$5

C

 

 

c .
L.
H!

a; .

H. L

.- v‘

-——--w-—<r. «aw—v...—
'7

 

A _ P]

LIBRARY L:

Michigan State
University

lHESIS

    

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

CHAICGES I}. CHILD-331a 'S PERSCLAL
AID SOCIAL BEHAVICR AS A RESULT
OF II“T.;§}'{ACTIOI§ WITH TRAIBED
UIDERGRADUATZS
presented by

T5016 .5! S R BI F

\
has been accepted towards fulfillment i
of the requirements for ‘

Ph. D. degree inlllfihila 8y

    

Major professor

stember l, 1970
Date

 

0-169

ABSTRACT

CHANGES IN QiILDREN'S PERSONAL AND SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR AS A RESUIT OF INTERACTION
‘WITH TRAINED UNDERGRADUATES

By
Thomms'Reif

The purpose of the present investigation was to study systemp
atically the effects of training college students in skills associated
with effective interaction in an adult-child play relationship. The
effects of training were investigated in two general areas: changes in
the behavior of the undergraduate and changes in the behavior of children
as a result of interaction with undergraduates in training.

Nine college undergraduates were trained over a period of one
academic year to be effective with children. Training occurred primar-
ily through didactic instruction in play techniques and through a super-
vised experiential play relationship with a non-disturbed child. Inter-
action between the student and child occurred weekly. In addition, a
control group of nine undergraduates also engaged in weekly interaction
with a particular child. These undergraduates received neither super-
vision nor educational instruction in play techniques.

Through an analysis of video tapes of the student-child interaction
in the let, 7th, 13th and 20th play sessions, behavioral changes of both
the 18 undergraduates and the 18 children were assessed. Behavioral
changes of the children were also assessed three times during the year in
an unstructured group situation involving three children. The behavior

categories used for assessing changes in undergraduate behavior were

Thomas Reif
developed from writings of client centered play therapists and from
research on parent-child relationships. Behavior categories used to
assess changes in children's behavior were developed from a broad defini-
tion of positive functioning in children, which construed effective
functioning in terms of verbal comprehension skills, coping behaviors,
and interpersonal skills.

Correlational analysis of the categories indicated that student
behavioral differences clustered in.terms of a permissiveurestrictive
dichotomy and children's categories clustered in terms of fantasy behav.
iors, reality oriented behaviors, and social distance behaviors. Analy-
sea of variance indicated that experimental children engaged in overall
greater frequencies of fantasy behaviors, including fantasy aggression,
and social distance behaviors, whereas control children demonstrated
overall significantly greater increments in Excitement behavior. Analy-
ses of variance of student behaviors indicated that trained undergrad-
uates demonstrated overall greater increments in permissive behaviors,
whereas the control students overall engaged in significantly more
restrictive behaviors. Explanations for the relationship between permis-
sive behavior and fantasy behavior were discussed.

Results broadly suggested (1) that the training of college students
did effect a stylistic change in their interactional behavior, (2) that
children who interacted with these students demonstrated behavior change
within the sessions which could be attributed to the process of achieving
ego mastery, (3) that outcome measures used to assess change outside the
eXperimental setting were inadequate, and (b) that much of the behavior
of the untrained control students could be construed as less than ideal,

and perhaps indicative of the average college student's understanding of

Thomas Reif
and attitudes towards children. Implications for training and the
education of college students in mental health skills, for child

deve10pment, and for further research in these areas were discussed.

CHANW 1N CHILDREN'S PERSONAL AND SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR AS A RESULT OF INTERACTION

WITH TRAINED UNDERGRADUATE

By

IVo‘c ' - :_3
Thomas Reif

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfullment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF Hi ILQSOPHI

Department of Psychology
1970

TO MY PARENTS

ii

IN.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Of Gary Stollak, whose disinclination to intervene is a profound calling
to one's own energy, and means helping by not helping, convincing by not
convincing, guiding, not with words or deeds, persuasion or insistence,
but by being there. Only then is learning a genuine contact and teaching
truly masterly. This was what the pupil received from.his teacher.

Of Dozier Thornton, Lucy Ferguson, and Larry Hesse; for their helpful
suggestions in the final stages of the writing of this thesis.

Of the children and students of the study, who unempirically grew,
defying all statistics.

0f Sam Plyler, who said an immense amount in a few words.

0f Ellen, who always looked in my eyes when I stared at the typewriter,
and who held everything together more than once.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST CF TPIBLESOOOOOOOOOOOOO.0....OOOOCOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOO00.00.... Vii].-

CHAPTER

ONE- DITRODUCTIONOOOOO...00.000000000000000...O000......

oveer-ew000000000.0.0000...0....0.0.0.000...OOOOOOOOOOOQO

Assump'tions...O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOO0.0.0.0....COO...

PART ONE - TH'E NONPQOFESSIONALeee.eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeOeeeeeo.

The Manpower Shortage....................................

Research Directions in the Use of the
TlonprOfeSSionaJ-O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Effective Interaction with Children......................

EffeCtive Responses...O...00.0.00...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.

PART TWO "' THE CHIIDeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoe

CHAPTER

Positive Mental Health in Children.......................
ResearCh P‘indingSOOOOO0.0.00.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Summary..................................................
Hypotheses...............................................
TWO — METHOD.............................................
Undergraduate Subjects...................................
Child Subjects...........................................
The Training Procedure...................................
The Measurement of Student-Child Behavior................

The Measurement of Child Behavior in Group

InteractionCC...0..........C...‘........0.....OOOOOOOO...
The COding 0f Student BehaVior. . . O 0 C O C 0 C . O . C C O C O O O O . O . . . .
The Coding of Child Behavior (Student Interaction).......

The Coding of Child Behavior (Group Interaction).........

iv

1

l2
19
21
21
23
26
27
29
29
31
31
32

33
33
3h
3h

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

TABLE OF CONTENTS (conru3.)

The Procedure for Coding Behavior Categories............... 35
Training Assistance in the Coding Procedure................ 35
THREE - RESULTS...........................................o 37
Statistical Procedure...................................... 37
Intercorrelations.......................................... 39
Analyses of Variance....................................... hh
Main Effects of Training-Cluster l......................... hh
Simple Effects of Training-Cluster 1....................... an
Simple Effects of Time-Cluster 1........................... LB
Main Effects of Training-Cluster 2......................... 50
Main Effects of Training-Cluster 3......................... 51
Main Effects of Time-Cluster 3............................. 51
Main Effects of Training-Cluster A......................... 52
Simple Effects of Training-Cluster A....................... 53
Simple Effects of Time-Cluster A........................... 53
Main Effects of Training-Cluster B......................... St
Simple Effects of Training-Cluster B....................... St
Simple Effects of Time-Cluster B........................... 55
Other Significant Differences.............................. 55
Children's Behavior in Group Interaction................... 56
me-umdmsmmu.u.u.u.u.u.u.u.n.n.n.u.u.u.58
Overview................................................... 58
Methodological Considerations.............................. 59

Student Behavior Differences............................... 62

 

TABLE OF cor-ITEMS (CONT 'D.)

Permissiveness vs. Restrictiveness......................... 63

Child BehaVior Differences...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0000... 66

Fantasy BehaViOrOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.... 67

Content Analysis of Children's Fantasy Behavior............ 70

Fantasy AggreSSionOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... 76

SOCial DiStance Behavior..................................o 7?

The Relationship Between Student and Child Behavior
DifferenceSOOOOOOO0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.000.000.00... 78

Implications for Training and Education.................... 83

Implications for Child Development......................... 87

Implications for Future Research........................... 89

BBLIOKPAH'IYO...O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOCOOC00....O... 91

Appendix AOOOOOOOOOOO0..O.0..OOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOQO0.0.0....0...... 97

A ppendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

Appendix

Appendix
Appendix

Appendix

Appendix

B.
C.
D.
E.

F.

G.
H.

I.

J.

Ages of children in months............................ 98
Sensitivity to children reading list.................. 99
Rules for playing with children...................... 101
Categorization of undergraduate behavior............. 102

Categorization of children's behavior with
undergrad‘lateOOOO0.000000000000000IO0.0.00.0...I00... 105

Categorization of children's behavior in groups...... 108
Intercorrelations of all dependent variables......... llO

Analyses of variance of children's dependent
variableSOOQOOOOOO...00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCC 112

Analyses of variance of student dependent
variableSOOQOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO000...... 11h

vi

Table
Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table
Table

Table

Table
Table

Table

Table
Table
Table

Table

10

ll

12

13

1h

16

17

LIST OF TABLES

Ages of children in months............................... 98
Intercorrelations of selected child dependent variables.. bl

Intercorrelations of selected student dependent

variableSOOOOOOOO000......OOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOO0.00...... 14:2

Intercorrelations of selected child variables with
selected student variables............................... Lb

Overall mean.difference scores of Cluster 1 variables.... h?

Mean difference scores for 20th play session for
variables with significant interaction (Cluster 1)....... h8

Comparison of means over time within experimental group
for three Cluster 1 variables with significant time

effeCtSoooo000.00.00.00000000000.0000000.000000000000000. 14/0

Overall mean difference scores of Cluster 2 variables.... 50
Overall mean difference scores for Cluster 3 variables... 51

Paired comparisons of mean differences between levels for ,
variables with significant time main effects (Cluster 3). 52

Overall mean difference scores for Cluster A variables... 53
Overall mean difference scores for Cluster B variables... 55

Mean difference scores of children's behavior in group

interaction..............................................

Content of children's fantasy behavior................... 72
Intercorrelations of all dependent variables............ llO
Analyses of variance of children's dependent variables.. ll2

Analyses of variance of student dependent variables..... 11h

vii

0 O O.

'
0‘.
.O9
040'

a

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Overview

The purpose of the present investigation is to study system»
atically the effects of training college students in skills associated
with effective interaction in an adult—child relationship. The effects
of training are investigated in two general areas: changes in the
behavior of the undergraduate and changes in the behavior of children
as a result of interaction with undergraduates in training.

In recent years, the use of "nonprofessionals" as agents of
behavior change has become an issue of increasing importance to various
"helping" disciplines. The issue has increased in importance both as a
result of the shortage of professional personnel and as a result of
serious questions about the efficacy of traditional intervention
techniques.

Several assumptions underlie the basic approach and design of this
study. To varying degrees, these assumptions have theoretical and
empirical support. The assumptions will initially be offered here, to
be followed by a discussion of their formulation.

Assumptions

 

1. There is a vital need for broadening our current conception of the

mental health worker to include sub- or nonprofessionals not tradition-

2
ally associated with psychologically therapeutic and/or preventive
roles.

2. While the nonprofessional has been shown to be capable of
performing some traditionally professional roles, there has been
little empirical evaluation of their effectiveness as agents of be-
havior change. While this criticism is levied at the nonprofessional,
it applies to all research in psychotherapy. Research should therefore
concern itself with the effectiveness of all individuals involved in
"helping" professions, both in terms of interactional process and in
terms of client outcome.

3. In an adult-child relationship, certain responses of the
adult can facilitate the child's interpersonal and intrapersonal
development. These reSponses generally involve a communication of
understanding and reSpect and a willingness to participate with the
child in his mastery of various tasks and emotional states.

h. Positive mental health in children may be associated with
certain behaviors, including verbalizations of awareness about the
self and others, ceping behaviors such as the appropriate expression
of aggression, fantasy play, and mastery of objects, and interper-
sonal behaviors such as c00peration, affection, and attention to and
recognition of another person.

5. One effective research design involves the use of training
control groups, i.e., groups which have similar contact with similar
frequencies, but which are not eXposed to the behaviors presumed
responsible for change.

6. Outcome research generally fails to measure behavior outside

of the eXperimental setting. A more effective and valid assessment of

3

outcomes can occur through the measurement of behavior in a variety

of settings.

PART ONE
THE NONPROFESSIONAL

The Manpower Shortage

 

'Within the last decade there has been increasing attention paid to
the unmet social needs of large segments of the papulation, including
needs related to mental health. Hollingshead and Redlich (l96h) found
the sole determining factor in what kind of mental treatment an individ-
ual received was his socioeconomic class. Hobbs (l96h) deplores such
findings, yet quite Optimistically states that we are in "mental health's
third revolution":

Pinel led the first, bringing humane concern for the mentally
ill; Freud led the second, bringing passionate attention to
the intrapsychic life of man; the third revolution, now in
the making, is appropriately a corporate effort without an
eponym as yet. Mental health, always a public health problem,
is finally adopting public health strategies, with strong
support from some quarters and resistance from others. (p.l)

Given this awareness of the direction which mental health services
seem to be approaching, there have been frequent conferences on the lack
of available manpower. In a monograph prepared for the Joint Cosmission
for Mental Health and Illness, Albee (1963) warned that the limitations
on numbers of personnel who were available for professional training in
mental health was increasing. Within the next few years, the demand for
professional services will greatly exceed the supply of workers. In a

series of discussions, Hobbs (1963, l96h, l96ha) has repeatedly stressed

the profound lack of personnel, under the qualifications currently set

S
forth for involvement in mental health work. Guerney (1968) reiterates
all of the above. He Speculates that our awareness of the manpower
deficit is due to an increasing sense of social responsbility in all
areas of public welfare. He also credits the awareness of the manpower
problem to a gain in faith in the effectiveness of mental health services.

An awareness of the manpower problem is only a small part of what
most writers consider to be a greater issue, that of Hobbs' third revo-
lution. This revolution essentially rejects the medical model of abnor-
mal behavior and concerns itself with problems in living of all individ-
uals (Szasz, 1960). The revolution also stresses the assumption of
public reSponsibility for the deve10pment, treatment, and prevention of
mental illness. Implicitly, the efficacy of the traditional one to one,
fifty minute hour, as a preferred means of intervention, is seriously
questioned. Hobbs (l96h) argues that at least fifty percent of all work
done in the community mental health center should be aimed at developing
preventative techniques with children. This emphasis would facilitate
reaching as many individuals as possible.

Reiff (1966) suggests two alternative solutions to the manpower
problem. One alternative is to set in motion the currently existing
mechanisms to produce more of what is already available to the public,
e.g., psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers. Another alter-
native is to distribute professional roles over a wider range of the
pOpulation. That is, traditional "professional" services may be assumed
by less highly trained, nonprofessional individuals. Reiff also
suggests that, given the current trend described, neither of these
approaches is a suitable solution to our mental health needs. He

argues that the training of more professionals is a physical impossibil-

,1

 

6

ity, and the distribution of professional roles into subprofessional
classifications results in a stagnant maintenance of the status quo.
One assumption implicit in dividing up professional reSponsibilities is
that the 22}: problem is one of manpower shortage. That is, the efficacy
of existing techniques is not questioned. These techniques are simply
alloted to other individuals. Reiff argues against that assumption:

Nothing could be farther from.the truth. The mental health

professional's posture is not that of a group of people with

a successful product harrassed by a clamoring demand, it is

more like a group of deSperate men struggling to hold back

a flood, and who cannot find the hole in the dike. (p. Shh)

The implications of Reiff's argument are far reaching. They
suggest that (l) empirical justification of the professional's services
is grossly lacking, (2) that our needs to resolve the manpower shortage
may cause us to forget about evaluating those techniques we want others
to assume, and (3) all techniques, either existing ones or newly devel-
Oped strategies, must take into account the degree to which large
numbers or pe0ple are assisted in dealing with life's problems. The
latter implication suggests that the distribution of professional roles
to less trained personnel is ill advised, unless these roles are meeting
the needs of the peeple.

Because of the multi-dimensionality of the manpower problem, i.e.,
needing more services, more services which effectively reach larger
numbers of p60ple, and more evaluation of these services, research in
the area of nonprofessionals must necessarily deal with several issues.
A major issue appears to be the degree to which nonprofessional can be
trained to be effective with peOple. Another issue appears to be the

degree to which skills which the nonprofessional develops are indeed

effective. A final issue appears to be the degree to which the non-

7

professional influences large numbers of peOple.

Guerney (1968) refers to the training of nonprofessionals and the
simultaneous evaluation of their skills as a "bidirectional approach".
Bierman (1969) advocates this kind of research:

Twin issues are Opening up for investigation: the modifi-

cation of interpersonal behavior repetories of child care
agents via modeling and behavior shaping procedures and
the effects of the modified behavior repetories on child-
ren. (p- 3h9).

Teachers, parents, undergraduates, and other nonprofessional
personnel who function within currently existing institutions such as
the school, the community, and the family, can facilitate change. The

training of nonprofessionals may increase the effectiveness of (or

initiate) that change.

8

Research Directions in the Use of the Nonprofessional

 

To give some indication of the increased use of the nonprofessional
in the mental health field, Golann (1968) has conceptualized the strat-
egies of community psychology into four categories: (1) helper linked
strategies, such as mental health lay counseling, (2) service linked
strategies, such as using parents as behavior therapists, (3) recipient
linked strategies, such as those involving specific p0pulations, e.g.,
pregnant women, and (h) location linked strategies, such as community
action programs. In all of these varied strategies, non professionals,
such as housewives, college undergraduates, and undefined volunteers
have served in positions of primary reSponsibility.

The research on the use of the nonprofessional in the mental health
field has been extensively documented by Carkhuff (1968) and Guerney
(1968). 'With the compilation and comparisons of all studies in this
area, several directions for future research become evident.

Essentially it has already been demonstrated that nonprofessionals
can be trained to perform presumably therapeutic behaviors in inter-
action with people seeking help. Studies demonstrate that increased
ratings of empathy, genuineness and nonpossessive warmth occur as a
result of minimal training of hospital attendants, college under-
graduates, school teachers, and community volunteers (Carkhuff, 1968).
Research has also demonstrated that parents (Guerney, 1966, Stover and
Guerney, 1967) and college students (Stollak, 1968, Linden and Stollak,
1969, Zax, Cowen, and Laird, 1967) and housewives (Rioch, Elkes, Flint,
Udansky, Newman and Sibler, 1963) can be trained to perform presumably
therapeutic behaviors with disturbed children.

There is a more limited indication that nonprofessionals can cause

/‘\

O
I
. ‘ .
. 4
C
o
r ~
.
. e
.
e . (

a o e e

, \

 

9
constructive client change. Carkhuff (1968) lists over 20 studies in
support of this conclusion. Few, however, can be considered adequate
in terms of validity and/or research methodology. For example, Pbser
(1966) reports that college undergraduates caused significant behavior-
al changes in chronic schiZOphrenics through group psychotherapy.
Change is measured by test-retest scores on digit tapping, visual re-
action time, word associations and other dubiously relevant outcome
measures. In addition what the undergraduates did in their inter-
actions with the patients is not reported (Rosenbaum, 1966). .Another
study (Harvey, 196h) reports that community volunteers are success-
fully used in marital counseling in Australia. Success is only re-
ported and no data are offered to support the conclusion.

From the two general findings discussed, and from an examination
of the literature to which these findings refer, there appear to be
several lacks in the research on the use of the nonprofessional.

While the deficiencies refer to the literature of the nonprofessional,
they are also relevant to research in psychotherapy in general (which
will not be reviewed here).

The most obvious problem is the lack of empirical studies, par-
ticularly in connection with outcome. Of the 20 studies summarized by
Carkhuff (1968), only five have empirically demonstrated the effective-
ness of the nonprofessional in terms of some kind of outcome measure.

A more subtle problem has to do with the tendency to restrict
investigations to either the training process, e.g., Linden and Stollak,
(1969) or to the outcome of nonprofessional intervention, e.g., Poser
(1966). Specifically, there exists abundant evidence that nonprofess-

ionals can be trained to function at high levels of empathy, genuine-

/\

 

10
ness, and nonpossessive warmth (Berenson, Carkhuff and Myrus, 1966,
Carkhuff and Truax, 1965, Demos, 196k). In addition, there are approx-
imately 20 studies which support the idea that nonprofessionals can
cause constructive client change. Then there is the third area of
research which investigates the central ingredients of effective psycho-
therapy. Most often these are found to be empathy, genuineness, and
nonpossessive warmth (Truax and Carkhuff, 1967). The relationship
between the ability to assume supposed effective psychotherapeutic
behavior and the effectiveness of these behaviors has thus far come
mainly through the juxtaposition of these three kinds of investigations.

Ideally, integrated studies are needed which simultaneously demonstrate

 

the ability to assume effective behaviors on the part of the nonprofess-
ional and the specific effects of these behaviors on measures of client
outcome.

A third obvious deficiency in the research conducted thus far has
been the relative absence of adequate control groups. Frank (1959),
and Imber et. a1 (1957) have suggested the problem to be character-
istic of all forms of intervention research. The most frequently used
control group is the "no treatment control". This group represents
people who are in need of help, but who receive no treatment from a mental
health facility. Unfortunately, it has been found (Frank, 1959) that
these controls often seek help elsewhere. Also, no treatment is some-
times considered unethical. Finally, "no treatment" control groups
leave room for any part of the human contact to be responsible for
constructive client change.

