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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

AN ECOLOGICAL AND TAXONOMIC SURVEY OF THE
CHEOROPHYTA OF THE JAMES RIVER BASIN, VIRGINIA

- presented by

Mr. Bernard R. Woodson, Jr.

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M— degree in Jam

Major professor

Date Dec. 6’ 1957

 

0-169

   
     

  

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

m momsIcu. AND ruoudm 31mm
or rm; cmopnrn or
rm; JAMES mm BASIN, VIRGINIA

By

Bernard Robert Hbodaon, Jr.

.AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate
Studies of Michigan State Univerdty of
Agriculture and Applied Science in
partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the
degree of

Dacron or PHILOSOPHY

Department of’Boteny and Plant Pathology

Bernard Robert Voodson, Jr.

this is a study of the distribution, classification, and
ecology of the chlorOphyta of the Janos River Basin. The chief
objectives of this study have been: (1) the collection and
identification of green algae (GalorOphyta) {rm representative
points along the James River Basin; (2) the determination, where
possible, of the geological or soil features and chemical factors
related to the distribution of ChlorOphyta along the James River
Basin; (3) the assembling of ecological data related to algal
development in streams in general.

This is the first detailed study made on the Chlorophyta of
the Janos River Basin. Dr. J. G. Stricfland of the University
of Rich-0nd in Richmond, Virginia has made a study of the
blue-greens (CyanOpbyta) of this area and emnli‘other persons
have reported species from the basin. lo fornal study, however,
has been made on the distribution and ecology of the green algae
of the area covered.by this investigation.

The writer has also made an attenpt to discuss certain aspects
of algal ecology of streams in general. ‘ This was done by using
data accusallated by many phycologists and other stream biologists.
This discussion does not treat all of the information that has
been accumulated on stream ecology, but it is thought that enough
data are presented to aphasise the importance of certain factors
on algal develoment.

In order to carry out the najor objectives of this study.
representative algal and chenical samples were collected from points

along the James Basin. Samples were collected from the headwaters

Bernard Robert Voodson. Jr.

to the mouth on both sides of the river. _ Such sampling was
followed throughout all seasons of the year. _

_ Beginning in magnet. 1955 samples were. taken from both sides
of the James. making certain that representative collections were
taken from each county bordering the river and so that each parent
soil type of the basin was included. At least two. often more.
samples were taken from streams emptying into the James from each
county. 1 total of 97 points were sampled by the author. and
Dr. J. C. Strickland of the University of Richmond contributed 16
collect ions.

,In the summer of 1956. the same, collection points were again cov-
ered. Samples were taken from the main tributaries. for chemical
analyses. .. The chemical analyses of these streams had been made
by the Department of Conservation. Division of Water Resources of
Virginia. but phosphorus analysis had been omitted from the data:
therefore. the author made phosphorus determinations using the
"Molybdate Calorimeter Method."

The samples were scrutinised in the laboratory and each species
observed was recorded. A drawing was thin made of the species by
use of the camera lucida. ‘ Seven plates of species mbering
82. and two maps supplement the written text.

After sumarising the results of this survey. several observations
can be made. (1) The number of ChlorOphyta inhabiting the tribu-
taries of the James River Basin is relativekr low. (2) The pH of the
streams ranges from 6.1+ to 7.6. It is quite difficult to deter- .

mine the direct influence of pH on the number of species; however.

it was observed that the streams with the largest number of species

 

 

 

. . :d.t..

.,.,....a
’-.Iv.1‘(

 

 

Bernard Robert Hoodson, Jr.

were slightly on the acid side of the pH scale. (3) Streams that
were slightly soft (low in OaOO’.‘ content) had the greatest umber
of species. However, the influence of hardness as s single factor
on algal distribution is difficult to determine. It is thought
that other factors tend to interact with hardness to influence
distribution. (4) The nitrogemcontent of a stream does influence
the distribution of species; however, it has been pointed out that
low-content of nitrogen in s stream may be influenced by the
volume of growth in the stream. If growth rate is low, the nitro-
gen-content may be high. (5) Pollution is considered as possi-
bly s factor limiting the number and kinds of species inhabiting
a stream. Organic pollution may tend to increase the nitrogeno
content of a stream; thus, acting as s fertilizing factor. The
streams in this study that seemed polluted were quite limited in
More of species; however, these forms that were able to survive
were quite prolific in their growth. (6) Current-rate seemed to
greatly influence the productivity of a stream. The swifter streams
in this survey were less productive than the slower. However, there
were s. few exceptions in that two or more streams that were quite
slow were not especially productive, but this was thought to be
due to other factors such as pollution, hardness, pH, turbidity,
etc. In general the swifter streams were almost devoid of both
algae and higher plants, but those that could urvive the hsssrd
of swift currents usually thrived quite well.

AN ECOLOGICAL AND TAXONOI'UIC SURVEY
OF '1‘le CHLOROPHITA OF
THE JAMES RIVER BASIN, VIRGINIA

By-

Bernard Robert Woodson, Jr.

A THESIS

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate
Studies of Michigan State University of
Agriculture and Applied Science in
partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the
degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Botany and Plant Pathology

1957

Table of Contents

I. IntrOductj-on 0...00.0.00...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

A. Objectives of the Problem..............
B. Geology and Chemical Dascription
of James River Basin ...............
l. The Soil Regions of Virginia ......
2. Source and Description of
Chemical Factors Considered
hlflfiqumr..u.n.n.u.n..
3. Chemical Characters of Surface
waters of the James River
Basin ..........................
C. Methods and Procedures ................

II. Results DOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

A. Taxonom’c List ...
B. Tabulation of Chemistry of the
James River Basin and Distri-
bution of Species ..................

III. Discussion - Ecology of River Algae ..........

A. Algal Communities of River Flora ......
l. Plankton Communities ..............
2. Benthic Communities ...............

B. Physical Factors Influencing
River Algae ........................
1. Size of Stream ....................
. Current Rate ......................
. WMBerml.n.n.n.u.u.u.n..
. Depth of Stream ...................
. Temperature of Stream .............
Light Reaching Stream
Turbidity of the Stream ...........
C. Chemical Conditions of the Stream .....
1. Dissolved Cases in Streams
a. Oxygen ........................
b. Carbon Dioxide
pH of the Stream ..................
Calcium ...........................
qummms.u.u.u.u.u.u.n.u
Nitrogen ..........................
Brackish Streams ..................

T10U'LF'UJM

O\U'Ul"\p l\)

I

wwt—‘l—J

28
32
37
39
39

VI.

VII.

D. Distribution of Algae in Streams .......
l. Colonization .......................
2. Climax Conditions of Streams .......
3. PeriodicityinStreams .............
h. Local Distribution

Discussion - Ecology of the James River

BaSin .0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0.0...

A. pH Of ttle water OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.
B. Hardness of the water ..................
C. Stream Pollution .......................
DO Rate or Flow OOOOOOCOOOOOO 00...... .0 C...
smaI'y .0000...0.0...0.0000000000000000000COOO

Bibliogz‘aphy 00.0.00...OOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOO...

Plates and Descriptions of Plates .............

125
128
129
132
Ibo

1b2
153
11:8
151
153
156
158

171

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express the most sincere thanks to
Dr. G. W. Prescott, under whose guidance the following investiga-
tion was executed. His very deep interest in the welfare and
progress of the writer served as a stimflus for continued pur-
suance of this investigation. His very helpful advice and un-
tiring guidance have been of great inspiration to the writer
during the course of this study.

A special statement of gratitude is also extended to Dr.

J. C. Strickland, Department of Biology, University of Richmond,
for his help in the collection of specimens from 16 stations,

and for the use of literature from his personal library and the
library of the University of Richmond. Grateful acknowledgmert
is also extended to the Virginia Academy of Science for their
interest in this investigation, and for the financial grant which
enabled the enter to meet some of the financial problems in-
volved in the collection of specimens.

Sincere thanks are also extended to the Conservation Depart-
ment of Virginia Polytechnic Institute for information on the
soils of Virginia. Acknowledgments are also due Dr. J. L. Lockett,
Head of the School of Agriculture of Virginia State College, for
the use of geologic maps, and to Dr. C. C. Gray and Mr. J. H.
Trotter of Virginia State College, for their assistance in making

phosphorus determination tests.

etc., with the distribution of the Chlorophyta along the James
River Basin. The writer also has made an attempt to discuss
certain aspects of algal ecology of streams in general, using
data accumulated by well-known plwcologists and other stream
biologists. It is hoped that enough information is presented
to make this research useful to other investigators.

The writer, began this study of the distribution during

the summer of 1955.

OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY

This is a study of the distribution, classification and
ecology of the Chlorophyta of the James River Basin. The
primary objectives of this study have been: (1) the collection
and identification of green algae (Chlorophyta) from representa-
tive points along the James River Basin; (2) the determination,
where possible, of the geological or soil features and chemical
factors related to the distribution of Chlorophyta along the
James River Basin; (3) the assembling of ecological data con-
cerning algal development in streams in general.

This problem was brought to the attention of the writer by
his advisor, Dr. G.'W3 Prescott. It was suggested that since
no formal study had been made on the distribution and ecology
of green.algae in the area covered by this report, that it
would be well to make such.a survey. Several persons have re-
ported organisms from.different points in.Virginia, but fer the
Chlorgphyta.along the James River Basin it is virgin territory;
J. c. Strickland (19M) has made a survey of the blue-green; H. 5.
Forest (19510 has presented a check list of algae in the vicinity
of Mountain Lake Biological Station, Virginia: S. L. Meyer (19140)
has reported species °f.§EESE§3 and Vivian Farlow (1928) has re-
ported algae of ponds from.tadpole intestine. It was also sug-
gested by'Dr. Prescott that the writer try to associate as.many

ecclogical factors, parent rock, soil regions, water chemistry,

C. GEOLCBI AND CHEMICAL DESCRIPTION OF
THE JAMES RIVER BASIN

1. The Soil Regions of Virginia*

Soils vary from place to place chiefly because of the
action and interaction of three important factors: (1) the
chemical and physical nature of the parent materials; (2) the
envirormental conditions under which the soils were developed
(temperature, precipitation, topography, amount of drainage,
natural vegetation and soil organisms); (3) the length of time
these enviromental factors have acted upon the parent material.

Parent materials are usually classified on the basis of
whether they have remained in their original place or have been
moved and redeposited, and, if the latter, by what agency. If
the parent material from which the soil has been fomd has not
been moved, the material is known as residual and the soil is
the final product of the rock underneath. If the parent materi-
al is moved, however, from its original position, it is
known as transported material and is further classified on the
basis ofthe transporting agent. Water is the main transport;
fling agent in Virginia. It gives rise to (l) alluvial materials, -

 

*Bulletin 203 - Agronomy Department of Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and the Soils Conservation Service of Virginia.

those that are picked up and deposited by flowing streams
from which first bottom and terrace soils are developed; and
( 2) marine materials which have been carried by streams and
deposited in the ocean. The other transporting agent impor-
tant in soil formation in Virginia is gravity. Soil material
moved by gravity and run-off down steep slopes is known as
colluvium. Some material which has been moved by water and
gravity for short distances down slopes is also known as local
alluvium.

14am conditions contribute to the effect of the environ-
mental factors on the parent material. Other things being equal,
the longer the soil material has been acted on by environmental
forces, the more the soil properties will be affected by the
environment and the less by parent material. Conversely, the
shorter the time the environmental factors (rainfall, topography,
temperature, etc.) have been working on the parent material,
the more will the properties be affected by parent material.

Texture of the parent material also has a marked influence
on the effect of such soil-forming factors as rainfall, tempera-
ture, etc. For example, fine-textured material such as clays
retards normal water and air movements necessary for subsequent
soil development. Topography is of great importance. 0n steep
slopes normal soil erosion removes soil almost as fast as it is

formed. Well-developed soils, therefore, form only on gentle

rolling relief from medium-textured’soil-parent material.

There is some merit in grouping Virginia's soils on the
basis of their physiographic divisions and parent materials
as a natural classification. The following classification does
not constitute, however, a grouping which parallels exactly
the bases of categorizing described above. Four (h) main
divisions and eleven (11) subdivisions of Virginia based on

physiographic and soil—parent materials are described below.
APPALACHIAN DIVISION

The Appalachian Division has a total land area of about
8,000,000 acres, being next in size to the Piedmont Division
(see soils map page 27a). It begins in the extreme west por-
tion of Virginia and extends in a northeast direction across
the state. The elevation ranges from 1000 feet in the lower
valley part to about h000 feet on some of the higher mountain
ridges. The surface relief varies from gently sloping to steep.
The 1arger,rougher areas of this division occur in the southwest
plateau section and the Allegheny Mountains on the west. The
dominant rock formations are sandstone, shale and limestone.

Three areas of the Appalachian Division are shown on the
nap: Appalachian Plateau, Mountains and Uplands, and Limestone
Valleys. Soils of these areas are described briefly in the
following pages.

Area 1

The Woman Plateau is in. the extreme western, portion
of Virginia taking in most of Wise. Dickenson and Buchanan
Counties and a smallgpart of Scott. Russell and Tazewell Count-
ies. (See soils map. page 27a). The high plateau. usually 1700
to #200 feet in elevation is deeply out by streams. giving a
rolling to, steep topography. The underlying rocks from which
the soils are formed consist of acid sandstone and shalee. On
the smoother tepography the major soils belong to the Hartsells.
Welleton and Coeburn series. The soils occurring on the steeper
topography belong to the Muskingum and Montevallo series. Be-
cause of the steep topography and low fetrility of the soils
of this region. a large part of the uplands remain in forest.
The smoother areas support some truck gardening and orchards
as well as general farming. but most of the farming is done by

minors and other industrial workers on a part-time basis.

Area 2
The Mountains and Uplands region comprises the Allegheny
hountains and foothills which extend throughout the northwestern
portion of the state and which form the western boundary of the
great Limestone Valleys of Virginia. The mountain ridges have
narrow. straight-back crests usually capped with sandstone. with

sides very stoop to precipitous and usually stony. The ridges

run in parallel series in a northeast-southwesterly direction
and on many of them the skyline looks to be the same elevation
for miles. These higher ridges are made in) of sandstone or
sandstone and shale with many of the foothills being developed
from acid shale. Most of the soils belong to the Muskigum
(from sandstone) or Montevallo (shale) series. They are steep,
shallow, or of low fertility, and in general should remain in
forest. Between the ridges are narrow valleys which in many
places have been filled by materials rolled or washed from the
original extremely high elevations. Between the valleys and
high ridges there are often fairly wide areas of rounded shale
hills which may be capped with colluvial materials. The soils
above these various rock formations, owing to the broken relief
and to resistant rock fomations, have developed very shallow
profiles and in most places rock fragments of various sizes are
scattered over the surface and through the 3011. Although
Muskigum and Montevallo are the most extensive of the upland
soils, some of the less extensive types are of considerable
agricultural importance because they have a more level relief
and deeper profiles. Among these are the colluvial soils of
the Jefferson, Hayter, and Leadvale series.

Nearly all of the soils in the southern portion of this
area are light in color, ranging from light m to grayish-
yellow and light brown in the surface and yellow or brownish

yellow in the subsoils. In local areas soils such as Allen

and Wadesboro have red or reddish brown subsoils. In forested
areas a small. amount of leaf-mold is mixed with a few inches

of the top soil, and in areas that have been in continuous pas-
ture for many years the top inch or two is somewhat darker than
the soil below. In the northern portion of the region the soils
become somewhat browner in the surface and subsoils, showing the
effects of a colder climate. In some of the narrow valleys be-
tween the mountain ridges where the residual limestone has not
been covered by colluvial materials, soils have developed simi-
lar to those in the Limestone Valley. These areas generally
occur on steep relief, but form a striking contrast to the

surrounding and poorer appearing country.
Area 3

The Limestone Valleys extend throughout the northwestern
part of the state lying in general between the Blue Ridge Moun-
tains on the southeast and the Alleghany Mountains on the north-
west with a total land area of about 3,800,000 acre8.. The ele-
vation varies fran approximately 1,000 to more than 3,000 feet
in portions of southwest Virginia. Il‘he main or Great Valley
of Virginia, called Shenandoah Valley varies in width from
about 8 to 20 miles. It is not a valley in the sense that it

has been worn down by streams. Its surface has been lowered

below that of the adjacent country because of the underlying
limestone which has decayed more rapidly than that,of the more
resistant rocks of the Blue Ridge and Appalachians. The Valley's
surface relief is gently rolling. to steep. .In some places
streams have~ cut deep beds within the Valley. causing large
areas of hilly and, very steep topography. Throughout the
Valley there are many high ridges and sharp crests and precipi-
tous slopes. The terraces and first bottoms are“ nearly level
and they comprise the smoothest. parts of the area.

Many of the soils of the Valley are developed fromrocks
containing varying amounts of lime (09,003). In general. the
higher the lime-content of the underlying rock the more pro-
ductive the soil of the area. Thegupland soils occurring at
lowest, relative elevations are derived from high calcic lime- ‘
stone and belong to the Hagerstown. Pisgah. and Decatur series.
Occurring on adjacent ridges usually are soils derived from
dolomitic limestone which are fairly high in chert. sandstone
or both. These soils. belong to the Dunmore. Frederick. Elbert.
Lodi. Boloton. and Clarke-ville series. and are less fertile
than those from high calcic limestone. but are relatively better
smell grain soils.

Associated with. the calcic rocks and dolomitic limestone
are fairly large areas of soils formed from high calcic lime-

stone. but containing varying amounts of shale as impurities.

10

These soils usually are heavier in texture than other Limestone
Valley soil, and, in general, are better suited to production of
pasture and forage crops. Soils belonging to the Groseclose,
Bland, Garbo, Chilhowie, and Colbert series occur in this group.
Associated with this group of soils are the Westmoreland soils
which develop over interbeded limestone and shale on steep topo-
grapiw. They are especially suited to pasture and forage crops.
Also in the Limestone Valley are large areas of soils de-
veloped over shale containing varying amomts of calcium carbo-
nate. These soils are usually shallow to bedrock, have very
low storage capacity for water and are, therefore, subject to
drought. Dandridge soils are developed over shale showing the

presence of 0:100 within 18 inches of the surface of the soil.

3
The teas, Litz and Berks are developed over shale low in lime
and are leached free of Oa003 to at heat 18 inches. Tellico
soils have been mapped in the Limestone Valley over calcarous
sandstone.

Just west of the Blue Ridge Homtains and also in the
vicinity of the Appalachian Mountains there are rather large
areas of colluvial tutorials, mainly sandstone and shale, that
have been washed or rolled from higher slopes. From these beds
the Jefferson, Allen and Esyter soils have developed. All of
the Valley soils are prevailingly light in color ranging from

grayish-yellow to brown in the surface soil, and fru brown,

brownish-yellow, yellow, yellowish-red and brownish-red to
red in the subsoil. The textures are dominantly loams, silt
loams, loams with fine sandy loans in case of some of the
terraces and colluvium. Many areas are stony, particularly
at the base of mountains and on higher knolls and ridges. In
the main,subsoils are friable, but in places surface and sub-
soils are heavy and plastic. They have developed under forest
cover, dominantly hard woods, and do not contain much organic
matter. Leaching has been active and the surface soils do
not contain a very high amount of plant nutrients. Free car-
bonate of lime is lacldng in most of the soils although a
majority of them are derived from limestone or materials abun-
dant in carbonates.

0n the whole, the soils from limestone are inherently
fertile and by far the most productive in the Valley. Those
from shale are mainly shallow and therefore droughty soils.
They are among the least productive soils of this region.
lihen used for the best-adapted crops, as small grain, good
yields are obtained. In production the soils from sandstone
are the least desirable; however, those soils derived fran
mixed sandstone and limestone, as the Lodi series, are adapted
to general use, being less productive than soils derived from
limestone but considerably more so than most soils derived from

shale .

12
BLUE RIDGE DIVISION

The Blue Ridge Mountain Division runs through Virginia
in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction. (See soils
map page 2711) It lies between the Piedmont Plateau on the
east and the Great Limestone Valley on its western border.

It consists mainly of the Blue Ridge Mountains with numerous
ranges. The elevation on the main ridge varies from 1,500 to
3,500 feet above sea level, but some of the peaks are much
higher. The highest elevations are Mt. Rogers, 5,720 feet,
and Whitetop Mountain, 5519 feet. Both of these mountains
are in Grayson County, which is often called the roof-top of
Virginia.

The Blue Ridge Mountains as a whole are characterized by
relatively broad rounded ridges with new steep to precipi-
tous slopes and include spurs and sharp knobs that stand out
above the lower lying hills, particularly on the eastern side
adjacent to the Piedmont. In the southwest portion, Carroll,
Grayson and Floyd Counties in particular, they can best be de-
scribed as a plateau deeply cut by streams and broken by moun-
tains and high hills which have round tops and steep slopes.
Some of the intemountain areas here have topographical fea-
tures sindlar to those of the Piedmont. The streams as fast
flowing and have cut narrow v-type valleys far back into the
mountains. Haw of the bottoms, however, along the streams

13

especially in the plateau section, are relatively wide, con-
sidering the size of the stream, and for the most part are
characteristically of imperfect drainage conditions, due to
seepage from higher country. In the rougher mountain sections
the land is very stony and contains many large areas of rock
outcrop.

The higher elevation largely accounts for the fact that
the climate of the Blue Ridge Division is cooler than that of
the Costal Plain or of the Piedmont. About 55 degrees F. is
the average mean annual temperature for the Division, and the
mean annual precipitation is about 143 inches. (According to
the Western Bureau Station at Jefferson, N. 0., just across
the line fran Grayson County, Virginia, the mean yearly preci-
pitation is h8.86 inches.)

Area )4

For the most part, the northwest slapes of the Blue Ridge
Mountains are composed of highly metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks consisting of sandstone, quartzite, and shale. The soils
are shallow and generally stony, with many rock outcrops. The
dominant soils belong to the Ramsey, Muskingum, and Lehew
series. Because it is steep, stony and low in fertility, most
of this area will remain in forest.

Area 5

The Blue Ridge southeastern slopes, the eastern foot
slopes and the smooth mountains tops have soils that are de-
veloped mostly from igneous and metamorphic rocks-- granite,
gneiss, schist, mica schist, and in mam places along the back
bone of the Blue Ridge, a relatively narrow belt of greenstone .
Throughout all of the region there are relatively small areas
of basic rock from dyke intrusions. Other volcanic rocks are
found in the northern part of this division, and also in the
southwest portion in the vicinity of Troutdale and north of
Flatridge. ’

Harv of the steep mountains slopes are largely mapped as
rough, stony land. The major soils from the acidic rocks be-
long to the Porters,ilshe, Fannin, Balfour, Watagau, Edney-
ville, Chandler, and Talledaga series. Those from the basic
rock belong to the Rabun and Clifton series. On the Plateau
and smooth mountain tops, these soils are very responsive to
good soil management practices and production could be greatly
increased.

