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thesis entitled
AN EXPLORATION lIITO THE rtELbVANCE OF METHODS AND THE
ORGANIZATION OF LEXRI‘III‘IG EXERIEE‘ICES TO THE
OBJECTIVE OF CRITICAL THIIEKIEIG IN
HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION AT

Gmwtégm‘ m

Peter M. W ickman

 

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Doctor degree in Education ’

Major professor

Date 2-12-60

0-169

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

LIBRARY

IV“; ;. "a igtm S l :t [C
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AN EXPIDRATION INTO THE RELEVANCE 0F METHODS AND THE
ORGANIZATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES TO THE
OBJECTIVE OF CRITICAL. THINKING IN HISTORY

OF CIVILIZATION AT GREENVILIE COLLEGE

by
Peter M. Wickman

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School of Advanced Graduate Studies of
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

mCTOR OF EIIJCATION

Department of Education

Year 1960

Approved GM 1. W

- 1 -

The general purpose of this study is to show how, through
the proper organization of learning experiences in the History of
Civilization, college freshmen can be taught methods of historical
analysis and in the process make significant achievement in the
general education objective of critical thinking.

In Chapter I, the writer discusses the importance of this
objective in our society and suggests that the critical thinking
skills can be used as an integrating principle in such a course.

In the second chapter, an ideal-type construct was adapted
whereby it was possible to identify three ideal positions on the
learning continuum. These included the ineffective organization of
learning experiences, represented by the "A" position, those
freshman history students in 1957-1958; the minimum effective organi-
zation of learning experiences, the "B" position, represented by the
control group of students in the History of Civilization course; and
the most effective organization of learning experiences for the
attainment of the objective, the "C" position represented by the
experimental group of students in this class.

The "B" position on this learning continuum stressed student
motivation, application of historical understandings to contemporary
problems, practice in the desired behaviors, sufficient time to.
think and continuity and sequence in learning. The "C" situation
emphasized these criteria plus the use of small discussion groups,
variety of experiences and the reciprocal nature of the learning

factor. However, it was assumed that these eight characteristics

Peter M. Wickman

-2-

‘were absent from the "A" situation. An organizational scheme
stressing the integrative concepts, skills and values of critical
thinking was applied to both the "B" and "C" groups in an attempt to
maximize the attainment of this objective.

In Chapter III the writer applied this ideal-type construct
to these three classroom situations at Greenville College. This
necessitated a description of’the distinctive methods used.with each
learning situation. A variety of sources were used to depict the
uniqueness of these groups, including observations of the instructor
from his daily anecdotal record, course outlines, the variety of
tests used, student responses on a curriculum evaluation study,
student-teacher evaluation questionnaire, participation in class,
and out-of—classroom activities, and the organization and selection
of the total experiences within the various learning circumstances.

Results gained by the three groups were discussed in Chapter
IV. Students in.the three learning situations, identified by the
various criteria, were given pre- and.post-tests in the "Test of
Critical Thinking Form.G." The "B" and "C" groups were given pre-
and,post.tests on the S.T.E.P. Social Studies Test 1A.

Data from these tests suggested.that the "B" group achieved
more than the "A" group and that the "C" group had achieved to a
greater extent than the "B" group in the objective of critical
thinking.

It was conciuded that greater gains in critical thinking

Peter M. Mckman

-3-

were made by the "C" group on the basis of observations made by the
instructor, the testimony of students, grades on unit and final exp
aminations, responses on teacher evaluation sheets, curriculum
evaluation questionnaires, and improvement in attitudes as shown on
pre- and post-test results of the Inventory of Beliefs.

These favorable results lend credence to the basic contention
of this study, which was that maximum achievement in critical
thinking could be attained in a course such as History of Civili-

zation, if the learning experiences are selected and organized so as

to effect the "C" criteria.

Peter M. Wickman

AN EXPLORATION INTO THE RELEVANCE OF METHODS AND THE
ORGANIZATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES TO THE
OBJECTIVE OF CRITICAL THINKING IN

HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION AT

GREENVILLE COLLEGE

by
Peter M. Wickman

A THESIS

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Department of Education

 

1960

PREFACE

Although a great many general education courses in the
‘History'of Civilization list the ability to do "analytical and in-
dependent thinking" among their objectives, it has too frequently
been assumed.that the objective was a natural effect of the history
content and that organization and methods were secondary in its
attainment. .And though many instructors have been impressed.with
the importance of the objective, they have apparently felt that its
achievement was not feasible fer students in such a general edu-
cation course. From.the writer's reading of the literature, in
meetings with the Illinois Critical Thinking Study Committee and in
General Education workshops at Michigan State University, he has
concluded that significant achievement in critical thinking was
possible.

To transmit this feeling into effert necessitated the
utilizing of numerous sources and the cooperation of many individuals.

Fellow workshoppers and.Dr. Hugh Stickler, coordinator of
the general education workshop at Michigan State University in the
summer of 1953, aided in.clarifying the writer's concepts. The
writer's guidance committee, Dr. Paul L. Dressel (chairman), Dr. H.
H. Kimber, and Dr. Halter F. Johnson, and Dr. Walker Hill as former
chairman gave suggestions and raised questions which aided in the
inception and design of the study.

As the instructor of the required freshman history course at

ii

iii

Greenville College, the writer participated in a cooperative study
of the methods of attaining the objective of critical thinking
sponsored by the Illinois Research Committee. Six Illinois liberal
arts colleges were involved in the develOpment of methods of
achieving the objective of critical thinking.

In the fall of 1958, three of these schools planned to or»
ganize their basic freshman courses according to these methods. It
was hoped that by means of this study, it would be possible to check
on the validity of the methods devised. This thesis then, was an
offshoot of this study plus an attempt by the author to identify
the organization of learning experiences which maximizes the attain-
ment of the critical thinking<bjective.

The implementation of the writer‘s ideas to the classroom
situation at Greenville College was possible only through the co-
operation of many individuals. It involved several hundred students
in the writer's freshman history courses over a period of four years.
It meant the cooperation of colleagues in various departments, as
well as members of the social science division. Many hours were
spent in committee meetings and conferences by faculty members
participating in the critical thinking study. Several senior history
majors spent considerable time collecting anecdotal infermation from
individual students taking the History of Civilization course.

The administration of Greenville College aided in carrying
out this study. Dean George Tade was most cooperative in scheduling

History of Civilization at a favorable time and giving the instructor

iv

cooperation of many individuals. It involved several hundred
students in the writer's freshman history courses over a period of
four years. It meant the cooperation of colleagues in various de-
partments, as well as members of the social science division. Many
hours were spent in committee meetings and conferences by faculty
members participating in the critical thinking study. Several senior
history majors spent considerable tine collecting anecdotal infor-
mation from individual students taking the History of Civilization
course.

The administration of Greenville College aided in carrying
out this stuct'. Dean George Tade was most cooperative in scheduling
History of Civilization at a favorable time and giving the instructor
9. free hand in its organization. Richard R. Stephens, chairman of
the critical thinking study on campus, aided by reading the paper and
making suggestions on the preliminary drafts.

Dr. Edwin L. Lyle, director of the Danforth Foundation Study
for Superior Students at Greenville College, made a large contribution
to the success of this study through his frequent valuable suggestions
concerning the treatment and evaluation of the data.

The writer is specifically indebted to the following people:
George Barr Carson, Jr. , director of the Service Center for Teachers
of History, for the assistance which his organization provided in
making it possible for Dr. F‘ritorg Ander to come to the campus to
discuss curriculum changes in the required history courses; Dr. Paul

L. Dressel, who as chairman of m committee, provided guidance in

the design and.writing of this thesis, which involved the writing
and answering of numerous letters since the study was conducted.away
from the Michigan State University campus; and.finally, to my wife
Helen, for invaluable assistance in typing this copy and.for her
patience and encouragement through the years.

Thus, this thesis stresses the cooperative nature whereby
modern educational research dealing with problems of higher
education is conducted. The significant results achieved were made
possible by the collective efforts of the administration, faculty,

students, curriculum consultants, and.the literature.

PREFACE

LIST OF

Chapter
I.

II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C C O O O . ii

TABL-ES O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 vii

THE DEFINITION, PURPOSE, METHOD, AND IMPLICATION
0F TEE PROBI‘EM O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O C O 1

The Consideration of Critical Thinking As a Goal
of General Education In Our Culture

The Concern of Critical Thinking and the Lack of
Its Contemporary Applications

"Value-Conflict" and Historical Problems As a
Means of Organizing Learning Experiences

Problems Involved In the Organization of Inter-
disciplinary Courses

The Organization of a Course in History of Civili—
zation With Critical Thinking As An Integrating
Principle

Purpose Of This Study

Type of Evidence To Be Compiled

Explanation of the Data

Summary

ADAPTATION OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE GENERAL
EmCATION HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION COURSE. . . . . 26

Introduction

The Derivation of the Ideal-Type Construct

Adaptation of the Ideal-Type Construct to the
Identification and Comparison of Classroom
Experiences

The Adaptation of the Concepts of Judd and.Dewey
In Suggesting Effective Methods for Maximum.Results

Application of the Tyler Rationale Within This
Organizational Framework

Summary

(Chapter
III.

IV.

APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......
APPENDIX C . . . . ....................
APPENDIX D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX E . . . . . . ...... . . . .........

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPLICATION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK TO
LEARNING SITUATIONS IN THE HISTORY OF CIVILI-
ZATION COURSE AT GREENVILLE COLLEGE . . . . .

Introduction

Identification of Actual Classroom Using the
Ideal-Type Construct

The Organization of Learning Experience In the
History of Civilization Course

Summary

THE FINDINGS IN TERMS OF THE RELEVANCE OF THE
LEARNING SITUATIONS TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE
OBJECTIVE C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Introduction

Achievement of Critical Thinking By Freshmen In
the Required American History Classes The "A"
Classroom

Comparative Analysis of Achievement of Critical
Thinking In the Various Classroom Situations

Specific Learning Experiences Which Seem Related

To the Attainment of Critical Thinking By the
'"C" Group
Summary

Page

A9

77

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS. . . . . . . 108

Critical Thinking Important As An Educational
Goal In Our Contemporary Culture

Teaching Critical Thinking Is Needed In the
Liberal Arts College General Education Social
Science Curriculum ‘

Learning Experiences Developed To Attain the
Maximum.Achievement of Critical Thinking

Some Implications

Next Steps

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Comparison of Mean Pre- and Post-test and
Improvement Scores on the "Test of Critical
Thinking Fbrm G" for Students In the "A" and
"B"Learnlng51tllation8.........o..o 83

2. Comparison of Mean Improvement Scores on "Test of
Critical Thinking Form G” for the "B" and "C"
Learning Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8h

3. Comparison of the Pre-test and Post-test Means of
"A", "B", and "C" Learning Situations on Form C . 85

h. Analysis of Variance of Achievement of the Three
Groups on a "Test of Critical Thinking Form 0' .. 86

5. Comparative Mean Gain on “Form C" of Low, Average
' and High Groups of Students in the "A", "B",
and "C“ Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6. Mean Scores On S.T.E.P. Social Studies lA, Spring
Testing, Comparing "A" with "B" and "C" Positions 88

7. "B" and "C" Learning Situations Compared on
S.T.E.P. Social Studies Form 1A . . . . . . . . . 90

8. Relation of First Semester Grades to Mean Gains on
the "Test of Critical Thinking Form C" Compared
byGradeRank.................. 91

9. Comparison of Achievement of Mean Scores of "B"
and "C" Students on Unit Tests and Semester
Final in History of Civilization . . . . . . . . 93

10. Analysis of Variance of Mean Imporovement Scores
of The Three Learning Situations on the
"InventoryofBeliefs".............. 96

11. Interest in History of Civilization Compared.with
Other Required Freshman Courses as Shown by Per
Cent of "B" and "C" Groups Approving Each . . . . 99

12. Student Evaluation of Comparative Value of the

Required Courses in Stimulating Independent
Thinking Per Cent of Groups Approving Each . . . . lOO

vii

CHAPTER I

THE DEFINITION, PURPOSE, METHOD, AND IMPLICATION

OF THE PROBLEM

The Consideration of Critical Thinkigg;As:§ Goal

of General Education In Our Culture

Our modern world is rapidly becoming more complex and in-
terdependent. And, in a democratic society where each day citizens
are increasingly facing a fantastic assortment of‘problems, which
are demanding recognition, understanding and solution if we are to
survive, we appreciate the necessity of citizens trained in the
skill of independent thinking. This need for instruction for
critical thinking is reflected in the objectives of nearly every
institution of higher learning in America. Regardless of size, be
it a large university or small liberal arts college, institutions of
higher learning recognize the value of critical thinking in the
training of youth WhO‘Will have the skills with which to meet the
problems faced by citizens in our society. The primary aim of this
study is to identify those learning situations which more adequately
achieve the objective of critical thinking in a general education
course in the History of Civilization at the freshman level of the

liberal arts college.

-2-

It has been inferred that critical thinking is the gipg gag
£03 for social survival in contemporary society. Its importance can
be readily evidenced as we consider the needs of our society, the
needs of college students, and the writings of social scientists.
{These three sources verify that this objective is attainable within
the frame of reference of a democratic philosophy of education and
modern understandings of the learning processes.1 The development
of an informed, responsible and effective citizenry is a prime re-
quirement for our democratic society where a basic concern fbr the
worth of the individual and his role in the decision making process
constitutes the core of our democratic values. Independent thinking
generates an understanding of, and a means of resolving differences
of opinion in a rational manner. The challenge of a changing
society requires leaders in foreign and domestic affairs, as well as
in science, engineering and industry, who are educated to make
analytical and rational decisions in these areas. For as Dr. Charles
Malik so aptly stated it in a commencement address at a mid-western

university in June l9Sh:

Nothing is more obvious ... than.that history is decisively

in the making today and yet the quality of decision is largely
absent. There is an ominous drift, people appear overwhelmed ...
It is as though the complexity and multiplicity of present

 

1v. E. Herrick and R. w. Tyler, Toward Improved Curriculum
Theory, (Papers presented at the Conference On Curriculum Theory,
University of Chicago, Oct. l9h7, No. 71, MOnograph. The University
of Chicago Press, 1950), pp. 56-57.

- 3 -

issues is too much for the mind of man. But if one thing is
certain, it is that where people refuse to decide, events
will decide for them. And if personal decision is both

, difficult and risky, it is not at all certain that to allow
events to decide impersonally, although relatively Easy, is
not itself a decision involving the greatest risks.

In.all probability critical thinking is the most secure foundation
'upon which to base such decision making.

Numerous other sources suggest the prominence of critical
thinking in the attainment of more effective democracy.

The importance of a broad educational foundation in our
society was sharply pointed out by the President's Commission On
Higher'Education as early as 19h7.3 This group indicated.the imp
perativeness of extending educational opportunity and effective
citizenship training to a greater percentage of the nation's youth.

we shall have to devise patterns of education that will

prepare them more effectively than in the past ...

2. To participate actively as an informed and responsible

citizen in solving the economic, social and political problems
of one's community, state and nation ...

11. To acquire and use the skilhs and habits involved in
critical and.constructive thinking.

In their analysis of this last objective, this group of educational
leaders further'stressed the importance of critical thinking
abilities.

Ability to think and reason, within the limits set by one's

mental capacity should be the mark of an educated.person ...
Development of the reasoning faculty, of the habit of critical

 

2Huston Smith, The Purposes of Higher Education, Introductory
Note by Charles Malik (New York: Harper and.Brothers, 1955).

3Higher Education For American Democracy, The Report of the
President's Commission On Higher Education, Vol. I (New York: Harper
and Brothers, 1957).

thid, p. 23.

- u -

appraisal should.be the constant and pervasive aim of all
education in every field and at every level ...

Mere to the purpose than extensive information and of
much more lasting effect would be emphasis on the student's
acquiring familiarity with the process of inquiry and discovery
... Arousing and.stimulating intellectual curiosity into
active and comprehensive education, and deveIOping skill in
gathering, analyzing, and evaluating evidence ... These
should constitute the primary job of every teacher ...

... the open and inquiring mind and the habit of rigorous
and disciplined investigation are the marks of free men and
the sinews of a free society.

General education therefore will concentrate not on the
mastery of specific information, but on.the fullest possible
development of the motives, attitudes, and habits the will
enable the student to infOrm himself throughout life.

In a foreward to a report of a symposium.on higher education,
Dr. G. H. Compton, nationally known physicist and at that time
chancelor of a university, states that we need to educate trained
men who will be able to apply intelligence to social problems. He

asserts that:

The dominant note in.the present concern of higher edu-
cation is the rapid change of our social order ..., especially
our increasing interdependence and our ... involvement in the
world's affairs. The health of our society ... depends on our
ability to educate men promptly who will pilot us wisely
through.these strange waters! ...

Old standards.must be re-examined before they can be
relied on safely ... Only as our youth face the changing world
with understanding and courage can our civilization maintain
its healthy growth. The algernative is a catastrophe that we
do not want to contemplate.

The Social Science Committee of the American Council on
Education Cooperative Study of Evaluation in General Education
agreed that:

Citizenship appears to demand one skill above all others.
.Even in voting ... the citizen must be able to analyze the

 

SIbid, pp. 57-58. 68mith, op. cit.

-5-

candidate with respect tolthe issues at the particular
election ... The good life in a democratic society seems
to rest fundamentally on one's ability to think critically
about the problems with which he is confronted.7

Yet students may or may not identify these problems or
"social issues" with which they are faced. Although students
entering college seem.to be particularly Challenged.by tasks that
they can feel are essential preparation fer the adult competition
ahead.of them; yet, effective citizenship demands a more comprehensive
view of society with skills enabling him.to diagnose and form judg-
ments regarding social situations. A major argument of this thesis
is that an analysis of the "unresolved conflicts" of history, inter-
preted in the framework of the critical thinking approach, can aid
the students in making generalizations concerning current social
problems. The importance of critical thinking as an objective in
such a History of Civilization course in the liberal arts college,
has been stimulated.by recent educational trends observed.by the
author.

First, there seems to be wide agreement among educators con-
cerning the need to broaden and develop the aims of general education
to include critical intelligence as well as understandings. For,
although American educators are not agreed on the means, they agree

that "the development of critical intelligence, capable of being

applied to many fields" is one of the pertinent aims of such general

 

7Paul L. Dressel and Lewis B. Mayhew, General Education,
Explorations In Evaluation (washington, D. 0.: American Council On
Education, 19510, pp. 35-76.

 

 

8

education courses.

Second, there is recognition of the lack, and therefore need
by college students of critical thinking abilities. Faculty members
participating in the Hope College study concluded that na clear
understanding of the principles of logical reasoning and.familiarity
with.problempsolving procedures ... seem to be needed by every
college student.9

Third, there is a trend in the direction of broad divisional
type History of Civilization courses in an increasing number of
liberal arts colleges. A summary of a recent survey by the United
States Office of Education regarding social science requirements for
the bachelor's degree showed that 57.8 per cent of the institutions
reporting placed History of Civilization in the Social Science
divisional rather than the departmental curriculum.lO

A.fourth trend is to extend the reach of educational ob-
jectives from those related to understandings to those relevant to

the ability to evaluate and criticize.11 An introduction to these

 

8R. J. Havighurst, "Social Foundations of General Education,"
General Education, Fifty-first Yearbook of the National Society for
the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1952): PPo 73‘750

9John Hollenbach and C. DeGraff, "Teachin For Thinking",
Journal of Higher Education, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, March, 1957),
pp. 126-130.

 

10U.S., Office of Education, Social Science Requirements for
Bachelors Degrees, (washington, D. C.: U.S. Department<3f Health,
Education, and welfare, 1959), p. 26.

 

 

uBloom et al., Taxonomr of Educational Objectives, Handbook
No. 1 (New York: Longman's Greenuand Co., 195h), pp. 18§e200.

- 7 -

skills constitutes the basic element of the historical method. The
usefulness in later life of learning to criticize and analyze
evidence and to arrive at new conclusions is stressed as well as
the interrelatedness of the various social science disciplines.l2

A further trend is to measure the achievement of these edu-
cational aims in terms of the "higher mental.processes.“ This
trend also is related to increased consciousness of and attention to
critical thinking as an objective and.has resulted in the revision
of evaluation instruments so as to measure this goal. And out of
these attempts at evaluation, the urgency of defining this objective
in working terms has become apparent.

A sixth develOpment has been in the direction of attempts to
study methods of implementing the overall objective of critical
thinking, by cooperative inter-institutional groups. Possibly the
first significant contribution in this regard was the Eight Year
Study. The Cooperative Study in General Education of the American
Council On Education was particularly interested in the attainment
of this, among other general education objectives, at the college
level. As an outgrowth of this study, there have been a number of
similar studies on a smaller scale. Among these have been that cf
the Illinois Research Committee on Critical Thinking, which.has been
concerned.with the application and evaluation of methods related to

the attainment of critical thinking.

 

12Paul L. ward, A Style of History For Beginners, Publication
No. 22, Service Center for Teachers of History, a Service of the
American Historical Association (washington, D. 0., 1958), pp. 1-7.

 

 

- 8 -

In reality these trends overlap, inasmuch as they are
efforts of leaders in higher education to respond to the needs of
our democratic society. However, these trends, together with the
"post-sputnik" pressure on American education, suggest the increasing

importance of critical thinking as an educational objective.

The Concern of Critical Thinkirg and the Lack of
Its Contemporary Applications

Many studies have added perception as to the method of
critical thinking. Added understanding of the higher mental pro-
cesses have been provided by Charles Judd13 and John Dewey.lh And
more recently, perception of the problem solving techniques of
college students has been supplied by B. S. Bloom and L. J. Broder.ls
And, doctoral studies have shown how critical thinking is related
17

to personality factors ,16 and to group achievement.

 

130. H. Judd, Education As the Cultivation of the Higher
Mental Processes (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935) , passim.

 

 

thohn Dewey, Emerience and Education (New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1938) , passim.

15B. 8. Bloom and L. J. Broder, Problem Solving Processes of
College Students (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1950) ,

passim.

 

 

1'6E. Gaier, "Relation Between Personality Variables and the
Learning Process" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Dept. of
Psychology, University of Chicago), passim.

17H. M. Chausow, "The Organization of Learning Experiences"
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Education, University of
Chicago, 1955).

- 9 -

HOwever, as one writer put it, there have been more "sales
talks" written about critical thinking than reports of good research.18
For there have not been sufficient studies giving evidence that
'specific methods and.procedures used resulted in the optimum cumu-
lative achievement of this objective. Chausow's study at wright
Junior College showed a relationship between the organization of
materials between different classes and cumulative achievement as
measured on the A.C.E. Critical Thinking Test in Social Science.
'With a few exceptions then, the conclusion of the report of
the Cooperative Study in General Education is still up to date when
it suggests that much of the research to date has been separated

from "teaching practice."19

The personal experiences of the writer
in the "Illinois Colleges Study on Critical Thinking", indicated a
reluctance on the part of certain departments and individuals
connected with these colleges to participate wholeheartedly in an
endeavor to relate methods to an objective found in all their college
catalogues. Some of the original institutions involved withdrew
because of lack of interest in such a project, and we all discovered
colleagues in our own institutions who not only refused to cooperate
but argued against the necessity of such a study.