Other kinds of control groups have been suggested. For example,

Heinicke (1965, 1969) has compared the effects of two different treat-

ll

ment conditions of the readjustment on disturbed children. The treatment
conditions differed in frequency of therapy sessions-once weekly vs. four
times weekly. Carkhuff (1968) emphasizes the importance of comparing
different kinds of treatment in evaluation the skills of the nonprofess-
ional:

Of course all this is not to say that any form of psy-

chological treatment is significantly more effective in

eliciting constructive client movement and outcome than

other forms of activities. In order to determine this,

studies are needed which incorporate treatment control

groups of patients which meet for the same amount of time

for different kinds of activities. (p. 122)

In conclusion, future research in the training and the effective-
ness of nonprofessionals might beneficially attempt to incorporate at
least three relatively unexplored means of evaluation: (1) more rigid
objectification of data, (2) the inclusion in the same study of an
analysis of both the effects of training nonprofessionals on the behavior
of the nonprofessional, and on the behavior of the client with whom the

nonprofessional comes in contact, and (3) the use of training control

groups in an attempt to Specify the process variables associated with

successful outcome.

12

Effective Interaction With Children
The present section discussed those behaviors which might be

emphasized in training nonprofessionals to be effective in their inter-
action with Children. Data are drawn frombtwo sources: the writing of
client centered play therapists, and research in parent child relation-
ships.
Client Centered Approaches

In general, all client centered play therapists emphasize the
importance of communicating to the child an understanding of his feelings,
thoughts, and behavior in an atmosphere of warm, permissive acceptance
(Ginott, 1961, 1966, MOustakas, 1959, Dorfman, 1951, Axline, 19h7).

Thus Moustakas (1959) writes:

...The therapist listens in order to understand aniempathize
with the emotional expressions of the child...In therapy the
child feels the complete, undivided attention of the adult...
He feels the warm human empathy of the adult...the therapist
conveys his unqualified acceptance and reSpect...Thus in this
approach to child therapy, the central focus is on the emer-
gence of a significant relationship in which the adult main-
tains a deep concern for the growth of the child, a special
interest in his individuality, and an educated talent for
sensing, feeling, understanding, examining, and exploring the
child's experience with him. (p. 3-6)

In play therapy, the therapist's communication of understanding of
the child is eXpressed primarily through reflective behavior (Moustakas,
Sigel, and Schalock, 1956, Truax and Carkhuff, 1967). Ginott (1966)
gives an example in which reflective behavior is used during a typical
home crisis;

When a child tells us, "The teacher spanked me", we do not

have to ask him for more details...we know that a child must

feel when he is shamed in public...we so phrase our words that

the child knows we understand what he has gone through. ‘Any

of the following statements would serve well:

It must have been terribly embarrassing.

13

It must have made you furious.
You must have hated the teacher at that moment.
It must have hurt your feelings terribly.

The purpose of reflective behavior is to provide the child with
knowledge about himself.

How can we help a child know his feelings? ‘We can do so by
serving as a mirror to his emotions. A child learns about
his physical likeness by seeing his image in a mirror. He
learns about his emotional likeness by hearing his feelings
reflected by us. (Ginott, 1966, p. 27)

The communication of acceptance of the child essentially occurs in
an atmosphere of warmth and permissiveness. Behaviorally, permissive-
ness occurs through the relative absence of limits, directions, or
controls (Axline, 19h7, Moustakas, 1959, Ginott, 1966). This does not

imply the absence of appropriate limits, as the following example

demonstrates:

Tim: This isn't your house. 19m going to stay.

Mr. M: You say you're not, but I say you are.

Tim: Youlre a bad boy. My daddy will come and beat you up.

Mr. M: I won't let you stay so you want to hurt me.

Tim: My mommy will come and play with me and stay and we'll
never leave. I'm going to tell her how you're bad.
You'll see. She'll come. This will be our home.

Mr. M: I understand how much you want to have here here, but
when you walk out the door I'll close the room and you
won't be able to come back until next week. (Moustakas,
1959, p. ha)

All of the writers agree that when limits must be set, they should be set
with sufficient explanations.

'Warmth is expressed to the child in many ways. One frequent be-
havioral expression of warmth is through praise. Ginott (1966) warns

against associating the quality of the child's productions with the

quality of his being. Praise can be helpful or unhelpful. An example
of helpful praise would be "Your letter brought me great joy", since the

child infers from.this statement, "I can bring happiness to others".

/‘

 

 

It
This represents a realistic assessment of himself. Unhelpful praise,
such as "When it comes to letters you are wonderful", give the child an
unrealistic perception of his capabilities.

Behaviors which might be contraindicative of warm feelings towards
the child are ones which essentially convey disapproval, rejection, or
dislike of the child as a person. Client centered therapists distin-
guish between disapproval of the child's behaviors and disapproval of
the child's self, the latter being detrimental to the child.

.Another behavior which is stressed by client centered therapists
is the statement of the therapist's own feelings, and his general
comfort with himself.

I saw that I must step playing the role of the professional

therapist and allow my potentials, talents and skills, my

total experience as a human being to blend naturally into

the relationship with the child. (Moustakas, 1959, p. 201)
Ginott (1966) recommends that parents verbalize their own feelings in
times of frustration with the child. For example:

When I see the shoes and the socks and the sweaters spread

all over the floor, I get angry, I get furious. I feel like

throwing the whole mess into the street. (p. 58)
Finally, a basic attitude common to most client centered play therapists
is that "the therapist does not attempt to direct the child's actions
or conversations in any manner. The child leads the way, the therapist
follows" (Axline, 196k). This suggests that the therapist would tend to
ask few questions, would comply with the requests of the child, and
would participate with the child in his fantasy play in a reciprocal

fashion.

15
Research in Parent-child Relationships

Several studies have investigated those parent behaviors and
attitudes which are associated with some aspect of effective psycho-
social functioning in children. The findings are not always consistent.
This is perhaps due to the many variables studied, the differences in
definition and methodology, and the importance of intervening variables.

COOpersmith (1967) studied children with varying degrees of self
esteem. Subjects were public school children, judged by both subjective
and behavioral indices. ‘Differences in degrees of self esteem were
associated with differences in child rearing practices. Generally, it
was found that the antecedents of self esteem could be described in
terms of three conditions: (1) total or nearly total acceptance of the
child by the parents, (2) clearly defined and enforced limits and (3)
the respect and latitude that exist within.the defined limits.

In effect we can conclude that parents of children with high
self esteem are concerned with and attentive towards their
children, that they structure the worlds of their children
along the lines they believe to be apprOpriate, and that they
permit relatively great freedom within the structure they have
established. (p. 236)

Baumrind (1967) compared three groups of nursery school children
who were assessed through naturalistic observation to be characterized
by different degrees of social competence. She compared a group which
was self reliant, assertive, self controlled, buoyant and affiliative
with a group considered lacking in self control, lacking self reliance,
and tending to retreat from novel situations, and with a withdrawn,
discontent and distrustful group. Parents of these three groups of
children were given questionnaires and observed in home interaction

with their children. Results showed that parents of the first group

were, controlling, demanding, communicative and loving, parents of the

16
second group were non controlling, demanding and warm, and parents of
the third group were controlling and detached.

Further analysis of the data from same subjects yielded the
following Specific results: (1) Parental warmth is not an important
predictor of child behavior; (2) Punitive attitudes were not associated
with fearful or compliant behavior. On the contrary, particularly for
girls, they were associated with independent and domineering behavior.
(3) Consistent parental discipline was associated with independence
and assertiveness in boys and affiliativeness in girls. (h) Maternal
maturity demands were also associated with independence and assertive-
ness in boys and in girls. (5) Verbal give and take by parents when
controlling their children was associated with social competence in
children. (6) Restrictiveness and refusal to grant sufficient
independence was associated in boys with passive and dependent be-
havior. (Baumrind and Black, 1967). The authors conclude:

...the findings suggest that parental practices which are

intellectually stimulating and to some extent tension pro-

ducing (socialization and maturity demands, punitiveness,

firmness) are associated in the young child with various

aspects of competence... (p. 327)

Hoffman (1963) studied the parental correlates of children.who
were judged considerate of others. Results showed that parents
who, in the context of a nonypower relationship with their children,
were: (1) warm, (2) clear about the consequences of their children's
behavior towards others, and (3) eXplanatory while administering
discipline or punishment, had children who were highly considerate of
others.

Hatfield, Ferguson, and Alpert (1967) studied the interactional

behavior of hO mother-child pairs during two half-hour periods. Maternal

 

1?

behavior variables and child behavior variables were investigated.
Groups of child behaviors investigated included dependency-independence,
warmth and achievement, aggression, adult role behavior, reactions to
deviations and identification. Some of the major findings were the
following: Boy's dependency was related to maternal warmth whereas
boy's independence was associated with low maternal directiveness,
low maternal hostility and low maternal use of models. Girl's depend-
ency was related to the mother's rewarding of dependency and her lack
of concern with neatness, whereas girl's independence was related to
maternal pressure and maternal rewarding of adult role behavior. Boy's
indirect aggression was associated with maternal hostility and punitive-
ness, whereas girl's indirect aggression was associated with maternal
punishment of both dependency and independence behaviors. Adult role
behavior in boys was associated with maternal laissez faire behaviors
and in girls with maternal use of models and maternal comfort with
feminine identity. Factor analysis of maternal behaviors resulted in
two orthogonal dimensions, laissez faire vs. involvement and love vs.
hostility. Various behaviors associated with each of the quadrants
were discussed.

Rowland and Ferguson (1969) analysed mother-son interaction
sequences in responses to the son's frustration. S's were 30 boys,
age 7-9, and their mothers. A high and a low group were differen-
tiated in terms of teacher's ratings of boys' self control, self-suff-
iciency, and achievement motivation. An extremely difficult puzzle
represented the frustration situation. Results were analyzed in terms
of both behavioral observations and circumplex ratings of verbal be-

havior. In the behavioral observation, results indicated High (self

18

control, self sufficiency, achievement motivation) boys reacted to the
frustration with constructive reSponses, whereas lows tended to become
aggressive and regressive. High mothers responded nondirectively to
their son's behavior; low mothers tended to reSpond negatively and
restrictively. Response distributions of each of the boy's behavior
variables were also analysed. One important finding was that High
mothers reSponded to the boy's constructive activity significantly
more nondirectively, whereas Low mothers responded to the same behavior
negatively. Sequential analyses of both mother-son and son-mother
interactions were also performed. One general finding was that inter-
actions of mothers of Low boys could be described as maintaining a
relationship where the mother is dominant and protective, and the son
is dependent and negative. Interactions between.High mothers and their
sons were described as "mutually assertive" in which the son is pos-
itive, assertive, and self sufficient and the mother is willing to
grant autonomy to her child.

Becker (l96h) has organized a comprehensive review of research
on "Consequences of parent discipline". His findings are summarized
in terms of two dimensions: permissiveness vs. restrictiveness and
warmth vs. hostility. Some of the findings were:

The counter aggression generating prOperties of hostility

are apparent in both permissiveéhostile and restrictive-

hostile parents. In the former, aggression is expressed

with little control. In the latter, aggression is express-

ed in certain safe areas (with peers) but is more likely to

be inhibited and turned against the self, or be revealed

in manifestation of internal conflict...

The findings for the warm-permissive condition are

associated with maximizing socially outgoing character—

istics and individuality. The child with warm-permissive

parents is socialized mainly through love, good models,

reasons and a trial and error learning of hos his actions

(which are a bit uncontrolled at times) have an impact on
Others. 0 e (p. 198).

19

In a comprehensive review of investigations in the "Dimensions
of Interpersonal Facilitation," Bierman (1969) discussed behaviors
which have been associated with the facilitation of the child's well
being. "Democratic guidance and stimulating expressiveness in the
context of warm acceptance and attentive understanding would appear
to provide Optimal conditions for child well being" (Bierman, 1969,
p. 3h8). Bierman stresses, however, that the dimensions of inter-
personal facilitation have been demonstrated by prior reseach in social
behavior to be orthogonal. That is, the same behavior occurring in
the context of warmth (as opposed to hostility) can have a different
effect on the child.

In summary, the larger studies on parent-child interaction
(Becker, 196h, Hatfield, Ferguson, and Alpert, 1967, Baumrind and Black,
1967 and Rowland and Ferguson, 1969) have demonstrated the importance

of the interaction context of behaviors in determining the effects of

 

specific discrete behaviors which are associated with children's
effective functioning without considering these behaviors in the
context of many other variables. ‘Nevertheless, the findings from
research in parent-child relationships suggest certain behaviors to
be more frequently associated with effective functioning children.
These behaviors are incorporated in the following paragraph.

Effective Responses

 

Drawing from all of the above, the emphasis in training college
undergraduates to be effective in their interactions with children
might be on the following behaviors: (1) behaviors associated with
understanding the child, e.g., Reflection of verbal content, Reflection

of feelings, Reflection of motor behavior, and Interpretation; (2)

f.

20
behaviors associated with the expression of positive feelings towards
the child, e.g., Praise of behavior, Affection, and global warmth;
(3) behaviors associated with apprOpriate control and participation,
e.g., Setting limits with explanations, Orienting, Clarifying com-
pliance, Giving help, and Reciprocal participation in fantasy behavior,
and (h) behaviors associated with the undergraduate's eXpression of
himself as an individual, e.g., Statements of own emotion and global
Genuineness.

Those behaviors which might be de-emphasized on the basis of the
findings in the literature are: (l) behaviors associated with non
acceptance of the child, e.g., Criticism, Asking questions, Praise
person on the basis of behavior, and global Rejection-hostility, and
(2) behaviors associated with over or under control of the child,

e.g., Direction, Setting limits without eXplanations, Initiating fantasy

behavior, Non attention, and Unclarified compliance.

[I

PART TWO

POSITIVE MENTAI.HEAITH IN CHIIDREN

The present section examines some behaviors which might be associ»
ated with mental health in children, i.e., effective psychosocial
functioning.

Determining what behaviors might be associated with mental health
is an evaluative process, bounded by cultural eXpectations, social
roles, self expectations and moral values. Psychologists have repeat-
edly offered constructs of mental health, e.g., Maslow (1950), Lindemann
(1953), Foote and Cottrell (1955), Allport (1960) and Bessell and
Palomares (1968). Jahoda (1958) summarized the constructs pr0posed at
that time: self acceptance, growth, development and actualization,
integration, autonomy, adequate perception of reality and environmental
mastery. Smith (1959) notes: "The inventories repeat themselves...
since each is pr0posed by a wise psychologist who scrutinizes previous
proposals and introduces variations and emphases to fit his own values
and preferences...(p. 30h).

The problem then seems to involve an adequate translation of con-
ceptualizations of mental health into more specific behaviors. The
present study attempts to derive specific behaviors which would be
expected to occur under Optimal conditions of playroom interaction
with an effective adult, and which would be consistent with the con-
ceptualization of mental health prOposed by Bessell and Palomares (1968).
Bessell and Palomares (1968) discuss the effective communication of

awareness of one's self and of others, mastery, and effective social-

21

22
ization as three important areas of effective functioning. Effective
communication of awareness refers to the ability of the child to com-
prehend and verbalize the feelings, thoughts and behaviors of one's
self and of others. Theoretically, children's awareness of them-
selves and of others may serve to circumvent the mechanism of repress-
ion and subsequent pathological defense mechanisms.

Mastery refers to effective c0ping, both in terms of the acquisi-
tion and possession of skills, and in terms of the successful manage-
ment of drives and effectance needs. According to Bessell and Palomares
(1968), effective COping is associated with a high degree of self
confidence.

Effective socialization refers to the ability to establish good
social relationships. Children's development of interpersonal skills
is important in the total socialization process, i.e., alienation and
rejections from peers and authorities can be associated with psycho-
pathology (Szasz, 1960).

Assuming these constructs to be important in the effective function-
ing of the child, certain behaviors hopefully would be facilitated in
interaction with a trained college undergraduate. Specifically, one
might expect an increase in (l) verbal behaviors which comnunicate a
comprehension of one's own feelings thoughts and behaviors and of
other's feelings thoughts and behaviors, (2) c0ping behaviors which
reflect the child's attempt to acquire skills and manage drives and
other needs, and (3) interpersonal behaviors which increase the quality
of the relationship between the undergraduate and the child.

The specific children behaviors which appear to be relevant in

assessing the efficacy of training undergraduates in interactional

23
skills are derived from the three general behavior categories described
above. The behavior categories associated with the general category
of verbal comprehension skills are: (1) Statement of personal thought
or behavior, (2) Statement of personal feelings, (3) Statement of
other's personal thoughts, behavior or feelings, and (h) Statement of
espectation, intention, or prediction. The behavior categories associ-
ated (positively or negatively) with the general category of effective
c0ping behavior are: (l) the attempt to develop skills with objects
(Object mastery), (2) the eXpression of Aggression, (3) Fantasy be-
havior, (h) switching interest or activity (Change involvement), (5)
eXpressing affect diffusely (Excitement), and (6) Seeking help. The
behaviors associated (positively or negatively) with the general
category of Interpersonal skills are: (l) expressing Affection, (2)
assuming the dominant role (Dominant participation), (3) not paying
attention (Non attention), (h)'Direction of the undergraduate, and
(5) Not reSponding to the undergraduate (Non recognition).

Research Findings

 

This section presents a brief review of some of the findings
relevant to the behaviors enumerated above. Findings are generally
discussed in terms of studies of children's awareness behaviors,
children's coping behaviors, including aggression and fantasy, and
children's interpersonal behaviors.

Studies in children's comprehension of feelings thoughts and
behaviors have, with a few exceptions, been limited to verbal reSponses
to pictorial content. For example, Dymond (1952) compared second
graders with sixth graders on their responses to a modified TAT with

the attached question of "What do you suppose they are thinking and

2h
feeling?" The major findings of studies of children's reSponses to
pictorial content are: (1) Age is a significantly associated with the
comprehension and expression of feelings, thoughts and behavior
(Gilbert, 1969, Whiteman, 1967, Feshbach and Roe, 1967, Ruderman,
1962, Dupont, 1959, Dymond, 1952), (2) Positive feelings are more fre-
quently expressed than negative ones (Dupont, 1959, Whiteman, 1967),
(3) Children tend to describe feelings instead of labeling them
(Feshbach and Roe, 1967, Dupont, 1959), (h) Socioeconomic levels
(Whiteman, 1967) and religious affiliations (Gilbert, 1969) are associ-
ated with different degrees in awareness of affect and antecedent of
defensive mechanisms, and (5) The child who is able to verbalize
feelings "is more likely to eXpress a range of affects and to be em-
pathic, imaginative and joyful (Gilbert, 1969), The child who is
casually oriented, i.e., aware of casuality in interpersonal relation-
ships, is more likely to be less anxious, more democratic in attitude,
more tolerant of ambiguous stimuli, less intrapunitive, and more con-
cerned with understanding before deciding (Ojemann, 1955).

Two behaviors defined in this study as coping reSponses (fantasy
and aggression) have received considerable emphasis in research in doll
play. With respect to aggressive behavior the major findings are that
(l) aggression increases from session to session (Hollenberg and Sperry,
1951, Levin and Sears, 1956, Phillips, 1915, Pintler, 1916, Sears, 1951,
and Siegel and Kohn, 1959), (2) Boys, are more aggressive than girls
(Krall, 1951, Johnson, 1951), and (3) The presence of an adult can
facilitate the expression of aggression (Sears, 1951, Yarrow, 19h8,
Hollenberg and Sperry, 1951, Siegel and Kohn, 1959). All of the findings

concerning aggression in doll play are summarized by Levin and'Wardell

f.

,4.

 

25
(1962).

A significant finding in several studies investigating adult-child
relationships in a playroom setting has been the association between
the expression of aggression and negative attitudes and a warm permissive
atmosphere (Landisberg and Snyder, 19hh, Moustakas, 1955) and reflective
behavior, (Stover and Guerney, 1967, Stollak, 1968).

Extensive research on children's aggressive behavior has been done
outside the playroom setting, e.g., Bandura and Walters, (1959), and
Sears, Maccoby and Levin (1957). However, these studies will not be
discussed here.

Children's fantasy behavior has, with the exception of doll play
research, not been the subject of much empirical research (Klinger,
1969). The dimension of "stereotyped reSponses" in doll play research
has essentially investigated the degree tO‘WhiCh toys (dolls) have been
uses "appropriately and in routine action and situations" (Levin and
wardell, 1962). What is referred to in this study as Fantasy behavior
(Appendix F.) is referred to in doll play research as "nonstereotyped
reSponses". The findings with reSpect to this variable are:(l) Girls
show more stereotyped reSponses than boys, (2) the amount of stereotyped
responses decreased from session to session, and (3) "high levels of
eXperimenter interaction" have been associated with nonstereotyped
reSponses (Pintler, l9h5).