Because of the cool climate of this area, the soils are
frozen for longer periods during the winter; thus, soluble
mineral matter is leached out less than in the warmer Piedmont
and the soils are darker colored and more open and porous

throughout .

15

Where soils have developed on steep and very steep sur-
face relief in this mountain section, natural sheet erosion
has kept pace with the weathering of underlying rocks and the
soils are quite shallow. Moreover, only indefinite lines of
demarcation occur between the soil horizons.

In the southwestern part of Virginia, the Blue Ridge
widens out forming high table lands. These are often spoken
of as intermountain areas as they occur between the higher
rounded ridges. Here the surface relief is very similar to
that of the Piedmont and varies from rather smooth through
rolling to hilly; consequently, the soils are much deeper and
the layers are well defined.

. Although most of the soils in the Blue Ridge, because of
their absorptive surface and open, porous subsoil nature, are
not subject to severe erosion and are therefore considered less
erosible than soils of the Piedmont; several soils are excep-
tions. Those of the Talladega and Chandler particularly,
together with the closely related Fannin and Watauga, are de-
veloped from highly micaceous schist. They have floury top-
soils and red or brownish-yellow, fluffy, highly micaceous sub-
soils. bath these soils, erosion control is a major problem.
Cultivation or grazing without adequate protection will lead
to rapid gullying and abandonment.

The textures of most of the soils of this area are loam,

silt loam, or clay loam. The color of the surface ranges from

16
dark gray to brown. In the most important series. the sub-
soil ranges from dull red to brownish-yellow or brown. Soils
of this area are rather crumbly througmut their profiles.

PIEDMONT DIVISION

The Piedmnt Plateau makes up the largest total land area
in the state including approximately 10. 500.000 acres or 1+1
percent. (See soils map. 139-30 27a). It passes through the
central part of the state from the south in a northeasterly
direction and it is about 1&0 miles wide at its southern end
and about 1:0 miles at the northern end. It consists of a
broad. plain-like surface. thoroughly dissected by numerous
small streams. The streams flow generally in narrow. winding
valleys in a southeasterly direction and have resulted in the
development of a rolling to hilly surface relief. Some of the
rougher topOgraphy is encountered in the western portion. near
the Blue Ridge Mountains and is sometimes called the Piedmont
foot hills. Due mainly to this steeper surface relief. soils
in this section have deve10ped shallower profiles than those
of the wider divides of the eastern part.

The general elevation of the Piedmont ranges from about
200 feet on the eastern border to about 850 feet where it lies
next to the Blue Ridge Mountains. although some of the isolated
hills and ridges reach much higher elevations. There are man

of these high ridges developed throughout the Piedmont area

17

because of the rock formation being more resistant to weather-
ing. Ehcaxnples of these are Whiteoak Mountain in the central
part of Pittsylvania County, capped with Triassic sandstone,
and the Ridge known as Southwest Mountainwhich cuts across
the county of Albemarle and up into Orange County and is under-
lain with greenstone.

There is a rather marked difference , at least from a local
standpoint, in temperature and precipitation in the northern
and southern parts of Virginia Piedmont. At Danville in the
extreme southern end of the area, records show that the mean
annual temperature is 59.3 degrees F. and the mean annual pre-
cipitation is hold inches. Records compiled at Lincoln in the
northern part show the mean annual temperature is 55.2 and the
mean precipitation is 39.141 degrees F.

From a geological standpoint, the Piedmont Plateau is
very old. It was a land area when the Coastal Plain area and
the present land area west of it, except the Blue Ridge Moun-
tains, were covered by ancient seas. The Piedmont Plateau is
a region of complex rocks such as granite, diorite, diabase,
greenstone, gneiss, schists, phyllite, slate, quartzite, sand-
stones and shales.

The large variety of soils in the Piedmont Plateau is
due in part to the difference in the rock formation which have
contributed materials to the soils, and in many places the
soils bear direct relationship to these underlying rocks.

18

In textures, soils of the Piedmont are sandy loans, loams,
silt loans, and clay loams. The soils are predominantly light
in color, ranging from light gray to pale yellow. Those from
basic rocks have a surface color of light brown to reddish-brown
and those developed from red triasaio shale, as the Penn soils,
derive their peculiar Indian-red color largely from the parent
material. All of the Piedmont soils have developed under forest
cover, which is not favorable to the accumulation of organic
content. In wooded areas there is usually a thin layer of leaf
mold and other decayed forest debris on the surface and some
organic matter mixed with the upper few inches of soil. In.this
region of moderate to heavy rainfall and relatively warm.tempera-
ture, active leaching of the soil continues throughout the year,
because the soil is not frozen to such great depths nor for as
long periods as it is in latitudes further north. Because of
the larger amount of leaching of soluble plant nutrients, the
surfhce soils do not contain so large a quantity of these elements
as the subsoils. Leaching is the main reason that calcium is
low in the soil. Calcium is present in the mineral composition
of many of the underlying materials, particularly the dark colored)
basic rocks.

. Climatic conditions in most of the Piedmont tend to de-

velop soils with light gray to pale yellow surface soils and
yellow to red subsoils; however, the effect of climatic change

on the soils can be Observed in the Piedmont of Virginia as one

19

travels from south to north. The soils become somewhat darker
hmhmtmswmwaMswmfl.Inmemmmmpwuthy
show less of the leaching process and therefore a greater accu-
nmflation.of organic matter. Closer studies of the soils from
similar'nnterials in.Northern Virginia indicate that they con-
tain relatively larger amounusof plant food nutrients in their
surface soils than.do the soils of the southern portion. Other
striking differences of the Northern Piedmont soils developed
on similar relief from similar parent rock are observed in
their shallower profile and more friable subsoils. Exceptions
are found in some of the heavy plastic soils deve10ped on level
to flat topography where relief and parent material have been
more important than climate. Even here the soils are some-
what darker in color than their counterparts further south.
Soils of the Piedmont area have been developed fran three
distinct geological formations; crystalline rocks, triassic

and slate. These are shown on the map as areas 6, 7 and 8.
Area 6

By far the larger part of the area is underlain by crystal-
line rocks which.have been formed and greatly altered by heat
and pressure in the earth.

The crystalline rocks are divided into three main groups
on the basis of their silica content: (1) those having less

than 50 percent 5102 including quartz are considered basic rocks

and on the whole are darker colored. Exalnples are diorite,

diabase, hornblende gneiss, and greenstone, (2) those having
65 percent 5102 are known as acidic rocks and are generally

lighter in color and are represented by granite, gneiss, and
liat colored schists; and (3) those having 50 to 65 percent
5102 are intermediate.

Some of the most important soils agriculturally and by
far the most extensive soils in Virginia Piedmont are derived
from weathered materials of the acidic rocks. In the southern
belt, the most important of these are Cecil, Appling, Durham,
Helena and Louisberg from crystalline acidic rocks such as
granite, gneiss and schist. From the dark colored basic rocks
have been mapped Davidson, Mecklenberg and Iredell soils.

From the intermediate or mixed rocks are developed the Lloyd,
Fluvanna, and Wilkes soils. From fine grained highly weathered
quartz, mica, schist are areas of Madison and Louisa soils.
Extending through marw of the middle Piedmont counties is a
large belt of fine-grained schist (serecite schist) rocks which
give rise to the Tatum, Nason, York, Lignum, and Manteo soils.
These are inherently of low fertility and have largely reverted
to forest.

The soils which are common to the northern Piedmont in
the crystalline belt are more fertile and higher in organic
matter than the soils from the southern Piedmont. From the

Zl.

granites and light colored gneisses, are developed the Chester,
Eubanks, and Brandy Wine soils. From a large greenstone belt
extending fran Culpeper County north are developed soils of
the Fauquier, Myersville, and Catoctin soils. From the highly
weathered soft mica schist are developed the Elioak, Glenelg,

and Manor soils.

Area 7

Occupying mainly lower uplands of the Piedmont are soils
developed in old Triassic sea basins. The underlying sedimen-
tary rocks, which are much younger than the crystalline rocks J
include brown sandstone, red shale and some conglomerate. The
soils may result from sandstone, shale or a mixture of both.
The more important soils developed over sandstone are the Gran-
ville, Mayodan, Wadesboro and Creedmoor soils. From the shaleJ
and in some cases with a mixture of sandstones, are deve10ped
Bucks, Penn, Croton, Calverton and White Store soils. Over
baked shale of the Triassic belt in the northern Piedmont of
the state are the Brecknock and Catlett soils. Developed from
darker colored basic rocks which are pushed up through the
triassic plain are the Montalto and Burton soils. Associated
with soils from triassic materials are the Rapidan Soils. These
soils are developed from a rock which is made up of dark basic
material surrounded by triassic shale. The Rapidan soils are
very similar to those of the Davidson series. The Kelly soils

22

with heavy plastic subsoils also have been developed from
basic rock in the triassic belt. Near Leesburg and to the
north is an area of the Athol soils which have developed from
Triassic conglomerate, a rock composed of limestone fragments

surrounded by shale.
Area 8

The so-called Caroline slate belt occurs in the southern
Piedmont mainly in Southside, Virginia. This area includes 3
main formations namely: Hyco quartz porphrey, Aaron slate
and Virgilina Greenstone. It comprises about 3 percent of the
Virginia Piedmont area. The dominant soils are the Georgeville,
Herndon, Alamance and Orange series," the latter from dark
colored rocks associated with the schist. These soils are
finer textured than the surrounding ones from the crystalline
belt, are lass well-suited for the production of bright tobacco,
but are very well-suited to the production of small grains, and
for forage crops .

There are, in addition to these rock formations, relatively
large sedimentary deposits here and throughout the whole Piedmont
that furnish materials for soils. Some of these deposits are
considered very recent, such as the alluvial deposits along streams
which give rise to the first-bottom soils of Congaree, Chewacla

and Wehadkee, Star, Meadowville and Seneca from colluvium; some

23

are fairly recent deposits making up the normal or low ter-
races from which soils of Wieldlam, Altavista and Roanoke have
been derived; some are old high-terraces on which the Hiwassee
and Masada series have formed. The soils on these old high
terraces have develOped well-defined horizons and are considered
old soils. is a matter of fact, some are so similar to pro-
files of Davidson and Cecil residual soils that they are easily
confused with than.

COASTAL PLAIN

The Coastal Plain Division is a low plain ranging in ele-
vation frat sea level to about 250 feet as the fall line where
it borders the Piedmont. (See soils map page 27..) Many areas
of Coastal Plain soils are found on higher elevations as in
places, however, where they occur west of the fall line as
shallow, to medium deep cappings. Where these cappings are of
considerable depth, they have developed into typical Coastal
Plain soils; however, where the Coastal Plain material was formed
as a. shallow covering the resultant soil has been influenced by
the deeper Piedmont material. Here such soils as Bradley and
Chesterfield occur (soils derived from a mixture of Coastal
Plain and Piedmont material).

Though the southeastern portion of the area contains the

largest acreage of level land, fairly large) flat, poorly— drained

2h

areas occur in the middle and northern parts as pocosins
(high flat areas) or low marine terraces. The more rolling
areas are always encountered in those sections served by a
natural drainage system and may be in areas of relatively
high elevations. Better natural drainage systems, however,
have developed on the higher marine terraces. The Coastal
Plain deposits, the youngest geological formation in Virginia,
are comprised chiefly of heavy clays, sandy clue and sends
and in places rich marl deposits have been formed from the
remains of crustaceans. There are some accumulations of peat
material in the southeastern part of the region, notably the
Dim Swamp.

In general, the soils of the Coastal Plain are more sandy
throughout their profile than soils found in ether regions of
the state. There are large local areas in the Coastal Plain,
however, where the soils have very heavy plastic subsoils as
in some of the relatively large pocosins of Nansemond County
as well as the low flat marine terraces adjoining the Nottoway,
Heherrin and Nas semond Rivers in Southhampton County. In some
places, particularly along the Neherrin and James Rivers the
low terraces are made up of Piedmont materials and here occur
sizeable areas of Wieldlam and Altavista soils. Differences in
relief and drainage have been the controlling factors which
have caused the differences in most of the upland soils of the

25

Coastal Plain. area-

On the map the Coastal Plain area is divided into three
categories: 9- the Chesapeake Bay region; 10- the Middle Coastal
Plain. and 11- Ilatwoods. lollowing is a brief description

of the soils of these areas.

Area 9

The Chesapeake Bay Region. though developed for the main .
part on thehigh Sunderland Terrace with elevations of from 160
to 260_fee_t. includes some of the lower marine terraces. The surface
relief. varying from almost level to rolling and sometimes steep
along the edge of drainage ways. has influenced. soil development
to 9. Defined degree. The other main influence has been the‘parent .
material which is made up of marine deposits of sand. silt. and clay.
The amount of sand. silt. and/or clay. not only governs the rate of
development. but also the texture of the various soil layer». The
more important soils developed from sands are Galestown. nod. Plumper.
and Rutledge. from sand loam materials are developed the Sassafras.
[oodstown. Dragon. and Falleington soils in which impervious
hardpsns have developed and soils developed are Beltsville. Leonard-

town. and Chillum series.

26
Area 10

The Middle Cenotal Plain which occurs south of the Chesa-
peake Bay Begion‘between the Flatwoods‘and.Piedmont_Area is_
developed mainly on the‘Vicomico terrace in the‘eastern part
with elevation of 60 to 90 feet and.the_Sunderland in the -
western part. which is 100 to 200 feet above sea level._ It
includes small areas of the lower Dismal Swamp and Chowsn
terraces mainly as comparatively narrow strips along some of the
Iain estuaries.

The surface relief of the Middle Coastal Plains is quite
similar to that of the Chesapeake Bay Area with the exception
that it contains more and larger. relatively high. flat areas~
that hays not been invaded by streams (pocosins). Here rather
large areas of poorly and somewhat poorly drained soils have
been mapped. It also has the same marine deposits and parent
material as are present in Area 9.. From the sandy material ,
the main soils are Norfolk. Ruston. Noyock. and Onslow soils.
Irom.the heavier materials are developed the Craven. Lenoir.
and Blades soils.

Area 11
The Ilatwoods Area_in.the southeastern part of the state

is comprised of two low. main terraces. Dismal Swamp and Prinp

27

cess Anne with elevations of from O to 25 feet above sea
level. This entire area is generally flat and most of the
soils are poorly drained or somewhat so; however, there are
many mall areas of well-drained soils which are very impor-
tant locally. The Dismal Swamp occupies approximately to per-
cent of this region and is covered by organic soils mapped
as peat, mucky peat and swamp and mineral soils high in or-
ganic matter such as Portsmouth, Bayboro and Pocomoke . Other
fairly large areas of the flatwoods section are occupied by
non-agricultural land such as fresh and salt marshes, and
sand dunes. The soil developed from sands are Galestown,
Klej, Plumer, and Rutledge. Those from sandy loam materials
are Fallsington, Dragston, Woodstown, and same Sassafras on
low ridges. Soils from heavy materials are Elkton, Othello,
Keypor't Bertie and Mattapox.

A very interesting and more thorough discourse on the
geology of the area covered by this report has been published
by the Virginia Academy of Science (1950) in a book entitled-

1h: James River Basin-- Past , Present and Future. In this

 

 

book the history. of the basin is discussed along with a very
detailed d'escriptinnhf the various geological regions included

in the James River Basin.

27a

 

 

 

 

               

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27b

Description and Classification of Virginia Soils.

W

1. m - Chiefly quarts (8102), orthoclase (KAlSi303) and
sessionally, plagioclase (feldspar). Very acid soils.

Chester Pauquier
hbanks Wersville
Brendywine Catootin

2. m - Chiefly quartz and occasionally plagioclase
(feldspar). Potash absent.

3. W - Similiar to granite in composition.
4. m - Closely folieted or laminated crystalline rock.
5. W - Quart: (3102) with nice (H2m3313012).

nice]: Manor
Glenelg

6. m - Similiar to diorite- or commonly known as diorite.

7. W - 0131.11; disrite (feldspar with potash absent),
dark green and compact.

8. Wu - Gnedss with hornblend (high iron).

9. W - lntermdiate between mica schist and slate
(compressed clays, shales and other rocks).

10. W - 8102 (Silica)

Who

1. W - M 3 main variation in purity are Fezoa, 8102,
MgC , clay and organic matter

High calcic limestone
Bsgerstown Decator
Pisgah

boldtio limestone - High in short (very fine quarts)
end/ or sandstone
Dmore Lodi
Frederick Bolton
Elbert Clarksville

High calcic limestone, containing shale

Groseclose Chllhowie
Bland Colbert

Garbo

2. W - Main composition of feldspars, clays, mineral and
quartz. Finely stratified.

Dandridge Lita Montevello
Teas Berks

From shale or mixture of sandstone

Bucks Calverton
Penn White Stone
Crotch

From baked shale of Triassic belt

Brecknock Rspidan

Catlett Davidson

Hontalto Kelly

autos Athol (Triassic conglomerate-

limestone surrounded by shale) .

3. W - Contains quarts and smaller quantities of other
minerals such as silica, iron oxide or calcium
carbonate.

Calcareous sandstone

Tellico
Sandstone, quartsite and shale
Ramsey

Mushngum

Lehew

Acid sandstone and acid shales

Hartsells Granville
Wellington Mayodan
Colburn Creedmoor

1.. m - Dense, tine-grained compression of“ clays, shales, and
other rocks. Principal accessories-Motite, chlorite,
hastite. liner accessories - magnetite, sptite,

27d

koaline, andalusite, rutile, gyrite, graphite,
feldspar, zircon, tourmaline, and carbonaceous matter.

6. Irifl§§3£,- Bed sandstone.

7. Ezzgtalling‘- Composed of crystals or parts of crystals.

W

l. alllmvium.— Iine material, such as sand, silt, clay, or other

sediments

Congaree
Chewacla
Hehadkee

deposited on land hy streams.

2. flifllnyin|.- Formed from.uashings through gravational
influence, at the base of steep slopes.

Star Jefferson

Mbadowville anter

Seneca leadvale
Allen

Soils dervived from sedimentary of streams
originally; later effected hy gravi-
tati on.

Hickham
Altovista
Roanoke
Hiwassee
Masada

WWW!

Coastal plains soils - heavy clays
and sandy clays (marl) and some-
times heavy plastic subsoils.

Bradley

Chesterfield

Hickham

Altavista

M

Gal. atom “moral-k
Klej Rnston
htledge male"

We

Sassafras

Uoodstown

Dragstom

Fellsin‘lton
WM:
lhttapex Elkton
Matapeake Portsmouth
Caroline Craven
Atlee Lenoir
Bertie Bladen
Othello Xeyport

W

Peat _

lucky peat

Swamps

 

 

Portsmouth
Bayboro

Pocomake

Acid Rocks (65% 3102)

mm W
Porters Granite
Ashe Gneiss
rennin Schists
Balfour

Hatagan

Edneyville Micaceons - schist
Chandler

Talladega

£5510 Rocks (less than 50$ 8102)
mm W
Rum » Quartz
Clifton Dim-its
Diabase

Hornblend gneiss
Greenstone

2-7!

W

Cecil Granite
APPM-138 Gneiss
Durham Schist
Helena,

Louisburg

28

2. Source and Description of memical Factors
Considered in this Paper

as. chemical factors which are discussed in this paper are
regarded as significant in the growth and distribution of stream
algae. A brief discourse as to the source of each factor fol-
lows, but a much more detailed discussion of those which affect
algal distribution and growth will be covered in another chap-
ter of this paper under Discussion.

Silica (5102) - Silica is dissolved fran practically all

 

rocks. Silica affects the usefulness of water to Man because

it contributes to the formation of boiler scale. It is particu-
larly troublesome in high-pressure boilers, because the hard
scale prevents rapid transfer of heat, and may cause boiler-tube
failure. It also forms deposits on the blades of steam tur-
bines.

Iron (Fe) - Iron is dissolved frail new rocks and soils
and frequently fro iron pipes through which the water flows.
Iron in water for home uses is objectionable because it stains
porcelain or muscled fixtures and clothing. Normal basic waters
that contain more than a few tenths of one part per million of
iron soon because turbid with insoluable reddish ferric oxide
produced by oxidation. Surface waters, therefore, seldom con-
tain as such as one part per million of dissolved iron.

Calcium and Magnesium (Ca and Mg) - Calcium is dissolved

29

from practically all rocks, but it is found in greater quanti-
ties in waters that have been in contact with magnesium-bearing
rocks and m contain a considerable quantity of magnesium.

Carbonate and Bicarbonate (093 and H003_)_ - Bicarbonate in

 

natural waters results from the action of dissolved carbon
dioxide on carbonate rocks. Carbonate is not present in appre-
ciable quantities in most natural surface waters and it is not
present in a water that has a pH of less than about 8.3. Bicar-
bonate is the principal acid radical of most of the surface
waters in Virginia.

Sulfate (30,; - Sulfate is dissolved from rocks and soils

 

and its presence in natural waters is often associated with
beds of shale and/or gypsum. It is also formed by the oxida-
tion of sulfides and is present in noticeable quantities in
waters fran mines.

Chloride (Cl) - Chloride is dissolved from many rocks and

 

soils. Sea-water encroachment is likely to increase the chlo-
ride content of a fresh water supply as sodium chloride is tin
predominant constituent of sea-water. The chloride content of
surface water m be increased by pollution frat sewage and
some industrial wastes.

 

Nitrate (N031 - Nitrate in water is considered a final oxi-

dation production of nitrogenous material and in some instances

30

may indicate contamination by sewage or other organic waste
matter.

Dis solved Solids - The quantity reported as dissolved

 

solids (the residue on evaporation) consists mainly of the
dissolved mineral constituents in water. It may also con-
tain some organic colloidal matter, and water of crystalliza-
tion. The quantity of dissolved solids is reported in parts
per million.

Oxygen consumed - Oxygen consumed is the amount of oxygen

 

removed from potassium permanganate by the water when it is
digested 1) minutes in a boiling water bath. It furnishes a
rough indication of the oxidizable matter in the unfiltered and
filtered samples and gives a partial measure of pollution
materials such as sewage and oxidizable industrial wastes. Highly
colored waters may have relatively high oxygen consmefialJalthough
waters that are not noticeably colored may also contain oxidizable
material.

