The projects were supervised by me and two part-time associates. Actually, as you know from the South Bend experience, this supervision was not close. We visited once or twice a year, conducted considerable correSpondence, reacted to materials sent to us, and tried to stimulate the use of appropriate evaluation procedures. Later in the same communication, he writes: We had no problems in dealing with either the Fund for the Advancement of Education or the Ford Foundation. In no instance did the agency dictate what studies we should approve or disapprove, nor did they interfere in the supervision of the pro- jects. They accepted without question every report we submitted to them.3 The personal experience of the writer in directing one of the staff utilization projects substantiates the statement made by the Commission director. In the two years that South Bend, Indiana, carried on one of the staff utilization projects with financial support, there were three visitations: one by the Commission director, one by his associate director, and one by a member of the Ford Foundation's Office of Reports. The Commission re- presentatives acquainted themselves with the project, observed classes being taught in accordance with the ex- perimental design, asked how they could be of assistance, and stressed the need for careful evaluation of the study. The Ford Foundation representative merely gathered infor- mation for a report he was writing for the Foundation. 36Letter from J. Lloyd Trump, 2p. cit. 62 The Commission director writes, "The locus of respon- sibility for eXperimentation was basically with the local schools." He goes on to say, ”No single type of research was advocated or insisted upon by the Commission." 37 In general, except for the influences mentioned earlier in this report, it appears that the NASSP Commission and the Ford Foundation were mainly facilitating agencies. Lvaluation The Commission left evaluation of the eXperimental studies to the individual schools. It did suggest, however, that local schools secure the services of near-by colleges and universities in establishing evaluation procedures. In many cases this was done. The Commission also encour- aged the development of state-wide programs of COOperative staff utilization studies. The Commission aided in the establishment of state-wide studies in Utah and in Illinois. Another reason for involving state agencies and colleges in the projects was that through involvement these agencies could better evaluate the implicatiOns of the findings 38 for preparation programs for teachers. 37J. Lloyd Trump, Chapter XX_X, Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, Vol. MS (Washington, D. C.: the Association, January 1961), p. 277. 38Lloyd S. Hichael, "What We Are Trying To Accomplish in the Staff Utilization Studies," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (January 1959), p. 9. 63 The Commission recognized, also, that not all of the projects were eXperimental in the usual definition of the term: Some studies might be classified more as demonstrations than experimentation in the purist sense, although other studies have held to the more classical research pattern. Evaluation has resulted from both statistical and verbal inferences. What knowledgeable professional peOple believe to be right may be as important in evaluating the results of an experiment as the statistical measures of differences Essulting; both forms of evaluation are being used. In the early work of the NASSP Commission, the members were quite concerned that the studies be evalu- ated carefully so that the results would carry prOper weight in educational circles. It is noticeable, however, that as the projects continued, there is more concern with so-called "across the board" projects which would demon- strate the more comprehensive use of teacher assistants, mechanical and electronic aids, schedule modification, team teaching, and large and small group instruction. In other words, it appears that demonstrations of these and the more verbalized reports of their acceptance were preferred over highly statistical reports of differences in pupil achievement. The general looseness of many of the evaluation procedures prompted Klohr and Frymier to write in reference to the Commission-- 39Ibid. 61+ Despite its insistence that individuals and groups are central in the process of curriculum change and that adequate research and evaluation procedures must be used, great voids exist between the available data and the conclusions reported; that is, one is required to accept their conclusions almost on faith. . . . Yet, because of the gener- ally confused state of curriculum develOpment re- search, eSpecially that which deals with the dynamics of change, and because of the Sponsorship of the Brickell and the Trump and Baynham reports, which gives them high public visibility, both studie undoubtedly will wield considerable influence.'-0 Financial Support As indicated earlier in this study, the NASSP had been assured of financial support from the Fund for the Advancement of Education to carry out experimental studies related to the problem of the teacher shortage at the secondary level of education. During the first meeting of the NASSP Commission, held in Evanston, Illinois, in June 1956, Lester Nelson, a representative of the Fund, indica- ted that the grant was the first made by the Fund to a professional association and that this was a very signifi- cant fact in the history of Fund deveIOpment.’41 uoPaul R. Klohr and Jack R. Frymier, "Curriculum Development: Dynamics of Change," Review 2: Educational Research, XXXIII (Washington, D. C.: American Educational Research Association, NEA, June 1963), p. 309. ulFrom the Minutes of the Official Meetings of the NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School (June 22, 1956), (Mimeographed. 65 The original grant to the NASSP Commission was for g9h,926.h2. Total grants, announced in October 1960, were g330,821.u2 from the Fund for the Advancement of Education and ;700,000 from the Ford Foundation, making a total of pl,030,821.h2 which the NASSP Commission received to carry out experimental studies on staff utilization and to publi- cize the results.L32 A financial report, dated October 31, 1960, shows how the funds were expended. Grants made by the Commission to schools to conduct experimental studies totaled p7h1,2h2.3h. This represented about seventy-two per cent of the funds at the disposal of the Commission. The bal- ance of the funds were spent for salaries and eXpenses of the director of the Commission and two associate directors; meetings of the Commission; NASSP administrative services-- preparing, publishing, and distributing a number of publi- cations; clerical and office eXpense; convention programs; state association workshOps; and the production of video tapes and films};3 Publicizing the Studies Although it is not shown here specifically in the “Egggggggg of the National Association of Secondary School Principals XXXXVI (The Association, NEA, January 1961), p. 278. u31bid. 66 breakdown of expenditures, it is obvious that the NASSP Commission spent a sizable portion of the funds made avail- able to it for publicizing concepts associated with the better utilization of the staff in the secondary school and for describing the preliminary results of the studies that were being carried out. Three of the better known publications developed by Trump under the direction of the NASSP Commission are NEE Horizons for Secondary School Teachers, first distributed at the NASSP convention in 1957;ML Images pf the Future, published in 1959;h5 and New Directions 32 Quality Educa- tion, published in 1960.)"6 The latter is essentially a guide to eXperimentation accompanying the NASSP Commission film, And 32 Bells Ring.u7 th. Lloyd Trump, New Horizons for Secondary School Teachers (Washington, D. C.: NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, 1957). “SJ. Lloyd Trump, Images of the Future (Washington, D. C.: NASSP Commission on the EXperimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, 1959). héJ. Lloyd Trump, New Directions to Quality Education (Washington, D. C.: NASSP Comml_sion on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, 1960). h7National Association of Secondary School Princi- pals' Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utili- zation of the Staff in the Secondary School, And No Bells Ring, A Film (Washington, D. C.: The Commission, 1960 5. 67 In addition, the 1958 through 1961 January issues of the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals were devoted exclusively to a description of the staff utilization studies as were parts of other issues. Guide 29 Better Schools: Focus g3 Change, another publication authored by Trump along with Dorsey Baynham, was published in 1961.u8The Ford Foundation has also devoted parts of several publications to a description of the studies, including one in particular entitled gimp, Talent, and Teachers, published in June 196O.L‘L9 The Commission used other means, also, to dissemi- nate information about its research suggestions. Members of the Commission gave addresses in nearly every state in the nation. The Commission also paid part of the eXpenses of workshOps sponsored by state principals' associations and of conferences held on the campuses of colleges and universities. In 1959, at the NASSP convention in Phila- delphia, the Commission reported on its staff utilization projects through demonstrations, using a large television “BJ. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Guide pg Bptter Schools: Focus 2p Change (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1961). ugThe Ford Foundation, Time, Talent, and Teachers (New York: The Ford Foundation Office of Reports, 1960). 68 screen and video tapes. "It was the first time," says a Commission report, "that many of the persons in attendance had seen video tape in action."50 One year later, the Commission produced a com- bination television program and film presentation. Two half-hour television programs were produced and recorded on video tape in the NBC studios in Chicago. Teachers and students involved in the studies were presented in large-group instruction, small-group discussion, inde- pendent study, and in team teaching. The program was first presented at the NASSP Convention in February 1960 in Portland, Oregon. "Since that time," the Commission reports, "the demand for the films has consistently exceeded their availability."51 The program has also been shown a number of times on commercial television. This brief review of the methods used by the Commission to publicize the staff utilization studies emphasizes that extensive efforts were made to interest other schools in the work of the Commission and that these efforts were made possible through the use of funds made available by the Fund for the Advancement of Education 50Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (January 1961), pp. cit., pp. 279-2800 1 5 Ibid. 69 and the Ford Foundation. It will be shown later in the study that the Commission members were very concerned that there be wide dissemination of information about the staff utilization studies. II. THE soap FOUNDATION The Ford Foundation and the Fund for the Advance- ment of Education began coordinating their programs in 1957 as a step toward consolidating the Fund with the Ford Foundation. This eXplains why part of the funds made available to the NASSP Commission came from the Ford Foundation rather than entirely from the Fund for the Advancement of Education. Both agencies have made sub- stantial grants to education, both were created for specific purposes, and both hold several convictions that may be of a controversial nature. A brief description of the two agencies is given here to illustrate the nature of the two organizations which made the NASSP staff utilization studies possible. The Ford Foundation, according to one of its publications, is a private, non-profit corporation estab- lished in 1936 by Henry and Edsel Ford. Its purpose is to serve the public welfare. "It seeks to strengthen American society," the publication says, "by indentifying problems of national importance and by underwriting 70 efforts-~mainly of an educational nature--toward their . n r42 solution. 9 Except in a limited way, according to the same publication, the Ford Foundation itself does not engage in research, teaching, and other direct operations. Its primary business as a philanthropy is to make grants to other non-profit organizations. By 1958, it had given more than a billion dollars to some 6,000 institutions and organizations in the then forty-eight states, the District of Columbia, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and thirty-one foreign countries. 0f the total amount allocated for all purposes, about four-fifths has been for the support of education.53 The following are the general areas to which the Ford Foundation has made substantial grants over the years: problems of the schools, school and college facilities, college teachers' salaries, medical education, college scholarships, recruitment of college teachers, liberal adult education, educational television, libraries, humanities and the arts, Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, science and engineering, public affairs, urban and regional problems, economic development and administration, 32About the Ford Foundation (New York: the Ford Foundation, Office of deports,ih77 Hadison Avenue, December 1958), p. 5. S3Ib1d. 71 natural resources in the United States, youth develOpment, problems of the aging, human behavior and research on mental health, hOSpitals, foreign and international studies, international understanding in the United States and Europe, international legal studies, overseas develOpment, and fellowships. Organizations established and wholly or partially financed by the Ford Foundation are independent, non- profit corporations. They are directed by their own trustees and officers, without reference to the Foundation, and the Foundation exercises no control over the organi- zations it creates except to assure itself that they comply with the terms of their grants. As a tax-exempt organization, the Ford Foundation can give its funds only for educational, scientific, and charitable purposes. It does not support charitable projects limited to local purposes or effects; nor does it ordinarily make grants for general operating eXpenses or construction. According to an article in the Saturday Evening Post, there are today about 15,000 tax-exempt insti- tutions which qualify as foundations. The Ford Foundation, which is by far the largest, listed its net assets as about $2.3 billion as of September 30, 1963. During the Sh1b1d., pp. 6-23, 72 past fiscal year, it made grants of more than $200 million. Its benefactions, totaling $1.8 billion, have gone to h,950 institutions in all fifty states and sixty-seven foreign countries. Ninety per cent of this money has been paid out in the United States.55 The Egg: article quotes the Foundation's president, Henry Heald, who emphasizes the experimental nature of many of the Foundations' projects: "When we see a good new idea in education or some other field, we often put our money behind it and give it a chance to prove or diSprove itself."56 The $700,000 grant to the NASSP Commission for the experimental study of the better uti- lization of the staff in the secondary school through the use of a wide variety of mechanical and electronic aids and new organizational patterns for instruction ad- heres to the general policy of the Foundation. In the publication referred to earlier, About the Ford Foundation, directions are given for applying for a grant. The letter of application should include the following: 1. The objective of the proposal 2. The methods by which it is to be accomplished 55Ben Hibbs, "Mr. Ford's Busy Billions," The Saturday Evening Post (March 16, 1963), p. 68. 56Ibid. 73 3. The period of time it is expected to take u. The funds required and an estimated budget in some detail 5. The qualifications of the organizations or individuals involved, and the organizations' eligibility for tax-exemption privileges 6. Whether similar projects have been undertaken previously 7. Whether support has been, or is being, requested of other foundations. Applications are generally declined if they do not fall within programs currently in Operation. Only a small percentage of applications are approved. In 1958, for example, the Foundation received 8,500 requests for p grants and took favorable action on h25.97 III. THE FUND FOR TEE ADVANCEKENT OF EDUCATION The Fund for the Advancement of Education was created in April 1951. One of its publications states: . . . a foundation with no vested part in factional disputes, no necessity to fear or yield to public pressures, and no integral connection with any part of the school system, might be able to encourage new thinking, under- write eXperiments and demonstrations, and support pilot programs that were too uncertain of success or too controversial to be paid for by public tax money or private endowment funds. It could, in short, assist and stimulate existing insti- tutions to test many a promising avenuecf change. This was the purpose for which the Fund for the 57Ib1d. 7A Advancgment of Education was created in April, 1951.5 The report continues: Such a foundation can, . . ., select areas of contingency and, with good timing, make its small efforts have large effects. It tries to study the power structure of the educational system, gauge the temper of the times, appraise the array of forces for and against any particular change, and then throw its weight at the right moment behind the most promising trends in the hOpe of converting them into dominant ones. The Fund, since its inception, has given its attention to five major areas of American education: (1) the recruitment and training of teachers; (2) the better use of teachers' time and talent; (3) extension to all of full educational Opportunity commensurate with ability; (h) improvements in curriculums; and (5) improve- ments in school management and financing. Of these, the first has received about half of the money granted by the Fund. Second to this interest, according to the Fund, is concern with the more efficient use of teachers' time and energy. In actual funds used for the five major areas in which the Fund operates, during the first decade of its existence, teacher education received $23.5 million, utilization of staff $9.8 million, curriculum development SBQEEEQE 3: Experiment, 1951-1961 (New York: The Fund for the Advancement of Education, Office of Reports, 1961), p. 15. Eglbid" p. 16. bolbido, p. 190 75 $6.8 million, equality of Opportunity $2.1 million, and administration and finance $1.6 million.61 These are somewhat modest sums, representing in aggregate less than the annual budgets of many major school systems. It is, perhaps, by "throwing its weight at the right time behind the most promising trends" that the Fund is effective. The Fund is frank in admitting that it holds several convictions that may be of a controversial nature. One is the Fund's conviction that a liberal education is the first essential in the education of every American, and particularly of every teacher. Another is that it is in no way undemocratic to seek out and nurture talent and that, in fact, the democratic way of life is bound to suffer if this is not done. A third is that American schools, if they are to produce any significant numbers of intellectually superior human beings, must re-establish the priority of the intellect. Its report states: "While the Fund has no ideological commitment to any mggng of educational advancement, it does have a commitment to 62 these basic ends of education." Despite the convictions of those who control the 611b1d., p. 18. 621b1d., p. 19. 76 activities of the Fund for the Advancement of Education, it is not demonstrable that the Fund attempted to influence directly the types or kinds of experimental projects carried out under the auspices of the NASSP Commission. Both the Fund63 and the Commissioneh point out that the Commission's work embraced all kinds of schools, large and small, and in many varied settings. There was no blueprint. All secondary schools were invited to partici~ pate and to devise their own eXperiments based on local needs. Alvin C. Eurich, Vice-President and Director of the Fund for the Advancement of Education, summarizes the activities of the organization this way: Throughout its twelve years of life, using resources made available by the Ford Foundation, the Fund has made grants for projects designed to clarify the purposes of our educational institutions; to improve the curriculum; to up- grade the preparation of teachers and adminis- trators; to utilize personnel, technology, and space more effectively; to equalize educa- tional opportunities; to provide better financing for education; and to establish closer working relationships and understanding between the schools and society.05 63Ib1d., p. 6h. 6"The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (the Association, NBA, January 1961), p. 278. 65American Education Today, Paul Noodring and John ScanIOn, Editors, from a Preface by Alvin C. Eurich (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960), p. vii. 77 IV. CONCERN OVER DIRECTIONS IN AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE ROLE OF FOUNDATIONS There is little doubt but that there has been and is now great concern over directions in American education at all levels of government and at all levels of society. Kowitz mentions this. There is today a sincere concern over the future form of school Operations, not only on the part of school administrators but also by interested parents and an awakened public. This is due in part, at least, to the general air of criticism in which education has exist- ed for the past decade or more.66 Later he writes: Another evidence of the growing concern over future directions is the increase in financial support given to research and eXperimentation. The past ten years have seen a tremendous growth in the support of educational research and de- velopment programs by private foundations. vThe Ford Foundation has probably been outstanding but the impact of others must be recognized.87 But if foundations have sensed a need to support educational research, the foundations themselves and their activities have attracted the attention of government and of school officials. Hibbs in his article in the Saturday Evening Post points out that the federal government's 66Gerald T. Kowitz, "The Change and Improvement of School Practices," the Phi Delta Kappan XLII (February 1961), p. 216. 67Ib1d. 78 House Small Business Committee has had a staff of research- ers digging into the affairs Of foundations for months. Wright Patman, congressman from Texas, heads the Committee. He claims that some foundations exert powerful influences over the business firms that have given them birth. Others, he claims, are competing unfairly with small business by investing their tax-exempt funds in a variety of commercial ventures. Even if no abuses existed, Patman is reported to have said, foundations still represented a dangerous concentration of economic power.68 It is not the purpose of this study to examine critically the role of foundations in American society. That the role they are playing is of concern to those who administer public education, however, is germane. Fear has been eXpressed by thoughtful people, according to Hibbs, that the power of foundation money--reposing as it does largely in a small group of professional philanthropists-- could run amok some day and damage our institutions and our way of life. Occasionally, too, large groups of citi- zens have been outraged by certain foundation activities in such areas as civil rights, race relations, and far-out experiments in education.69 68Hibbs, "Mr. Ford's Busy Billions," pp. cit., p. 690 69Ib1d., p. 70. 79 DeSpite these forebodings, Hibbs concludes that in his Opinion foundations will continue to flourish. They will make occasional mistakes, Sponsor failures now and then, and irritate some citi- zens. There will be abuses of the tax-exempt privilege such as Congressman Patman has found. Yet on balance it must be eXpected that they will continue to accomplish much that is good. The better foundations are, in a sense, the flowering of the genius and conscience of the private-enterprise system.70 Concern pf the AASA The role of private foundations in American educa- tion has also attracted the interest of the American Association of School Administrators. The AASA Executive Committee meeting in Chicago in May 1961 authorized the appointment of a study committee to "investigate and report on the role of foundations in education and the relation- ships the foundations should bear to educators."71 The report was ready for release at the AASA convention in Atlantic City in February 1963.72 The report points out that today there are more than 15,000 private philan- thrOpic foundations with total assets of approximately twelve billion dollars. Each year, these foundations 7OIbid. 71American Association of School Administrators, The School Administrator (Washington, D. C.: the Associa- tion, June 1961?. 72American Association of School Administrators, Private Philanthropy and Public Purposes (Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1963), p. v. 80 diSpense more than 4700 million in grants. The Committee states: Over a period of many years these funds have provided significant aid in bringing about im- provements in the construction, organization, and Operation of schools. This notable contri- bution to educational progress should be fully recognized. At the same time there is a growing uneasiness on the part of many school adminis- trators that perhaps some foundation funds are being used to shape public policy pertaining to education and to promote specific programs at the expense of other aspects of the curric- u1umo 7 Later, the report says: The AASA Committee on Foundations is well aware of the many Splendid services that foundations have rendered to education. Further, the Committee believes that founda- tions, and the laws that permit their creation, are desirable and should be encouraged.7h At the same time, the Committee indicates that foundation-supported research, while valuable, has not been of uniform high quality and that both foundation and school officials need to Operate under a set of ethical criteria. The report states: Such criteria would do much to ensure, insofar as is possible, that today's best practices be- come tomorrow's common practice. If such criteria or ethics are faithfully observed, new truths may be found, more and better educational results secured, and the Objectives of a free society more readily safeguarded.7 73Ib1d. 7"Ibid., p. 1. 