There were no dissenters regarding the value of critical

thinking, but there were a variety of arguments against methods to

 

18Finley Carpenter, "What Research Says About Critical
Thinking," North Central News Bulletin, Vol. XV, No. h (January,
1956), p. l.

19Dressel and Mayhew, General Education, Explorations In
Evaluation, 9p. cit., pp. 281-285.

- 10 -

attain it. Some felt that it was emphasizing means as ends; others
that it would detract from achievement in subject matter content
area which they felt must be covered; others were secure in the
feeling that they were already using the most effective methods to
this end; and others felt that we were confusing the students with
ideas that they could not handle at the freshman level. The last
mentioned objection would be provided for if the curriculum were
organized with relevance to this objective.

In a monograph, Toward Improved Curriculum.Theory, R. W.
Tyler states: "The practice of curriculum construction needs to be
guided by a theory which has been carefully developed, utilizing an
acceptable philosophy of education, based upon known principles of
learning, and taking into account the results of school experience
and experimentation."20

The studies mentioned.previously have given insights into
the process of critical thinking. However, there has been little
attention given to the theoretical formulations of Tyler, in the

O 0 O I O 21
organization of general education courses in soC1al solence.

"Value-Conflict" and Historical Problems As a
Means of Organizing Learninngxperiences
The western Civilization course is centered on a number of
historical problems, that men can never fully agree on, but with

which the student will be living the rest of his life. The student,

 

20Herrick and Tyler, o . cit., p. 57.

21Chausow, op. cit., p. 11.

-11-

then, is the focus of the initial integrating process and it is
assumed that he will begin to understand how men really behave in
social and political groups of all sizes when he begins to consider
these historical problems in terms of social values he holds.22

More specific organization of the course has been attempted
by using T. C. Mendenhall's theme of‘the "struggle between individual
and social authoritf‘as a unifying principle.23 This course invites
the student to acquire an understanding of specific aspects of
history and to make generalizations concerning the origin of present
institutions, and conflicts and to propose solutions of a number of
conflicts which have persistently challenged men throughout the de-
velopment of western Civilization.2h One of the basic purposes of
this problems method.is to have the student learn to read.diverse
materials in an intelligent yet critical fashion.

A gathering of historians in 1953, who were members of the
American Historical Association, agreed that the historians' skills
center on diagnosing situations and forming judgments. What fresh-
man students in a History of Civilization class need is to find

that this is actually so, that good historical understandings can

point toward convincingly sounder judgments, even though these might

 

22E. J. McGrath (ed.), Social Science In General Education
(Dubuque, Iowa: wn. C. Brown Company, 19h87, pp. 88:53.

23T. C. andenhall et a1. The Quest For a Principle of
Authority In Europe From 1215 to the Present (New York: Henry Holt
and Company, 19118) , pp. IV-V.

21‘H. T. Morse (ed.), General Education In Transition
(Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 19517, pp. 105-107.

 

still be colored by the student's personal values. Students will
thus be made to see that the skills acquired in studying history
are identical to those frequently used in reaching judgments on

25

complex human situations in everyday living. Students must be
challenged.then, by materials and learning experiences so organized
that they will summon their critical thinking faculties into full
play. Such an approach will not only previde the student with
training in critical thinking but introduce him.to the historical
method in the process.

Such an organization is not an attempt to "change the
student's values," but to make him more aware of them and of the
role they play in his decision making. He fulfills one of the main
purposes of the course by gaining practice in identifying the basic
assumptions and arguments of leading thinkers of the past and present.
This organization stresses the value of suspended judgment and an
awareness that judgments are seldom."black or white." This organi-
zation represents an attempt to apply Tyler's theoretical fbrmulations
to a divisional course, at the freshman level, of the liberal arts
college.26

This approach makes it possible to derive and apply an
effective means of attaining the cumulative maximum effects of
critical thinking. This seems to be a significant approach because

the critical thinking objective is being used as an integrating

L

ZSWard, op. cit., p. 2.
268upra, p. 9.

-13-

force in the development of this inter-disciplinary course.27

However, we need to be cognizant of certain problems and limitations

implicit in the organization of such a course.

Problems Involved In the Organization of

Inter-disciplinapy Courses

 

The organization and.purpose of such a History of Civili-
zation course would be inter-disciplinary regarding content,
understandings, and generalizations sought. Such a.course would be
what the President's Commission on Higher Education termed "general
education, that is, education which has come to be accepted for
those phases of non-specialized and non-vocational learning which
should.be the common experience of all educated men and.women."28

During the last three decades four factors contributed to
the rising importance of this development. They are:

a. The phenomenal Specialization and fragmentation of

courses in the liberal arts colleges.

b. The rise and partial failure of the elective system,

c. The growing complexity of life in modern times.

d. The increase of enrollment in the colleges and

29

universities.

 

27Dressel and Mayhew, General Education,pExplorations In
Evaluation, op. cit., pp. 272-278.

28Higher Education For American Democracy, pp. cit., p. h9.

 

29Sidmey French (ed.), Accent 0n Teaching (New York: Harper
and Brothers, l95h), pp. 1-20.

 

-m-

Whereas classical liberal education was typically designed
for the intellectually elite and was subject matter centered, general
education is typically designed for a wider population and is
centered on the personal and social needs of the time. The frag-
mentation and specialization of traditional liberal arts curricula
are replaced.by unity and breadth.

Within this broad framework are found three major philosophies
of method: rationalism, neo-humanism, and instrumentalism.
Rationalism holds that ultimate Truth is revealed in the writings of
the Great Thinkers of the western classical tradition. Its approach
tends to be authoritarian rather than empirical; its appeal is to
the mind rather than to the whole student.

Neo-humanism resembles rationalism in its intellectual
approach, but differs in not being committed to a Specific philoso-
phy. Both resemble liberal education in being more subject matter
centered than student centered. The great majority of general
education programs fall in this category.

Instrumentalism may be regarded as the "left wing" of
general education. It operates from experience, rather than from
authority; is inductive rather than deductive; recognizes relative
values, not absolute values; is utilitarian rather than ornamental.
It is student centered rather than subject matter centered; is
designed for the many, not alone the elite; and for the whole
student, not merely for his mind.

In employing these categorical terms, one must regard them

-15..

as abstractions denoting points along a continuum. In actual
practice few schoolsswill reflect absolutely and solely one
philosophy. Most schools reflect some blending of emphases, some
electicism.30

According to Sidney French, general education in social
science has evolved through three phases in attempting to meet the
problem of fragmentation and specialization mentioned above. First
have come the survey courses in social science. These were inade-
quate as the end.result was a patchwork of isolated facts. Second
came the "block-gap" courses. These were usually built around a
unifying theme. Third is the student-centered phase which is still
in the process of evolving?1 This last phase necessitates greater
emphasis on the planning of learning experiences with the develop-
ment of critical thinking as the overall integrating factor.32

And the final report of the A.C.E. Study recommends that
critical thinking provide the integrating force for such an inter-
disciplinary course.33 This objective can become a criterion of
revelance whereby we select learning experiences and.materials from
the area of the social sciences. This is a synthesis of matter and

3h

method and not a course in "how to think."

 

30H. Taylor, "The Philosophical Foundations of General Edu-
cation," Fifty-first Yearbook of the NSSE, op. cit., pp. 20-h5.

BIHmCh’ OE. Cite, pp. 12-11...

32Dressel and Mayhew, General Education, Explorations In
Evaluation, op. cit., p. 65.

33Ibid, pp, 272-27h. 31‘French, 0 . cit., p. 17.

- 16 -

The aim of this thesis is to delineate those methods of
instruction and organization of learning experiences which best
,1

provide the integrating force for the achievement of critical

thinking in a general education course in.the History of Civilization.

The Organization of a Course In Historygof
Civilization With Critical ThinkingpAs
An Integrating Principle

Reference has been made to the importance attributed to the
development of the student's ability to think critically as an ob-
jective in general education.35 Yet, Judd has stated that there is
abundant evidence that the methods of teaching traditionally used in
.colleges fail to develOp in a satisfactory measure the higher mental
processes.36

The A.C.E. Cooperative Study found that new methods and
materials, pointed at.the achievement of agreed upon goals, were
lacking. For the study felt that there were frequent discrepancies
between the ideals sought and the status quo in the classroom. This
gap between the ideal and the real in general education curriculum
is the focus of this thesis.37 For the basic approach of our study
is the planning and organization of learning experiences germane to

carefully determined objectives. A resume' of the four main points

of the Tyler rationale is important in clarifying the basic problem.

 

BSSuEra’ p. S 36Judd’ O o Cite, p0 1360

37Lewis B. Mayhew, "The Cooperative Study of Evaluation In
General Education," School and Society, LXXV, No. l9h0 (February 23,
1952), p. 116.

-17..

of this study. These are:

First, the determination of objectives. The goal of edu-
cation is the achievement of desired behavior changes. Various
sources are tapped in deciding on the objectives of the educational
program, viz, the student's needs, society's needs, and the opinion
of the expert. In order to determine which goals are attainable,
they are screened through a philosophy of education and through
knowledge of the psychology of learning.

Second, learning situations. These should give the student
practice .in the desired behaviors which meet the test of the
psychology of learning.

Third, the organization *pféjhe learningsituation. These
are organized according to some theory based upon the principles of
curricular organization, the use of concepts, skills and values as
unifying threads, tied together by some organizing principle using
the principle of continuity and sequence to insure the cumulative
effect, recommended by Tyler.

Fourth, evaluation of results. In order to determine whether
the methods used were conducive to the objectives sought, the re-
sults must be evaluated with the other three steps in mind.38

The conclusion of several authorities on curricular develop-
ment is that without organization, critical thinking cannot be

achieved. In a recent yearbook of the National Society for the

 

38Herrick and Tyler, op. cit., pp. 60-68.

-18..

Study of Education, R. W. Tyler states that, "Without organization,
learning experiences will be perceived by many learners as isolated,
chaotic, and haphazard."39 Hilda Taba writes: "To achieve critical
thinking, we need a curriculum.which is organized around some con-
cepts and.ideas, and in which materials are selected and combined
fbr teaching so that they contribute to the development of these
ideas and'their use."ho

There are three hypotheses to be tested. The first is that
before the achievement of critical thinking above the chance level
can take place, certain minimum.characteristics must occur. Second,
these minimum criteria must be supplemented by additional ones if
the greatest gains in critical thinking are to be made, and it would
seem that such gains were related to the additional characteristics
used. A third hypothesis seems obvious; that is, it is possible to
identify methods of instruction which are relevant to the maximum.
growth of critical thbnking through the use of subjective evaluation
devices. The general hypothesis is that a continuum of learning
experiences exists and it is possible to relate the differences be-
tween classes at different positions on this continuum, to a specific

configuration of methods and organization of material.

 

39R. W. Tyler, "Curriculum Organization," The Integgation of
Education Experiences, Fiftyhseventh Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, Part III (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1958), p. 106.

hoHildaTaba, "Problems In Developing Critical Thinking,"
Progressive Education, mm (November, 1950), p. 1.5.

 

[O

- 19 -

Purpose Of This Study

It is the intent of this study to set forth the methods used
and to describe the manner of handling the data collected and to
relate them to the hypotheses mentioned above.

The operational definition of critical thinking, developed
by the Social Science Committee of the Cooperative Study of Evalu-
ation of the American Council of Education, was adapted.f0r this
research for several reasons. First, because this behavioral de-
finition was developed.by a number of social science teachers at the
college level, and is applicable to the analysis of historical
sources. These behaviors were chiefly concerned with the student's
ability to identify the central issue, recognize basic underlying
assumptions, evaluate evidence or criticize historical sources or
evidence, and to draw warranted conclusions.hl

Second, since it reflects the ideas of classroom teachers
who have shared similar problems in the teaching of different types
of social science courses, it seems adaptable to a general education
course focused on historical problems.

Third, this behavioral definition seemed to meet the needs of
the students at our particular college.

And.finally, the evaluation instruments used were designed

to measure many of the behaviors described in this definition.

The theoretical proposals outlined in Chapter II are adapted

 

hlPaul L. Dressel and Lewis B. Mayhew, Critical Thinking In
Social Science, A Handbook of Suggestions for Evaluation and Teaching
'(Dubuque, Iowa: we. C. Brown Co., 195h), pp. 1-3. See Appendix B.

-20..

from a survey of a few carefully developed studies and research
projects which suggest some of the specific things instructors can
do to obtain greater results in the achievement of the critical
thinking objective.

Criteria for the selection of learning experiences were
derived from the ideas of the following. Methods of analyzing
historical evidence and the recognition of human factors in such
evidence were developed from ideas of a recent publication of the
American Historical Association, and the Carnegie Papers on the
Teaching of History. These papers stressed methods whereby students
can become "actively engaged in the process of forming and revising

h2.h3

judgments in the light of evidence." The study of both the

"critical-analytical and the socio-cultural" methods of approaching
the study of history was stressed by Gottschalk."'l1 R. W. Tyler,
writing in the Fifty-Seventh Yearbook of the National Society for
the Study of Education, identified three elements of learning; viz.,
hS

concepts, skills, and values. The Hope College study urged that

thinking habits as well as abilities be taught.h6

 

hZCarnegie Papers on the Teaching of History, Teaching the
First Ten Assignments In An LIntroductory History Course (Pittsburgh,
Pa.: Carnegie Institute of Technologrj, pp. 1-35.

h3werd, op. cit., pp. 2-3.

MLouis Gottschalk, Hiderstanding HiStOII (New York: A. A.
Knopf, Inc. , 1950), pp. 30-37.

h5Ty1er, loc. cit., pp. 112—115.

h6Fina1 Report of the Ford Study Committee, Teaching for the
Development of Thinking Abilities and Habits, passim.

 

-21..

The principal organizational scheme was based on the ideas
of Juddh7 and Deweyha. This involved the interaction of the levels
of thinking--understanding, application and generalization; and, the
use of problematic situations which would include the concepts re-
ferred to above.

Continuity from one problem to the next is provided.for in
several ways. 'Within each problem the emphasis is from historical
understandings to generalizations that appear to provide explanations

h9 And the learning

of the development of contemporary problems.
situations relative to the selected content would strive to attain
the behavioral aspects of the critical thinking objective, 1.6. the
student would be obliged to "identify central issues; to recognize

basic assumptions; to evaluate the evidence; and to draw warranted

conclusions."

Type of Evidence To Be Compiled
Data were collected to verify whether differences occurred
among the various groups along the continuum. This information can

be classified according to the quantitative or total gain in

 

mJudd, op, cit., passim.

hBJohn Dewey“ Experience and Education (New York: The Mac-
millan Company, 19385, assim. -

h9Gottschalk, op. cit., p. 31.

soDressel and.Mayhew, Critical Thinking In Social Science,
0 . cit., pp. 1-3. See Appendix B for full description.

-22..

achievement on test scores and according to subjective evidence re-
lating to the criteria specified in this study.

The quantitative data were provided by the A.C.E. Test of
Critical Thinking Form G, developed and validated by the First A.C.E.
Committee on Pervasive Objectives 151, and.the S.T.E.P. Social
Studies Test which.was developed by a planning committee of college
examiners for the Cooperative Test Division of the Educational

52 And further information on attitudes of students

Testing Service.
'was provided by the Inventory of Beliefs developed by the A.C.E.
Committee on Pervasive Objectives.53

The presence or absence of the basic criteria, which
identified the group along the learning continuum at Greenville
College, were identified.by the information compiled in the manner
suggested in the following paragraphs.

To check the extent of motivation and student interest in
the various classes being compared, a number of means were employed.
Students were asked to rate required courses in order of their
interests, and to evaluate the teachers and classroom situations
employed. Student participation in activities related to class work,
e.g. membership in history clubs, etc., as well as the quality and

quantity of written work, e.g. daily assignments and research.papers.

 

51See Appendix B for description and validation of "A Test
In Critical Thinking Form.G."

52The description of the S.T.E.P. Social Studies Test and
normative data is in Appendix.D.

53See Appendix C for description of the Inventory of Beliefs
and validation data.

P‘I

-23..

Records of observations by the instructor, his colleagues and
several history majors were anaLyzed.

Information regarding the extent of application of histori-
cal understandings to problematic situations, and the degree to
which practice in the behaviors of critical thinking was achieved
in the various classes, was obtained by comparing the syllabi, the
classroom situations or learning experiences provided.and anecdotal
records.

‘Was sufficient time provided in the various situations to
do an effectual job of critical thinking? To ascertain this the
number of units per semester, the number of assignments within each
unit, and the instructor's observations were analyzed.

A similar check was made on the organization of learning
experiences to provide for continuity and.sequence. The courses
were compared regarding the use of integrative elements and the
cumulative effect from.unit to unit in assignments and examination.

Data concerning the learning environment were examined to
check for the existence of the characteristics such as small dis-
cussion groups; varied experiences to meet individual needs and
interests; and the "reciprocal nature of the learning factor." The
information collected was analyzed to determine the extent to which
individual interests and abilities were provided for and the imp

portance given to the student's role in the learning process.514

 

ShNathaniel Cantor, The Teaching Learning Process (New York:
Dryden Press, 1953), p. 79.

-21“.

Explanation Of The Data

The material available will be examined to answer these
questions: One, Does a continuum of classroom learning situations
actually exist?55 The existence of various criteria along the
assumed continuum will be checked against evidence analyzed in
order to verify the congruity of the various groups of students.
Second, Do significant differences accrue as a result of meeting
the criteria along the continuum? .Results will be examined from
the various groups according to the differences of the scores
derived from a post-test based.on the "Test of Critical Thinking
Form.G", The Inventory of Beliefs, and the S.T.E.P. Social Studies
Test. Analysis of variance will be used to test whether the
differences of these groups are significant.

The chief end sought in this thesis is the verification
of this hypothesis: The organization of learning experiences to
include the creation of a reciprocal learning situation, makes a

significant difference in the achievement of critical thinking.

Summagy
This study endeavors to apply Tyler's rationale to the
organization of learning experiences in the History of Civilization
course at Greenville College. This is an attempt to show that

students at the college freshman level can be taught the skills of

 

55H. M. Chausow'found that a continuum existed.when differ-
ent classes and different instructors were used. Our task is to see
whether it is possible to provide unique differences in the learning
situation between two groups within an identical group (Chausow,
op. cit., p. 26).

-23-

analyzing historical evidence and in the process apply these skills
to contemporary social problems.

In the definition of this problem several proposals were
analyzed. First, teaching for critical thinking is imperative in a
democratic society. Second, attempts to reach this objective in
general social science courses in liberal arts colleges are generally
conceded to be ineffective. Third, it is possible to organize
learning experiences in a History of Civilization course to meet
this objective. Fourth, inter-disciplinary courses of this type
have developed to overcome the fragmentation and lack of integration
in the curricula of the liberal arts college. Fifth, the critical '
thinking objective can be used as an integrating principle fer such
a course. Finally, the data gathered can be used to check the
concept of a learning continuum and whether greater achievement in
critical thinking resulted from application of more inclusive

criteria.

CHAPTER II

ADAPTATION 0F.A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE GENERAL

EDUCATION HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION COURSE

Introduction

 

A number of basic assumptions seem to have been implied.in
our sketch of the various aspects underlying this study. Two of
these are: that generally speaking, college students have not de-
veloped the habit of making independent judgments based on their
classroom learning experiences; and secondly, that such critical
thinking abilities are attainable in the actual classroom.circump
stances if the proper learning experiences are provided. In order
to provide such experiences at the college level, proper organi-
zation must be attained.

This chapter is primarily concerned.with the development of
a framework to provide such an organization of learning experiences
for the divisional course in the History of Civilization. There is
considerable data suggesting how critical thinking can be promoted
in the classroom, but a paucity of attempts to Spell out and apply a
theory and an organizational scheme aimed at the achievement of
maximum cumulative results of critical thinking at the college level.

In deriving such a theory the author was influenced by

- 26 -

 

-27-

application to the general social science courses at wright Junior
College by H. M. Chausow, of the ideal-type construct of MaxTweber,

the ideas of Charles Judd and John Dewey, and his use of R. W}

Tyler's concept of the organizational structure in the curriculum.1

The Derivation of the Ideal-Type Construct

 

The ideal-type construct is suggested as a means of

clarifying complex social situations by Max Weber the German social
historian.2 ‘Weber examines social realities and from these

formulates the ideal-type construct. E. W; Burgess suggests that,
"many of these ideal types are polar conceptions, emphasizing the
importance of examining concrete reality in.the light of a continuum
between two logical extremes which have only a conceptual existence."3
Huston Smith suggests that our culture has taught us a number of
"pat opposites" which are used in everyday life to obstruct clear
thinking.)4 The social scientist then, has taken this everyday
logical concept, realizing that it represents extremes and not the

average, and has applied.it to the understanding of our social con-

ditions. This ideal-type has been used by social scientists for

 

1Chausow, op. cit., pp. 26-33.

2max‘weber, The Methodology of the Social Sciences, trans.
E. A. Shils and H. A. Finch (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, l9h9),
pp. h2-h3, 90-112.

 

3E. W} Burgess and H. J. Locke, The Family, Appendix A "The
Ideal Types In Family Research," (New York: American Book Company,
19h5)’ P- 756-

1‘Smith, op. cit., pp. 1-3.

-28-

the study of individuals or groups in a situation where it was
difficult to delineate the extremes from the average in the real
circumstance. It was suggested to the writer that these ideas could
be adaptable as a frame of reference whereby classroom experiences
in a general education History of Civilization course could be

compared.

Adaptation of the Ideal-Type Construct To the

Identification and Comparison

 

of Classroom Experiences

 

In order to relate achievement to methods used, it is
necessary to identify groups of students along a continuum. This
could be more aptly provided for if another ideal position comple-
mented the theoretical conception of the ideal-type construct. This
third.position would allow for the operation of chance factors out-
side of observed experiences in the attainment of critical thinking
skills.

The writer adapted the procedures used by H. M. Chausow, to
this study by determining three assumed positions along a continuum

S

of learning experience. These three locations are: ineffective
organization of learning experiences; minimum effective organization
of learning experiences; and most effective organization of learning

experiences. ‘we have termed these "A", "B", and "C" positions

respectively.

 

S

Chausow, o . cit., p. 28.

 

-29-

Two general hypotheses are based on the theoretical existence
of these positions on a given continuum. One is that the reality of
such ideal groups can be inferred by definition. The second is that
between the groups of students identified by these hypothesized
positions, important differences in the achievement of critical
thinking will occur.

Particular characteristics relevant to the three positions
aided in their identification. These are shown and related to the
ideal-type construct in the chart on page 30.