Studies of children's interpersonal behavior in interaction with
significant adults have already been discussed in the review of research
in parent-child relation. Other studies have investigated children's
social behavior in peer groups through naturalistic observation (Bridges,

1931, Isaacs, 1935, Murphy, 1939) and learning theory analysis (wahler,

26

1967, Kahn, 1966, Hartup, 196b, Hartup and Coates, 1967, Hartup and
Glazer, 1967, Charlesworth and Hartup, 1967, Stith, 1962, and Handlon
and Gross, 1959). The major finding in the learning theory analyses is
that the behavior of the child is subject to the reinforcement control
of other children. Some of the major variables which constitute rein-
forcement are attention, initiating activity, status, dominant behavior,
giving affection acceptance and tokens, and submissiveness. ‘For a
complete review of learning theory analyses of children's social behavior,
the reader is referred to Stevenson (l96h).
Summary

Several issues have'been discussed. The need for more manpower in
the mental health profession has resulted in several attempts to use
untrained and partially trained personnel in various roles. Concom-
itantly, there has been increased concern with focusing therapeutic,
interventive and preventive practices on young children, implicitly
calling for some determination of what behaviors constitute effective
responses to children in interaction with them, and of what behaviors
constitute effective psychosocial functioning in children. 'With
respect to research in mental health intervention strategies, studies
have suffered most from a lack of apprOpriate control groups.

The present investigation attempts to provide information about
the issues discussed above. Specifically, the present study investigates
the training of college undergraduates in Specific skills related to
playroom interaction with children and the impact of training on certain
behaviors in the children with whom the undergraduates interact. Using
a "training control group" of students and children who interact togeth-

er under similar conditions but without exposure to the training con-

J'I

 

 

27

dition, the efficacy of training can be more effectively evaluated.

Also, the employment of children's outcome measures in two different

settings may provide more information about the validity of the

findings.

Hypotheses

 

1a.

lb.

2a.

Undergraduates being trained to become more skilled in their inter-
actions with children will demonstrate significantly greater incre-
ments in effective reSponses to children than undergraduates who
are not trained to become more skilled in.their interactions with
children. ReSponses considered effective are: Reflection of verbal
content, Reflection of feelings, Reflection of motor activity,
Interpretation, Reciprocal participation in fantasy behavior,
Clarification of compliance, Giving help, Praise behavior, Affect-
ion, Warmth, Setting limits with eXplanation, Orienting, State-
ment of own emotion and Genuineness.

Undergraduates being trained to become more skilled in their inter-
actions with children will demonstrate significantly greater
decrements in ineffective responses to children than undergraduates
who are not trained to become more skilled in their interactions
with children. Reaponses considered ineffective are: Criticism,
Asking questions, Rejection, Direction, Setting limits without
explanation, Initiating fantasy behavior, Unclarified compliance,
and Nonattention.

Children who experience an intensive relationship with a trained
undergraduate will demonstrate significantly greater decrements in
reSponses considered contraindicative of effective psychosocial

functioning than will children.who experience a relationship with

3.

28
an untrained undergraduate. Contraindicative responses are:
Non attention, Non recognition, Direction, Change involvement,
Excitement, and Dominant participation.
The development of effective psychosocial behaviors in children
who interact with trained undergraduates is generalizable to their
interactions with other children. That is, those children who
interact with trained undergraduates will danonstrate greater
increments in effective psychosocial reSponses in interactions
with other children than will children who interact with untrained
undergraduates. Effective psychosocial reSponses in the group
setting are measured by verbal comprehension behaviors, adequate
coping measures, and interpersonally facilitating behaviors

(Appendix G).

 

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Undergraduate subjects

 

Through an advertisement in the college newspaper, undergraduates
were solicited to participate in a year course entitled "Sensitivity to
Children". From the group of approximately fifty respondents, nine]-
students were selected (on the basis of being able to meet at the same
time) to undergo the year long training procedures described below.
The experimental group of nine students consisted of five males and
four females. All were either juniors or SOphomores. They had no
specific major or academic interest in common other than their desire
to learn about children.

These undergraduates were instructed to find one child in the
local community, of their own sex, with whom they would be able to
engage in weekly play sessions in a standard p1ayroom.on campus, for
the entire year. It was further stipulated that the child must be
between the ages of four and seven, and that undergraduates should not
have had any previous contact with the child whom they select. Coup
tracts with children were established using an introductory letter to

parents (Appendix A). Parents were assured that they would be allowed

 

1
Ten were originally selected, but one subject dropped out of school.

29

 

'\

 

30
to observe any or all of their child's play sessions. In addition,
verbal agreements were made between the child and the undergraduate.
Therefore, at least for the first play session, all children were
willing to attend.

A control group of nine undergraduates was randomly selected from
the same pool of reSpondents described above. Using the identical
letter and identical instructions, these students likewise found one
child between the ages of four and seven with whom they would engage
in weekly play sessions. The difference between the control and exper-
imental undergraduates was that the control group of students did not
undergo the training procedures described below. These control students
were informed that, as a result of random selection, they could, if they
so desired, be part of an "independent study" group. The only require-
ment made of them would be their weekly play sessions for the entire
year, and weekly reports based on those sessions. Reading lists
(Appendix C) were distributed, but no assignments were made. Essential-
ly these control students were told that they would be given the Oppor-
tunity to experience a relationship with one child for the academic
year, and that what they learned from their relationship, readings,
thoughts, etc., was entirely of their own choice and pursuit. No
classes would be held until the end of the academic year, at which
time students would be able to air their views, experiences, questions,
etc. Originally, twenty students were informed of their Opportunity
to participate. Of those twenty, fourteen volunteered, and nine were
included in the eXperimental design (five males and four females).

The present study therefore consisted of two groups of nine under~

graduates, each containing five males and four females. The expera

 

31
imental group ("trainees") was eXposed to training in play techniques
with children, while the control group received no such training. The
nine control students simply played with their children once a week.

Child Subjects

 

The eighteen children selected by the undergraduates formed the
experimental and control groups of children. Each group of nine child-
ren consisted of five boys and four girls, ranging in ages from four to
seven years. Exact ages of each child are given in Table 1 (Appendix
B). All children came from white middle class homes. Two children of
each group (one boy and one girl) came from homes where the father was
absent as a result of divorce. One girl in each group did not attend
any kind of school, while the rest of the children attended either
nursery, kindergarten or first grade. All could have been considered
"normal" in the sense that none had manifested any overt signs of mal-
adjustment, and none had been.referred to any mental health facility.
All children had at least one sibling, with the exception of one girl
in the experimental group.

The Training Procedure

 

During the academic year, the experimental group of undergraduates
engaged in continuous training in specific techniques of playing and
talking with children. Techniques were based on a client centered
model of play therapy (Axline, l9h9, Ginott, 1966). Initially, train-
ing took the form of didactic lectures and Specific instructions
(Appendix D). During the first half of the academic year, all students
in the experimental group were observed by the author in live inter-
action with their child. Comments and discussions immediately followed

each observation. Emphasis was placed on helping the undergraduate

32
approach the model of behavior required of him. At the same time,
anxieties about performing adequately were responded to with nondirect-
ive and noncritical remarks. As the students became more comfortable
with the specific techniques, emphasis shifted in individual super-
vision to an understanding of the child's behavior.

Concomitant to the individual supervision provided by the author,
group supervision was led by Dr. Gary E. Stollak. Classes met two
hours weekly, during which video tapes were played of the student's
interaction with his child. The student's behavior was discussed by
both Dr. Stollak and the members of the class. In addition, readings
were periodically discussed (Appendix C).

.An attempt was made to help the undergraduate understand both his
own behavior and the behavior of the child. Theoretical issues and
more phenomenological issues were both discussed in relation to under-
standing behavior. As with individual supervision, group supervision
evolved from an initial didactic approach towards a concentration on
understanding the relationship between student and child.

The Measurement of Student-child Behavior

 

The entire training program consisted of 20 play sessions spread
over six months. All play sessions were spaced one week apart, except
that as a result of term breaks, five weeks elapsed between the 7th and
8th session, and two weeks elapsed between the 15th and 16th session.
Four sessions, the lst, 7th, 13th and 20th were recorded on video tape,
and the behaviors emitted were coded and systematically analyzed. ‘With
the exception of the lst session, each of the video taped sessions
represented the final play session of the term and the latter three

sessions occurred 10-12 weeks apart. The four video taped sessions

{I

I‘

 

33
occurred in a Special playroom, one ordinarily not used for the play
sessions. The room was, however, equipped with the identical toys
used in the regular play sessions, including such standard play equipment
as a bobo doll, puppets, ring toss, musical instruments, knives, guns,
dolls, doll houses, kitchen ware, and crayons with paper.

The Measurement of Child Behavior in Group Interaction

 

Three times during the course of the study each child was asked
to come in on a Saturday morning to play in the Special playroom_for
fifteen minutes with two other children, who were also of the study.
These three sessions of children playing in groups occurred at the
outset of the study (subsequent to the lst session) near the middle
(subsequent to the 13th session) and at the end (subsequent to the
20th session). The sessions were video taped for analysis. Procedures
for designation of specific children were such that no child found
himself playing with the same child on more than one occasion. Presum-
ably, none of the children were acquainted with each other prior to the
beginning of the study. No attempt was made to match sex or age in the
individual triads. Prior to each session, children were introduced to
each other by a Special assistant. The three children were informed that
they would be in the playroom with each other for 15 minutes.
The Coding of Student Behavior

The aim of the training procedures described was to help the under-
graduate develop skills in effectively responding to children. The
major emphasis was on the communication of understanding of the child
in an atmOSphere of permissive acceptance, and on the utilization of
effective controls when necessary. Drawing largely from the literature

on client centered play therapy, research in parent-child relationships,

3b
and the objective behavior categories developed by Moustakas, Sigel,
and Schalock (1956), Specific behavior categories were devised to
assess the responses of the student. These categories have already
been mentioned in a previous section (p. 19). The Specific categories,
including definitions are presented in Appendix E.

The Coding of Child Behavior (Student Interaction)

 

.An important question to which this study addressed itself was
the influence of interaction with a trained undergraduate on the be-
havior of the child. Effective psychosocial functioning in the child
was discussed in terms of several general areas of behavior: (1) verbal-
izations reflecting an awareness and comprehension of the feelings,
thoughts and behavior of the self and other, (2) effective (coping)
responses to situations, activities and internal feelings, and (3)
responses associated with a rewarding interaction with another person.
Specific behavior categories were derived from these areas of interest
and enumerated in a previous section (p. 22). These behavior categories
were used to assess behavioral changes in the children. ‘Definitions of
the categories are presented in Appendix F.

The Coding of Child Behavior (Group Interaction)

 

The fifteen minute triadic play sessions were coded in terms of
the same areas of interest discussed above. However, only three general
behavior categories were used: (1) verbal comprehension skills, (2)
Effective coping skills, and (3) Interpersonal skills. Each of these
categories was viewed as a continuous variable. Ratings from one
(low) to five (high) were made every five minutes for each category.
Definitions and behaviors associated with each rating are presented in

Appendix G.

I.

I)

 

35

The Procedure for Coding Behavior Categories

For both the undergraduate behavior categories and the children's
behavior categories (with the undergraduate), the 20 minute play
sessions were divided into one minute intervals. During each minute
interval, more than one category could be scored for, but each category
could be scored only once. Thus for a given undergraduate or child
behavior category, Scores could range from 0-20 for each play session
coded. As mentioned, the behavior categories used in children's group
interaction were coded from 1-5 every five minutes during the fifteen
minute triadic play sessions.

Training Assistants in the Coding Procedure

 

Two assistants coded each play session for undergraduate behavior
and two other assistants coded the same play sessions for children's
behavior. All four assistants coded for the children's group interaction.
Fater's means for each category were used in the data analysis.

Unaware of the hypotheses of this study, the four assistants
(trained separately) were initially lectured about the categories to
be scored. Discussions followed, definitions were revised and made
more clear, and the assistants then committed the categories and
definitions to memory. Following this, approximately ten hours were
spent viewing video tapes, during which time the assistants tried to
recognize as many of the categories as they could. When it was felt
that the assistants had become competent to code, ten video taped
sessions were coded by the author and each assistant. The author,
acting as "expert" calculated percentage of agreement scores between
himself and each assistant. The agreement scores for each category are

presented in Appendices E and F. For the undergraduate categories,

f.

36
percentage of agreement with the expert ranged from .65 to .99. with a
mean agreement Score of .81. For children's categories, percentage of
agreement ranged from .55 to .87, with a mean of .70.1 Agreement scores
were considerably lower for the children's categories due to the frequent

difficulty of hearing the child.

 

1

No percentage of agreement scores were obtained for categories of
children's behavior in group interaction. .Approximately two hours of
lecturing the four assistants preceded their coding of the group
interaction.

CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS

The design of the present study involved two training conditions
(training vs. no training) sampled at four time periods (sessions 1,
7, 13, and 20), and included the analysis of child and student depend-
ent variables.1 Each dependent measure received a score from 0-20
during each play session-—indicating the frequency of occurrence by
minute interval over a twenty minute play session. Because of the
likelihood of initial individual differences, difference scores were
used. These scores represented differences from the frequencies ob-
tained in the first session, which were used in this study as a stand-
ard base rate.2

Statistical Procedure

 

The procedure for statistical analysis of the dependent variables
initially involved Pearson product moment intercorelations of all de-
pendent measures. An analysis of variance (2x3 with repeated measure

on the latter factor, Winer, 1962) was then performed for each variable--

 

1
Dependent variables of children's behavior in group interaction are
discussed separately (p. 55).

2

An alternative method for obtaining base rates would be an analysis
of covariance. However, no computer program was available for this
design.

37

38

yielding F ratios for the main effect of training, for the main effect
of time, and for the effects of interaction between the two. The
degrees of freedom associated with the F ratio for the training effect
and its appropriate error term were 1 and 16; those associated with the
main effect of time were 2 and 32, and those associated with the inter-
actional effect and its appropriate error term were 2 and 32. For var-
iables with significant interaction effects, simple effects tests were
performed. Variables with significant time main effects were subjected
to the Neuman Keuls test of paired comparisons of mean differences.1

In this chapter, selected intercorrelations of child, student, and
child-student dependent variables are first presented, indicating a
clustering of behaviors within both child and student dependent measures.
0n the basis of these clusters, the results of the analyses of variance
are examined, with Specific attention paid to the main effects of train-
ing, the main effects of time, and where significant interactions occur-
red, to the simple effects of these two conditions. While only partial
data are presented in this section, the data from all intercorrelations
and all analyses of variance are presented in the Appendices (H, I, J).

0f the original 39 behavior categories (17 child and 22 student) 3
child and 5 student behaviors occurred so infrequently during the play
sessions that they were excluded from the statistical analyses: Affection,
Statement of personal feelings in the context of reality, Statement of
personal feelings in the context of fantasy (child behaviors), and

Setting limits with eXplanation, Setting limits without eXplanation,

 

l
The analysis of variance with repeated measures design assumes equiv-
alence of relevant dimensions between measures. 'While the number of
sessions occurring between the coded sessions was not always equal,
the number of weeks between coded sessions was equal.

39

Statement of own emotion, Reflection of feelings, and Compliance unclar-
ified (student behaviors). Each of these categories had total sums of
less than 11 when summed over the 7th, 13th and 20th play sessions. In
addition, the original scores for these categories in the first session
had total sums of less than 10. The remaining 31 dependent measures-
whose frequencies were great enough to allow for meaningful statistical
analysis to be performed--are the subject of this section.

Intercorrelations

 

Table 2 presents intercorrelations of a number of child dependent
variables, selected on the basis of inSpection of all intercorrelations.
Intercorrelations are based on the raw scores of the latter three sess-
ions (7th, 13th, and 20th) summed across both groups. All variables
which were not presented were judged irrelevant in terms of their lack
of Significance and/or their unrelatedness to the patterns of inter-
correlations found.

Inspection of this table reveals that four fantasy variables,
Statement of personal thought or behavior in the context of fantasy,
Statement of interpersonal awareness in the context of fantasy, Fantasy
aggression, and Fantasy behavior are all significantly intercorrelated.
Secondly, three behaviors which appear to be manifestations of social
distance-aNonreCOgnition, Nonattention, and Dominant participation--
are all significantly correlated with each other. Thirdly, three be-
haviors involving concrete reality-~Statement of personal thought or
behavior in the context of reality, Object mastery, and Excitement-
are all Significantly intercorrelated. Lastly, the category Reality
aggression correlates significantly and positively with three of the

four fantasy behaviors, moderately positively with the three social

(I

to
distance behaviors, and significantly and negatively with two of the
three concrete reality behaviors.

A suggestion of clustering is supported by the fact that all of
the fantasy behaviors (Statement of personal thoughts, or behavior,
Statements of interpersonal awareness, Fantasy behavior, and Fantasy
aggression, herein referred to as "Cluster 1") correlate negatively
(with two exceptions all correlations are significant) with all of
the concrete reality behaviors-- Statement of personal thoughts or
behavior in the context of reality, Excitement, and Object mastery--
herein referred to as "Cluster 3", and only moderately positively
with the social distance behaviors-- Nonrecognition, Nonattention and
Dominant participation, i.e., now called "Cluster 2", in turn,
denonstrates consistently negative correlations with Cluster 3 be-
haviors although significance occurs only for the category, "State-
ment of personal thought or behavior in the context of reality"
with all three Cluster 3 behaviors, and for the association between
Dominant participation and Excitement (r-.h9). The category Reality
aggression correlates significantly with all Cluster 1 behaviors,
excluding Statement of personal thought or behavior in the context
of fantasy.

Table 3 presents intercorrelations of selected student variables.
The existence of two clusters of student behavior is readily apparent.
Specifically, the categories, Reflection of verbal content, Reflection
of motor behavior, Interpretation, Compliance clarified, Warmth, and
Reciprocal participation in fantasy are all positively and significantly
intercorrelated. These behaviors will henceforth be referred to as

"Cluster A". Secondly, the categories Asking question, Nonattention,

hl

 

 

hefiamma mo pxopcoo one ca IAmvn H01VQ$$
hempcam mo mxopcoo esp cw nbmwa mo.va*
.....aeepeee eeenpo .HH
gm. Cocooooooflcgopflcé OOH
«an. ape. namv eoaeeees\eemeeae
chowaoe .opwpm om
mw.n ammo: aamooa ......coaammfiowpaad
923.289 om
mm.s mm.l **m©.| #NJ. .......coapcmppwcoz .w
JMO' HMO!- EJWOI *NJO filth-«Ne. .OOOOCOHPfifi—mouméoz .0
**mw.| mmol **©©.| am. mm. mm. .cowmmcammw hpwamcm .m
erme.n ramo.: ems.n we. no. mm. *om. ...eeaeeeen meeeeee .4
ramool 44.: **:N.I 0:. mm. mm. aamw. aamw. .cofimmoammm hempcwh .m
reoe.- aree.- am.. am. me. me. rem. same. eras. .. Aev eeeeeeeee He
Icompmapopefl .opapm .m
ram.u as.: we.1 om.n mo. om.u mm. ease. ems. reap. efiav eeeeeeee\eemeeee
chomaoe .cpmpm .H
Ha oa e a a e m a m u

 

 

moanwfiaw> pcoecodoa Udano pcpomacm mo meoapmaohhooncch

.w magma

Ho.var*
mo.»e*

IOOOOQOOCOflPOQHfiQ CNN

 

**mfio Coco-oooEMflOHPHhU OfiN
rice. emm. .....eeaeeepeeeez .om
**m00 **NNO **©®O ooooooooCOHPOthm OOH
.raww. *mo. atom. #0:. .....cowpmosv xm<_.ma
#*~©.I mm.l aas~.t H4.I **m0.1 obwncn hmmpcwm ca
.pawa Hwooaewomm cud
*NMOI *Jmol **®NO' **O©ol mNOI *Om. Coos-cocoooSPEHNB.OWH
*NJO' OMOI *OmOI HMOI QMO' **®©0 *mfio CoooooooUOHHHhmHO
eeeflaeeeo .3
area.: *mm.u erme.n *mm.u **w~.u reap. ems. ermo. ...eoeeepoeeeepea .ea
**mo.l *w:.l **mw.| azm.t **o~.l ##0w. mam. *amwo *aflw. ...how>m:mn nepoe
Ho cowpooflmom .MH
mamo.s *0m.l aaawel ramm.l **H0.I aaam. *mm. stow. **m~. ease. ...pcoucoo prnc>
mo noapoeamom .NH
mm Hm om ma ma NH 0H ma JH ma

 

 

moanafinm> peopccdoa ecopspm popooacm Ho chprHonpooamch

on manna

u I v C ’

unite-

. I

n3

Criticism, Rejection, and Direction are all positively and significantly
intercorrelated. They represent "Cluster B". Lastly, Cluster A be-
haviors correlate negatively, and in most cases significantly, with
Cluster B behaviors.

Table h presents intercorrelations of those child dependent meas-
ures presented previously with those student measures just presented.
The table indicates several relationships between the child and student
clusters described: Cluster 1 (Statement of personal thought or behav-
ior in the context of fantasy, Statement of interpersonal awareness in
the context of fantasy, Fantasy aggression, Reality aggression and
Fantasy behavior) and Cluster 2 (Nonrecognition, Nonattention, and
Dominant participation) demonstrate consistently positive and frequently
significant correlations with student Cluster A behaviors (Reflection
of verbal content, Reflection of motor behavior, Interpretation,
Compliance clarified, Warmth, ami Reciprocal participation in fantasy
behavior). Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 also demonstrate consistently
negative and frequently significant correlations with Cluster B be-
haviors (Asking questions, Rejection, Nonattention, Criticism, and
Direction). Children's Cluster 3 behaviors (Statement of personal
thought or behavior in the context of reality, Excitement, and Object
mastery) demonstrate the Opposite relationships, i.e., consistently
positive and frequently significant correlations with Cluster B be-
havior and consistently negative and frequently significant correlations
with student Cluster A behavior.