75Ib1d., p. AB. 81 The AASA Committee did formulate a thirty-point code of ethics. The total report attempts to define the most desirable and effective relationships that should exist between school administrators and the foundations, ethical procedures for administrators applying for grants, and ethical procedures for foundations in making grants. The report also contains a treatment of the emergence of foundations in education, the nature and purpose of the foundations, and their legal and tax status. The Committee discounts the view that foundations are public trusts employing the public's money simply be- cause a substantial part of foundation funds evolve from their tax-exempt status. Even though foundations are tax-exempt, this does not mean that the public should have the power to determine how foundation money is to be spent. The foundations do have the obligation, however, to serve the public interest. The Committee points out that there should be no pressure from the foundation on a researcher to do any- thing but search for objective truth. Research results should not be announced until the facts are complete. The AASA report also suggests setting up a clearing- house of information about educational research already done. A clearinghouse is also needed to which school systems may report basic local data on standard forms. 82 At the present time, school administrators are deluged with requests for information of various kinds, Often from agencies seeking comparable data. The report suggests, further, that perhaps the AASA should take the lead along with the United States Office of Education, leading graduate schools of education, some state education department heads, and representative school systems in develOping compatible systems of statistical reporting, in identifying the kinds of data to be collected, and in designating selected agencies as repositories of such reports. In general, then, the American Association of School Administrators finds much that is good in foundation sup- port for education, finds some areas of the relationships between schools and foundations that should be improved, suggests that much educational research data are not col- lected or reported efficiently, is only mildly critical of foundation-supported research and foundation activities in education, and finds a need for order in statistical re- porting. That there are some problems associated with foundation-supported research at the college and university level is evident as well as at the public school level. One of the major problems is that grants are often not made to cover all expenses of research projects, and many 7'. n.- — .. .P. .P. . . . J «\v axu 1' . -U "a 83 of these projects place extra burdens on staff and facili- ties. Other problems include apprehension that research may be given priority over teaching, that the institution may become too dependent upon support from outside agencies for the conduct of research, and that talents are being wasted or are directed into restricted problem areas. That Sponsored research is considered important, however, is seen in a statement which is part of Nichigan State Uni- versity's basic administrative policy. The statement reads in part: Important reciprocal benefits from Sponsored research accrue to the university and to sponsor- ing foundations, government agencies and indus- tries if the basic purposes and functions of each are duly reSpected. 6 V. SUMMARY In this chapter, the historical aSpects of the NASSP staff utilization studies have been traced from the proj- ect's inception in 1956 to the dissolvement of the NASSP Commission on the EXperimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School in 1961. A review of the literature reveals that the staff 75§ponsored Research, Publication No. 1 (East Lansing, Michigan: Office of Research DevelOpment and the Czaduate School, Michigan State University, 1961), pp. 18- 2 . 81; utilization studies consisted primarily of innovations in the use of various kinds of instructional assistants, in an eXpanded or more precise use of mechanical and electronic equipment, and in efforts to carry out large and small group instruction, utilizing in most instances teaching teams. The eXperimental studies sometimes but not always called for structural changes in school buildings or in adaptation of existing facilities. Financial aid for carrying out the staff utilization studies, for publicizing the results, and for publicizing concepts associated with better utilization of the staff in the secondary school was supplied by the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation. The total grants amounted to $1,030,821.h2. It was the first grant made to a professional agency such as the National Association of Secondary School Principals by the Fund for the Advancement of Education. The responsibility for developing eXperimental de- signs, for carrying out experimental projects, and for evaluating the results were left primarily to the partici- pating school systems. It is clear, however, that most of the eXperimental studies or demonstration projects adhered closely to suggestions contained in various NASSP Commis- sion publications. Because of the great variety of studies carried out 85 by local school systems, the efforts of the Commission to get other school systems to develop studies in the better utilization of staff, and the general vagueness of evalu- ation procedures, the Commission is not able to state pre- cisely how the staff utilization studies have affected secondary school education. A review of the literature reveals, also, that there is some concern over foundation-supported research in edu- cation and the role of private foundations in American society. In general, however, the contributions made by private foundations to education are recognized, and re- Sponsible school authorities favor continued support from such agencies in educational research. There is no indi- cation in the literature that the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation acted, in most instances, as more than facilitating agencies in the NASSP staff utilization project. Many of the staff utilization studies must be classified as action or co-Operative research projects and as such do not make the same kinds of contributions to education as more highly controlled studies. That there are values in such research, however, is evident in a statement by Good: . . ., the major contribution of action or co-Operative research is to in-service training and stimulation of teachers rather than as a basic research methodology paralleling the 86 historical, descriptive-survey, eXperimental, case-clinical, and developmental techniques. Many of the reports of action studies include statements to the effect that teachers have found cherished prejudices challenged, leadership developed, lines of communication made clearer, interest in research engendered, curriculum change facilitated, and success in incorporating the action approach both in the training of teachers and in the teaching of public-school classes. These statements suggest an emphasis on problem-solving as an important contribution for co-Operative or action research to make. Trump, who directed the staff utilization project, lists eXperimentation as a basic ingredient in a program of change: Change based solely on Opinion may be accepted because of the logic of the presen- tation or faith in the person urging the change. However, experimentation is more likely to produce change of a lasting nature. He goes on to say, however, that eXperimentation needs to be conducted in the local school setting: Although it is interesting and sometimes helpful to read about eXperimentation else- where, the findings will be more significant if they are replicated or discovered by local persons in the local school. Moreover, eXperi- mentation begets eXperimentation. Schools with a long-time reputation for high quality are schools thag have constantly eXperimented over the years.7 77Carter V. Good, Introduction 32 Educational Research (New York: D. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 19E9), p. 2&2. 78J. Lloyd Trump, "Ingredients of Change," NASSP Bulletin, Volume M7 (Ray 1963), p. 15. 87 Lortie finds that a time of innovation makes diffi- cult demands on the school administrator. A time of innovation such as ours makes difficult demands on those who administer schools. The widespread trend toward revision of educational practices places the schoolman in more and more situations where he must COpe with the resistance which accompanies attempts at innovation. Resistance occurs, to the sur- prise of some, even where he rationale for change seems impregnable. It is Lortie's contention that an awareness of the relevant social science concepts can help the administra- tor to identify potential costs and to think about ways of avoiding them, but that the need for ingenuity on the part of the school administrator remains. "Successful innova- tion," he says, "will always be something of an art."80 Finally, and running through many summations of the various school projects, is the human factor, then, elo- quently described by Benne and Muntyan. Teachers, administrators and laymen who have sought seriously to produce changes in the pro- gram of the school recognize the importance and difficulty of managing the 'human factors' ines- capably involved in such changes. For, whatever else it may include, a change in curriculum is a change in the peOple concerned--in teachers, in students, in parents and other laymen, in adminis- trators. The people concerned must come to 79Dan C. Lortie, "Change and Exchange: Reducing Resistance to Innovation," Administrator's Notebook (Chicago: Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, February 196u). BOIbid. 88 understand and accept the different pattern of schooling. This means change in their knowledge pertinent to the school and its programs and purposes. . . . This means change in their values with respect to education. . . . This means change in their skills. . . . This means change in the relations of people.81 The human factor is much in evidence in the various reports of the schools which participated in the NASSP staff utilization studies, and it is no doubt this, the human factor which ultimately determines the future of innovations in organization for instruction. 81Kenneth D. Benne and Bozidar Muntyan, Human Relations in Curriculum Change (New York: The Dryden Press, lQSTT, p. vii. ILTIOIOLOGY The previous chapter traced the historical aspects of the NASSP staff utilization studies and their sponsor- ing agencies. This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the research methods employed to find answers to the qiestions posed in Chapter I and to substantiate or refute the hypothesis that innovations in organization for instruc- tion in the staff utilization schools will persist after the sponsoring agencies have withdrawn their support. Included in this chapter are a discussion of the basic methods of research used in this study, a description of the major instruments used, how these were develOped, the selection of schools, and an analysis of the process of data collection. w-A I. NLTIOD OF £4.3AKCE This study combines the historical and survey approaches to research, utilizing published and unpub- lished reports of the NASSP Commission on the EXperimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, reports and letters from various individuals and agencies involved in the studies, and two question- naireas, one an open-end questionnaire and the other esseritially closed. A .5 A~w 90 The study is historical in the sense that it traces the activities of the Rational Association of Secondary School Principals' Commission from its inception in 1956 to its dissolvement in November 1960. houly makes the following comment about historical studies in education: The number of historical studies that could be conducted with profit to education is rela- tively unlimited. . . . They might cover any aSpect of educational practice—~curriculum, methods of instruction, school organization, and so on--at any period of its evolution. . . . All have a history, an understanding of which can be of considerable value in giving present practice perspective and orientation.1 In this particular study, it is expected that the data will provide valuable insights into foundation— supported research as it was carried on under the auspices of the National Association of Secondary School Principals' Commission. it is a documentary study in the sense that conclusions will be drawn from information contained in various primary documents as well as from current survey research. The study also contains some aSpects of the descriptive or normative survey. Good, Barr, and Scates comment on the normative survey. Normative-survey research is directed toward 1George J. Mouly, The Science pf Educational Research (New York: American Book Company, 1963}, pp. 221-222. 91 O O O O O O 2 ascertaining the prevailing conditions. Although other questions are raised, one of the important questions in this study is whether or not the innovative practices used by the staff utilization schools persist. In other words, what is the prevailing condition now, nearly five years after the studies were concluded? Good, Barr, and Scates comment on the value of the survey method: As for the value of normative-survey data in affording a basis for inference that may aid in solving practical problems, it may be said that this kind of data will probably be more highly regarded by the administrator in helping him solve practical problems than are the principles and laws growing out of eXperimentation in the laboratory. The reason is this: the data coming direct from the field represent field conditions; they tend to be practical because they grow out of practical situations; and they generally answer the questions of the man in the field because they are likely to be cast in the terms in which he thinks.3 They go on to say, however: The normative-survey attack does not, however, characteristically penetrate deeply into inter- relationships. It stops with the disclosure of facts and a suggestion of relatively prominent connections between these and apparent causes.” 2Carter V. Good, A.S. Barr, and Douglas E. Scates, The Methodology pf Educational Research (Newsiork: L. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1936), p0 2170 3Ibid., p. 291. “Ibid., p. 293. 92 McAshan also comments on the survey method of research: As may be expected under the conditions in which a survey is utilized, there is not com- plete control of the group surveyed, the treat- ments to the respondents, or the data obtained. Thus, no cause-and-effect relationship can be established in whi h all variables except one are held constant. Mouly says: The survey makes its maximum contribution when it originates from a problem existing within the framework of theory, and when it is oriented toward the identification of factors and relationships worthy of investi- gation undeg more rigorously controlled conditions. It is obvious that the historical and survey approaches to research present limitations in the control of variables and in the collection and validation of data. Although these limitations must be recognized, they do not in themselves obviate the value of data which may be obtained from these approaches to educational research. Regarding the survey method, for instance, lkouly has said: ". . ., by providing the basis for improvement they can be decidedly practical."7 5Hildreth Hoke McAshan, Elements pf Educational ifipsearch (New York: MoGraw-Rill Book Company, Inc., 1903): p0 230 6 Mouly, pp. cit., p. 233. 7ibid. 93 The NASSP staff utilization studies were carried ' 8 out in school systems in eleven states.‘ Thus, the questionnaire was the most practical instrument to use in major phases of the study. The questionnaire is an accepted research instrument in educational research. Good, Barr, and Scates say: The questionnaire is an important instrument in normative-survey research, being used to gather information from widely scattered sources. It is probably outranked in frequency of use only by the survey test.9 In terms of its uses and applications, Good writes: As to uses and applications, the question- naire extends the investigator's powers and techniques of observation by reminding the respondent of each item, helping insure response to the same item from all respondents, and tend- ing to standardize and objectify the observa- tions of different enumerators (by singling out particular aSpects of the situation and by specifying the units and terminology for describing the observations.)10 Good also comments on descriptive studies: Descriptive studies may include present 8J. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Guide :2 Better Schools: Focus pp Change (Chicago: Rand thally and Company, 196I5, pp. Iii-13b. 9Good, Barr, and Scates, pp. cit., p. 325. lOCarter V. Good, Introduction to Educational gapsearch (New York: Appleton-Centruy:Crofts, Inc., 1959), p. 191. .. , , Ck A... . v a.» mi: O. s . . in s . y 9h facts or current conditions concerning the nature of a group of persons, a number of objects, or a class of events, and may involve the procedures of induction, analysis, classi- fication, enumeration, or measurement. This study, which is in part descriptive, uses these procedures, including the use of both descriptive and inferential statistics within limitations noted. -.—.. [I II. OPhN-END QULSTIONNAIR The Open—end questionnaire was designed to secure information from the NASSP staff utilization schools. It sought primary information regarding (l) the nature of the innovative practices utilized in each of the staff utilization schools; (2) the extent to which financial aid took care of the actual eXpenses of conducting the studies; (3) the current status of the innovative prac- tices; (h) the viewpoints of the respondents regarding side effects of the experimental projects; and (S) the willingness of the staff utilization schools to engage iria.similar project again under similar conditions. In terms of this study, the two most important questions were those relating to the current status of the innova- tive practices and the willin_ness of the reSpondents to engage in a similar project again under similar conditions. llIbid., p. 167. 95 Best comments on the open form of questionnaire: The open form probably provides for greater depth of response. The respondent reveals his frame of reference and possibly the reasons for his reSponses. This type of item, however, is sometimes difficult to interpret, tabulate, and summarize in the research report. The choice of an Open-end questionnaire was deliberate, however, as the investigator wanted each respondent to comment volubly in answer to each question asked. It was felt that the relatively small number of schools involved would present no particular problems in interpretation, tabulation, or summarization of the data. Best also presents several guides for the prep- aration and administration of a questionnaire.13 It cannot be claimed that the questionnaire used in this study meets all of the criteria Best sets forth. At the same time, the cover letter reminded the schools that the request for information came from a member of a school system which had also taken part in the staff utilization studies, the tOpic was significant, the questionnaire in the main sought pertinent information, the directions were clear, a self-addressed and stamped envelope was enclosed, and the respondents were promised a summary 12John W. Best, Research 12 Education (hnglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1939), p. th. l31bid., pp. 151-155. 96 of the results. The bulk of the questionnaire and the checklist, which was also enclosed in the same envelope, and the subsequent cost of mailing precluded sending each school duplicate c0pies of the instruments for their files. The questionnaire described here was a simplified version of one the investigator had constructed earlier. The original was a detailed and lengthy one which probed for information beyond the scope of this study. In efforts to administer the instrument in the investigator's home school system, it was found that it could not be completed without resorting to a fairly extensive search of school records. The simplified version appeared to present no particular problems. It was sent to three other staff utilization schools for pretesting, however. After these were returned and analyzed, it was decided that no further changes would be made. Some of the recognizable, cumbersome aspects of the questionnaire presented no real problems in analysis, and the pretest data fell readily into specified categories. The questionnaires were then mailed to the superintendents of the staff utilization school systems or to a school principal if the studies as reported in the NASSP bulletins related Specifically to one school. The decision to send the questionnaires to the superin- tendent or to the principals was in keeping with an 97 observation by See that a greater preportion of returns will be obtained when the original request is sent to the administrative head of an organization.1u III. THE CEBCKLIST The closed questionnaire, or checklist, contained a list of the innovations which had been identified in the literature as having been a part of the NASSP staff utilization studies. The checklist had two purposes: (1) to determine the number and kinds of innovations from the list which were in use in the staff utilization schools, and (2) to determine how the staff utilization schools and a representative number of other schools would compare in the use of these innovations in their organizations for instruction. Many of the items in the checklist were specific in nature. For instance, the innovation might refer to team teaching in Specific subject areas. Hence, the respondents were given an Opportunity to list other innovations in their school systems which did not appear in the checklist. At this point, the innovations were not placed in categories. This was done deliberately 1l'rff‘arold W. See, "Send It to the President," Phi Delta Kapoan (January, 1957), p. 130. As cited by J5EE W. Best, Research in Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice:fiaIl, Inc., 1959), p. 153. \..v v . (a. : p I so that the reSpondents would be encouraged to consider each innovation on its own merits. A rating scale was included in the directions to identify in general form the extent to which the innovations checked were being utilized. In referring to the checklist as a research instrument Best says: This simple 'laundry-list' type of device systematizes and facilitiates the recording of observations, and helps to assure the consideration of the imgortant aspects of the object or act observed. 9 There were two reasons for hypothesizing that the staff utilization schools would check more of the innovations than schools which had not taken part in the NASSP project: (1) the staff utilization schools in total had experimented with the innovations that were listed and would be expected to have retained those that had proven to be beneficial, and (2) the EASE? Commission had detected that the schools which experimented with one or more innovations had a tendency to try other innovations similar to those being tried in other staff utilization schools. Thus, this study is not primarily concerned with the persistence tendencies of any one innovation in any one school system but in the persis- tence of the total number of innovations in a composite of the staff utilization schools. lSBest, 213-. 0113., p. 16140 ..— -. &-;.L r: H\~ «V 99 Since the checklist was a simple type of question- naire, it was pretested only in the investigator's home school system. In all cases the department of instruction was able to check the items without difficulty, and no major revisions were made. The school systems were asked to identify them- selves in both the Open-end questionnaire and the check- list. In both cases, however, the cover letter indicated that the data would be treated in composite form. In the actual treatment of the data the school systems are not identified, the data are presented in composite form, or the school systems are listed with non-identifying symbols. IV. SELECTICH OF SCPOCL SYSILIS FOR STUDY The thirty-four NASSP staff utilization schools selected for study included a complete census of these schools with but minor exceptions. In Illinois and Utah staff utilization studies were carried out in a number of schools simultaneously under the sponsorship of state departments of education. These schools were not included in the study unless specific reports of their activities were included in the NASSP bulletins. No effort was made to survey schools which were not indi- vidually recipients of financial aid from the Commission. 