A study of this chart shows that the minimum characteristics
necessary for significant achievement are the "B“ criteria. The "A"
position is the absence of the "B" criteria, and the "C" group is
deriving maximum.profit from the "B" criteria plus additional
characteristics.

The rational for selecting these characteristics was based on
a behavioral definition of the objective of critical thinking, ideas
of authorities in the field of curriculum construction, and
suggestions gleaned from.numerous conferences with instructors
participating in the Illinois Colleges Study Group on Critical
Thinking. The sources used were relevant to the concepts of critical
thinking as applied to historical interpretation and analysis held
by the author. In our examination of these traits, it should be
emphasized that this study is primarily focused on their impact on

group results rather than on individual achievement.

 

 

 

- 3o -

CHART I

A SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE IDEAL-TYPE

CONSTRUCTa

 

 

Continuum of Learning Experiences

 

"A"

Ineffective Organi-
zation of Learning
Experiences

‘Want of stress on
motivation

‘Want of application
of historical under-
standings

‘Want of practice in
desired behaviors

II B"
Minimum Effective Organ-
ization of Learning
Experiences

Application of his-
torical understandings
to contemporary
problems

Limited practice in the
desired behaviors

Sufficient time
Student motivation
Organization using

continuity and
sequence

"C“
Most Effective
Organization of
LearningiExper.

Application of
historical under-
standings to
social problems

Individual
practice in the
desired behaviors

Sufficient time
Student motivation

Organization using
continuity and
sequence

Small discussion
class

Variety of ex-
periences

A climate of
learning stressing
the reciprocal
nature of the
learning factor

 

8Adapted from H. M. Chausow, o . cit.

The writer assumes that these characteristics are operative within

the classroom situation. A logical description of

will be given in the following sections.

these positions

-31-

Ineffective Organization of Learning Experiences
The “A“ Position
Probably the most important lack in the "A" position is that
of motivation of the student. Nathaniel Cantor in his book Th2

Teachipg Learning Process suggests that one of the basic propositions

 

of modern learning which the teachers in his study found hardest to
practice, was that "if the student has wholehearted interest in doing
the task that significant learning will result."6 The difficulty of
acquiring skill in critical thinking as a mere by-product of

studying a given subject is emphasized by R. L. Thorndike in a re-
cent yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.7
Thus we posited that the absence of the application of historical
understandings to contemporary problems would be a second character-
istic of the "A" position. The third characteristic which is wanting
in this position is the "absence of practice in the desired behaviors."
The student then must have a background of experience providing him
with skills in the solving of problems.8 Additional characteristics

which are absent in the "A" position will be discussed in relation

to the "B” position.

 

écantor’ O o Cite, pp. 1014-1050

7R. L. Thorndike, "How Children Learn the Principles and
Techniques of Problem.Solving,“ Learning and Instruction, Forty-ninth
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I
(Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1950), pp. 208—211.

 

8Ihid.

-32..

The Minimum Organization of Learning Experiences
It will be necessary to define those characteristics related
to the "B" position in operational terms and use them in illus-
trating this position.

Student motivation.--Modern theories of learning stress the

 

importance of motivation in the learning process. S. M. Corey

suggests that interest is the key to directing the student's thinking.9
Ernest Haggard in a doctoral study, implies that motivation is the
most important factor in the learning process.10 And wilheln Reitz

in the Encyclopedia of Educational Research, intimates that

 

motivation is the "determining tendency“ or "governing influence of
volition."11 For without interest and.motivation, students would
not be stimulated to "take on“ a problem.12 Havighurst in his
chapter on the "Social Foundations of Education" in a recent yearbook
of the National Society for the Study of Education points out that
the "motivational barrier" prevents students from achieving the

13

goals of general education.

 

9S. M. Corey, "Psychological Foundations of General Edu-
cation,“ Fifty-first'Yearbook of the NSSE, o . cit., p. 53.

10E. A. Haggard, "An Evaluation of Certain Conceptions In
Learning Theory,“ passim (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard
University, l9hl.)

llWilhelm Reitz, "The Higher Mental Processes," Engyclopedia
of Education Research (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1952), p. Shl.

 

 

”This, p. sus.

13Havighurst, Fifty-first Yearbook of the NSSE, oo. cit.,
pp. 71-95.

-33-

These writers add weight to the writer's conclusion, that
without motivation to guide their learning, students would not en-
deavor to put forth the necessary effort to do critical thinking.
Motivation then seemed to be one of the minimum factors operative
if the student is to achieve a significant increase toward the
objective.

Application of historical understandings to,problematic

situations.--Earl S. Johnson of the Social Science Division, Uni-

 

versity of Chicago, has made an important distinction between the
discussion of social problems and problematic situations in the
classroom. Unless the circumstances being studied are problematic

to the student, even though they be interesting and informative,

they become mere "intellectual ratholes" and are not very useful in
evoking situations which require the students to develop critical
thinking abilities.1h Johnson upholds Dewey‘s idea when he maintains
that problematic situations are»those in which conflicting pieces of
evidence are obvious and where contradictory views make a ready
answer improbable.15 In the application of historical understandings
to such situations, one of the emphases will be unresolved issues

of history, with an attempt to apply these to present conflicts.

John Dewey suggests that a blockage in behavior must occur befbre

 

1hChausow, o . cit., p. 33, of. Earl Johnson, "Freedom and
Discipline In the Social Sciences,", pp. l-lh.

15John Dewey, How'we Think (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company,
1933), assim.

 

- 3h -

reflective thought is stimulated.]"6 The Zeigarnik effect seems to

be operative in learning situations of this nature.17 The content
of these problematic situations should be well-grounded in the needs
of the student as well as related to those of the society. Such
situations must deal with vitally and socially useful data, and
with problems pertinent to man's life in a democratic society, and
the student should be given opportunity to apply the critical
thinking process.

Practice in the desired behaviors.--Effective thinking in

 

the social sciences consists of dynamic, coherent transfer of the
thought process which is ended only when an adequate solution is
reached. Yet, the transfer of this learning from one situation to
another is preportional to the degree to which the situations are
similar in structure or meaning. "This can mean that the similarity
might often be ... that of a pattern rather than.of learning specific
parts. This practice then is to be that of the organization of edu-
cational experiences stressing the thinking processes in relation-
ship to the social sciences'!18 Stroud states that "provisions should
be made in.the school procedure for the exercise of any economy of

n19

method.of study whose employment seem desirable ... He suggests

 

16John Dewey,'Democracy and Education (New'York: Macmillan
and Company, 1923), pp. 179-192.

 

17Gardner Nurphy, An Introduction To Psychology (New York:
Harper and.Brothers, 1951), p. 316.

18J. B. Stroud, "The Role of Practice In Learning," The Psy-
chology Of Learning, Forty-first Yearbook of the National Society
for the Study of Education, Part II (Bloomington, Illinois: Public
School Publishing Company, l9u2), pp. 365-366.

19Ibid, p. 370.

- 35 -

a number of effective means of practice, viz., class discussion,
written assignments, etc.20 Dewey's claim that one "learns by doing"21
is probably even more basic to this characteristic of providing
practice in the desired behaviors fbr the student. Furst's study

on the relation of learning outcomes to the use of learning situations
demonstrates the importance of student practice.22 Hilgard and.
Russell in their chapter of the Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education also stress the importance of

this characteristic.23 This is consistent with the concept of the

goal of education defined as those activities which elicit behavioral

changes. Dressel and Mayhew in Explorations In Evaluation, state

 

that "long term studies of student development cannot be of great
value until more serious attention is given to relating classroom
practice to the avowed educational objective."2h It thus seems of
utmost importance that the student be given problematic materials to
provide practice in problem solving.

Sufficiency of time.--One of the characteristics agreed.upon

 

2°Ibid.
21John Dewey, How we Think, op. cit., passim.

22E. J. Furst, "Effect of Organization On Learning Outcomes,"
Journal of Experimental Education, Vol. XVIII, (March-June),
pp. 215-228, 3fi2-392.

23E. R. Hilgard and D. H. Russell, "Motivation In School
Learning," Forty-ninth Yearbook of the NSSE, o . cit., p. 67.

 

2hDressel and Mayhew, General Education, Exploration In
Evaluation, op. cit., p. X.

 

-36-

by members of the Illinois Colleges Research Committee on Critical
Thinking, was that in the teaching for the achievement of this goal,
the material should be so arranged as to give students time to do
critical thinking.25 H. M. Chausow refers to the report of an
evaluation study by Tyler in which the number of problems considered
was decreased from twenty-one to seven for two semesters and this
resulted in an increase of the student's abilities to apply the
principles of critical thinking.26 In the writer's experience with
the required departmental course at Greenville College, it was found
that attempts to organize a typical history course around numerous
problems proved unsatisfactory without some limitation of materials
used. The problem is to achieve a balance between too few and too
many problems. At Harvard, in the Civilization course fer example,
\ only eight major topics are considered throughout the year.
Professor S. H. Beer gives the rationale for such selective treatment
of historical topics "the question is not, 'does the course touch

on all the great books or events or institutions?‘ but rather does
it select and organize its materials in such a way that the student
continually gets new light on certain central problems."27 The
author feels that focusing the student's attention on seven or eight

of these central problems is necessary if the organization of

 

 

2sIllinois Colle es Research Committee, Suggested Technigues
for Critical Thinking. %See Appendix E)

26Chausow, o . cit., p. 38, cf. R. W. Tyler.

27Earl J. MbGrath (ed.), Social Science In General Education
(Dubuque, Iowa: wn. C. Brown Company, l9h8), pp. 3-3:

 

-37-

learning experiences is to result in the attainment of a significant
increase in the student's ability to think critically, at both the
"B" and "C" positions.

Organization using continuity and sequence.--David G. Ryans,

 

writing in the Forty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the
Study of Education, states previous learning should.always set the
stage for subsequent learning. Activity which is similar to earlier
activity is thus facilitated.28 New learning, which is based on
existing response patterns, will be more easily acquired since the
acquired habits and skills will serve as motives. And the interest
value of new learning is intensified by its affinity with earlier
experiences.29 The Civilization course at Harvard is based on
"great issues" or problems. These continually recur in new forms
in subsequent problems. There is then, a continuity in terms of
problems and in an accumulation of informed opinion from prOblem to

30

problem. Judd argues that it is the major task of the schools to

endeavor to teach students to make comparisons and draw contrasts, to
look for explanations based on previous experiences and.to learn to

express clearly the relationship between events and facts.31

 

28D. G. Ryans, "Motivation In Learning", Forty-first Year-
book of the NSSE, Part II, o . cit., p. 313.

29Ibid.
3OMbGrath (ed.), o . cit., p. 8.

31Judd, o . cit., p. 193.

-38-

The Organization of Learning Experiences For the
Maximum Cumulative Effect

It was necessary to consider additional characteristics
which were needed to complement the minimum criteria in order to
obtain the maximum cumulative effect in the achievement of critical
thinking in the History of Civilization course. It was posited that
the addition of these characteristics--small discussion classes,
varied experiences, and what has been termed.the "reciprocal nature
of the learning factor"32--ought to contribute to a greater achieve-
ment of critical thinking. This suggested several basic hypotheses
of the study: first, that among the various groups pertaining to the
three idealized.positions, there would be significant differences in
the achievement of the objective of critical thinking; second, if the
above were proved, it would seem apparent that better methods of
teaching for this objective could be inferred from the criteria of
the ideal-type construct.

Small discussion group§.-Discussion in small groups, pro-
viding for interaction between.participants, characterizes the ideal
learning situation for the attainment of the objective sought. A
comparative study of the lecture method and the discussion method in
relation to the learning outcomes has been made by Benjamin Bloom.33
He discovered that discussion in small groups provided for greater

gains in critical thinking. He noted that activity, i.e. talking on

 

32J. P. vonGrueningen (ed.), Toward A Christian Philosophngf
Higher Education (Philadelphia: westminster Press, 1959?: p. 93.

 

 

33Benjamin 5. Bloom, "Thought Processes In Lectures and Dis-
cussions," The Journal of General Education, VII, No. 3 (April, 1953),
160-169.

 

-39-

the part of the learner, did not automatically aid in the learning
process. He found that passive learning was operative on the part
of the non-participants. However, he states that "when a number of
persons engage in the same activity in a group, the other persons
serve as competitors and that this rivalry and competition tends to

3’4

have a facilitating effect on learning. Thelen's studies in
learning through group interaction conclude that involvement on the
part of the student is one technique of achieving the greatest re-
sults in the educational process.35 Keith Tyler indicates that
discussion is a constructive process involving listening and think-
ing as well as speaking. He concludes that discussion contributes
toward the student's attainment of the important goals of higher
education, including the skills of critical thinking, problem

36

solving, independent judgment, the scientific method, etc.

Variety of experiences.—-There will be a great variation of

 

student interest and ability in the Civilization course. This will
necessitate varied experiences to achieve the maximum results, allow
for the variation in interest and abilities and provide practice in
the desired behaviors. Edgar Dale, speaking at a symposium at the

University of Minnesota recently, stated that "Mark Hopkins made

 

3 8 BhRyans, Forty-first Yearbook of the NSSE, Part II, o . cit.,
p. 1 .

35H. A. Thelen and R. W} Tyler, "Implications Fbr Improving
Instruction In the High School,“ Forty-ninth Yearbook of the NSSE,
Part II, o . cit., pp. 308-310.

36Russell Cooper (ed.), The Two Ends of the ng (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1958), p. 25h.

 

-h0-

education personal. He made it real." And he goes on to raise the
question of how college teachers might make use of "real" and
"stimulated reality" and thus provide for a variety of learning exp
periences.37 Dewey warns against too few or too many such experi-
ences, but suggests that a sufficient variety is necessary.38 These
experiences ought to provide the student exercise whereby he may
develop generalized integrated knowledge.39

The reciprocal nature of the learning factor.--A number of
the seven characteristics mentioned above anticipated.the existence
of what‘H. E. Hulme aptly terms a "creative humanrelatedness in the
learning situation or the 'reciprocal nature of the learning factor."ho
As Edgar Dale implies, we need to inject a creative element into the
learning process. He states that "our aim is to haye the student
learn more than the model exemplifies, to get something qualitatively
different from.what has been presented ... a creative element must

hl

be added." Whether or not the pupil learns will depend, then, on

whether or not he is made a part of the learning process. And.the

 

37Ibid, pp. 195-196.

38Dewey, Democracy and Education, op. cit., passim.

 

 

39w. A. Brownell and G. Hendrickson, "How Children Learn In-
formation, Concepts, and Generalizations," Forty-ninth Yearbook of
the NSSE, Part I, o . cit., pp. llh-llS.

hovonGrueningen (ed.), 0 . cit., pp. 93-95.

thooper (ed.), 0 . cit., p. 193.

- hl -

teacher by including himself tries to instill the idea that all are
approaching a problem together.)42
In this characteristic there are several propositions that
should be implicit if the organization of materials and methods are
to approach the maximum ideal. First, the dignity and worth of each
student is emphasized. The concept of man's worth is more than one
of the themes in the material discussed, but it also is evident in
the learning process. The student senses this respect for his in-
tegrity and will be more inclined.toward freer participation in all
activities.h3 Secondly, this factor requires a permissive atmos-
phere where students are free to inquire, to discuss, and to compare,
and which encourages honest expression of opinion, diversity in
viewpoints and most important, original thinking.hh Thirdly, this
factor emphasizes what Ruth Eckert terms the right and obligation
of private judgment.hs The students will be expected to study in-
dependently and to reach their own conclusions rather than depend on
textbooks which are as one writer put it "juiceless arid.summaries

nhé

of secondary sources. Finally, the inclusion of the teacher

 

hZCantor, o . cit., p. 8h.
h31bid.
thooper (ed.), op. ci .

hSRuth E. Eckert, "Materials and Methods In the Christian
College," in Toward a Christian Philosophy of Higher Education,

02. Cite, pp. 127-1780
h6Cooper (ed.), 0 . cit., p. 195.

-h2-

himself in the learning process suggests a most important point.
The teacher, by including himself, tries to communicate the idea
that all are approaching the problem togetherfi7 Excellent edu-
cational situations are, to use William H. Whitehead's descriptive
expression, "suffused with suggestiveness.“ The student might
attempt to emulate the teacher in order to understand him, but in
the process the better students should be challenged to transcend
him.M3

The writer proposes to use these three additional
characteristics plus those discussed above to define the positionsh9
on the ideal-type construct and their presence or absence in the
organization of learning experiences to identify actual classroom
situations which seem to approximate these positions. ‘we are
assuming then, that a continuum of classroom learning situations
exists which are identifiable by these criteria of the ideal-type

construct.

~o~-”-.a‘

Suggesting Effective Methods for Maximum Results

 

Although the ideal-type construct aids in the identification
of classroom situations, it does not however, suggest the most

effective method of attaining the maximum results.

 

h7Cantor, o . cit., p. 8h. hSCooper (ed.), 0 . cit., p. 193

l”Supra, pp. 32-37.

-b.3-

The ideas of Judd and Dewey were adapted to this study to
derive a framework which was designed to provide the maximum results
needed.

C. H. Judd emphasizes generalized knowledge as a primary
educational goal. In his book, The Cultivation of the Higher Mental
Processes, he describes a sequential development from memory,
through application to generalization. The basic goal of the edu-
cative process is emphasized as being that of generalized knowledge.
With this generalized knowledge the student is able to more
accurately and quickly apply his learning to newsituations.SO

The writer attempted to adapt Judd's ideas to a general edu-
cation course in Histony of Civilization for college freshmen in
the small liberal arts college. In this study, the higher level of
understanding was considered the fundamental level from.which to
begin the student's development of critical thinking skills. Louis
Gottschalk has suggested that the historian might consider himself
a social scientist of the past by arriving at historical under-
standings and from these reach generalizations that appear to be
valid and.which provide explanations of the development of contem-
porary events, thoughts and institutions.51

Our supposition is not that the lower mental processes are

unnecessary, for they are fundamental elements in the sequence of

 

soJudd, op. cit., passim.

SlGottschalk, o . cit., pp. 31—33.

-hh-

learning used. Reitz, in the Engyclgpedia of Educational Research,

 

spells out the role of these levels of learning and stresses the
importance of the application of the higher mental processes.52

‘Dewey's writings regarding the experiential continuums3 in
which learning experiences blend into one another, furnished in-
sights into the need for the provision of learning experiences which
interacted with one another and which thus enriched the total underh
standing of the student. The need to provide problematic learning
situations based on historical understandings using the organi-
zational concepts of continuity and sequence becomes an essential
factor in this study.

Our interest is in the transfer of critical thinking
abilities to related problematic situations. The emphasis is there-
fore, on the organization of learning situations which aid in the
development of valid generalizations. And the particular learning
situations which deal with the content selected would be directed at
providing the student with opportunities to utilize a variety of
analytical and interpretative devices basic to the behavioral

aspects of critical thinking.

 

52Encyclopedia of Educational Research, 0 . cit., pp. Shh-
5&8.

53Dewey, Experience and Education, op. cit., passim.

 

- hS -

Application of the Tyler Rationale Within

This Organizational Framework

 

The rationale of R. W. Tyler furnished several insights
regarding the precise characteristics to be included in this frame-
work. The need to furnish some "threads" or elements which are
woven together by this organizational principle so as to achieve the
optimum results was satisfied by integrative concepts, skills, and
values.Sh Consequently, Tyler‘s emphasis on the need for an or-
ganizational principle was adapted to the needs of this study.

The organizational plan for this thesis was to make use of
a limited number of "unresolved issues" in history; these issues
or problematic situations derived from history, served as the or-
ganizational structure; integrative concepts, skills and values were
used as the organizational threads; and sequential development from
historical understandings to generalizations regarding contemporary
problems were used as the organizational principle.

- ‘The integrative concepts are those basic concepts which re-
cur in each problem. These integrative concepts are the theme; the
quest for authority, viz. (a) the development of individual liberty
and (b) the conflict between individual liberty and social authority,
and the concepts of, (1) the nature of historical-mindedness,

(2) the complexity of causation in a historical episode, (3) the

complexity of cultural change and historical continuity, (h) social

 

S"‘R. Tyler, Fifty-seventh Yearbook of the NSSE, Part I,
O o Cite, pp. 112‘1150

-h6-

forces as manifestations of human power, (5) the proper perspective
of personalities in historical developments, (6) the role of ideas
in social processes, (7) and.the evolution of international organi-
zations for the prevention of war.

The integrative skills are related to the critical thinking
processes such as analyzing historical evidence by utilizing
critical thinking abilities.55 The integrative values are likewise
relevant to the critical thinking processes in terms of the
appreciation of the scientific method in historical analysis; of
objectivity, that is an understanding of the role of personal
biases in understanding history, and social science; applications of
historical understandings to contemporary social problems; and
willingness to withhold judgment until further evidence is presented.
These concepts, skills and.values served as the basis of continuity
(that is, they recur throughout the course) and sequence (depth of
understanding and comprehensive application to succeeding problems.)

In this manner, the organizational principle based.upon the
levels of thinking and.their interaction tended to unify these
concepts, skills and values, and provide fer the achievement of the
maximum cumulative effect. The development of the ability to make

social science generalizations from historical analysis is an

or o jec ve o e course. ese gener lza ions were
imp tant b’ ti f th 56 Th al‘ t'

 

55311213., pp. 20‘210

56Gottschalk, op. cit., p. 33.

 

-m-

achieved through the application of the critical thinking process
as defined in this study, and were brought to bear upon the contem-
porary problems used to relate the History of Civilization course
material to "unresolved issues" of this Age.

This organizational principle seemed to provide for maximum
cumulative results especially where the "C" criteria were operative.
H. M. Chausow had proved that a theoretical framework similar to
this, resulted in significant difference in the achievement of
critical thinking between various sections of the same class taught
by different instructors.S7 Our purposes were somewhat different
from his in that the writer planned to organize the last two
learning situations described above within a single classroom. In
this way the writer hoped to discover whether the application of the
"C" characteristics would result in significantly better achievement
in critical thinking than the operation of the “B" criteria in the
same classroom. In such a situation it was hoped.that.the delineation
of methods conducive to the greatest achievement of critical thinking
would.be possible. The instructor variable would be held constant
by containing type "B" and type "C" in what would on the surface

appear to be an identical classroom situation.

Summagy
This chapter has been a description of the theoretical

framework used in this study.

 

S7Chausow, o . cit., pp. hO-hZ.

~h8-

In using the ideas of weber and Burgess adapted by Chausow,
an ideal-type construct of learning experiences was developed for
our own purpose. Three ideal positions were identified representing
the ineffective, minimum effective and most effective organization
of learning experiences. It was hoped that this ideal-type
construct would aid in the identification of the actual learning
situations used in this study.

A sequential organizational scheme to insure the maximmm
development of the student's abilities to do critical thinking was
traced. The ideas of Judd, regarding the levels of thinking, were
adapted to Dewey's concept of learning situations blending together
along an experiential continuum.