Evidence for these relationships is weaker for some variables
than for others. ‘Within Cluster 1, the category Reality aggression

shows least evidence of the association described; within Cluster 2,

Lb

Ho.ve**
hempcmm Inmvmlmo.va*

 

 

 

mun: ammo! ago! *mm.l *~:.I oupnupnncoapomafia
:m.| mwol mm.l 2m.| 0H.I ........Emfiowpweo
om.| ammo: *4m.n 44.: *ma.l .....:owpcoppqcoz
GOO... Hm...- OMOI MNOI MHOI oo coco-OCOHPOQhwm.
$4.- *Nm0| ifiool QMOI. 0m..l OOOOOCOHPWQdAU me<
*mn. *aom. **a~. aanw. aaam. .>mnon hmwecmm ca
.phme HwOOhQHOOm
OH. 4m. MN. OH. 0N. ooooooooooofifimz
NW. $000 $4. iQMO kink-00 OOOOOOOOEHHWHNHO
concedesoo
pm. tawm. *ma. #5:. ma. ...coapmpcaQMOPCH
*mm. *tmo. **H~. *mm. #m:. ...poa>wnmn hence
we cOHpOOHHOm
mm. asmo. *mm. *mm. ramp. ...pCOpcoo Hanna»
no :Oflpomamom
meanmaaw> pccpspm
scammcpwm< poa>meen cowmmoamwm Amv mmmccawsm Hmcom «Amy aow>mgmpmwnw:ocp
heflflwmm hmmpcwm hampcmm laceaOpCH .Opmpm Hmcomamd .oawpm

 

eeaeeaeee cameo

.s edema

.eeaeeaeee seeeeem eeeeeaem sea: eeapeaeee eaaee eeeeeaem we eeeeeeaeeeeeeeeeH

. as

H0.yd**

apaaeem unmeml, moavea

 

 

EN. 31—. *4m. $400. N20:- *m4.~0' o o o o o o o o OCOHpUGHHD
«0. so. ems. emm.- ren.- mm.u ........Eeaeaeeeo
NH. 0H. *mm. *amm.l mH.I *w4.t .....cOfipCOppmcoz
0H. 0H0 fig. $00! mm.' NmOI. CocooooocOHpomhmm
*m4. **m~. pm. *mm.| **mm.n ramm.t .....:Ofipmmsv xm<
#mm.l *m4.l awm.u #54. ma. O4. .>mcmp hmwpcwm ca
.phme Hmoopdwomm
QOOI MHOI mHOI OJ. mo. @Ho cocoooooooonpgwg
NW0- Jmol #040..- .xufimo mHo NH. 0 o o o o o oOUQflHHHmHO
(a oocewHQEOU
Lu
ww.l om.l *mm.l *Om. *m4. *mm. ...cOfipwpoadaoch
$04.! mmol **m~.I mo. om. **w©.. ...hOH>m:op MOpoE
HO cowpocammm
mm.l o4el *mm.l asap. NH. *m4. ...acOpcoo Hwnuo>
Ho cowpooamem
meanmaam> pamGSPm
hwopmme pccEOpfioxm nfimv poe>mzmn\pswsonp coapmmWOfipawm‘ cOHpCOppw :OHpchooca
voenpo accented .cpwpm . pamCdEOn Icoz Icoz

 

mmflnmwhm> cawnu

A.e.eeeov .4 eaeea

L6

Nonattention denonstrates weaker correlations than the other Cluster
2 behaviors, and within Cluster 3, the category Excitement demon-
strates weaker correlations than the other two behaviors. Likewise,
within student Cluster A and student Cluster B, the categories Warmth
and Rejection demonstrate less strong and less frequently significant
correlations than do many of the other variables. Unlike the other
dependent measures, these two categories (as well as the category

Genuineness) were rated from l-3 during each play session.

Analyses of Variance

 

Main effects of training-Cluster l.

 

Table 5 presents the overall mean difference scores of Cluster
1 variables. Scores are based on the average of difference scores
obtained in the 7th, 13th, and 20th play session compared to the lst
session.

Overall mean difference scores denonstrate significant main
effects for four of the five variables in Cluster 1. Only the cat-
egory Reality aggression yielded no Significant training difference.
The table indicates that experimental children engaged overall sign-
ificantly more Statements of personal thoughts or behavior in the
context of fantasy, Statements of interpersonal awareness in the
context of fantasy, Fantasy aggression, and Fantasy behavior in
general.

Simple effects of training-Cluster l.

 

Since with the exception of the categories Fantasy aggression
and Reality agression, these Cluster 1 variables also yielded a

significant interaction in the analysis Of variance, sinple effects

h?

Table 5.

Overall Mean.Difference Scores of Cluster 1 Variables.

 

 

 

 

Variable Groupc Overall Mean .2
Difference

State. personal T 3.29 19.b5**

thought/behavior (F) C O.hh

State. interper- T 3.66 6.h9*

sonal awareness (F) C ~0.07

Fantasy aggression T 3.h0 6.78%
C 0.18

Fantasy behavior T 8h.81 l3.13**
C ”1.18

Reality aggression T ' 3.88 1.32
C 2.18

*p<.OS cT-JI‘raining condition fi+fi ‘(thfantasy
**p<.01 C—Control condition

tests were performed. Results indicated that in the final play
session, the simple effect of training was significant for all three
variables. Table 6 presents mean difference scores of the 20th play
session for each variable. Clearly, in the final session, the exper-
imental children emitted more statements of personal thoughts of be-
havior and of interpersonal awareness, both in the context of fantasy,
and engaged in significantly more fantasy behavior in general, than
did the control group. Thus the greater overall mean differences

in the experimental group are attributable mainly to the final session.
However, the simple effects test also indicated that for the category
Fantasy behavior, the simple effect of training in the 7th session

was also significant (F-h.hl, p .05). In addition, the simple effects

h8

Table 6.

Mean Differences in the 20th Session
(Cluster 1 Variables with Significant Interactions).

 

 

 

 

Variable GroupC Mean ‘3
Difference
State. personal T 8.88 lb.33**
thought/behavior (F) C 1.33
State. int erper- T 6 .00 12.76335“
sonal awareness (F) C -O.88
Fantasy behavior T 7.88 21.50**
C “1.88
*p<.05 CT-Training condition
**p(.01 C—Control condition

of training for the category Fantasy behavior approached significance
in the 13th session (F-3.58, p .07).

Simple effects of time-Cluster l.

 

While there was no significant time main effect for any of the
Cluster 1 variables, the presence of a significant interaction
warranted an analysis of the simple effects of time. Results indic-
ated that for all three variables, the simple effect of time was
significant within the eXperimental group and nonsignificant within
the control group: Statement of personal thought or behavior in the
context of fantasy (F-3.7l, p .05), Statement of interpersonal
awareness in fantasy (F-b.77, p .05), and Fantasy behavior (F-S.69,
p .01).

Table 7 presents comparisons of mean differences within the

eXperimental group for the three Cluster 1 variables with significant

h9

Table 7.

Comparison of Means Over Time Within EXperimental Group
for Three Cluster 1 Variables with significant Simple Time Effect.

 

 

 

 

Variable Session Differences
7-13 7-20 13-20

State. personal

thought/behavior (F)8 —0.55 ~6.33%* ~6.88**
State. interper-

sonal awareness (F) -2.67 ~h.hh** -2.77*
Fantasy behavior -l.OO -S.ll** ~h.ll%*
*p<.O§* a(F)-Fantasy
**p<.01

simple effects of time, using the Neuman-Keuls method. The com-
parisons clearly indicate that in the final session the experimental
children made significantly more statements of personal thought or
behavior in the context of fantasy, statements of interpersonal aware-
ness in fantasy, and engaged in significantly more fantasy behavior
in general. The significant differences occur for all three variables
when comparing their mean.differences in the final session with diff-
erences in either of the other two sessions.

The significant interaction, then, for each of the three Cluster
1 variables, is a function of the final play session, when the exper~
imental children's fantasy behaviors showed significant increases,
both with reSpect to time and with respect to training. That is,
when comparing the experimental group's fantasy behaviors in the

final session either with their frequencies in previous sessions, or

SO
with the control group's frequencies in the final session, significant
differences are found.

Main effects of training-Cluster 2.

 

Table 8 presents overall mean difference scores of Cluster 2
variables. The table indicates that only one of these variables,
Nonrecognition, demonstrated a significant training difference. The
variable, Nonattention approached a significant training difference
(p .071). The variable, Dominant participation did not yield any
significant training difference, although differences were found in
the same direction as were found with the other two variables. Thus,
in terms of Cluster 2 behaviors, results indicate that the eXper-

imental children engaged overall in significantly more Nonrecognition

Table 8.

Overall Mean Difference Scores of Cluster 2 Variables.

 

 

 

 

Variable Groupc Overall Mean Difference F

Nonrecognition T 7.70 11.96%
C 1.62

Nonattention T b.70 3.72
c 1.hh

Dominant part- T b.ll 2.35

10 ipat ion C 1.62

*p(.01 CTxTraining condition

C-Control condition

behaviors than did the control group, and they tended also to engage
in more Nonattention behavior than.did the controls, although this

difference was not significant. 'With reSpect to the main effects of

51
time for Cluster 2 variables, no significant differences were found
in the analyses of variance.

Main effects of training3Cluster 3.

 

Table 9 presents overall mean difference scores for all Cluster
3 variables. The table indicates that only one variable, Excitement,
demonstrated a significant training effect. Unlike the previous
variables with training differences, Excitement behavior was signif-
icantly greater in the control group. 'While the mean differences in
Object mastery are as great as for the category Excitement, the high
degree of random error in the former seems to account for the lack

of significance.

Table 9 0

Overall Mean Difference Scores for Cluster 3 Variables.

 

 

 

 

Variable Groupc Overall Mean Difference E

State. personal T -o.7h 1.h8

thought/behavior (R) C 1.18

Excitement T 0.00 5.hl*
C 2.h0

Object mastery T 1.11 0.50
c 3.55

*p(.01 CT-Training condition (E)=Reality

C-Control condition

Main effects of time-Cluster 3.

 

The analysis-of variance indicated that for the variables Object
mastery and Statement of personal thoughts or behavior in the context

of reality, time had a differential effect on the frequencies of these

52
behaviors when combining training and control groups of children.
Table 10 presents the results of paired comparison analyses of mean
differences between time levels for Cluster 3 variables with signif-

icant time main effects.

Table 10.

Paired Comparisons of Mean Differences Between Time Levels
For Variables with Significant Time Main Effects.

 

 

 

 

Variable Session Differences

7-13 7-20 13-20
State. personal
thought/behavior (R)b ~O.33 -3.03* ~1.66
Object mastery -2.38 -5.h8** -3.11*
*pc-OS V302 Faeality

The table suggests that when compared to the 7th session all
children as a group engaged in significantly more Statements of
personal thoughts and behavior in the context of reality, and in
significantly more Object mastery behaviors in the final session. Also,
when compared to frequencies in the 13th session, all children engaged
in significantly more Object mastery behaviors in the final session.
Main effects of training-Cluster A.

Table 11 presents overall mean difference scores of those stu-
dent variables associated with Cluster A. With the exception of the
Warmth variable, all variables demonstrated significant training
effects. In each case the trainee students engaged overall in sign-

ificantly greater frequencies, i.e., of Reflection of verbal content,

y.

 

53

Table 11.

Overall Mean Difference Scores of Cluster A Variables.

 

 

 

 

Variable Groupc Overall Mean Difference ‘3
Reflection of T 7.70 37.h3**
verbal content C 0.29
Reflection of T ll.hh 8.89**
motor behavior C 2.55
Interpretation T 8.85 8.7h**
C 0.11
Compliance T 1.hh 1.51%
Clarified C .0007
Reciprocal part. T 5.51 7.25**
in fantasy behav. C ul.7h
Warmth T 001.18 0.12
C -O.h8
*p(.OS cTeTraining conditiOn
**p(.01 C=Control condition

Reflection of motor behavior, Interpretation, Compliance clarified,
and Reciprocal participation in fantasy behavior.

Simple effects of training-Cluster A.

 

The category warmth demonstrated a significant interaction effect
in the analysis of variance. The simple effects test indicated that
for the 13th and 20th sessions, but not for the 7th, the experimental
students demonstrated significantly greater degress of warmth than
did the control students (13th session Fth.hl, p .05, 20th session,
F=h.18, p .05).

Simple effects of time-Cluster A.

 

None of the behaviors associated with Cluster A demonstrated

5h
any significant time main effect. However, due to the presence of
a significant interaction effect, the categories Warmth and Inter-
pretation were analysed for the simple effects of time. Results
indicated that within the training condition, the simple effects of
time were significant for both variables OVarmth-F-7.66, p .01,
Interpretation-F=lh.89, p .01). Neuman Keuls test for paired com~
parisons of mean differences between sessions indicated that the
trainee students were rated significantly greater in Warmth during
the 13th and 20th sessions, when comparing either session to the 7th
session. Also, the trainees engaged in more Interpretations in the
7th and 13th sessions, when comparing either to the frequency in the
20th session.

Main effects of training—Cluster B.

 

Table 12 presents overall mean difference scores of those stu-
dent variables associated with Cluster B. The table indicates that
all of the behaviors demonstrated overall significant training
differences. In each instance the trainees overall engage in signif-
icantly less Questioning, Rejecting, Nonattentive, Critical, and
Directive behaviors.

Simple effects of training-Cluster B.

 

Only one of the behaviors associated with Cluster B demonstrated
any significant interaction effect-eAsk question. Analysis of
simple effects of training indicated that there was no significant
difference between groups in the final play session, but that Control
students asked more amounts of questions in both the 7th and the 13th
play session. Differences were so large in these sessions that a

significant main effect occurred.

55

Table 12 .

Overall Mean.Difference Scores for Cluster B. Variables

 

 

 

 

Variable Groupc Overall Mean Difference ‘F

Ask question T ~7.62 12.36%
C ~1o77

Rejection T ~0.62 12.85%
C 1.22

Nonattention T -7.1h 8.80%

‘ C 0.70

Criticism T -l.h0 23.h3*
C 1.85

Direct ion T “7.22 36087*
c 1.59

*p<.01 UT-Training condition

C-Control condition

Simple effects of time-Cluster B.

 

Analysis of the simple effects of time further indictated that
within the trainee group, there was a significant increase in the
frequency of questioning behavior in the final session, when compar-
ing the frequency in that session with either the 7th or the 13th
session.

Other Significant Differences

 

In addition to the behavior categories described above, the
following student variables also yielded significant differences in
the analyses of variance: Give help, Initiating participation in
fantasy behavior, and Genuineness. The first two behaviors yielded
significant time main effects, while the latter demonstrated a signif-

icant interaction (F=5.72, p .01). The simple effects test of training

56

differences revealed no significant differences. However, the simple
effects of time within the experimental group were significant
(Feh.l7, p .05) and further analysis (Neuman Keuls) indicated that
the trainee's rating of Genuineness was significantly greater in
the 13th (p .05) and 20th (p .05) sessions when comparing either to
the 7th session.

No other student or child behaviors yielded any significant
differences in the analyses of variance. Results of all analyses
are presented in Appendices I and J.

Children's Behavior in Grouprnterafiion

 

Table 13 presents overall mean difference scores of the children's

Table 13 g
Overall Mean Difference Scores of Children's Behavior

In Group Interaction

 

 

 

Variable GroupC Overall Mean Difference F

Verbal comprehension T 1.39 0.78

Skill 0 1.95

COping skill T 2.9h 0.10
C 2.33

Interpersonal skill T 1.05 1.06
C 1.33

 

CT-Training condition

C-Control condition
behavior in group interaction in the second and third group sessions.
Three dependent measures were used: (1) verbal comprehension skills,

(2) coping skills, and (3) interpersonal skills. The variables were

57

rated from 1-5 three times during the fifteen minute sessions. The
table indicates that no significant differences occurred for any of

the variables.

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION

Overview

This study deve10ped out of a concern with the feasibility of train~
ing college students in techniques presumed effective in interaction
with young children. The study concerned itself with the behavior
changes of college students as a result of training. It also focused
on the changes in the children with whom the students trained. The
implication in focusing on behavior changes in the young children was
that if positive personal and social behavior became manifest in child-
ren eXposed to trained non professionals, then one and perhaps two
avenues for lowering the incidence of mental illness may become evident.
That is, training‘and educating college students in mental health skills
may provide them with the ability and reSponsibility for positively
affecting the personal and social growth of young children, both in the
student's capacity as parents and/or teachers, and perhaps even in.the
capacity of a sub-professional functioning as mental health workers.

In studying the develOpment of skills in the undergraduate, certain
behaviors were considered relevant variables of interest. These be-
haviors were extrapolated largely from client-centered theories of play
therapy and from selected research studies in parent child relations.

Similarly, in studying the development of effective functioning in young

58

59

children, certain other behaviors were considered relevant variables of
interest. These behaviors were derived primarily from a conception of
mental health developed by Bessell and Palomares (1968). In this study,
the major empirical concern was with the relationship between student and
child behaviors.

The present study also attempted to develOp and execute two method-
ological procedures which were thought to be helpful in gaining greater
insight into the process and outcome of the student-child relationship:
the use of a ”training control group", and the use of an extra-milieu
outcome measure.

The results of the study provide information about the Specific
hypotheses tested and regarding several broader issues. The discussion
begins with some methodological problems which were encountered in the
process of the investigation. Secondly, the changes in the student's
behavior are discussed. Next, there is an examination of changes in
children's behavior will be made, and subsequently the relationship
between student and child differences will be discussed. Finally,
general implications of the findings are discussed, with Specific atten~
tion paid to the training and education of college students, child
develOpment, and further research in these areas.

‘Methodological considerations

 

One of the assumptions of this study was that an evaluation of the
effects of training students on the personal and social growth of young
children should contain outcome measures which occur outside the setting
in which change is assumed to occur. To that end, each of the children
of this study was placed three times during the year with two other

children, also participating in the study, in an unstructured group

60
situation, Contrary to original predictions, no significant differences
occurred between groups in any of the behaviors measured. Therefore,
the differences which occurred in the student-child interaction must
necessarily be evaluated cautiously, since there is no empirical indic-
ation that these differences (or any others) were also manifest outside
the playroom. The question of whether behavior change did not actually
occur outside the playroom, or whether one or the other outcome measure
was invalid in ultimately unanswerable. The use of more effective be-
havioral indices in both milieus would probably have provided greater
information about the effects of training. Perhaps an alternative to
the triadic group situation could have been an evaluation of the child's

behavior in his home or at school, since these milieus encompass a

 

I

greater part of the child's life.

It was apparent that the triadic group situation was an inadequate
outcome measure for some very Specific reasons. One of the most import-
ant reasons was that it appears as if children of these ages do not like
to interact with children of the opposite sex. This reason alone could
account for some of the absence of verbalizations of almost all of the
children during the first group session.

Secondly, it appears as if it is improbable that any child between
the ages of four and seven would proceed to make the personal acquaint-
ance of an unfamiliar child as one might expect an adult to do. This
might be especially true when considering the fact that the children may
have been aware that a t elevision camera was recording everything they
said and did. During the first group session, all children "froze".
While their inactivity provided an ideal base rate for future sessions,

the following session was similar to the first. Most children were

61
extremely anxious, disliked coming on a Saturday morning, and disliked
being asked to play with a strange set of children instead of their
regular student. In the final session, children demonstrated different
behaviors. Since many children were angry and uncomfortable in the
group, several attempted to destroy some of the equipment. Others
began fighting, causing the session to be cut short. Lastly, on three
occasions one child failed to appear for the group interaction, nec-
essitating a dyadic interaction which violated the standardized situation.
The three dyadic interactions resulted in intimate conversations between
the children. This suggests that dyadic interactions might have been a
more effective outcome measure.

In general, for the reasons described above, the use of the triadic
unstructured group situation as a viable, valid and discriminatory out-
come measure proved to be a mistake. An evaluation of the behavioral
differences which occurred within the student-child interaction must
therefore take into account the nonsignificant differences in the group
situation, eSpecially if the differences are to be interpreted in terms
of increased personal and social develOpment of the children.

A second methodological issue concerns validity. The four sessions
which were video taped for statistical analysis were not necessarily
representative of the other 16 play sessions. The possibility that the
use of video tape equipment influenced the obtained results remains an
issue of speculation. Both the author and the students felt that the
children were minimally aware of the camera during their interactions
with the students. The students, however, appeared to be maximally
aware of the cameras. The trainees in particular were under consider-

able pressure to act apprOpriately. All students appeared anxious

62
about their appearance on a television camera. Whether the student's
anxiety influenced the results in any way is also indeterminable.
Ideally, random statistical comparisons of student and child behavior
in each of the two settings (camera room and regular playroom) should
have been performed.