931.33 - In water analysis, color refers to the appearance
of water that is use from suspended solids. Many turbid waters
that appear yellow, red, or brown when viewed in the stream
show very little color after the suspended matter has been re-
moved. The yellow to brown color of some waters may be attribu-
ted to organic matter extracted frat leaves, roots, and other

vegetable matter. In some areas objectionable color in water

31

results from industrial wastes and sewage.

(pH) - pH is the negative logarithm of the number of moles
of ionized hydrogen per liter of water, and is an index of
the acidity or alkalinity of water. The hydrogenaion concen-
tration is commonly reported as pH. A pH value of 7.0 indi-
cates that the water is neither acid nor alkaline . Values
lower than 7.0 denote increasing acidity, while values higher
than 7.0 denote increasing alkalinity. The pH of water indi-
cates its activity toward metal surfaces. As the pH increases,
the corrosive action of the water decreases. The pH of most
natural surface waters in Virginia ranges from 6 to 8.

Hardness - Hardness is the characteristic of water that
receives the most attention with reference to industrial and
domestic use. It is usually recognized by the increased quan-
tity of soap required to produce lather.

Hardness is caused by significant cations, such as calcium,
magnesium, iron, manganese, aluminum, barium, strontium, and
free acid. The hardness of waters considered in this paper is
caused almost entirely by calcium and magnesium. Water that
has less than 60 parts per million of hardness is considered
soft and is suitable for many purposes without further soften-
ing. Waters with hardness ranging from 61 to 120 parts per
million are moderately hard, and waters with hardness ranging
from 121 to 200 parts per million are hard. The hardness of

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32

surface waters in Virginia ranges from around 10 to 200 parts
per million.

M acidity - The total acidity of a natural water repre-
sents the content of free carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and
salts-- especially sulfates of iron and aluminum-- which hydro-
lyze to give hydrogen ions. Acid waters are corrosive and
generally contain excessive amounts of other objectionable con—

stituents, such as iron, alminum, or manganese.

3. mom. CHARACTER or SURFACE WATERSI

of the 7
James Idver Basin

The James River has its headwaters in the mountains of the
Alleghany Plateau in Craig, Allegheny, Bath and Highland Coun-
ties. It is formed by the confluence of the Jackson and Cow-
pasture Rivers, traverses the State, and enters Chesapeake
Bay through Haslpton Roads. The James River drainage basin is
the largest in the State; it includes an area of 6,757 square
miles west of Richmond.

The principal tributaries of the James River west of the
Blue. Ridge are the Maury River from the north and Craig Creek
and Catawba Creek from the south. The river cuts through the
Blue Ridge near Balcony Falls below. Clifton Forge. East of
the Blue Ridge, the principal tributaries from the north above

 

1Adapted from a report by Department of Conservation and
Development, Charlottesville, Virginia.

33

Richmond are the Pedlar, Buffalo, Rockfish, Hardware, and
Rivanna Rivers; and from the south are the Slate and Willis
Rivers. The Appomattox River from the south and the Chickaho-
mirw River from the north enter the James below the upper limits
of tidewater. I

The James River passes through three areas of different
geologic character. West of the Blue Ridge, it drains an area
of sandstone, shale, and limestone formations; east of the Blue
Ridge, it enters an area of hard crystalline rock; and east of
the fall zone it traverses the sands and clays of the Coastal
Plain. The tributary streams in each of these areas determine
in part the chemical character of the water of the James River.

Marv of the tributaries west of the Blue Ridge are sufi-
:-tained by large springs, which generally flow from limestone
formations . Consequently, dissolved matter in the water con-
sists mainly of the bicarbonate's of calcium and magnesium.

The principal tributaries to the James River above Buchanan
are the Jackson and CWpasture Rivers and Craig Creek. The
principal mineral constituents are the bicarbonates of calcium
and magnesium. The waters are of average mineral content; the
madman dissolved solids for the period 19h7-l9h8, was 1611
parts per million.

At Buchanan, the James River drains an area of 2,081; square
miles. Reports on the condition of the James at this point by
the Conservation Dopartment (l9h7-h8). show the dissolved mineral

3h

matter to be composed mainly of calcium, magnesium, bicarbo-
nate, and sulfate. The average quantity of dissolved solids
was 131; parts per million and the average hardness 97 parts
per million.

Waste materials enter the Jackson River between Falling
Springs and its junction with the Cowpasture River, and the
resultant pollution is attested by a slight increase in color
and chloride-content of the James River at Buchanan over that
of the Jackson River at Falling Springs and the Cowpasture
River near Clifton Forge. Between Buchanan and Bent Creek
the principal tributaries to the James are the Pedlar and
Maury Rivers. Results of analyses of several samples collec-
ted from the river near Pedlar Mills show the water to be com-
paratively low in mineral content and exceedingly soft but
high in silica. The mineral content of water of the Maury
River near Buena Vista is less concentrated than the James
River at Buchanan, but contains more magnesium and is there-
fore harder. Its effect on the James River is to decrease the
concentration of dissolved solids.

The James River at Bent Creek has a drainage area of 3,671
square miles. The average quantity of dissolved solids and the
average hardness are 119 and 81 parts per million, respectively.
The mineral content of the water at this point is less concen-
trated and softer than that at Buchanan. This is mainly due to

35

the soft water or low mineralization that enters the river east
from Craig's Creek. 953.

i'he waters of all tributaries to the James River between
the -Bent Creek and Bichmand stations are low ”in mineral con-
tent and are soft. The Bockfish. Hardware. Slate. Bivanna.
and fiillishivers all drain an area of crystalline rocks. The
Buffalo River. which Joins the James River below Bent Creek.
has a higu sulfate-content and is slightly acid at timesbecsnse
of industrial wastes that enter the stream “above .Norwood. However.
thewater is soft and its total effect on the James River
is the maintenance of an average sulfate-concentration in the
water at Richsmnd at the same level as at Bent Creek. .

the James River at Richmond drains an area of 6.757 square
mi lee. The report made by the Conservation Department on the
J anes River at Bichmcnd in 1947-148 shows the water to have less
concentration of dissolved minerals than at Bent Creek. The decrease
in mineralisation at this station is in accord with the tributary
inflow indicated above. The average concentration of dissolved solids
and the average hardness are 86 and 52 parts per million respec-
tively.

The Appomattox and Chickahominy, Rivers are -the main tribu-
taries of the James Biverbelow Richnmnd. entering below the
upper limits of tidewater. flue Appomattox River rises in Appo-

mattox County and flows into the James at City Point. It's

36

course parallels that of the James River until it reaches the
Fall line , where it turns northeast . The Appomattox River has
a drainage area above Farmille of 306 square miles, and above
Mattoax of 7145 square miles. The river flows over areas of
crystalline, siliceous rocks; therefore, the principle charac-
teristics of the water are its siliceous nature, quite dilute,
and very soft. The quantities of dissolved solids and hard-
ness are similar. at both points.

The Chickahomdny River has a drainage area of 2149 square
miles above Providence Forge. It rises in Hanover County,
flows southeast traversing the sands and clays of the Coastal
Plain and empties into the James River at During Point. The
principal characteristics are its low mineralization and extreme
softness. The water has considerable color which is due partly

to inflow from swamp areas.

37
D. Methods and Procedures

In order to carry out the major objectives of this problem,
representative samples, algal and chemical, were collected from
points along the James River. This was done by taking samples
from tributaries emptying into the James River on both sides
making certain that all main streams were represented from
headwaters to the mouth of the river.

It was desired that sampling be made througwut as many
seasons of the year as possible.

The distance from origin to mouth of the James is approxi-
mately 300 miles, but it was necessary to travel over one
thousand miles to make a complete survey of the area studied
for each sampling period.

The first collections were made in the summer (August) of
1955. Samples were taken from both sides of the James making
certain that representative samples were taken from each county
bordering the river. This was done mainly with the desire of
obtaining samples from each parent soil type. is shown by the
soils map, many of the counties had the same physiography.

At least two, often may more, samples, however, were taken
from streams emptying into the James from each county. This
procedure was adhered to as closely as possible, for the winter
collection 1955-56 and spring collection 1956. A total of 97
points were sampled by the author, and Dr. Strickland of the

38

University of Richmond contributed 16 .

In surveying the tributaries, all macroscopic algal growths
were sampled. In many instances soil samples of stream bottoms
were collected even though there was no definite sign of algal
growth. Also samples of twigs, leaves, rocks or other debris
were collected for examnation. Observations were made as to
the speed of the currents of the streams, type of bottom and ,
where possible, the type of flora of higher plants of the stream
and bordering banks. Plankton samples were also obtained from
many of the larger bodies of water. The samples were preserved
in Transeau's solution, known as 6-3-1 (6 parts water, 3 parts 957*
ethyl alcohol and 1 part commercial formalin).

In the sunmer of 1956, the author again covered the same
distance taking samples of water from the main tributaries for
chemical analyses and also taking the pH of the explored streams.
The chemical analyses of these waters had already been made by
the Department of Conservation, Division of Water Resources,
but phosphorus analyses had been omitted from the data by the
Conservation Department of Virginia, therefore, the author made
phosphorus determinations using the "Molybdate Calorimeter ’ Method" .

The materials collected were examined in the laboratory and
the species found in each collection were recorded. A drawing
(see plates on page 118 - 132) of each species observed was made
with the camera lucida.

39

II. Results
A. TAXONCHIC LIST
(89 Species)

Division Chloroplvts
Class Chlorophyceas
Order Volvocales
Family“Volvocaceae
___.___Pwd°rina m 9017.
Eudorina slogans Ehr.

Order Tetrssporales
Family Palmellaceae
Gloeocystis Eggs (Knots) Lagerh.
Tetraspora lubrica (Both) Agardh
Family Coccownceae
Digors crucigenioides Prints.
£92m msmm

 

Order Ulctfirichales
Family noun-imam
Ulothrix tenerrima Knots.
E: M (Weber and Hohr) Knots.
may Trentepohliacese
Lochninm piluliferun Prints .

 

 

 

to

Order Microsporales
Family Hicrospsraceae

Microspora amoena (Kiltz.) Rab.

 

y; willeana Lagerheim and Detoni.

Order Chaetoporales
Family Chaetophoraceae
Stigeoclonium stagnatile (Hazen) Collins

S; subsecundum Kuets.

 

Chaetophora elegans (Roth) Agardh

 

 

_C_._ incrassata (Huds.) Hazen

Draparnaldia glomerata (Vamh.) 'Agardh

 

P; platyzonata Hazen

 

D; plumosa Wench.) Agardh

Order Cladophorales
Family Cladophoraceae
Cladophora callicoma. Kuetz .
_C_._ insignia Kuetz .
Pithophora kewenis Wittr.

 

Blizoclonimn hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kits.

Order Ulvales
Family Ulvaceae
Enteromorpha prolifera (F1. Dan.) Agardh

 

Ulva lactuca Linn .

in

Order Oedogoniales
Family Oedogoniaceae

Oedogonium echinoqiermum Braun and Kuetz.

 

Be; minor witt.

Order Chlorococcales
Family Hydrodictyaceae
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (1..) Lagerheim

Pediastrum duplex - var. clathratum (Braun) Lager.

 

 

var . reticulatum Lager.

 

E; integrum Naegeli
_1_3_._ simplex (Meyen) Lemmer.
Family Coelastraceae ‘

Coelastrum cambricum Archer

 

Family Oocystaceae

' Eremosphaera viridis DeBary

 

Family Scenedesmaceae

Scenedesmus guadricauda (Turp.) Bréb.

Order Zygnematales

Family Zygnemataceae
Spirogyra aplanospora Randhewa

 

Sp. cleaveana Trans .‘

 

Sp; commie (Hass.) Kuetz.

Sp . Cras sa huetz.

 

 

f1

Sp. denticulata Trans.
Sp. insignia (Hass.) Kuetz.
Sp. mirabilis (Hass.) Kuetz.
Sp. semiornata Jao

Zygnema insiginis (Hass.) Kuetz.

Family Desmidiaceae

Closterium acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenb.
Cl. abruptum var. africanum (West) Krieger
Cl. Dianae Ehrenb.
C1. didymotocum Ralfs
Cl. Leibleinii Kuetz.
Cl. littorale Gay
Cl. moniliferum (Bory) Ehrenb.
Cl. Pritchardianum Archer
Cl. praelongum Br5b.
Cl. rostratum Ehrenb.
Cl. tumidum Johnson

Cosmarium formosulum var. Nathorstii (Boldt) W. & W.
C. Meneghinii Brat.
C. margaritatum (Lund.) Roy & Biss.
C. pseudoconnatum Nordst.
C. punctulatum var. subpunctulatum (Nordst.) Bdrg.

C. subrenifOrme Nordst.

’43

Cylindrogystis diplospora Lund.

 

Desmidium Bailey-i (Ralfs.) Nordst.
2; Schwartzii Agardh

 

E; Ehastrum verrucosum var. alatum Wolle

 

Hyalotheca. dessiliens (J. E. Smith) Bre’h.

 

Hy. mucosa (Dillw.) Ehren.

 

Micrasterias americana (Ehren.) Ralfs.

 

.11: £21. (Ehrem) Kuetz.
g1; truncata (Corda) Bre’b.

Penium margaritaceum (Ehrem) Bre‘b.

 

Pleurotaenium gylindricum Hal fs

 

P1. Ehrenbergii (Bre’b.) DeBary

 

Staurastrum alternan Bre’b .

 

Str. Brebissonii Archer

 

Str. Dickei Ralfs.
Str. gracile Ralfs.

 

Str. orbiculare var. hibernicum West & West

 

 

Str. punctulatum Bre‘b.

 

Class Charophyceae

Order Charales
Family Characeae
Tribe Nitelleae

Nitella opaca Agardh

Tribe Chareae

Chara Braunii Gmelin

 

_C_._ fragilis Desv. and Loisel.

Division Euglenophyta
Class Euglenophyceae
Order Euglenales
Family Euglenaceae

Elena Spirogy__r_a Ehren.

 

Division Chrysophyta
Class Xanthophyceae
Order Hetero siphonales

Family Vaucheriaceae
Vaucheria m Hassall
L discoidea Taft
1. mt: Wench.) DeCand.
I: sessilis Wench.) DeCand.

hS

dawn; aoggpoaamé «monsomom mops: Ho 33th «#:3930on
can eofipmfiomeoo no homepage .. ..H .oz 5.».ng scam some» open dengue .mpoepoom a.

 

.mm oopowoeapom awesomeness mopoam .. mofipmaga aenwfimwblooa .pmfism kahuna“.

oinoam m .Emohpm

 

 

.83. S no am No mo 3 9m fl 8. on me. o omaa 3H .34
- on a; on «.0 oil 2.. m4 9m no. he 3. a -3 mass
.. .3 Ba mm «6 mo 3 mm 2 no. an 3. m .. 2 ..aa
.. 8 M: an to 9m an aim we no.0 mil 5. m 33 .e .92.
:73 am .30

a moose S .mem moz 48 moon a: so on mom in n38 $8

 

H9758 gosh—Hum «Mama mag ZOHAHHZ mam mafim 2H away? 356*. .H 0.3.3..

 

1.
2.
3.
h.
S.
6.
7.
8.
9.

1o.

12.

fiecies List far Craigs Creek

 

Chara sp.
Comrium formosulum var. Nathorstii

 

 

Cos. margaritatum

___c... M

Cos. pseudoconnatum

 

 

Cos . punctulatum

Desmidium Baiigg
g: Swartsii

 

 

Byalotheca dis silicns
Lochmium pilulifermum

 

Hicrasterias truncate

 

Plem'otsenium Ehrenbergii

Spirogga sp.
Staurastrum orbiculare

£12m sp.

h?

.maeawa«> .oaafipmopaoanmno amooasomom noun: mo godmfi>an
pnoEQOHo>oa use sowasshomeoo mo paneenmaoa u AH .oz.s«poaasm seem comma open Hmofisono *

.nowamsom mom noon sawed .mnoou anode hfladmm

eddhonm m.emohvm

 

 

comm. .. .. - .. .. .. - .. - .. m4. emaa 4m .93
.. 8 am mm 4. m.~ ea mm 4.: S. 8 N4. in ..S ones
- ad an S N. Na mam o.~ N3 8. S 3. S ..fiéo:
u 1 mm m: m. ~.m m.: s u u ha a.» m n Ha .nom
.. ma fl 4: m. o.m mo «4 a.m 8. ma an mm 33.3 .52.
.. ma mm mm a. as on an em a. a an a :3 .3 ..to
a moose 8m .mwwmm moz .8 :8 we no on can an aalso 38

mm whom

 

goo pz§68o James 2554mm

ZOHAHHz_mmm mammm 2H WMMHA¢24 AdUHmeU

.N manna

 

13.

118

Species Li st for

 

Beaverdam Creek, Goochland County

 

Chaetophora incras sata

 

Closterium Ieibleinii

 

Draparnaldia glcmerata

 

3'. platyzonata

 

2; plumosa
Eudorina ele gans

Pandorina morum

 

Spirogyra aplanospora

_S_p. Cleaveana

 

Sp . nfirabilis

 

Sp; sentiornata

 

Stigeoglonium subsccundum

 

Tetraspora lubrica

 

Vaucheria wersa

 

h9

.oafiwha 633393.35 .noonsonom sons: no 8333

#5330on use soapstomsoo no pcggn .. a.” .02 5....on 80am sense open H3205 a.

dogwood so.“ soon able?" was random Sufism hHohwfinm

3.3on m .amoanm

 

 

- u - - - - u u u - n.n emaa .Hm .msa

as m: H. m.N N.m ea o.H a.N no. ma m.o oN . an as:

NH Nm H. o.m m.: oN o.N m.a m.N Ha w.n 0N . ma .no:

NH a: N. m.« N.a NH :.H H.N Ho. H.a a.n m: mama .na .sna

ma a: N. m.m H.o ed m.a o.m No. ma :.o mN same .ma .poo
mmwmwwwm mwwwmm moz Ho Jon moom w: no on «can we .HoHoo 3mm

 

weapon nquaemammmu .ammmo aaHgm
on g enema mamas 2H mmmwnaza maUHzmmua .m manna

 

Sgecies List £93
Swift Creek, Chesterfield Countz

 

Coelastrum dambricmn

 

Closterimn acerosum

 

C1. littorale

 

91.; moniliferum

§_1_._ Erolonm
Comarium fieneghinii
Draparnaldia plumosa

 

.I_)_._ Blatyz onata

 

Micrasterias truncate.

Penium maritacemn

W qua____dricauda

 

So

51

imam Ho magma doom “vopfiaaom @0608 “moapgvm how noon to». 3200." :Sam .3th

flack 95.8%

mod? ogwm map «93. mwflhnman

 

 

23.0 .. .. .. .. - - .. u .. .. mac .. «mad 3H $3.
.. mm 6 m6 ma N.~ mm m.m .3 86 8 .2. 3 5.3.2 as;
u R 6 N6 «.m mam R o.m 0.0 .. .. .2. mm Ema .3360
w 338 m a m
m 8 o .88 oz 8 cm 8m w: 8 cm 85 mm ~38 38

 

E58 §§ .533 §§%
533 Ea mam 2H 8&3: .356 .4 35.

 

Species List £25

Appomattox River, Chesterfield Counyz

Bttrachospermum.virgatum

 

Chaetophora elegans

 

Closterium acerosum

 

Cosmarium pseudoconnatum

Draparnaldia Elumosa

 

Enteromorpha Brolifera

 

Eremoag§aera.viridis

 

Eudorina elegans

Eyalotheca dissiliens

Oedogonium minus
Oedogggium sp.

 

Pediastrum.duplex.var. clathratum

 

 

Pithophara kewenis

 

Rhizoclonium.hierog}yphicum

m _____.___insizms
SBirogzza mirabilis

Staurastrum.Brebissonii

 

 

Tetraspora lubrica

 

610thrix‘tenerrima

Vancheria geminata

52

53

00.5ng 090mg .8.“ Moon £2090 .pmag 3.0.0.0...“
0.3.0on 0.08905

00.55 0.8050 mwo u .00.: $050.5

 

 

0000.0 - u u s u u u u n u 0.0 . 0m0H .Hm .000
- H0 00 0: 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.H m.m H0. 0H 0.0 0 - 0H.0000
00 :0 0: 0.0 0.0 0.0 H.0 0.0 :0. 0H 0.0 m - m0 .000

0H 00 0: 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.H 0.0 00. 0H 0.0 0H . 0H 0000

4H 0H 00 0.0 0.0 0.: 0.H 0.0 :0. HH 0.0 0 - 0H 00:

0H 0H mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.H 0.4 00. 0H H.0 0 - 0 .004

0H 00 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 m.H 0.0 :0. HH 0.0 0 - 0H .00:

0H 00 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.H 0.0 :0. 0H H.» H - 0H .000

0H 0H mm 0.0 0.0 0.m H.H 0.: 0H. HH 0.0 0 040H .0H .000

0H 0H H: 0.H 0.0 0.0 0.H 0.: 0H. 0H 0.0 0 u a .000

NH 00 0: H.0 o.m 0.0 m.H 0.: 00.0 HH 0.0 m n :H .>oz

00 00 om H.H 0.4 0.0 0.H H.m 00.0 HH 0.0 0H 040H .0H .000

00000 m00: .0HHom 002 H0 :00 02 00 00 0000 m0 00H00 0000
00 0000 .00H0

 

<H2000H> .0002000 .092000 0z0>0H0 .00>Hm 020H>H0

ZOHHHE mmm maxed 2H mMmHASQ Ego .m QHQNB

 

5h

Species List for

 

Riviana River, Fluvana County, Palmyra, Virginia

 

 

 

Bitrachosgermum virgatum

 

Cosmarium punctulatum.var. subpunctulatum

 

 

‘Mougeotia sp.

Oedogonium sp.