That part of the Tylerian rationale, relevant to the organi-
zation of learning experiences stressing the importance of an
organizational plan was used. A number of problems in historical
analysis made up the organizational structure. The organizational
elements were interwoven through the organizational structure, and
thus served as the threads of continuity and sequence and these are
tied together by the organizational principle. The application of
this organizational scheme to the various learning situations ought
to aid in the attainment of the objective at the maximum position

on the continuum as identified by the ideal-type construct.

CHAPTER III

APPLICATION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK TO LEARNING

SITUATIONS IN THE HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION COURSE

AT GREENVILLE COLLEGE

Introductign

 

The development of the student‘s ability to do critical or
independent thinking is accepted as one of the basic objectives of
Greenville College, a small church related college of liberal arts
and sciences. In the post world war II years, the faculty rewrote
the educational objectives of Greenville College to include among
its aims "to help each student develop the ability to think, in-
cluding the use of the scientific method."1 More recently, the
faculty of the social science division agreed that one of the im.
portant objectives of the curriculum in this division was, " to help
provide a background for 'critical and constructive thinking' re-

"2 The

garding significant local, national and world problems.
faculty of Greenville College agrees with other educators and with
Huston Smith in particular, who wrote that, "critical thinking is not

the only kind, but it is a tremendously important kind of thinking

 

1Greenville College Record, Announcement of the SixtyeEighth
Year 1959-1960, Vol. LI, No. 1 (Greenville, Illinois: Greenville
College, l9§§), p. 7.

2Ibid., p. 75.

- h9 -

- So -

in which every liberally educated student should acquire some
facility.3

The intent of this chapter is to apply formulations developed
in Chapter II, to actual classroom situations so as to evaluate their
applicability.

This theoretical framework was applied to the History of
Civilization course at Greenville College in 1958-1959, which was
one of three Illinois colleges participating in a study relative to
the relationship of methods and achievement of the objective of
critical thinking, under the sponsorship of the North Central Associ-
ation Committee on Liberal Arts Education. This was a cooperative
effort by these colleges to stimulate the conscious use of methods
which the group felt would.promote the achievement of critical or
independent thinking in the various required freshman classes. A
planning committee made up of instructors from the participating
colleges agreed on some of the common methods to be used and the
types of data to be collected. Exhibit B was developed to be used

h

as a common guide for the colleges. Instructors were to be made
more aware of'the educational process and of the need of continuous
evaluation by keeping a daily log and handing in a report every
three weeks, of the kinds of activities utilized in the various areas

which were different from those used formerly, and which seemed to

 

3Smith, 0 . cit., p. 16h.

1‘See Appendix E for a copy of Exhibit B.

- 51 -

elicit activities conducive to growth in the objective.

Objective data was also collected.and.analyzed on the
freshmen for the year 1958-1959 and compared with like data on the
freshmen of 1957-1958. This included.pre- and post-tests on the
A.C.E. Critical Thinking Test Form G and achievement tests such as
the S.T.E.P. social science tests.

The general assumptions of this Illinois Study seemed to be
that (l) the freshman class of 1957-1958 was somewhat equal in
ability to the classes of 1958-1959, and that there had not been an
overall conscious effort on the freshman level to achieve the ob-
jective; (2) through a concerted conscious effort, critical thinking
at the freshman level could be achieved in the general education
courses; (3) achievement in critical thinking could be ascertained
by analyzing the pooled observations of the participating teachers
and students as well as objective data, i.e., results of a Test In
Critical Thinking Form G.

Using this Illinois Study as general background, the writer
planned to set up an experimental classroom situation in the History
of Civilization course. By organizing the class materials and
learning experiences according to the framework set down in the
previous chapter, it was hoped that it would be feasible to deline-
ate the relationship between methods and organization of experiences
as they affected growth toward this most vital objective.

In this chapter our task is to associate the ideal-type

construct with the actual classroom situations and methods

-52..

representing the respective “A", "B" and "C" positions identified;
and to apply the organizational scheme in the experimental group so

as to approach as nearly as possible the maximum end of the continuum.5

Identification of Actual Classroom Using

 

the Ideal-Type Construct

 

These theoretical positions along the continuum were
helpful in identifying learning situations that were similar to the
ineffective organization of learning experiences, the minimum organi-
zation of such experiences, and the most effective organization of
learning experiences necessary for maximum achievement in the ability
to do critical thinking. The writer did not feel that the maximum
end of this continuum.existed when this study was begun, so it was
necessary to set up a learning situation comparable to this position.

Students taking the American History course as their social
science requirement in 1957-1958 in their freshman year, represented
the "A" extreme position on the continuum. The control group in the
History of Civilization course represented the "B” position. The
'experimental group in this course represented the "C", or extreme
position on the continuum.

The American History course as taught prior to 1958-1959 did
not meet the criteria posited as necessary for the minimum achieve-
ment of critical thinking. The writer felt that, although historical

understandings were listed among the objectives, there was little

 

5The means of derivation and the rationale were defined in
the previous chapter.

-53-

attempt in the organization and selection of the learning experi-
ences to provide for the application of these understandings to
problematic situations which would contribute to the achievement of
critical thinking abilities.

This course, although superficially organized around.problem

areas, did not provide experiences which were problematic to the

 

student.6 The syllabus was organized around problems related to the
forty-seven chapters of'the textbook.7 The course used lecture-
discussion situations with the hope that students would make the
application of understandings gained to current problems.

The learning situations did not furnish the student practice

in thinking critically. The mimeographed syllabus, "Guidelines to

 

American History," included questions and projects which were based
on the text and related readings. In addition to weekly reading
assignments the students were to read.and.analyze an approved
biography each semester. Because of the variety of books read, this
report was to follow a standard outline. Since there was no dis-
cussion of this reading in class, and because it was virtually im-
possible to test over such material, this project did not as a rule
provide a basis for evaluation of the student's ability to critically
analyze historical material.

Class discussions and lectures were focused on arriving at

 

6Chausow, o . cit., p. 50. of. Earl Johnson.

7Thomas A. Bailey, The American Pageant (New York: D. C.
Heath Company, 1956).

-524-

basic factual knowledge and understandings of the development of
American History. Little if any, attention was paid to the basic
critical thinking abilities, e.g. test items on the final exami-
nations were mostly of the factual recall type.

Results of various formal and.informal observations of the
classroom situation cited in Chapter IV, all suggest that student

motivation was lacking in the American History course. Although

 

there were individual students who were stimulated because of
appreciation of content, yet the concern of this study is with the
overall group impact of the course and any generalizations made must
be in group terms.

In responding to questions 6-10 on the Curriculum Evaluation

8

Questionnaire, juniors and seniors who had taken their general edu-
cation work at Greenville College were asked to rank the "relative
value in which they held.these courses while taking them." The 131
students ranked the courses in this order: Humanities, Communications,
Physical Science, Biological Science, and.American History was last.
Questions 26-30 asked the students to "rate the comparative
value of these courses since completing them." Only 12.h per cent
felt that the American History course was most valuable as compared
with 22.7 per cent who thought this for the Humanities course and
the others were rated in between, but all were over 20 per cent.

In this course, the instructor attempted to combine dis-

cussion techniques with lecture presentations. The students' lack

 

8"Curriculum Evaluation Questionnaire" was developed as a
check on student attitudes toward the achievement of general edu-
cation objectives by the author.

-55-

of preparation frequently stymied such attempts. No doubt classes
of sixty-five to seventy students contributed to lack of partici-
pation and all too often what little discussion took place was
carried on by several "talkers"; the majority maintained passivity
unless called on. Although small colleges traditionally pride
themselves on their personal approach, classes of this size con-
ducted in this manner, discourage the attainment of such a goal.

Although course requirements were spelled out rather care-
fully in the syllabus, the students did not feel free to discuss
with the instructor one of these requirements, and each semester
there were a number of reports written which were not apropos to
this assignment. The teacher's knowledge of the interests, goals,
etc. of the student was likewise meager; he was hard put just to
know the name of each student.

The lack of interest and participation in extra-class
activities is indicative of the absence of this criteria.

Further evidence given below suggests that the criteria
mentioned as necessary if significant achievement in the goal of

critical thinking was to occur in such a class were absent.9

The Organization of Learning Experiences In the
History of Civilization Course
After several years of planning and revision a new general

education or divisional course in History of Civilization was

 

9Infra, Chapter IV. ‘

-56-

introduced on a trial basis in the fall of 1958. Our task was to
keep as close a check as possible on this course to insure that it
would fulfill to a much larger extent than the previous courses the
objectives of general education which it was organized to attain.
This could be facilitated somewhat by working with the Illinois Study10
in reporting observations of classroom situations and methods used
which seemed to result in achievement of the particular objective of
critical thinking. The writer hoped to more specifically relate
such achievement to specific methodology by dividing the History of
Civilization class into two groups, the control and experimental.11
The control situation would meet the "B" criteria of the ideal-type
construct as well as serving as a check on the experimental group
and thus aid in isolating those methods which would result in the
approximation of the maximum.end of the continuum.

The nature of the course and the materials selected seemed
to necessitate a greater degree of organization than was shown by
the criteria used by Chausow12 in basic social science courses at

'Wright Junior College, if they were to result in a minimum effective-

ness of achievement in critical thinking.

The "B" Classroom Situation
Aside from the fact that the purpose of the course was de-

fined more broadly and that the content was different from the

 

lOSuQI‘a, p o 50.

1J'These groups were randomized and were found to be
statistically equal on A.C.E. scores and critical thinking pre-test
scores.

12Chausow, op. cit., pp. 5h-65.

-57-

previous required course, the following characteristics were used.
The course was organized into four problem units stressing

the application of historical understandings to social science

 

roblems, or problematic situations. So the number of problems was
reduced by five-sixth's (2h to h). The writer felt that there is
13

considerable evidence in the literature bearing out the impossi-
bility of trying to "cover the waterfront" in such a course and
still maintain the focus on the application and generalization of
historical understandings. So it was decided that a few selected
problems, if adequately presented and analyzed in terms of a method
of attack would be helpful in gaining the objectives of a general
education course. 'we likewise had decided to relate the methods
used to the objective of critical thinking so that each problem.unit
was designed to advance questions involving the student's critical
thinking abilities.

As a consequence of the Illinois Study, student motivation
and interest became a conscious goal of the instructors of those
courses involved, including History of Civilization.

The course opened with a discussion of the role of the
Middle East today. As this was just a few months following the
Lebanon intervention, interest was still high, since the students

had seen and heard a great deal concerning this problem in news-

papers and on radio and television programs. From this discussion

 

13Supra, p. 30, 37. cf. McGrath.

- 53 -

it was not difficult to raise questions about origins of Middle
Eastern civilization, and several filmstrips were used to familiar-
ize them with the birth of western civilization in the three river
valleys. The first unit had these five objectives:

1. Motivation of the students toward History of
Civilization as a general education course;

2. Introduction of the scientific method and
critical techniques to historical analysis and
interpretation;

3. A summary of tentative problems which could be
covered using the "value-conflict" approach;

h. An attempt to get members of the class involved
in committees for the planning of important
questions for the other units;

5. To show the importance of historical mindedness
in understanding contemporary problems.

Students were asked to read and analyze an article about the
Middle East today and.the article1h was analyzed in class using the
critical thinking skills. They were assigned a short paper com-
paring the difference in the Middle East today and 5000 years ago.
Materials used would be the article mentioned, filmstrips and
library materials.

Student interest was high in both groups in Unit I; however,
the instructor experienced some difficulty in trying to get the
students to apply specific findings to general concepts such as
historical mindedness, etc., and to see the relationship of the

present to problems of the past.15

 

lhR. N. Frye, “Islam and the Middle East," Current History,
Vol. 30, No. 178 (June, 1950), pp. 327-331.

15Instructor's anecdotal record, September 29, 1958.

- 59 -

Classroom experiences also provided practice in the critical

thinking behaviors. Assignments were given in terms of problems

 

and a variety of tests and daily quizzes were used with both the
control and experimental groups. A frequent type of quiz was to
have the students use the critical thinking abilities to analyze
several key paragraphs in a historical reading, e.g. "Pericles'
Funeral Oration," from Thucydides' "History of the Peloponnesian
war."16 These were usually open book quizzes and so the stress was
not "on what?" but "what do you think?"

we will briefly examine some of the experiences selected to
contribute to this characteristic during the four units that com-
prised the first semester.

Since the fall session Opened a week late, because of delay
in the building program, there was a total of forty-three class
sessions in the semester. The first sixteen sessions dealt with an
introduction to the critical method as used in historical analysis,
a general over-view of the central theme, "the conflict between
individual liberty and.social authority," using a number of readings
from.the classical period to illustrate its existence. The next
eleven class periods used.problems from the medieval period to
continue this discussion. Feudal obligations and.the Magma Charta
illustrated the contractual aspects of society; the struggle between

Henry IV and Pope Gregory and Philip IV and POpe Boniface VIII

 

16J. L. Beatty and C. A. Johnson, Heritage of Western Civi-
lization, Selected Readings (New York: Prentice Hall 00., 1958),
pp. 16-20 0

- 60 -

illustrated the struggle between spiritual authority and temporal
power. The next seven sessions dealt with the new stress on "man as
the measure" and source of authority in the Renaissance. The ideas
of Machiavelli and the individualism.of Cellini and the political and
cultural changes were discussed (these last two were touched on very
lightly). The final three weeks dealt with the religious revolution
of the sixteenth century emphasizing its modern implications, in-
cluding the freeing of the individual conscience which was considered
as one of the possible effects of this struggle.

In each unit questions were raised which it was hoped.would
stimulate the transfer of the historical understandings arrived at
to present day problems. In a written analysis of selections by

Plato17

describing the trial and death of Socrates, the students were
asked to relate his reasoning to several contemporary situations,
e.g. a conscientious objector on trial during the cold war; a witness
before a Congressional investigating committee; and the defense of

a pacifist who had agitated against further H-bomb testing.

The four half-hour examinations were varied, so as to pro-
vide opportunity to apply the critical thinking abilities. It would
seem.that "practice in the desired behaviors" was superficially at
least, equal. Unique treatment in this characteristic was afforded
18

the experimental group in this class.

Both groups were provided with more "sufficient time" to

 

17Ibid., pp. h9-7o.

lslnfra, pp. 70—71.

- 61 -

think about the material than in the organization of the American
History course. The chronolOgical arrangement of the four problem
units was designed to give significance to the factual knowledge
covered. At the same time, it was not our intent to try to cover all
the material in a given time period, for this would have prevented
allowing for sufficient time to think about the significance of the
material and to relate it to significant issues in a significant
manner.19 In as far as possible, periodic tests were kept short
enough to allow for the careful consideration of thought items
included.

Materials were organized according to the conceptual frame-
work described in Chapter II, which furnished an organization using

continuity and squence. Recurring concepts of our western heritage

 

were stressed. The critical skills were used as a device for
analyzing and applying historical ideas to the understandings of
presentproblems.20 Critical thinking values and attitudes were
stressed in each unit so that sequential development was provided
for equally as far as the time spent in the class was concerned. As
the students went from one problematic situation to another, they
built upon their previous learning experiences. The later assign-
ments were more difficult than the previous ones; this was more
plainly evident when students who had not had the first semester

enrolled in the second and discovered that numerous casual references

 

195mm, o . cit., pp. 119-153.

20Suora, Chapter II, pp. hS-h7.

-62..

were made to previous problems by students who had taken the first
semester of the course. It was hoped that the students would apply
the understandings that they had gained in earlier units to the
identification and analysis of material for later problems. Yet,
without the careful treatment given the "C" group, students often
missed.the relationship between the subsequent learning situations.

21 in the overall

The presence of these five characteristics
learning situation involving the History of Civilization course thus
identified it as approximating the minimum or "B“ position on the
ideal-type construct we had adapted.22 Hence, significant changes
in the ability of the students to do critical thinking should take
place according to the hypothesis. Yet, maximum results were not

obtained and additional characteristics were necessary if the maximum

achievement of the objective was to be reached.

Learning Experiences In the "C" Classroom Situation

This involved an attempt to maximize the organization of
learning in the experimental situation in order to locate it in a
relationship approximate to the extreme position identified as the
"C" and of the learning continuum. The basic difference would then
be in the more effective use of the "B" criteria23 with the intro-
duction and use of these additional characteristics, varied experi-

ences, small classroom situations and the "reciprocal nature of the

 

21Su ra, p. 30. 22Chausow, op. cit.

23%} p. 30) 32‘37, 55'620

-63-

learning factor."

The pertinency of these characteristics in providing learning
experiences approximating the maximum and of the ideal-type construct
will be shown in the following description of their application to
the first four units of the Civilization course.

Our first problem was a greater emphasis on the "B" criteria.
This included greater stress on the application of historical under-
standing to contemporagy problematic situations.

This was achieved to a greater degree by meeting in com-
mittees with the "C" group, obstensibly to plan the unit's activities
and in these meetings arrive at a hypothesis of the central problem
of the unit which would then be discussed in class. For instance, in
Unit I, two committees each made up of six members of the "C" group,
met after several class periods and discussed "what were the central
themes in the classical period", and "which of these might be
present in our society today." In this instance, the themes agreed
upon were the "existence of extreme individualism and extreme
respect for social authority in Greece" and "the struggle to achieve
liberty in Rome."2h These provided opportunity for discussion by
the entire class; however, the "C" group seemed to have a greater
interest in such "application and generalization" of the material.
One member of this group made this statement, "Ifound class dis-
cussion especially interesting and helpful in realizing the

possibility of a relationship between the Greek ideas of 'justice and

 

2hInstructor's anecdotal record, Steering Committee Unit I.

-ou-

freedom' of the individual, the Roman concept of natural law and
our ideas today“.25 In attempts to further emphasize this
characteristic, we frequently made use of current situations
suggested by the class. In our analysis of Polybius' "Histories",
the current election was mentioned as an illustration. In trying

to decide whether his conclusions that "prosperity leads to
deterioration" and "that rivalry for office is the beginning of such
decay"26 were valid, several of the students in the experimental
group took exception. Their argument was that advances made since
his time have strengthened faith in the voter as well as the "vote
getter."27

Provision for greater application of historical under-

standings to present day issues contributed to increased motivation

 

of students. The students in group "C" displayed a consistently

 

higher degree of interest throughout both semesters. For, analysis

of the anecdotal records kept by the instructor and questionnaires

and rating sheets show that group “C“ was superior in interest,

attendance, completion of assignments and participation in class.2
In addition to the ideas used with the "B" group, the

following discussion techniques were applied with greater success in

 

2SInstructor's anecdotal record, Unit I.
26Beatty and Johnson, 0 . cit., pp. 10h-115.
27Instructor's anecdotal record, November 5, 1958, Unit I.

281nfra, pp. 98-99, 101.

- as -

stimulating the "C" group.
"The Creative Discovery Method" was one of these; however,

29 The

it was used infrequently because of obvious limitations.
writer began one class session by drawing what was supposed to be
a gallows on the blackboard. This was supposed to be the symbol of
a new religion, "how many would be willing to follow a religion
which had such a symbol?" 'We were trying to get at the difficulty
of explaining the rise of Christianity. This provoked considerably
more discussion than it would have if I had merely asked the class
to list the causes for the triumph of Christianity in the Roman
age.30
In discussing Polybius' argument, that "the success of Rome
was the result of the form.of its constitution"31, a student from
the "C" group made the statement that "this was the case in the
United States." The instructor challenged him to prove this. This
was one instance where the "double dare you method"32 elicited a
lively response as well as the application of historical under-
standing to contemporary problems, for in order to illustrate the
fallacy of this statement members of the group applied it to the

U.S.S.R.33

 

29R. H. Ennis, "Critical Thinking, More On Its Motivation,"
Progressive Education (May, 1956), Vol. 33, No. III, pp. 75-85.

3OInstructor's anecdotal record, November 17, 1958.
31Beatty and Johnson, 0 . cit., pp. 10h-115.
32Ennis, op. cit., pp. 76-77.

33Instructor's anecdotal record, November 3, 1958.

- 66 -

In the free-wheeling sessions that frequently developed,
students in the "C" group often challenged other members of the
group or of the class. Fortunately, this did not often occur but
on occasions it was reported to the writer that these rather heated
discussions were continued in the cafeteria line and through the
lunch hour.3h

Socio-dramas and role playing were used to create interest
and discussion. Sometime after we had covered.Unit one, a student
remarked that "that little impromptu drama did more to help me re-
member the Greek ideas of 'freedom of the individual' than anything
else."35

The conscious effort of the instructor to know the student's
abilities and to provide them with varied experiences which would
allow fer individual differences, was related to the matter of
student interest. And the instructor had an excellent chance to
know the students in the experimental group since there were only
twelve in the group. The instructor used the personal folders,
which are filed in the office of the dean and readily accessible, to
learn the student's major or field.of interest, high school achieve-
ment and background in content being covered, his percentile rank on

the A.C.E. Psychological Examination, and pre-test scores on the

critical thinking test. Conferences were held with members of the

 

3"‘Instructor's anecdotal record, November 3, 1958.

35Instructor's report of interview with student, January
1959. This was in reference to several select scenes from "Antigone"
which were used as basis for role playing situations.

-57-

"C" group early in the semester and these together with the give and
take of class discussion, oral reports, quizzes and observations
aided in knowing the student's strengths and weaknesses as well as

his interests. The instructor was able to provide varied experi-

 

ppggg to satisfy these individual differences.

In the required.American History class of 1957-1958 and in
the "B" group in the History of Civilization, the above average and
superior students were not provided for. As greater emphasis was
placed on the "C" criteria, this was greatly improved in the experi-
mental group in 1958-1959. Especially was this true in terms of
varied experiences. The anecdotal records of the instructor have
numerous illustrations showing how the "superior" students were
given a greater variety of learning situations in which they were
challenged to think critically. In his contacts with the experi-
mental group, the instructor felt that he had an obligation to
identify those students who were substantially above average in
academic ability as well as help the average and below average
students. These learning experiences included special reports,
quizzes, acting as committee chairmen, visits to lectures, attend-
ance at the college "Colloquia," and the planning and.writing of a
research paper related to some problem in which they became inter-
ested during the first eleven or twelve weeks of the semester. The
problem for this paper was to be decided on only after some explora-

tory reading, and a conference or conferences with the instructor,

- 68 -

in which the problem was defined, and a method of attack was agreed
on. Contrasted with this use of a variety of experiences, was the
treatment of the control group. Although they were in the same
class, they were seldom called on if anyone else was seeking per-
mission to talk, rarely if ever gave a special report and if any of
them asked about a paper, I merely said "fine, here are some tOpics,
which one do you want to write about?" and gave them my approval
without a great deal of encouragement or help. Consequently, eight
of the twelve in the "C" group wrote short research.papers, but only

four of twelve in the "B" group.36

At no time was anyone told that
these projects were required, but students in the "C" group were
more interested and reacted.to such a challenge and gained additional
practice in critical thinking by using anotheerariety of learning
experience related to the objective.