100 In addition to the staff utilization schools, a selected number of other school systems, forty in all, were chosen for comparative purposes and received the checklist described earlier. This was an arbitrary number, chosen in the expectancy that the number of re- sponses from these schools would equal the number of re- sponses from the staff utilization schools. One of the variables in this study is, of course, the financial aid received by the staff utilization schools from funds made available by the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation. It was not known how many of the schools selected for comparative purposes might also have received grants for eXperimental purposes. This was the major reason for sending the checklist to a greater number of non-staff utilization schools. A question on the checklist form asked the schools to indi- cate if they had received grants-in-aid for experimental purposes during the last seven years. The school systems were selected on the basis of location, enrollments, and types of organization or control. In the selection process, the staff utilization chools were first listed by state and size. Other school systems were then listed opposite these, also according to location and size. A random selection was then made of those school systems which approximated the 101 staff utilization schools in terms of the three criteria mentioned. No other efforts were made to secure matched pairs. The enrollments were determined from information contained in the Education Directory. This crude sampling process bears further expla- nation. It has been noted that the NASSP Commission had developed criteria for the selection of eXperimental pro- jects. It was the desire of the Commission that projects be approved in school systems of various sizes, in various locations throughout the country, and in school systems of such a character that other school systems would experience no particular difficulties in adOpting innovations which appeared to have merit. These, too, were relatively crude designations, and the criteria were not adhered to closely. It indicates, however, that the NASSP Commission was interested in approving eXperimental projects in school systems which would be fairly representative of others throughout the nation. It should be noted, also, that the NASSP Commission made extensive efforts to publicize the staff utilization studies and to encourage other school systems to conduct similar eXperimentation. For these reasons, it was decided to select other school systems for comparative purposes as simply as possible withcut striving for closely 16Education Directory, Part 2 (hashington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1962-63). 102 matched pairs. In the actual selection, school systems were chosen in all of the states represented by the staff utilization schools and in neighboring states. V. SANPLINO PROCESS Table I shows that thirty-two NASSP staff utiliza- tion schools were included in the survey and received the Open-end questionnaire and the checklist. Seventeen of these schools completed the two instruments. Seven others sent prepared materials or correSponded by letter with the writer. Thus, twenty-four of the thirty-two staff utili- zation schools responded to requests for information, representing a seventy-five per cent return. The reSpondents included eight principals, six superintendents, three directors, three teachers, two assistant superintendents, and one administrative intern. One reSpondent signed his name but failed to identify his position. Schools in nine states are included: Illinois, Utah, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nebraska, California, Indiana, Colorado, and Texas. Enrollments at the secon- dary level ranged from 175 in one district to h5,h77 in another and in total enrollments from hOO to llh,277. ‘Thirteen of the school systems may be classified as small, eight as medium size, and three as large. 103 Table II shows that forty non-staff utilization schools were included in the survey which utilized the checklist and that thirty-four of these reSponded, repre- senting an eighty per cent return. The respondents included fourteen superintendents, eight assistant superintendents, four directors, two curriculum coordinators, one principal, one assistant director, and one supervisor. Three respondents failed to identify themselves by position. Schools in eighteen states are represented, including Illinois, hassachusetts, Colorado, Texas, Indiana, North Dakota, Missouri, Iowa, $.10 1 New Jersey, Arkansas, Kansas, ninnesota, Pennsylvania, —)' Oklahoma, Wisconsin, nichigan, Ohio, and Virginia. Twenty-one of the school districts may be classified as mall, nine as medium size, and four as large.r All of the questionnaires and checklists, with the exception of those sent out earlier in the pretest, were mailed in the early part of Iecember 1963 and all were returned by February 15, 196h. Follow-up letters were sent to ten IAZSP staff utilization schools and resulted in four additional returns over the original response. No follow-up letters were sent to the other school systems utilized in the study. Tables I and II include all of the schools which reaponded in some manner or form to the questionnaire and checklist. 10h pemeeopeanwmsm maoeaHHH .owooao Ama-ov oom.o ceases meaapmpm .e Hmaaoeuem macCaHHH .aeeooaom AmH-av omm swam apcsoo maom peepsmusfineQSm mHosHHHH .xooannpAOE Amaamv oom.m swam xooanseam Hmaaocawm whoeHHHH .weaswp mam Hoonom smug .e Haaaoeanm maocaHHH .ommOHeu oom.H mms .gan omwoano no .: .pasm .p.mm< maoeHHHH .weants om:.m Ham. assessgoo scents pepoeaaa new: ..oo enmenosm oom.m mad meadoo esmezoza nemeeopenemQSm nap: ..oo poems oo:.mH apesoo page: I nnnnnn maxee .hepmcm OHH.: owandm nephew aenosea mxmwpnez .snmEo nauunn mpHSSSEoo eefimpmeg genomes .mmws .mHHH>eopzmz oom.sa oaapdm sesame pepoenflfl onwaoaoo .poozexmg 200.0: www.mfi zpadoo somaewweh Hmmaoeawm .ccas .Haam .pm mmo.oa oaa.: nonhuman mHHa>mmom Hence Nauw museUQOQmem coapmooq museEHHoacm maoosom hpdum mane CH pehe>h5m mHoonom CowpmNHHHps mmwum mmmdz esp go mflm%HwGnoamae .HHH .ompwm CouwQHHfid ssm.:HH msm.mm oom.a ase.m: mam.mhma-mv oow.a oo: ooo.m “maumv mum.m sedans: ommam cam oaapsm econ npsom oaagsm cepwmasaas OHHQSm eaoaepnwm oaansm wonooom swam oHHH>aoamwe swam cosmenawa Hamaoeawm mdoanHH .wspaoos mmo.H swam zma>oswq ChopsH .Ep< mHoQHHHH .sopmsm>m Amaaov woa.: dfinmszoa Conwam>m pumpsepcflnemdm mHocHHHH .xawzez mwa thCdEEoo xpwzez ngnocawm mHocHHHH .cOOppaa ooo.m oo:.m ouassm cooppas - kuoe mans musepsoemem soapmooq muSeEHHomsm maoonom Apescflusoov .H manna 106 peepCepsfiaeQSm .HHH .enpooaaafizo Amaumv owe swam onuOOHHHHno usepCechaeadm mHoCHHHH .soweao Amauov om: huHSSEEoo Commas ............ muoeHHHH .mnoesa mao.m mmm.m oaapsm spouse usepCechaemdm .Q .2 .QZOpmeEwh 5mm.m ommqa owandm QBOpmeEMh pepoeafim .02 .oosepcedepsH omo.ma mwo.m oaansm mosepCemech :1 uuuuuuuuuu maxee .GOpeHmsm wmp.m @H:.H .q .m .H cepmawsm .. .......... msonwaso .mmasa esm.m~ om®.om H poanpman pcoeemdmesH .pasm .p_mma .mmas .meaaaooam maw.o smm.m oaansm meaaaoonm psepCepsHaemdm mppemdnowmmmz .Qchq Hom.ma oom.m oaandm mama .pasm .p_mma oemwonoo ..oo memos oom.m om:.a NH nonhuman mcaaeopm unseempeawmasm seemmccas .eopmeanppoz Hmm.m mo:.n chansm copmcagpsoe .eeooo .oaapso anommceas .esoae .pm :om.m mmo.m Change esoao .pm mucepQOQmem coapwooq wammefiaaothum maoozom CH pawn exwp moaespm soapaeaaaps madam mmmaz one pom UHU moans mpdpm was» Ga pehe>a5m maoonom %o mammHmGam epsom pemecopcanodsm meanness .ecmaeaz 00:.0H oom.: oaapsm ecmaeas .p.mma .sea .noas .Hamnmwaa H-.m eo:.H oaagsm easemeas peoeempcatmasm .eoas .ammwo mappwm Hem.HH one.: change smote mappmm cepompan mmmemawa .gpasm pace mmH.mH mao.o oaflssm spasm neon .pQSm .p_mm< mwmeaaee .aoom mappag mmm.mm mm:.oa change soom mepHu .uQSm .p.mm¢ msmfipsH .ecmwz whom mmo.mm 0:3.ma thcSEEoo mama; whom peoeeopcaemQSm maoanHH .ooaaneaa omm.e o:o.m HHH nonhuman Hoonom eexmxcmm peoeqmcheoasm whoeuHHH .eopsano mmm.m moo.a apaesssoo sopcaao musepcOdmem Goapwooa HmwmmeHHopmwlw maoonom Apedcfipcoovnu.HH manna 108 .mmxee CH ego 02m .wfiaaowwamo SH eco .nmpb SH 03p .mHoQHHHH CH 030 mswUSHoGH UGOQmea nos 0H0 mEepmhm HOOSom senpo Nam umpoz nopoesfia .mm .pepmmoswq oa:.oa Hm:.: mpfio nepmwoswq nomfi>nmmsm .e .z .emaopom ooo.s oo:.m change emaonom .pdSm .p.mm¢ «30H .Qopcflao 300.0 om0.m hpflssesoo sopsfiao pcoeempcanodsm .omne .meaoam om:.:m :sm.o Ha poawpmaa cadence .mnooo .QQSQ .omflz .cmmhonehm 000.0 om0.: oaandm Qmmmonmnm pemecmpeatmasm «Heampa> .sOpesspm som.: oms.a sane copqsapm .pasm .p.mma mameaa .aeaaam oom.0 ooo.m unassm «chasm .pdSm .p.mma oweo .eOQemo ooo.mm ooo.oa keno concao eopooean oaeo .eaawoq oom.ma oom.0 spao cameos pcoeempcaanSm .omas .osq 3e econ m0~.0 o:o.m He can so econ Hence ma-s mpcepcommem Cowpmooq pGeEHHOth mHoozom Aewseapeoov .HH magma 109 VI. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA COLLECTION PROCESS In 1962, some time prior to the actual initiation of this study, the writer discussed with the director of the NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utiliza- tion of the Staff in the Secondary School the proposed research study. The director indicated that he believed it would be an interesting and worthwhile study and indicated that he would like to see the actual research design when it was finalized. fiarly in l96h, the director was contacted again, by letter, and was asked for pertinent data relating to the questions posed in the study. In addition to numer- ous mimeographed reports, publications, and his own state- ments, the director furnished the writer with a complete file of the minutes of the NASSP Commission. The director replied, also, that insofar as he knew, the most complete reports of the staff utilization studies were contained in the 1958 through 1961 January issues of the NASSP Bulletin. In July 1963, a letter was sent to the Ford Founda- tion's Office of Reports asking for a list of all Founda- tion publications relating to the NASSP staff utilization studies in whole or in part. The Foundation responded by sending the writer the publications themselves, most of which are quoted in this study. A search of the litera- ture indicated, too, that the staff utilization studies were mentioned frequently in other publications. These 110 simply referred to the general nature of the studies, however, and added nothing particularly significant except for the one reference mentioned earlier which indicated that there was not reliable evidence to support some of the claims made by the NASSP Commission. These other publications were important, however, in helping to disseminate information about the studies, one of the concerns of the Commission. The reSponse to the Open-end questionnaire and to the checklist, in terms of numbers, has been noted. One of the major problems among the staff utilization schools, a problem which may have contributed to the relatively low percentage of reSponse, was the turnover in administrative staff since the studies were concluded. Four staff utili- zation school systems mentioned that this presented a problem in completing the questionnaires. One administrator said he had not completed the questionnaires because he had not been in the school system when the studies were carried out. An administrator in another school system, however, wrote to say that his school system had felt a need to make an analysis of the staff utilization projects in which it had participated and that the questionnaire suggested an outline for the school to follow. Using the questionnaire as a guide, the school system then answered each question in depth, involving several members of the staff in the 111 analysis. In only one instance did a respondent say that he was not answering one of the questions because he was not sure what it meant. He was puzzled by the term "re- search design." . In addition to completing the questionnaire and the checklist, ten of the staff utilization schools sent copies of prepared materials, such as publications, mimeographed reports, and bulletins. In most cases, these were supple- mentary materials. In three cases, however, the schools sent prepared materials in lieu of filling out the research instruments. Although the materials were helpful and often answered some of the questions asked, they did not lend themselves well to enumeration or statistical treatment. There were no particular problems relating to the checklist other than the relatively low number of returns from the staff utilization schools and the failure of some respondents to utilize the rating scale. The cover letter to both the questionnaire and the checklist indi- cated that a summary of the findings would be sent to each respondent. The checklist in particular appeared to interest many of the reapondents who asked specifically that they be sent the results of the survey. Other factors which caused problems in handling the research instruments and in analyzing the data included the failure of a respondent to state the name 112 and address of his school system, a failure to show current enrollments, a failure to state the size of grants-in-aid, or a failure to show the school system's pupil—teacher ratio. These were not major items in the study, however, and in some cases the answers could be found elsewhere. In one instance, the questionnaire had been torn apart and only one page was returned. Thus, this school had to be ex- cluded from the study. These problems, while not major ones in terms of the total study, may be an indication of some of the problems inherent in the use of these types of research instruments. VII. SURRARY 0F PW"! aEThODOLOGY As was noted in Chapter I, this study deals with several related questions. The answers to some of these are drawn, at least in part, from a survey of the litera- ture and of various primary and secondary documents re- lating to the staff utilization studies. The answers to others are based upon the data contained in the question- naires and the checklists completed by the various schools used in the study. Research eXperts have been shown to agree that these approaches to educational research are widely used, are acceptable, and are often decidedly practical. They agree, too, however, that the survey method presents limitations 113 in the control of variables, in the treatment of data, and in assigning cause-and-effect relationships. It is be- lieved that the fifty-four school systems used in this study are reasonably representative in composite form of other school systems throughout the United States and that the conclusions which are drawn in this study are a valid indication of the impact of foundation-supported research on a selected number of secondary schools which participated in the National Association of Secondary School Principals' staff utilization project. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA I. INTRODUCTION To determine the persistence tendencies of innova- tions in instruction in schools which took part in the National Association of Secondary School Principals' staff utilization studies between 1956 and 1960 and to find ans- wers to other questions related to the NASSP project, a historical and survey study of the NASSP staff utiliza- tion studies has been made. In addition to a survey of the staff utilization schools, other selected schools were surveyed to determine if the persistence tendencies of the innovations in the staff utilization schools could logically beassumed to be the result of participation in the NASSP foundation-supported project. In addition to a careful review of the literature relating to the staff utilization project, a study has been made of various primary documents relating to the activities of the NASSP commission which was appointed to administer the project; the individual whoserved as direc- tor of the commission throughout its tenure was asked for specific information about the project; the staff utili- zation schools were surveyed through the use of an open-end questionnaire and a checklist; and selected other school 11h 115 systems were surveyed through the use of the checklist by itself. In this chapter, the data secured through these approaches are presented and analyzed. A summary, con- clusions, and recommendations for further study are pre- sented in Chapter V. II. SCHOOLS SURVEYED The schools which participated in the NASSP staff utilization project were identified in Chapter II.* In terms of the historical analysis of the project and the documentary study all of these schools are included in this study. The Open-end questionnaire was sent to all of the staff utilization school systems which could be identi- fied as having taken part in the project through reports in the 1958 through 1960 January issues of the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Princi- pals, thirty-two in all. Twenty-four of these responded to requests for information. Seventeen completed the questionnaire and the checklist in sufficient detail to be included in the statistical treatment of data. All of the respondents were at the administrative level except three. The three teachers who responded were ones who were or had been closely connected with the *See pages 58-59. 116 experimental projects in those particular schools. The staff utilization studies were carried out in eleven states; nine states are represented in the responses. The open-end questionnaire asked specific questions about the schools' participation in the staff utilization project. The checklist contained a list of sixty-one innovations in instruction. These were the innovations with which the staff utilization schools experimented and were identified from a review of the NASSP bulletins. Forty other school systems, identified in Chapter III,*were asked to complete the checklist, and thirty-four responded. Schools in eighteen states are represented, consisting of the states in which the staff utilization studies were conducted and of neighboring states. All of the respondents were members of the school systems' admin- istrative staffs. III. ANALYSIS PROCEDURES The primary hypotheses in this study are (1) that the innovations in instruction with which the staff utili- zation schools experimented as part of the NASSP project persist in these schools after foundation support is with- drawn and the project is concluded, and (2) that the staff utilization schools will contain more of these innovations *See page 106 117 in their organizational structures than other schools which had not participated in the project. The rejection of the hypotheses or their substantiation will be based upon the data obtained from the open-end questionnaire and the checklist. Other related questions are posed. It was not the purpose to explore these in great depth. The answers to the related questions will be based upon a study of the literature, a study of various documents referred to earlier, correspondence, and information contained in the questionnaire and the checklist. The analysis follows the normal procedure of interpretation, categorization, and enumeration whenever possible. The answers to some ques- tions posed in the research instruments to which the schools responded are brief enough to be presented in their entirety. In the analysis, the questions are taken in the order in which they were presented in Chapter I. IV. PROCEDURES USED IN INTRODUCING INNOVATIONS INTO SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS Foundation Support The Curriculum.Planning and Development Committee of the National Association of Secondary School Principals had discussed the shortage of teachers at a meeting in 118 October 1954. According to the minutes of that meeting, the Committee expressed deep concern about the acute shortage of teachers, the need for improved programs of teacher education, and the steps which every principal should take to relieve the shortage and improve teacher education.1 In April 1955, members of the Committee explored with representatives of the Fund for the Advancement of Education their possible "mutual interest in a series of studies related to the teacher shortage problem as it affected further improvements in educational quality."2 During the conference in April 1955. various pro- posals were considered, including most of the innovations which eventually became a part of the NASSP staff utiliza- tion studies.3 The discussion outline prepared for the conference contained a suggestion that the Foundation supply funds 1Minutes of the Curriculum Planning and DevelOp- ment Committee, National Association of Secondary School Principals (Washington, D. C.: the Association, October 25-26, 1954), (Mimeographed). 2Letter, J. Lloyd Trump to the Writer (June 5, 1904). 3Curriculum Planning and DeveIOpment Committee, ”The Problem of Teacher Shortage for the High Schools of the United States," a Discussion Outline (Washington, D. C.: National Association of Secondary School Principals, April 26, 1955), (Mimeographed). 119 for a two-day conference with twenty-five to thirty high school principals and superintendents who would be inter- ested in making an attack on the problem; for a conference or a series of interviews with schools that had decided to initiate action programs involving one or more means of resolving the problem of the teacher shortage; for a small central staff to plan and counsel with interested schools about the problem; and for develOping a plan designed to enlist the active c00peration of the members of the Nation- al Association of Secondary School Principals and through them.of other national and state professional and lay organizations in meeting the teacher shortage problem.4 Dr. Trump points out that the concern of the NASSP Committee, the concern of persons working on state curric- ulum.projects in Illinois, and the concern of the Fund for the Advancement of Education coincided: The NASSP Committee on Curriculum.Planning and DevelOpment shared with some of us working on state curriculum.projects in Illinois the frustrations in obtaining curriculum improve- ments because teachers did not have time to work on new ideas and the rigidity of school organization prevented new ideas from taking hold. At the same time the discovery was made that the Fund for the Advancement of Education was interested in various ways to improve the professional status of teachers as one stgp in coping with the teacher shortage problem. HIbid. SLetter, J. Lloyd Trump to the Writer (May 1h,l96u). 120 As was indicated in Chapter II, the Curriculum Planning and Deve10pment Committee subsequently made a proposal to the Executive Committee of the National Assoc- iation of Secondary School Principals, foundation support was secured, and the Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School was appointed. The funds made available to the NASSP were not made in a lump sum. The NASSP Commission made a series of pro- posals, periodically, to the Fund for the Advancement of Education, the proposals were discussed, and funds were allocated on the basis of a budget which accompanied each prOposal. One of the proposals, dated April 10, 1958, for instance, summarized briefly the activities of the Commis- sion, proposed a series of new studies in seVeral addi- tional schools, and mentioned a termination date for the project. This particular proposal suggested a budget for the last two years of the project, $462,500 for September 1958 to August 1959 and $381,000 for September 1959 to August 1960.6 Although the Fund approved grants for 6Commission on the Experimental Study of the Uti- lization of the Staff in the Secondary School, Second Supplementary Proposal Designed_tg_Demonstrate how ImprovedgTeacher Utilization Can Help_Solve the Problem; g£_Teacher Shortage_in the Hi h Schools of the United States (Washington, DT'C77'NASSP, ApriI ID, 1958), (Mimeographed). 121 individual school projects, the grants were actually administered by the director of the NASSP Commission. In 1957 the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation merged their administrative offices, and the FUnd actually became the educational division of the Ford Foundation. After this merger, the Ford Foundation continued grants to the NASSP for carrying on the staff utilization studies. A review of the minutes of the NASSP Commission re- veals that a representative of the Fund for the Advancement of Education and subsequently of the Ford Foundation attended all meetings of the NASSP Commission, and thus a liaison was maintained between the Foundation.and the Cam- mission. The minutes of the Commission meetings contain frequent reference to the contributions this representative made to the deliberations. The original grant to the NASSP was for p9u,926.42. Total grants were $330,82l.h2 from the Fund for the Advance- ment of Education and $700,000 from the Ford Foundation. Selection Process The discussion outline for the conference of the NASSP Curriculum Planning and Deve10pment Committee and represen- tatives from.the Fund for the Advancement of Education con- tained several ”unconventional and new procedures" for 122 meeting some of the problems of the teacher shortage.7 The early projects grew out of a conference with principals and superintendents who had shown an interest in experimenting with innovative practices. After that, however, all school systems in the United States were invited to submit pro- posals to the Commission for consideration. The Commission devoted much time to a discussion of selection procedures. Eventually, a set of criteria for . the selection of experimental projects was developed, a c0py of which is shown in the Appendix. It was decided that the director of the Commission, working with schools interested in initiating projects, should see that the proposed studies were written up in sufficient detail so that members of the Commission could read them.and react by mail. The assumption was that the ' Commission would not be called together each time a pro- posal was ready for presentation but rather that suffici- ent approval could be given by mail so that the director could give the school system a certain degree of assurance that the project would be approved. Six steps were listed for securing approval of each project: 1. Exploration by the director with members of local school staffs “The Problem.of Teacher Shortage for the High Schools of the United States," 92, cit. 123 2. Preparation of the proposals by local school staffs 3. Consideration by the Commission A. Submission of the proposal by the Commission to the Fund for the Advancement of Education 5. Action by the Fund officers and board 6. Transmission back to the director and school for apprOpriate action in the local community8 The innovative practices inherent in the projects which were eventually approved and which received financial support are shown in composite form in the checklist uti- lized in this study. In general, the Commission rejected proposals if an experimental project similar to the pro- posal were already under way or if the proposal failed to show that its major emphasis was on better utilization of the staff. A representative of the Fund reported periodi- cally to the Commission on other Fund-supported projects so that duplication might be avoided. Eventually, projects in eleven states were approved with a disproportionate number appearing in schools in Illinois. Supervision, Control, and Evaluation Once a project had been approved and financial 8Minutes of the Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School (Washington, D. C.: National Association of Secondary School Principals, June 22-23, 1956), (Mimeographed). 