Penium margaritaceum

 

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum

 

Spirogyra crassa (non-fruiting)

 

Stigeoclonium stagnatile

 

55

 

Edownmhamopmwn esdcoaoouwnm .m
0000H000000 000000000000 .H
0000 0000000

 

 

.00050000 08000 mwmvoau 0cm copmwosmpom mo npsonw voom 000055 .wmhma 000on hHufiwm
mafimOHm m.eamupm

00000 000000 040 I 000d owwqam0a

 

 

000H.0 - - u u u n - - u - 0.0 - 000H .H0 .000

- 04H 00H 0.0 0.H 0.0 00H 0.HH 04 00. 0.0 0.0 0H - 0 .0000

00H 04H 0.H 0.H 0.0 00H 0.HH 00 H0. 0.0 0.0 0 s 0H .000

00H H0H 0.0 0.0 4.0 4HH 0.0 00 40. H.0 H.0 0 - 0H 0H00

0HH 00H 0.H 0.H 4.0 00H 0.0 00 40. 0.0 0.0 m . 4H 0000

00 00 0.H 0.H 0.0 00 0.0 00 00. 0.0 0.0 m - 0H .000

H0 00 H.H 0.0 0.0 00 0.4 0H 00. 0.4 0.0 0H - 0 .000

04 40 H.H 4.0 4.0 04 0.0 4H 00. 0.m 0.0 0H 3 0 .00:

H0H 00H 0.H 0.0 4.0 0HH 0.0 00 00. 4.4 0.0 H 040H .0 .000

00H 00H 0.H 0.H 0.0 0HH 0.0 00 00. 4.4 0.0 4H u 0 .000

00H 00H H.H 0.0 0.H 40H 0.0 00 00.0 0.0 0.0 0H . 0 .002

04H 00H 0.H 0.0 4.0 00H 0.0H 00 00.0 0.4 0.0 m 040H .0 .000
00000 .00H00 002 H0 400 0000 02 .00 00 0000 00 00H00 0000

00000002 .0009

00200000 .0000» 02000 .002000 0000000000 .00000 0000:
2000002 000 00000 20 00000000 00000000 .0 0H000

 

56

.mmmmmpm 00.0.0090 00.00.05.040 02%.? .000ch .398

0H00000 0.000000

 

 

 

00H 00H 00H 0.H H.0 0.0 0H 04 40. 0.0 0.0 0 - 0H 0000
00H 00H 40H 0. 4.H 0.0 0H 04 40. 0.4 0.0 0 - 00002
00H 00H 00H 0.0 0.0 0.0 0H 00 40. 0.0 0.0 m 040H .0 .000
00H 00H 00H 0.0 0.H 0.0 HH 04 40. 0.0 0.0 H u 0 .002
0HH 00H 00H 0.H 0.H H.0 4.0 00 0H.0 0.0 0.0 mm 040H .0H .000
0 .
mmwwwm0m 0000 wwwmm 002 00 400 0:. 00 00 N000 00 00H00 0000
002000 000000000 .00000 4020000
20000020000 00000 20 00000020 00000000 .0 0H000

 

Species List for

 

Catawba Creek, Botetourt County

 

 

Cladophora insignis

 

Cosmarium formosulum

 

E; formosulum var. nathorstii

 

Pediastrum integrum

 

Spirogyra crassa

 

57

58

.mxoop so mmwaw uncapmsvm you 9009 mthmm .zxoou «pawsm hthwm

oaflgoum m.eaoppm

 

 

- - - - - - - - - -- m.~ - omma .Hm .m54
NH 0: H. o.m 0.0 «H H.a o.m 4H. 4H m.o Ha - Ha ha:
Ha mm H. m.m H.m p N.H m.m mo. Ha 0.0 OH - 0H .nmz
S 2 N. 3 05 w H.H E 8. 9m 3 m; 22” .fi .52.
m
ouwo . a on .
mmmcvymm Mmmwm moz Ho 40m moom ms“ we mm Noam mm noaoo mama

 

Hazaoo nqummmemmmu .ummmo oZqugm
zOHQAqummm mam<m 2H mmmwu<z¢ Adonmmo

.m OHDMH

 

59

Species List for

 

Falling Creek, Chesterfield Coungz

 

 

Closterium Pritchardianum

 

Microspora Willeana

 

Mougeotia sp.

Oedogonigg.sp.

 

Spirogyra aplanospora

 

Stigeocloniug.subscecundum

 

Tetraspora lubrica

 

Ulothrig tenerrima

 

U. zonata

60

.mxoop co mmmaw mmxoOM no mummos one mphozpm>aa namowpmsvm MhMOOA «pMHSm

mafimopm mesaoepm

 

 

moma.o - - -i - - - - u - - ~.o - omma .Hm .ms¢
- HH em m.o m.H 4.H pa 0.H ow. no. 4H d.» ow . Hm ease
- OH mm m.o o.N m.m 4H m. o.m OH. Ha o.~ e n «a .na:
- ma 0: H.0 m.H o.m mm m. m.m no. Ha . m mama “NH .cae
- ma, am H.0 m.H ;.N ma H.H m.m 00.0 ma 0.0 OH peed .ma .poo
m mummwwwm .mMMMM moz Ho :om moom m2 .ao om NOflm ma poaoo open

 

wezaoo ammpmzd .mm>Hm m<qgmm
ZOHQQ gimme mamdm 2H mmqu¢z¢ adoHsmmu .m magma

 

Species List for

 

Pedlar River, Amhurst Conny!

 

Closterium.moniliferum

 

Cl. Pritchardianum

 

Cl. tumidum

 

Draparnaldia Elumosa

 

Gloeocystis gigas
Oedogonium sp.

 

Stanrastrum.punctu1a$um

 

Vaucheria 39851113

61

62

.mofipmsvm pom goon «owned mpflnw .htvfig .30Hm

oHHmoum m.emo~pm

 

 

 

mH mm H. w.m m.m 4N H.H m.: mo. HH m.o om - HH .>oz
Hm me m. m.m 0.H a: N.m 0.H Ho. MN m.o om pamH .FH maze
em OH H.0 0.: o.m o; o.“ 0.0 mm.o mm m.o om wemH .HH .poo
H88 . o
mmoqeumm mMMHm moz He now meow m2 we we NOHm ma aoHoo open
Hazaoo azeqmmmzso .mmmmo mama
ZOHHHHz mum memdm 2H mmqudze HHqummo .oH mHnma

 

63

Species List for

 

Deep Creek, Cumberland County

 

Closterium abruptum var. africanum

 

Cl. didymotocum

 

Cl . monilifenun

 

Cl . rostratum

 

Cosmarium formosulum var. Nathorstii

 

 

Cos . pseudopy'ramidatum

 

Cos. subreniforme var. punctulatum

 

 

Microspora Willeana

 

6h

 

mqwcnmpam Edhpmmhswmm, .m
EdpmHsQOGSQQSm .Hwb Edmdepoqsa snfihmEmom .m
5533308 5.92338 ..H

 

 

p93 mowomam
.3233 Head mxooh co mew: £03“de on «was?» 033v $355 .32 hanfimm

oHHeogm masmonpm

 

 

Hamm. - u I u - - - u u - m.o . ommH .Hm .ws«
. NH am e. H.H H.N 0H m. m.m so. NH m.o m - Hm ease
- 0H mm :. N.N H.m mH m. o.m so. OH m.o e - NH .uwz
- HH om H.o o.~ ;.~ mH p. :.m mo. ~.m m.o : mamH .NH .eme
- 4H mm «.0 m.H m.m 0H m.H a.m 0H. NH e.© 0H egmH .HH .900
m mmwmwmwm” .wwwmm moz Ho now moom m: so we NOHm ma nOHoo mean

 

“92:00 zomqmz .mmsHm mmmeoom
zOHHHHszmm memem 2H mmmHHHzH HdoHsamu .HH mHnua

65

meOH :0 “haemom mamas «mofipmsz mo vfio>mv ungoou mpmwzm

mHHmoum n.2wmnpm

 

 

mmom.o - - u - - - - - - - m.o - ommH .Hm .msH

- em 00 H.o m.m m.H mm m.m 0.0 so. Hm m.m m . wH.pemm
mm mo m.o m.m m.m m4 m.m o.m mo. mH m.m m . om .msm
om so m.o m.m 0.H mm m.m m.m Ho. mm H.m m u m kHz»
om mo H.0 m.m o.m mm m.m m.m Ho. cm m.o 0H . oH maze
mm mm m.o m.m m.H mm m.m 0.0 mH. mH H.m m - mH has
mm mm 4.0 m.m o.m mm m.m o.m co. pH m.» OH mH .nm<
mH m: 4.0 o.m H.: mm o.m m.4 0H. 0H m.m m . NH .na:
mm mm m.o H.m o.m mm H.m H.m Ho. om H.m m - mH .nme
mm mm 4.0 m.m m.m mm m.m o.m 4m. mH H.» m mgmH .mH .eee
mm ow m.o m.m o.H mm o.m m.m mH. mm :.m m - 0H .009
mm mm m.o m.m 4.: om o.m m.m mo. mH m.» m u mH .poz
mm so H.o H.m o.m o: m.m m.m 0H.0 mm m.p o mzmH .m .900

m d . o m a m N
m oo o eHH m 02 Ho om com m2” mo om OHm ma pOHoo mama

mmmcunm: .mmHn

 

HHzHumHs..Hmanm zanmzem .Hmmmo oqdmmsm .
ZOHHHHz mam mamHm 2H mmmwumzm HHUHzmmo mH oHpma

 

www.mflmm

2. WW
3. mm

1*- We»

3. W81)-

6. WW

67

 

.EsowsmhawoamHnfissfiaoaoomHnm .H

 

pwwq mwaoomm

 

.haco Enhnphg .mowpwficw Mom poem mumpnaaom mammm «53009 .pmwzm

0HHHonm masmompm

 

- - a - u u u u - - m.m x ommH .Hm .mum

 

MH :m m. m.H m.m 0H H.H :.m :o. HH m.o ; - Hm muse
0H mm a. m.m o.m mH m.H 0.H mH. HH m.o cm . mH .naz
MH 4m 0. m.m m.m NH m. o.m HH. HH H.m NH camH .mH .cwu
mH o: H.o m.m o.m mm 4.H 0.; 0H. mH o.o mH mamH .mH .poo
moomo .UHHom moz do now moom ms“ mo mm ween mm uoaoo ovum

mmquham .mmfia

 

mezzoo Hz<>=He .mmsHm mmaznmmm
ZOHHHHszmm mammm 2H mmmHHHz< Hmonmmu .mH oHaue

 

68

 

 

.Qm mapmgho ..mm mahocmflaflwbm.am_mmnoam a mofipmsww pmnmfin mhfinmm m30am hHHfiflm
oaamonm n.5woupm

mmafiz meadow mam n amud wwwnawna

 

 

H00m. . u - u u u n - u - m.N . .. .ws<
- 0m mm m.0 0.0 0.0 HH 0.H :.m 00.0 0.0 m.N m: - mH .0000
- NH 0m H.0 m.m H.0 0H 0.H 0.4 am.0 HH - mm u 0m .ws<
- 0H 0m H.0 m.; 0.0 mH 0.H m.m 00.0 H.0 m.N NH . mm NHse
- 0H 00 0.0 m.m N.m mH 0.H m.4 m0.0 H.0 . 00 u 0 00:0
- 4H m: 0.0 0.4 0.: NH H.H 0.H m0.0 m.m H.0 00 - HH Nu:
- 4H H0 H.0 m.: m.m 0 H.H m.m m0.0 0.m 0.0 mm - N .n0<
- mH mm 0.0 0.4 0.N 0 H.H m.m H0.0 0.: 0.0 mm - NH .sz
- 0H m: 0.0 0.0 m.0 0 H.H m.m m0.0 0.N m.0 m0 wgmH .aHeqme
. mH 0; H.0 m.m m.m 0H 0. H.m mH.0 0.0 H.0 0m . mH .000
. mH mo m.o m.m mH N m.H o.m mm.o 0H N.m mN mzmH .0H .>0z
- 0m 00 m.0 m.N _4H 0H 0.H a.m 00.0 0H 0.0 00 NHNH .0H .000

moomo .0HHom m a m m
0 oz H0 om 00m 02“ 00 00 0H0 ma noHoo open

mmmachwm .mmwm

 

<H2H00HN..00000 mozmaHN0mm
H02000 92mm 3mz .mmsHm NZHzommqum0
2035 E0 005.0 E 0030.020 H0056 .HH 032.

 

69

acetic: List. £05
Chiclmhfl River, New Kent Com
co Fore, a
thrachospenmm virgatum

WOI‘E O

UEEEEOZT coma
run :81“ cm

as.
09 a 5 3
£31?” .. ...
Hi_ mucosa
Ocr0§0m____ moans.
a, opaca
warm-1731:}; var. duodenarim
F. 3 Iex var. re iculattm
P'.’ 3 Ex var. ma“
0 m 0
3mm %ero%m
Scenea'é'anus g
p re
fium subsecmdm
W

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c e

Wraspora ubrica

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VEuEHex-Ia averse

meta

7O

mHCHmnfl> .maafibmoppoahwno .moohsomom hope: we coama>wa «pcmamoam>mn 0:0
soflpmspmmcoo go pCoEphmamq AH .02 capoaasm scum cmxwp Amsononamonm unmoX0v dawn Hwowsmno

 

 

.nu mwnomsflmmq 0:0 ..Qm copmmoswpom I moflpmdwm Nonmfiz Magoou .pMHSm
maamopm mrEwmppm

mmHHz ohmsum om: u mend emanawgq

 

H00m.0 - - - - - - - - - - 0.N - 0mmH .Hm .004
- - 00 m.0 m.H 4.0 00 m.m 0m H0. m.m N.N 4 - 0 .0000
. 4N 00 m.0 H.H 0.0 m0 4.m 0H m0. 4.0 0.N 0H - 0H .000
- mm 4N 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 m.m 0m m0. N.m 4.N 4 - mm NH00
- H0 mN m.0 0.0 4.0 00 0.m 0m m0. m.m 0.N 0 - 0H 0:00
- mm m0 H.0 m.H 0.0 Nm m.m NH mo. 4.0 0.N 0H . 0m 00:
. mm mm 4.0 0.H 0.N 0m 0.H HH 0H. m.m 0.N 0H . 0 .000
- Hm N4 0.0 4.H 4.N 0m N.H N.m mo. o.m 0.N m a 0H .90:
.. 0m N0 m.0 m.H 0.0 00 0.m 0H m0. 0.4 m.N 0 u m 50.0
. 0.4 m0 H.0 m.H m.0 4m N.H NH 00. 4.4 m.N m 040H .0 .000
. 0m 00 m.0 0.0 m.0 00 N.m 0H 00. H.4 m.N m . HH .000
- 04 00 - - - Nm - - - - - - - 0 .002
- m0 m0 H.0 m.H m.N 00 N.m 0m m0. 4.4 0.N m N40H .0 .000

m moomo .vflaom moz Ho :om moon m2 mo om NOHm ma noao o

mmmfiUHmm .mma . 0 p8

 

0H0H00H> .00000 :o0mHH0
H02000 N20000HH0 .mmNHm 0009000300
onHHHz 000 00040 zH 000NH42< H00Hzmmo .mH 0H00a

71

Species List for

 

Cowpasture River, Alleghany County
Clifton—Ferge,_Virginia

 

 

Chara Braunii

 

Cladophora insignis

 

Closterium.moniliferum

 

Penium margaritaceum

 

72

 

wcflpfishMuco: u wmmmho whhmouwmm

 

000A mmfiomam

00000000 on «00035 mpwfism

0H00000 0.000000

 

 

0H4H.0 . - - u u - - - - . 0.N - 000H .H0 .000
- mm H0 0. 0.H 4.m 00 4.m 04 mm. NH 4.N 4H - .mm 0H00
- 0H 00 H. 0.0 H.4 mm H.m N.m H0. 0H H.N m 040H .00 .000
- 0H Nm 0.0 0.0 N.4 04 0.H 0.0 0m.0 NH 0.0 04 N40H .H0 .000
0 00000 .00H00 002 H0 400 0000 00. 00 00 m000 00 00H00 0000

mmmqvhm: .0009

 

000000 2000000000 .00000 00000
20H00H0H000 00000 0H 00000000 000H0000

.0H magma

 

73

.00000500 pom 0000 “06005 op_hnqwm .30Hm

0H00000 0.000000

 

00 00 0. N.m H.0 0m 0.m N.0 00. 0H - m0 - NH .000
cm 00 H. m.4 m.m mm 4.0 H.N mo. mH H.N 0H : 0H .000
Hm 0H 0. m.0 4.N 0H 0.H 0.4 H0. 0H 0.N 04 040H .0H .000
N0 H0 0. 0.0 0.N 00 N.0 m.0 0m. 0H N.0 00 N40H .0H .000

 

m. .
0000 00H00 000 H0 400 0 m

mmmgm . 000.5 04mm mm hoaoo 3.8

000 00 00 00

 

000000 0000000000 .000H0 0H00H0
00000000000 00000 0H 00000000 00000000 .NH 0H000

 

7h

Species List fbr

 

Willis River, Cumberland County

 

Closterium.littorale

Cl. moniliferum

 

Desmidium Baileyi

 

Eudorina elegans

 

Hyalotheca dissiliens

 

Micrasterias sol.

 

Stanrastrum.alternans

 

75

.0000500 0Hco «00:000> «Hafls 00000 8000 vmpsaaom 000000 «pmazm
mawmoym 0.00009m

modaz ohmswm mo: a «00¢ ommcampm

 

 

0000.0 . - - - - - u - u - 0.0 . 000H «Hm .000
- 0HH 00H 0.0 0.H H0 00H 0.0 0m 00.0 0.0 m.0 0 n 0 .0000
- 00 00 0.0 0.H HH H0 m.m 00 H0.0 0.0 0.0 0 . mH .000
- 00 00H m.0 0.H 00 00 H.m 0m 00.0 0.0 0.0 m - 00 0H00
- 00 00H m.0 0.H 0H 00 0.0 00 00.0 0.0 0.0 0 - 0H 0000
- 00 00 H.0 0.H 0H 00 H.m 00 00.0 0.0 0.0 0 - 0H 000
- 00 00 0.0 0.H HH 00 0.0 0H 00.0 o.m 0.0 0 - 0 H0000
.. 00 00 0.0 0.H 0.0 0.0 0.0 0H 00.0 0.0 m.0 m - 0 .000
- 00 0HH 0.0 0.H 00 H0 m.m Hm 00.0 0.0 0.0 H - m .000
- 00 00 0.0 .0.0 0H 00 0.m 00 00.0 0.0 0.0 0 000H .0 .000
u 00 00H m.0 m.H 00 00 0.0 mm 00.0 m.0 m.0 m u m .000
- 0m - - - - mm - - - u - - - m .000
- 00H 00H H.0 0.0 00 00 0.0 H0 00.0 0.0 u m 000H .0 .000

m moomo mvaaom moz Ho 30m moom w: 00 mm Noam ma uoaou mama

mmoqvumm .mmwa

 

00000000 .0000000 000HH00
000000 000000000 .00000 0000000
0000000 000 00000 00 00000000 00000000 .0H 0H000

 

76

Species List for

 

Jackson River, Alleghany Coquz
Falling Springs, Virginia

 

 

Chara fragilis

 

Closterium.moniliferum

 

Cl. tumidum

 

Draparnaldia plumosa

 

Oedogonium sp.

 

Spirogyra sp.

Sp. communis‘

 

 

77

 

.am 000:00m>.r 00000560 «00:00 .3me hanfiwm

0H00000 0.000000

 

.. u - .. - - - - - u 0.0 - 00% .H0 .000
0H 00 0. 0.0 0m 00 0.H 0.0 0H. 0H m.0 mm - 0H 05:.
0H 00 H. 0.0 0.0 0H N.H 0m H0. 0H 0.0 0 .. 0H .000

NH 00 N. 0.0 0.0 0 0.H 0.0 H0. 0 0.0 00 0.5.00.3.

 

Om pm H.0 m.m m.m mm m.m 4.: mm. Ow 0.0 mm 3.3..” «m.m.poo
0000 .mmmm m00 H0 000 m000 00 00 m0 N000 00 038 $8

)0

0.00000 00000000 .00000 .05
000.300 000 00000 00 00000004 0000500 .0H 3000

 

78

Species List E:
Fine Creek, Powhatan Count:

Ban-ache mum sp.
WW
0 m

BIZ 1.3151001

CI: mom‘fiferum

“CI: m

'53- Esporn
ésgogon coerulerus
o um ans

@3— firm

um wartz

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°° HEP-m
O 803- 83 ans
eras r as fiiqcmmm

Co 30

EEO—g? re. amoena
1523;952:773 $tacetm
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79

III . DISCUSSION

Ecolog at: River Algae

 

One may classify river algae largely as (a) opportunistic,
those which can grow in a current as well as in standing water,
or forms displaced from an upstream impoundment; (b) species
mostly inhabiting flowing water. The forms represented by (b)
may have a greater output photosynthetically than those of
group (a). This is thought to be due to their greater growth
rate and the fact that their youth is quite dense . The majority
of the unicellular foms are plankters, or better still, faculta-
tive plankters, for many are capable of growing either on the
bottom or possibly trapped within the meshes of filamentous
algae or the mycelia of fungi. Thus, Blum (1956) indicates
that river algae may be separated into phytoplankton and ben-
thic algae.

Planktonic organisms in streams (potamoplankton) are
usually few in number. It is thought that most or a majority
of individuals taken in water samples are derived from the bot-
ton of the stream either directly or after reproduction en route .
Therefore, the unattached forms associated with the bottom
(benthoplankton) are probably in the majority, at least in
smaller streams. Benthic algae embrace several life forms;

(a) single-celled species that may grow attached to almost any

mp4 \ b. u «r! Ili'nrr’i 1 if I .r'y...‘ Ma“
0 , , .

. ....-
»Id‘ ., ...t

y -._..

80

support in water. (b) small filamentous forms which grow paral-
lel or somewhat attached to each other and hence form a minia-
ture cushion or stratum on a rock or some other substrate, (c)
there are other species which may grow epiphytically or may be
mingled with filaments of other forms, (d) and there are fila-
mentous algae with large macroscopic thalli growing from a hold-
fast and which bear the same spatial relationship to the moving
water as does a tree to the air around it. All forms can then

be reduced to two types, namely (a) those like Cladophora and

 

Tetraspora with large surface area, but with great flexibility

 

permitting water to run throng: or around them; and (b) those
with a greatly reduced surface, but with hard inflexible struc-
ture as Gongrosira and Phormidium. (Blum, 1956) Both of these

 

 

general types are considered to you better on rocks; however,
sandy bottoms afford an unfavorable source of attachment for
algae. Thus, it follows that sandy streams are expected to be
Very poor for benthic algae. This does not mean that algae are
excluded from sand. Sandy beaches (psammon) are usually highly
productive for algae and other micro-organisms. Just beneath

a thin layer of sand a promse yowth of many types of algae
(Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, and diatoms) may be found, and these
same forms found in the sand may not be found in the plankton

of the nearby aquatic environment .