In addition to a variety of tests, quizzes, etc., short
written assignments on aSpects of the problems were used which lent
variety to the learning situation out of class as well as giving
practice in the critical thinking behaviors. Films and filmstrips
were used and analyzed using the critical thinking skills.

Although all assignments were aimed at the achievement of
practice in the desired behaviors, the papers of the experimental
group were carefully read and suggestions carefully written re-

garding ways of improving their handling of the basic skills of

critical thinking. Several different groups of students from the

 

36Instructor's anecdotal record, November 10, 1958.

-69-

experimental section acted out their interpretations of "Antigone"
and.then led the class in a discussion of how this tragedy was an
epitome of the Greek views of man's relationship to social and.re-
ligious authority.37 In flue test for'this unit, the students were
asked to evaluate the role of the main characters in this tragedy.
The persons who had participated in the role-playing did a much

better job of this part of the test than the others. All students

"38

had been required to compare Pericles' "Funeral Oration with a
speech by an imaginary contemporary politician. The students in the
"C" group, even thoug this was only in the fourth week of the
course, more readily identified the central issue and underlying
assumption of his oration and applied.his arguments to a contemporary
political speech. In Unit Four on the Protestant Reformation, the
film "Martin Luther" was shown and discussed. And it was also made
available for an evening showing the week before finals?9 In dis-
cussing this problem, the class was asked, "which hypothesis would
probably be more acceptable to Protestants today?: (a) the refor-
mation was an attempt to purify church administration, (b) the
reformation began as a reformation of church doctrine." The class
voted first for the (a) hypothesis, then several of them from.the
experimental group objected. They got the idea the instructor was

getting at when they reasoned that it was (b), because Luther taught

 

37Instructor‘s anecdotal record, October 18, 1958.

38Beatty'and Johnson, 0 . cit., pp. 16-28.

3912:22. pp. 93-9h.

- 7o -

that "salvation was by faith and not works." After some discussion,
the group agreed.with the instructor that "b" might be the most
acceptable today if we were to maintain the distinctiveness of the
Protestant tradition, for the Roman Catholic church had had reform
of its administration in the sixteenth century. The group decided,
however, that both hypotheses are important in understanding a
social movement as complex as the sixteenth century reformation, and
so group processes, in this case at least, arrived at the most
accurate interpretation.hO

The different types of examinations used throughout the
course served as learning experiences as well as evaluation instru-
ments. The new situations given in the unit examinations required
the students to use the critical thinking abilities they had acquired.
On one multiple-choice unit test they had to give the reason for
their choice of the answer selected on "3 x 5" cards. Post-test
reviews of these tests were used to further their value.

It was possible then, through using a variety of learnipg

experiences, to furnish the students in the "C" group considerably

 

more practice in the critical thinking abilities, than the control
or "B" group .

Providing for any uniqueness in the sufficiency of time was
unnecessary since the writer had assumed that flexibility of class

schedule, and the reduction of problem units, were a requisite if the

 

hoInstructor's anecdotal record, January 16, 1959, Unit IV.

- 71 -

minimum amount of achievement in the objective was to be attained.
The "C" group however, responded more fully to the opportunities
provided, judging by the quality of the work performed and the per
cent of completed assignments.

Continuity and sequence, as a rule, were operational, more
or less equally, in both groups.hl The variable here seems to have
been the greater motivation of students in the "C" group to utilize
such continuity and sequence. Each.unit test emphasized under-
standings but the emphasis changed to that of application and genera-
lization by the time of the final.

Possibly the greatest carry-over from problem to problem was
in the emphasis on the critical thinking skills. These were used in
the interpretation of the historical sources. A member of the "C"
group commented that she found herself asking her roommate, "What is
your underlying assumption?" and "is your conclusiOn warranted?" in

h2 Another student

the course of discussing any of their subjects.
wrote, "I never thought that I'd.be able to understand the writings
of Plato and the ideas of Socrates, but I find that the critical
thinking skills are making this possible and interesting. One skill
that I feel that I am learning is to think and to separate facts

from opinions and assumptions in my reading, in other words, critical

thinking'lh3 Another student stated in an interview at the end of

 

“Supra, p. 36-37, 61—62.
l"(zlnstructor's anecdotal record, Unit II.

hBInstructor's summary of students reaction to open ended
questionnaire regarding the value of the course, January 29, 1959.

-72-

the semester, "the course has improved my awareness of the need to
think, and has helped me to develop the ability to fit ideas into a
patterthh
Analyses of the "Curriculum.Evaluation" questionnaire and the
"Student Reaction To Classroom Teaching" sustain these examples and

also reflect the effects of organizing the course according to the

organizational schema of the critical thinking skills in the "C"

group.h5

The writer assumed that the permissive atmosphere and variety

of learning experiences which typified the "C" group were more

characteristic of a small discussion class than the sporadic parti-

 

cipation of the "B" group. The attitude of students in the "B"
group corresponded more closely to that of students participating

in a lecture-discussion class. This conclusion is supported by
evidence given which compares the ratio of participation per class
of each group)"6 The writer is aware that overt participation is
not the only kind that results in learning, for Bloom's studies con-
cluded that both covert participation and the quality of cerebral
activity were important.h7 The writer's contention is not that
talking more in class resulted in greater learning activity for the

"C" group, but vice versa. It should.be noted at this point that

 

hhlnstructor's anecdotal record of interview, January 29, 1959.
hsinfra, pp. 99-101.
hélnfra, p. 101.

h7Bloom, "Thought Processes In Lectures and Discussions,"
0 . cit., pp. 150-169.

- 73 -

h8

discussion is only one aspect of the teach-learning process, and
even then must be more broadly defined than just speaking. The
experimental group then seemed to be more resolute in listening, ob-
serving, and thinking as well as speaking. Evidence given below
supports this conclusion.u9

The small class effect of group "C" was seen in their
readiness to participate in the various modifications, viz. group
dynamics, socio-drama, panels and special reports while the number
of volunteers for such activities from the "B“ group was relatively
small. It should be noted that where there was a choice between two
students, the student from the experimental group was chosen if at
all possible.

Members of the "C" group met with the instructor for con-
ferences at various times throughout the semester. After one such
conference, the writermade the following notation in his anecdotal
record.

All Tuesday afternoon, I met with groups of students from

Group I. Two of the poorer students did not show; one lived

in the country and did not bother, the other had to work. The
ostensible purpose was to go over Problem II with the group

and review those points which they did not understand. The

real purpose was to give members of the group additional practice
in the critical thinking skills in small groups. The time was
spent reviewing analyses of the readings and relating these to

an overall theme, e.g. the understanding of the conflict be-
tween religious and temporal authority and the struggle to
maintain individual liberty in such a static society. I also

wanted to see if such an effort would.bave any effect on
achievement on the test which was scheduled for the last of the

 

l‘8Cooper, op. cit., p. 25h.

ll9In1‘ra, pp. 98-1oh.

- 7h -

week. Judging by the student reaction, it was a very pro-
fitable afternoon. One of the students said upon leaving,
"Why couldn't all of our college classes be conducted in this
way?"

In achieving the specific goals of the course and the general
goal as well, these small discussion techniques emphasized in the
experimental group proved advantageous. For instance, the mean
score of the "C" group was considerably higher than group "B" on
Unit 11.51

The reciprocal nature of the learning factor might well
serve as the capstone to the characteristics previously described.
Apparently the "C" group was made more fully a part of the learning
process in all of these characteristics.

The setting up of these two groups seemed to substantiate
one of Cantor's contentions, that is, "that the teacher has it
within his power to establish the feeling tone of the classroom.52
Relations between the instructor and the experimental group were of
such a nature that the students did not hesitate to question or
challenge one another, or the instructor, and in the process con-
tributed to the impact of the learning situation on the group.53
This give and take was lacking from the control group, except in an
incidental manner. Responses on an unsigned questionnaire "Student

Sh

Reaction To Classroom Teaching" supports this conclusion.

 

soInstructor's anecdotal report, November 20, 1958, Unit II.
5¥gg£3§, p. 93, Table 9.

52Cantor, op. cit., p. 79.

53;pid., p. 80.

5422253, pp. 100-101, Table 12.

-75-

Students in the "C" group felt that they had greater freedom
to think, to ask questions or investigate, and they accepted a
greater responsibility to contribute both to the group and.to their
own learning progress. This was the matrix in which group "C"
operated, one in which a positive learning atmosphere was encouraged
in the classroom, and evidently present in extra-class situations

55

as well.

Summary

This chapter has considered the application of the theoreti-
cal framework described in Chapter II to actual classroom situations
at Greenville College.

The identification of the classroom situations was expedited
by using the criteria of the various positions which had been
posited along the ideal-type construct of learning experiences. The
presence or absence of the various criteria was determined by des-
cribing the required.American History classes prior to 1958-1959,
and the distinctive methods used with the control and experimental
groups within a single History of Civilization class.

The writer depicted.the procedures of these three class
situations using a number of illustrations and sources as evidence.
These were observations of the instructor from his daily anecdotal
record, course outlines, student rating sheets, student participation

in out-of—class activities, and the organization and selection of

 

SSCantor, on. cit., p. 80.

m

-76-

the total experiences within the various learning circumstances.
Using the criteria outlined in Chapter II, the writer derived
the hypothesis that significant differences in achievement of
critical thinking should take place in the various classroom
situations.
In the subsequent chapter, the results gained in these
actual classroom situations will be analyzed to check this hypothesis
and to delineate those learning experiences which seem to result in

the significant attainment of this objective.

CHAPTER IV

THE FINDINGS EVALUATED IN TERMS OF TIE RELEVANCE OF
THE LEARNING SITUATIONS TO THE ACHIEVEMENT

OF THE OBJECTIVE

Introduction

The concern of this chapter is the evaluation of results
realized in the various groups identified along the learning
continuum. It is an assumption of this study that the achievement
of the different groups can be related to the characteristics of the
three positions described.previously, and that this can best be done
using data of a more or less subjective nature, e.g. interviews,
rating scales, observations of the instructor, and.scores on unit
and final examinations. The writer feels that such evaluation should
be more valid than objective data obtained on pro-test and post-tests
of so called standardized tests. It is hoped that it will thus be
possible to identify those learning processes and techniques which
seemed to result in the greatest gain in the objective of critical
thinking.

To more effectively evaluate in this way, it was necessary
to control the instructor variable. This was possible since the "B"
and "C" groups were included in the same class and the instructor had

taught the classes in American History from which the freshmen in

-77-

-78-

the "A" learning situation were drawn. It was thus possible for the
instructor, by using such observations, to check the hypotheses of
this thesis. The first hypothesis was that the addition of certain
minimum characteristics to the organization of the learning situation
would result in a greater degree of achievement in critical thinking
than could be attributable to chance. In order to maximize the
achievement of critical thinking, the writer postulated that greater
stress on these characteristics would be necessary as well as the
addition of the "C" characteristics. It is further hoped that a
comparative analysis of achievement in the three learning situations
will enable an evaluation of those Specific learning experiences
contributing to such gains. Thus it should be possible to relate
achievement in the desired behavioral objective to those methods
which seem to facilitate its highest achievement.

The writer's contention is that such subjective evaluative
devices together with observations used by the instructor, proved
more helpful in performing this analysis than objective data. How-
ever, some attention will be given to information of the objective
type. In the rather brief analysis of objective data, the fifty-two
item "Test of Critical Thinking Form C" will be used. This device
was used because it was designed to measure critical thinking
abilities in general1 and.we were interested in the transferability

of these skills to other areas than the social science field. The

 

1This test was one of those developed by the A.C.E. Cooper-
ative Study. Normative data is given in.Appendix B. For a further
description of. Dressel and Mayhew, General Education, Explorations
In Evaluation, op. cit., pp. 17h-207.

 

- 79 -

freshmen for 1957-1958 had already been given a pre and.post-test of
this form as a part of the Illinois Colleges Study, and it would.be
given to all freshmen in 1958-1959. This was another factor in

favor of utilizing suCh data. The S.T.E.P. Social Studies Test

Level 1A hatibeen given to the freshmen as a part of their orientation

week battery, so the writer administered a post-test in May 1959.

Achievement of Critical Thinking By Freshmen In the
Required American Historypglasses
The "A" Classroom

An analysis of the gains made by students taking this course
with those freshmen who had not taken American History in that
academic year showed that the mean gain was somewhat higher than
that of those in the "A" classes.2

Reference has been made to the general agreement among numer-
ous writers regarding the relationship in practice in the behaviors
sought and progress in those behaviors.3 Another study by Glaser,
earlier than those cited, contends that this is particularly so
regarding the critical thinking objective.h American History had
been included in the general education requirements largely because

it was a statutory law that all public school teachers in Illinois

 

2Mean gain for freshmen, not in American History - 5.66, for
those in the "A" situation 2.66, the difference being 3.07. Since
our concern is with a comparison of "A", "B", and "0" groups, we
shall not attempt further analysis of the cause for these differences.
3Supra, p. 3b.

1‘E. M. Glaser, An Exppriment In the Development of Critical
Thinking,(Teacher's College, Columbia University Press, l9hl), passim.

-80..

have such a course. The assumption is that factual knowledge of our
country's heritage would result in teachers who would be better
citizens and thus teach citizenship by example. It is not our intent
to point out the fallacy of such a law. Yet, even though this
course was well organized around content-centered goals, it did not
provide for practice in the application of knowledge to contemporary
problems which was undoubtedly the purpose of such a requirement.
Although the course listed critical thinking as one of its objectives,
the reaction of upper classmen who had taken the course as freshmen
was negative when asked, "Did the course stimulate independent
thinking?" Only a small percentage of those responses agreed that
it "stimulated.them to think beyond the limits of the course
materials."5

Neither did the course appeal to the interests of the
students. For it was ranked.last by the same students when asked
"how effective was the course in stimulating interest?"6 The failure
of the course to make an impact on the social attitudes of the
students might likewise be indicative of the absence of motivation
to think and apply knowledge to contemporary social problems. The
Inventory of Beliefs was given to a number of these students and a
group of them were given a post-test in the spring of 1958. The mean

score of the group given.the post-test was slightly lower than the

 

SCurriculum Evaluation.Questionnaire, items 16-20. of. p.
100, Table 12.

6Curriculum Evaluation Questionnaire, items 1-5.

-81-

pre-test.7 The writer feels that this failure to respond suggests

that student motivation, one of the characteristics basic to the

 

minimum organization of learning experiences for the achievement of
critical thinking, was absent.

A "survey“ of student achievement toward the stated general
education objectives in social science courses was the focus of an
"honors" study in 1958-1959. Levi's “Inventory of Social Under-
standing"8 was brought up to date and.adapted for this purpose. The
mean for the "A" group on the "Survey of Social‘Understanding" was
several points below that of the "B" and "C" groups.9 Such evidence
seems to support the contention of the writer, that learning experi-
ences in the required American History class emphasized coverage of

content rather than the achievement of critical thinking, even

though this was one of’the stated objectives.

Comparative Anglysis of Achievement of Critical
Thinking In the Various Classroom Situations
The primary task of this chapter, and this thesis, is to

make a comparative analysis of three different learning situations

 

7Pre-test mean 59.7, post-test S8.h; difference in means -
-l.3. Infra, p. Table 10 for comparison with "B" and "C" groups
on this inventory.

8A. Levi, General Education In the Social Studies (Washing-
ton, D.C.: American Council On Education, l9h8), Appendix pp. 325-
336.

9This survey was adapted and administered by James Moody, a
senior Social Science major, to students who had taken freshman
social science courses in 1957-1958 and.l9§8—l959. The mean for
freshmen from the History of Civilization course was h5.5 compared
with hl.6 for the "A“ group.

- 82 -

and the achievement toward desired behavioral changes of similar or
nearly equal students in these learning situations. If the students
are sufficiently equated, and.their attainment of the goals varies
from group to group, then it would seem possible to relate the
differences in achievement to characteristics present in.the learning
situation in which the greatest gain was achieved. After a cursory
look at objective data, we will more carefully evaluate the three

groups using numerous other types of information.

Evaluation of Achievement Using a
"Test of Critical Thinking Form.G”

The freshman class of 1957-1958 had been given "Form C” in
September and the post-test was given in mid-May. Forty-nine of
these students had enrolled in the two American History classes
taught by the writer. Freshmen in the History of Civilization class
in 1958-1959 likewise had taken the pre-test in mid-September and
the post-test in mid-April. The pre- and post-test mean scores,
sigmas and mean gains, are compared in Table 1. Although the "B"
group had a pre-test mean which was slightly higher, it still showed
a gain which was significant at less than the .05 per cent level.

It should be observed that the same students are included in the
pre- and post-test results given. This comparison suggests that the
control group in the History of Civilization class, statistically at
least, approached the "B" criteria.

The experimental group was likewise compared with.the control

group. If the "B" characteristics resulted in the difference between

-83-

TABLE 1

COMPARISON OF MEAN PRE- AND POST-TEST AND IMPROVEMENT
SCORES ON THE "TEST OF CRITICAL THINKING FORM G" FDR
STUDENTS IN THE "A” AND "B" LEARNING SITUATIONSa

 

:-

Level of
Classes N Pre-Test Post-Test Gain Significance

 

 

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD t P

 

FreshmanlAmer.
History"A"
Position
Sept. 1957-
June 1958 A9 28.95 6.67 31.55 6.67 2.59 1.9h

History of Civ.
Control Grp.
"B" Position
Sept. 1958-
June 1959 12 29.25 6.79 3h.17 6.95 h.92 3.23

Difference be-
tween "A" and b
"B" classes 2.225 .05

 

3To find the significance of difference between the gains of
these two groups, the statistical procedure fer the test of signific-
ance was taken from.A. L. Edwards, Statistical Methods For the Be-
havioral Sciences (New YOrk: Rinehart and Co., Inc., 1956), p. 255.
bFor the degrees of freedom in this test of significance,
t should equal 2.660 to achieve significance at the .01 level,
Ibid., p. 501, Table 5.
"A" and."B", would greater stress on these and.the present of ad-
ditional characteristics show similar improvement? In other words,
would learning situations organized to meet the "C" criteria result
in maximum achievement of critical thinking as measured.by the A.C.E.
Test of Critical Thinking Form.G? The small number of cases in the

group made a comparison of pre- and post-test data on this test seem

- 8h -

of doubtful value.10

A comparison was made of the significance of
the difference between the control group ("B") and the experimental
("C") group in the History of Civilization. The results are given

in Table 2.

TABLE 2

COMPARISON OF MEAN IMPROVEMENT SCORES ON
"TEST OF CRITICAL THINKING FORM G" FOR
THE "B" AND "C" LEARNING SITUATIONSa

 

 

 

 

Mean S.D.
“B" Position t P
"C" Position
(N ' 10) 8.7 h.69
Difference between
"B" and "on Positions 2.12? .05

 

8‘For the degrees of freedom in this test of significance 3
should equal 2. 8h5 to achieve significance at the .01 level of
confidence and 2.528 equals the .02 level, Edwards, op. cit. .,

p. 501, Table 5.

The results of the comparison in Table 2 tend to support the
writer's hypothesis that significance difference in the achievement
of critical thinking should occur between the control and experi-

mental groups if the "B" and "C" criteria are met. The difference

between the two is significant at slightly less than the .05 level

 

10A t test comparing the pre and.post-test results gave a
t-score of 3. 63'which was significant at the .01 level.

-85..

of confidence.11
Since the differences of critical thinking achievements in
the three learning situations was considered crucial to the study, a
further check using analysis of variance was used for this purpose.
The three groups were approximately equal in their critical
abilities according to the pre-test mean scores. The comparison of
data used in the analysis of variance of the mean gain of the three

groups is given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

COMPARISON OF THE FEE-TEST AND POST-TEST
MEANS OF "A", "B“, AND "c" LEARNING
SITUATIONS 0N "FORM G"

 

 

Control Group Experimental
American History History of Civili- Grp. Hist. of
the “A" Position zation "B" Position Civ. ”C" Posit.

 

N N9 12 10
Pre-test score 28.96 29.25 30.8
S.D. 6.67 6.80 6.
Post-test score 31.55 3h.17 39.3
S.D. 6.67 6.95 5.80

 

The analysis of variance data testing the significance of
difference in the mean gain of the three groups is shown in Table h.
The results are well beyond the one per cent level, which seems to

support the writer's contention that the presence or absence of the

 

1lln Table 2,.3 should.equa1 2.086 to achieve significance
at the .05 level of confidence. Edwards, 0 . cit., p. 501.

- 86 -

characteristics described in Chapters II and III should affect the

achievement of critical thinking.

TABLE u

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F ACHIEVEMENT OF THE THREE
GROUPS ON A ”TEST OF CRITICAL THINKING FORM G"a

_;
—’_

 

 

 

Source of Variation Sum.of Squares df Mean Square
Between groups 326.hh23 2 163.2212
Within groups 1100.8535 68 16.1898

Total 1h27.2958 70
F - 163.2212 - 10.08 P .01a
15.1898

3For the degree of freedom in this analysis of variance
problem, the F result should equal h.95 in order to achieve signifi-
cance at the .01 level, Edwards, 0 . cit., pp. 315-322, Sou-508,
Table 8.

The A.C.E. Cooperative Study noted a "recurring pattern of
association of large gains with low pre-test scores and small gains
with high pro-test scores.12 An attempt was made to check whether
this was true of any or all of the three groups.

The pro-test scores of the three positions were divided on
the basis of normative information given in the "Instructor's Manual."13
The division used was high (31; and above), average (24-33), and low

(23 and below). The "A" group did not follow the "pattern” referred

 

12DrSSSel and Mayhew, o . cit., pp. 2h7-2h8.

13Instructor's Manual Fer the Test of Critical Thinking Form
G, Committee on Measurement and Evaluation, Cooperative Study of
'Evaluation In General Education of the American Council On Education
(Michigan State University, 1953), pp. 12-13. (mimeographed)

 

-87-

to for some unexplainable reason. The "B“ group did, however, but
as Table 5 shows, the mean gain for the high group was 2.h above
that of the "A" position. The table shows that the "C" group had a
higher gain in the high and average classifications, although the

results were skewed by one case gaining 20 points in the low.

TABLE 5

COMPARATIVE MEAN GAIN ON "FORM G" OF Low, AVERAGE
AND HIGH GROUPS OF STUDENTS IN THE
”A", "B", AND "C" POSITIONS

 

 

 

 

Classifications
Groups Low Average High
"AP Criteria 2.6 2.6 2.6
"B" Criteria 7.33 3.h 5.
"C" Criteria 20. 8.33 6.33

 

The improvement of the "B" and "C" groups over the "A" could
be ascribed to the additional characteristics included in each. Since
the mean gain for the high, low, and.sverage scores in the "A" group
was static, group ”A“ does not follow the pattern but group "B"

It

does.