121; support had been secured, the NASSP Commission exercised minimal control over the project. The schools were asked to make annual reports which were printed in the January issues of the NASSP Bulletins in 1958, 1959, 1960, and 1961, and each school system.was expected to make a finan- cial report annually. Any funds not expended in a given year were to be returned to the Commission. The Commission director attempted to visit each school system involved in the staff utilization studies at least once a year. Two assistant directors were appoint- ed in 1958 and assumed some of these visitations. The director or one of his assistants would observe the project in action, consult with members of the schools' adminis- trative staffs, and make such suggestions as appeared to be desirable. Other than this, each school system carried on its project or projects as it saw fit even to the point of making modifications in the experimental designs. Each project had to be approved each year, however, for con- tinued support. The individual school systems were also expected to establiSh evaluation procedures and were encouraged to in- volve local colleges and universities in the evaluations. This was done for two reasons: (1) to make sure that acceptable evaluations would be made, and (2) to demon- strate to the college officials what changes might be de- sirable in teacher preparation programs. 125 The Commission itself was deeply conscious of the need for evaluation, not only of the individual school projects but also of the Commission's activities. The minutes of the June 1956 Commission meeting contain the following statement: Problems relating to evaluation of projects were discussed at some length. There was general recognition that this is a vulnerable spot in connection with all experimental projects. In order to obtain the widest possible acceptance of the results of experimentation, such evaluation needs to be both scientific and convincing. Evaluation procedures are needed both in the individual projects and in the total work of the Commission.9 In the October 1956 meeting of the Commission, six steps were developed as expectations for evaluation by the experimental schools. The schools would be expected to furnish descriptions regarding the following six items: 1. What are the specific objectives of the experiment? 2. What matters are you going to attempt to measure; what are your priorities in evaluation? 3. What techniques are being used in order to find answers and why do you think these techniques are likely to be most promising? u. What resources, financial and material, are being used in the experiment and why are these being used? 9Ibid. 126 5. What are the relationships between what you are attempting to do with the conditions of learning as described earlier in this document? 6. What definite results of the experiment can be established with respect to (a) pupil- teacher ratio in individual subjects and in the total school; (b) costs of instruction; (c) learning results?10 There was general agreement among the members of the Commission that the experimental school was the central agency in evaluation, that the Commission would help whenever possible, and that the objectives of the Commis- sion, the NASSP, and the Fund for the Advancement of Edu- cation were similar. It was also agreed that the director of the Commission should transmit to the various schools engaged in experimentation the general ideas of evaluation discussed by the Commission. By September 1957, however, a noticeable change has taken place in the Commission's viewpoints on evaluation. There is a need for re-definition in what we have said about evaluation; we should be as specific as possible in describing expected outcomes. Granted that certain things can be measured, it may be unwise to interrupt or inhibit the experimentation in order simply to obtain technical findings; some of the most important outcomes can readily be measured anyway. One of the primary purposes of the Commission program is to sharpen the thinking of people along the lines of whether the pur- poses for which secondary schools exist are lOMinutes of the NASSP Commission on the Experi- mental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School (October 27-28, 1956), (Mimeographed). 12? actually being accomplished. Emphasis in reports should be given the dynamics of change. A key to evaluation is what happens afterwards. Recognizing that we know more about what we teach than how we teach, the major emphasis in evaluati35_of Commission studies should be on the latter. In other words, the Commission moved gradually from concern for statistical evidence that the innovative prac- tices resulted in equal or superior student achievement, equal or lower costs, and equal or lower teacher-pupil ratios to a concern that the innovative practices in themselves be acceptable by pupils, teachers, and others involved in the instructional process. Nelson, the repre- sentative of the Fund for the Advancement of Education who sat in on Commission meetings is reported to have said-- We must not look in myOpic manner at statistics in evaluation, but look more at the dynamics of leadership and enthusiasm which were generated as a result of the eXperiment. The mature judgment of important professional peOple is probably more significant in whether what was done really mattered than purely statistical results which would be open to attacks by small minds trying to maintain the status quo.12 Trump was asked to comment on evaluation of the staff utilization studies and answered as follows: Studies of the type Sponsored by the Commis- sion are difficult to evaluate on the basis of 11Minutes of the NASSP Commission on the Experi- mental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School (September 21—22, 1957), (Mimeographed). lzIbid. 128 a tight research design. There are simply too many variables that cannot be controlled except by very sophisticated statistical techniques not known by most of the workers in the schools. Frankly, we were much more interested in this stage in the development of these ideas in demonstrating that certain procedures could be Operated in schools with a reasonable degree of assurance that students and teachers were pleased with the results. Other school peOple are more convinced by such reports than they are by reports of sophisticated research findings. Although this may be an indict- ment of our profession, it is a fact of life that those of us interested in improving schools have to live with. In any event, I personally have much confidence in the professional judgment of my colleagues.13 Dissemination 23 Information In the very early stages of Commission activity, members discussed the kinds of publicity which should accompany the staff utilization studies. One statement reads-- Because the studies are in an area of a certain amount of controversy as well as apprehension, damage can easily be done if releases go to the pepular press ahead of information to the profes- sion. . . . The general feeling was eXpressed that efforts should be made at the present time to restrict considerably any publicity of this program outside the immediate profession.1 13Letter, J. Lloyd Trump to the Writer, June 5, 196A. luhinutes of the NASSP Commission on the Experi- mental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School (June 22-23, 1956), (Mimeographed). 129 Once the staff utilization studies were established, however, extensive efforts were made to publicize them and to encourage other school systems to try innovations in instruction which result in a better utilization of professional staff. The director of the Commission writes: Information about the projects and reports of results were disseminated as follows: January 1958, 1959, 1960 and 1961 issues of the NASSP Bulletin; New Horizons . . ., Images of the Future, New Directions to Quality- Education, and Focus on Chanre-—Guide to Better Schools; Special programs at the n.ASSP conventions in 1957, 1958,1959, 1960; the film, "And No Bells Ring," seen by millions of people, the sound filmstrip, "Focus on Change" (h,000 copies sold), and very large numbers of news reports, Speeches, Specia% conferences, and much correspondence.l In addition, the Ford Foundation made frequent references to the studies in a variety of its publications, and the staff utilization schools were eXpected to act as demonstration schools in their respective areas. In the writer's own community, the largest local newspaper carried a full-page feature on the local project. It is assumed that similar coverage was obtained in other com- munities as well. Grants-ip-Aid A bulletin, "Suggestions for Preparation of Proposals 15Letter, J. Lloyd Trump to the Writer, May 1A, 196A. 130 for EXperimental Projects," contains the following item in relation to the cost of each school system's staff utili- zation project: Costs pf the Study. A carefully developed estimate of the total additional costs of the study should be made. Such an estimate should include all costs of staffing, supervision, physical plant changes, supplies, and equipment over and above the costs that would ordinarily occur if the experimental study were not to be conducted.16 Another item in the same bulletin relates to the actual request for assistance: Request for assistance. Since the Commission was created to assist schools in eXperimental studies, an indication should be given of the kinds of assistance needed. Some of this assis- tance will be financial in nature. The amount of funds requested for items such as the follow- ing might be included: extra staffing, materials, clerical help for tabulating data and preparing reports, unusual supplies, consultant help, Special workshops, and travel eXpenses.. Grants do not ordinarily include equipment or supplies that would be useful to the school at the con- clusion of the study or for salaries of regularly employed personnel. Sufficient eXplanation of the different requests should be included to permit the Commission and Fund to appraise the apprOpriateness and amount of the request.1 When the staff utilization schools were asked to estimate to what extent the grants—in-aid took care of the 16Suggestions for Preparation 3: Proposals for Experimental Projects (WaShington, D. C.: NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, January 13, 1958), (Rimeographed). 17Ib1d. 131 eXpenses of conducting the eXperimental studies, however, the answers ranged from ten per cent to one hundred per cent. Only two systems reported that the grant-in-aid took care of all extra expenses of carrying on the eXperi- mental project or projects. Seven out of the nineteen schools reporting indicated that the grants-in-aid took care of about fifty per cent of the costs. The tabulation of these is Shown in Table III. The total answers are brief enough to be included in their entirety, however. 1. Since the arrangement with the foundation was that the district and the foundation would participate on a matching basis, the grant meant approximately one-half of the expense of the project. 2. Far less than half. Architectural changes and modifications, including a lecture hall built into the new school, exceeded Fund support which went entirely to staff. 3. The grant provided very little help to the teachers for extra work required but did help considerably in getting outside con- sultants and statistical help. u. The grant assisted in planning a teachers' workshop and some architectural assistance. 5. Almost entirely. 6. 100% 7. 90/5 8. We were satisfied with the extent to which the grant took care of additional eXpenses in carrying out the program. 9. Not enough money was requested to insure the use of professional equipment. It was not anticipated that answering mail from 10. 11. 12. 13. 1h. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 132 other schools concerning the project would be so time-consuming. Other than these items, the amount requested was about the amount needed. The grant provided for the services of para- professionals, for the acquisition of certain equipment and materials such as overhead pro- jectors for large Size classes, and for con- sultative services by university staff. The grant provided for about 50p of the costs of the project. Exact costs are unknown Since the district modified classrooms as well as program and personnel. The district in the future will ask for more funds as it was felt that the need of a full time research person was necessary to carry out this many studies. This was one of the points stressed in our original evaluation. This is very hard to answer. From reading over the files, I would suggest that only a very small portion of the total expenses was covered. however, if you are referring to expenses which in reality were over and above normal Operating costs for the students involved, perhaps a reasonable estimate would be between 50 and 75 per cent. The total expense was ,12,875.00 The difference was obtained from the State. (The grant was for Pf5,800000)0 About one-half. 100% Approximately one-tenth 25% The grant paid for all personnel costs of those actually directing the project, secre- tarial help, and expendable supplies. About 75% of the total cost. The foundation took care of all the extra eXpenses except for the time the adminis- trative peOple eXpended on the project. 133 Table III.--Respondents' estimates of the extent to which grants—in-aid took care of total additional eXpenseS of conducting eXperimental projects Schools 10% 25% 50$ 75g 905 100% Other Replies 00000X 00.00000000X 0000000000000... (or 1838) 00.000.00.000... X X ................ X X X >4 000.000.000.000. 00.0000000000000000000000000000000000000 M70u1d aSk for more HEQWJMUOUJP J ........................................ more needed K ........................................ not enough L000000000000000000000 X M ........................... X N ........................................ satisfied 0 ........................................ almost entirely P ........................................ assisted Q ........................................ almost all R0000000000000000000000000000000000 X S 000000000000000000000000000000000. X The participating schools received p7hl,2h2.3h of the Sl,330,821.h2 allocated to the NASSP Commission, repre- senting seventy-two per cent of the total. The balance was 18 Spent for administrative and promotional activities. 18Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (Washington, D. C.: the Association, January 1961), p. 278. 13A Three other items are noted: (1) In some instances supplementary grants were made to school systems when a Special request was made for additional funds;19(2) the schools were expected to return unspent portions of the 20 and (3) the grants at the end of each fiscal year; Commission Operated within a fairly tight budget, actually showing a deficit in its accounts in two of the four years.21 V. SUPPORTING GENCIES It was mentioned earlier that the NASSP staff utilization studies grew out of a concern over the teacher shortage in the secondary schools of the United States and out of efforts of the NASSP Curriculum Planning and Development Committee to assure quality instruction in the schools despite the shortage. The desire to maintain quality instruction or to improve instruction coincided with the interests of the Fund for the Advancement of Education. Thus, the major agencies involved in the NASSP staff utilization project were (1) The NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization 19Minutes of the NASSP Commission on the Experi- mental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School (February 22—2h, 1957). 20Ibid., (September 20-23, 1958). 2llbido’ (September 21-22, 1957). 135 of the staff in the Secondary School, (2) the Fund for the Advancement Of Education and the Ford Foundation, and (3) various local school systems. In the project, the NASSP Commission provided direction and leadership, the private foundations pro- vided the funds, and the local schools provided the experimental designs and the settings for carrying them out. This, it is believed, was a somewhat unique, cooperative effort to improve education. The major variable in the OOOperative effort was the financial support from the private foundations. As was noted earlier, this was the first such grant made by the Fund for the Advance- ment of Education to a national association. The investigator became aware early in this study that some individuals and groups have expressed concern over the influence of private foundations in American life. It was noted in Chapter II, for instance, that the federal government's House Small Business Committee has been in- vestigating the activities of private foundations for some time. As foundation grants to public education increased, the American Association of School Administrators looked into the relationships that should exist between the public schools and the foundations. Some college and university officials have eXpressed concern that their 136 institutions may become overly-dependent upon foundation money for research, that partially—supported research places heavy burdens on staff, or that the less important problems are being investigated. Although it was not the purpose of this study to make a critical analysis of foundation-supported research, an effort was made to determine to what extent the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation injected themselves into the NASSP staff utilization studies. The Commission director was asked to comment Specifically on this point, the minutes of the Commission meetings were reviewed, and the staff utilization schools were asked to indicate whether or not they would be willing to carry out similar studies under similar con- ditions. The Commission director is explicit in saying that the foundations interfered in no way with the selection of projects or with the activities of the Commission. A review of the minutes of the various meet- ings Of the Commission shows that a representative of the Fund for the Advancement of Education attended all meetings of the Commission and took an active part in the discussions. The investigator can find little evi- dence, however, to indicate that the Fund representative attempted to influence Commission policy. The same 137 minutes contain frequent references to the great help the Fund representative had been. The June 1956 minutes show that the Fund repre- sentative did eXpress Opinions within the general frame- work already adopted by the Commission: Lester Nelson indicated the very real interest which the Fund has in seeing projects started as soon as possible with the hope that there might be as many as eight to ten projects during the first year. He emphasized four desirable charac- teristics of projects: (1) the project should represent action rather than mere study of a problem; (2) there should be definite implications for meeting the problems of numbers, that is, more students with fewer teachers available; (3) each project should have a somewhat different approach of meeting the problem of teacher short- age; (h) projects should be locatgg in schools where able leadership is present. It will be remembered that nine projects were actually implemented the first year. It will be remembered, also, that Dr. Trump reported that the Fund only turned down one project during the life of the staff utilization studies. In 1957, the Fund for the Advancement of Education merged with the Ford Foundation. The Fund became the Educational Division of the Ford Foundation and Mr. Nelson, the Fund representative who attended the Commission meetings, became Executive Associate for the Ford Foundation. A statement in the September 1957 22Minutes of the NASSP Commission, 9p. cit., (June 22-2§, I956). 138 minutes reads: The Fund now becomes the Educational Division of the Ford Foundation. This change presages some very promising develOpments for experi- mentation. Experiments are likely to be more broadly based with the possibility of placing a more important role on curriculum improve- ment projects. These brief statements indicate that the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation inevitably had some influence on the NASSP staff utili- zation project. It is not demonstrable that this was more than a normal influence, however. The individual school systems had no direct relationships with the foundations other than an infre- quent visit from one of their representatives, usually engaged in gathering material for Ford Foundation publi- cations. The schools were well-aware, however, that the grants-in-aid came from the two foundations. One Of the questions on the open-end questionnaire asked if they would be willing to engage in a similar project again under similar conditions. Their answers are brief enough to be included here in their entirety. Seventeen of the Staff utilization schools responded to the question. All but one replied in the affirmative, some with qualifying remarks. 23Minutes of the NASSP Commission, op. cit., (September 21-22, 1957). 1. 3. 7. 10. 139 Yes, because I believe in the program and I'm sure others do also. We feel that this type of assistance is beneficial to the school system that wants to do something and may have only limited finances. Yes, if the conditions are as liberal as those for the study we carried out. If the grant had strings attached, definitely no. The answer would be no in any case unless the project appeared to be one that would help us to do a better job. Yes, if we are allowed to set up the experi- ment according to our own wishes and program. A negative reaction might come from peOple who feel that some areas of the curriculum receive preferential treatment. Yes, however this grant was made directly to the school, and we feel that it Should have been more closely administered through the central office. As far as we can determine, the conditions under which the grant was made and under which the project Operated were quite satisfactory. Yes, we are investigating the possibilities of receiving additional grants in aid now for experimental purposes. Grants in aid were not essential to the development of our program. Yes, our school system would be willing to accept another grant and feel that we would know more about the necessary time and energy to be eXpended in such studies. Yes, we are always interested in looking into the organizational, methodological, and instructional problems involved in the teaching-learning process. From what I can tell in the files, this grant was made with a minimum of restrictions, and the staff had considerable freedom in working through the study. If these conditions Obtained, we would be interested. 11. 12. lbO I Yes. The school district entered into this project only after extensive discussion both with the Ford Foundation, the staff of the NASSP, and with its own school staff. The school district felt it had a significant part--and commitment--in the design and working of the project. The school district adopted the idea that it was committed to excellence, that it would enter into the project only if it appeared to be compatible with our basic philosophy, and that if the project was successful, the district would then continue by itself. As a negative comment, the decision by the foundation to discontinue the project funding and to place its funds in other endeavors left the school district with a hardship initially. In earlier discussions and plan- ning prior to the end of the project period, the district had planned to go much deeper and make far larger changes in school staffing. That the school system would accept another grant is indicated by our submitting a follow-up proposal to the Foundation and our continuation and eXpansion of the project after the grant was exhausted. Yes, we are an experimental school and have currently $800,000 outside grants for research. We have a grant at the present time for experimental research in administration. We were pleased with the results of our study. Yes. It is better to choose problems than to have them come uninvited. Enthusiasm about teaching, the feeling that it is not a dead corporation, the inspiration that comes from attempts to solve old problems in new ways-~these effects are important. In addition to these comments, one simply answered "Yes", one said "Probably", and one, as is noted in the comments, seemed to feel that the grant-in-aid was not an essential part of the eXperimental project. 1141 VI. P RSISTnWOE TEHDZJCIES O? INNOVATIONS IN STAFF UTILIZATION SCEOOLS Two methods were used to determine if the inno- vations which were a part of the staff utilization studies persist in the participating schools. One, was through a question in the open—end questionnaire which asked the respondent to discuss the current status of the project. The other was through a simple counting of the innovations each of the schools checked on the checklist. The first method obtained answers relating to the specific project or projects each school carried out. The second method identified all the innovations from the staff utili- zation studies which a staff utilization school is using regardless of whether the innovations were a part of the school's eXperimental design or not. Although it would be possible to relate each school's responses to the checklist to the actual innovations with which each school eXperimented, this was not the major purpose of the checklist or of the study. As was noted earlier, the NASSP Commission found some evidence that the staff utilization schools were experimenting with innovations which had been tried in other staff utilization schools. If so, this would be reflected in the checklist results. Responses to the question on the open—end questionnaire were obtained from twenty-four of the 1112 thirty-two staff utilization schools surveyed in the study. The projects themselves do not fall neatly into categories, and the answers are brief enough to be excerpted and included in this report. If the major emphasis of each project is extracted, however, it is seen that q in team teaching, C. eleven of the projects are continuin seven in the Specific use of mechanical or electronic equipment, seven in the use of various kinds of lay assistants, and three in the increased use of independent study time. Six of the projects have been terminated, three in team teaching, two in the use of mechanical or electronic equipment, and one in independent study time. In nearly all instances, the project does not mean a single application of an innovation. For instance, a school may indicate that team teaching continues, and this may mean that there are several teams at work in different subject areas. The projects add up to more than twenty-four because some schools had conducted multiple projects. Excerpts from the various responses are shown below with accompanying eXplanatory remarks. The answers indicate that in the great majority of instances the general organizational patterns which were used in the staff utilization studies are being continued and that many of these have been expanded to cover larger units within the school or school system. The answers 1‘43 6 indicate, too, that some of the innovative practices have been modified and that some have been terminated. The remarks not preceded by an arabic numeral are those of the investigator. 