81

A. Algal Communities 2: River Flora

 

Blum (1956) indicates that the plant community in an
aquatic habitat is much more difficult to define than a land
community. He associates this with the unstable nature of the
environment and the rapid changes in the component organisms.
It is pointed out further by Berg (1949) that the changing
character of streams from.source to mouth makes it difficult to
group water courses ecologically other than to parts of a water
course. Further it is believed that the more heterogeneous the
ecological conditions of the water the more associations and species it may
be expected to support. -frescott (1951) points out, however, that aquatic
plants may have a wider geographical distribution than terrestrial
forms. He indicates that this is true because of the more nearly
universal similarity of aquatic habitats and the somewhat greater
constancy of the factors which play a role in determining distri-
bution. Mineral nutrients in an aquatic habitat are more equally
diffused and easier to obtain, temperature changes are more gradual
and the annual temperature range less than in a terrestrial environ-
ment.

Eggleton (1939) (in his discussion of lotic (swift water)
communities indicates that population fellows the rise and fall

of the water level (a factor to be discussed later). The most

82
important factor in lotic communities being the current. Thus,
the swift water streams will have a different population than
the sluggish ditches, cree ks, and rivers. In either type of
stream, however, the types of communities remain the same, i, g.
nekton, plankton, and benthos. He further points out that in-
digenous plankton communities of permanent, swift-water streams
are usually poor for species and usually have small numbers of
individuals. Sluggishdwater streams in general surpass the
swift current creeks and rivers in biological productivity.

Because of these above mentioned problems a complete pre-
sentation on stream vegetation may never be achieved. Further
difficulty is presented by the influence of Man and his works
on streams causing many natural river communities to become
obliterated by human disturbances; thus, altering many factors

before scientific work or study on them can be accomplished.

1. Plankton Cbmmunities
The existence of plankton in streams was noticed quite
early by phycologists. Much of the early work on this subject
was carried out on German rivers, but confirmations since have been
obtained. Some streams, however, have been found to be quite
poor in plankton, and the environment necessary for this condition

has also been studied (Lauterborn, 1910).

’Iul. . ..I. It I ...-PHIL»: 5.1.: in.tidlib-IIUJ
. u. i P H , . 2
. ...
.. a,
Eni’w , I. i ,I..!‘

83

Most phycologists and limnologists consider plankton of
streams as forms that are introduced into the currents from
impoundments, backwater areas, or stagnant arms of the streams.
The plankton which is developed in standing waters within the
river's basin is frequently destroyed, or may be filtered out
down stream (Butcher 1928, Chandler 1937, Reif 1939). Often
river plankters are tumble to survive conditions of life with-
in an impoundment. On the other handIrivers whose plankton
is not dominated by species from upstream lakes or ponds are
likely to contain those forms which have been derived from the
stream's bottom and are thus considered, as mentioned above,
facultative or opportunistic plankters (Butcher 19,40) .

Several authors have stated that plankton in certain por-
tions of streams shows a quantitative decrease as it passes
downstream. It was observed by Richardson (1928) that a de-
crease of 62% of plankters within a distance of 120 miles on
the Illinois River. Galtsoff (1921;) reported a quantitative
decrease of around 15% within a distance of 60 miles in a por-
tion of the Mississippi River. Forbes (1928) reported that
the quantity of plankton in the middle region of Illinois River
was nearly 15 times greater than at the mouth. Such quantita-
tive decrease in plankton of streams has been attributed to the
current of the stream; however, this has not been conclusively

demonstrated as an important factor. It is supposed by many

8h

that the current would exert its effect upon other factors as
nutrients, temperatures, availability of gases, and possibly
the dilution of plankton themselves; unless otherwise influenced
by the macroflora.

D. C. Chandler (1937) in his study of the Huron River,
Maple River and Bessey Creek observed that lake plankton enter-
ing a stream undergoes a quantitative decrease as it passes down-
stream. This decrease was demonstrated irrespective of season
and was effective not only for total net plankton and various
plankton groups, but also for the predominant individual plank-
ters as well. He also found that the quantitative decrease in
these streams was not uniform, but was well or large in diffe-
rent portions depending upon the presence or absence of certain
environmental factors . This quantitative decrease was definitely
related to aquatic vegetation, various kinds of debris, and
possibly also to sedimentation.

Aquatic vegetation is believed to be one of the most im-
portant factors causing a quantitative plankton decrease in
streams. Chandler (1937) found in his stuchr that the periods
of greatest decrease occurred at times when the quantity of
aquatic vegetation was the largest. It has been observed that
when vegetation is scarce in early summer, the plankton under-
goes a small decrease as it flows]. downstream. 0n the other

hand in late summer, there may be a pronounced decrease. This

85

plankton decrease occurs where the vegetation growth is the heaviest.
When the vegetation is removed, tiere is little or no plankton de-
crease (Chandler 1937).

Whereas Chandler (1937) found a relationship between aquatic
plants and plankton decrease, it is not so evident as to how this
correlation is determined. He noticed that there was an increase in num-
ber of forms occurring normally as plankton attached to macrophytes,
and that3the number of these organisms increased from early to late
summer. In early summer the number can be so small that they can
only be detected by microscopic examination, but in late summer the
accumulation of'material can be so heavy as to be easily visible upon
macroscopic examination.

It is possible that much of the filtering action of the macroflora
of streams is due tothe presence of epiphytic forms that are attached
at right angles to their substratum.which increase in numbers so as to
strain out many other organisms from the water.

Such<iebris as decaying vegetation, accumulation of twigs and
branches from trees, and especially dead leaves are believed to be
related to quantitative plankton decrease. In many instances when
these substances settle out, they take along with them the attached
plankters. Thus, such objects tend to collect plankters on their ex-

posed surface.

86

Schroeder (1897) concluded that the volume of plankton
present in any stream is inversely proportional to the rate
of the current (as was mentioned above). Xofoid (1903, 1908)
states that the most important relation of current to plankton
is its effect in determining the length of time in which plank-
ton can breed. W. E. Allen (1920) indicates that water currents
above a moderate speed are distinctly inimical to plankton de-
velopment. Van Oye (1926) and Galtsoff (1921;) found current
to be related to a scarcity of plankton in certain portions
of streams. Thus, the decrease of planktons in streams is
not due to am one factor but several factors. The presence
of plankters in streams, basins, etc., would be determined by
these and other environmental factors that would influence
their growth and reproduction.

Blum (1956) lists the cannon algae found as planners--
Asterionella fomosa, Fraglaria capucina, E: crotonensins,

 

modra ;__ulna_;_, §_._ 2322?." Tabellaria fenestrata, Helosira m-
_l-a_t_a_, 5:. varians, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, Dinobryon sertu-
_1_g_ri__a are members of the phylum msophyta. Species of 3221.13-
m, Scenodesmus, Closterium are members of the green algae

(Chlorophyta) and Euglena of the Eulenophyta. Maw others
could be added as tychoplanktons that are usually found inter-

 

mingled with aquatic vegetation or form floating mats capacially
in ponds or lakes.

87

2. Benthic Conumlni ties

 

Benthic algae, referred to as benthos, are organisms
which live on the bottom in relatively deep water. This form
of algae are dominated in much of the North Temperate Zone by

Cladophora glomerata which grows in riffles (shallows) and in

 

rapidly flowing water, but never in still water (Blum 1956)
(The author found Cladophora callicoma growing in a moderately

 

swift stream in the eastern section of Virginia.) Usually
other benthic algae must often grow in competition with, or

shaded by, this species. In cold streams Batrachospermmu,

 

Lemanea, Thorea are members of the phylum Rhodophyta that

 

approach the size of Cladophora. The author found Batracho-

gamma and Lemanea growing quite profusely during the colder
months in swiftly flowing, rocky and colder streams of the

 

eastern part of Virginia. These streams also were a little
on the acid side of the pH scale, and had a tendency to be a
little soft which was indicated by the low CaCO3 content in

canparison with the western streams. Compsopogon, another red

 

alga , is common in the warmer climates. Compsopogon coeruleus

 

was found by the author to be growing in the same stream with
Batrachospermum (check list of species under Fine Creek).

 

m, a member of the Chrysophyjcese, is widespread in

 

cold mountain streams in Europe. This alga is a little less

88

common in North America; the author did not encounter l_i_._

foetidus in Virginia, but he has collected it in Montana.

B. PHYSICAE FACTORS INFLUENCING RIVER ALGAE

 

1. Size 9_f_ Stream

 

 

A stream is considered as being in its initial or youngest
stage at its source and oldest at its mouth (Shelford, 19.29).
Butcher ( 1946) has concluded that as rivers become larger cer-
tain changes in the potamoplankton can be expected; specifi-
cally that small green and blue-green algae become relatively
more important in the planktonthan diatoms. Some small streams
develop considerable plankton population within a few miles
of their headwaters (Lackey, 191:3). However, for streams in
general, Eddy (1925) has concluded that the development of
potamoplankton is relative to the age of the water; this is
associated with the distance in time from the source of the
stream. In his discourse on small steam succession, Eddy (1925)
indicates that all primary hydrophytic succession initial stages
should start in still or running water absolutely barren of
life or the remains of previous organic occupation. (This is
associated with the statement mentioned above that the stream
is in its youngest stage at its source and oldest at its mouth
(Shelford, 1929). Under such conditions the biotic communi-

89

ties in these habitats should represent the same equivalent
ecological ages.

In a study on a stream near Muncie, Illinois, Edch' (1925)
indicates how succession is demonstrated. This stream arose
from a spring in a glacial till near the prairie level and
then descended a quarter of a mile throng: rapids and pools
to a small stream (Stony Creek) 60 feet below the prairie. The
initial condition was represented by water trickling from the
glacial till down into puddles formed in cow tracks. At the
source , the bottom was covered by a brownish sediment of dia-
toms (mostly Synedra). A greenish tinge in both November and
April was caused by Euglena sp. and M sp.

At ho feet diatoms and Spiroga were abundant in November.
In April Mougeotia and desmids also appeared. At 60 feet, 2
feet from the mouth, Spiroma and diatoms were abundant in
inter-rapid pools in November. In the rapids, Clad0phora was

 

abundant. (This bears out what has been mentioned above about

Cladophora as a benthic form in rapid waters) . In April, the

 

same algae were abundant in the same place.

Eddy concluded that this observation demonstrates the
stages in a primary acre of the succession of a mall stream
fran its origin until middle age. The youngest stages showed "
the absence of filamentous algae.

A middle—age stream is described by Edchr as one represented

90

by a stream in which the primary stream emptied. The rapids
that were mentioned above represent the youngest stages after
the small stream. Cladophora, Oscillatoria and filamentous
diatoms were the only algae pre sent. In the quiet sluggish
pools between the rapids fliroma was ablmdant. The pools
were ecologically much older than the rapids. Sandy bars
were observed and larger plants were produced which held back
the currents.

Thus, in the middle age of stream succession, secondary
screen of oxbow and sand bar succession may arise. These two
sores may parallel each other in the first stages, but the
oxbow soon assume the terrestrial aspect while the sand bar
follows the prairie pond sequence. The stream itself continues
into a permanent old age climax. The small stream represents
youth, the medium stream middle age, and the large sluggish
river with its large well-worn channel representing old age .

Eddy indicates that age will vary with the physiographic
conditions, and accordingly many streams age more quickly than
others after the young stage conditions become more favorable
for algae. Such conditions tend to increase more rapidly in
the pond so that the algal commmities of an old river resem-
ble' those of a middle age pond, 1:. 2;: being filled with mud
from decaying vegetation and quite shallow. As the pond ages
and vegetation creeps in, the plankton declines. Kofoid (1903)

91

indicates that the amount of plankton produced by bodies of
fresh water, other things being equal, is in some inverse
ratio proportional to the amount of its goes vegetation of
the submerged sort.

The final stage, explains Eddy, is taken over by the

uni-cellular forms until Pleurococcus on the trunks of the

 

invading willows is usually the last trace of an all but com-

pleted algal succession.

2 . Current Rate

 

Current rates show - fluctuations over a given range.
In small streams the fluctuations or variables may act in
such a way that minute differences in position may be subjected
to vastly different current pressures (Longwell, 1932) (Elm,
1953). In the smaller streams, such pressures may fluctuate
greatly from moment to moment within a given madman-minimum
range and over a period of a few days even this range must
shift markedly in response to changes in water level (Blum, 1956).
The maximum speed of the water is usually attained near the
surface and decreases sharply toward the bottom (Welch, 1952).
Berg (1910) indicated that the micro-environment of the stream
bottom is surrounded by water that is not in motion at all.
Benthic algae, then’ are exposed to possibly much less current

pressure than that of surface water, and it is probable that

92

massive filamentous algae on the bottom enclose between their
filaments a volume of water which is essentially stationary,
yet is in contact on all sides with constantly renewed water
which brings fresh supplies of oxygen and essential nutrients
(Blur, 1956) . The fact that algae colonize so hazard a habitat
as flowing water suggests they can be provided something unique
in this habitat (Butcher, 19h?) Cedergen, 1938).

It has been observed that only certain algae will grow
in rapid water, and that usually these will grow much more
luxuriantly where the current is very rapid than where there
is little current. In comparison of more rapid parts of a
riffle which supported growth of Cladophora with quieter parts

 

of the same riffle where no Clad0phora was to be found, no

 

silhificant difference in dissolved oxygen during day or night
was observed (Blum, 1953) . when the riffle was compared with
deeper, quieter water immediately adjacent, the concentration

of dissolved oxygen in the riffle was distinctly higher at

night than in the pool. The organic phosphate content has

been observed to be higher in faster water of riffles (Blmn 1956) .
This is not indicated as sufficient to account for the incompara-
ble better growth in waters of the riffles, nor that the increa-
sed nutrients are not actually the result of improved algal
growth rather than the cause of their growth. It has been
indicated by Neel (1951) that greater consumption of nutrients

93

occurs in rapids than in pools, but this would appeamto de-
pend on the density and nature of the biota of the respective
habitat. Guimaraes (1950) observed that Brazilian waters of
rapid streams are less productive than the larger, slow-moving
rivers, and that the rapids are less productive than the quieter
portions. It is believed that such a response is not associa-
ted with oxygen supply entirely as may be for the current it-
self. On the other hand, current-rate may influence the amount
of dis solved oxygen. Butcher (l9h6) observed that there is
clearly some physical difference between still and running
water which may be connected simply with movement.

Abdin (19148), Allen (1920), Cilleuls (1926), Fritsch
(1905) agree that rapid streams are likely to carry a greatly
reduced potamoplankton. Schroeder (1898) formulated the rule
that the gradient of a stream is inversely proportional to
the density of its plankton. Welsh (1952) has indicated that
floods are destructive to stream invertebrates and Galtsoff
(192(4) and Fjerdingstad (195 0) have cited examples of the de-
pletion of plankton by rapids or a cataract. A rapid current,
therefore, represents a mechanical danger for phytoplankton
organises, but on the other hand the attached or other benthic
algae are in some way benefited by moderate current.

It has been stated by Kofoid (1903, 1908) that the most
important relation of current to plankton is its effect in

9b.

determining the length of time in which plankton can breed.

W. E. Allen (1920) came to the conclusion that water currents
above a moderate speed are distinctly inimical to plankton
development . Van Oye ( 1926) and Galt soff (1921;) found current
to be related to a scarcity of plankton in certain portions of
streams. (This was mentioned above under the heading of
"Plankton Communities") .

8 It can be observed at this point that the usual vegeta-
tion of rapids in the temperate zone is almost limited to the
lower cryptogams; the aquatic angiosperms have thus far been
largely unsuccessful in establishing themaelves in such a
habitat.

3 . Water Level

Fluctuating water level may be important principally for
the changes which it causes in velocity and direction. At
times of low water, the volume of flow and current rate de-
clines , nutrient depletion is increased, and nutrient replace-
ment is decreased. When the water level is quite low, the
mouths of river at sea level may become brackish, and smaller
streams may stop flowing canpletely. Under the latter condi-
tions, a stream may be converted into a series of pools, and
either death or dormancy may result in the riffle biota.

Chandler (1937), Denis (1921), Kofoid (1903, Schorler

96

marked changes (Blum 1956). The bottom may even be eroded by
large debris carried by currents and eventually deposited on
the banks or shallows. Huttkowski (1929) has observed that
sane mountain streams are raging torrents in rainy seasons,
butnaybevirtuallydrytheremainder oftheyear.

Flood water may also bring about a great change in plank-
ton (Cilleuls, 1928; Kofoid, 1903; Dye, 1926; Pearsall, 1923).
There is a sharp decline in plankton with rising water level
as drainage water dilutes the stream proper. It has been ob-
served that when spring flood waters drop, a major plankton
pulse frequently follows upon such recession (Kofoid, 1903 ;
x. Meyer, 1928; Reinhard, 1931; Rice, 1938; Schallgruber, 19M).

14. wifStream

 

It is probable that nearly all streams which maintain a
given water level for several weeks exhibit some sonation of the
attached algae. Blum (1956) has indicated that he has observed
such sonation in streams of southern Michigan. He indicates that
the best place to observe such sonation is on the sides of large
boulders which break the surface of the waters. Needham and
Christensen (1927) have recorded sonation of mmphs and larvae
of aquatic insects living on rocks in streams, and it is
thought that many algal forms exhibit similar patterns of
distribution. Djakonoff (1925) has indicated such zonation

95

(1907) have observed that production of phytoplankton is in-
creased in periods of low water, and that emlankton organisms
become more abundant at this time. Chandler indicates that
this is probably associated with. proportion of water volume to
exposed surfaces to which plankters migat adhere; these being
vegetation or other objects. Batard (1932) observed that the
Mayonne, a slow river in France may flow only during the rainy
season. It is observed that both photosynthesis and decompo-
sition exert their greatest effect upon the environment under
low-water conditions (Neel, 1951), and it is thought that
these processes are themselves profoundly influenced by approa-
ching stagnation. Cilleuls (1927) observed that’in the Thouet,
another slow stream of France, plankton often show similarities
to pond plankton. Transeau (1916) observed that fresh-water
algae seemed to fruit more abundantly at periods of high water
than at low water; however, he indicates that the factors in-
volved are more complex than just water level or current—rate .
During periods of floods, there might be great changes
in the physical nature of a strem; increase in surface current,
local currents on riffles change their orientation, attached
algae and other organisms are torn away from their substrate
(Kurz, 1922). Rocks are transported for short distances,
mineral particles are carried in great abtmdance; turbidity

increases greatly, and the chemistry of the water undergoes

97

on steamers in the Volga (Germany). He observed that the
upper partly emergent layer (20-100 cm. wide) was dominated

by (Pleurocapsa flwiatilisWyanopmrta). Next to this was

 

a submerged band, 30-35 cm. wide of Cladophora and Stigeoclo-

 

nium (Chlorophyta). A third band, 50-60 cm. wide, was com-

posed of diatoms (Cymbella, Gomphonema, etc. Chrysophyta) .

 

Scheele (1951;) has reported zonation of diatoms in drains in
Gemany.

Depths of rivers in general, is not very great. It is
thought that algal growth in surface streams is not usually
limited because of reduced light. However, Ellis (1936) re-
ports that in the extremely turbid waters of .the lower Missis-
sippi, light is reduced so rapidly with increasing depth that
the latter becomes a sharply limiting factor for small benthic
and even for planktonic algae. In clear streams, however, it
is possible for) some algae (Cladophora) to grow at considerable
depth; some have been reported growing at depths of 20 to 100 ft.

(Blum, 1956) (From notes of Prescott he indicates a depth of
[LO-200 ft.)

5. Temperature of the Stream

 

 

Natural waters possess a uniformity of temperature from
day to day ; however, a property of water in general is that

of slowness to changes in temperature. Although temperature

98

conditions in streams are essentially different from those
of lakes, this moderation of temperature is characteristic
of both.

The change in temperature of a stream.is much less rapid
in the region downstream from impoundments. In seasons of
great thermal change, the pond impoundment acts as a stabi-
lizer which eliminates great diurnal fluctuations in water
temperatures in the stream. Blum.(l953) has made the Obser-
vation that certain floristic differences between different
parts of the course of a stream are due to such differences
in thermal phenomena.

In temperate regions the period of maximum change in
temperature comes in spring and fall. Since there also are
profound changes taking place at this time in the available
light, in the chemistry of the water and the biota, it is
often.impossible on the basis of field observations, to draw
any reliable conclusions as to the precise relation between
temperature and any specific photosynthetic organism or group
or organism.

The period of maximum growth for most algae is during
the warm.season; however, even though.this growth is often
dependent upon warmer temperature, there is little evidence
that the blooms and rapid seasonal development of various

algae occur as a direct result of temperature rise. These

99
pulsesmay apparently some at any time or times during the
spring. summer. or fall. and also be of relatively brief
duration. In Virginia. the temps ature may be as high in the
spring. for short duration. , as during the summer. There have
been years of late fall or times when the summers seen to grade
into the winters. There have also been experiences of balmy days
in December and January. Such temperaturesof several days duration
could effect the flora. to a certain degree. of small strewns. It
has been observed that brook algae are better adapted to low rather
than to high temperatures. Ulgthri; m grows best below 15° c.
and can produce soospores in ice water at O-l° c. (Oltmanns. 1922-
1923).

Van Oye (1926) reported that there may be little seasonl
change in temperature. and it may be concluded that any sea- ,
sonal change in the vegetation of such streams is not directly
due to temperature change.

Some observations have been made on the influence of
temperature in general on the flora. but the usual conclu-
sions are that many factors are altered during the cold
season which may havens causal. connection. directly to tempera-
ture (Pearsall. 1923). However. Budde (1928, 1930) has concluded
that temperature is the limiting factor in the distribution of
some diatoms (E51923. ML). Such forms could not survive

in the warmer waters. being accustomed to lower temperature

100

(3° - 10°C.).