Achievement 0n the S.T.E.P. Social Studies Test
Achievement of results which are statistically significant

in the important objective of critical thinking is of consequence,

 

11"Supra, Chapter III for description and application of the

"C" characteristics.

- 88 -

but attainment in all the related general education objectives was
hoped for by the writer and expected by the administration of the
college. To check on such performance the experimental and control
groups were given pre- and post-tests on the “S.T.E.P. Social
Studies, Form 1A." Since this test had not been given to the "A"
group until May of 1958, comparative data on the respective post-
test gains for the three groups were not possible. As tenuous as

a comparison of the spring test of the three groups would seem, it
might be of interest to make such an analysis. Table 6 is an
attempt to compare the "A" group with both groups in the History of

Civilization class.

TABLE 6

MEAN SCORES ON S.T.E.P. SOCIAL STUDIES 1A,
SPRING TESTING, COMPARING "A" WITH
"B" AND "C" POSITIONS

 

 

Percentile Band
Classes Mean S.D. (Grade 1h)

 

American History

Position "A" (N - h6) 39.89 8-18 N3455
History of Civilization

(N - 21) uh.57 9.18 59-82
Difference in means h.68

 

Although comparative data on pre-test scores were lacking,
making it impossible to compare the achievement of the History of

Civilization ClaSS'With the previous required class, it is rather

~89—

obvious that freshmen taking History of Civilization were in a
higher percentile band after approximately a year of college than
freshmen who had taken American History. This is perhaps a more
valid comparison than grades earned in the two classes, fbr in the
American History classes freshmen were in the minority. This meant
that they would be ranked with upper-classmen and sophomores
relative to achievement within the class while on the S.T.E.P. test
they were compared with other freshmen on which the normative data
had been compiled.

Table 7 shows a slightly greater gain for the "C" group over
the "B" group, but since the 3 value was only .56 for 19 degrees of
freedom, it would appear that the null hypothesis is correct. Yet
the higher pro-test scores should be considered as affecting the
gain of the "C" group and the more consistent achievement on the
post-test needs to be noted. The two groups appear to be statisti-
cally similar in gains on this test; however, the "C" group started
with a higher score and so perhaps in terms of percentage of possible
gain, theirs was greater than the "B" group.15

It would seem safe to conclude that students in the two
groups in History of Civilization ended the year, on the average,
with a slight edge over the freshmen of the previous year in those

skills and.understandings measured.by this test. In other words, the

greater gains in critical thinking achievement were not attained at

 

lsDressel and Mayhew, General Education, Explorations In
Evaluation, op. cit., pp. 2&742H8.

- 9o -

the expense of other important goals, such as social science under-
standings. Although there was not a significant difference in
achievement on this general social studies test, we shall see that
group "C" was consistently ahead of the other two groups in terms of
achievement of the particular aims of the class as shown by tests

and final grades.

TABLE 7

"B" AND "C" LEARNING SITUATIONS COMPARED
ON S.T.E.P. SOCIAL STUDIES FORM 1A

 

 

PreJTest Post-Test
Classes N Mean S.D. %ile Band Mean S.D. iile Band Mean S.D.

 

"B” Grp. 11 38.18 9.33 hO-oz h1.27 9.85 5h—78 3.09 h.21
"c" Grp. 10 Ah. 9.hh 62-8h h8.2 6.9h 73-90 h.2o h.h2

Difference

Between "B"

and "Cl!

groups 5.22 6093 1011

 

t - .56
P - .6

 

Relationship 0f Grades TO Achievement
In Critical Thinking
In the final analysis it is the individual instructor who
observes and.judges the development of the student toward.previously
agreed on goals. Final grades should represent the accumulation of
a number of such observations and.judgments. Particularly should

this be true of the "B" and "C" situations, although to a lesser

-91..

extent in the former, where the class was small and.the instructor
was desirous of stressing student motivation and the other character-

16

istics which we have agreed should be present. The writer assumed
that there should be a greater relationship between the students
final grades and his performance on the critical thinking test in the
"B" and "C" positions than in the "A" group. The overall emphasis

on the objeCtive of critical thinking in freshman classes as a
result of the Illinois Study, the stress on the identification and
stimulation of the able or superior student at Greenville College,17
as well as the organization of learning experiences in the two

groups, is no doubt reflected in the greater relationship of grades

to critical thinking as shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8

RELATION OF FIRST SEMESTER GRADES T0 MEAN GAINS ON THE "TEST
OF CRITICAL THINKING FORM G” COMRARED BY GRADE RANK

 

‘ ‘—
w

 

Semester American History of History of History of
Grades In History 1957- Civilization Civilization Civilization
the Three 1958 1958-1959 Position Position
Positions Position "A" “B" and “C" "B" "C"

A 103 703 " 703

B 14.7 9.1 6.3 10.1:

C 2.5 h.7 h.l h.

D 2.3 1.6 2. 1.

F 20,4 30 3. "’

 

l6Su ra, Chapter II and III.

17"In 1957 Greenville College received a grant from the Dan-
forth Foundation for the purpose of developing a program which would
provide opportunity for students of higher academic aptitudes to en-
gage in studies which might help them approach their maximum in

I.

- 92 -

Evidently there was greater achievement realized in critical
thinking gains by the "B' and "C" students than the"A" students. Perhaps
it would be safe to conclude that the organization of this former
class was aimed at the average student and.consequently the more
able students were not challenged.18 The small number of students
in groups "B" and "0" made a three-way comparison difficult so we
combined them in the second column in Table 8. It should be noted
that there were an equal number of students receiving A's in both
classes among the freshmen. The gain was greater for the 1958-1959
group, although their'pre-test mean was 36 compared with 3ho5 for
the 1957-1958 group. There was thus a greater relationship of
achievement as shown in earned grades to achievement in critical
thinking in History of Civilization than in American History, and
this relationship was still greater in comparing the experimental
group with the control group within the History of Civilization
course.

The superiority in achievement of the "C" over the "B“ group
is illustrated by a comparison of the fOur unit tests and the final
semester comprehensive examination given in Table 9. These were
mainly objective type tests stressing understandings, and the
applications of critical thinking skills practiced in class to

different situations. It should be noted that the two groups were

 

scholarly achievement." This program was begun in 1958-1959 under
the direction of Dr. E. L. Lyle. "First Annual Report To the Dan-
forth Foundation On Independent Study For the Superior Student at
Greenville College, pp. 27-30. (mimeographed)

18Dressel and Mayhew, General Education,_Explorations In
Evaluation, 0 . cit., p. 2H8.

- 93 -

equal on the A.C.E. Psychological Examination and not significantly
different on the S.T.E.P. pro-test.19 Yet the difference between
the mean scores of the two groups increased in favor of the "C"
group as the semester progressed. Part of the distinctive treatment
accorded the "C" group related to the correction of such tests by
the instructor. If the student missed multiple choice type items, a
notation was made by the correct response telling why it was the
correct item and referring to similar cases or problems discussed in
class to an interpretation and application of a particular reading

arrived at by the class.

TABLE 9

COMPARISON OF ACHIEVEMENT 0F MEAN SOCRES OF "B" AND
"C" STUDENTS ON UNIT TESTS AND SEMESTER
FINAL IN HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION

 

—_‘_

 

 

Unit Unit Unit Sem. Final Total All
Classes I II III & Unit IV Tests

"B“ Group

(12 cases) h3.7 17. 27. 89. 176.7
"C" Group

(12 cases) 50.5 22. 35. 10h.6 212.1
Difference be-

tween means

of the two

groups 608 S0 8. 1506 350“»

 

Usually there was at least one brief essay question and

corrections and comments were carefully written on these. If the

 

19Su ra, p. 90, Table 7.

- 9h -

student confused underlying assumptions and.srguments, this was
pointed.out; or if he failed to carefully state reasons for accepting
a conclusion or argument, this likewise was indicated. This usually
meant that their papers were graded more severely, yet a majority
responded with a positive effort to this challenge, and.cn the final
when they had a choice of answering fifteen true-false questions or
analyzing the film “Martin Luther", a majority of the "C" group
chose the latter, but only one or two of the "B" group took this
option. This consistent superiority in achievementrof the "C" group
seems to represent a greater response to the positive tone of the
learning situation and.a desire to achieve the objectives which the

group had.mutually agreed were important.

Comparative Achievement of the Three Learning
Situations On Social Attitudes
andenderstandings
In addition to the concrete examples of student achievement
in the cognitive area, the relative impact of such courses in the
realm of values is of consequence in planning and evaluating a
general education curriculum. Jacob's study states that "objective
evaluation of the outcomes of specific courses in social science ...
indicates that they too rarely exert a distinctive impact on student
attitudes.20 He concedes however, that "some social science courses

have been more effective in this regard than others. And.he suggests

 

2OPhiIip E. Jacob, Cgagging Values In College._An lora-
tory Study of the Impact of College Teachigg (New YOrk: Harper and
Brothers, 1957), p. 58.

- 95 -

that the testimony of students who have had such reorientation of
values together with objective indices of these changes have shown
that some students have tended to become more liberal in their

attitude on social and economic issues."21

To the extent that the "C" group developed more positive
attitudes toward such problems, it achieved to a greater degree one
of the behavioral objectives of a general education course.22

The three groups showed.a significant difference in the mean
gain on the "Inventory of Beliefs." Pre- and.post-test data had been
obtained on only a small group from the "A" learning situation and
this was not necessarily a random sample of the forty-nine cases in
that group. Nevertheless, there would appear to be some value in
comparing mean improvement on the Inventory of Beliefs. The ten
cases had a higher mean percentile on the A.C.E. Psychological
Examination (72 as compared.with 5h for the total "A" group), and
their grade point average was higher also (2.69 compared to 2.hh for
total group).

Although their pre-test scores and mean gain appeared to be
similar to the total "A" group on the "Test of Critical Thinking"
(31.2 compared to 31.55 and.2.h vs 2.59), yet statistical analysis
of this more or less selective sample showed significant difference

in mean improvement scores of the "C“ group compared to this group

 

21Ibid., p. 72.

22Instructors Manual for the Inventory of Beliefs, The Ameri-
can Council On Education, Committee On Measurement and Evaluation
(Michigan State University, 1953), p. h. (mimeographed)

- 96 -

and that of the "B" group.23 The mean difference between pre- and
post-test on the Inventory of Beliefs was -l.3 for "A", -.02 fOr "B"
and 9.3 for "C"; the sigmas were 7.19, 6.h5 and 13.81 reSpectively.
The analysis of variance data testing the difference between
these scores is given in Table 10. Since the F test was significant
between the .01 and .05 levels of confidence, this analysis suggests
that on the data used, the "C" learning situation was the only one
showing important development of attitudes as measured on this

inventory.

TABLE 10

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F MEAN IMPROVEMENT SCORES OF
THE THREE LEARNING SITUATIONS ON THE
"INVENTORY OF BELIEFS"

 

 

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square
Between groups 702.867 2 351.h33
Within groups 1956.600 27 72.h66

Total 2659.h67 29

 

F - 351%33 - h.85 P .05a
7 0

8'For the degree of freedom in this analysis of variance
problem, the F results should equal 5.h9 to achieve significance at
the .01 level or 3.35 to achieve significance at the .05 level.
Edwards, op. cit., p. 506, Table 8.

 

fit

23The Inventory of Beliefs had been given to a section of
American History and.the post-test was administered with the final
examination in the spring. The examination took most of the period
for most of the students and so the Inventory was only given to those
who had finished with considerable time. This was a select group as
only three had a G.P.A. below B-.

-97-

The Social Science Survey, developed as part of an "honors"
project,2h provided a further check on students' attitudes toward
political, economic and social problems of national and.international
importance. This survey was used to compare sophomores who had
taken their social science requirements in 1957-1958 with freshmen
who were taking these requirements in 1958-1959. It was found that
the mean for the "A" group on this survey was about the same as that
of sophomores who had not taken any social science.25 (hl.6 for 20
sophomores who had taken American History compared to NZ for those
who had not taken social science) The mean score for the 12 freshmen
in the "B" group was h3 compared to a mean score for freshmen without
a social science course, of to. The "C" group had a mean score of
h8.6 as contrasted with a mean of to for freshmen not taking any
social science or an advantage of 8.6 plus a difference of 7.1 be-
tween it and the "B" group.

The positive results in favor of the "C“ group seem to have
been validated by the results obtained by this group on the Inventory
of Beliefs.26 It would seem safe to generalize from.this data by
concluding that the "C“ group demonstrated a greater degree of
awareness of significant contemporary problems than the students in

the other groups.

 

ZhSuBra, p. 810

251n the case of specialized curricula, e.g. music and pre-
engineering, social science requirements are sometimes put off until
the junior year.

26Supra, p. 96, Table 10.

-98-

Comparison of the Various Learning Situations
Using Student Responses As Indices of
Achievement of Critical Thinking

There are a number of other tangible results which demon-
strate the greater viability of the course objectives to the "C"
group than to the other groups. These can be demonstrated by an
analysis of class attendance, final grades, completion of assign-
ments, student interest, and awareness of progress in the desired
behavior and student evaluation of the course as compared with other
general education courses.

Absenteeism was rare in the experimental group in History of
Civilization. In the sixteen weeks of classes, there were only ten
absences or less than one per student for the semester. The control
group averaged slightly over one per student for the semester for a
total of thirteen and.the "A" group with a total of 96 absences
averaged nearly two absences per student. This difference no doubt
was affected by the "flu" rate which closed school for nearly a
week, but the instructor was aware of a number of absences caused by
students staying out of class to "cram" for attest in another course.
There were no known absences for such reasons in the "C" group.

Although learning experiences were of a different nature in
the "A" group, than in the other two, yet.there were weekly assigned
reading reports required on which they were to identify the central
theme and the underlying assumption of the reading. The History of

Civilization class did much better at assignments of this nature,

-99-

probably because these readings were analyzed as a part of the class
procedure in that class, whereas in American History they were

seldom discussed, but were graded and handed back without any written
comments. In the History of Civilization class the type and number
of assignments were the same but the "C" group made marked progress
in terms of recognizing central issues, underlying assumptions, and
in evaluating arguments and deciding whether the conclusions of the
readings were warranted or unwarranted. The quantity or number of
assignments completed in the "C“ group was superior to the "B" group,
as well as the quality.

.A general index of the positive attitude of the "C" group
toward the stimulus value of History of Civilization courses is
suggested by Table 11. The fact that this interest was sustained
is shown by the number of first semester students who participated
in independent study for course honors the second semester. Of the
ten students from a class of forty-two, seven were from the first

semester, and five of these had been members of the "C" group.27

TABLE 11

INTEREST IN HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION COMPARED WITH OTHER
REQUIRED FRESHMAN COURSES AS SHOWN BY PER CENT
OF "B" AND "C" CROUPS APPROVING EACH

 

 

 

Course uBn "on
History of Civilization h0% I 75%
Communications 35% 13-2/3%
Biological Science 25% 11-1/3%

 

27This was work over and beyond their grade for the course,
which would.be planned in individual conferences with the instructor,

- 100 -

Students in the "C" group ranked History of Civilization
first as compared to other general education courses when asked
"which of the courses stimulated the greatest degree of independent
thinking?"28 The reactions of the three groups to this question-

naire are compared in Table 12.

TABLE 12

STUDENT EVALUATION OF COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE REQUIRED
COURSES IN STIMULATING INDEPENDENT THINKING
PER CENT OF GROUPS APPROVING EACHa

 

Course "A" "B" "C"
American History 15 - -
Humanities h6 - -
Biological Science 17 33% 13%
Communications 10 16% 0
Physical Science 22 - -
History of Civilization - 51% 875%

 

aThe Humanities and Physical Science courses are almost
always taken the sophomore year.

Since transferability of learned behavior is pertinent to
the objectives of a general education course, the response of the
students to the question "which course has the most carry over value
into out-of-class activities?" is significant. The "A“ group ranked
their experiences in American History fourth in this category; group

"B" ranked History of Civilization third; while group "C" ranked.it

 

and.would include regular progress reports every other week. No
credit was given but the term course honors was appended to their
grade.

28Curriculum Evaluation Questionnaire, items 16-20.

- 101 -

first among all the required courses in general education which they
had taken in their freshman year.29 The validity of these ratings
is heightened when the fact that all the freshman courses were em-
phasizing the critical thinking objective as participants in the
Illinois Colleges Study on the Teaching of Critical Thinking is
noted.

30

Unsigned teacher and classroom rating sheets were passed
out in one of the last classes of the first semester of each course.
A summary of these responses shows that 80-90% of the "C" students
rated the instructor very favorable as compared to 33-55% of the "B"
group. The variety of responses in the different groups to the
check list of specific suggestions, fer the course or instructor,
indicates a variety of forces operative in the three learning
situations which obviously affected achievement. Sixty-seven.per
cent of group "A" Checked the suggestion that "the material should
be presented more slowly," thirty per cent that "the instructor
should use more visual aids," thirty-six per cent checked "students
should be encouraged to participate more in class discussions." Of
the students in group "B", seventy-five per cent checked that

"students should be encouraged to participate more in class dis-

cussion.31 Only nine per cent of the “B" students felt that grading

 

29Curriou1-um Evaluation Questionnaire, items 31-35.

30"Student Reaction To Classroom Teaching" develOped for
Greenville College by Dean George T. Tade.

31In a typical four weeks period the average voluntary
participation was 1.7 times per class period for "B" group compared
with an average of 10.7 per class for group "C". “Anecdotal Report
Student Observer", October 27, 1958.

- 102 -

policies were unusually fair, as opposed to seventy per cent of the
"C" group. Evidently History of Civilization was not considered a
"snap“ course by the "C" group, for sixtybsix per cent or 8 of 12
checked that they did "more than average the ammunt of work for the
number of credits" as compared with only twenty per cent of the
twelve students in the "B“ group.

Hewever, on the question, "What is the feeling between the
teacher and the student?", fifty-eight per cent of the control group
checked "extremely friendly in and out of class," as compared to
forty per cent for the American History group in 1957-1958 and ninety
per cent for the "C" group in History of Civilization. On item 9,
"Do you feel you can get personal help in this course if you need it?"
twenty per cent of both the "A" and "B" groups agreed that they
"could get a great deal of personal help if needed" as compared to
seventy-three per cent for the "C" group. Forty per cent of the "B"
group checked the statement, "I would like to get better acquainted
with the instructorn as compared with twenty per cent of the "A"
group and.mineteen per'cent of the "C" group.

There was one item on which there was not a strong consensus,
item 8, "How clearly are your responsibilities in this course de-
fined?" Group "B" was divided between "usually" and "have a general
idea," and the "C" group likewise except for three students who
checked "always know what is expected of me." There was a general
tendency to rate both the course and the instructor high on these

rating sheets. And it was the student's positive attitude toward the

- 103 -

organization of learning experiences; toward the instructor, and the
materials selected; and the classroom "atmosphere" which seemed to
have been crucial to the greater advances toward the objective of

critical thinking made by the students in the "C" learning situation.

Specific Learning Experiences Which Seem
Related To the Attainment of Critical
Thinking By'the "C“ Gregg

The significant difference in the achievement of critical
thinking by the "C" learning situation suggests that.the methods
utilized.shou1d.have contributed to this growth. In Chapter II,
where the application of the learning situations was described and
in this chapter, three or four characteristics have been identified,
which are necessary if the maximum achievement of the objective is
to be reached.

The stress on student motivation in both the "B" and "C"
groups seems to have been basic to growth in the objective. It is
generally accepted as axiomatic that without some form of motivation,
no learning would take place, but.the writer is concerned with that
form of motivation whereby the organization of learning experiences
is consciously focused on the interest, attitudes and purposes of

the individual student.32

At least one well known historian has stated that "in

learning history it is better for a student to be impelled by his

 

, 32T. R. McConnell, "Reconciliation of Learning Theories,‘l
Forty-first Yearbook of the NSSE, Part II, o . cit., p. 263.

- 10h -

own interests than by the teachers."33 An example of the use of
attitudes in the "B" and "C" learning situations was the discussion
of‘the "impact of Christianity on history," as a prelude to the
problem which used materials from the medieval period. The in-
structor had discovered that all students in both groups had strong
religious interests, but one of the better students in the "C“ group
had a negative attitude toward anything that was related to the
medieval period. So the class spent a week discussing the ideas of
St. Paul and Augustine as a foundation for this epoch. This re-
sulted in a decrease of this student's negative attitude toward a
problem which the group had decided to discuss, as well as em-
phasizing the background for the problem of "conflict of authority,"
in the Middle Ages.

The use of small discussion groups, in.and out of class,
combined with the variety of’experiences provided for the “C" group
seemed to enhance the attainment of the objective. It would seem
that the number in the class is not as significant as what Cantor
termed "the student's perception of his self and situation in the
learning process."3h For as a whole, the "C" group identified
themselves with the learning situation. This is not to say that
everyone in the "B" group failed to do this, nor'that everyone in
the "C" group succeeded. But, this personal emphasis in the

learning situation is essential if general education courses are to

 

33Gottscha1k, op. cit., p. 173.

3hCantor, o . cit., p. 79.

- 105 -

provide for the uniqueness of each individual and.provide him with
the Opportunity to develop his particular interests, faculties and
potentialities within the framework of a prescribed general edu-
cation curriculum.35 Such opportunities are not guaranteed auto-
matically with the reduction in numbers of students in the classroom,
as the experience of the "B" group demonstrates.

The fourth method which seemed to contribute to the develop-
ment of the ability to think independently, was the "reciprocal
nature of the learning process." This includes the involvement of
the teacher in the learning process. Time and again as the writer
‘worked.with the students, in the analysis and interpretation of the
historical readings, he was forced to admit that an idea submitted
was different than that which he had.used in his analysis of the
reading, or an application made was more meaningful than one he had
been trying to suggest to the class. The instructor was not afraid
to admit to himself, and to the students, that he had learned some-
thing from his students.36 This reciprocal nature of the learning
process is dependent on a positive, permissive attitude on the
teacher's part. Cantor contends that this attitude "determines the
spirit of the classroom, the matrix in which learning can take

37

place." When the teacher is secure enough to admit his errors

rather than justify them, the student is helped to admit his

 

BSFI‘enCh, O o Cite, pp. 92-930
36Hulme in vonGrueningen, o . cit., pp. 93-95.

37Cantor, o . cit., p. 93.

-1%-

limitations.38

These four methods: student motivation, used with both
groups but stressed to a fuller extent with group "C"; an atmOSphere
characteristic of a small discussion class; a variety of experiences
allowing for individual differences; and the reciprocal nature of
the learning factor, seemed to be related to the achievement of the
objective. Obviously they are overlapping methods and might well
be summed.up under what Sidney French and other writers term "the
student centered" approach to general education.39

A description of the types of activities participated in by
both "B" and "C" groups and which led to a minimum achievement of
the objective has been given previously.’40 The evidence submitted
in this chapter has shown that without the presence of the "C"

criteria maximum results were not obtained.

m
The results gained by classes identified along the ideal-type
construct of learning experiences have been discussed in this
chapter.
Students in the three learning situations, identified by the
various criteria, were given pre- and.post-tests in the fiftyatwo

item "Test of Critical Thinking Form C." The "B" and."C" groups

 

38Ibid., p. 87.
39French, op. cit., pp. 13—15.
hoSupra, pp. 55462.