1. We use the basic structure of the project. This was a project in which interested science students were given additional time for study outside of regular class hours, working under the supervision of college science students and lay personnel from the community. The respondent indicates that it is best to use regular staff members for this and that Saturday mornings and one evening a week are better than immediately after school. Among the college students, those who were training to be teachers were thought to be more effective. All five projects have been adOpted and have become regular organizational forms. All five projects sought to improve instruc- tion by increasing the students' reSponsi- bility for their own learning through more independent study time. The projects were in the areas of French, biology, chemistry, advanced science, and school and college articulation. We continue to investigate the problem of flexible scheduling, block time assignments, and the use of groups of teachers to work with groups of students. I do not know if we are much further ahead than we were in 1960--but we are continuing this work. This was a project in team teaching using subject matter specialists, related staff Specialists, student teachers, eacher assistants, and clerical workers to provide instruction for large groups of students. 1M The program was terminated three years ago. It had to be terminated due to a lack of facilities for combining class sections. These were experiments in team teaching and large group instruction. Within a year after the project was in the stage of experimentation we purchased thirty-five language laboratories and the language laboratory has become a standard part of our instruction. Kany chemistry teachers still use assistants, but this is not common in all classes. It is not something that is done regularly but according to teacher preferences. Capable and interested seniors were used as assistants in junior chemistry classes. Since the project some eight or nine years ago the pattern of teaching teams has been adOpted as a part of the on-going structure of the school system. At the present time some form of teaching team is in operation in many of the secondary schools; however, in most instances the majority of schools have only one or two teams in Operation. 0n the other hand, two schools have twelve or more teams each in Operation. The number and extent of team teaching activities in a given school can be based upon the interest of the principal and the faculty. The school official suggests that about twenty per cent of the staff is about the maximum number of teachers who could operate efficiently in a team teaching situation without drastic revision of course Offerings and curriculums. The spelling project of teaching through the public address system by tape was con- tinued several years. It is not being used at the present time largely because Of the introduction Of a new reading program that includes a spelling program. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. ILLS In one junior high school tapes are being used quite extensively in teaching both seventh and eigth grade Spanish. The basic design of the project has been continued and has spread throughout the district. All senior high schools in the district have one or more teams. New school buildings reflect the project in the design of facilities. Para-professional help has continued to be provided in the secondary schools. All junior high schools since 1961 have been built with Special facilities for team teaching and staff utilization. We still use team teachi-g. We went to three teachers and are now back to two. We have expanded it into American history; using a master teacher on our staff along with a new staff member plus two student teachers. The organizational form is essentially the same as set up in the first place. We are not doing the projects as they existed in this particular study. However, we are doing most of the things that the projects develop. For example, we started a team teaching program under this project in American history and American literature but we have changed from a fused program to a team approach in the separate subject matter areas. We did one program in teaching shorthand by means of tapes exclusively. We have as a result found a great deal of use for our language laboratory and have later established a shorthand laboratory where we use tapes quite extensively. I am sure this is an outgrowth of the project even though it is not conducted according to the pattern of the project. The program in teaching Italian by means of tapes is not being followed at the present time, but we feel perfectly secure in going into this method of instruction at any time it is necessary to do so. 15. lb. 17. 18. 19. 20. um This year, we have twenty-five different team teaching projects in nine departments involving sixty-seven teachers and 2,h73 students. This school has also gone on to develop numerous other related eXperimental inno- vations, using team teaching and electronic and mechanical equipment. We do have language laboratories in full use, and I am certain that the work we did and the discoveries that we made have been conducive to improved effectiveness in the use of language laboratories. Team teaching continues with some success but many problems. The internship program has been drOpped because of financial inability to lighten the load and teachers resent this additional assignment. This school carried out projects on teacher internships, large group instruction, the use of teacher aides, and the language laboratory. The organizational structure is still basically the same. The original plan was with history and lnglish. It is now used for geography without the English. Two geography teachers teach with classes scheduled at the same time and then teach in both large and small group situations. We continue to use lay readers extensively. At the present time, all English in the high school is taught with the help of lay readers except in a very few remedial classes. Lay readers are now used in the junior high school. I am not now using the Target Plan of teaching because of inadequate Space. The teacher writes that she still believes the Target Plan is superior to the tradi- tional plan of teaching. 21. 22. 23. 2h. 1147 We are still doing all of these projects with the exception of the large classes of typing, shorthand, and general business. If we had the proper building facilities, we would continue to have the large typing classes, but we felt that results were unsatisfactory in shorthand and general business. The school experimented with team teaching in English, with a plan to give superior students two years of French in one year, with the use of lay readers in English, the use of teacher aides, and the use of language laboratories. While this project seemed to show some real promise, it was not continued after the eXperiment period, partially because of the difficulty of scheduling and find- ing teachers that would be interested in continuing the practice. This was a team teaching project. Latin students were scheduled consecutively with their Lnglish class and were taught by the English teacher and the Latin teacher work- ing as a team. The project was abandoned after one year largely because of difficulties of scheduling and instruction involved. This was an eXperiment in large group instruction with a two-teacher team. These assistants worked so effectively that all of our high school libraries have continued to use them as a standard practice. The school system used lay personnel as school library assistants. Team teaching in world affairs, which we now call current history, was abandoned. Students taught in large classes showed no particular gains over those taught conventionally. lh8 26. The use of student aides has been adopted in the teaching of remedial mathematics by one of our math teachers and is operating very successfully, but it is not practiced widely. 27. We are still using lay supervisors for study halls as a common practice. In general, it has been successful. 28. Although the team approach to math did not reveal any significant differences in achievement, there were many positive aspects of the team approach in terms of Speciali- zation of teachers working within a large group and even working with individuals within a large group. The team approach has eXpanded into other subject matter areas and is being used very extensively throughout our district in such areas as science, fine arts appreciation, English, American history, and a work eXperience program for the potential drOpout. 29. The major result of the eXperimental project has been a complete reorganization of our group guidance program. The reorganized program consists of large group convocations, small group discussions, and the continued use of tape recordings. 30. The program is in its fourth year and has been accepted as a permanent form of organization. This was a project in team teaching and in flexible scheduling. These comments indicate that in the majority of cases the eXperimental innovations have carried over into later years and have often become part of the regular organization of the schools. The reports indi- cate, too, that school officials have sometimes made modifications in the original designs and have dropped lh9 some innovations which for various reasons they did not choose to continue. Side Effects Another item in the open-end questionnaire asked about the side effects resulting from eXperimentation. Seventeen of the staff utilization schools responded to the question. Only two of the seventeen respondents claimed that there were no side effects. Those listed by the other respondents fall into three major categories: (1) a greater awareness on the part of staff of the values in eXperimentation and a greater willingness to eXperiment; (2) the adoption by the school system of new methods of instruction, new organizational patterns, and new adminis- trative patterns; and (3) the greater use by the school system of teacher aides and of mechanical and electronic equipment. Several of the respondents mentioned a new emphasis on eXperimentation as an important side effect. This may explain, at least in part, why staff utilization schools which had carried out only a few innovative practices as part of the NASSP staff utilization project have since gone on to develOp other innovations similar to those found in the eXperimental designs of the total of the staff utilization schools. That this has happened is indicated by the data obtained from the checklist. 150 A checklist containing a list of sixty-one innova- tions in instruction was sent to the thirty-two staff uti- lization school systems and to forty other school systems. Although twenty-four of the staff utilization schools re- Sponded to the investigator's request for information, only seventeen completed the checklist in sufficient detail to be used in the comparative analysis. Thirty-four of the forty other school systems responded. The fact that the comparisons are made on the basis of exactly twice as many other schools as there are staff utilization schools is simply a coincidence. The innovations contained in the checklist were identified in the literature as having been a part of the experimental designs of the staff utilization schools. The hypothesis was that the staff utilization schools would contain more of these innovations in their current organi- zational structures than would other schools which had not taken part in the staff utilization studies and which had not received grants-in-aid for eXperimental purposes. The staff utilization studies had been widely publicized. Thus, no major effort was made to equate the two sets of school systems other than by size and location. In general, however, all of the school systems are believed to be reasonably representative of school systems throughout the 151 United States. Table IV is a simple listing by item of the inno- vative practices found in the two sets of school systems. The seventeen staff utilization schools checked the inno- vations a total of 262 times, an average of 15.h1 innova- tions per school system. This represents 25.27 per cent of the total number of checks that could have been made if each school system had checked all sixty-one items. The thirty-four other school systems checked the innovations a total of 220 times, an average of only 6.h7 innovations per school system, or 10.61 per cent of the total number of checks that could have been made. On the basis of simple enumeration, then, the staff utilization schools are using the innovations more than twice as often than are the schools with which they were compared. Table IV shows that five of the innovations, items 11, 18, 21, 26, and us, are found in none of the school systems. These include an innovation in which school bus drivers were used as assistants in the driver education program--not permissible in some states--, the fusion of English and Latin classes, the use of the Navy Target Plan of teaching, the teaching of Italian by a teacher with no formal training in the language through the use of tape recordings, and unusually large classes in shorthand taught by a regular teacher and a non—certificated aide. 152 Ten of the innovations, items A, 36, h6, h8, 50, SS, 56, S7, 58, and 59, were checked a total of twenty—three times by the staff utilization schools but were not checked at all by the other schools. I When the procedure is reversed, there are only two innovations, items 13 and 3h, checked by the other school systems but not by the staff utilization schools. hach of these was checked but once. Item 13 relates to school financed scholarships for prOSpective teachers, and item 3h relates to team teaching in economics. Percentage-wise, the two sets of school systems checked only one innovation the same number of times. Item 30 was checked once by a staff utilization school and twice by other schools. The innovation relates to the use of talented high school science students as aides in the junior high school science program. Five of the innovations were checked more often by the other schools than they were by the staff utilization schools, items 13, 1h, 16, 3h, and S2. The difference is significant in only two of the items, items 16 and 52. The first of these relates to the use of the Science Research Associates Developmental Reading Kit and the second to a core program at the junior high school level. In contrast, fifty-one of the innovations, percentage—wise, were checked more often by the staff utilization schools. 153 Table IV.--Number of selected innovations in organization for instruction checked by fifty-one school systems Seventeen Staff Thirty-Four Other Utilization Schools Schools Item Times Checked % Times Checked % 1 5 29.41 h 11.76 2 3 17.65 3 8.83 3 2 11.76 2 5.88 h A 23.52 0 0.00 5 2 11.76 1 2-9h 6 u 23. 52 3 8.83 7 6 35. 29 3 8.83 8 10 58. 82 5 lu.71 9 9 52. 9h 5 1%.71 10 3 17 65 3 .83 11 0 0. 00 0 0.00 12 2 11.76 2 5.88 13 0 0.00 1 2.94 14 6 35.29 13 38.24 15 3 17.65 4 11.76 16 S 29.n1 1h hl.18 1? 6 35.29 6 17.65 18 O 0.00 0 0.00 19 17 100.00 2h 70.59 20 5 29-41 2 5.88 21 0 0.00 O 0.00 22 7 h1.18 7 20.59 23 u 23.52 3 8.83 2h 12 70.59 14 h1.18 25 h 23.52 3 8.83 26 0 0.00 0 0.00 27 6 35.29 4 11.76 28 7 u1.17 6 17.65 29 3 17. 65 1 2.9 30 1 5. 88 2 5.8 31 9 52. 9h 15 hh.12 32 S 29.n1 a 11.76 33 6 35.29 A 11.76 3h 0 0.00 1 2.9M 35 3 17.65 1 2.94 Table IV.--Continued 154 Seventeen Staff Thirty-Four Other Utilization Schools Schools Item. Times Checked % Times Checked % 36 1 5.88 0 0.00 3 10 58.82 1 2.94 3 7 41.18 6 17.65 39 7 41.18 11 32.35 40 6 35.29 3 8.83 41 3 17.65 1 2.94 43 5 29.41 2 5.88 44 3 17.65 1 2.94 45 0 0.00 0 0.00 46 7 41.18 0 0.00 47 9 52.94 7 120.59 48 3 17.65 0 0.00 49 S 29.%1 3 8.83 50 1 5. 8 0 0.00 51 5 29.41 5 14.71 52 3 17.65 8 23.52 53 1 5.88 1 2.94 54 2 11.76 1 2.94 55 2 11.76 0 0.00 56 2 11.76 0 0.00 57 1 5.88 O 0.00 58 1 5.88 0 0.00 59 l 5.88 0 0.00 60 6 35.29 4 11.76 61 3 17.65 1 2.94 Totals 262 25.27 220 10.61 Note: The item numbers refer to the items in the checklist. 155 Table V shows the number of innovations checked by each of the school systems responding to the checklist. Among the staff utilization schools the mean is 15.41 and the median is 13. Among the non-staff utilization schools the mean is 6.47 and the median is 5.5. Only four of the non-staff utilization schools equal or surpass the average number of innovations checked by the staff utili- zation schools. The various school systems were also asked to indicate if the innovations they checked were established forms of organization throughout the school system, established forms in some schools but not all, still in the experimental or pilot stage, or if the innovations had been tried and rejected. Ten of the staff utilization schools made these indications and twenty-eight of the non-staff utilization schools made these indications. The sample from the staff utilization schools is low. These ten schools had checked 180 items, however, representing sixty-eight per cent of all innovations checked by the seventeen staff utilization schools. The twenty-eight non-staff utilization schools had checked 189 items, representing eighty-six per cent of all the innovations checked by the thirty-four non-staff utili- zation schools used in the study. The results are shown in Table VI. 0n the basis of the limited sample secured, the data show that although 156 Table V.--Number of innovative practices checked by each school system Staff Utilization Non-Staff Utilization Schools Schools School No. of Innovations School No. of Innovations l 5 1 0 2 7 2 1 3 7 3 1 4 7 4 2 S 7 5 2 6 8 6 3 7 10 7 3 8 12 8 3 9 13 9 3 10 14 10 3 ll 14 ll 3 12 14 12 3 13 l9 13 3 14 21 14 LL 15 27 15 5 16 38 16 5 17 39 17 5 18 6 19 6 Total 262 20 6 21 7 22 7 SE: 3 25 8 26 8 27 8 28 9 29 10 30 11 31 13 32 15 33 21 34 22 Total 220 157 the schools which did not take part in the staff utili- zation studies are using far fewer of the innovations, they appear to have moved further toward total acceptance of the ones they are utilizing than have the staff utili- zation schools. Table VI shows that twenty-eight per cent of the innovations checked by the staff utilization schools are a regular form of organization throughout the school system. This contrasts with a forty per cent figure for the non-staff utilization schools. Both sets of schools show about the same percentage of innovations which are I"38111ar forms of organization in some schools in the System but not in all, forty-eight per cent for the staff utilization schools and forty-five per cent for the other schools. The staff utilization schools indicate that twenty—four per cent of the innovations checked are still in experimental or pilot stages. The non-staff utilization S‘choOls indicate that fifteen per cent are in this cate- gory, The staff utilization schools have rejected four of the innovations, and the other schools have rejected Six of the innovations. The figures used thus far are in general composite figures for the two sets of schools. Table VII, however, shows the utilization of the various innovations by categories in each of the two sets of school sEV'SN‘MEams. Some of the items are listed in more than one 158 momproopom esp SH ompsaocfi poze mooa owa &OOH owH *6 in: empoommm 38 82a ma. em +m m: mmspm 63$ .8 aspCeEHpemxm SH Ade poo poo m: mm m: 3m mHoosom 080m unscapmufiqwmmo mo Show asHSme acumen Hoonom 0: mp mm om 5H soapeuficewpo ho Show adasmor R macapw>ooflH mo .02 & mzoapwboqu mo .02 mHoonom mnoape>ocoH 533336 339.82 filmwouspaog 308% 833336 ensue 63. no 2:33 Hana mo msaop Cw mEopmhm Hoonom moapwufiaaps Hwfippwm no oopooaom hp poxooso mcoapsboflsa Ho mopepm||.H> panda 159 category. The tabulations show that 20.59 per cent of the staff utilization schools checked innovations relating to the use of instructional assistants. This contrasts with 10.08 per cent of the non-staff utilization schools. Innovations relating to team teaching were checked by 18.49 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 5.46 per cent of the other schools. The use of mechanical and electronic equipment items were checked by 25.80 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 15.61 per cent of the other schools. Items relating to the provision of more independent study time for students were checked by 37.81 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 11.34 per cent of the other schools. Items relating to large-group instruction were checked by 26.84 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 8.27 per cent of the other schools. There were three miscellaneous items checked by 7.84 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 8.82 per cent of the other schools. The percentage differences between the two sets of school systems are relatively constant except for the three miscellaneous items and in items relating to the provision of more independent study time for students and items re- lating to large group instruction. In the other categories 160 the differences are around ten and thirteen per cent. In the two categories mentioned, the differences are twenty-six and eighteen per cent, respectively. The non-staff utilization schools show a higher use of the miscellaneous innovations. These were checked by 8.82 per cent of these schools and by 7.84 per cent of the staff utilization schools. All of the schools which received the checklist were asked to list other innovations in instruction in their systems not found in the sixty-one item checklist. Eight of the seventeen staff utilization schools which responded to the checklist listed no additional innova- tions. The other nine school systems listed a total of forty-four. Seventeen of the thirty-four other school systems listed no other innovations. The other seventeen listed a total of forty-five. Percentage-wise, the results are comparable to the results obtained from.the two sets of school systems on the checklist. The addi- tional innovations, summarized, are shown in the Appendix. It was thought that one other question might be significant. It will be remembered that the NASSP staff utilization studies were formulated because of the teacher shortage at the secondary level. The NASSP was not necessarily promoting lower student-teacher ratios although in the early stages of planning this was a goal of both 161 Table VII.--Innovations in organization for instruction in selected school systems by categories Specific Use of Mechanical and Electronic Equipment in the Instructional Process Items in the Seventeen Staff Uti- Thirty-four Other Checklist lization Schools Schools Items Times Checked % Times Checked % l 5 29.41 4 11.76 2 3 17.65 3 8.83 3 2 11.76 2 5.88 12 2 11.76 2 5.88 15 3 17.65 4 11.76 16 5 29.41 14 41.18 19 17 100.00 24 70.59 24 12 70.59 14 41.18 26 0 0.00 0 0.00 29 3 17.65 1 2.94 58 1 5.88 O 0.00 7 59 1 5.88 0 0.00 61 3 17.65 1 2.94 13 57 25.80 69 15.61 Related to the Provision of More Independent Study Time for Students 22 7 41.18 7 20.59 23 4 23.52 3 8.83 38 7 41.18 6 17.65 42 9 52.94 5 14.71 43 5 29.41 2 5.88 46 7 41.18 0 0.00 60 6 35.29 4 11.76 7 45 37.81 27 11.34 162 Table VII.--Continued Innovations Related to the Use of Instructional Assistants Items in the Seventeen Staff Uti- Thirty-four Other Checklist lization Schools Schools Items Times Checked % Times Checked % 4 4 23.52 0 0.00 11 0 0.00 0 0.00 14 6 35.29 13 38.24 17 6 35.29 6 17.65 20 5 29.41 2 5.88 30 1 5. 8 2 5.88 31 9 52.94 15 44-12 44 3 17.65 1 2.94 45 O 0.00 0 0.00 47 9 52.9 7 20.59 50 1 5.8 0 0.00 53 1 5.88 1 2.94 54 2 11.76 1 2.94 55 2 11.76 0 0.00 14 49 20.59 48 10.08 Innovations Related to Team.Teaching 5 2 11.76 1 2.94 6 4 23.52 3 8.83 18 0 0.00 0 0.00 25 4 23.52 3 8.83 32 5 29.41 4 11.76 33 6 35.29 4 11.76 34 0 0.00 l 2.94 35 3 17.65 1 2.94 40 6 35.29 3 8.83 41 3 17.65 1 2.94 48 3 17.65 0 0.00 51 5 29.41 S 14.71 56 2 11.76 0 0.00 57 1 5.88 o 0.00 14 44 18.49 26 5.46 163 Table VII.--Continued Projects Related to Large Group Instruction Items in the Seventeen Staff Uti- Thirty-four Other Checklist lization Schools Schools Items Times Checked % Times Checked % 7 6 35.29 3 8.83 8 10 58.82 5 14.71 9 9 52.94 5 .71 10 3 17.65 3 .83 21 0 0.00 0 0.00 27 6 35.29 4 11.76 28 7 41.17 6 17.65 37 10 58.82 1 2.94 39 7 41.18 11 32.35 44 3 17.65 1 2.94 45 O 0.00 0 0.00 50 1 5.88 0 0.00 53 1 5.88 1 2.94 54 2 11.76 1 2.94 55 2 11.76 0 ’ 0.00 60 6 35.29 4 11.76 15 73 26-84 45 8.27 Miscellaneous Projects 13 0 0.00 l 2.94 36 1 5.88 O 0.00 3 4 7.84 9 8.82 Note: Some items are listed under more than one category. The percentage figures are the per cent of each of the two sets of school systems checking the innova- tion. 164 the NASSP Commission and the Fund for the Advancement of Education. The major emphasis was on maintaining the quality of instruction in the secondary schools despite the shortage of teachers. I It was decided, however, to ask the various school systems responding to the checklist to indicate their pupil-teacher ratios. It was thought that the staff uti- lization schools might show a significantly higher ratio as a result of participation in the staff utilization studies. 