ABSTRACT

A PROCEDURE FOR UTILIZING RHETORICAL THEORY AND THE
FINDINGS OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE AND COMMUNI-
CATION RESEARCH IN THE DESIGN OF "HIGH-
YIELD" PERSUASIVE MESSAGES
BY

Tess M. (Tad) Williams

One of the persistent findings of research on the
effects of persuasive mass media messages has been that the
behavioral change "yield" is low and typically disappointing.
Such impotency is distressing in this time of social up-
heaval when many peOple are looking to the producers and
distributors of mass media materials as a major resource
for effecting the many kinds of social adjustments and re-
forms our changing times demand. A major assumption under-
lying this study is that lack of strong effects from per-
suasive messages may lie in the inadequacies of the deve10p—
mental procedures used.

This study notes that in the planning and production
of message materials the developer must make many decisions
which collectively determine the effectiveness of his efforts.

By-and-large the decisions which account for such variations

Tess M. Williams
are made on the basis of hunches and intuition rather than
in terms of ordered and validated principles.

During recent years there has accumulated a substantial
body of empirically useful theory, a host of strategy models
and some basic rhetorical principles which are relevent to
persuasive mass communication and which have been validated
to varying degrees in the field. Using controlled variation
experiments and other research procedures, investigators have
identified message design variables crucial to inducing changes
in human behavior. Generally speaking these potentially
very helpful design resources are not utilized by communica-
tion practitioners. Failure to systematically examine and
utilize these resources may account for, in part, the gener-
ally low persuasive effectiveness of, particularly, public
service television and radio programs, motion pictures and
other presentations designed to stir peOple to action on the
problems of presentday society.

The prime aim of this study was to deve10p a comprehen-
sive, disciplined procedure through which designers of such
messages would be led to utilize the full range of conceptual
resources and methodological tools currently available and
applicable to the particular design task. The procedure

actually developed makes provision for consideration and

Tess M. Williams
selective use of such resources at all stages of the design
process. It also makes provision for securing, organizing,
analyzing and utilizing the varying kinds of data so vital in
making correct design decisions.

Included in the thesis is a selective review of the
rather extensive literature identified as being relevent to
message design as it is conceptualized in this study. Emphar
sis is upon those compendia works which identify, summarize,
evaluate and suggest practical applications of communication
theory, process models, design principles, persuasive strat-
egies and the like which have been validated to some degree
by research and practical application. ‘Also included is a
chapter outlining the rationale for develoPment of this
design procedure, including discussion of the concept of
"design" as it relates to development of persuasive message
materials. This chapter also expounds on the desirability of
viewing design and production of public service programs as
a "full-blown" problem-solving task calling for use of systems
analysis and other analytical tools to pinpoint root causes
of problems and to point the way to ameliorative action using
the persuasive power of the mass media and other facilitating

institutions of society.

A PROCEDURE FOR UTILIZING RHETORICAL THEORY AND THE
FINDINGS OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE AND COMMUNI-
CATION RESEARCH IN THE DESIGN OF "HIGH-

YIELD" PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

BY

Tess Mern (Tad) Williams

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

1971

(C Copyright by

TESS MERN (TAD) WILLIAMS

1972

Accepted by the faculty of the Department of
Speech and the Department of Television and Radio,
College of Communication Arts, Michigan State Uni-
versity, in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the Doctor of Philosophy degree.

 

Director of Thesis

Guidance Committe:

 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Completion of this thesis brings to fruition a desire
of the author extending over many years that he might someday
contribute to increased effectiveness of public service tele-
vision and radio programs. If it does happen, it will be
because of the insights, knowledge and encouragement of many
teachers, colleagues and friends who have freely shared with
me their ideas and convictions.

Early encouragement and direction for the study was
given by Dr. Kenneth G. Hance, now on emeritus status with
Michigan State University. To him I express appreciation
for his kindliness, helpfulness and patience during the early
phases of my doctoral program. I am also appreciative of the
generous help given by Dr. Robert W. Schlater and Dr. David
C. Ralph who jointly assumed responsibility for direction of
the thesis study upon the retirement of Dr. Hance. I express
sincere appreciation to Dr. David Lewis and Dr. Elwood C.
Miller who also served on my guidance committee and were so
constructive in their criticism of my work. Great credit
goes, too, to the late Professor Leo A. Martin, former chair-

man of the Television-Radio Department, in whose classes I

ii

received much of the inspiration which led me to under-
take this study.
Finally, I express appreciation to my family who

sacrificed much to make completion of this project possible.

Tess M. Williams

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM. . . . . . 1
Purpose of the Study 5
Scope and Limits of the Study 7
Justification and Impetus for the Study 9

Implications for Broadcasters 16
Methods of Study 19
Definition of Terms 21

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Works Dealing with Comprehensive Design

Procedures 31
References from the Field of Speech 51
Reference Works in the Field of General

Communication 60
Reference Works on Persuasion 71
References in Advertising, Public Relations

and Sales 79
References in Instructional Communication 90
References in Broadcast Program Development 98
Other References 107

III. RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE DESIGN
PROCEDURE 0 O O O C O C O C O O O O O O O 109

The Concept of Message Design 111
The Concept of Problem—Solving Communication 116
Some Basic Methodological Assumptions 121