-107 -

were also given pre- and.post-tests on the S.T.E.P. Social Studies
Test 1A.

Data from these tests suggested that the "B" group in the
History of Civilization class achieved more than the "A" group,
freshman students in American History in 1957-1958, and that the "C"
group had achieved to a greater extent than the "B" group.

It was concluded that greater gains in critical thinking
were made by the "C" group on the basis of observations made by the
instructor, the testimony of students, grades on unit and final ext
aminations, responses on teacher evaluation sheets, curriculum
evaluation questionnaires, and improvement in attitudes as shown on
pre- and.post-test results of the Inventory of Beliefs.

These favorable results lend credence to the assertion that
the objective of critical thinking can be most readily obtained in a
"student-centered” learning situation. Implications of these

findings will be discussed at length in Chapter V.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

Critical Thinking Important As An Educatignal Goal
In Our Contempgrary Culture

In a society where the decision making process rests funda-
mentally in.the citizens, rather than in a monolithic leadership,
the need of having a citizenry trained in the application of
critical thinking abilities to the "democratic decision making
processes" is imperative. The history of mankind too often has
shown the folly of separating scholarship from citizenship. Edu-
cators, politicians, and college students as well need to realize
that scientific education and even scientific thinking is not suf-
ficient for the survival of the present crises in our civilization.
This scientific skill must be applied to social problems of common
concern. The educated man or woman should be able to analyze the
assumptions underlying the conflicting points of view1 and rival
ideologies so as to avoid.the fallacy of one modern scientist-
philosopher who suggested.that the "west should give the Communists

2
a monopoly on H-bombs and.then the world.would.be safe and peaceful.“

 

1Morse (ed.), 0 . cit., pp. 101-103.

2Bertrand Russell, quoted by Dr. William Yardley Elliot in an
address at The Principia College Public Affairs Conference, April 18,

1959.

 

- 108 -

-109-

Over the past decade or so educational literature has been
replete with discussions of the value and need of stressing the
objective of critical thinking. The President's Commission For
Higher Education indicated the need of a common objective around
which to integrate the purposes and values of our educational system.3
And world and national leaders have emphasized the need of training
in the "decision making process."h .And probably every institution
of higher learning in America states as one of its principle ob-
jectives, the development of independent or analytical thinking.5
And, most philosophies of education support the idea that students
should be trained in the ability to think and that the end.result

would be that they would be able to think for themselves.6

TeachinggCritical Thinking:;s Needed In the
Liberal Arts College General Education
Social Science Curriculum
The Social Science Committee of the Cooperative Study of
Evaluation found that "most social scientists agree that the ability
to think about social, political and economic issues clearly,

critically and on the basis of the best available information, is a

3Higher Education For American Democracy, 0 . cit., p. 103.

hSupra, pp. 2-h.

5Mayhew, editorial in North Central News Bulletin, 0 . cit.,
p. l.

6C. R. Miller, "Critical Thinking," Childhood Education,
XVI, p. 196.

- 110 -

desirable educational objective.7

The writer has noted recent trends which in addition to the
crises of western society, suggested the importance of critical
thinking as an objective in a History of Civilization course in the
liberal arts college.8 These trends are: a wide agreement among
educators to broaden objectives to include critical intelligence as
well as understanding; recognition of the lack of critical thinking
abilities by college students; a trend toward broad divisional type
courses in the liberal arts college; a trend to measure the achieve-
ment of these educational goals in terms of the higher mental
processes; and, inter-institutional studies of the most effective
means of attaining this objective.

In Spite of the great number of studies reported which discuss
this Objective, there have been few attempts to provide opportunities
tijractice the critical abilities in the typical classroom.of the
traditional liberal arts college.9 And still fewer attempts have
been made to evaluate the success of such methods and thus relate them
to the achievement of critical thinking.10

The participating colleges in the "Illinois Liberal Arts
Study On Critical Thinking" became more aware of the need for de-

veloping methods which would provide practice in this objective.

 

7Dressel and Mayhew, Critical Thinkng In Social Science,
op. cit., p. V.
8511219., pp. h‘?‘

9Dressel and mayhew, Critical Thinking In Social Science,
0 . cit., p. III.

10These are described in Appendix E.

- 111 -

General agreement regarding methods which should be conducive to such
an objective was arrived at after a number of inter-college confer-
ences in the years of 1955-1957.

In 1958-59 an inter-institutional attempt to apply these
methods was made by three Illinois liberal arts colleges. Since
Greenville was one of’the cooperating schools, the writer was able
to participate in this project. As nearly as possible classes were
to be taught by the agreed methods. The fifty-two item "Test of
Critical Thinking Form G" which "measures the ability of college
students to demonstrate critical thinking skills"11 was the primary
device used to check on achievement of this objective. Anecdotal
records of observations of the most effective methods used in the
various classes were to be kept and reported every three weeks.
This then was an attempt to bridge the gap which the A.C.E. study
found existed between the definition of objectives and their
evaluation.12

This thesis evolved out of the author's interest in the
Illinois Study and out of a plan to develop a new general education
course fer the social science division of Greenville College using

1
the objective of critical thinking as the integrating principle. 3

 

11The A.C.E. Committee On Measurement and Evaluation, In-
structors Manual for the Test of Critical Thinking Form G, p. h.
Developed by the Cooperative Study of Evaluation in General Edu-
cation, Michigan State University, 1953.

12Mayhew, loc. cit.

13Dressel and.Mayhew, General Education,_Explorations In
Evaluation, op. cit,, pp. 275-277.

- 112 -

LearninggExperiences Developed To Attain the
Maximum.Achievement of Critical Thinkipg
It was decided that this would be basically a history of

western civilization course, using the critical thinking skills in
analyzing "unresolved" problems in history and applying the under-
standings arrived at to an analysis of contemporary social problems.
In order to maximize the organization of the learning experiences to
obtain this objective, emphasis was placed on the second.and third
steps of the four recommended by R.‘W. Tyler, i.e.:

1. Presentation of learning experiences which would allow
the students practice in the defined behaviors of critical
thinking (e.g. identifying the central issues, etc.)

2. Organizing these learning experiences so as to achieve the
maximum cumulative effect. $e.g. providing for continifity
and sequence from one learning experience to another)

To accomplish this maximum cumulative effect suggested by
Tyler, the writer adapted the theoretical formulations derived from
the ideas of'Weber, Judd, Tyler and Dewey by H. H; Chausow in a
study of Critical Thinking In the Social Science Classes at wright
Junior College in 1953.15 In his study, Chausow adapted‘weber's
ideal-type construct to educational experiences, and from the ideas
of the other three he developed an organizational schema.

In the adaptation of the ideal-type construct to the des-

crtption of learning experiences, three ideal positions were

established along the learning continuum. They were the ineffective

 

lhHerrick and.Ty1er, o . cit., pp. 60-67.

lsChausow, o . cit., pp. 26-32.

-113-

organization of learning experiences, represented by the American
History course as taught in 1957-1958; the minimum effective organi-
zation of learning experiences represented by the control group in
the newly organized History of Civilization course and the most
effective organization of learning experiences represented by the
experimental group in the History of Civilization course.

The students in the “B" group were identified by the presence

of the "B“ criteria.16

The "A" group was identified by the absence
of or failure to use the “B" characteristics.17 And the "on position
on the learning continuum was greater stress on the "B" criteria
plus additional characteristics which placed greater emphasis on
individual differences in the learning situation.18

The "B" and "0" characteristics were applied in the same
class and by the same instructor. Thus it was possible to relate
differences in achievement to the function and effect of the char-
acteristics present in the learning situation. It was necessary to
use various sources of evidence to check whether or not the particular
characteristics were present or absent in the "B" or "C" situations
within the History of Civilization classroom. The sources of evidence
used for this purpose included questionnaires, student ratings of
classroom situations and teacher, anecdotal records by the instructor

and student assistant, interviews with members of the two groups in

which their reactions to classroom experiences, tests, etc. were

 

16Supra, p. 30, Chart I. l7Ibid.

18Supra, p. 30, Chart I and pp. 103-105.

~11h-

discussed, logs or notebooks kept by students, and comparison of all
three groups on the Inventory of Beliefs and Social Science Survey,
and participation in class and co-curricular activities related to
the classroom, e.g. attendance at Little United Nations, etc.

The concept of the ideal-type construct assumed that greater
achievement in critical thinking should take place as one moved from
the "A" to the "C" learning situation. That is, while significant
increase in critical thinking would.not take place in the "A" group,
this would be so in the “B" group. And students in the "C" group

would have a greater gain than the "B" group.

An Organization Designed For Maximum Results

The ideal-type construct aided in identifying classroom
situations and.in checking on the hypothesis of the thesis. However,
a design which would provide effective learning experiences for
attaining maximum results in critical thinking was needed.
The ideas of Judd, Dewey and Tyler suggested such a design.19
The concept of levels of thinking for such a course; e.g. from
understandings, to applications, to generalizations; was furnished by
Judd, Dewey's idea of interaction of learning experiences led to
the idea of interaction of these three levels. And Tyler gave the
emphasis of an organizational theory consisting of principles,
threads or elements, and structures.

The theory basic to the organization of this study was that

there would be constant interaction of historical understandings,

 

19SUREE: PP. hZ-hS. cf. Chausow, pp. 26-32.

-115-

their applications and greater emphasis on generalized knowledge as
one proceeded from problem.to problem. That is to say that develop-
ment from historical understandings to generalizations about social
science problems was to be utilized.

This organizational framework was used in both the "B" and
"C" learning situations. However, the "C" group had greater
opportunity to gain practice in the behaviors of critical thinking
and were active in planning the problematic situations used. In the
process of analyzing historical materials, the students were asked
to identify the central theme, the underlying assumption, and to
decide whether or not the arguments were valid or the conclusions
warranted, After arriving at historical understandings as a result
of such a process the students in the "C" group, together with the
instructor, evolved specific contemporary problems to which the
understandings arrived at were to be applied. A variety of learning
experiences were used to aid the student in arriving at historical
understandings. And in each problem unit the students applied the
historical material to a contemporary problem. Students, largely
from the "C“ group, defined the problem in its contemporary frame of
reference, discussed the validity and applicability of the arguments
used by "great thinkers" in the readings, suggested a hypothesis for
the problem and tried to agree on what was a warranted conclusion.
The hypothesis was usually of a controversial nature and resulted in
a variety of conclusions. An analysis of the basic assumptions

underlying each conclusion, and the reliability of historical

-ll6-

arguments used, helped the students to check the hypothesis of the
unit and their own conclusions. Students thus gained not only basic
understandings about historical data but practice in the application
of such to social problems through using critical thinking skills.

This procedure was used in each unit of the course at pro-
gressively higher levels of understanding, application and generali-
zation. This organization of educational experiences produced
greater results in critical thinking with the "C" group than with
the "B" group in the same class or the IA'A" group of a different

class in a previous year.

A Summary of the Results

Particular data were compiled to check any significant
differences which might have occurred among the various positions
along the learning continuum of the ideal-type construct. This in-
formation was of two types: results of objective tests such as the
A.C.E. Critical Thinking Form C, S.T.E.P. Social Studies Test, and
subjective evidence such as inventories, ratings, grades, observa-
tions and other evidence related to the characteristics of the
learning situations.

There was not a significant gain in critical thinking in the
"A" group as demonstrated.by comparison of gains on the A.C.E. test
of critical thinking with the "B" group. Analysis of the course
syllabus, tests, and.student ratings showed that it did not meet the
minimum criteria required for such achievement.

The minimum criteria seemed to be met in the "B" group in the

- 117 -

History of Civilization course. When compared with the "A" group it
made significantly greater gains in critical thinking. The experi-
mental group in the same class approximated the "C" position, for
when gains made by it were compared.with those of the "B" group it
showed a marked difference of achievement.20 The gains on the three
groups were compared.using analysis of variance. The difference was
significant at the one per cent level of confidence.

The three groups were divided into low, average, and high
groups on the pre-test of "Form G."21 The differences in the gain
of the critical thinking were quite obvious. In the "A" group the
gain was the same, for all three brackets. In the "B" group, the
greatest gains were made by the low pre-test scorers. The "C" group
had only one case in the low bracket, which suggests that the high
gain was atypical, but the gains for the average and high groups
were considerably higher than "A" and."B" groups. So it would seem
that the meeting of the "0" criteria stimulated greater achievement
on the part of the superior as well as the average and lowsaverage
students.22

Since pre-test data was not available on group "A" for the
S.T.E.P. Social Studies Test, it was not feasible to compare the

gains of the three groups on this test. However, a comparison of

the gains made by the experimental and control groups in the History

 

20The difference between the mean gain of the "B" and "C"
groups was 3.78.

21811213, P. 87 o

22Dressel and Mayhew, General Education, Explorations In
Evaluation, 9p. cit., p. 2h8.

-118-

of Civilization course supports the contention that the added em-
phasis on the critical thinking objective in the experimental group
was possible without a reduction in content or in achieVement of the
other objectives of a general education course in the social sciences.23
The ascendancy of the "C" group in achievement of the particular
goals agreed on by the class and the instructor, was manifested by
the positive relationship between grades and gains on the critical
thinking test. Again it was noted that the students receiving A‘s
and B's in the "C" group made greater gains than these categories in
the "A" and "B" groups.”4 The meeting of'the "C" criteria resulted
in greater increase in critical thinking and a consistent edge in
gradeepoint achievement and.overall understanding of general social
science content and problems.

Further comparisons of the three groups on their attitude
toward class procedure, viz. results of their evaluation of the
various required "general" courses, and student ratings of teachers,
number of assignments completed, class attendance and participation,
participation in related activities, anecdotal records of interviews
with students and analysis of gains on.the Inventory of Beliefs
demonstrated the superiority of the "C" group. Evidence suggests
then that maximum critical thinking can be achieved in a course such
as the History of Civilization if the learning experiences are
selected and organized so as to effect the "C" criteria.

Concurrent with the Civilization course, was an overall

 

23Supra, p. 90. 2hSupra, p. 91-9h.

-119...

emphasis on the objective of critical thinking in the freshman class
in 1958-1959. The planning and procedures of these classes, with a
few exceptions, approximated the "B" criteria. Although the achieve-
ment of both "B" and "C" groups should have been influenced by this
study, the gains on the A.C.E. Test of Critidal Thinking Form G

were lower for the "B" group than for the freshmen who had not taken
History of Civilization. The writer feels that the functioning of
the two criteria within the same class could have resulted in an

adverse affect on motivation of the students in the "B" group.

Some Implications

It seems evident that the objective of critical thinking is
attainable within a general education course in social science at
the freshman level. And such achievement can be achieved without
sacrificing achievement in the content of the course. The emphasis
of the critical thinking objective in the planning and teaching of a
History of Civilization course seems to provide not only for greater
integration within the course and with other general education
courses,25 but the critical thinking skills provide an introduction
to historical method for the college freshman. It has been too often
assumed that these historical methods are a natural result of studying
history. The organization of this course provided a way whereby the
desired results from a general education history course could.be more
effectively attained.

It has been mentioned that this study was a part of attempt

 

2SDressel and Mayhew, General Education, Explorations In
Evaluation, op. cit., p. 273.

- 120 -

to organize all the general education courses on the freshman level

for the purpose of attaining this objective. The results, eSpecially

at the "C" group, suggest that a great many advantages accrue from

such a cooperative effort of this type. It seems apparent that the

possibilities of achieving the objective of critical thinking are

greater when cooperative planning across divisional as well as de-

partmental lines makes horizontal integration of the learning process

an actuality. This was also valuable in-service training experience

for the participating instructors. On a survey of Faculty Opinions

and Attitudes about,the experiment, it was found.that, "a large

majority of the faculty felt more strongly about the importance of

critical thinking than before. They also felt that the study was

intellectually stimulating, challenging and provocative as well as

providing an impetus for them to try new approaches to teaching for

the objective and as an aid in keeping out of a methodological 'rut.'"26

The respondents were of the opinion that this emphasis on faculty

participation in the planning and organization of the general edu-

cation curriculum resulted in greater understanding of the values of

such a curriculum by both students and faculty.27
It would seem.that since both "B" and "C" groups were in the

same classroom.that the "C" criteria had two effects, one positive

and the other negative. First of all, use of small discussion

 

26This survey was developed and summarized by the Greenville
College director of this study, Professor Richard Stephens.

27"Survey of Faculty Opinions and Attitudes," items I and 8.

- 121 -

techniques, a variety of experiences, greater stress on student
motivation, and a climate of learning which stressed the reciprocal
nature of the learning process in the "C" group seemed to be the
factors which contributed most to the achievement of the objective.
At the same time, the characteristics of application of under-
standings to contemporary problems, limited practice in the desired
behaviors, sufficient time to think about the material, organization
using continuity and sequence, and some emphasis on student moti-
vation, did not, without the above, result in as high a level of
achievement as was attained by the rest of the freshman class.
Either these characteristics were more effective in other classes or
the lack of Opportunity to participate, other than in a vicarious
manner, in the learning process, had an adverse effect on the "B"
group. The writer does not feel that this was caused necessarily
by lack of participation as such, but by the effect on student
motivation of an attitude growing from this lack. Rather able
students felt that they were limited in the extent to which they
might become actively engaged in the learning process and were in-
clined to feel that a great deal of effort was not expected of them
in this regard. This is made evident by the fact that two in the
group raised their grades from C's to solid B's when these factors
were not affecting their attitude, during the second semester of the
course. It seems possible then, even in a large class, to provide
opportunities for the more able students to achieve up to their

ability. Small class techniques could be used in a rather large class

- 122 -

to stimulate the able and at the same time the mediocre student
would be helped, at least as much as in the so-called "ttaditional"
classroom,situation.

The faculty members involved in the experiment with other
freshman classes felt that there was "possibly some relationship be-
tween the personality of the teacher and improvement in critical
thinking."28 It should be noted that the instructor variable was
controlled, since both groups were in the same classroom. Yet the
methods which seemed to result in greatest gain were those methods
that depended on the establishment of a positive relationship between
the instructor and student. This personal variable is an important
factor in the setting up of a learning situation where the greatest
achievement of critical thinking is the goal. Nevertheless, it has
been demonstrated.that it is the type of learning experiences or
methods used, and not necessarily the instructor, that bring the
greatest results.

This study upholds the contention of those educators who
assume that methods revelant to the instruction and evaluation of the
higher mental processes can be developed and used by the classroom
teacher. The challenge of today is to train leaders not only in
knowledge about science, engineering, and technology, but in broad
understandings which must be applied to government, foreign and
civic affairs and educational problems.29 In the complicated and

 

28Ibid., item 6.

29The President's Commission On Education Beyond the High
School. First Integim Report to the President, Washington, D.C.,
1956’ p. 10

- 123 -

even confused problems which face our democratic society, these
"higher mental processes“ are indispensable.

The writer feels that the results of this study should stimu-
late the further development, and.use of methods to obtain this ob-
jective in the general education courses in social science at his own

and similar liberal arts colleges.

Next Steps

 

A consideration of the insights gained from this study dis-
closes several important aSpects relative to the objective of
critical thinking which should provide fruitful material for further
study. The first relates to further development and organization of
learning experiences so as to attain a greater achievement of this
objective; the second, with ways and mean of evaluating the results
and relating them to this organization. An additional task would be
to identify the specific methods which seem to have the greatest
relevance for achievement of this objective.

Some of the questions suggested by this study which should be
answered if the maximum achievement of critical thinking is to be
achieved are: How can the ideal-type construct aid such future
study? How may further integration aid suCh? Should the analysis
of critical thinking behaviors described here be broadened? Could
more time be provided for such studies? What specific role do
attitudes play in such achievement? And, should an analysis of in-
dividual differences be part of such a study?

In the adaptation of the ideal-type construct, the presence

- 12h -

or absence of several characteristics underlying the positions on the
continuum was assumed. How could a study be designed to check the
value of each of these to the objective? Perhaps some of the char-
acteristics are unnecessary or additional ones may be needed.

Since History of Civilization was taught concurrently with
other freshman classes using similar methods and stressing the same
objective, then a large degree of horizontal integration was provided.
The writer feels that greater integration could be obtained at this
point if there was more cross fertilization between academic disci-
plines for some months or weeks preceding such a study. Frequently,
a communications barrier separates faculty members of even a small
college when they set out to agree on means of attaining certain
objectives which they agree are of value.30 WOuld a greater degree
of vertical integration be possible? Are the objectives stressed
on the freshman level used at other levels as they progress through
college? Or do they get the feeling that general education courses
are totally unrelated to work done in the other five or six semesters
of their college career?

This study was carried on over the first semester; the
Illinois Study did not last much longer as its main emphasis was the
first semester and the first month or so of the second. Could such

a study be carried on over several years? It would thus emphasize

 

30For instance, when the committee developed some of the
common methods which could be used, one was that "assignments should
be given in problems." A math instructor reacted by saying that he
had always given assignments in problems.

-125-

such achievement at least through the sophomore year. A number of
the schools with well integrated general education programs have two
year programs in the social sciences. The Language Arts division
and the Science division of Greenville College have more or less
loosely integrated programs, and it would seem possible to organize
such a study over a two year period. If so, would the extension of
such a study lead to a maximization of the objective of critical
thinking?

In such a study could it be assumed that the critical thinking
skills ascribed to social science courses are also applicable to
other subject fields?31 This study has assumed that this was not
only feasible but one of the purposes of the critiCal thinking ob-
jective in general education, hence "Fbrm.G” of "A Test of Critical
Thinking" was used in this study rather than the “Test of Critical
Thinking In Social Science." What common types of experiences can
be set up to assure a more equal emphasis on all of the critical
thinking skills given? Or are some of these more or less apropos of
certain subject areas than others? Are some of the behaviors of
critical thinking more readily obtainable than others? For instance,
the observations of the writer were that students more quickly
arrived at what they felt were warranted conclusions, but had con-
siderable difficulty identifying underlying assumptions. Should not
a general education course in Social Science, especially in the

History of Civilization, place greater stress on the definition of

 

31See Appendix.A.

- 126 -

such skills and could this be done by showing how these skills are
frequently related to each other in their usage? This seems es-
pecially needful for the slow or mediocre student who too often has
been made to think that a history of civilization course invOlves
only the factual level of learning and not historical understandings,
applications or generalizations which may be developed.