Student Behavior Differences

 

One of the original hypotheses was that undergraduates trained in
specific skills in interaction with children wbuld demonstrate greater
increments in certain presumably effective behaviors than undergradu-
ates who received no training. Since the efficacy of any behavior is
ultimately judged in terms of its proven influence on other behaviors,
the apriori assumptions about effective behaviors were made with
caution.

Results indicated that several behaviors occurred overall more
frequently with trainees and several others were emitted overall more
frequently by control students. All of the differences occurred in
the predicted directions. Specifically, the trainees demonstrated
overall greater frequencies in the following behaviors: Reflection
of verbal content, Reflection of motor behavior, Interpretation,
Compliance clarified, and Reciprocal participation of fantasy behavior.
The trainees also were rated significantly higher in warmth than the
controls in the final two sessions (13 and 20). Control students demon-
strated overall greater frequencies of Asking questions, Rejection,
Direction, Criticism, and Nonattention.

Intercorrelations indicated a high degree of interrelatedness among
both the behaviors significantly associated with the trainee group and

the behaviors significantly associated with the controls: in all

{I

6'3
instances, these intercorrelations were significant within each cluster.
Negative and frequently significant correlations were found between those
behaviors associated with trainees and those associated with controls.

Permissiveness vs. Restrictiveness

 

The clusters of behaviors associated with the two training condit-
ions appear to reflect a difference in stylistic approach in inter-
action with children. Specifically, the behaviors emitted more frequent-

ly by the trainees could be viewed in terms of permissive behaviors.

 

The behaviors emitted more frequently by the control students might be

viewed in terms of restrictive behaviors.

 

A permissive-restrictive dimension is defined by Becker (l96h) as:

...The degree of control exerted (or not exerted) over the
child...but the manner in which control is achieved can vary
considerably..o(po 197)

Elsewhere Becker (196h) states:

The restrictive vs. permissive dimension is defined at the
restrictive and by: many restrictions and strict enforcement
of demands in the areas of sex play, modesty behaviors, table
manners, toilet training, neatness, orderliness, use of house-
hold furniture, noise, obedience, aggression to siblings,
aggression to peers, and aggression to parents (p. 189).

Ginott (1966) gives a definition of permissiveness which is also rele~
vant to the discussion:

The essence of permissiveness is the acceptance of children
as persons who have a constitutional right to have all kinds
of feelings and wishes. The freedom to wish is absolute and
unrestricted, all feelings and fantasies, all thoughts and
wishes, all dreams and desires, regardless of content are
accepted, reSpected, and may be permitted expression through
apprOpriate symbolic means...permitted symbolic outlets are
painting "mean" pictures, throwing darts at targets, sawing
wood, boxing lifeusize Bobo, recording ill wishes on tape,
composing caustic poems, writing murder mysteries, etc.

In short, permissiveness is the acceptance of imaginary and
symbolic behavior...(p. llO).

Becker‘s conception of the permissive-restrictive dimension is

f‘

6h
based on a series of factor analytic studies (Becker et. al., 1959,
1962) in which he identified two orthogonal dimensions-opermissiveness
vs. restrictiveness and warmth vs. hostility-~and which could be used to
describe differential child rearing practices, (Becker, l96h).
Ginott's definition is not empirically based. The two, however, appear
complementary to each other.

The present study makes use of the permissive-restrictive dimen-
sions without intending to imply anything further than a conceptual
similarity between the definitions presented above and the significant
behaviors found. Justification for the use of the terms is therefore
based sheerly on an examination of the significant categories, and
their consistency with the terms as defined above.

The significant behaviors associated with the trainee group-n
Reflection of motor behavior, Interpretation, Compliance clarified,
Reciprocal participation in fantasy, and Warmth-do not appear to re-
flect an attempt of the undergraduate to exert any kind of control
over the child. Secondly, all of the behaviors appear to 322223 the
stimulations of the child. It was mentioned previously that reflective
behavior is often associated with an attempt to understand the child,
and in the present study it is likely that these reflective behaviors
had the same function. Finally, it appears as if many of the student's
reSponses to the child were conveyed in an atmoSphere of positive
feeling. This last generalization is based on the significance of the
Warmth variable in sessions 13 and 20.

Those behaviors emitted significantly more frequently by the control
students appear related to the concept of restrictiveness as discussed

above. Nonattention, Criticism, Direction, Asking questions, and Reject-

65
ion all appear to be behaviors which attempt to exert control over the
Child's behavior. Some of the behaviors suggest that control was
exerted in an atmosphere of negative feeling (Rejection and Criticism).

One behavioral example from this study may elucidate the concepts
used to describe student differences. Consider two instances in which
the child is engaged in a fairly typical behavior: punching the bobo
doll' with an accompanying verbalization such as "I'm punching him in
the nose, I'm going to make him.bleed; we need a referree". Responses
such as "You're really going to punch him one" (reflection of verbal
content) "Fbw" (Reflection of motor behavior) "I've brought the referree
you asked for" (Reciprocal participation in fantasy, Compliance clarified)
and "You really like to feel strong and big", (Interpretation) all
essentially accept the child‘s behavior, reSpond to his expressed request,
and do not attempt to exert any control over his actions. In addition,
these responses can be conveyed with varying degrees of positive feeling.
'Warmth appeared to be significantly associated with these permissive
responses.

Consider the same behavior and the following student responses:

looking out the window at passing peOple (Honattention) "That isn't a
very nice thing to do" (Criticism), "What do you want a referree for?"
(Asking questions), and "Don't start that stuff again" (Direction).
All these behaviors attempt to exert control over the child's behavior
and do not appear to accept his stimulations without conditions. Since
these behaviors were significantly associated with the global rating of
Rejection, it is likely that restrictive reSponses were often conveyed
with accompanying negative feelings.

The deve10pment in the trainee group of what might be considered

66
permissive behaviors can readily be seen as a result of the training
procedures. Essentially all of the significant behaviors were ones
emphasized in the training procedures (Appendix.D). The significance of
the simple effects of time and training for the Warmth variable suggests
that beyond being able to assume a Specific new behavior repetoire, the
trainees were able to convey positive feelings towards their children.
The simple effects tests suggest, in fact, that the trainees developed
(increased) their amount of warmth over time, and that by the 13th
session they were significantly more warm.than the control students
and than they themselves had previously been.

To the extent that the permissive behaviors can be assumed to be
effective in facilitating the effective functioning of the children, the
original hypothesis which concerned student training differences was to
a large degree confirmed. Unexpectedly, the control students demon-
strated significant increments (Table 12) in presumably ineffective
reSponses to children. Is one to assume this increment to be character-
istic of the average college student as he forms a relationship with a
child? This issue will be discussed in a later section.

Child Behavior Differences

 

One of the original hypotheses was that children who experienced a
relationship with a trained undergraduate would demonstrate significantly
greater increments in behaviors presumably associated with effective
psychosocial functioning than would children who interacted with an
untrained undergraduate. Results indicated that experimental children
demonstrated overall significantly greater increments in the following
categories: Statement of personal thought or behavior in the context of

fantasy, Statement of interpersonal awareness in the context of fantasy,

67
Fantasy aggression, Fantasy behavior, and'Nonrecognition. Control child-
ren emitted overall significantly greater frequencies of Excitement be-
havior. ‘With the exception of the Nonrecognition category, all signifi-
cant differences occurred in the predicted direction.

Patterns of intercorrelations suggested three clusters among child
behavior variables: Fantasy behavior (Statement of personal thoughts or
behavior in fantasy, Statement of interpersonal awareness in fantasy,
Fantasy aggression, and Fantasy behavior) Reality behavior (Excitement,
Object mastery and Statement of personal thought or behavior in reality)
and Social Distance behavior (Nonrecognition, Nonattention, and Dominant
participation). The category Reality aggression was significantly
correlated with three of the four fantasy variables, however, since no
significant effects of training occurred for the category, it will not
be included in a discussion of the other behaviors with which it clus-
tered.

Fantasy Behavior

 

1h this study, fantasy behavior was defined following Markey's
(1935) definition: "the use of objects, materials, activities, and sit-
uations as though they had prOperties or attributes other than those
which they apparently or actually seemed to possess" (p. 10). In the
present investigation, fantasy behavior was conceived of as one possible
effective coping reSponse.

With respect to fantasy behavior, the findings of this study are
consistent with clinical descriptions of children's use of fantasy in
play. Erikson (19hO, 1963) provides detailed clinical vignettes to
demonstrate the problem solving aspects of fantasy play. For example,

he describes his contacts with a four year old hOSpitalized boy whose

68

completely bandaged head was soon to be uncovered. Erikson describes
how the boy used a roll of adhesive tape in fantasy play to anticipate
the removal of his bandages.
Suddenly he said (picking up the roll of adhesive tape)'let's
pretend this is a leg and it's sore". He attempted to unwind
the roll of adhesive tape but found he could not separate the
layers... "We need a giant for that". I pretended to phone
the nurse to send up a giant, then left the room and reappear-
ed as the giant...The patient arranged the play object (tape)
in such a way that he expressed in sign magic his active
mastery over the situation victimizing him at the time
(Erikson, 19ho, p. 581).
While the above description deals with the use of fantasy in the antic-
ipation of problems, Erikson also gives many examples of the "curative"
aSpects of fantasy play. A distinction is made between "play disruption"
and "play satiation". In the former, the child's play becomes increas-
ingly associated with and symbolic of his conflicts until anxiety becomes
so overwhelming that the play must stop. In "play satiation", the child
is capable of mastering his anxieties to the point where has has been
able to "play the conflict out". Play satiation thus occurs as a result
resolution through the medium of play.
If play is successful, i.e., if it is not disrupted from
within or interrupted from without, it has an effect compar-
able to a few hours of good, long needed sleep--"everything
looks different". I do not doubt that it is this auto-
therapeutic function of play that we are restoring in many
cases by creating for the child regular and undisturbed
periods of play, no matter how we rationalize what is
happening during such a "cure".(Erikson, l9h0, p. 627).
Thus, in contrast to the frequent emphasis on the "relationship" in
child therapy, Erikson believes that it is the child's symbolic manipul-
ation of toys which is essentially involved in the resolution of conflict.

Klein's (19h8) "Technique of play analysis" also emphasizes the

child's symbolic eXpression of fantasies, wishes, and actual eXperiences

69
through imaginative play. She compares play behavior with primary pro-
cess material in dreams, and suggests that children's cures occur
through the successful interpretation of the conflict which is symbolic-
ally expressed in the child's play. Klein gives many descriptions of
children's fantasy behavior. For example:

In the case of Erna, a six year old obsessional patient, the
impressions she had received from her training in cleanli-
ness had had a lot to do with her neurosis, and in analysis
she brought them before my eyes in the greatest detail. For
instance, she sat a small doll down on a brick and made it
defecate in front of a row of other admiring dolls. She
then repeated the same theme, but this time we had to play
the parts ourselves. I.had to be a baby which was dirtying
itself and she was the mother. She admired and petted the
baby for what it had done. Then she became angry and
suddenly played the part of a governess who was ill-treating
the child (Klein, l9h8, p. 32).

Two comprehensive reviews of the literature on some aspects of
fantasy have both reached equivocal conclusions about the nature of
children's fantasy behavior. Levin and'Wardell (1962) discuss conclusions
pertaining to findings in doll play research. They distinguish between
a "replication" and "wish-fulfillment" model of children's doll play:

The basic question that has influenced the understanding of
doll play is whether the child is telling about events and
hOpes and plans which are available to him in his day to day
world or whether his acts in this setting are otherwise un-
attainable. ...One way of thinking about doll play behavior
is that it gives the child an Opportunity to express his
current eXperiences and preoccupations. The correSpondence
between real life and fantasy need not be uninteresting for
research purposes (p. 51).
Klinger (1969) has reviewed the total literature on imaginative behavior
and attempts to relate fantasy behavior (defined as ideation) to what is
known about play behavior (associated with motor behavior). Klinger

concludes that play behavior (similar to what is considered here as

fantasy behavior) serves an important problem solving function in child-

7O
hood. Klinger differentiates between areas of problem solving in which
imaginative play can serve a mastery function: (1) problems of instrument-
al learning, "posed by the existence of an unattained, desired, fairly
Specific goal", (2) problems of emotional integration, "requiring the
mastery of emotionally overwhelming eXperiences and of emotionally dis-
turbing anticipated events" and (3) problems of experiential continuity,
"in which the child must come to grips with new situations, not necess-
arily of great emotional potency" (p. 292).

In summary, fantasy behavior has in the past been found to be
associated with the process of achieving ego mastery, i.e., the success-
ful c0ping with internal conflicts, anticipated events, and with the
"cultivation of new cognitive, verbal, and motoric skills” (Klinger,
1969, p. 293).

Content Analysis of Children's Fantasy Behavior

 

Table 1h represents a post hoc analysis of the thematic content of
children's fantasy behavior as it occurred in this study. The fantasy
themes were recorded subsequent to the completion of the study. Only the
fantasy content of children who received total fantasy scores of six or
greater were listed, i.e., only fantasy behavioerhich occurred over at
least six of the twenty minute play session is considered.

An analysis of the fantasy content might suggest a crude differ-
entation in terms of 132313 of fantasy behavior, i.e., more simple,
stereotyped responses, less complex reSponses representing a low level
fantasy. For example, in Table 1h "C makes man out of clay, puts man in
house" (Session 1, Group T, Child G) or "C and S use animals to create a
zoo" (Session 3, Group C, Child b). The more complex, nonsterotyped be

haviors may be thought of as a high level fantasy, e.g., in Table 1h,

 

71
"C role plays mother; 8 role plays father, supper experience played
out" (Session 2, Group T, Child E), or "C beats up big man (bobo
doll) for depriving him of candy; C then gives halloween candy in
apology to big man" (Session 2, Group T, Child I). The "higher
levels" of fantasy may involve more complex behaviors such as adult
role behaviors, affective eXpression, interpersonal awareness, and
the symbolic eXpression of conflict. The lower levels of fantasy may
involve cognitive and motor behavior which remains closely associated
with the objects and activities involved, and involve relatively
little mastery striving.

Gondor (l96h) suggests that fantasy behavior can be different-
iated in terms of degree of reference, i.e., from inanimate to animate
objects.

We were able to see that they (fantasies) led from a pre-
occupation with inanimate objects over to animals and then
to human beings and are thus indicative of stages of ego
functioning... (p. 382).

In this study, fantasy behavior might also be differentiated in
terms of reference to objects, e.g., (Session 1, Group T, Child I),
animals, e.g., (Session 1, Group T, Child B), the self, e.g.,
(Session.3, Group T, Child O), or gthggg, e.g.,(Session b, Group T,
Child 0).

If one examines Table 1h irrespective of the differing frequencies
of fantasy behavior between groups, it seems that the thematic content
of the eXperimental group generally involved "higher levels" of be-
havior and more often contained references to intrapersonal and inter-
personal situations. To be sure, this is a general statement, based

on assumptions which have just been developed. However, there appears

to be a "clinical richness" of fantasy behavior in the experimental

72

Table lb.

Content of children's fantasy behavior.

 

Major Content

 

Session Group Child

1 T B Aggression against animals using hand
puppets.

l T D Animals embark on train ride to circus;
circus portrayed.

1 T G C makes a man out of clay; describes man
and puts him in house.

1 T I C plays cars and trucks; creates garage
and makes car wheels from clay.

l C C C portrays car accident and calls repair-
man on phone.

1 C D Development of house theme-C inserts var-
ious food, furniture and cleaning objects
in house.

1 C E Development of house theme-C inserts food,
furniture and dolls in house, elaborates
functions.

1 C F C elaborates role aspects of various
puppets e.g., "This is the father".

2 T D C describes personal accomplishments:
capturing a chimp, killing a whale;
fighting an alligator, saving someone.

2 T B C role playsangry mother, asks S to role
play naughty girl; C prohibits S in
visiting Santa.

2 T A C shoots every animal in playroom; each
animal falls dead.

2 T E C role plays mother; S role plays father;
supper experience played out.

2 T F C talks with S over phone, acquaintance
made; thoughts and behaviors discussed.

2 I I C beats up big man (bobo doll) for depriv-

ing him of candy; C then gives halloween
candy to big man in apology.

73

Table 1b (Cont'd.)o

Content of children's fantasy behavior.

 

 

Session Group Child Major Content

2 C B Physical aggression at student using hand
puppets.

2 C D C and S pretend to have brand new house;
C and S set up house and live in it.

2 C E C and 3 play sisters; go ShOpping togeth-
er to get food for grandma.

3 T A C aggresses physically against S using
hand puppets.

3 T B C role plays mother, S plays child. C
and S go hunting in jungle for bears.

3 T D C plays doctor; S plays child with bad
heart. C gives S painful shots and
discusses inevitability of pain.

3 T G C puts on comedy show for camera; C
portrays himself as strongest man on
earth.

3 T F C role plays mother and cowboy; engages
in aggression against S.

3 T H C and S engage in doll play; discuss
roles and functions of dolls.

3 T I C role plays policeman; arrests S for
Speeding.

3 C B C and S use animals to create a zoo.

3 C D C and 8 use hand puppets; discuss feelings
of like and dislike about various real
peOple.

3 C I C physically aggresses against S using
hand puppets.

h T A C aggresses against animals and puppets
using hand puppets.

h T B C has S cut body parts from C; C role

plays mother; 3 plays naughty girl; C
kills S and marries policeman.

v.—

n:

7h

Table in (Cont'd.).

Content of children's fantasy behavior.

 

Session Group Child Major content

h T C C role plays mother; S plays child; C
cooks dinner for S.

h T D C role plays doctor; 3 plays child with
bad heart; S gets painful Shots.

h T F C and S discuss personal attributes of
puppets.

h T G Mortification of all objects, animals and
peOple in the world; bury them with a
bulldozer; resurrection.

L4 T H C and S discuss feelings thoughts and
behavior of puppets.

h T I S's car breaks C's car and C's car goes
to hospital for 7 weeks.

h C E C and S discuss functions and roles of
food, furniture and peOple in doll house.

h C F C and S set up doll house and discuss

functional aSpectS of peOple and objects.

75
group which is not apparent in the control's fantasies.

Clinically, the eXperimental children's fantasies appeared
frequently to involve problems of emotional integration and concerns
with identification and role behavior. Problems of emotional in-
tegration are exemplified by eXperimental Child A, whose fantasy be-
havior continually involved aggression and who progressively found
its more appropriate expression; eXperimental child B, whose role
reversal fantasies appeared to be an attempt to resolve issues
dealing with a punitive mother who had deprived her of a relationship
with her father. In reality, the child's parents were divorced and
She never saw her father; eXperimental Child D, whose doctor fantasies
appeared to reflect his immediate concern with his recovery from
rheumatic fever (in reality he was still required to have weekly
injections); and experimental Child I, whose fantasies dealt with
aggression to and from an adult. According to his undergraduate
partner, the child was having conflicts with his father and was fre-
quently physically punished.

Secondly, concerns with identification and adult role behavior
seemed to be exemplified by the many instances of role play fantasies
in which the children either engaged in role reversals, e.g., "You
be the father and I'll be the mother" or had the student adopt the
adult role behavior, e.g., as in telephone conversations.

'While it is not implied that these two concerns-problems of
emotional integration and concerns with identification-~were not
evident in the behavior of the control children, it is notable that
of the 13 instances of fantasy behavior in the control group, only

h appeared to reflect these issues (3 times with Child E and 1 time

76
with Child D).

The experimental children's overall significantly greater in.
crements in Statement of personal thought or behavior in fantasy,
Statement of interpersonal awareness in fantasy and Fantasy aggression
appear to be associated with the thematic content of the fantasies.
That is, in expressing problems of emotional integration and concerns
with identification through fantasy, the children made frequent refer-
ences to themselves and other people, and expressed a great deal of
affect through aggressive behavior.

Thus, with respect to the content of children's fantasies, on
the basis of post hoc analysis, the findings are consistent with
previous clinical assumptions. That is, the expression of intra-
personal and interpersonal concerns through the vehicle of fantasy
reflects a process of achieving ego mastery. Overall, the exper-
imental children demonstrated Significantly greater increments in
the expression of fantasy.

Fantasy_Aggression

 

Part of the overall training differences in fantasy behavior
was attributed to differences in Fantasy aggression. Levin and
wardell (1962) discuss the myriad of variables which have been
associated with fantasy aggression in doll play research:

Because of the theoretical dispositions of the early invest-
igators, the most frequently measured variables were

derived from behavior theory and were indices of acquired
drives in children. Hence, more than any other behavior,
fantasy aggression has been measured by this technique

and it was the happy confluence of theory and method that
this particular behavior is frequently elicited in doll
play. (no 28).

Most globally, it seems plausible to attribute the high incid-

77
ence of fantasy aggression in the experimental children to the pro-
cess of achieving ego mastery discussed above. Specifically, the
expression of aggression in fantasy may be related to the problems
of emotional integration which were referred to above.

There have, however, been studies which have manipulated anteced-
ent conditions and investigated the effects on fantasy aggression.

A discussion of this area of research is included in the discussion
of the relationship between student and child differences, presented
below.