It must be remembered that most streams are of such
slight depth (as mentioned above) that no real stratifica-
tion occurs in moving water. Behning (1928) observed this
to be true in so large a stream as the Volga (Germany). It
has been observed that when two water masses erhibiting essen-
tial physical or chemical differences occupy an impoundment,
there is seldom much mixing between the two with the result
that a warm layer may be found above a colder layer. Ellis
(1936) has reported on hydroelectric impoundment and he states
that they may be comosed of a "warm, muddy river" flowing
over a "cold clear lake" which exhibit no water movement in
the lower stratum (hypolinmim) and little in the temperature
change (thermocline) . Fridmn (193M illustrated another ‘
example of stratification on the Kama ( 0.3.3.3.) in the presence
of relatively warm industrial sewage spreading out over the
surface of the water without much affecting the deeper water.
In general, differences in vegetation of temperate streams
within a small area are not usually caused by temperature
differences. However, for vegetation changes from source to
mouth, as well as for seasonal changes, tunperature remains
one of the more plausible causative agents (Blum, 1956). Chand-
ler (191th) has observed that temperature had- very little effect
on spring pulses in Lake Erie; the change in temperature being

.P‘,

101
only very slight. However. one can observe that such drastic
changes in temperature that are associated with the seasons

should and do effect algal growth. (This will be discussed
further under the title of periodicity.)
6- Liam: flushing iha Em

It is understood that algal photosynthesis and growth
are as dependent on light as are the same processes in higher
green plants. The quantity. quality. seasonal duration. re-
lation of light to depth of the aquatic medium or the position
in a subaerial environment. altitude and latitude of the habi-
tat. the specific requirement for various wave lengths. lunar
radiation. the light intensity and/or duration in relation to
cha nge in the life history are all the factors that are to be
considered in, the effect of light upon algal development.

Blum (1953) has observed that light reaching algae grow-
ing near the surface does not appear to differ greatly in

amount from that reaching low herbs which grow on adjacent

banks. Such algae growing in an unshaded position must there-
fore be able to withstand full sunlight almost unreduced in_ ‘
amount. , In most streams there are few positions on, the bottom
that remain constantly in the sun. however. there are very few
also which remain constantly shaded. The amount of shade over

the streal's course . the nature of the bottom. and generally

:92
the bank vegetation determine the constancy of incident ligit.
One would not expect the same quantity or quality of light to
fall on a river alga to be the same as that falling on the surface
of the earth. Thus. bank vegetation must alter or reduce the
amount of light both in the summer and other seasons of the year.
The limbs of trees as well as trunks serve to shade the streams
somewhat in the winter (Blum. 1953).. In temperate regions. however.
the degree of shading is not as great in winter the to the leaf-
less branches.

The effects of deep shade on stream algae are evident in

the .agre vegetation of streams passing through themature
beech—maple community of northeastern United States. whereas
the same stream passing throw a clearing is generally well-
populated with. algae (Blum. 1956) . Transeau (1915) observed
that algae established in shaded portions of streams are able
to grow but may never reproduce there. Reese (1937) observed"
that shading greatly reduced algal colonisation on slides that
he had placed in the Rheidol and Helindwr streams (England).
he author has found W growing in cold streams
shaded by bridges. trees. etc.; thus exhibiting opposite re- {
sults from thoseof Reese. Luther (19515) has reported W.
another red alga. growing on the sides and undersides of rocks:
thus being quite shade-tolerant. rren Butcher's (191:6) experi-

ments it was observed that the greatest amount of algal growth

103

was associated with the greater amount of sunlight; thus, it
ma;r be concluded that fair weather induces more rapid growth
of the algae.

Prescott (1951) has indicated that illumination as an
ecological factor determines that most algae occupy what is
termed the photosynthetic zone, the upper 2-5 meters of waters.
Of course he has reference to lakes, and most lakes may be a
‘ little deeper than streams; however, the same may hold true
for streams. He further indicates that turbidity, color, and
amount of disturbances at the surface all help to determine
the depth to which light favorable for photosynthesis will
penetrate. One must also consider the amount of light loss
at the surface through reflection and because of further re-
duction by absorption and diffusion, photosynthetic plants
are limited to the upper levels. Prescott associates the
presence of greater quantity of dissolved oxygen in this stream
to this fact. (A factor to be discussed later).

 

7. Turbiditz of" _t_h_e_ Stream

Turbidity may not have much importance in a smaller stream,
but in a large river bearing heavy silt loam ’ the light can be
reduced to a point which curtails or completely prevents plant
growth, including that of the phytoplankton. Eddy (1931i) has

observed a decrease in phytOplankton due to the reduction in

101;

light penetration caused in part by the plankton itself.
Ellis (1936) found that light was reduced in the Mississippi
River to one millionth of its surface intensity at depths
of only 200 to 1:00 mm.

Such reductions are uncommon in smaller streams in the
temperate zone; however, high turbidities (200-300 p. p. m.)
occur in eroded watersheds after heavy rains and following
the melting of large quantities of snow and ice in winter and
spring (Blum, 19533 Radischtschev, 1925). Such turbidity is
usually dispersed in smaller streams within a period of two
or three days, partly by settling and partly by flushing out
by fresh supplies of water. It has been noted that sewage
effluents cause an increase in turbidity; however, this de-
creases with distance downstream unless the volume of sewage
is not in excess in relation to volume of water which dilutes
it. ‘

Blum (1956) has observed that after periods of heavy
turbidity, large filamentous algae such as Cladgphora glgmerata,

 

may serve as traps for silt. These forms may become so burdened
with silt thatfit'a lower portiorgmw become completely screened
from light. Soon the plant is semi-rigid with its load of

silt, and under these conditions much of it is killed or torn

away (Blum, 1956).

105

0. Chemical Conditions of the Stream

 

 

Obviously the chemistry of the water habitat is directly
related to and for the most part determined by the physica-
chemical nature of geological formation. The mineral matter
in natural waters is dissolved principally from the rocks and
soils with which it has come in contact and will vary with
the geolog and the topography of the area. The underlying
rocks together with the chemistry of the soil through which
water passed, or over which it collects; determine# the compo-
sition of solutes in the aquatic environment, and the physio-
logy of inhabiting organisms in other ways. Ancient. or
igneous rock formations determine soft or acid water habitats in
contrast to basic waters resulting from. drainage through sedi-
mentary rocks especially limestone.

The chemical character of surface waters will change
throughout the year as a result of variations in climate,
diversions and impoundment,and pollution by waste material.

The quantity of dissolved salts in streams of water dur-
ing flood stage is usually relatively small; however, during
dry periods, a large proportion of the water is ground-water
flow and the stream's water is generally more concentrated.
The range in concentration of dissolved mineral matter is de-

pendent on solubility of the mineral substances in the soil and

106
rock. The length of time the water is in contact with this
substrate, is also important in determining the chemical nature of
the water. A stream that traverses areas of limestone or dolo-
mite outcrops normally carries in solution. much more dissolved
material. especially calcium carbonate. than a. stream that is
in contact with less. soluble crystalline rocks.

There are several factors which may tend- to regulate the
length of time therwater is in contactvwith earth materials:
topography. vegetation. the physical nature of geological for-
nations. and dams or other obstructions. Topography influences
chemical character in that it regulates to some extent. the
speed with which precipitation reaches the main stream. Areas
of steep gradient are drained rgidly whereas areas of little:
relief are drained slowly. Vegetation...” lack of vegetation.
influences the rate at which run—off reaches the streams.
Variations in the porosity and permeability of the superfi-
cial deposits allow water to percolate at different rates
to the underground storage and thereby affect the surface run-
off. is an emple of this. various parts of the Shenandoah Valley
where faulted limestone formations and solution channels are
found close to the land surface. there are more rapid perco-
lations to underground storage than in parts of the Piedmont

where there are thick soil coverings of clay or clay-loam.

107

The collection and storage of water behind dams tend to
regulate the chemical quality of a stream by minng of flood
waters with those impounded at low flow, resulting in a water
of more uniform composition.

In addition to those factors already mentioned the use of
streams for the disposal of sewage and industrial waste material
and diversion for industrial and agricultural use may cause un-
predictable changes in the chemical character of the stream.
Lackey (1938) has made an observation of surface waters polluted
by acid mine drainage and he has indicated that thereis a
noticeable change in color from almost clear to a deep copper
or brown color. The water may be clear, but appear colored
because of the color of the bed or bottom of the stream being
lined with a deposit of iron oxide. The author encountered
one such stream (Tye River) in the western portion of the state.
No aquatic life was apparent and definitely no algae were found
in the collection. Such waters are highly acid and are quite
destructive to fish and other aquatic life.

Lackey's (1938) observations indicated that few species
of plants inhabit streams that are polluted by mine drainage.
The low pH of these streams seems to be the factor of limita-
tion. He observed that at pH of 3.7 or lower blue-greens were
canpletely absent. Oscillatoria was the only blue-green obser-
v'ed below the pH of 7.0. He lists six genera of green algae

108

with ficthrix sonata being the most conmon.Stig§oclonium was

 

also fairly abundant with Mou otia and Cladophora occurring
occasionally. Naviculoid diatoms were often quite numerous

in many samples; one species of Tabellaria was noted.

 

Lackey's samples indicated a very decided tolerance for

highly acid conditions on the part of Chlamydomonas sp. ,
Chrcmulina sp. , Euglena mutabilis, Omtricha, Navicula, Ulothrix

 

@333. Of these forms Eglena mutabilis, Oiqytricha, Navicula
were“ abundant. The Euglena was especially so, being responsi-
ble for the green coating, and often completely obscuring the
surface beneath. His observation was that Euglena was the
most characteristic of acid streams, and he has concluded that
their presence in such highly acid waters demonstrates that
there are few environments on this earth not suitable to some
form of life.

The effects of sewage pollution on increase in mitrogenous
compounds will be discussed in a later section of this paper.
Lists or discussions of the species characteristic of the dif-
ferent zones of polluted streams may be found presented by
Blum (1953), Budde (1930), Butcher (19M), Fadeev (1926),
Fjerdinstad (1950), Huet (19149). Kehr (19in), Kolkwitz (1911),

Liebmann (19112), Wiebe (1928).

109

l. Dissolved Gases in Streams

 

Biologically, dissolved atmospheric gases have the same
significance in streams as they have in many other waters.
Behavior of these gases is similar in both lenitic (quiet)
and lotic (swift) habitats, although the influence of the
current is such that oxygen is seldom depleted in streams
(Blum 1956) .

The influence of gases on algal ecology is determined
by the quantity and quality at different depths in the aquatic
medium; the relation of gases to water temperature and satua-
tion co-efficients; the altitude and atmospheric concentrations;
the specificity of algae for differing concentrations in the
water medium; and the relation of diminished oxygen and the

initiation of reproductive phases.

a. Oflgen

Prescott (1951) indicates that oxygen is one of the. pri-
mary limiting and determining factors in phytoplankton ecology.
This may also be indicated for most other forms of life as well.
Photosynthetic organisms may be completely independent of free
oxygen in daylight. Such forms can maintain the required
amount of oaqgen needed for respiration if carbon dioxide and

other factors are favorable. The night presents ‘ a different

110

problem since they are required to draw upon free oxygen in
the surrounding medium for respiration. Prescott has made an
observation on excessive algal growth in warm shallow waters
in which the oxygen supply may be reduced to a point below the
amount normally required by the fauna; thus, the algae may
act as indicators or agents in determining the quantity and
kinds of animal life which a body of water may support at
different levels.

Griffiths (1923) has divided bodies of water into those
which at certain seasons have a lower layer deficient in
oxygen and those which are at all times well aerated. The
former, he finds, supports diatoms and peridinians, and the
latter Chlorophyceae, especially Protococcales (See Prescott,

1939).

 

 

Fjerdingstad (1950) has observed that even under highly
polluted conditions, oxygen.may reach super-saturation. How-
ever, the course of dissolved oxygen on a stream.profile is
dependent on.many diverse factors. Sioli (l95h) and Nehrle
(l9h2) have observed that streams issuing from springs tend
to be low in dissolved oxygen. Powers (1928) has indicated
that the upper course of most streams in temperate regions
is well-aerated. Observations on sewage outfalls have shown
that oxygen may be depressed, other things being equal. Jarne-

felt (l9h9) has observed that impoundment of a stream or the

lll

retardation of its flow, as in the lower course of most streams
where deposition and decanposition of bottom sediments occur,
may likewise serve to depress the dissolved oxygen. However,
abundant vegetation of the benthic or phytoplankton forms ,

may alter this tendency towards depressed oxygen, Powers
(1928) has indicated that.many rivers which.drain lakes have

a higher dissdlved oxygen content than the waters of rivers

not fed by lakes. Foged (19h8) and Jarnefelt (19h9) have
observed that in.the "seasonal variation" in dissolved oxygen,
the values are saoewhat higher in winter‘than in summer. Walsh
(1952) has observed.that complete exhaustion of oxygen.may occur
at night in.highly productive lagoons. .A similar condition is
probably present in streams which stop flowing in dry periods
of summer and.fall, or which.flow only during a rainy season.

b. Carbon Dioxide

J arnefelt (191:9) has observed that the profile curve for
carbon dioxide resemb:les the curve for dissolved omen in
reverse, with an increase in one occurring in response to fac-
tors which tend to depress the other. The presence of a cataract.
tend to increase the dissolved oxygen sharply, but remove signi-
ficant amounts of carbon dioxide from the water .

Bm'r (191:1) has noted that carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide

1.12

tension are critically important, and only those bodies of water
that are abundantly supplied with this'gas, free or at least
available, can support a luxuriant growth of algae . Marv factors
tend to regulate the quantity of carbon dioxide and these factors
in turn may be related to the climatic conditions and geology
of the distant past (Prescott, 1951). Temperature of the water
at different times of the year and in different strata, the
amount of carbon dioxide released by respiration, the chemical
nature of the bottom and the overturn of organic matter by
bacteria, and the geographical and the plusiographical features
of the terrain surrounding the water are factors which may in-
fluence the quantity of carbon dioxide in a stream.

in adequate supply of carbon dioxide is essential; how-
ever, an increase in carbon dioxide tension, certainly if
rapid, may either kill fish or seriously upset their physio-
logical processes. Death is thought to be due to the failure
in elindnation of carbon dioxide from the body due to the high
concentration of carbon dioxide in the water, or indirectly
through ionisation which form harmful cmcentrations of car-
bonic acid (Powers, Shields, and Hickman, 1939). Prescott
(1951) has indicated that because of the inportance of carbon
dioxide in the lake's metabolism, a radical unbalancing of
the amount of this gas in solution is noticed throughout the
entire biological cycle. He further states that a minimum

113

amount will limit the quantity of phytoplankton a body of
water may support. A boundless supply, together with other
favorable conditions, may influence the development of an
abundant water bloom, followed by a series of disturbed
biological conditions. The presence of this gas now be asso-
ciated with the presence of carbonates in the water.

During the day, photosynthesis tends to reduce the free
carbon dioxide and to increase the dissolved oxygen; whereas
respiration has the opposite effect. Diurnal pulse occurs
as a result of these two processes as observed by Berg (1913),
Blunt (1953), Brujewicz (1931), Butcher, et a1 (1930), Denham
V ((1938), Hanoaka (191:8); oxygen depressed during the night
and carbon dioxide during the day. Neel (1951) describes a
linestone stream in which free carbon dioxide is present only
dm-ing a brief period in early autuun.

2. 211ng Stream

 

Walsh (1952) has indicated that unless streams are polluted
by acid drainage from time or other such sources, they do not
obtain highly acid conditions similar to those of bogs and moor
water. Lackey has recorded pH 1.8 - 3.0 in streams receiving
nine seepage (as mentioned above). Conrad (191:2) has reported
the tendency of certain mall. streams draining temperate noor-
land areas to be somewhat acid in their headwaters, but approach

neutrality downstream in proportion to the distance from
headwaters areas.

It is evident by many observers that neutral or slightly
alkaline condition: which are characteristic of most temperate
streams appear to be prerequisite for the majority of algal
species inhabiting flowing water. Foged (19148), Hustedt (1939),
and Prescott (1951) have pointed out that alkaline lakes have
many more species or plants than acid lakes. Lackey (1938-39)
has suggested that the same may be true for streams. Hard
waters (alkaline) are usually producers of profuse algal
growth, particularly in fresh water habitats and especially
if they have been enriched with nitrogen and phosphorus. In
fresh water there is a calciphilic (hard-water inhabitant)
algal flora in which diatoms and blue-greens predominate. On
the other hand, soft-waters (of low pH) lack high concentra-
tions of nutrients, therefore, do not develop profuse growths
or blooms. Lakes and bogs may become enriched with organic
acids and nutrients, resulting from decomposition of organic
matter and hence may support a calciphobic (acid-loving) flora.
Such a flora, principally desmids with an association of cer-
tain blue-green algae, may be rich both in quantity and number
of species.

It is probable that most streams which possess some lime-
stone in solution are pretty well mffered and exhibit little

115

variations in pH beyond the range of 6.8-8.8. Diurnal varia-
tion in pH have been recorded by Brujewicz (1931) and Hanoaka
(19%) with the oxidation and formation of organic acids.
Cowles (1923) has observed that in a small creek the rapids
tendd to be somewhat more alkaline than pools; it has been
suggested that this is due to the removal of free carbon di-
oxide from the rapids. Photosynthesis tends to remove carbon
dioxide and may result in an annual variation in the H—ion
concentration; Rice (1938) has reported this for the Thames.
Here the pH attained a value of 8.5 in the spring, at the
time of the phytoplankton maximum, and was relatively low in
sunmer, fall and winter. Unusually high pH values may be
characteristic of the water near beds of benthic algae or
other aquatic plants during daylight hours (Blum, 1956) .
Prescott (1939) states that when phytOplankton is low, pH is
low and conductivity is high, and when phytoplankton increases
during the season, conductivity becomes loss due to the con-
sumption of electrolytic salts and the pH rises with the pre-
cipitation of carbonates.

3. Calcium

Calcium behaves in streams much as in other fresh waters.
A large number of algae and other organisms precipitate the
monocarbonate in essentially the same way, but it is not always

116

easy to determine which algae are lime-formers and which are
lime-perforators (Woronochin, 1932).

Butcher (19119) has observed that the absence or near
absence of calcium from the water may result in a peculiar
flora that includes many blue-greens. Waters rich in lime
tend to be rich in algae; other things being equal, however.
Reinhard (1931) cites the Minnesota River as a stream which
contains abundant carbonates which produced an average volume of
plankton six times that of the St. Croix River which is poor in
carbonates and contains humid acids. Butcher (1919) concluded
that calcium is not the factor which detemines the presence
of the principal species; however, he has indicated that in
distinguishing eutrophic (shallow) from oligotrophic (deep)
streams in Britain several of the dissolved mineral salts are
involved. Prescott (1951) has indicated that eutrophic lakes
are alkaline with a pH ranging from 7.2 to 9.5; there is an
abundance of both nitrogen and phosphorus. He refers to this
type as a "Cyanophycean Lake" because of the predominance of
blue-green. The oligotrophic type is usually quite poor for
growth of microflora, but the green algae predominate; there-

fore, he refers to this type as "Chlorophycean Lakes."

117

h. Phosphorus

 

Pearsall (1930) has observed that unlike the sea and
fresh-water lakes where surface nutrients are frequently de-
pleted early in the season of favorable temperature, rivers
do not generally exhibit marked depletion, although.marked
fluctuation is characteristic. In waters where phosphates
are almost insoluble, they might represent limiting factors
(Blum, 1956). Berg (19h3) and Blum (1953) have observed that
there is a distinct increase in dissolved inorganic phosphates
during summer months; however, the phosphates do not neces-
sarily diminish to limiting levels in other months. Prescott
(1951) has indicated that phytoplankton populations are ob-
served to be high during low phosphorus concentration. These
organisms utilize the elements in their metabolism and return
the elements to the environment after death, Atkins (1923)
has shown that the lack of phosphates limits the growth of
algal plankton so that circulatory movements must be effective
in replenishing the supply; this permits of renewed growth.
Sawyer (l9h3-hh) has indicated that inorganic phosphorus is
critical to phytoplankton productivity by controlling the rate
at which growth occurs. (See w; E. Wade, l9h9)

In regions where substantial amounts of agricultural

drainage or sewage empty into a stream, an increase in phos-

118

phorus usually occur. At or below such points for considerable
distances, there is a favorable effect on algal growth.

5 . Nitrogen

Blum (1953), Butcher (1921:), Kofoid (1903), Pearsall
(1923) have observed that nitrates are in more abundance at
times of heavy rains or melting snow; thus being at a high
level during the winter and spring months when streams are
high and plant growth is greatly reduced. wade (19h9) has
indicated that nitrogen content is highest in February and
March, but varies considerably during the sumer months. He
cites from Hortimer'e (1939) reports that certain productive
lakes in England in.the sunmer of 1938 showed less total
nitrogen in the outflow than in the inflow water and that the
difference in excess of that stored in bottan mud represented
nitrogen loss. He cites from reports by Pennington (19h2)
that there was a loss of nitrogen from cultures of algae and
bacteria apparently indicating the liberation of gaseous
nitrogen; thus, suggesting that this loss may be partially
responsible for fluctuation in the total nitrogen content
during the summer.

Undo (19149) has correlated nitrite and nitrate consump-
tion with phytOplankton development. He indicates that lowest
phytoplankton organisms were present when nitrites and nitrates

119

were most abundant. The greatest quantity of phytoplankters
were present when nitrites and nitrates were the lowest. He
has concluded that the nitrogenous material served as nutrients
for phytoplankton and their profuse growth had reduced the
values of nitrites and nitrates. Sawyer (mm-n) found that
inorgmic nitrogen was reduced after bloom conditions occurred
in the Wanbesa Lake, Wisconsin. Sawyer has also indicated
that inorganic nitrogen is critical in the productivity of
phytoplankton. by limiting the anoint that could be produced.
The profound fertilizing effect of nitrogenous compounds
is evident in most polluted streams. Depending largely on
the respective volumes of flow of the stream and of the out-
fall and on the degree to which the sewage has been deccmposed
before being delivered tothe stream, a changing floranaybe
found downstream hm the outfall, with various algae becoming
dominant as successive]; distant reaches of the river become,
as a result of microbial action, rich in amino acids, then
in amenim canpounds, and finally in nitrites and nitrates.
Many algal species have been used, along with new inverte-
brates, as indicators of stream pollution (Budde, 1928;
Faerdiugstad, 1950 ; Huet, 19h9; Liehmann, 191:2) . Although
many organism are useful as indicators of pollution, they
are not unerring. Fadeev (1926) has indicated that the algae
amnoreusefuliftheyaregrowingonthebottom. Budde

120

(1930), Fjerdingstad (1950) and wiebe (1928) have indicated
that they are more useful if they are present in large num-
bers.

Zones of pollution as represented by their flora are
not always permanent, but may be expected to advance down-
stream at any time when increased pollution increases the
amount of decouposing solids. Blum (1953), Butcher (1937),
Gaufin and Tarawell (1955), Pentlow et a1 (1938) have indicated
that the same phenomenon may occur in winter when cold weather
retards bacterial action to the extent that certain algae that
are characteristic of nitrite and nitrate rich waters tend to
thrive at certain points downstream distant from their answer
habitats.