'Uncontrolled variables attending such a question prohibit making generalizations about the results. Table VIII shows that the ratios are roughly comparable in the two sets of school systems. Most Popular Innovations The most popular innovations among the two sets of school systems are shown in Table IX. The ones shown are based on their being checked by more than thirty per cent of the school systems. The most popular innovation by far is the use of the language laboratory. Although re- search fails to substantiate that the language laboratory produces any significant increase in student achievement other than in speech production, all of the staff utili- station schools and 70.59 per cent of the non—staff 2Ll-Institute of Administrative Research, Research E31llletin (New York: Teachers College, Columbia'U., May 1963). 165 Table VIII.--Pupil-teacher ratios in forty-five school systems--secondary level Ratios of Fifteen Staff Ratios of Thirty Non-Staff Utilization Schools Utilization Schools (Lab. School) 17.0 18.5 18.9 19.0 20.0 (Lab. School) 20.0 20.0 20.0 NNNOQNO‘ c OOOOOOO‘OOCDOOOOH I—‘NO‘O‘U’I o O O 818818-381 nun mm 0 O O wooqoooomwoo NMN O‘O‘O‘ o o 28.0 166 utilization schools responding to the checklist indicated that language laboratories were being used. Thus, if this percentage among the non-staff utilization schools is roughly comparable to other school systems throughout the United States, the language laboratory is no longer thought of as an innovation in instruction. The second most popular innovation among the staff utilization schools was the use of tape recordings in shorthand classes, permitting individual students to take practice dictation at their own rates of speed and at times other than the regular class periods. The non-staff ‘utilization schools also indicated that this innovation was in wide use with 41.18 per cent of the schools check- ing that item. The percentage for the staff utilization schools was 70.59. g A third item which was found to be pepular in both sets of school systems was the assignment of office prac- tice students as clerical assistants to various teachers in the school. This innovation was checked by 52.94 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 44.12 per cent of the other schools. A fourth popular innovation in the two sets of school systems is the training and.use of lay personnel as school library assistants. The percentage figures are 35.29 for the staff utilization schools and 38.24 per cent for the non-staff utilization schools. 167 A fifth pepular innovation is a group guidance pro- gram in the senior high schools consisting of the use of tape recordings, counselor-developed convocations, and a series of homeroom activities. This program is in lieu of regularly-scheduled group guidance classes. The innovation was checked by 41.18 per cent of the staff utilization schools and by 32.35 per cent of the non-staff utilization schools. Another innovation found to be in wide use among the non-staff utilization schools is the use of the Science Research Associates DevelOpmental Reading Kit to teach remedial reading by teachers with no formal training in the field. The innovation was checked by 41.18 per cent of the non-staff utilization schools but by only 29.41 per cent of the staff utilization schools. Other pepular innovations, checked by more than thirty per cent of the staff utilization schools are shown below. The innovations already referred to were the only ones checked by thirty per cent or more of the non-staff utilization schools. 1. Team teaching in United States history, including la'ge and small group instruction. 2. The assignment of selected teachers to prepare and present lectures to large groups of students in selected subject areas 0 3. Team teaching in English and social studies. 4. 6. 7. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 168 Seniors not assigned to study halls but permitted to engage in independent study of their choice. The use of lay readers in the teaching of English. Special science courses offered during the summer in which students work in areas of special interest. The use of a planned lecture series in health classes in which the lecturer addresses all students at one time. The formation of advanced classes in science in which students submit preposed outlines of study and work independently, meeting in seminar groups with the instructor periodically. Talented foreign language students permitted to do three years of French in two years. Team teaching in science. The use of lay personnel as study hall supervisors. Team teaching in senior English. Team teaching in American history with students assigned to low, medium, and high performance groups. Team teaching in English with two classes scheduled back to back and the teachers working as a team. An organizational structure which permits large group instruction, small group instruction and discussion, and increased independent study time for students. The innovations as shown are abbreviated versions of more total concepts and indicate only the general nature of the innovations. The schools had been asked to check those that were in like or similar form. 169 Table IX.--Most popular innovations in selected school systems based on items checked in the checklist Staff Utilization Schools (17) Non-Staff'Utilization Schools (34) Item. Times Checked % Times Checked % 19 17 100.00 24 70.59 2% 12 70.59 14 41.18 10 58.82 -- -- ~- 37 10 58.82 -- -- -- 9 9 52.94 -- -- -- 31 9 52.94 15 44.12 42 9 52.94 -~ -- -- 47 9 52.9 -- -- ~- 22 7 41.1 -- -- -- 28 7 41.18 -- -- -- 38 7 41.18 -- -- -_ 39 7 41.18 11 32.25 46 7 41.18 -- —- -- 16 - -- -- 14 ' 41.18 7 6 35.29 -- -- -- 14 6 35.29 13 38.24 17 6 35.29 -- -- -- 27 6 35.29 -- -- -- 33 6 35029 "" "" '- 40 6 35.29 -- -- -- 60 6 35029 "- " "" Note: The table is based on items checked by thirty per cent or more of one or the other of the two sets of school systems. 170 VII. GENERAL SUMMARY The data collected for analysis in this study included that found in various primary documents of the NASSP Commission on the EXperimental Study of the Utili- zation of the Staff in the Secondary School, that provided by the director of the NASSP Commission, and that found in the respondents' replies to two research instruments, an Open-end questionnaire and a checklist. As was noted earlier in this study, the grants in aid by the Fund for the Advancement of Education and the Ford Foundation to the National Association of Secondary School Principals were the first made by the Foundations to a national association. The staff utilization studies were unique in the sense that they combined the COOpera- tive efforts of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, the Fund for the Advancement of Educa- tion, and various local school systems to effect change in instructional method. As noted in the review of literature, the NASSP Commission was inclined to believe that the staff utili- zation schools had adOpted many of the innovative prac- tices with which they had eXperimented, that they had gone on to experiment with other innovations in better utilization of the staff, and that many of these inno- vations had captured the interest and the imagination 171 of other school officials throughout the United States. The major purpose of this study was to determine if the staff utilization schools actually had retained the basic elements of the innovations with which they had experimented, if they had adepted additional innovative practices in whole or in part, and if the staff utili- zation schools would actually be found to be utilizing more of these innovations that a representative number of other school systems which had not taken part in the staff utilization project. Because the staff utilization project in itself was a unique venture in efforts to create change in the instructional processes in the secondary schools, however, several other research directed questions were posed. Factors Relating 33 Implementation 2f the Project The review of the literature and information pro- vided by the director of the NASSP Commission indicate that the interests of the NASSP, the Fund for the Advance- ment of Education, and persons involved in curriculum studies in Illinois coincided. Each was concerned over the teacher shortage at the secondary level and each was concerned that the quality of secondary school in- struction would not be maintained. This mutual concern was eXplored by representatives of the groups mentioned 172 and with various school principals and superintendents. These discussions led to financial support from the Fund, the appointment of the NASSP Commission to supervise the project, and to the implementation of the initial studies in nine school systems. Subsequently, all secondary schools in the United States were invited to submit proposals for experimenta- tion in better utilization of staff. The prOposals were expected to meet criteria adepted by the NASSP Commission. Supervision and control of the various projects was left almost entirely in the hands of local school officials. They were expected to develOp adequate evalu- ation procedures--what these should be in general terms was indicated by the Commission--and grants in aid had to be renewed each year. Thus, the Commission retained some control over the projects. At first there was much con- cern by the Commission that evaluative criteria indicate pupil achievement, the greater professional use of teachers' time and talents, and perhaps financial savings. This was soon modified, and the professional judgments of persons involved in the projects became an important aspect of the evaluations. After some reluctance to publicize the studies until the profession itself became better acquainted with the staff utilization project, major efforts were made 173 to publicize the studies and the results, including the publication of reports from the various schools in the 1958, 1959, 1960, and 1961 January issues of the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, the publication of four booklets, the development of a film and a filmstrip, and demonstrations at the NASSP conventions. In addition, the Ford Foundation referred to the studies in its publications, participating schools were expected to act as demonstration centers, and local participating schools provided releases to local communication media. The school officials in the participating schools indicate that the grants-in-aid rarely took care of all additional expenses of conducting the eXperimental studies. The average is shown as about fifty per cent of the actual additional costs with a range of from ten per cent to one hundred. Foundation-Supported Research A review of the literature shows that there is some concern over the power and influence of private foundations in American society. This study has failed to reveal that the supporting agencies interfered in any significant way with the activities of the NASSP Commission or with the carrying out of the various projects in local schools. The Fund is reported to have turned down but one project sub- mitted to it by the NASSP Commission in the four years 174 the studies were conducted. Some school officials did indicate that termination of the staff utilization pro- ject and the subsequent loss of financial aid resulted in some hardships in the school systems involved. There was almost unanimous agreement among the reSpondents from the staff utilization schools that their schools would be willing to participate in a similar project under similar conditions again, particularly if the project were related to school interests and needs. Reports show that the local schools actually received seventy—two per cent of all funds made available to the NASSP Commission. The balance was used for super- vision, administration, and publicity purposes. Persistence Tendencies of the Innovations The Open-end questionnaire and the checklist pro- vided a double check on the persistence tendencies of the innovations in the staff utilization schools. The inves- tigator obtained information from twenty-four of the staff utilization schools. Seventeen respondents indicate that the innovative practices are continuing in their school systems. Seven indicate that the innovative prac- tices have been terminated. Not all of these latter, how— ever, indicate that the innovations were impractical or of no value. Some list lack of facilities, lack of teacher 17S interest, adoption of another means of instruction, or no need to continue the innovations as reasons for their termination. Seventeen of the staff utilization schools com- pleted the checklist. Of sixty-one innovations listed, only six were not checked by at least one respondent. The seventeen school systems checked the various innovations a total of 262 times, an average of lS.hl innovations per school system. The range is from five of the innovations in one school system to thirty-nine in another with a median of thirteen. When these figures are contrasted with those from the non staff utilization schools, it is clear that the staff utilization schools are using far more of the sixty-one innovative practices than the other schools. Thirty-four other school systems failed to check fifteen of the innovations even once. They checked the various innovations a total of 220 times, an average of s.u7 per school system. The range is from zero innovations in one school system to twenty-two in another with a median of 5.5. Only four of the thirty-four school systems checked the innovations more times than the median of the staff utilization schools. The study does not show that major problems were encountered in carrying out the staff utilization studies. 176 Several problems of a relatively minor nature are noted, however. These include the problems encountered by both the KASSP Commission and the local schools in evaluating just what had taken place. In general, it was not too difficult to gather statistical evidence of student achieve- ment under innovative practices. It was often extremely difficult to control variables. Eany of the studies showed that the students did as well under innovative practices as they did under conventional practices. This failed to show that the eXperimental variable had any significant effect one way or another on student achievement. One of the most important items in the evaluations was found to consist of the human factor, and this was not always considered in the evaluative criteria. When it was, there was only a subjective analysis, based usually on whether or not the students and teachers approved of the innovative device. d 1.40 It was shown earlier that the grants in aid d not, generally, take care of all the additional eXpenses of carrying on the experimental studies. Many schools had failed to consider the structural changes that might be required in order to implement the projects. Many of the schools had not realized the extra burden experimentation would place on the instructional staff and on administra- tive personnel. 177 Finally, some respondents felt that the project was terminated too soon and that the subsequent loss of financial aid placed a burden on the school system or restricted plans which had been made for continued eXperimentation. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, HECOMHEELATIONS, AKD SJCGSSTIOHS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. INTRODUCTION This dissertation is concerned with the persistence tendencies of innovations in instruction introduced into public schoolsystems which participated in the National Association of Secondary School Principals' foundation- supported project in the better utilization of profes- sional staff in the secondary schools. It traces the history of the NASSP staff utiliza- tion project from its inception in 1956 to its termination in 1960, establishes the persistence tendencies of the innovations which were developed as part of the project, and analyzes the factors which accompanied the foundation- supported research. The study also compares the staff utilization schools with a representative number of other schools in terms of utilization of the innovations included in the total of the NASSP staff utilization studies. Answers to the following questions were sought through a historical analysis of the NASSP staff utiliza- tion project, a study of primary documents originating 178 179 with the NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, and an analysis of the data secured from respondents to an Open-end questionnaire and a checklist. 1. What were the procedures used in introducing the experimental innovations into a selected number of public school systems? a) What were the factors involved in getting foundation support for the project? b) What was the selection process used to determine which school systems would take part in the staff utili- zation studies? 0) How were the various projects supervised or controlled? d) How was information about the projects disseminated? e) To what extent did the grants in aid take care of the total eXpenses of carrying out the various projects? 2. What are the natures of the two agencies which supplied funds for carrying out the staff utilization studies? a) What issues, if any, are involved in foundation-supported research? b) What are the reactions of school offi- cials to foundation-supported research? 3. What are the persistence tendencies of the innovations in organization for instruction among the schools which took part in the staff utilization studies? a) In terms of selected innovative prac- tices, how do the staff utilization 180 schools compare with other schools which did not take part in the staff utiliza- tion studies? b) What innovative practices appear to be in wide use among the staff utilization schools? Among other schools used in the survey? c) What problems can be anticipated in research carried on under conditions similar to those in the staff utili- zation studies? II. CONCLUSIONS Factors Related 23 the Introduction 2f Experimental Innovations into Selected School Systems 1. The mutual interest and concern of the NASSP Curriculum Planning and Development Committee, the Fund for the Advancement of Education, and persons working on state curriculum projects in Illinois in main- taining quality instruction at the secon- dary level of education were the major factors in securing foundation support for the staff utilization studies. The initial eXperimental studies grew out of a conference attended by members of the NASSP Curriculum Planning and DeveIOpment Committee, representatives from the Fund for the Advancement of Education, and 181 public school officials interested in finding solutions to the problem of the teacher shortage. Subsequently, all secondary schools were invited to submit proposals for eXperimental study. The prOposals were eXpected to con- form to criteria established by the NASSP Commission which had been appointed to administer the staff utilization project. The prOposals were expected to demonstrate through their implementation a better uti- lization of professional staff. Most of the projects which were approved involved elements of the greater use of mechanical or electronic equipment, team teaching, the use of various kinds of non-certificated instructional aides, and organizational patterns calling for large group instruction, small group discussion, and increased independent study time. Once an eXperimental study was approved by the NASSP Commission and financial support had been secured from the Fund for the Advancement of Education, supervision 7. 182 control, and evaluation were left almost entirely to the local school system. The Commission suggested evaluation procedures which should be used. . The NASSP Commission made extensive efforts to publicize its concepts on better utili- zation of the staff, descriptions of the eXperimental studies being carried out, and the results. The Commission was anxious that schools throughout the country develop experi- mental innovations in better utilization of staff. Proposals submitted to the NASSP Commission were to include an estimate of the additional costs of conducting the prOposed eXperimental project. The actual amount each school system received was decided upon by the NASSP Commission with approval from the Fund for the Advancement of Education. Respondents to the open-end questionnaire indicated that the grants in aid took care of about half the additional expenses of conducting the studies. The answers ranged, however, from one hundred per cent to ten per cent. The majority of answers indicate that school officials would Factors 183 request larger amounts of financial aid if they were to conduct future studies under similar conditions. Many of the school systems underestimated the additional costs which would be involved. Related 33 Foundation Support l. A review of the literature reveals that there is concern over the influence of private foundations in American society, particularly because of their wealth, their tax-exempt status, their support of agencies which compete with free enterprise, their support of programs dealing with controversial issues, and. the nature of some of the research they Sponsor. The Ford Foundation, which absorbed the Fund for the Advancement of Education into its administrative structure while the NASSP staff utilization studies were in progress, is by far the largest private foundation in the United States. The Foundation continued support of the staff utilization studies. 5. 1811 Some professional education association, colleges, and universities have develOped guidelines, policies, and procedures for carrying on foundation-supported research. In general, these same organizations find much that is good in foundation-supported research and recommend that it continue. It does not appear from this study that the Sponsoring agencies, the Fund for the Advancement of Education, the Ford Founda- tion, and the National Association of Secondary School Principals, exerted more than a normal influence on the various schools' eXperimental projects. A representative of the Fund for the Advancement of Education and later of the Ford Foundation attended the meetings of the NASSP Commission, providing a liaison between the agencies and helping to avoid approval of projects already being Spon- sored by the Foundation in some other setting. Sixteen of seventeen respondents from the staff utilization schools indicated that their school systems would be willing to 185 engage in a similar project again under similar conditions. There was no major criticism of the NASSP Commission or of the Foundations. Several reSpondents did note that the project would have to be one which was of interest and concern to their school system. There is much professional interest in the relationships which should exist between educational institutions and private foundations in foundation-supported research projects. One of the better publications relating to the public school level is the American Association of School Adminis- trators' Private Philanthropy and Public Purposes. Factors Related £2 the Persistence Tendencies pf Innova- tions 1p Selected School Systems 1. ReSpondents from twenty-four staff utili- zation school systems indicate that twenty-eight out of thirty-five staff uti- lization projects are continuing in like or similar form and that seven have been termi- nated. Some of the projects involve multiple 186 innovations. hany of the respondents report some eXpansion of the innovations in terms of utilization by teachers and schools. The projects which have been terminated form no particular pattern. Of those that con- tinue, eleven are in team teaching, seven in the Specific use of mechanical or elec- tronic equipment, seven in the use of lay assistants, and three in organizational forms which permit more independent study time for students. Sixty-one innovative practices were identi- fied from the literature as having been a part of the staff utilization studies in the various school systems. The survey re- veals that seventeen staff utilization schools are still using more than twice as many of these innovations, on the average, than thirty-four other school systems with which they were compared. The average number of the sixty-one innova- tive practices in the staff utilization schools is lS.hl with a median of thirteen. The average number of the same innovations 7. 187 in the schools used for comparative pur- poses was 6.h7 with a median of 5.5. The staff utilization schools checked fifty-four of the innovations on the check- list at least once. The non-staff utili- zation schools checked forty—six of the innovations at least once. Percentage-wise, the staff utilization schools checked fifty-one of the innovations more often than the non-staff utilization schools. The non-staff utilization schools checked five innovations more often than did the staff utilization schools. Based on a limited sample of ten staff utilization schools and twenty-eight other schools, twenty-eight per cent of the inno- vations checked by the staff utilization schools and forty per cent of the innova- tions checked by the other schools are established forms of organization through- out the school systems. -Forty-eight per cent and forty-five per cent reSpectively are established forms in some schools but not all within the school system, and twenty-four per cent and fifteen per cent respectively 9. 10. 188 are still in eXperimental or pilot stages. Many of the innovative practices combine the eXpanded or more intensive use of mechanical and electronic equipment, team teaching, the use of clerical or instructional aides, large and small group instruction, and increased independent study time. When the innovations are categorized in terms of major point of emphasis, no particular patterns emerge. Both the staff utilization schools and the other schools surveyed are utilizing all of these to some degree in the instructional process. The greatest differences between the two sets of school systems occur in innovations related to team teaching and those related to more independent study time for students. The staff utilization schools surpass the other schools nearly four to one in the use of innovations in these two categories as contrasted with roughly two to one in the other categories. The most popular innovations among the two sets of school systems consist of the use of language laboratories, the use of tape ll. 12. 