Most of the behaviors categorized as Fantasy aggression invol-
ved gross motor activity, e.g., throwing things, punching the bobo,
and shooting dart guns at imagined people. Considering Fantasy
aggression as one form of gross motor activity and the category
Excitement as another, it might be suggested that the two groups of
children differed in this dimension. It may be that Excitement,

e.g., giggling, screaming, squirming reflected an unorganized eXpress-
ion of affect, whereas the gross motor forms of aggression reflected

a greater degree of organized affective responses. Again, this issue
is open to speculation. Clearly, however, the control children

showed overall significantly greater increments in Excitement behavior,
whereas the experimental children were engaged in overall significantly
more Fantasy aggression.

Social Distance Behavior

 

Results suggest that some of the interpersonal behaviors of the
children differed between groups. The experimental children demon-
strated overall significantly greater increments in.Nonrec0gnition

than the controls. The category Nonattention approached the .OS

/)

78
level of significance in the same direction as Nonrecognition and the
two categories were significantly correlated.

Thus it appears as if interaction with trained undergraduates
tended to increase the amount of unreSponsive behaviors in the eXper-
imental children, which is contrary to original predictions. These
results are similar to the findings of Moustakas, Sigel, and Schalock
(1956). In an analysis of therapist child interaction, they found
one of the most frequent reSponses to reflective behavior was Non-
recognition. Thus, although Nonrecognition and Nonattention behaviors
were conceived of as contraindicative of positive funtioning in child-
ren, they may be typical responses to frequent reflective stimulation.
Also, since these behaviors were significantly correlated with all
fantasy behaviors, it may be that the experimental children became
so invested in intrapsychic processes that their responsiveness to
the undergraduate decreased. This will be discussed in further detail
in the following section.

The Relationship Between Student and Child Behavior Differences

The results of the present study are consistent with some of the
findings in the area of doll play research. Several studies have
attempted to manipulate levels of experimenter interaction and deter-
mine the effects on various behaviors, especially aggressive and non-
stereotyped behavior.

Pintler (19b5) manipulated the quality of experimenter interaction
and measured the frequencies of several behaviors, including aggress-
ion, over two half hour sessions. Two conditions of experimenter
interaction--"high levels" and "low levels" were implemented. High

levels consisted of frequent attention to and interest in the child's

79
play. Low levels consisted of a minimal amount of interaction with
the child. Pintler found that high levels of interaction were
associated with increased fantasy aggression. ‘While the distinction
between the high and low levels of interaction are not necessarily
similar to the permissive-restrictive dichotomy used in this study,
the Pintler study demonstrated the importance of adult behavior in
a play session in determining the amount of fantasy aggressive behav-
ior of the child.

Siegel (1957) indirectly investigated the effects of permissive-
ness on aggressive behavior in a doll play setting. In this study
it was observed that aggression decreased from session to session in
the absence of an adult.

The evidence of this study...suggests that the presence of

a permissive adult may have a cumulatively facilitating or
release effect on children's aggression (p. 378).

In a more sophisticated design, Siegel and Kohn (1959) replicated
these findings. They compared an adult present condition with an
adult absent condition over two sessions and found a significant in-
crease in the adult present condition and a significant decrease in
the adult absent condition. Children in this study were aged h-7,
i.e., identical to the ages of children in the present study.

The implication of their findings is that "adult permissiveness
must be conceived in more positive terms than simply reducing S's
fear of punishment". The authors suggest that in the permissive
condition, the child "could get a flow of support from the existence
of an accepting authority figure and the perception of rules and
regulations consonant with their behavior" (Siegel and KOhn, 1959,

p. 139).. Their findings suggest that permissiveness constitutes a

8O
facilitating condition.

The distinction between sterotyped and nonstereotyped behavior
in doll play is similar to the distinction between fantasy and real-
ity made in this study (p.2h). In a study described above, Pintler
(l9h5) found high levels of eXperimenter interaction to be associated
with increased nonstereotyped behavior. Bach (19LS), Phillips (19h5)
and Yarrow (19h8) found that the amount of stereotypy decreases from
session to session. Holoway's (l9h9) study of 3-5 year olds in ther-
apy indicated that at the end of therapy children play more realis-
tically using less fantasy behaviors. Levin and Hardell (1962)
suggest that "the relaxation of restraints in the second session
(of doll play) which yields more aggression may also lead to more non-
stereotyped and nonaggressive behaviors (p. hS)". In Becker's (l96h)
general review of the permissive-restrictive dimension of parental
behavior, mention is made of the findings in doll play research:

...the eXperimental research on the effects of permissive-
ness (indicates)...when a child's behavior is measured
over a series of experimental sessions under warm permiss-
ive interaction conditions, a general increase in a variety
of reSponse patterns is found. Such results are consistent
with the common sense notion that permissiveness serves as
a generalized reinforcer for a wide range of reSponses, just
as restrictive attitudes appear to have a generalized inhib-
itory effect (p. 198).
The studies from which the above generalization comes (Sears, 1951,
Yarrow, 19h8, Hollenberg and Sperry, 1951) all used a small number
of sessions and relatively undefined experimenter behavior (all
studies used Pintler's "high level of interaction").
The findings of the present study offer support to Becker's

conclusion on the basis of somewhat different methodology, i.e., a

greater number of play sessions and more clearly defined behavior

81
variables. The association between permissive adult behaviors in a
playroom setting and the expression of fantasy behavior in general
(and fantasy aggression in particular) is reiterated in the current
findings. In addition, the facilitating nature of adult permissive-
ness appears to be suggested by the theoretical association between
fantasy behaviors and the ego's problem solving process. Ginott's
definition of permissiveness as "the acceptance of imaginary and
symbolic behavior" (p. 62) is strikingly relevant to the findings
of this study.

Explanations for the associations between permissiveness and
fantasy are based on Speculation. In a review of the motivational
aspects of play, Klinger (1969) suggests that fantasy can be viewed
as a response associated with the absence of "compelling external
stimulation". The effect of this absence may be a decrease in the
arousal level of the individual, and fantasy may be a reSponse aimed
at reinstating an optimal level of arousal. The results of the
present study are not in conflict with this notion. Specifically,
the permissive-restrictive dichotomy, i.e., the different degrees
of exerting control over the child, may be seen as consisting of
different degrees of "compelling external stimulation". Children's
fantasy behavior may in turn be viewed as a response to the relative
absence of such stimulation. Singer (1966) eXplains fantasy as "a
shift of attention away from an ongoing physical or mental task or
from a perceptual reSponse to external stimulation towards a response
to scme internal stimulus" (p. 3). The experimental children with a
permissive undergraduate essentially may have become more responsive

to their own needs and internal states than the needs and behaviors

82
of the adult. The control children may never have been able to make
such a shift on account of the restrictive demands made upon them.

The shift of attention away from sources of external stimula-
tion may have occurred as a result of a change in perception about
the permission for determining one's own actions. Specifically, the
child whose stimulations are received by the adult with acceptance
may begin to perceive himself as having a wide range of latitude in
behaviors which he chooses to emit. It would seem logical therefore
that he would choose those behaviors which would be most gratifying
in the sense of satisfying drives or wishes. He also may choose to
engage in symbolic behavior aimed at the elimination of anxiety.

In a restrictive atmOSphere the child may quickly perceive his be-
haviors as eligiting a wide range of approval and disapproval re»
Sponses in the student. Given the narrower range of responses
approved by the student, the chances of the child emitting personally
meaningful and gratifying behaviors might be less. One of the re-
strictions which the control students placed on their children may
have been in the areas of fantasy and aggressive behavior, a phenom-
enon which does not appear to be too surprising.

The implication is however, that the permissive behavior of the
trainee student facilitated in the child behaviors which were person-
ally meaningful and relevant to an attempt to increase their effective
psychosocial functioning. Furthermore, it may be that the trainee
students engaged their children in an educative process, perhaps
changing the child's perception of the locus of control of behavior
from initially being vested in with the student to eventually occurring

with the child.

83
The shift from attention to compelling sources of external
stimulation to internal processes may also account for the differ-
ences in children's social behaviors. That is, a decrease in con-
cern with external demands may be associated with an increase in
nonreSponsiveness to other stimulations such as reflections and
interpretations.

Implications for Training and Education

 

A major issue to which this study indirectly addressed itself
was the manpower shortage in the mental health field. Suggested
solutions to the problem have been described. A major preposal is
that nonprofessionals be used in psychiatric, one to one interview
situations. Another emphasis has been on the "in service training"
of those peOple who come in contact with children, e.g., parents,
teachers, police, and nurses.

In this study, the training of college undergraduates in mental
health skills represented an attempt to assess the feasibility of
increasing the effectiveness in living of large segments of thepOp-
ulation through an educational approach. That is, if college students
could develop skills in interaction with young children, then they
may be able to contribute to the increased effectiveness of children
with whom they come in contact either as parents, teachers, or in
some other position of reSponsibility.

The results of this study indicated that some behavior changes
took place in children. However, because of the inadequate extra-
milieu outcome measure these changes could not be clearly evaluated.
Therefore, it is almost impossible to make any definitive statement

about the success of the training procedures, or the quality of change

814
that took place in the eXperimental children.

The results do, however, suggest that college student's eXposure
to a relatively small amount of information about, and training in,
mental health principles, resulted in an alteration of their behav-
ior patterns with young children to such an extent that the behavior
of the children with whom they interacted also demonstrated some form
of positive change within the training situation. This single fact,
while not overwhelming, supports the notion of training college under-
graduates in techniques of interaction with young children as a
possible partial solution to the manpower shortage. PErhaps even more,
the training of college students represents a preventive strategy in
the alleviation of mental health problems.

The use of the training control group has added some worthwhile
insights into the behavior of the college student who interacts with

children over a period of time. The results reveal a large amount of
critical, nonattentive, rejecting, and controlling behaviors to be
typical of the untrained college student. In group discussions

which followed the 20th play session, the control students were

asked to assess their own competence with their children. Several
related how important they had become to their child, "acting as a
father to him" or "really helping with his life", or "she liked

playing with me better than nursery school, so her parents took her
out of school".. None of the students had read all of the recommended
readings. In fact, few had read any. All of the controls students
felt that they had learned a great deal from their eXperience, and

most felt they had had a positive influence on the child.

I.

1"

85
Paradoxically, and contrary to what the control group generally
thought of their interactions, many of the behaviors which they display—
ed (even under video tape observation) were at least inapprOpriate, if
not more destructive. 'While the few examples which follow cannot support
the generalizations made, they give some indication of what naturally
might occur between adult and child, given no education intervention:

Child: I'm going to call my mother and tell her I want to
kill my father (picking up phone).

Student: (Sits on chair, reading, ignores comment).

Child: I‘m.going to call my mother and tell her I'm going to
kill my father (speaking louder).

Student: What's your phone number?
Child: (Hangs up phone). I
or:

Child: Let's go shepping. 'You be the mother and I'll be the
father. O.K. Dear, I'll get the bags.

Student: "Dear?" Are you kidding me Billy, cut it out.
or:

Child: (Comes in, punches bobo doll) He‘s down and out and
up for another one. I'm going to knock him out.

Student: Calm down, you're crazy.

A final incident is suggestive of the inapprOpriateness, yet natur-
alness, of the control student's behavior. The student and his child were
engaged in throwing a ball at each other for several minutes. The child
began to throw harder, which in turn led the student to throw with greater
force. This in turn caused the child to lose control of himself, first
throwing the ball with all his might and then throwing other objects in
the room, e.g., bowling pins, dolls, furniture, etc. The student's reSponse

was to become equally attacking and angry. He himself began throwing ob-

86
jects at the child with considerable force. Twenty minutes of outright
hostile aggression then ensued. The aggression-counteraggression reSponses
are obvious, but how many parents, teachers and other adults act similarly
every day?

Education in mental health principles is not the only issue. How does
one educate college students, or the layman in general? How does one take
into account the myriad of personality variables which will lead each in-
dividual to perceive and react to children differently? Carkhuff and
Truax (1965), Linden and Stollak (1969), and Zax Cowen, and Laird (1967)
have only begun to approach the issue. For example, Linden and Stollak
found a combination of didactic and experiential procedures to be more
effective than eXperiential procedures alone. The training procedures are
not specified. Few studies have addressed themselves to the manner in
which professionals or nonprofessionals in the mental health services can
be most effectively supervised and/or trained.

One event which occurred in this study was that the trainees initially
resented the didactic segment of their training. They were anxious about
a set of rules to which they were expected to conform. By the middle of
the year, however, some had incorporated the technique into their reper-
tories and felt comfortable both intellectually and behaviorally with the
techniques to which they had been eXposed. Some trainees appeared to have
difficulty, however, in "freeing up" from the "technique", i.e., in ob-
serving and understanding the interaction at the same time as attempting
to act appropriately. For example:

Child: You be the father and I'll be the mother.

Student: You want to be the mother and you want me to be the father.

Child: Right, waht do you want, bacon or eggs?

87
Student: You're wondering if I want bacon or eggs.
Child: Right, what do you want, bacon or eggs?
Student: You're wondering if I want bacon or eggs.

Child: (waits one minute) Let's play hockey.

One critical question in the training of undergraduates or anyone who
is to interact therapeutically with children, may be in determining the
most effective balance between technique instruction and the development
of a cognitive understanding of the child.

Implications for Child Develgpment

 

Although the current study did not address itself directly to child
deve10pment, it was necessary to delineate relevant variables in adult-
child relationships which might be associated with effective functioning
in children. Consistent with some previous findings, fantasy behavior was
demonstrated to be associated with permissive behavior in the undergrad-
uate, and to reflect an attempt by the child to resolve issues which
concerned him in his daily life. The relationship between permissive-
ness and fantasy behavior is still not clear, nor is it a certainty that
fantasy behaviors are indeed a desirable reSponse in interaction with an
adult. However, it is clear, as it has been for a long time, that child-
ren's use of symbols to express internal states is an important vehicle in
attaining ego mastery. If the training control group is indeed reflective
of the average person who interacts with children, then it may be that
fantasy behavior is unfortunately too often supressed by adults.

Some questions which might be of interest given the findings of the
current study are the following: One might determine the extent to which
fantasy as eXpressed in a play setting is associated with replication or

wish fulfillment. If fantasy is indeed effective in achieving ego mastery,

/‘

 

88
it might be implemented in various interactional strategies, e.g.,
psychotherapy, school settings, and family activities. The relationship
between fantasy behavior and child rearing practices, cultural expect-
ations, and family structure might be of interest. One might expect
that in societies in which performance, achievement, and responsibility
are stressed, i.e., in more restrictive environments, fantasy behgvior
would occur less often in children's activities. The relationship be-
tween psychopathology and children's expression of fantasy in an area of

research in which very little is known.

One important issue concerning child development remains to be dis-

cussed. This concerns the rate of behavior change in children's personal-

 

ity development. That one could eXpect any form of visible change to
occur in a child over a period of six months as a result of 20 inter—
actions with a college student is indeed a tenuous assumption. What often
occurs in clinical settings is that the child begins to demonstrate be-
havior change within the setting, while the transfer of these changes to
other settings takes much longer. Also, as Erikson (l9hO) argues, change
is always occurring in the young child's life.
The child...is constantly changing under the influence of
extratherapeutic factors. Therapeutic factors act at best as
accelerators and inhibitors on a continum of maturational
processes which...in their extra clinical manifestations...
have never been prOperly studied or described. The intimate
changes observed during a child's treatment therefore are too
easily eXplained as a function of treatment (Erikson, 19h9,
p. 589).
Thus, a related question concerns the direction of change.'
Both of these issues, i.e., rate and direction of change, are import-

ant variables to be considered in the use of extra-therapeutic outcome

measures. In order to increase the likelihood of using a valid and

[I

f.

,1

[I

89
sensitive extra-milieu outcome measure, a greater understanding of what
changes might be expected to occur within a Specified period of time is
needed. In this study, an immediate question is what kinds of changes
might have been manifest in the children after a longer period of time,
e.g., after one year of interaction with a trained college student, and
the extent to which these changes would be apparent in different settings.

Implications for Future Research

 

Of the many unresolved issues which this study has touched upon,
several appear relevant for further research. In considering the college
student as a nonprofessional in the psychiatric field, an immediate
researchable question involves using disturbed children, poor learners,
withdrawn children, etc. rather than presumably normal youngsters.
Stollak (1968) has studied the experimental effects of students treating
children from a child guidance pOpulation, but no control group was used.

If, however, one's interest is not in the nonprofessional as a
therapeutic agent, but more globally as an agent of change within the
community, other issues become a focus of concern. One researchable
question already mentioned involves the issue of training and/or education
of college students in mental health skills. Comparisons of different
techniques are greatly needed. The issue can be broadened to include
other pOpulations which come in contact with children, i.e., all child
care agents. What are the ways in which these agents can be effectively
influenced? From the point of view of research, the task appears to be
to isolate out a small group of individuals (child care agents) and to
effect an input of information and/or training which can then be assessed.
Behavioral science programs in the elementary grades (COOper and Seckler,

1967, Bessell and Palomares, 1968, and Ojemann, 1955) training college

[1

(O

[I

{O

90
students in mental health skills (Zax, Cowen and Laird, 1967, Linden and
Stollak, 1969) and other strategies of intervention.have been attempted.
The findings however, are relatively small compared to the efforts
involved. For the present study, it would be of interest to evaluate the
trainees five, ten, or fifteen.years later to determine whether the input
of training had any demonstrable effect in their lives, e.g., as parents
or teachers.

Regarding the children's behavior, other important areas of research
have been mentioned, particularly in the areas of fantasy behavior and
in the rate and direction of change of personal and social behavior.
More empirical studies of fantasy behavior and its relation to other
variables important to the child's growth are needed and may provide
valuable information about the deve10pment of imagination, creativity,
psychopathology, etc. A greater methodological comprehension of the
rates and directions of behavior change in children would increase the
validity'and sensitivity of research which investigates behavior change
in children.

On a more methodological level, the present study demonstrates the
difficulty of developing adequate outcome measures. To be sure, the
findings are less clear as a result. There are many alternatives to a
triadic group situation to assess personal and social growth. The most
relevant ones appear to be ones which asses behavior within settings in
which the child Spends a large part of his day, e.g., the school and the
home. The best research designs may involve combinations of naturalistic
observations and self report ratings of behavior. In such a combined
method, both the self perceptions and the perceptions of others can be

used to determine the nature of behavior change.

B IBLIOGRA EH

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albee, c;w., American psychology in the 60's. American psychologist,
1963 , .J.‘_8.’ 90’95 o

 

Axline, V.M., The eight basic principles. In M.R. Haworth, Ed. Child
psychotherapy, New York, Basic Books, l96h.

 

Axline, V.M., Play therapy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, l9h7.

 

Allport, G.W., Personality and social encounter, New York: Beacon, 1960.

 

Bach, G.R., Young children's play fantasies. Psychological monograph,
l9h5, £2 (Whole No. 272)

 

Bandura, A., and welters, R., Adolescent aggression, New York: Ronald
press, 1959.

 

Baumrind, D., Child care practices anteceding three patterns of pre-
school behavior. Genetic psychology monographs, 1967!.Zi9 h3-88.

 

Baumrind, D., and Black, A., Socialization practices associated with
dimensions of competence in preschool boys and girls. Child
deve10pment, 1967, 2Q, 291-328.

 

Becker, H.C., Consequences of different kinds of parental discipline.
In M.L. Hoffman and L.W. Hoffman, Review of child deve10pment
research. New York: Russell Sage, l96h.

 

Becker, W.C., Peterson, D.R., Hellmer, ImA., Shoemaker, D.J., and Quay,
H.C., Factors in parental behavior and personality as related to
problem behavior in children. Journal of consulting psychology,

1959, 2_3, 107-118.

 

Becker, W.D., Peterson, D.R., Luria, Z., Shoemaker, D.J., and Hellmer,
L.A., Relationship of factors derived from parent interview ratings
to behavior problems of five year olds. Child deve10pment, 1962,
2, 509-535.

 

Berenson, B.G., Carkhuff, R.F., and Myrus, P., The interpersonal
functioning and training of college students. Journal of counseling

3 cholo , 1966, $2, hhl-hh6.

 

Bessell, H., and Palomares, U., Methods in human deve10pment, San Diego:
Human deve10pment training institute, 1958.

 

Bierman, R., Dimensions of interpersonal facilitation in psychotherapy
and child deve10pment. Psychological bulletin, 1969, 13, 338~352.

 

Bridges, K., Social and emotional deve10pment of the preschool child.
London: Kegal Paul, 1931.

91

a
.. .
. o
v
. I t I
0 . -
. v a
. .. O
i. i
t
I
.
C
I
u t .
C
O
.
.
.2;
Fe

92

Carkhuff, R.F., Differential functioning of lay and professional helpers.
Journal of counseling psychology, 1968, ii, 117-126.

 

Carkhuff, R.F., and Truax, C.B., Lay mental health counseling: The effect
of lay group counseling. Journal of consulting psychology, 1965, 22,

1:26-1:32.

Charlesworth, R., and Hartup, N., Positive social reinforcement in the
nursery school peer group. Child deve10pment, 1967, 2g, 993-1002.