It has been generally observed by many phycologists and
limnologists that the most significant effect of organic pollu-
tion in a stream is usually one of fertilization and enrich-
ment. The total number of species may be reduced; however,
those which grow are more than likely to be quite prolific.
Brinley (19t2) and Butcher (191m), have observed that the
density of both benthonj ~ and plankton may temporarily be re-
duced by large amounts of sewage. Lackey (19142) has stated
that the greatest effect is when anaerobic conditions prevail.
Butcher (19349) has observed also that if the organic matter
is increased too much, the normal life may be canpletely de-

121

stroyed and the algae are likely to be entirely eradicated
for certain portions of the stream. Butcher has observed
that Nitzschia pales, Gomphonema m, Phonmidium unci-

 

natum or 3: autumnale , Ulothrix sonata, Stigeoclonium tenue

and various species of Oscillatoria may become benthic forms

 

downstream from this zone of putrefaction. In the streams
that seemed polluted which were observed by the author, the
blue-greens seemed to form dense mats on the bottoms. Blue
(1953), Lefevre (1950) have observed that the algae as a
whole exhibit augmented growth immediately at or possibly a
short distance downstream from the outfall.

Prescott (1951) has associated phytoplankton production
with the presence of both nitrogen and phosphorus . than
phytOplankton is high, nitrates are law. then the phytoplank-
ton decreases, the nitrates are increased. V He associates
this with the fact that nitrogen compounds are used by the
organisms and incorporated in their productivity, and when
they die, these elements or compounds becaue a part of the
water chedstry again. He states that the nitrogen enters
into the phytoplankton cycle. Such nitrogen content is also
dependent upon several physical processes in and around the
water as run-off from farm-land (Prescott, 1951). He states
that the nature of the bacterial flora, the chemistry of the
drainage waters, and the presence or absence of nitrogen-

122

fixing bacteria or algae (blue-greens are known to fix nitro-
gen also: De, 19393 Fogg, 191:2; Fritsch and Be, 1938;
Hutchinson, 19141:; Allison and Morris, 1930) are a few of the
more important factors determining the nitrogen content. He
has also made the observation that high oxygen content may
permit rich plankton flora, but low nitrogen or the absence
of nitrogen may exclude many kinds of algae. He observes
that some members of the blue—greens that are usually rich
in proteins require a medium rich in nitrogenous compounds.
The fact that some blue-greens are able to fix nitrogen may
be also involved as well. ‘

The influence of these various chemical factors has been
pretty well demonstrated. It is well. to state also that even
though these substances as nitrate content, carbon dioxide,
phosphorus, calcium, and other elements are important in de-
termining the abundance of the algal flora, they also may
influence the kinds of species present. Prescott (1951) has
made the observation that qualitative selections operate in
algal ecology, and phycologists are able to use the presence
of certain species or groups of species as indicators of
physical-chemical conditions in the body of water. He has
stated that the emerienced phycologist or limologist can esti-
mate, by observing the quality and quantity of algal flora,
especially the phytoplankters, the acidity or alkalinity

123

(approximately) of the water. One can also determine the
relative abundance of carbon dioxide, and can predict
whether there is a rich or poor supply of nitrates; and can

tell something about other limnological features in a habitat.

6 . Brackish Streams

 

Usually those streams which empty into the sea will
exhibit at their mouths a region of varying salinity which
will fluctuate with the tides and to a certain extent with
the seasons (Blum, 1956). Under such conditions the flora
will change; those species limited to fresh water will be
killed off, and those species that are characteristic of
brackish conditions will make their appearance (Arnoldi, 1922;
Broclvmlan, 1908; Hamel, 19214; Lauterborn, 1918; Olson, 19M;
Purdy, 1916; Swirenko, 1926).

Some of the fresh-water algae grow successfully in brack-
ish water possibly as a result of increased concentrations of
limiting salts or other nutrients. Hamel (1921;) has observed

Cladophora glomerata as one such form. The author has observed

 

Ulothrix sonata growing at the mouth of the James where the
water is very brackish. Blum cites reports by Wood and Straughan
(1953) in the reduction in size as sexual retardation in

Lemanea fucina, a fresh-water red alga; this organism was ex-

 

12h

posed to tidal action twice daily.

Purdy (1916), wasoz; g 31.. (1923) have stated that tidal
actions are usually favorable on polluted streams since such
actions tend to mix sewage and other forms of pollution with
great quantities of water.

Kolbe (1932) has observed that acids and alkalis of in-
dustrial wastes tend to neutralize each other thereby result-
ing in an increased salinity downstream from outfalls. This
condition tends to influence the growth and reproduction of
such forms that are halophytic and salt resistant) as diatans
(Blum, 1956) .

Often streams are polluted by industrial wastes that
have a stimulating or toxic effect.’ Quite often one can
observe the difference in growth of certain forms above and
below the entrance of such wastes; the fauna and flora may be
quite different for both regions. Also in some cases there
may be little physico-chemical difference between such a
stream and tributary, and they will vary in respect to one
or more factors. This difference may suggest the role played
by such factors that are introduced by the tributary.

Blum (1953) cites the prance of certain poisons that are
dumped into streams which may result in a suppression, in an ex-
tensive area below the outfall, of organisms that are abundant
above the outfall. He has observed that Cladophora glomerata

 

125

behaved in this way, returning to the stream only after di-
lution and precipitation had occurred.

D. Distribution of Algae Ln Streams

 

Most river algae will reproduce by using the vegetative
method only. Host benthic species have basal holdfast por-
tions (Ulothrix, Oedogonium), and man species exhibit basal
portions which can persist fruu year to year (Cladophora,
Stigeocloniun), giving rise to new branches to replace those

 

that are broken off. In most instances the only cells remain-
ing in the unfavorable period are those which occupy protected
positions as rock crevices or partially covered by superficial
sediments. From such positions, they can rspopulate the
stream during a subsequent favorable period (Blum, 1956).
Sane species may pass the unfavorable period as thick walled
spores; however, others are as dependent upon sheaths or a
reduced protOplast for winter protection as they are upon such
resting spores (Strom, 1921;).

Blum (1956) cites the fact that most observations on
sexual reproduction have been worked out in the laboratory
in standing water; however, many forms do not readily adjust
or grow under these conditions; therefore, the information is
incomplete on each species. For strictly benthic forms, sexual

reproduction and dissenrlnation are dependent upon currents.

126

Such forms as Lemanea or Batrachospermum which lack motile

 

stages are completely dependent upon the currents of streams.
Cedergren (1938), Oltmanns (1922-23), and Smith (1950)
have observed that Vaucheria appears to fruit more frequently
in quiet waters than in currents. Israelson (19149) has ob-
served that the same is true for certain species of W'
Blum (1953) states that he has observed no sexual reproduc-
tion in stream coununities of m dtn'ing a period of
nearly two years. The comnity, consisting of several
species, increased and decreased and occasionally nearly dis-
appeared throughout this period. The species of Spirom
observed by the author in the fruiting conditions were collec-
ted from slow flowing streams or quiet backwater pools or
pockets. It would appear then that there is a direct corre-
lation between current and sexual reproduction of certain
forms. Transeau (1916) has stated that flowing water is
generally supposed to retard fruiting by mrnishmg improved
vegetative conditions. Hence, one should expect a retarding
effect on fruiting which would show clearly in the relative
time of fruiting in ponds and streams. He states fm'ther
that his observations have not produced such results as retarda-
tion by running water. He states that the evidence shows that
the external factors which induce sexual reproduction are
much less than the umber that will induce zoospore'fornation.

127

Zoospores may be formed throughout the life cycle at very
short intervals, but the sex organs usually develop at a
definite time.

Transeau (1916) discusses the relationship of high and
low water with the production of fruiting bodies by algae.

He found in his studies that high water tends to induce fruit-
ing in algae. He states that in the three years that he made
his Observations that there was no question that in the eastern
regions of Illinois at least (1) the greatest number of species
fruit sexually, (2) a particular species fruits most abun-
dantly, and (3) when a species produces more than one kind of
spore, the greatest variety of spores occur during periods

of high water.

Transeau reasons that the prevailing idea that algae
fruit during low water stages may be connected with.the fact
that such a large number of algae fruit in late spring when
the rainfall is decreasing and the water levels are lowering.
He states that this is a coincidence of the lowering water
level with the time of fruiting and there is no causal rela-
tion between the two. He reasons further that if the weather
conditions are such that the water level does not fall at the
time of year that these organisms fruit, the fruiting will not

only take place but the amount will be increased.

128

l. Colonization

 

Blum (1956) speaks of colonization as being applicable
to colonization of upstream areas concurrent with the head-
ward growth of the stream by organisms already established in
downstream or parallel waterways. Eddy (193M discusses
colonization by plankton in which he regards the first occur--
rence of stable conditions in the streams in summer as the
earliest opportunity for permanent colonization. He empha-
sizes the age of the water in plankton production and pro-
vides evidence that true plankton organisms are likely to
appear in streams at a point six to ten days below the source,
if other conditions, particularly of temperature and turbidity
are favorable. Eddy (1925) has indicated that the first
colonists in a stream are probably diatoms and Egan, whose
resistant states permit wide dispersal. Sunnerhayes (1923)
has observed that the first units of a more in streams of
recent glacial origin are unicellular algae.

In the work of Butcher (19146) there is little evidence
of succession in the) algal comunities he has investigated.

He cites that in the Coconeis- (diatom) Chamaesiphon (blue-

 

green) calminity, the latter arrives later than the other
forms, but they exhibit no true succession. Some of the com-

munities are regarded as representing a true climax, but their

129

development is apparently accomplished with no steps separa-
ting invasion from climax conditions. Blum.(l956) states

that the indications are that algal succession within a stream
is less sterotyped and prdbably more intricate than certain

well-known successions of plants on land.

 

2. Climax Conditions 9: Streams

Eddy (1931:.) has concluded that not only land communities
exhibit "Climatic" climax conditions, but also such conditions
are to be found in permanent streams. Such fresh water com-
munities, he observed, reach.maturity and show aspects com-
parable to terrestrial communities. The generation and life-
span of dominant algae are so much shorter than those of
most dominant vascular plants that such climatic conditions
can be achieved in a relatively Shorter time, and more rapid
succession is expected (Blum, 1956). B1um.has also indicated
that for short-lived microphytes, a single growing season in
a temperate region.may be long enough to represent a permanent
climate.

Panknin (l9hl) has concluded that seasonal communities
which assume temporary dominance, should not be regarded as
constituting seasonal associations, but rather as making up
seasonal aspects of the entire associations.

Butcher (1937), has observed that it is exceptional to

130

find extensive areas inhabited by recognizable groups of
algal species which seem to maintain a definite order of
dominance or inferiority with respect to each other through-
out all the season; however, such relationship is more com-
monly found if higher aquatic plants are considered. Exten-
sive stands consisting of one or more species of dominant
algae are relatively more cannon than among land communities.
Lefevre (1950) and HcCombie (1952) have suggested that certain
doudnant species that reach bloom stages tend to secrets in-
hibiting substances in the medium which retard or prevent the
youth of other algal forms. His observations were made on

canals in which there were blooms of Aphaniaomenon gacile

 

or Qgcillatgria plgnctonica which inhibited growth of 92513-
_r_i_p_x_n Lundelli and other plankton algae. McCanbie (1952) has
stated that often phytoplankton synthesizes antibiotics which
inhibit the youth of other organisms. Lefevre (1950) found
that the filtrate from cultures of Scenedemug quadricauda
appeared to have an inhibitory effect upon Pediastuum 2952-
m and several other green algae. Pandorina m sealed to
have a dual effect upon the same species; it caused a marked
increase in reserve material and inhibited cell division.
Thus, Lefevre (1950) has suggested that such secretions of
antibiotics by dominant algal species might be an important
factor bringing about unispecific composition reported for

131

water blooms. Theodore H. Rice, Fishery Research Biologist it
has suggested that intensive blooms of one species might well
affect the growth of another species; thus, exerting an in-
fluence on seasonal succession of species in the body of water
concerned. Aloehurst (l931)* reasoned that, if attempts to
correlate fluctuations with chemical and physical factors
failed, the complicated actions of toxins should be considered.
Such toxins are believed by him to originate from phytOplank-
ton which may inhibit the yowth of some species but stimulate
the growth of others.

It is suggested that secretions produced by species in
bloom may inhibit further youth of the species itself.
Pratt (19h0)* working with Chlorella vulgaris found this to be
true; Roche (19148)} found Chlorella to inhibit the growth of
Asterionella formosa also. However, Storey (Worthington 19h3 )*
found that water of Lake Windemere, when an Asterionella

 

blow is disappearing, is unsuitable for preparation of cul-
ture medium for Asterionella.

 

Although little mention is made of inhibiting substances
being produced by organisms producing blooms in streams, cer-
tainly in slow moving streams where conditions are more favor—
able for blows such antibiotics could be concentrated enough

 

t Fishery Bulletin. 87, 1950

132

to produce a unispecific climax.

The Phonuidium—Schizothrix-Audouinella epilithic com-
munity has been described as an example of a climax in flow-
ing water (Blum, 1956) . Eddy (1931;) has concluded that cer-
tain organisms which are seasonal dominants in the early stages
of plankton development in a stream, later become perennials
when the conditions of life within the stream become more
stable. Blmn (1956) has stated that it has not been hilly
determined whether rivers in general favor the production of
one or more given coammities of phytoplankton which can be
found with regularity over a large area.

3. Periodicity _i_n Streams
Transeau (1916) has divided algae into seven (7) classes
on the basis of their periods of greatest abundance, the dura-
tion of their vegetative cycle, and the times of their repro-
duction.

a. Winter Annual

 

These begin their vegetative cycle in autumn, increase
up to the time of freezing, and endure over the winter under
ice. During protracted winter thaws, which usually occur in
January, they may develop further and even fruit. Their
period reaches a climax in March and April. Sexual reproduc-

tion may occur at any time from November to April and zoospores

133

are formed from the beginning through the period of increase.
Aplanospores and alcinetes develop mostly during the period of
decline. Sane examples of algae belonging to this type as
were found by Transeau in Illinois are Yaucheria geminata,

Vaucheria sessilis, Draparnaldia plumosa, Tetraspora lubrica

 

 

and Stigeocloniun lubricum-various.

be Erin; mms
These are forms in which the vegetative period begins in

 

late autmun or early spring, reaches a climax in May and de-
clines in June. Sexual reproduction occurs in April, May and
June, and aoospores are formed mostly in early spring, with
aplanospores and akinetes during the period of maxinum abun-
dance and decline. This type includes, according to waters
of Illinois, the largest number of species, among which are

Spirom varians, Spirom Neberi, m stellinum,
. Oedogonium rutescens, and Ulothrix variabilis.

 

c. E!!! Annuals

The vegetative period of the algae of this class begins
in early spring and culminates in July and August. The de-
cline is gradual and extends through the autumn months. Sexual
reproduction occurs in July, August and September. Zoospores,
when formed are most abundant in spring and early simmer.
Aplanospores develop mostly in August and September. hamples
cited of this class (according to Transeau) are Spiroma

13h

decimina, §.‘. maxim, Schizomeris Leibleinii, Calothrix stag-
$1.3 and Oedogonium Vaucherii.
d. Autumn Annuals

 

These species begin their vegetative deve10pment in late
spring, increase through the summer and have their period of
maximum abundance in autumn. They may disappear at the time
of freezing or gradually through the winter. Sexual reproduc-
tion usually occurs during September, October, and November.
Among the algae of this class (again according to Transeau)
are represented by Spirom M, Rivuluria m, 9319;-
gig crassum-aamlum, Spiroma setiformis, and Oedgcnium

 

 

obtruncatmn.
e. Perennials

 

This group includes fame in which the vegetative cycle
goes on from year to year without interruption. The algae
may becane very scarce during unfavorable periods, but they
are capable of at least maintaining themselves without the
production of reproductive bodies. These forms con-only reach
their greatest development during the summer and early autumn.
Sexual reproduction occurs mostly in late spring or early
autumn, sanctimes in both. Zoospores are most abundant in
spring and smer, frequently they are produced also in autumn.
Transeau cites CladOphora glomerata, Rhizoclonium hieroglyphi-

 

g, Pithophora oedogonia, Pleurococcus vulgaris and Oedogonium

 

13S

£9993. as representatives of this group.
f. Ephemerals»

Are species with very short vegetative cycles, usually
enduring for days I at most for weeks. Generations succeed
one another rapidly though the periods of favorable condi-
tions. Because of the varying capacities to respond to en-
vironmental conditions the generations may overlap. The
speciesvof this group are mostly soil-surface or plankton
fonts. Few are found to reproduce sexually and zoospores,
aplanospores and akinetes are the usual means of increase,
of dissemnation and passing through an unfavorable period.
The soil forms are favored by wet weather, and all the forms
maybefoundingreaterorlessabundanceinallbutthe
winter months. This group include such forms as Boti'flum
Halrothii, Scenedeslms guadricauda, Pediastnm Bo um, and
Vaucheria terrpstris.

g. Irregulars

Along this group may be found representatives that may
be effected by various combinations of environmental condi—
tions. The period between marina may be of more or less than
a year's duration. It is always a possibility that they may
be missed if collections are made according to seasons. In
other words the periods of maxim development may have occur-
red without a reference to season; their presence may be of
very short duration.

136

It must be remembered that in respect to periodicity in
general, forms that are found in one locality a given season
may be completely absent in another.

Blum (1953), Cilleuls (1932), Hupp (19w), Kofoid (1903),
and Rice (1938) have observed that streams seem to exhibit
considerable constancy regarding densities of their plankton
or benthic vegetation. However, Chandler (1937), Meyer (1923),
Poretzkii (1925) have pointed out differences in the year to
year development pattern. It must be remembered that a year's
work upon a single stream may prove inadequate in that it re-
veals conditions essentially unlike the preceding and follow-
ing years. Brinkley (191,2) and others have observed that the
principal phytoplankton pulse is evident during the warm seasons,
if there is one; however, Kofoid (1908), Ruttner (1953) and
others have observed such forms as Crucigenia rectangularis,

Pediastrum loryanum, Fragilaria capucina, Meridian circulars

 

and gynedra _u_l_na frequently exhibiting population maxima in

 

winter. Some species of algae exhibit great variability in
production, remaining uncomnon in one year and becoming a domi-
nant the next, exhibiting a pulse at widely variable times
throughout the year, or a single pulse in one year and two or
more in another (Blum, 1956).

Seldom rivers will exhibit blooms, as has been suggested

above under Climax, but occasionally this phenomenon does occur.

137

Organism: that have been found to be responsible for such
blooms are Thallassiosira fluviatilis (Budde, 1928), yam

 

delicatissima (Gouger, l9hl), Hicrocystis flos-aquae (Issat—

 

 

chenko, 19211), Anabaena spiroides (Batard, 1932 and Denis,
1921), Aphanizomenon flees-aquae (Mistyuk, 1926) are Pando-

 

r__in_a_ m (Lackey, 19,42). Blum (1956) states that most river
blooms appear to be due to the sudden reproduction of a single
species; however, Sorensen (l9h8) cites an annuals in which
several species of the Volvocales are involved. Lauterborn
(1918) has recorded water blooms caused by a variety of dia-
tm‘f} in the Rhine estuaries.

Il'here seems to be a correlation between abundant nutrients
and abundant phytoplankton (as has been already mentioned above
under chemical conditions), the plankton pulse usually follow-
ing the period of highest cmcentration of nutrients, as
nitrites and nitrates, in such a manner that the maximum de-
velopment of phytOplankton is preceded by a decrease in nu-
trients (Hupp, 191:3; Kofoid, 1903; Reese, 1937). It has been
discussed above, under another topic, that plankton maximum
occurred at a time when nitrates had passed a high level and
were decreasing during this period. However, given sufficient
warmth and a series of favorable days, it is believed that the
water chemistry becomes the factor which determines the produc-
tion of a dense plankton and of a dense benthic vegetation.

138

Seasonal and perennial species are included among benthic
algae. Blum (1956) has observed that single species may be
dominant over most of a stream, but it is more common to find
a number of dominants with various parts of the stream having
different dominant communities. Pentelow (1938), has observed
that the algal vegetation remains more or less the same through-
out the year; however, Blum (1953-54), Brown (1908), Budde
(1930), Butcher (1932), Jflrgensen (1935) and others have observed
that there may be seasonal variations. Budde (1928, '30),

Strbm (1927) have observed that such seasonal aspects seem to
be more marked in upland than in lowland streams.

Blum (1956) has cited the striking phenomena of frequent
abrupt changes in algal vegetation within streams from source to
mouth. The spacing at weekly intervals of visits to a particular
small stream may find a complete change in algal species. Budde
(1930) has concluded that an extended period of low
water with little change in hydrographic conditions is con-
ducive to the full development of benthic organisms. Jaag
(1938) has concluded that a period of several cloudy days can
induce detachment and disappearance of certain algae. Fritsch
(1906) has stated that periodicity of some forms depends on
that of their epiphytes, and Jaag (1938) indicates that the
epiphytes are dependent upon their algal substratum. Blum.(l935)

concludes that leafing-out of bank vegetation brings sharp

139

changes in the vegetation.
The most abundant filamentous alga in streams through-

out the world is Cladophora glomerata. Blum (1953), found

 

it to be highly sensitive to iron and relatively tolerant

to high pH values. It has been observed to be tolerant to
large amounts of sewage (Blum, 1953; Pentlow, 1938; Purdy,
1916; Waser, 19113). Hamel (1921:) and Pringsheim (191:9) have
found it to be tolerant to weak salinity. Butcher (1932)

has indicated a summer growth period of one month and Budde
(1928) has observed several months growth period. It's
growth is usually inconspicuous in winter; however, Jfirgen-
sen (1935) has recorded full. development of this species in
February and March, Raabe (1951) in mid-October, and Jagg (1938)
has found it throughout the winter. List (1930) has observed
that swamers may be produced throughout the year. Zacharow
(1921;) has indicated that freezing is not necessarily fatal

to Cladophora's growth. Blum (1953) and Pentelow (1938) have

 

indicated that it may exhibit very rapid growth in spring
only to disappear very suddenly in late June or early July.
It has been indicated that high waters may cause such varia-

tions; however, Cladophora exhibits generally poor growth in

 

warmer streams in mid-smnmer. It has been suggested that
temperatures higher than 250C. is not conducive for good growth.