13. 189 recordings in shorthand classes, the use of lay assistants in school libraries, the assignment of office practice students as clerical aides to various teachers, and a group guidance program consisting of tape recordings, counselor-developed convocations, and selected homeroom activities. The non- staff utilization schools, particularly, showed a high use of the Science Research Associates Developmental Reading Kit in the teaching of remedial reading. Based on this survey, the language laboratory is an established form of organization in nearly all of the two sets of school systems. Of fourteen items in the checklist relating to team teaching, the staff utilization schools checked these items forty—four times and the other schools a total of twenty-six times. This indicates that team teaching is a relatively pOpular innovation among the schools surveyed in this study. The use of lay assistants in school libraries and the use of lay readers in English classes are both popular innovations in the two sets of school systems. 190 IM. According to the respondents from the staff utilization schools, the most important side effects of participation in the staff utili- zation project were a greater awareness on the part of staff of the values in eXperimen— tation and a greater willingness to experiment, the development of new administrative patterns or organizational forms, and a greater use of mechanical and electronic equipment in the instructional process. Factors Related 39 Problems i2 Research 1. On the basis of reports from the staff utili- zation schools, most of the schools failed to anticipate the actual increased costs of experimentation. 2. Based on an analysis of the reports of the various staff utilization schools, it is obvious that many of the schools experienced some difficulty in developing and carrying through evaluation procedures which would produce reliable evidence of the results of eXperimentation. 3. In those cases where colleges or universities were asked to aid in the evaluations, more 191 reliable evidence of outcomes was usually presented. A. Most of the reports carried some information regarding the reactions of staff, students, and others to the innovative practices. In some cases, the human reaction appeared to carry more weight than the statistical evi- dence of student achievement or of better utilization of staff. 5. Although there was some advance notice that the NASSP project was to be terminated and that grants-in-aid would be discontinued, the termination placed some hardships on participating schools, particularly those whose eXperimental projects were only a year or two old or where plans for eXpansion of the project had been made. III. RECOMEENLATIONS The data in this study support the general conten- tion of the NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School that the staff utilization project was reasonably successful in creating changes in organization for instruction in the participating school systems. The total study, however, 192 suggests a number of recommendations that may serve to improve practices in subsequent foundation—supported projects. The following recommendations are listed for consideration. 3 1. Before engaging in COOperative research, public school officials should consider carefully the ethical and working relation- ships which should exist between the school system and the COOperating agencies. 2. Before engaging in COOperative research, the various agencies involved should have a clear understanding of all financial arrangements which are to accompany the project. 3. In carrying on foundation-supported innovative practices, local school systems should give early consideration to how the innovative practices, if proven to be of value, are to be continued after foundation support is withdrawn. h. In develOping experimental designs, those persons involved, particularly at the local school level, should give careful attention to how the experimental study is to be evalu- ated and what kinds of evidence will be accepted. 7. 193 Local school systems lacking resources for careful evaluation of experimental studies should enlist the cooperation and aid of research Specialists from neareby colleges or universities. Sponsoring agencies involved in c00perative research projects with local school systems should strive for agreed-upon procedures for evaluating the results of experimental innovation. Although there are no doubt advantages in across-the—board approaches to eXperimental innovation, the number of experimental variables in a given project should be small enough that the results can be logically attributed to a limited number of factors. A central agency should be established to serve as a collection agency for vital information about the various school systems in the United States. The information should include that which is identified as most in demand by researchers of various kinds. There is need, also, for a journal which would report periodically on educational research at the public school level. 191+ 8. School administrators, who have been shown to be important change agents in public school education, should be well-versed in research methods so that more objective action research is carried out at the school district level. 9. Colleges and universities should consider establishing regional research centers devoted in part to meaningful research in public school education in cooperation with local districts. 10. Social scientists, professors of education, and public school administrators should make determined efforts to isolate the factors which are instrumental in effecting change in public school education and should make these factors known to those involved in the educational process. IV. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTFE. STUDY The COOperative efforts of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, the Fund for the Advance- ment of Education and the Ford Foundation, and various public school systems to conduct studies in the better utilization of the staff in the secondary school was a unique phenomenon in educational research. One of the objectives of this study was to discover items related to 195 the major emphases of the staff utilization project which might stimulate further inquiry. The following hypotheses and suggestions for further study are listed with the hope that further research efforts will be concentrated in these areas. Hypotheses l. 3. Public school systems seldom make major changes in organization for instruction or in methods of instruction without first engaging in pilot, eXperimental, or demon- stration projects. A major stimulus for change in the public schools consists of published and oral reports of the results of eXperimental or pilot projects carried out in other school systems or in the laboratory schools of colleges and universities. ' Many of the major changes which have occurred in the public schools in recent years can be traced to foundation-supported research pro- jects at the public school, college, or university level. The problems which accompany the introduc- tion of innovations into the orderly pro- cesses of a school or school system can be identified and controlled. Suggestions for Phrther Study l. 2. A detailed study should be made of the major forces which inhibit the intro- duction of new methods of instruction into the orderly processes of the secon- dary schools. A study should be made which would identify 7. 196 the ideal conditions which should exist before a school system engages in major research projects related to changes in the instructional process. A study should be made in which an attempt is made to identify the actual forces which have contributed to effecting such changes as have occurred in public education in recent years. A study should be made in which efforts are made to determine which types of teachers and school administrators are most amenable to experimentation and change and why this is so. Profiles should be constructed which would aid school principals in developing school schedules which will accommodate programs such as team teaching, large group and small group instruction, and the greater use of mechanical and electronic equipment. A study should be made to determine the kinds of experimentation being carried out in public school systems, which school systems are involved, and why these par- ticular systems carry on eXperimental- studies while others do not. A study should be made to determine why the per-pupil costs of instruction continue to increase despite the development of new organizational patterns and why pupil-teacher ratios continue to decrease. A study should be made of teacher education programs to determine to what extent teacher candidates are aware that innovation and the innovator are of prime importance in im- proving the quality and quantity of public school education. BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 BIBLIO jRAPHY A. BOOKS . About the P .. ord Foundation. New York: The Ford Foundation, Cffi e c of Reports, 1958. Benne, Kenneth D., and Bozidar Huntyan. Puman Relations in Curriculum Change. New York: The Dryden Press, 1951. Best, John w. Research in Education. Inglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Zall Inc., 1959. Cremin, L.awrence A., and herle Borrowman. Public Schools in Our Lemocracy. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1956. . Decade 2: Experiment. New York: The Fund for the Advancement of Lducation, 1951-1961. . Iducation Eirectory, Part 2. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Lepartment of health, hducation, and welfare, 1962-63. Good, Carter V. Introduction 39 Educational Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959. Good, Carter V., A. S. Barr, and Douglas 5. Scates. The Iethodology of Iducational Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., l9j6. Pamilton, Robert 3., and Paul R. Mort. The Law and Public Iducation. Chicag< o: The Foundation Press, l9hl. McAshan, Eildreth Hoke. Elements of Iducational Research. New York: thraw-Hill Book Company, 1963. Louly, George J. The Science of Iducational Research. new York: American Book Company, 1963. . Private Philanthropy and Public Purposes. Washington, D. C.: American Association of School Administrators, 1963. 198 199 . Policies for Education in American Democracy. Look III. Washington, L. C.: :ducational Policies Commission, NBA, l9h6. . Progress of Public Education 13 the United States. Washington, L. C.: United States Office of Education, 1963. . Organizing for Improved Instruction. Washington, L. C.: American Association of School Administrators, 1642A, 1963. StOOps, hmery, and E. L. Rafferty, Jr. Practices and Trends in School Administration. Boston: Cinn and Company, 1961. . Sponsored Research. Publication Number 1. East Lansing, Michigan: Office of Research LevelOpment and the Graduate School, hichigan State University, 1961. . Time, Talent, and Teachers. New York: The Ford Foundation, Office of Reports, 1960. Trump, J. Lloyd. Imares pf the Future. Washington, D. C.: National Association of Secondary School Principals' Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utiliza- tion of the Staff in the Secondary School, 1959. Trump, J. Lloyd, and Dorsey Baynham. Guide :3 Better Schools: Focus on Change. Chicago: Band thally and Company, 196I} Trump, J. Lloyd. New Horizons for Secondary School Teachers. Washington, D. C.: hational Association of Secondary School Principals' Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, 1957. . Utilization g: the Staff in Education. Jegferson County Colorado: SchooI Listrict R-l, 19 O. Woodring, Paul, and John Scanlon, Editors. American Education Today. New York: McCraw-Eill Sock Company, Inc., 1960. 200 B. PERIODICALS Babcock, Chester D. Editorial. Educational Leadership, Blackman, Charles A., and Roy A. Ldelfelt. "Planning for Leadership," Educational Leadership, XX (December, 1962). hrickell, Henry M. "Dynamics of Change," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, IKXXVI (January, 1962). Brown, James W., and John A. Koldtsad. "Administration of Instructional Materials," Review pf Educational Research, XXXIII (April, 1962). Cunningham, Luvern L. "Viewing Change in School Organi- zation," Administrator's Notebook. Nidwest Adminis- tration Center, University of Chicago. (September, 1962). Gordon, Ira J., and William H. Lucio. "Research in Review," Iducational Leadership, XX (December, 1962). . The Gist. Columbus, Ohio: American Education Publications (Karch, 1963). Pibbs, Ben. "hr. Ford's Busy Billions," Saturday Lvening Post (March 16, 1963). Eosford, Philip L. "Pressure Is hnergy," Educational Leadership, XX (may, 1963). Klohr, Paul R., and Jack R. Frymier. "Curriculum Development: Dynamics of Change," Review pf Iducational Research, XIXIII (June, 1963). Kowitz, Gerald T. "The Change and Improvement of School Practices," Phi Delta Kappan, XLII (February, 1961). Lortie, Ian C. "Change and Exchange: Reducing Resistance to Innovation," Administrator's Notebook. Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago. (February, 196A). 201 Loving, Alvin D. Editorial. 1ducationa1 Leaders hip, XVII (February, 1960). Pichael, Lloyd S. "What We Are Try1rd to Accomplish in the Staff Utilization Studies," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary SchCol Principals, LILYXIII (January, 1959). . Research Bulletin. Institute of Administrative iesearch, Teachers College, Columbia University, T‘ -,. / (may, 1903). Sand, Ole, and Richard I. Miller. "Curricular Innova- tions," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XLXXVII (I ay, 196 3) Sanford, Charles W. "Why the Commission on the Experi- mental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Seconda ry School was Created," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XXXXII (January, 1958). See, Harold W. "Send It to the President," Kapnan, (January, 1957), *3 ' 5‘ [-40 K 03 H C 1‘ $1) Thomas, J. Alan. "Educational Decision-flaking and the School Budget," Administrator's Notebook. Nidwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, (December, 1963). Tomkins, Ellsworth. "Individual Differences in the 1960's," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XXNXVI (April, 1962). Tomkins, Ellsworth. " NASSP Project to Study Ways of Improved Staff Utilization," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, vaXV (January, 1961). 11:istr ator. American Association fistrators, (June, 1961). Trump, J. Lloyd. Chapter XXIX. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, X XXVI (January, 1961). Trump, J. Lloyd. "Ingredients of Change," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XXIXVII (May, 1963). 202 C. UNPUBLISEL/ MATERIALS . "A Prooosal to D nonstrate How Improved Teacher tili Mt on Can Help to Solve the Problem of Teacher orta e in the Hi: h Schools of the United States," Nasi1in3ton, D.C.: Unpublished bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Princi pa.ls, Ray 2), 1996. Braun, Ray H. "Zvaluatin; the New 'Evaluators': The Use of Lay Readers." Urbana, Illinois: Ur published report, Urbana Community Schools (Undated). . "Criteria for the Select ion of Exuerimental Projects." Jasnioston, D.C.: Unpublished bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, Au3ust 13, 1956. . Ninutes of the official meetings of the NASSP Commiss1on on the Exaerinental Study of the Utilization of the S aff in the Secondary School. Unrublished minutes, June 22, 1950, to November 11, 1960. "Our Attempts to Assess New Practices," Janston, Illinois: Unpublished report, Evanston Township High School, December, 1963. "Paraprofessioqal Helpers in a Lan3ua3e Arts Program at the L03.a n City Ti3h School." Lo :an City Utah: Unpublished report, L03an City High School, 1959. . "Second Supplementary Proposal Des i3? ned to Leaonstrate Pow Improved Teacher Utilization Can Pelo Solve the Problem of Tea acher Slorta 3e in the HQ h Schools of the United States." Wnsh1n3ton, L. C.: Unpublished proposal, NASSP Commission on the EXperimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, April 10, 1953. "Staff Utilization Project Summary Report." Snyder, Texas: Unpublished report, Snyder, Texas, Public Schools, January, 1960. 203 . "Suggestions for Preparation of Preposals for EXperimental Projects." Washington, D.C.: Unpublished bulletin of the EASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secon- dary School, January 13, 1958. "Team Teaching at Evanston Township High School." Evanston, Illinois: Unpublished resort, Evanston Township High School, December, 1963. . "Team Teaching at the Hahlquist Junior Pigh Sohool.” Ogden, Utah: Unpublished report, Nahlquist Junior Figh School, 1959. . "The Problem of Teacher Shortage for the High Schools of the United States." Washington, D.C.: Unpublished discussion outline, Curriculum Planning and Development Committee, National Association of Secondary School Principals, April 26, 1955. o "The Role of Coordinator of Instruction in the lore Effective Utilization of the Teaching Staff." University of Chicago Laboratory School: Unpublished PrOposal to the NASSP Commission on the EXperimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secon~ dary School, February 5, 1958. ’. Letter. J. Lloyd Trump to Kenneth V. Reber, hay ll}, 1961.; . . Letter. J. Lloyd irump to Kenneth W. Reber, June S, 1901;. 20b, APPENDIX A Q"ESTIONNAIRE: PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES OF STAFF UTILIZATION STUDIES SOUTH BEND COMMUNITY SCHOOL CORPORATION 228 SOUTH ST. JOSEPH STREET SOUTH BEND, INDIANA 46601 DIVISION OF SPECIAL PROJECTS December 4, 1963 Dear Sir: In 1958 through 1960 the South Bend Community School Corpo- ration took part in an experimental project in cooperation with the National Association of Secondary School Principals and with a grant-in-aid made possible by the Ford Founda— tion's Fund for the Advancement of Education. According to the January issues of the NASSP Bulletin for those years, your school system.also carried out one or more such.experi- mental studies in cooperation with the NASSP and with a grant-in-aid. Now, some years after the projects have been completed, I am doing a follOWdup study of the projects as a dissertation topic for a doctorate in education at Michigan State University. I need your help. Specifically, I am.interested in the current status of the experimental project or projects your school system carried out under the auspices of the NASSP. Enclosed are two forms. One simply contains broad headings relating to the experi- mental projects. The other is a checklist which contains a list of a great number of innovations in instruction in junior and senior high schools. I know these are busy times and that requests for important information intrude upon busy schedules. I would appreciate it very much, however, if you or a member of your staff would complete the forms and return them.to me in the self-addressed and stamped envelope at your earliest convenience. The success of my'study will depend in.major part upon a 100 per cent return. When the study is completed, I will send you a summary of the results. In brief, what I am attempting to do is to determine the actual and the lasting effects these experimental projects have had upon the school systems which took part in the staff utilization studies. The information I receive will be treated in composite form. Thank you for your help. My study has the approval of the director of the former NASSP Commission, of the Ford Founda- tion, of our Superintendent of Schools here, and, of course, of Michigan State University. Sincerely yours, Kenneth W. Reber, Director Division of Special Projects 206 PERSISTENCE TENDENCIES OF STAFF UTILIZATION STUDIES IN SELECTED PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEMS Please answer all questions as completely as possible or enclose explanatory material when returning this form. A. In the project or projects carried out in your school system, what, specifically, were you attempting to find out? B. Please describe the experimental design. In other words, what was the structure of the experimental project? C. In what ways did the experimental design differ from the usual organizational form? D. What was the total amount of the financial aid your school system received from.the National Association of Secondary School Principals and the Fund for the Advancement of Education? E. To what extent, in your opinion, did the grants-in-aid take care of the total expenses of carrying out the experimental project? F. What is the current status of the project? Has the organizational structure been adopted? Has it been rejected? Has it become a regular organizational form throughout the school system? Please go into some detail regarding the adoption or the modifica- tion, or the rejection of the experimental design. 207 G. The experimental project carried out in South Bend, Indiana, had several side effects related only indirectly to the actual carrying out of the project. Please describe to the best of your knowledge the side effects your experimental project had upon your school system. {Ii e Would your school system.be willing to accept another grant-in-aid for experimental purposes under somewhat the same terms and conditions as those for the staff utilization studies? Please support your answer. Please try to include both positive and negative reactions to grants-in-aid for such purposes and the conditions under which they were granted. Please return this completed form to Kenneth.W. Reber, Director, Division of Special Projects, South Bend Community School Corporation, South Bend, Indiana. 208 APPENDIX B CHECKLIST: INNOVATIONS IN ORGANIZATION FOR INSTRUCTION SOUTH BEND COMMUNITY SCHOOL CORPORATION 228 SOUTH ST. JOSEPH STREET SOUTH BEND, INDIANA 46601 DIVISION OF SPECIAL PROJECTS December h, 1963 Dear Sir: As director of special projects for the South Bend Community School Corporation it is often.my'responsi- bility to complete questionnaires sent to the school system.by persons engaged in educational research. I know that complying with their requests is often time consuming. I complete the questionnaires, however, as a courtesy to those engaged in research. I have a favor to ask of you. I am.completing requirements for a doctorate in education at Michigan State University. My dissertation deals with innovations in organization for instruction in junior and senior high schools. The attached checklist contains a list of many innova- tions which have been attempted on an experimental or pilot basis with the advantage of financial aid from the Fund for the Advancement of Education. Some of them.have been successful; some have not. I am.inter- ested in knowing if any of these innovations appear in your school system on an experimental or pilot basis or as a regular form.of organization. WOuld you or a member of your staff please be so kind as to complete the form at your earliest convenience and return it to me in the self-addressed and stamped envelope. The instructions are included in the checklist. I know these are busy times. The extent to which my study will be meaningful, however, depends in major part upon a 100 per cent return. Will you please make every effort to see that the form.is completed and returned. The checklist represents one phase of my study. When the total study is completed, I will send you a summary of the findings. Thank you for your help. The information I receive will be treated in composite form. Sincerely yours, ‘Kenneth W. Reber 210 CHECKLIST: Innovations in Organization for Instruction or in Methods of Instruction in the Junior and Senior High Schools Each of the items shown in this checklist represents an innovation in organization for instruction or in methods of instruction in the junior and senior high schools. During the past few years, pilot or experimental programs have been conducted in various school systems throughout the country in efforts to determine their effectiveness in better utilization of staff. Please check each item in the list which appears in your school system.at the present time in like or similar form. If the innovation is an established form of organization for instruction throughout your school system in the junior or senior high schools, please label the item with arabic numeral 1. If the item is an established form in some of your schools but not in all, label the item with numeral 2. If the item appears in your school system.but only on an experimental or pilot basis, label the item.with numeral 3. If the innovation has been tried in your school system and rejected, please label the item with the letter R. Space has been provided for you to add any other items which you consider to be innovations in instruction at the junior or senior high school levels but which are not included in the list. Please label these in the same way as those in the list. . Name and Address of School System Name and Title of Person Completing Questionnaire Total Enrollment, Grades K Through 12 Enrollment, Grades 7 Through 12 Pupil-Teacher Ratio, All Grades Pupil-Teacher Ratio, Grades 7 Through l2 Has your school system received a grant-in-aid for experi- mental purposes within the last seven years? If the answer is "Yes", please give a brief explanation in terms of source, amount, and purpose. 211 CHECKLIST ITEMS (Junior or Senior High Schools) 1. 2. 9. 10. 11. The use of closed circuit television to televise lessons or demonstration lessons to multiple groups of pupils in general science or biology. The use of closed circuit television to televise regular lessons or demonstration lessons to pupils in classes of far larger than normal size with a teacher team responsible for the instruction. The use of closed circuit television to broadcast lessons to multiple groups of pupils or to groups of larger than normal size in English classes. The use of college students as laboratory assistants in science for pupils working in the laboratories after school hours, during their unassigned periods, or on Saturday mornings. The integration or fusion of art and English classes with a two-teacher team.handling the instruction. The integration or fusion of world history and world literature classes with a two-teacher team.handling the instruction. The use of a team of teachers to teach science in classes of far larger than normal size and thus utilizing both large and small group instruction. The use of a team.of teachers to teach United States history in classes of far larger than normal size and utilizing both large and small group instruction. The use of a team of teachers to teach English and social studies to pupils in classes of larger than normal size. The use of a team of teachers to teach typing to pupils in much larger than normal size classes. The use of a trained school bus driver to handle the behind-the-wheel phase of the driver training program, making it possible for the certificated teacher to handle more classes in the classroom phase of the training. 