 

 

Cooper, 8., and Seckler, D., Behavioral science in the elementary grades.
Paper presented at American society of OrthOpsychiatry, Boston: 1967.

 

COOpersmith, S., Antecedents of self esteem, New York: Random House, 1967.

 

Demos, C.D., The application of certain principles of client centered
therapy to short term vocational counseling. Journal of counseling

psychology. 196h,‘1l, 280-28h.

 

Dorfman, E., Play therapy. In C.R. Rogers, Client centered therapy.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.

 

Dupont, H., The description and acceptance of feeling by children age
five to eleven. Dissertation abstracts. 1959, 29, 2373.

 

Dymond, R., A scale for the measurement of empathic ability. Journal of
consulting psychology, 1952, 16, 202-206.

 

 

Erikson, E.H., Studies in the interpretation of play. Genetic psychology
monogra hs, 19b0, 22, 559-671.

 

Erikson, E.H., Childhood and society. New York: w;w. Norton, 1963.

 

Feshbach, N., and Roe, K., Empathy in six and seven year olds. Child
deve10pment, 1968, 22, 133-1h5.

 

 

Frank, J.D., Problems of controls in psychotherapy as exemplified by the
psychotherapy research project of the Phipps Psychiatric Clinic. In
Rubenstein, E.A. and Parloff, M.D., (Eds) Research in psychotherapy.
Washington: American Psychological Association, 1959.

 

Gilbert, C.D., The young child's awareness of affect. Child deve10pment,
1969, 59, 629-6h0.

 

Ginott, H., Between_parent and child. New York: Macmillan, 1966.

 

Ginott, H., Group psychotherapy with children. New York: McGrtwéHill
1966.

 

Golann, 8., Community psychology and mental health: An analysis of
strategies and a survey of training. In Iscoe, I., and Spielberger,
C.D., Community psychology: PerSpectives in training and research.

phi! . I

(
P 0
O O O
O .
a O a
.
a. Q _
P:
_
I
'
.
I
a O
.
.

93
New York: Appleton-Century—Crofts, 1968.

Gondor, L.H., Use of fantasy communications in child psychotherapy. In
M.R. Haworth (Ed.) Childppsyphotherapy. New York: Basic Books, 196h.

 

Guerney, B.G., Filial therapy. Description and rationale. Journal of
consulting psychology, l96h, fig, 30h-310.

 

Guerney, B.G., Psychotherapeutic agents: New roles for nopppofessionals,
parents and teachers. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1968.

 

 

Handlon, B.J., and Gross, P., The deve10pment of sharing behavior.
Journal of abnormal and socialppsychology, 1959, h2S-h28.

Hartup, W}, Patterns of imitative behavior in young children. Child
deve10pment, 196h, 2g, 183-191.

 

Hartup, N., and Coates, B., Imitation of peer as a function of reinforce-
ment from the peer group and rewardingness of the model. Child

 

Hartup, N., and Glazer, J., Peer reinforcement and sociometric status.
Child development, 196?, 2g, 1017-102h.

 

Harvey, L.w., The use of nonprofessional auxiliary counselors in staffing
a counseling service. Journal of counseling psychology, l96h,l11,

3h8-351.

Hatfield, J.S., Ferguson, L.R., and Alpert, R., Mother-child interaction
and the socialization process. Child development, 1967, 2g, 36h-hl2.

 

Heinicke, C.M., Notes on the strategy of a child psychotherapy project.
ReisseDavis clinic bulletin, 1965, 2, 80-86.

 

Heinicke, C.M., Frequency of psychotherapeutic session as a factor affect-
ing outcome: Analysis of clinical ratings and test results. Journal
of abnormal psyphology, 1969, lg, 553—560.

Hobbs, N., Mental health's third revolution, American journal of ortho-
psychiatry, 196k, 2g, 1-20.

 

Hobbs, N., Strategies for the development of clinical psychology,
American psychological association, Division of clinical psychology
newsletter, l96ha.

 

 

Hobbs, N., Statement on mental illness and retardation. Americanppsy-
cholo ist, 1963, IQ, 295-299.

 

Hoffman, M.L., Parent discipline and the child's consideration for others.
Child deve10pment, 1963, 2Q, 573-588.

 

lull Ill lll.‘

a\ . s oa
o n e O
‘K '\ \
I
P\ .
V\,
, c v
’
C
§
0.
0
D

Ix

9h

Hollenberg, E., and Sperry, N., Some antecedents of aggression and effects
of frustration in doll play. Personality, 1951, l, 32-h3.

 

Holoway, A.R., Early self regulation of infants and later behavior in
play interviews. American journal of orthopsychiatry, 19h9, 19,
612-623. '-

 

Imber, 5., Frank, J., Nash, E., Stone, A., and Gliedman, L., Improvement
and amount of the therapeutic contact. An alternative to the use of
no treatment controls in psychotherapy. Journal of consulting psy~
ChOlO , 1957, _2_l_, 309‘3150

 

Isaacs, 8., Social develocment in young children. New York: Harcourt
Brace, 1933.

 

Jahoda, N., Current concepts of positive mental health. New York: Basic

 

Johnson, L.D., The effect of father absence during infancy on later father
child relationship using a doll play technique. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Stanford University, 1952.

Kahn, M., The child as a determinant of his peers approach to him.
Journal of genetic psychology, 1966, 109, 91.

 

Klein, N., The psychoanalysis of children. London: Hogarth Press, 19h8.

Klinger, E., DevelOpment of imaginative behavior: Implications of play
for a theory of fantasy. PBychological bulletin, 1969, 13, 277-298.

 

Krall, V., Personality characteristics of accident repeating children.
Journal of abnormal and social pgycholo , 1953, g§, 99-107.

 

Landisberg, S., and Snyder, N., Nondirective play therapy. Journal of
clinicalpsychologz, 19h6, a, 203—213.

 

 

Levin, H., and Sears, R.F., Identification with parents as determinants
of doll play aggression. Child deve10pment, 1956, 31, 135-153.

 

Levin, H., and Wardell, E., Research uses of doll play. Psychological

 

Lindemann, E., Mental health-fundamental to a dynamic epidemiology of
health. In I. Galdston (Ed.) The epidemiology of health. New York:
Academy of Medicine, 1955.

 

Linden, J.L., and Stollak, C.E., the training of undergraduates in play
techniques. Journal of clinical psycholo , 1969, 25, 213—218.

 

Maslow, A.H., Motivation andppersonality. New York: Harper, l95h.

 

Moustakas, C.E., The frequency and intensity of negative attitudes ex—
pressed in play therapy: a comparison of well adjusted and disturbed
children. Journal of genetic psychology, 1955, §é, 309—325.

 

95

Moustakas, C.E., Psychotherapy with children. New York: Harper, 1959.

 

Moustakas, C.E., Sigel, I., and Schalock, H., An objective method for
the measurement and analysis of child-adult interaction. Child
deve10pment, 1956, 21, 109-13h.

 

Murphy, L.B., Social behavior and child personality, New York: Columbia,
1939.

 

Ojemann, R., Investigations of the effects of teaching an understanding
and appreciation of behavior dynamics. In G. Caplan (Ed) Prevention
of mental disorders in children. New York: Basic Books, 1961.

 

 

Phillips, R., Doll play as a function of the realism of the materials and
the length of the eXperimental session. Child development, 19h5, 16,
123-lh3.

 

Pintler, M., Doll play as a function of the experimenter-child interaction
and initial organization of materials. Child development, 19h5,‘lé,

1145-166.

 

Poser, B.G., The effects of therapist's training on group therapeutic
outcome. Journal of consultingopsychology, 1966, 39, 283-289.

 

Reiff, R., Mental health manpower and institutional change. American
psychologist, 1966,l21, 5h0-5h8.

 

Rioch, M., Elkes, E., Flint, A., Udansky, B., Newman, B., and Sibler,
E., NIMH pilot study in training mental health counselors. American
journal of orthopsychiatry, 1963, 33, 678-689.

 

Rosenbaum, M., Some comments on the use of untrained therapists. Journal
of consulting psychology, 1966, 292-29h.

Rowland, T.S., and Ferguson, L.B., Mother-son interaction and the c0ping
behavior of young boys. Paper presented at the American Psychological
Association, 1969.

Ruderman, L., An exploration of empathic ability in children and its
relationships to several variables. Dissertation abstracts, 1962,

_2_3_, lulu.

 

Sears, P.S., Doll play aggression in normal young children: Influence
of sex, age, sibling status, father's absence. ngchological
monographs, 1951, 65, (Whole No. 323).

 

 

Sears, R.F., Maccoby, E.E., and Levin, H., Fetterns of child rearing,
Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson, 1957.

 

Siegel, A.E., Aggressive behavior of young children in the absence of an
adult, Child development, 1957, 28, 371—378.

 

Siegel, A.E., and Kohn, L.G., Permissiveness, permission, and aggression:
The effect of adult presence or absence on aggression in children's

If. t
I V
O a
b t .
P. , I O 0
4‘
.
D
O
. t O
a
.\ .
a.
U
k
0
O
5 l .
v
u
9.\

96

play. Child development, 1959, 39, l3l-1hl.

 

Singer, J.L,, Daydreaming: An introduction to the eXperimental study of
inner experience. New York: Random House, 1966.

 

Smith, M.D., Research strategies towards a conception of positive mental
health. American psychologist, 1959, $9! 673—681.

 

Stith, T., Dependency and helpfulness in young children. Child develop-

 

Stollak, C.E., The eXperimental effects of training college students as
play therapists. Psychotherapy: Theory, research and practice, 1968,
S, 77‘800

Stover, L., and Guerney, B.G., The efficacy of training procedures for
mothers in filial therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, research and

 

Szasz, T., The myth of mental illness. American psychologist, 1960, 15,
113-118.

 

Truax, C.B., and Carkhuff, R.F., Towards effective counseling and psycho-
therapy: Training and‘practice. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company,
1967.

 

Wahler, R.G., Child-child interactions in free field settings: Some ex-
perimental analyses. Journal of experimental childppsychology,
1967, 5, 278-293 .

 

Whiteman, M., Children's conception of psychological casuality. Child
deve10pment, 1967, 38, lh3-155.

 

Yarrow, L.J., The effect of antecedent frustration of projective play.
Psychological monographs, l9h8, 62, (Whole No. 293).

 

Zax, M., Cowen, E.L., and Laird, J.D., A college student volunteer
program in the elementary school setting. Community mental health

journal, 1966, 2, 319-328.

 

A PPEND ICES

97

Appendix A.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY . East Lansing . Michigan h8823

 

Department of Psychology . Olds Hall

Dear Parent:

The student who is presenting this letter to you is enrolled in a year-
long course involving students learning how to play with children. ‘We
are hOping that parents like yourself will volunteer your child or child-
ren between the ages of four and seven to do nothing more than play with
this student under my supervision for one-half hour once a week, during
this academic year, in a fully equipped playroom in Olds Hall on the
M.S.U. campus.

We will not be experimenting upon or manipulating your child in any way,
and you and your spouse are invited to observe any or all the play
sessions.

All of the above is necessary because it is very difficult to find child-
ren to help educate the undergraduate to become better parents and
teachers in the future, so we sincerely hope for*your cooperation and
help.

I will be glad to answer any questions about this program. My office
phone is 353-8877. If you and your child agree to help, the student
will begin arranging a time convenient for you and your child, and
will work out the transportation problem.

Thank you very much.

Sincerely yours,

Gary E. StOllak, HIQDO
Assistant Professor

GES:mc

Trainee
Subject Sex Age
1 F h8
2 F 62
3 F 72
h F 7h
9 5 M 52
6 M Sb
7 M 59
8 M 77
9 M 90
Mean 65.3

98

Appendix B.

Table 1

Ages of children in months

 

Control

Subject Sex Age

1 F 55
2 F 72
3 F 72
b F St
S M 59
6 M 66
7 ‘M 75
8 M 83
9 M 87

Mean: 72.6

99

Appendix Co

Sensitivity to Children

Reading List

1) Arnstein, Helene S.
2) Axline, Virginia
3) Baruch, Dorothy W.

h) Driekurs, R.

5) English, 0.3.

6) Erikson, E.H.
7) Fraiberg, Selma
8) Gesell, A., EE.§1°

9) Gesell, A.Iu & Ilg, S. L.

10) Gesell, A. & Ilg, F

11) Ginott, H.

12) Halpern, H.M.

13) Hartley, Ruth E., Frank,
IuK. & Goldenson, R.M.

1h) Ilg, Frances & Ames, Louise

15) Ilg, Frances & Ames, Louise

16) Larric k, Nancy

17) levy, D.M.

What to tell your child about Birth,
Illness, Death, Divorce and other
Family Crises - Bobbsterrill, 1960

 

 

 

Play Therapy - Houghton, Mifflin, 19h?

 

New ways in Disciplines, New York,
McGraw-Hill, l9h9

 

Psychology in the Classroom, Harper, 1957

 

Fathers are Parents Too, Belmont (pb)
1962

 

Childhood and Society, Norton, 1950‘

 

The Magic Years - Scribner & Sons, 1959

 

The First Five Years of Life: A guide
to the study of the Preschool Child -
Harper, 19h0

 

 

The Child from Five to Ten — Harper¢&
Brothers, 19h6

 

Child Development, Harper, 1959

 

Between Parent and Child, MacMillan,
1965

 

A Parent's Guide to Child Psychotherapy,
Barnes & Co., 1963

Understanding Children's Play, Columbia
University Press, 1952

 

Child Bonavior, (pb) Perennial Library,
19;;

The Gesell Institutes, Parents Ask -
(pb) Dell, 1962,

 

A Parent's Guide to Children's Educ-
ation, Pocket Books, l96h

 

Maternal Ovepprotection, Columbia Univ-
ersity Press, 19h3

 

(”I

100

Appendix C. (Cont'd.)

l8) MacFarlane, Jean N., Allen, A Developmental Study of the Behavior

Lualle, & Honzik, M.
19) Moustakas, C.E.

20) Moustakas, C.E.

21) Murphy, Lois B.

22) Neill, 11.3.

23) Spock, B.

2h) Spock, B.

25) Spock, B.

26) Suehsdorf, Adie (Ed)

27) Thomas, A., Chess, Stella
& Birch, H.

28) Verville, Elinor

29) Wolf, Anna

 

Problems of Normal Children -
University of California Press, 1955

 

Psychotherapy with Children, Harper &
Row, 1959

 

The Authentic Teacher, Hadoyle, 1968

 

The Widening world of Childhood: Peths
toward mastegy, Basic Books, 1962

 

 

Summerhill: A Radical Approach to
Child Rearing, Hart, 1960

 

 

Baby and Child Care, Pocket Books, Inc.
1957

 

Dr. Spock Talks with Mothers, Crest
*(sbj‘1961

Dr._§pock Talks about Problems of
Parents, Crest (pb) 1962

 

 

What to Tell Your Children About Sex,
Pocket Books, 1959

Temperament & Behavior Disorders in
Childpgp, New York University Press,

1958

Behavior Problems of Children,
Saunders, 1967

 

The Parent's Manual, Popular Library,
1951

 

I‘

101
Appendix D.

Basic Rules for Playing with Children

1. Reflect or clarify as many of the child's feelings as possible, be
they verbally or non-verbally expressed.

2. Reflect as much of the content of the child's behavior as possible,
be it verbally or nonpverbally expressed.

3. Give no direction, help or information to the child, unless he spec-
ifically requests it.

h. Do not bother the child with questions, ask as few as possible.

5. When praising the child, be sure to praise his behavior and not him
as a person.

6. Pay attention to the child at all times, restrict him only when he
begins to destroy something or begins to hurt you physically, and try

and be yourself.

l.

2.

h.

S.

102
AppendixIE.
Categorization of Undergraduate Behavior

(Mean percentage of agreement between coders in parentheses)

Reflection of verbal contopt. S (student) selects an aspect of C's
(Ehild77remark and restates the content of that remark. (.86)
Ex: C-That's a car, this is a truck.

S-That's a car, this is a truck.

 

Reflection of feelings. S restates the feelings stated by C. (.99)
Ex: C-I don't like to play in this room.
SéYou don't like it at all in here.

 

Reflection of motor activi_y. S describes the motor behavior of C.
(7911
Ex: C examines marbles.

S-Now you‘re picking up the green marble.

 

Interpretation. S verbalizes C's feeling or thought state by infer-
ence from C's verbal or non verbal behavior. That is, 3'8 statement
is not literally based upon C's behavior, but has the quality of being
an inference which may be correct or incorrect. (.82)
E.: C is punching the bobo doll.

S4You feel angry right now.

 

Participation in fantasy-initiating. S is contributing to the deve10p-
ment of C's fantasy by offering new content, verbalizing as yet unp
stated feelings or thought, or by beginning the fantasy, even before
C is clearly thinking or acting on a level of fantasy. (.75)
Ex: Each with a telephone.

S-Hello, is Susan there?

C—Yes, this is Susan.

S-Can you come out to play, this is Sharon.

C-O.K.

S-0.K. bye. (hangs up)

 

C is shooting a gun at an animal.
S-And you're shooting the elephant dead. You're going to kill
all the animals in the playroom.

Participation in fantasy-reciprocatigg. S is involved in C's fantasy
behavior, but clearly does not contribute anything more to its struc-
ture or content. Participation can take the form of merely watching,
laughing, reflecting motor or verbal content, or reSponding to 0'8
cues in a passive manner. (.73)
Ex: C and 5 have puppets

C-I'm a strong alligator.

SéYou're a strong alligator.

CéYea, and you're a chicken.

S-The chicken's going to lose its neck.

 

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

15.

103

Appendix E. (Cont'd.)

Nonattention. S directs his attention to something other than 0.

(i797
Ex: S fixes truck while C looks for something.

 

Conpliance-clarified. S responds to 0'5 commands, suggestions, or
requests, but only after reflecting C's request, command, suggest-
ion, etc. (.85)
Ex: C-Go get the ball.

SéYou want me to get the ball. All right.

 

Compliance-unclarified. S responds to C's suggestion, command, or
request, without hesitation, clarification, or conveyance to C as
to what C is requesting, suggesting, or commanding. (.88)
Ex: C-Go get the ball.

S~A11 right. (Goes and gets the ball).

 

Statement of own emotion. S verbalized his own feelings. (.99)
Ex: I'm sorry that you didn't go to the show.

 

Genuineness: S is truly "with" himself. He does not appear anxious
or uncomfortable. Those things which he says or does seem to come
naturally to him. (.70 This category was rated on a scale from
zero to three).

 

Praise. S expresses approval of C's productions or behavior, but
not of C as a person. (.87)
Ex: That's a fine picture you've made.

Offering Information. Either verbally, demonstratively, or both, S

offers knowledge or guidance. (.75)

Ex: CéWhy won't-this open (cash register).
SéYou have to press the keys first (S either simply says it, or
he actually performs it, but in either instance, C is in some
manner being instructed.

 

Giving hel . S gives physical aid to 0, without instruction or attempt
to involve C in the completion of the task. S is not helping C to
master the problem, but simply reSponding to an unstated request for
assistance. (.69)
Ex: C-Why won't this open? (cash register)

S-Takes cash register, opens it, and gives back to C.

 

Orienting. Limits, boundaries, and roles are indicated by S. (l)
Boundaries of the situation are indicated by 8. Ex: SaYou may do
whatever you like here. (2) S structures time. Ex: we have ten
minutes left to play. (3) Roles are indicated by leaving reSpons-
ibilities to C. Ex: I can't tell you what to do, you must decide
for yourself. Ex: You can use these things in any way you want.

(.69)

 

 

 

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

10h

Appendix E. (Cont'd.)

Directing. S attempts to influence C by command or suggestion, i.e.,
s teii§“E what to do (.80)

Ex: S-If you don't clean up, we can't come here any more.

Ex: S—Put the gun on the table.

Ex: S-Get me the book, will you.

Setting Lhmits-eXplanation. S attempts to modify C's behavior by
reducing the intensity, opeed or manner of executing it, he apparently
attempts to stOp or reduce the activity. Verbal eXplanation for
limit setting is offered. (.99)
Ex: S-Be careful or you will get hurt.
Ex: S-I don't think you should pound the micrOphone so hard. It
might break.
Ex: S-I know you'd like to stay here longer, but we have to go until
next week.
Ex: S-Bobo dolls are fun, but not for biting, only for punching.

 

 

Setting limits without elaboration or eXplanation. S attempts to
reduce the intensity of, speed of, or manner of executing C's be-
havior, without offering any reason, admonition, or conveying any
understanding of C and/or his behavior. (.99)
Ex: C is putting the bobo doll out the window.

S-StOp that, bring it back here.
Ex: Don't leave your coat on the floor.
Ex: Don't shoot the dart gun at my face.
Ex: Leave the microphone alone, Jim.
Ex: S pushed C away from the microphone. "Get away".

 

Asks question. 5 interrogates 0. (.8h)
Ex: SaNhat do you want to do today, Jim?
S-How many brothers do you have, Jim?

 

Criticism. S expresses disapproval of C or C‘s productions, either
subtly or very obviously. (.70)
Ex: C is shooting at target.