Blum (1953) and Jagg (1938) have observed that Cladophora

 

lho

reacts adversely to reduced light, but Zacharow (192h) had
found that it can be kept in the dark for several weeks with-
out entirely succumbing. Blum (1956) has suggested that
further study is needed to explain the coming and going of

such vegetation.
h. Local Distribution

Blum (1956) has stated that most small streams consist
of a series of alternating shallow areas ("shallows", "riffles")
and deep areas ("pools"). In the shallow areas there is much
more abrasion due to the swifter currents. Blum.suggests that
there should be a difference in chemical constitution of shal-
lows and pools, but indicates that little has been done to
prove this. However, from observations that have been presen-
ted, there seem to be differences in the algal flora of shal-
low parts of streams and the deeper pools of the same stream.

Blum.(l956) has observed that Ulothrix sp., Stigeocloninm

 

tenue and Diatoma vulgare are characteristic of riffles and

 

tend to drop out as massive components of the vegetation when
pool conditions develop. He cites Spirogyra sp., Euglena sp.
and other unattached forms as being slow current inhabitants.
He further suggests that within riffles or shallows, certain
areas seem to be more favorable than others for the larger

algae. He cites Cladophora glomerata as being limited to the

1&1

for downstream portion of shallows where water movement is

slightly more rapid.
' Observation will show, that the_.sides of streams are
usually more shallow than the central portion. and the current

isusually slower as, well. Also the sides are more shaded.

than. the central portion. Thus. if one wished toprefer to,or
to sample a representative part of_-a stream.,the sides would, be
If. one were making a

foundto be less so than. the central portion.)
survey to determine the typicalpbonthic flora of a stream. samples
should be confined to‘the central;portion._

,. Blum, (1956).;has concluded that the evolution of distinctive river
plankton forms has been retarded by the difficulties which plankton
organisms experience in the dissemination of offspring to other
basins- 39 states further that the stream seems to represent
an unfavorable (environment for plankters. not entirely because of
the mechanical and physical insecurity. but also because of the
inherent "dead end“ nature of streams. emptying their products into the

ocean, and death occurring to. all forms that are unable to survive

brackish or mine conditions.

1h2
IV. ECOLCEY OF THE JAMES RIVER BASIN

The number of species of Chlorophyta (82) along with
three species or Rhodghztg and four species of atrysophyta

(Vau'cheria) seems quite low: for the area covered in this

 

study. There are many factors, however that might contribute

to such a low number of species. This was brought out in the

discussion of ecological factors influencing the growth of

algae in the preceding chapter. In this discussion it was

indicated that many forms may be missed in collections due
tothefactthat theymayreachtheirclimaxanddisappear

(before they may: be collected) especially so if one is only

making seasonal surveys as was done in this study. Another

factor that may influence the number of species is rate of

current. Many forms are unable to inhabit the swifter streams,

becoming acre or less plamctonic as they mature: thus they

are carried away by the currents if there are no other plants,

or debris with which they may become entangled. Hany streams,

because of the swiftness of the currents, therefore, are un-

favorable for most plenlctonic forms as well as for many

attached forms. Ii'he pH of the water may determine what species

will inhabit a particular stream.
sidered in the preceding chapter.
discussed in the preceding chapter was the influence of pollu-

This factor was also con-

Although mentioned but not

lh3

tion on the distribution of species.

The above mentioned factors are only a few of the
possibly mnnerous ones which may influence the number of
different kinds of species that may inhabit a particular
stream or streams of a particular locality. Table 20 includes

20 streams that are considered as possibly the main drainage

points of the James River Basin. In this table the pH, hard-

ness (essay-content), nitrogen (NOB-content) , pollution and
swiftness of the stream are considered. The number of genera
found in each stream is divided into those that are considered
planktonic and those that are normally attached or filamentous.
On the basis of these data, a discussion follows on the pos-

sible influence of such factors on the amber of species ob-

served in this study.

 

Hardness and ELI 2f t_hg Water

It has been indicated that the acidity or alkalinity of

a stream will influence the develoPment of certain forms of
algae; however, it has been observed that many forms will

grow in a wide pH range. It is well to mention here that

lost streams will not reach a high acid condition similar
to bogs or even other forms of lakes unless they are being

polluted by mines or industrial wastes. (Welsh, 1952;

Lackey, 1938, Conrad, 19142) Even in these instances, dilution

Explanation of Symbols - Table 20

 

Abo. - Above

Bel. - Below

Pol. - Pollution

R. O. F. - Rate of flow

81. - Slow

Sw. - Swift

N. O. S. - Number of Species
Plak. - Plankton

Atch. - Attached

Lo. - Low

Hie - High

lhh

th

 

 

H a a . oa.o om m.m sense
moon

m m x n «.0 ma m.0 ampwm
ceased

w H N * ma.o w: m.0 macho
message

m m x + s.a ems m.a sumac
shampso

N o x + 0.H 40H 4.N pupae
knows

o N x - a.o 5H 0.5 posse
deaths

ma w x * mm.o pm 0.N noswm
Mopmsodmd

m m x + mH.o NH o.m xmeno
peazm

Ha m x - sm.o ma H.N smeao
Empamhmmm

a HH x - N.0 m: m.a smote
mmasao

N.N «.5
.sopa .xsai .3m .Hm . + .am .oa .am .oa .ona .aem
.m.o.z .m.o.m .HOd moz moose ma meaeapm

 

mzdmmam Hazmzs zo mBADmmm ho Hmdszbm

.ow magma

1h6

 

AH 4H N a N.0 ma m.m xmoao
scam

m N K + m.0 mm 0.N hoaam
commons

o N x l N . o 0N a. b swim
mwaafiz

H o x + MN.o ma N.N as>wm
madam

N N x . AN. 0 do a. a the
suspmmdzco

NH ad N a mo.o m: :.© nopfim
. gaseous

a o x 4 mm.o ma m.0 mobam
mussvamm

m a N 4 mN.o 2N N.N scone
oasmwsm

o m x + mm.o NH m.0 ampflm
nmfimxoom

N.N N.N
.53. .xmam .zm 1% .. + ..E m .oq . Nam .04 .05. . Hem
.m.o.z .m.o.m .Hom oz moose ma messapm

 

midmmem Hezmza zo mequmm ho HMdzsz

.sdoo - .oN magma

 

1h?

plays an important part in that the greater the distance
from the source of the pollution the less the concentration
of the contaminating substance. It has been suggested by
many phycologists that neutral or slightly alkaline condi-
tions which are characteristic of most temperate streams
appear to be necessary for the growth of most of the algal
species inhabiting flowing water. (Blum, 1956; welch, 1952)
Examining the data outlined on table 20, it is observed that
no direct correlation can be made as to the importance of pH
on the number of species. Craig Creek has an average pH of
7.5 and fifteen (15) species. Catawba Creek on the other
hand has a pH of 7.5, but only five species. Jackson.River
has a pH of 7.6, and its species number only seven. Even
though.we do not see a positive correlation here, it has
been observed by some phycologists (Foged l9h8), Hustedt
(1939), and Prescott (1951) that alkaline waters have more
species of plants than acid; at least this was found to be
true for lakes and possibly true also for streams. However,
pH becomes a controlling factor when the water reaches very
acid or very alkaline range. In this survey, the range was
from.6.h - 7.6. Ordinarily we expect the maximum growth rate

within this range, other factors being favorable.

1118

Hardness was analysed on the bases of the total amount
of calcium carbonate (081303) in the water. There is a corre—
lation between pH and hardness of water in that streams that
are considered hand are usually alkaline and those that are
considered soft are usually acid; however, the amount of CaCO3
m vary depending upon the degree of breakdown of this sub-
stance by organisms inhabiting the stream. Streams with less
than 61 p. p. m. of CaCo3 are considered as soft and streams
above 61 p. p. m. are considered hard. It has been suggested
that slightly hard waters (slimline) are more productive than
soft (acid). (Foged, 19148; Hustedt, 1939; Prescott, 1951).
In this study it was fmmd that streams a little on the acid
side were more productive than those sanewhat on the alloc-
line side. Maury River had a pH of 7.14 and hardness of
101; p. p. 11., but only two species were found. The two species
that were observed however, were growing quite promsely,
but at different times of the year; Rhisocloniun hierogly-
ptticum was collected in March and Hydrodictyum reticulatum
was collected in August. Catawba Creek had a pH of 7.5 i
and a hardness of 151: p. p. 111.; however, there were only five
species observed. Jackson River had a pH of 7.6 and a hardness

of 83 p. p. m., but only seven species were observed. There

1h?

seems to be a little inconsistency in the data on Craigs
Creek in that the pH (7. 5) indicates a slightly alkaline con-
dition, but the hardness is quite low (113 P.p.m.). The forms

of plants observed (Chara, Elodea, Potamogeton, etc.) are

 

considered calciphilic forms. However, the fact that much

of the lime is taken out of the stream in metabolism and by
becoming encrusted on the stalks of £h_a_r_‘_a and the other plants
that were yowing rather profusely, may explain the generally
low concentration of 68.003 in the stream chemistry.

The streams that were slightly acid and/or soft were:
Swift Creek which had a pH of 6.6 and a hardness of 12 p.p.m.;
with 11 species observed; Falling Creek had a pH of 6.5 and
hardness of h? P.p.m., with nine species observed; Chicka-
hominy River had a pH of 6.14 and hardness of 149 p.p.m., with
31 species observed; Fine Creek had a pH of 6.8 and a hardness
of 15 p.p.m. with 25 species observed; however Hardware River
had a pH of 6.8 and a hardness of 15 p.p.m., but only one
species was observed. The Appomattox River had a pH of 7.0
(neutral) and a hardness of 27 p.p.m., but twenty species were
observed. Riviana River was also neutral and had a hardness
of 17 p.p.m., but only eight species were observed. Even
though the streams that were slightly acid seem to be more
productive as to species number, there does not seem to be

consistency in production as exemplified by the total number

150

of soft-water streams. In other words, the factor of hard-
ness is an important one in algal distribution, but apparently
it is not the controlling factor. Possibly one can state

that it is the interaction of other factors along with pH

and/or hardness.

Nitrogen Content _<_>_i_' the Stream

 

 

It has been suggested that nitrates are more abundant
during the winter and spring months when streams are high and
plant growth greatly reduced. (Blum, 1953; Butcher, 1921;;
Kofoid, 1903; Pearsall, 1923; Wade, 19149) Such changes may
be explained by the greater consumption of nitrates when
plants are growing quite profusely; (Prescott, 1951; Sawyer,
l9h3-hh; Wade, 19149) thus tending to lower the total concen-
tration of nitrates in the water chemistry. In this study
the most productive streams had very low concentration of
nitrates. To cite a few, Chickahominy River had 0.09 p.p.m.
nitrates, but had 31 species observed; Swift Creek had 0.15
p.p.m. of nitrates, and 11 species observed; Fine Creek had
0.2 p.p.m. nitrates, and 25 species observed. However, there
were some streams in this survey that had equally low nitrate
content, but quite poor species distribution. Again to cite
a few-- Slate River had 0.23 p.p.m., but only one species;

Hardware River with only 0.35 p.p.m. , and one species observed

151

Rockfish River with 0.35 p.p.m., and only three species ob-
served. It can be stated here, however, that none of the
streams with.more than 0.5 p.p.mt were very productive.

Maury River'had a nitrate content of 1.6 p.p.m., but only

two species were Observed; Catawba Creek had 1.h p.p.m, of
nitrates and only five species; and Riviana River had 0.7
p.p.mt nitrates, but only eight species observed. Thus, it
can be generalized from these results that low nitrogen con-
tent may not enhance algal distribution, but increased algal
growth may bring about a decrease in nitrogen content of a
stream.by utilization of the nitrate in metabolism. (Penning-
ton, 19h2; Prescott, 1951; Sawyer, 19h3—hb; wade, 19h9)
Although pollution is to be considered later, it can be stated
here that organic pollution.may'tend to increase the nitrogen
content of a stream; (Blum, 1956; Butcher, 19h9; Brinkley,
19h2; Lackey, l9h2) therefore, Maury River with high.nitrogen
content seemed to be quite polluted also. Catawba Creek with
the other high reading of 1.h p.p.m, also seemed polluted and
was quite turbid or muddy.

Stream Pollution

 

It has been stated in the preceding chapter of this paper
that many algal species can be utilized as indicators of pollu-

tion; (Budde, 1928; Fjerdingstad, 1950; Huet, 19h9; Liebmann,

152

l9h2) however, no attempt has been made in this stuw to in-
dicate which species of Chlorophyta is an indicator of pollu-
tion. In polluted streams the total number of species may be
reduced; however, those that will grow are more than likely

to be quite prolific. (Brinkley, 19h2; Butcher, 19w); Lackey,
19142) Ham species of Oscillatoria, a blue-green alga, may
form dense mats in polluted streams. This was observed by

the author in some of the streams that seemed pollutedCin

this survey) such as The Maury River. This is a rather large
slow-flowing stream, and very, little algal growth was ob-
served outside of the two species cited; but quite good growths
of Potamoggton crisp}? and E0333. canadensis were observed.

The Appomattox River is another rather large stream that seemed
polluted from sewage; however, quite a few species were observed
to be growing in or around the stream in backwashes or quiet
pools formed fraa overflow of the stream. Haw of the streams
that seemed polluted were almost devoid of algal forms and
higher plants as well. Rockfish River is an example of such

a stream; there were only three species of algae observed and
no higher aquatic plants. Another example of such a stream

is the Hardware River with only one species of algae and limited
aquatic higher plants. lthe Jackson River is another polluted
streem (although the pollution is due to waste fraa a paper-
nill rather than sewage pollution) with very low algal distri-

153

bution and limited aquatic higher plants. Thus, it can be
concluded that pollution does tend to influence the number
and kind of algal forms that will inhabit a particular stream.

Rate of Flow

It has been stated above that flowing water presents a
hazard for the development of plants in general. (Butcher,
19M; Cedergren, 1938) The swifter streams are usually devoid
of higher aquatic plants, and only a few filamentous algal
species are able to survive the rapids. Cladophora has been

 

cited as one genus that does very well in the swifter streams.
(Blum, 1953) In general, however, the slower streams are
more productive. The possible reasons for such variation in
the two types of streams- slow 25:. fast-- have been given
above under the discussion of stream ecolog; (Butcher, 191:6;
Blue, 1956 ; Reel, 1951; Guinaraes, 1950); however, one can
readily see the hazard involved in such a habitat. Many
plankton forms, because of their habit of growth, are unable
to populate swifter streams. (Abdin, 191:8; Allen, 1920 ;.
Cilleuls, 1926; Fritsch, 1905) Since there streams are usually
poor for higher aquatics and in many instances quite poor for
filamentous forms of algae, the plankton are carried down
stream much more rapidly than they can reporduce or repopulate

15h

any particular portion of the stream. (Allen, 1920; Kofoid,
1903; 1908; Van de, 1926; Galtsoff, 192h) In the slower
streams, all things being equal, these plankton forms are
trapped between the higher aquatic plants and also between
the filaments of the attached algal forms; thus they are able
to increase their number.

In this survey it was observed that the swifter streams
were 'e little less productive as far as numbers of species
than the slower. There are a few exceptions that should be
cited here. Maury River was quite slow, yet it had only two
species observed; however, it was quite hard, muddy and pollu-
ted which may account for the small number of forms. Craigs
Creek was fairly swift; however, 15 species were observed.

It also can be noted here that the planktonic forms of this
stream out-number the filamentous, but mention has been made
above of the fact that this stream was very well populated

by Chara, Elcdea, Potamogeton, etc. which served as traps

 

for these plankters. These aquatics were growing in the quieter
portions of the stream. The Appomattox River, also a slow
stream, had twice as many filamentous algae as plankters. On
the other hand, Fine Creek, also a slow stream, had more plank-
ters than filamentous species. Chickahominy River, which is
also a slow stream, had almost as many plankters as filamen-

tous forms. Eyen though no great difference can be observed

155

here in the productiveness of a stream.as to plankton or
filamentous forms being affected by current rate, it can

be Observed that those streams that were poor for aquatics
were also quite poor for plankters. Slate River had no aqua-
tics and no plankters; however, it did.have a'very good
growth of Spirogzra. The Hardware River was another poor
stream.for aquatics, and.no plankters were observed either;
however, there was a very fair growth of Rhizoclonium. The
Jackson.River was very poor for aquatics also, but had a)
rich growth of S iro a, Draparnaldia, £2553, etc.; however,
only two Species of plankters were observed. or course it
Should.be mentioned.here that most of the plankters considered
in.this survey'are desmids, and these forms are considered
calciphobic (acid-loving); however, there are exceptions to
every rule for a few desmids, i. g. Closterium.moniliferum,
‘gletumidum,‘will thrive just as well in a slightly alkaline

 

habitat as in an acid one.

156

Summary 2; Discussion

 

In summarizing the results of this survey, several

observations can be made.

1.

The number of species of Chlorophyta inhabiting the

 

tributaries of the James River Basin is quite low.
The pH of these streams range from.6.h - 7.6. With-
in this range, it was quite difficult to determine
the influence of pH on the number of species; however,
the streams that had the largest number of species
were slightly on the acid side of the pH scale. It
has been suggested that the pH exerts its greatest
influence when quite low on the acid side or quite
high on the alkaline side of the scale.

Streams that were slightly soft or low in CaCo3 con-
tent had the greatest number of species; however, on
the basis of hardness alone it is quite difficult to
determine the direct influence of this one factor on
the distribution of species in this study; Rather,
it is thought that other factors interacting with
hardness tend to influence the distribution.

The nitrogen content of a stream does influence the
distribution of species; however, the low content

of nitrogen in a stream may be influenced.by the volume

(

157

of growth in a stream. When growth rate is low,

then nitrogen-content may'be high.

Pollution may be a factor limiting the number and
kinds of species that will inhabit a particular
stream. Organic pollution may tend to increase the
nitrogen-content of a stream; therefbre, acting as

a fertilizing factor. The streams in this study

that seemed polluted were quite poor for numbers of
species; however, those forms that were able to sur-
vive were quite prolific in their growth.

The swifter streams in this survey were less produc-
tive than the slower. There were a few exceptions

in that two or more of the slower streams were not
especially productive, but this was thought to be

due to other factors as pollution, hardness, pH,
turbidity, etc. In general the swifter streams were
almost devoid of both algae and higher aquatic plants,
but those that could survive the hazard of swift cur-
rents usually thrived very well.

PLATE I

l. Spirogyga insignia

2. §. communis

3. §. mirabilis

1.. Vaucheria sessil_i§
5. §grogyra Cleaveana
6. Vaucheria averse

'7. E. discoidea; zygote
8. E. discoidea

9. E. discoidea

10. Y. geminata

10.
ll.
12.

13.

15.

PLATE II

Nitella opaca

Chara fragilis

9; Braunii

 

Nitella opaca

 

Batrachospermum sp. nov. Spermatium

 

Batrachospermum 3p. nov. (?)

 

Enteromorpha prolifera

 

Ulva lactuca

Compsopogan coeruleus

 

Batrachospermum'virgatum

 

§;'virgatum
Compsopogan coeruleus

 

Stigeoclonium.stagnatile

 

.§: stagnatile

 

Draparnaldia glomerata

1.
2.
3.
h.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

1o.

11.

12.

13.

1h.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

Coelastrum cambricum

 

Pediastrum fllex var. duodenarium
.I_’_._ intem

Cosnarium M

9; pseudopyramidatum

Gloeocystis m

Tetraspora lubrica

 

 

2‘; lubrica

Dispora crucigenioides

 

Pediastrum duplex var. reticulatum

 

Geranium rubrum

Eudorina slogans
Lochmium piluliferm. Printz.

 

Geranium rubrum

 

Pandorina morum

 

 

Scenedes-us quadricauda

 

Pedia strum duplex var. clathratum

 

PLATE III

 

 

10.

12.
13.

Chaetophora incrassata

E: incrassata

9; ele gins

E: elegans
9; elegans - Habit sketch

Draparnaldia p lumosa
_D_._ platyzonata

2: platyz onata

I); platyzonata
Zzeema insi E3
Spiroga seedornata
_S_: semiornata

é: aplanospora

i. aplanospora

PLATE IV

 

 

 

 

1.

3.
h.
S.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

o 15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

21.
22.

PLATE V

Cylindrocystis diplospora. Lund
@ondylo sium plenum. Holle

 

Staurastrum punctulatum

 

g: elternans

_S_: Dickei

 

_S_._ Brebissonii

 

Cost-arium formosulum
g: subreniforne

 

_C_._ punctulatum

 

E: margaritatum

Closterium ab_1_'_uptum

Co smarium pseudoc onnatum

 

 

Closterium Pritchardisnum

 

E: rostratum

§_._ didymotocum

 

g: Leiblienii
Pleurotaenium 'Ehrenbergii
Closterium dimotoon
§_._ abruptum

g: acerosun

Closterium Pritchardianum
_C_‘._l_._ tumidun

23.
2h.
25.
2o.
27.
w.
29.

PLATE V (Continued)

Cl. monilifermum

 

Cl. littorale

 

m.mmm

 

C1. praelongum

 

Cl. abruptum var. africanum. Kreiger

 

 

Dwflfimbnhfii

 

Closterium acerosum

 

l.

3.
h.
S.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

17.
18.

19.

21.
22.

23.

PLATE VI

Cladophora callicoma

 

9; callicoma
E: callicoma
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum

 

11'. hieroglyphicum
Microspora amoena

Pithophora kewenis

 

Cladophora callicoma

 

Oedogonilg minus

 

9: echinospermum

 

Microspora tunddula

 

E: tunddula
E: Willem
I_‘I_._ Willeana

Ulothrix tenerrima
E: tenerrina

 

E: sonata

 

31-. m

Medellin subsecundum
§_.. subsecundum

_S_2 eubeecundm

_S_:_ subsecundum

 

Oedogoniul sp. - Androsporangium

 

 

 

 

 

 

PLATE VII

1. Penium.margaritaceum
2. gtaurastrum orbiculare var. hibernicum
3. Micrasterias £21,
4. fiyalotheca mucosa
5. Cosmarium Meneghinii
6. Euastrum verrucosum var. 313332
7. Micrasterias americana
8. Desmidium guartzii _
9. Hyalotheca dissilieng
10. Micrasterias truncate
11. giggterium Baillyanum
12. Staurastrum gracile
13. Pleurotaenium cylindricum
14. Pediastrum simplex var. duodenarium
15. Eremosphaeria viridis
16. Coccomyxa dispora

17. Eaglena Spirogyra

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Ir

a...”

an!

 

 

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e n
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.—
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1
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_
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