12. 13. m. 15. lo. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2h. 212 The teaching of Spanish by a teacher with no formal knowledge of the language through the use of tape recordings prepared by a regular teacher of Spanish. School system financed scholarships for students who show aptitude for and interest in teaching but who lack the funds to go on to college--used as a teacher recruitment device. The training and use of lay personnel as school library assistants. The teaching of reading by a teacher with no formal training in the teaching of reading through the use of the Controlled Reader and other me- chanical and electronic equipment. The use of the Science Research Associates Le- velopmental Reading Kit to teach remedial reading by teachers with no formal training in teaching remedial reading. The use of lay personnel as study hall supervisors, freeing regular teachers for other duties. The integration or fusion of Lnglish and Latin classes. The use of a foreign language laboratory as an aid in the teaching of foreign languages. The use of talented high school student aides as assistants in the teaching of remedial mathe- matics. The increase in size of classes in American history through the use of the navy Target Plan. The formation of Special summer classes in science in which the students work in an area of special interest without credit. The formation of special summer classes in mathe- matics in which the students work in an area of Special interest without credit. The use of tape recordings in shorthand classes permitting individuals to take practice dictation at their own rates of speed. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. .132. ___33. ___3u. .__35- ___36- 213 The integration or fusion of classes in American history and American literature with instruction handled by a two-teacher team. The teaching of Italian by a teacher with no formal knowledge of the language through the use of tape recordings prepared by a regular teacher of Italian. The formation of a teacher team to teach senior year English, utilizing both large and small group instruction. The use of a planned lecture series for all students in health classes. The lecturers address all of the students at one time, thus conserving the lecturers' time and energies. The use of tape recordings to dictate lists of words in spelling lessons to pupils at the junior high school level. The use of talented high school science students as aides in teaching science at the junior high school level. The assignment of office practice students one period a week as clerical assistants to various teachers in the school. The formation of teacher teams in English with the pupils assigned to low, medium, and high perform- ance groups with mobility from one group to another possible at the beginning of each new unit of work. Team teaching in American history with students assigned to low, medium, and high groups with mobility possible. Team teaching in economics with students assigned to low, medium, and high groups with mobility possible. Team teaching in girls' physical education with students assigned to low, medium, and high perform- ance groups with mobility possible. Non-science students permitted to attend specially- prepared science lectures one period each week for partial credit to help them become more aware of the importance of science in the modern world. 37. hB. 1+9. 211; The assignment of selected teachers to prepare and present lectures to large groups of students in particular subject areas permitting the regular teacher to spend more time in presenting other subject matter--an enrichment device. The formation of advanced classes in science in which the students submit outlines of proposed study and work independently. The students meet with a teacher in seminar groups periodically. Group guidance in the senior high schools consisting of tape recordings, counselor-developed convocations, and a series of homeroom activities, carried out during extended homeroom periods once each week. Two English classes scheduled back to back and the two teachers working as a team in presenting the lessons. The formation of three-teacher teams and each team accepting reaponsibility for the instruction of pupils in three subject areas. Seniors not assigned to study halls but permitted to engage in independent study of their choice. Fourth-year language students assigned but part time to a language teacher, spending the balance of their time in independent study. Typing classes increased in size to about fifty students with one regular teacher and a non-certifi- cated aide. Shorthand classes increased in size to about fifty students with one regular teacher and a non-certifi- cated aide. Talented foreign language students permitted to do three years of French in two years. The use of lay persons to read themes from English classes allowing the regular teacher to assign more themes. Team teaching in English grammar and in literature with the two classes scheduled back to back. The formation of ungraded English classes at the high school level with students placed according to abilities. SO. 51. 215 Classes in English increased to forty students and taught by one regular teacher with the help of a non-certificated instructional aide. The formation of a core program in junior high school social studies and English taught by a two-member teacher team. A core program at the junior high school level in which a teacher team accepts reSponsibility for instruction in language arts, social studies, orientation, and guidance. Classes in American history doubled in size and taught by one regular teacher with the help of an instructional aide. Classes in world history doubled in size and taught by one regular teacher with the help of an instructional aide. Typing classes of 75 pupils taught by one regular teacher in charge, one additional teacher, and a clerical aide. Non-graded English classes at the ninth, tenth, and eleventh grade levels with instruction pro- vided by a teacher team. The formation of a teacher team for guidance and for instruction in world history and American history. The teaching of physics by a relatively untrained teacher through the use of the Encyclopedia Britannica Harvey White Physics Films. Broadcasting various educational programs to the junior and senior high schools through a system- owned radio station. An organizational structure at the high school level which permits large group instruction, small group discussion, and increased independent study time. Providing high school students with educational and vocational information through the use of system-developed tape recordings. 216 Other Innovations in Instruction Found in Your School System and not Included in the Checklist: Please return the completed form to Kenneth W. Reber, Director, Division of Special Projects, South Bend Community School Corporation, South bend, Indiana 217 APPENDIX C ADDITIONAL INNOVATIONS LISTED BY STAFF UTILIZATION SCFOOLS INS 9. 10. ll. 12. VATIONS IN INSTRUCTION NOT SHOWN IN TEE CHECKLIST LISTED BY NINE STAFF UTILIZATION SCHOOLS Special classes in art, photography, journalism, creative writing, music, dramatic arts, stagecraft, television production, engineering, and child development. These classes are for special interest groups. High school juniors and seniors are trained in the Operation of the school system's FM radio station. A special summer guidance center is set up to serve high school drOpouts. Honors classes for gifted students. The establishment of advanced placement classes through which students earn college credit. The use of community lay persons in vocational guidance. The lay person assumes a certain amount of responsibility for acquainting the student with a particular vocational field and encourages the student to stay in school. A three-level program of independent study: (1) sim- ilar to regular homework assignment: (2) assignments beyond the regular homework assignments; (3) students assume projects on their own. Extensive use of large group and small group instruc- tion. Large group instruction in the history of art. Teaching of algebra in the eigth grade and providing four more years of high school mathematics. Ninth and tenth grade English taught at ninth grade level and an extra course provided at the senior level. The develOpment of new methods, materials, and organizational patterns in the teaching of Russian, French, mathematics, English, unified science for soohomores, freshman science, senior social studies, and for independent study time for freshmen. 218 13. 1h. 15. 20. 21. 22. 23. 219 Foreign tours Sponsored by the district for high school foreign language students. Junior high schools of 1000 pupils in which every student is involved in one or more subject area teams. Courses in two junior high schools oriented to a study of JUlius Caesar. Courses in junior high school oriented to a study of the American revolution. Schedule modifications using double blocks of time. Some programs taught by traveling Specialists and classroom teachers on alternating schedules. A summer program in the biological sciences in which students spend one week in a national forest as a field experience. English seminars on composition at the senior level with independent study time. Use of electronic devices for grading English themes. This system preferred over professional graders. The use of student laboratory assistants in chemistry. The students assist the teacher and also carry on projects of their choice. The use of tudent assistants in art, library, shops, and all so ces in which the students assist the teacher but also carry on projects of their choice. The use of teacher lecturers. The teachers lecture and supervise interns but have no regular classes. The use of teacher researchers. The teacher researcher constructs courses of study and prepares examinations. Team teaching in music and art appreciation. The use of a station method team approach in physical education. Large group instruction in the classroom phase of driver education--seventy-five to 150 students. 29. 30. 32. Note: 220 The formation of special sections for incoming junior high students with prior foreign language instruc- tion. Utilization of the Purdue University airborne television instruction. Spanish beginning in the fourth grade. All pupils are in the program through the seventh grade, including pupils new to the district. After the seventh grade, Spanish is elective. Students finish at the end of the ninth grade and get two years of high school credit. There are practically no losses between the first and second year after Spanish becomes an elective. The establishment of a demonstration center for gifted students, including honors classes, team teaching, advanced placement or college level classes, seminars, and areas of special interest. A total of forty-four innovations were listed. Where duplications occurred the innovation is listed but once. 221 APPENDIX D ADDITIONAL INNOVATIONS LISTED BY NON-STAFF UTILIZATION SCHOOLS 222 INNOVATIONS IN INSTRUCTION NOT SHOWN IN THE CHECKLIST 2. 3. 5. b. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. LISTED BY SEVENTEEN NON STAFF UTILIZATION SCHOOLS Remedial reading for high school students without credit. Interdisciplinary science, team taught, for seniors who have finished the regular science-math sequence. Special counseling for potential drOpouts. A unit in economics integrated with senior social studies class. Correlation of geography and science in a single unit and taught by one teacher. Formation of a four-teacher team responsible for all instruction of students. Special teacher conferences to discuss basic needs of each pupil. Utilization of two-teacher teams for certain units in English and literature, history and general science, science and math. Rapid reading instruction for a six-week period at the senior high school level. Formation of a special reading class at the junior high school level for students reading below the norm. Programmed instruction in mathematics. Provision of experimental demonstration lessons for methods courses at the university level. Experimen- tal participation by college juniors. Correlation periods in junior high where teachers meeting the same sections discuss common problems. Resource specialists also attend the meetings. Tutorial system in which honor students help their peerS. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 223 Small group instruction of culturally-deprived students. College students act as tutors, per- mitting the regular teachers to meet with a small number of students. Modern foreign languages taught to talented eighth grade students for high school credit. Plane and solid geometry completed in one year by talented sophomores. Group instruction in grade ten covering guidance, health, and safety education--each unit six weeks in length. Area lay lecturers used in some instances. Short term work experience for students in trade education classes. Block of time program in language arts for students in grades seven and eight with differentiated pro- grams for low, medium, and high groups. Slide projector and synchronized tape visual teach- ing equipment used experimentally in.metals and machine shop. Locally-designed tapes and slides. Formation of a Special class in calculus which meets one hour before regular school and is taken without credit. A four-teacher team presents exploratory materials in music, art, French, and Spanish to junior high classes of 250 students each. A two-teacher team in English and civics. Honors sections in.mathematics and science. High school students act as cadet teachers in elementary schools. Work experience program for academicallydunsuccess- ful students, I.Q. range of approximately 75-90. A community school program in one school which is in a disadvantaged area. The use of math laboratories to stimulate interest in mathematics. 30- 31. 32. 33. 37. 38. 39. LL0- Note: 22h A special orientation of one section of world history. The group really becomes a world affairs section or a group stressing international relations. Certain twelfth graders are allowed independent study time. They need not attend regular classes, have Special library privileges, complete supple- mentary assignments, use conference rooms, and are held responsible individually. Senior girls majoring in commercial courses spend at least two hours a day for a period of eight weeks at no pay working in downtown offices or business places. Use of the EDL program in typing, permitting each student to proceed at her own rate. Special classes in power mechanics for eleventh and twelfth grade boys. An intern program in which a classroom teacher and an intern.make up a teacher team. Each team handles a teaching load equal to about one and onenhalf regular teachers. Used in most subject areas. Special seminars in literature, poetry, and Great Books for selected twelfth graders. Advanced placement in grade twelve in U.S. history and science. Special accelerated programs in biology and math for talented ninth grade students. Students attain two years of accomplishment in one year. The develOpment of various programed learning projects. The utilization of the PSSC and BSCS science programs. A total of forty-five innovations were listed. Where duplications occurred the innovation is listed but once. 225 APPENDIX E NASSP SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARATION OF PROPOSALS FOR EXPERIMENTAL PROJECTS NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS COMMISSION ON THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE UTILIZATION OF THE STAFF IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL Suggestions for Preparation of PrOposals for Experimental Projects The following suggestions for preparation of prOposals for experimental studies are made to aid persons in local junior or senior high schools who are responsible for submitting requests to participate in the program.of staff utilization studies sponsored by the Commission and supported financially by the Ford Foundation Fund for the Advancement of Education. The attention of all persons is first called to the attached “Criteria for the Selection of Experimental Projects," adopted by the Commission in August 1956. These criteria have remained substantially unchanged in practice since the time of their adoption. The only explanation that possibly needs to be added is that the Commission has been liberal in interpreting Criteria 10, 11, and 12; persons with creative and imaginative proposals should not be de- terred from presenting requests because of a strict inter- pretation of these criteria. The items described in subsequent paragraphs should be included in a tentative proposal which are first submitted to the Director of the Commission, J. Lloyd Trump, 200 Gregory Hall, Urbana, Illinois. The Director will go over the prOposal, make any suggestions that occur to him, and communicate these suggestions for consideration. The prOposal should then be duplicated and 10 copies returned to the Director for submission to the Commission at its next meeting (the Commission meets about four times per year). The Commission will either approve, reject, or suggest changes in the prOposal. When the proposal is approved by the Commission, it will be transmitted to the officers of the Fund for the Advancement of Education with a request for a grant of funds. The school authorities will then be notified by the Commission regarding final action. Locale gf_the study. The first section of the proposal should give informatIon about the school(s) and school system.in which the study is to be conducted. Other studies conducted in the past, or those currently going forward, should be described and other information included that would provide an indication of the climate for experi- 226 227 mentation in the school(s) and school system. Reasons or situations which have led to the need for the study should be described. Purposes of the stud . Following a general asser- tion of aims, the puEEbEEE'o? tge study should be stated in the form of hypotheses to be tested. The formulation of these hypotheses is an essential step in the develOpment of the re- search design for the study. It is assumed that the purposes will be related to the general values which form the base of the development of the educational program. Procedures tg_b§_followed. Information should be provided telling how the study will be conducted. As much detail as can be furnished in advance should be included in the prOposal. Descriptions of how classes, methods, and content will be organized, students and staff deployed, kinds of data to be collected, how the project will be supervised, consultant help to be utilized, training programs for the staff, and other plans for conducting the study and testing the hypotheses should be given in sufficient detail that the Commission and Fund will be able to judge the worth of the Study. Costs g£_the study. A carefully developed esti- mate of the total additional costs of the study should be made. Such an estimate should include all costs of staffing, supervision, physical plant changes, supplies, and equipment over and above the costs that would ordinarily occur if the experimental study were not to be conducted. Extent 9; commitment 21 the school system. The Commission nd Fund are very interested in knowing how much belief responsible persons in the school system have in the potential worth of the changed procedures represented in the proposed experimental study. If the results of the study are favorable, will the new procedures be made a part of the educational program in the school system? At least three questions have to be answered in the affirmative: Do the changes produce more efficient and effective educational re- sults? Are staff members and other responsible persons satis- fied that the changes represent an improvement in staff utilization? Are the changes financially feasible? Unless there is quite positive anticipation that these questions can be answered in the affirmative at the conclusion of the study, there is little likelihood of real commitment by the school system. The extent of commitment by the school system is also shown by willingness to invest personnel and money during the experimental period. 228 Request for assistance. Since the Commission was created to assist schools in experimental studies, an indication should be given of the kinds of assistance needed. Some of this assistance will be financed in nature. The amount of funds requested for items such as the following might be included: extra staffing, local supervision, tests and other evaluative materials, clerical help for tabulating data and preparing reports, unusual supplies, consultant help, special workshops, and travel expenses. Grants do not ordi- narily include equipment or supplies that would be useful to the school at the conclusion of the study or for salaries of regularly employed personnel. Sufficient explanation of the different requests should be included to permit the Commission and Fund to appraise the appropriateness and amount of the request. Local approval. The proposal should include a statement indicating that the proposal for the experimental study has been approved by the local board of education and responsible administrative officers. Emphasis is again given to the willingness of the Director and members of the Commission to confer and corres- pond with school officials at all stages in the preparation of a prOposal. January 13, 1958 JLszg APPENDIX F NASSP CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF EXPER MENTAL PROJECTS NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECONDARY'SCHOOL PRINCIPALS COMMISSION ON THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE UTILIZATION OF THE STAFF IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL Criteria for the Selection of Experimental Projects The Commission wishes to identify secondary schools where there is interest in conducting projects designed to demon- strate how improved staff utilization can help to improve in- struction and relieve the teacher shortage. During the early phases of the work of the Commission, it is prOposed that projects might be set up which would demonstrate such innova- tions as the following: utilization of teaching assistants working under the supervision of skilled teachers; reorgani- zation of administrative patterns affecting the utilization of staff; utilization of modern instructional equipment as basic means of instruction; and utilization of successful teachers as a factor in interesting increased numbers of able young people in teaching. The criteria listed subsequently are to be used in the selection of experimental study projects. Since all of the criteria are important and should be given as much attention as possible, the order in which the criteria are listed should not be considered an indication of priority value. The criteria are as follows: 1. The school system.in which the experimental study project is located should provide a climate favorable to the success of the experi- ment. This means among other things that support and COOperation in the experiment should come not only from the superintendent and princi- pal, but also from.members of the staff and community, as well as from city, county, and state educational authorities. There should be a depth of community involvement that would make eXperi- mentation possible and productive. 2. All projects must be approved by the central administration and board of education of the school system in which the experiment is located. 3. School authorities must make available enough of the time and energies of the staff that reason- able experimentation is possible. 230 7. 9. 10. 11. 231 Projects should represent a high degree of creative effort and ownership by as many local groups as possible. Projects may represent different types of con- stituent involvement; there may be different de- grees of staff, student, parent, and community participation. It is assumed that improved practices demon- strated by experimentation will continue after financial aid from the Commission is no longer available. There should be a genuine commit- ment to the ideas and practices involved in the experimental study. The school systems in which experiments are located should have such quality in resources of staff and physical facilities that other schools would be likely to follow similar practices if the experimental projects prove successful. There must be a willingness on the part of those planning and directing each project to develop schemes of evaluating and reporting which will be both scientific and convincing. The tentative plan of evaluation.must be included in the pro- posed experimental study from.each school. The school systems in which experiments are con- ducted shouldt>e willing to serve as observation centers. New projects should represent approaches substan- tially different from those already approved; there should be as wide a variety as possible in the types of demonstrations. Projects should be located in as many different types of schools as possible; variety in such aspects as the following would be desirable: 1. size of school 2. kind of student body in terms of social, “economic, and cultural factors 3. type of community such as rural, suburban, or urban A. grades included in the school system 5. major curriculum.emphasis 12. 13. 232 Since it would be desirable to have as many sections oft;he country represented as possible, new projects should be located in geographic areas different from those in which existing projects are situated. Projects should represent an efficient use of funds, time, and effort by the Commission. August 18, 1956 JLT:bg A Q? ‘ 8 RM USE CLY IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Ell1|W134!”MIMI!”ulMJljlfltfllllfllflHmflHUN