SaYou missed again.

C is drawing a picture.

S-That doesn't look like Beaumont tower.

Warmth. S conveys a general liking for C, either through his facial,
vocal or postural expressions. (.65) (This category was rated on a
scale from zero to three).

Rejection. S conveys to C that either C or C's productions are not
acceptable. Rejection can be conveyed through vocal, facial, or
postural expressions. (.71 This category was rated on a scale from
one to three).

l.

2.

3.

A.

S.

105
Appendix F.

Categorization of children‘s behavior with undergraduate.
(Mean percentage of agreement in parentheses.)

Statement of_personal thought or behavior in the context of realigy.
C verbalized an idea, experience, or behavior in reference to her-
self, either through the use of a personal pronoun (I or me), or
through the verbalization of her own action. (.65)
Ex: C-I am five feet tall.

C-I went to the store yesterday.

C-I can count to ten.

C-(drawing a picture) A horse with red eyes.

C-(hitting the bobo doll) Boom.

 

Statement ofppersonal thought or behavior in the context of fantasy.
Same as #1 above, except that the verbalized self reference occurs
within C's fantasy involvement, i.e., while 0 is assuming a role
other than.his own. (.76)
Ex: C-Hello Mr. Mouse, I have been waiting for you. I'm going to

give you Some cheese.

C-(talking on telephone) Susan, fins is your mother. Come

home right away. I want to talk to you.

C-(punching the bobo) I hurt him. I bit his nose.

 

Statement ofppersonal feelings in the context of reality.

C verbalizes emotional feelings of the past, present, or future.

(.77)

Ex: I like (love, hate, am scared of, feel bad about, am happy,
want, etc.)

 

Statement of personal feelings in the context of fantagy.
Same as #3 above, except that verbalization of feelings occurs with-
in context of C's fantasy involvement. (.71)
Ex: (playing with puppets) Now, Julie, if you ever do that again
I'm going to be very angry.
(holding the crocodile) The crocodile hates the lion.

 

Statement of integpersonal awareness in the context of realigy.
C verbalizes a comprehension of his involvement in a relationship
with another person, either the student or someone else. Often
occurs using the pronoun "we". (.55)
Ex: We can play Chinese checkers.

You bring me the chair.

Mommy and me and daddy makes three.

I am older than my brother.

 

Statement of interpersonal awareness in the context of fantaoy.
Same as #54above, except that the verbalization occurs within an
unreal context. (.86).
Ex: C-The big bozo is going to beat the little bozo up.

C-The doctor is going to give you a shot.

 

7.

9.

10.

11.

12.

106

Appendix F. (Cont'd.)

Statement of external condition.
C verbalizes his awareness of some environmental fact, one not
linked to human relationships. (.68)
Ex: It's hot in here.
It's getting dark outside.
The toys have changed.
Hey, there's a big bobo dol.

 

Statement of expectation, intention, or prediction.
C verbalizes and anticipation of an event, to come in the future. (.57)
Ex: After I put these marbles away, I'm going to punch the bobo.

Next week we can play again, o.k.?

If I don't clean up the floor, Mommy's going to be angry.

I bet there is someone behind the wall.

 

Behavioral eXpression of aggression in reality (R) in fantasy (F).
C eXpresses anger, or aggression, either in fantasy or reality.
May be verbalization, behavior, or both. (.7h)

Ex: punching the bobo doll; shooting a dart gun at the student;
shooting at the animals (not in a manner of target practice)
spanking a puppet, hitting oneself on the head, knocking
down the bowling pins (again, not in a manner of mastery or
perfecting one's skill), exclaiming "You bad toy".

Behavioral expression of affection in reality (R) or fantasy (F).

C expresses warmth either in fantasy or in reality non verbally.

Verbalizations may accompany behavior, but are not sufficient for

presence of behavioral eXpression. (.87)

Ex: Giving milk to a baby doll. Kissing the bobo. Giving candy
to the bobo, stroking a puppet.

Behavioral eXpression of excitement.
C eXpresses his excited state berbally or non verbally. This behav-
ior differs from expressing aggression in that it is more diffuse and
less attacking. (.85)
Ex: hilarious laughter; rolling on the floor; playing nok-hockey

in a fury; bouncing on the bobo doll.

 

Behavioral expression of object mastery (creativity).

0 attempts to manipulate, control, improve, understand, improvise,

or destroy an object. (.75)

Ex: Target shooting; trying to understand how the chinese checkers
are played, deflating the bobo doll; catching a football; try—
ing to knock down the bowling pins; trying to get the rings on
the h00p; doing the hula h00p; trying to fix a broken toy;
using a caracass in place of an iron, in order to iron clothes;
asking abdut, or playing with the micrOphone.

 

13 o DireCt 10“.

C attempts to influence S's behavior by command, strong suggestion,
or non verbal action. Essentially, C tells 8 what to do. (.71)

-1~

1h.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

107

Appendix F. (Cont'd.)

Ex: Go get the blocks and put them over there.
If you get the blocks, then we can build.
C gives S a block while building a house.

Seeks hel .
C explicitly asks S for assistance, not in a direction style. (.75)
Ex: Would you go get the blocks?

Can you hold this for me?

I can't do it. Please untie my shoes?

 

Changingpinvolvement.

C changes his focus of interest from one activity or toy to another.
(.76)

Ex: C plays with car. Stops. Then goes and punches bobo.

 

Nonattention-self involvemopt.

C directs his attention to something other than S, not merely glanc-
ing away at a toy, but becoming involved in an activity, and seem-
ingly becoming unaware that S is in the room. Nonattention must

be at least ten seconds. (.63)

 

 

Nonrecognition.

C does not reSpond to the stimulation offered by S. S may ask
questions,ref1ect feelings, describe C's behavior, or direct C.
C will act as if he has not heard S. (.70)

 

Note: Nonattention differs from nonrecognition in that the former
is in conjunction with a stimulus emitted by S, whereas the latter
requires no stimulation on the part of S.

 

 

Joint participation in activit . (D, s, or N)

Dominant role-C and S are mutually engaged in an activity, and C is
clearly directing the course of involvement, suggesting, orienting,
and seeking to put 8 in a submissive role. (.53)

Submissive role-C and S are mutually engaged in an activity and clear-
ly C is reSponding to the direction, suggestion, and orientation of

S; C is naturally complying and being comfortable in S's domination.
(.62)

Nondiscernible role—C and S are mutually engaged in activity, and
clearly neither C nor S acts in a dominant or submissive role.

There is a free give and take of suggestions, orientations, questions,
and directions. (.70) This category is coded on a scale from one

(D) to five (S) for each five minute interval.

 

 

 

 

Fantasy behavior (general).
C uses objects, materials, activities, or situations as though they
had prOperties or attributes other than those which they apparently
or actually seem to possess.

 

/\

1.

108
Appendix G.

Categorization of Children's Behavior in Groups

Verbal Comprehension Skill. The degree to which C verbalizes his
involvement as a selfrwith the selves of the other children. A child
can be highly verbal yet relatively unaware and incommunicative if
his verbalizations are centered around externals. On the other hand,
a non verbal child is an unaware and incommunicative child.

 

Rating: l-C is wholly nonverbal and silent.

2-C is substantially nonverbal but does Speak occasionally.

3-C is periodically communicative in that he talks with the
other children about himself, what he is doing and what
they are doing, feeling, thinking, etc.; there is some
degree of interpersonal communication to and about each
other.

L-C is frequently conversant with other children about him-
self and about the others.

5&0 is almost continuously conversant with the other children
about the feelings, thoughts and behavior of himself
and of theirselves.

Effective Coping Skills. The degree to which C feels comfortable in
the interaction and the degree to which the child "masters" the exper-
ience by being creatively involved in either an activity or an inter~
action with another child, or both. The question to ask is "Is he
master of himself in this situation, or does he suffer?"

 

Rating: l-C appears highly anxious, uncertain, suSpicious or
frightened.

2-C appears somewhat anxious, uncertain, suSpicious or
frightened, but is not completely this way. There
is come appearance of confidence or willingness to
enter the situation.

B-C does not appear to be anxious, uncertain, suSpicious,
etc. He does not, however, seem to be able to be
flexible. He stays with one toy, one child, or one
activity. There is an element of rigidity in his
coping behavior.

h-C appears quite sure of himself, and can be Spontaneous
in his involvements and interactions.

E—C is very sure of himself, is creative and Spontaneous
in action, and seems to be happy being with the other
two children.

Interpersonal Skills. The degree to which C forms effective social
relationships with the other children. A measure of how well he
gets along with the others.

 

Rating: l-C is withdrawn from involvement with the others.
2-C is basically not part of the interaction, but on

109

Appendix G. (Cont'd.)

occasion will Speak, attract attention, or attempt

to interact.

is involved with the others, but in a way which does
not seem satisfying to them. Examples would be being
highly controlling, aggressive or challenging.

is basically functioning well with others but there
are some dysfunctional elements in his behavior, such
as social aggression or excessive dominance.

is essentially c00perative and congenial with the other
children. The way he behaves seems to attract the
others and seems to sustain a mutually satisfying
interpersonal relationship.

llO

 

mm. 00.: mm. NH.: 04.: Hm.: 4H. a0. Hm.: am. mH. 00. am. H4. AeHHeov cOHsoeeHa .00
pm. 00.: 50. mm. 00. mH. 00. HN.: MH. 0m.: 04.: em. 04.: 00.: huopmee 000000 .40
mH.: 0H. mH. 44. mm. 00. 40. 4m.: 0H. m4.: 0a.: H4. mm.: 04.: geesesHoxm .mm
mH.: aH.: 0H. mw.: mm.: 4H. 40.: em. 0m.: mm. mm. 04.: mm. mm. cOHmmopmma »SHHeem .00
m4. mH. mH.: mH. MH.: mm. H4. H0. m0.: mm. a0.: 00.: «0. mo. museum ..smsm .Hw
«0. mm.: mm. mm.: H~.: aH.: 40.: mm. 44.: ea. H0. 0m.: mm. mm. Aev .3. .sea .osmsm .00
am.: HH. 0H. mH. 40.: mm.: m4. 0m. 00. NH. 00. 04. 00.: 00. Amv .xa .peH ..sapm .0H
4H.: mH. 0m.: mm. NH. 04. H4. m4.: mm. 00. 00. 00. 0H. 0m.: Amv .Home ..smsm .0H
NH. mH.: 00. a4.: m0.: 00.: 0H.: 40. 04.: 40. mm. 0m.: 04. m0. Aev n.s.a spasm .aH
4m.: H4. mH.: 4m. 0m. 0H.: 04. m4.: mm. 00.: mm.: ma. 0a.: mm. Amy 4.0.a spasm .0a
4H.: 0m. a0.: 00.: mm 00.: 00. mm.: 0H. Hm. am. 0H. mm. ammceeaaamu .mH

00.: m0. mm.: H-. ea. Hm.: 00. H4.: mm.: 04. 4m.: 0m.: cOHsoonom .4H

mm.: 0m. mH. 40.: m4. 0a.: 0m. 04. mm.: Hm. mm. 402pa3...mH

0m. Hm. me. 54.: 0a. a0.: mm.: 0a. m0.: m0.: 4.:pmv COHpoonan. .0H

0H. om. am.: 4m. a0.: am.: am. 4m.: 0m.: peoHpo .HH

00.: a0.: H0.: 40.: 0H.: NH.: «0. 0H.: aHoe e>a0 .0H

00.: mm. am.: 00.: N0. m4.: 00.: smaoHsaeo .0

0m.: 00. mH. am.: N0. 0a. .eaeaHo ooeeHHae°0 .0

ae.: am.: 00. 00.: H0.: 4.:pmv SOHpcmpsaaoz .a

H0. m0.: 00. 40. .scme .sema .aaoem .0

m4.: mm. mm. .scem meapaHpHeH .m

05.: H0. ma. eOHsmpmeaeosaH .4

0a.: H0.: coHsmoae awe .m

40. .>aeen .soe .Haom .m

.pcoo .npop .Hmmm .H
mH 4H mH NH HH 0H m 0 a 0 m 4 m m H .Haneee

 

 

.mmaanpm> pcmvcodom HH< no chHpmHeaaoopopCH

.mH oanae

.m 5283.

lll

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ms. 04. mm. mm. ma. mm. 0H. w0.l 44.: ww. mw. m0. mH.I 40. m4. 40.: nowmmopwma heapcwm .mm

04. 00. 00. 00. mm. 00. 00.: 00.: 00. 00. m0. 0H. 00. 40. 04.: 00H>0404 Swansea .H0

04. 04. 00.: 00.: 00.: 00.: 04.: 40.: 00. 00. 00. 00.: 00. 00. .OHsnea paecH200 .00

40. 00. 04. 4H. 00.: H0.: mm. 0H.: 0H. H4.. 0H.: 00. 40.: aoHpHcmoooecoz .00

0H. HH. 00.: 40.: 00.: 00. 00.: 00. 00.: H0.: 00.: 00.: coasaossaeoz .00

4H.: 0H. 40.: 0H.: 00. 0H. 00. 4H. HH.: Hm. 0H.: .o>Ho>cH owcaeo .00

04. 0H.: 00.: 00. 00.: 40. 0H.: HH.: 00. 00.: aHoe 0.00 .00

00. 00.: 00.: 4m. 0m. 0m. 00.: H4. 0H.: AeHaeoV cOHsooeHn .m0

00. 00.: 40.: 00.: 00. 00.: H0.: 04. meopmas 00.040 .40

00.: 00.: 00.: 0H.: 00.: H4.: 04. scosopHoxe .00

0H. 00. 00.: 40.: 00. 00.: cOHmmopmma esHHamm .00

00. 00. 00. mm. 00. nausea .opasm .H0

00. 00. 00. 00.: A00 .3. .0:0 .00000 .00

H0. 04. 00. A00 .3. .saa .opasm .0H

mo. 00. A00 .Hoo0 .osasm .0H

00.: A00 4.0.0 .00000 .0H

H0 00 00 00 00 00 00 40 00 00 H0 00 0H 0H 0H 0H .Hsaaeas

4H. om.I mm. H4.! 04.: Hm. mm. m4. Amos :0. :4. m4. 40. H0. m0. scammopmmm heapcwm .wm

00. H0.: 40. 00.: 00.: 0H.: 00.: 00. 00.: 00. 00. 00. 00. 00. m0. pOHSeeep emaseaa .H0

00. 00.: 04. 40.: 00.: 4H.: 00.: H0. 00.: 04.: 00. 00. 00.: 00. H0. .oHpeaa pcecasonv .00

00. NM.‘ 9H. NJO' ONO- 8.!- NMOI. NH. @40- 0:. JJ. mo. amt- m0. m3. COHpflcwoovéoz 0mm

HH. mm.l mo.3 04.: H0.: 00. 04.1 mH.I wH.I ma. mm. m4. 0m.3 0m. NH. “.HnOV SOHpcoppmcoz .wm

0H. mo. 0H. 4H.: 00.: H0.: H0. 0H. 0H.: 04. 4H. 0H. 0H.: 00. 0H. ..>Ho>cH 000.40 .00

HH. 0H.: 0H. 00.: 00.: 0H. 4H.: 00. 00.: 00. 04. 00. 00.: 00. 04. 0H04 0000 .00

0H 4H 0H 0H HH 0H 0 0 0 0 m 4 m 0 H .Hnera>
“.0.scoov .mH .Hnae

112

00000 mum 000000 0005102

00.0 00 .0Hu0 00 .0.00 00 .0:0 00 .Hue 00H

 

 

00000 000000 000003 0000000000 :0 00000000:m

00000 000000 000003 mpomwpdmuw 00000000uem 00.v0**
00.» 0*
00.0 m0.0 *04.m 00.0 m0.m 00.00 44.40 40.00 ...........................0000000000 .0
00.0 00.0 *00.0 mm.0 00.0 00.00 00.0N 00.040 ...................0o00000000 0000000 .0
N0.0 00.0 N0.0 NO.00 40.0 00.4 04.00 00.00 ...................0000000000 0000000 .0
00.0 00.0 00.0 00.4 04.m 04.0 00.0 N0.0 ........................000000 .00000 .m
$00.0 00.0 *04.0 m0.m 04.00 m0.0m 00.0w 00.000 ...Amv 000000020 0000000000000 .00000 .4
mm.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0m.m0 04.00 00.0m m0.m ...Amv 000000030 0000000000000 .00000 .0
00.4 00.0 ##04.0H 00.0 00.00 00.0 40.0 00.000 .Amv 000>0000\000:oep Hacomema .00000 .0
04.0 *00.0 04.0 mm.00 00.00 00.04 00.00 00.0m .Amv 000>0000\0000000 00000000 .00000 .0

<00. <0 00. 05.
m m m M 02 03 w m: N m: a m: 0000000>

 

 

0.0 .00000000> 000000000 00000 00 0000000> mo 00000000

.00 00900

.0 0000.000

00000 mum 000000 000:102

00.0 00 .00-0 00 .0.00 00 .0u0 00 .0.0 000

 

 

00000 000000 000003 mpommndmxmlw 000000mn0
00000 000000 000003 00000000|N 00000009IB0 00.»0**
bow/0*
*CHOJ HHON ERAHOMH NmoHH NMOQJ Hmtflm 805m 890mg 0000......oooooooooo.ooHOH>w£®D hmmpfimrm. omfl
OJ
“0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0m.o 00.00 00.00 ................000pm00000000 pcwc0000 .00
@300 NmIH Ewwoflfi NMOON mmom NNOOJ NQOHJ NOOQOJ CocooooooooooooooooooooOCOHPHCMCOQFCOZ OMH
mmOO omoo NPOM OQOMH QHON. JNOW NJOmm OJOMJH Coo-.0.ooo000000.000...OOOCOHflcwflmeOZ ONH
mOOO QMON mNOH NNOW @000 FOOQH HJONN WHOQJ 00.0...cocooooooQOooPC®E®>HO>CH nymph—“SD OHH
OJON @000 NOON HNOJ NHOOH mmco ONONN “NOCJ 0.0....ooooooooooooooococo-ooCOHFUQoHHD. OOH
mNOO ifimoo omto mNoON oflom omoon mfiowmfi 8.0m 0.0.0...oooooooooooooooorvpmwflfi PUQWDO Om
0\00 0\0 0\0 000
0 m 0 0.02 02 m 02 N 02 a m: o0nm000>

 

 

0.0.00000 .00 00000

t“ n

HO.»Q**
8.x;
.H XHUchQ<.cfi ummd omega 0p amowpcmcfl mum mHonEmmH

 

 

no.0 No.0 $40.5 mm.a ap.o om.o No.3 NH.Hm ...............ooamflpaflouoocmflaqeoo .m
:0.0 go.a **0m.m mm.m 4m.o oa.o $2.4m mm.mmw .......................c0fipcmpumcoz .N
mm.a op.o **om.gm pa.p we.ma m~.m No.0m 0:.HHN ........mmmpcmm cfl .ppmq HmoopQHoom .w
mH.H *m4.m om.o om.~ mo.m am.om mm.mo mm.mo ........poa>~gon mmmgcmg mgflpmfipflCH .m
Lu .**mm.o **ON.m is.a mm.F o:.om mo.ao wm.o~ og.amoa ......................mCOHpmmsa xm< .4
“u **wo.~ mm.a $3.“fl Hm.m mo.om mfi.m mm.~m mm.moa .....................c0flpapepgpprH .m
0:.H :m.m **oa.mm ow.® mm.ma mm.mm pm.pm wo.oooa .......pow>wgmn Logos mo =Oflgomammm .m
mo.o om.m **m4.pm mo.m Ho.o «H.mm w~.ma :~.o:~ .......pco¢:oo Happm> mo COHpameoa .H
<2. {m N}. $2.
a - m m w m2 m: m m: N m: a m: canfihg

 

 

Hommanwflpm> pcmccmaoa pcmndpm mo mocmflpm> mo mmmhfimc<

owa mflnwa

.w xflncoaa¢

'fi

Ho.va**
moova*
.H xflocmam< ca com: mmonp 0p Hmowpcwvfi 0pm mHonEmmH

 

115

 

**N~.m mo.o mH.o m~.o Hm.4 Hm.o Hm.o om.o .......................mmmcoCfiscmw .mH
ma.o NH.o **mw.mH mm.o No.0 No.0 om.m mm.oa .........................:0fl»omnom .JH
*om.z no.0 mo.m Nm6 oq.m wm.o HN3 Hm.mH ............................nggm3 .mH
Nwas HH.o **~®.om Ho.m ma.m ~m.o 4g.wm om.m:0H .........................goapompflm .NH
om.H m©.o mm.o ma.o mm.~ H0.: om.wm m~.m .........................mcflgcmflpo .HH
m~.H *Hm.m Hm.o um.o mo.H m~.m ~m.mm N‘mAH .........................Qfimn o>flo .0H
mm.o mm.o **m:.mm No.N om.a NN.H «H.o 97mfl .........................smfioflpflpo .m
{me {m NE Nu;
m m m ».m2 m: m m: N m: a m: mapmflpm>

 

 

A90. 9203 at” 3nt