Does this stress on the critical thinking objective place
too great an emphasis on the idealized "rational" man of the en-
lightenment of the eighteenth century? What relationship exists be-
tween the emotional life of the student and his ability or inability
to think critically? The exploratory study by Philip Jacobs of what
happens to values held by American college students as a consequence
of the general education they receive in the social science curriculum
came up with some rather negative conclusions, regarding the value of
existing programs in affecting this aspect of general education.32
However, Edward Eddy's report of a more recent study conducted by
33

the N.E.A. sounds a more positive note. The writer found a
positive relationship between gains on the Inventory of Beliefs and
on the A.C.E. Test of Critical Thinking},4 Certainly there remains
much to be found out regarding the relationship of the affective
domain and the achievement of critical thinking.

The chief concern of this study was the level of achievement

 

32Jacobs, op. cit., passim.

33Edward Eddy, College Influence 0n Character (washington,
D.C.: American Council On Education, 1959), passim.

BhSu ra, p. 86, Table I; and p. 96, Table 10.

-m7-

of the various groups. However, it was noted that individual scores
varied considerably even in the group approximating the most
effective realization of the objective. Yet it was difficult to as-
certain any pattern to which these differences in individual
achievement could be ascribed. It would seem feasible that an
analysis of individual cases on a larger sample than used in the
present study, utilizing techniques which would identify personality
types most frequently associated with high and low achievement in
critical thinking, would provide a profitable area of study. Stern
used such an approach in assessing the relationship of personality
typologies to the achievement of general education objectives as
measured on the Inventory of Beliefs.35

Regarding the evaluation of results, there are a number of
areas to be studied. One is the possibility of identifying critical
abilities through using carefully structured subjective evaluative
devices, e.g. self-rating sheets for students and ratings by their
peers. Introspective devices such as those used by Bloom and Broder,
with which the thought processes of the extremely low or high
scorers could be studied, should be used.so as to more closely
identify some of the devices most conducive to the attainment of the
objective.36

It would seem helpful to develop more information regarding

the relationship of gains on "The Test of Critical Thinking" to

 

35Instructors Manual for the Inventory of Beliefs, Op. cit.,
pp 0 11.13 0

36Bloom and Broder, op. cit., passim.

- 128 -

ratings of students' ability to think by various faculty members.
Perhaps ways could be developed of emphasizing the value of tech-
niques of evaluating for such skills in the various classes. The
subjective estimation of teachers is often regarded as an unreliable
method of evaluation, yet it is based on the same method as that
used in the laboratory, that is observation; however, the variables
are more numerous. The instructor who has selected the learning
experiences with the objective in view and.is using other evaluation
devices is in a good position to estimate the progress of the in-
dividual and of the group. Such technique would.no doubt necessi-
tate a greater understanding of the meaning of critical thinking as
a general education objective than has been arrived at by a great
many of the faculty members that we have had contact with in the
course of the Illinois Colleges Study On Critical Thinking.

In the future the writer would like to see normative data on
the correlation of critical thinking achievement with achievement on
the Sequential Tests of Educational Progress in the éocial Sciences
and likewise studies on the relationship of critical thinking
abilities and academic aptitude in the various areas measured by the
S.C.A.T. battery of tests.

Further exploration of these areas by teachers who are in-
volved in teaching Social Science classes in general education in the
college classroom should provide a clearer understanding of the
nature of critical thinking as well as greater application of this

significant objective.

1.

3.

APPENDIX A

AN OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF‘CRITICAL THINKING

FOR GENERAL EDUCATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

Critical Thinking Defined In Behavioral Terms
To identify central issues.

One of the basic skills in critical thinking is the ability to
identify the central issues or main theme. A thesis may be
perfectly clear; it may be hidden in a mass of verbiage; or it
may be unstated. Until the student has identified the central
issue, analysis of a presentation cannot proceed on a sound
basis.

To recognize underlying assumptions.

An argument is always based upon certain assumptions. These
assumptions may be generally accepted; they may be subject to
grave doubt; or they may be absolutely untenable. The validity
of many arguments depends uponlthe validity of the assumptions
on which they are based. An individual whose analysis does not
go beyond the argument and into the assumptions will seldom
arrive at a truly satisfactory insight into any social issue.

To evaluate evidence or authority.
a. To recognize stereotypes and cliches.

Social science materials contain abundant illustrations of
faulty thinking in the form of stereotypes and cliches.
Everyone is familiar with the popular concepts of the Ameri-
can club woman, the tired businessman, the absent-minded
professor, one hundred.per cent Americanism, and the good
old days. People who accept these at face value may be
victimized by skillful propaganda techniques.

b. To recognize bias and emotional factors in a presentation.
The validity of any presentation must depend solely upon
such factors as the soundness of its reasoning and its
factual basis. Many presentations, however, neglect reason

- 129 -

C.

- 130 -

and fact and substitute highly colored words or appeals to
prejudice. This practice may hide from the unwary the fact
that there is very little substance supporting a pre-
sentation.

Since bias refers to opinions or attitudes based on pre-
judice and preconception rather than upon fact and reason,
it bears no constant relation to truth and is as likely to
be favorable as it is to be unfavorable. To detect bias

is not to impute dishonesty, for many biases are unconscious.
Recognizing this bias, conscious or not, is the important
thing. Awareness of the part one's own biases may play in
the process of analysis and decision is also an important
factor in critical thinking.

To distinguish between verifiable and unverifiable data.

An early step in determining the verifiability of a pro-
position is the distinction between material which is of a
factual or verifiable nature and that which is not. Sweeping
generalizations, value judgments, beliefs, and opinions are
usually unverifiable. Material of a factual nature on the
other hand is capable of proof or disproof, although the

data necessary to verify it may not always be available.

To distinguish between relevant and non-relevant.

To analyze social situations and problems adequately, an
individual must be able to distinguish between those facts
which have a bearing upon the solution and those that do not.
One should ask, "Does this statement define, illustrate, or
bear upon the problem?"

To distinguish between essential and incidental.

Not all relevant data are essential to an interpretation.

Some may be of only secondary significance. To recognizeethat
the facts are essential and what facts are merely incidental
is important.

To recognize the adequacy of data.

To appreciate the connection between adequate data and a valid
conclusion is a basic ability in critical thinking. A judg-
ment made on the basis of fragmentary evidence is likely to

be of little value. In dealing with social issues it is
particularly important that judgments be based upon sufficient
information.

- 131 -

It is also important to be able to detect that significant
data have been ignored.orcmitted in a presentation. The
omission may have been unintentional, but often the
additional evidence has been purposely suppressed in order
to strengthen the argument advanced. In many cases con-
sideration of neglected.material will destroy an argument
completely.

g. To determine whether facts support a generalization.

Facts may be relevant, essential, and adequate but still may
not support a generalization purportedly built upon them.

The ability to recognize faulty logic of this sort is closely
related to the ability to draw warranted conclusions which

is discussed below.

h. To Check consistency.

All arguments must be checked for internal consistency.
Identification of a major inconsistency may invalidate a
presentation and, in any case, an.argument cannot be con-
sidered logically whole if it is based upon contradictory
generalizations. If an argument withstands the test of in-
ternal consistency, it still should be submitted to a check
for consistency with other known data.

h. To draw warranted conclusions.

The drawing of a warranted conclusion may involve either of two
different abilities. A conclusion may be a truth or prOposition
drawn from another proposition which is admitted or supposed to
be true; an inference or a deduction. It may also be the end
result of an inductive process in the form of a thesis which
grows out of an examination of factual data. The abilities dis-
cussed under 3 above involve principally the analysis and dis-
interested examination of evidence. The drawing of warranted
conclusions is the active step of bringing together all accepted
data in a summary statement of general fbrm.1

 

1Dressel and Mayhew, Critical Thinking In Social Science,

op. cit., pp. 1-3.

APPENDIX B
VALIDATION OF THE "TEST OF CRITICAL THINKING FORM G"

The writer assumed that this examination was related to the
hypothesis of this study. It was used to make an analysis of the
comparative gains made by the three groups of students toward the
objective of critical thinking. Hence, it is necessary to present
evidence of its reliability and.validity when used for this purpose.
"While Form C was the form used, the most extensive data *’
available concerning validity and reliability were obtained from
earlier forms, particularly FormA."1 However, since so many items
from Form A have been used, supplemented.by the most effective items
from Forms B and C, evidence from these earlier forms was used to
infer'the validity and reliability of Form G. As a matter of fact,
the evidence suggests that Form G is the most reliable form since a
reliability of .8h was obtained.2
"The items selected for Form G have high indices of dis-
crimination. The committee selected only items with indices above
.30 in at least two institutions for inclusion on Form G of the
test."3

validity was based on judgments of the committee members and

 

lInstructors Manual for the Test of Critical Thinking Form C,
o . cit., p. 6.

2Ibid. 3Ibid. , p. 7.

- 132 -

- 133 -

on numerous other comparisons using rating of critical thinking
ability by teachers, counselors and.peers.

Correlations with other measures of mental aptitude tend to
support the assumption that the "Test of Critical Thinking" is some-
thing other than a measure of intelligence. The low correlation
with the Inventory of Beliefs and Problems In Human Relations
furnish negative evidence of validity.’4 HOwever, the average cor-
relation with the Test of Critical Thinking In Social Science
averaged about .60, supporting the assumption of the writer that
these two test similar skills despite the difference in content and

problems used.

 

h"Test of Critical Thinking Form C’1 correlation with A.C.E.
Psychological Examination .55; with Critical Thinking In Social
Science, .60; with Problems in Human Relations, .25; Inventory of
Beliefs, .23, Ibid., pp. 9-10.

APPENDIX C
DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS

The committee which constructed the Inventory consisted of
representatives from a number of institutions. The members con-
ceived of attitudes as being one of the major clusters of outcomes
of an entire general education program or of a college program.

Thus they were interested in the total impact of college on students
rather than with the outcomes of specific courses. The Inventory of
Beliefs consists of 120 statements to which students are asked to
respond by means of a four-element key: strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree.1

Reliability

Reliability studies yielded coefficients ranging from .68 to
.95 with a median'g of .86. Estimates of reliability, based on Kuder—

Richardson formulae for interaal consistency, run from .89 to .9h,
depending on the institution.

Validity

The Inventory of Beliefs is related to the achievement of
the objectives of general education.
1. Validity,in Terms of_the Objectives of General Education

Substantial numbers of statements included in the

‘ "Inventory" are relevant to objectives of general edu-
cation was assured by the manner in which these state-
ments were originally obtained from teachers of general

 

1Instructors Hgnual for the Inventory of Beliefs, op. cit.,
p. S.

21bido’ pp. 5-70
- 13h -

 

 

Uses of the

l.

-135-

education courses. Face validity was a fundamental re-
quirement for choosing items to be included in the
"Inventory."

validity In Terms of Psychological Dimensions.

To the extent that this collection of statements is
characterized by unusually high reliability, it would
appear that the instrument is a valid measure of opinions
which are relevant to such education.

Evidence for validity in this respect is available from
two t es of data: (a) correlation with other tests,
and (b analyses of differences between extreme scorers.

2.1 Inter-Test Correlations.

L Low positive correlation between the Inventory of
Beliefs and measures of more intellectual or cog-
nitive factors is strongly suggestive of the non-
cognitive nature of the dimensions being measured
by the "Inventory.”

2.2 Comparison of Extreme Scorers.

Persons with extreme low score (i.e., accepting many
statements) might be presumed to represent an
atypical segment of a college population.

Test
Inter-College Comparison.

The "Inventory" can be used to show the impact of college
experience upon students if the test is administered at
the beginning of an academic year and repeated after any
desired interval of time. However, the Inventory of Be-
liefs was designed to cut across the whole college ex-
perience rather than to measure opinions about particular
course-related topics; changes in test scores cannot be
expected to reveal precise information about the effects
of any one course or even any group of courses in the
curriculum.

Intra-College Evaluation.
The Inventory of Beliefs can be used in studies of the

curriculum in general education growing out of the known
relationship between extreme scores on the "Inventory“

- 136 -

and differential aptitude for and interest in various
parts of the general education curriculum. An in-
structor would be better able to interpret the gains

(or losses) made by his students on appropriate subject
matter-oriented achievement tests if these students had
also taken the Inventory of Beliefs. He could make a
more meaningful evaluation of the effectiveness of his
instruction if he should discover, for example, that the
students who show least gain on his subject matter tests
are the very ones whose low scores on the Inventory of
Beliefs would have led him to diagngse for them special
difficulty in courses of this type.

 

3Ibid., pp. 9-11.

APPENDIX D

DESCRIPTION OF THE S.T.E.P. SOCIAL

STUDIES TEST LEVEL 1A

The S.T.E.P. Social Studies tests were designed to measure
student development in the broad social studies understandings and
abilities which effective citizens should possess. In order to gain
insight into what these understandings and abilities are, members of
the Social Studies planning committee considered representative
curricula and teaching practices throughout the country. They
arrived at a list of abilities involved in critical thinking and
analysis and a list of eight social, geographical, political, and
economic understandings which the Social Studies tests should assess.l

S___kil-l_§o

1. Identify generalizations, main points, and central
issues.

2. Identify, compare, and.contrast underlying values, at-
titudes, assumptions, biases, and motives.

3. Distinguish fact from opinion and recognize propaganda.

h. Assess the adequacy of data with respect to its relevancy
asufficiency, verifiability, and.consistency.

5. Compare and contrast data.

6. Apply appropriate outside information and criteria.

 

1Cooperative Test Division. Manual for Interpreting Scores,
Sequential Tests of Educational Progress,_Social Studiesfiifirinceton,
New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, 1957).

- 137 -

- 138 -

 

7. Draw valid generalizations and conclusions.
Understandings.
l. The nature of social change and its effect on man's way

2.

of living.

The effects of geographic environment on man's way of
living and the institutions he develops.

Man's increasing control over the forces of nature as a
major factor in accounting for the ways in which he
lives today.

The nature of democratic society and the rights, privi-
leges, and responsibilities of free men.

The means whereby society directs and regulates the be-
havior of its members.

Man's economic wants and ways of satisfying them.

The interdependence of individuals, communities,
societies, regions, and nations.

The various ways in which man attempts to understand an
adjust to his environment and his place in the universe.

 

2Cooperative Test Division. A Prospgctus,_Seguential Tests of
Educational Progress (Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing
Service, 1957), P. 18.

I.

II.

APPENDIX E

CLASSROOM PROCEDURES WHICH SHOULD CONTRIBUTE

TO IMPROVED CRITICAL THINKING'SKILLS

Activities related to assignments.

A.

Assignments should.be made in the form of problems or
questions rather than page assignments. In so far as
possible, this should.be done every day, not just when the
spirit strikes.

The problems presented to students should in so far as the
material of the course allows be specifically and clearly
related to student needs and student interests. The in-
structor should constantly search for ways of stating
problems that were within the experience range of students.

Assignments should encourage student positing of problems.
Thus, in so far as possible, students in the class should
be asked to help set the assignments in terms of their own
interest and their own needs.

The course should be so arranged as to give students time to
do critical thinking. There was the feeling that many of
our assignments are so large that students just do not have
the time to do much more than read and to memorize.

Assignments should constantly emphasize the connection be-
tween that course and other courses. It has become almost
axiomatic that transfer of training to happen at all must be
facilitated by the teacher. The assignments a teacher makes
can help in this regard.

Tests as a means of developing problem solving ability.

A.

Tests should.generally be of the problem type rather than
those commanding only recall of information. Tests may be
either of the objective or the essay type, but ought to focus
on problems which draw on materials from the course, but

-139-

III

IV

F.

-1110-

which require these materials to be viewed in the light of
a new situation.

Questions which require summary and.hringing together of a
variety of facts and principles ought to be used.

A variety of test forms should be attempted so that students
do not develop stereotyped ways of approaching their
solutions.

Open book examinations in which independent thinking is
actively encouraged.is another appropriate technique.

Tests and examinations ought to be short enough to allow
students to think. The feeling here was that typically ex-
aminations required so much recall that students had little
time to do more than write out memorized facts.

Class time ought to be devoted to the review of every test
given.

Suggested instructional materials.

A.

E.

Considerable use should be made of outside materials, films,
outside speakers, tape recordings and the like. Then the
content of each of these ought to be treated analytically
rather than just descriptively.

The use of tape recordings of classroom performances and a
replaying of these tapes to portions of a class seem to have
some merit.

The use of a bulletin board or a flannel board or a black-
board should be attempted very frequently.

The use of the Science Research Associates Punch Board for
test situations might be attempted.

Student participation in obtaining materials to be used in
class was another approach.

Teacher conduct in class.

A.

B.

The experimental classes should be encouraged to participate
very actively.

The physical set up of the experimental classes might be
varied. For example, breaking the orthodox pattern of seats
in rows might be one approach.

-m-

C. The experimental classes ought to be characterized by a
somewhat more permissive atmosphere than the control
classes.

D. Larger units ought to be the focus of attention rather
than small ones so as to encourage students to see inter-
relationships between a number of facets of the study.

E. More individual and committee work ought to be encouraged
rather than treating the entire‘class as a unit.

F. The teacher ought to give specific attention to the level
of difficulty of materials and the aptitude level of the
students in thecclass.

G. Some of the newer techniques such as the socio-drama and
role—playing ought to be attempted very frequently.

H. Individual student conferences ought to be encouraged
and with maximum ease for the students.

I. The tiacher should lay greater stress on independent
work.

 

1Exhibit B, developed by the Illinois Research Committee of
the North Central Association Committee On Liberal Arts, under.the
direction of Dr. Lewis B. Mayhew.

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- lhh -

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Morse, Horace T. (ed.). General Education In Transition. Minneap-
olis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951.

National Society for the Study of Education Forty-first Yearbook,
Part II. The Psychology_of Learning. Bloomington, 111.:
Public School Publishing Co., l9h2.

National Society for the Study of Education Forty-fifth Yearbook,
Part I. The Measurement of Understanding. William.A. Brown
et al, Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 19h6.

National Society for the Study of Education Fortybninth'Yearbook,
Part I. Learning and Instruction. Edited by Nelson B. Henry.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950.

National Society for the Study of Education Fifty-first Yearbook,
Part I. General Education, T. R. MCConnel et al., Edited by
Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952.

 

National Society for the Study of Education Fifty-fourth Yearbook,
Part I. Modern Philosophies and.Education. John S. Brubaker
et al. Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1955.

National Society for the Study of Education Fifty-seventh Yearbook,
Part II. Curriculum Organization. Ralph W} Tyler et al.
Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1958.

 

National Society for the Study of Education Fifty-seventh Yearbook,
Part III. The Integration of Education Experiences, Paul L.
Dressel et a1. Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1958.

The President's Commission On Education Beyond the High School.
First Interim Report to the President.

Sanders, Jennings B. (ed.). Social Science Requirements for Bachelor's
Degree . washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation and Welfare, Bulletin No. 8, 1959.

Smith, Houston. The Purposes of Higher Education. New York: Harper
and Brothers, 1955:

Von Grueningen, J. P. (ed.). Toward.A Christian Philosophy of Higher
Education. Philadelphia: westminster Press, 1957.

- th -

ward, Paul L. A Style of History for Beginners. Publication No. 22,
Service Center for Teaching of History, a service of the
American Historical Association,'Washington, D. 0., 1958.

 

Heber, Max. The Methodology of the Social Sciences. Translated.by
E. A. Shils and H. A. Finch. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free
Press, 19h9.

 

Articles and Periodicals

Ateyeo, Henry. "Arab Politics andPacts,n Current History, Vol. 30,
No. 178, pp. 327-3h6.

Baldwin, H. L. "Education for world Freedom,"- North Central Associ-
ation Quarterly XXXI (April 1957), pp. 299-305.

 

 

Bloom, Benjamin S. "Thought Processes In Lectures and Discussion,"
The Journal of General Education, VII, No. 3 (April 1953),
pp 0 160-169 .

Brookover, W. B. "A Social-Psychological Conception of Classroom
Learning," School and Society, Vol. 87, No. 21h8 (Feb. 1959),
pp 0 8h’87 o

Carpenter, Finley. "What Research Says About Critical Thinking,"
North Central News Bulletin, vol. xv, No. h (Jan. 1956), p. 1.

Dressel, Paul L. "Tests of Critical Thinking," North Central News
Bulletin, Vol. xv, No. A (Jan. 1956), p. E.

Ennis, R. H. "Critical Thinking Mere On Its Motivation," Progressive
Education, Vol. 33, NO- III (MAY 1956), pp. 75-85.

Frye, Richard N. "Islam.and the Middle East," Current Histopy,
Vol. 30, No. 178 (June 1956.)

Furst, E. J. "Effect of Organization On Learning Outcomes," Journal
of Experimental Education, V61. XVIII (March-June), pp. 215-

228, 3h2-352.

Harlow, H. "Learning To Think," Scientific American (August 19h9),
PP 0 36-39 0 I

Hollenbach, John and DeGraff, C. "Teaching For Thinking," Journal
of Higher Education, Vo1. XXVIII, No. 3 (March 1957), pp.
1263130.

 

Mayhew, Lewis B. "The Cooperative Study of Evaluation in General
Education," School and Society, LXXV, No. l9h0 (Feb. 23, 1952).

- 1h6 -

Miller, C. R. "Critical Thinking," Childhood Education, XVI, p. 196.

 

Sevint, H. L. "Trends In the Teaching of Social and Intellectual
History," Social Studies, XLVI (Nov. 1955), pp. 2h3-2h9.

Taba, Hilda. "Problems In Developing Critical Thinking,“ Progressive
Education, XXVIII, (Nov. 1950).

 

Unpublished Materials

Board of Examiners, Michigan State University. "Critical Thinking,
A Guide to Instruction and.Evaluation,’ For the Interschool
Committee on Evaluation and Instruction. Sept. 1955.
(Mimeographed)

Chausow, Hymen M. "The Organization of Learning Experiences To Achieve
More Effectively the Objective of Critical Thinking in the
General Social Science Course at the Junior College Level."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Education, Uni-
versity of Chicago, 1955.

Committee on Measurement and.Evaluation. Instructors Manual for the
Inventory of Beliefs, Cooperative Study of Evaluation in
General Education of the American Council On Education, East
Lansing, Michigan State University, 1953. (Mimeographed)

. Instructors Manual for the Test of Critical Thinking Form
C. Cooperative Study of Evaluation in General Education of
the American Council On Education, East Lansing, Michigan
State University, 1953. (MHmeographed)

Final Report of the Ford Study Committee. "Teaching For the Develop-
ment of Thinking Abilities and Habits." Holland, Michigan,
Hope College, 1955. (Mimeographed)

Gaier, E. "The Relation Between Personality Variables and the
Learning Process." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Depart-
ment of Education, University of Chicago, 1951.

Haggard, E. A. "An Evaluation of Certain Conceptions In Learning
Theory." Unpublished.Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University,

19in.

Illinois Research Committee of the North Central Association on Lib-
eral Arts. "Classroom Procedures'Which Should Contribute To
Improved Critical Thinking Skills." (Mimeographed)

Stephens, R. W. "North Central Werkshop Report Summarizing a Study
in Critical Thinking Conducted at Greenville College."
August, 1959. (Mimeographed)

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11“} o