IV. THE DESIGN PROCEDURE IN CHECKLIST FORM. . . . . 130
Operationalizing the Concept of Message

Design 135
The Procedures Checklist and Discussion 137
Step I. Project Description and Organ-

izational Analysis 141
Step II. Identifying and Analyzing the

Problem 145

iv

Step III. Considering Possible Communica—
tion-Based Solutions

Step IV. DevelOping the Best Communication-
Based Solution

Step V. Executing the Message Design

Step VI. Executing the Total Problem—
Solving Action

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. .
Summary
Conclusions and Recommendations

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A. Message Design Worksheets
Appendix B. Children's Television Work-

shop Operational Model

153

158
197

200
202
202
208
223

238
238

272

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. The message design procedure in the context
of the total problem-solution strategy. . . . 139

2. The Children's Television WOrkshop operational

model for developing the "Sesame Street"
television series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

vi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

One of the persistent findings of communication research
has been that the behavioral change potential of persuasive
mass media messages is limited, often consisting only of

reinforcing existing beliefs and attitudes.1

Attempts to
produce changes in prejudiced attitudes or beliefs and to
alter socially undesirable behavioral dispositions, for example,
have generally met with a high degree of psychological resist—
ance or apathy. Such impotency is distressing in this time
of social upheaval when many peOple are looking to the pro-
ducers and distributors of mass media materials as a major
resource in effecting the many kinds of social adjustments
and reforms our changing times demand.

Some commonly cited explanations are these: (1) members
of the mass media audience tend to be disinterested, apathetic
and obstinate toward messages which challenge cherished beliefs,

which do not entertain, or do not promise immediate reward

‘with minimal effort and cost; (2) mass communications practice

 

1Irving L. Janis, "Personality as a Factor in Per-
suasibility," The Science of Human Communication, ed. Wilbur

C. Schramm (New York: Basic Books, 1963), p. 55.

1

2

has failed to progress beyond the intuitive "skilled-art"
stage and is lacking a foundation of unified, underlying prin—
ciples such as characterize many applied fields; (3) the mag—
nitude of the daily mass communications task is such that
practitioners are always "on-the-run," moving from issue-to—
issue, program-to-program and campaign—to-campaign with little
time or energy to assess the results of their efforts (for
good or for ill), or to adequately project the implications
of past success and failure to future practice; (4) the tend-
ency of users of the mass media is--when a given message or
campaign does not achieve the desired result—~to saturate the
media channels with an increased volume of messages, thus con—
tributing to a "glut of communications" which further frag-
ments and alienates the audience; and (5) the media have
failed to deve10p and adept "higher—yield" message design
strategies which appear to be possible through systematic
utilization of communication and behavioral science theory,
the findings of both empirical and experimental research and
the time-honored principles of rhetorical theory.

Extensive problem-solving action is needed in each
of the foregoing problem areas if the media are to become
more influential in helping the nation to adjust to change
and to solve its problems. The present study appears to have

some relevance to each problem area in mass communications but

3
its major thrust will be in the area of message design and
production. The principle problem to be investigated will
be that of increasing the persuasive potency of messages
designed to encourage people to become more actively involved
in leading and shaping to better purpose the social change

process.

The Problem

 

As has been suggested above, a major factor in the
lack of strong effects from most persuasive messages may be
the inadequacy of the design procedures used. In the planning
and preparation of a persuasive message designed to influence
human behavior the communicator must make many decisions which
determine the effectiveness of his efforts. Decisions have
to be made relative to the content, treatment, organization
and style of the message. A particular choice of content,
treated and arranged in a particular fashion, using a certain
style, may be referred to as the "strategy" for that particular
message.

Prior research has indicated that variations in the
strategy or "mix" of these factors can vary the observed effec-
tiveness of a given message. By-and-large, the decisions which
result in such variations are made in terms of intuition or
hunches rather than in terms of a set of ordered and validated

principles. During the past twenty-five years, however, an

4

increasing number of social science and communications research—
ers (Hovland and associates, Edling, Schlater, McQuire, Tann-
enbaum, Troldahl, Bettinghaus, gt_a1.) have identified a
variety of message variables. Using controlled variation
experiments and other research procedures, they have ferreted—
out and studied many of these variables and have found that
these factors can be manipulated to attain increased comm—
unication effectiveness.

Although many of these prior studies were limited
in scope and in the generalizability of their findings to
other message design situations, there is a growing body
of potentially useful theory and principle which commun-
ication practitioners could be utilizing to enhance the
efficiency and effectiveness of their work. Generally Speak-
ing, this body of theory and principle is not systematically
examined and utilized by mass media program developers in
the design of persuasive program materials. Failure to
encompass relevant theory and design principles in message
strategies may be one of the factors accounting for the gen-
erally low persuasive potency of public service television
and radio programs. This problem--particu1arly as it re-
lates to programs for motivating television viewers and radio
listeners to a higher level of social action involvement in

their communities--is the major concern of this study.

Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of this study is to develop a
formalized procedure for design of "high-yield" persuasive
messages. An important feature of the design rationale is
consideration of the findings of behavioral science and comm-
unication research, rhetorical theory and other commonly
overlooked resources for enhancing message effectiveness.

Another important feature is suggested activities and
reference material to aid the designer in discovery and/or
invention of persuasive appeals, arguments, evidence and
other types of message content relevant to his persuasive
purpose. In short, the study represents an attempt—-as with
the ancient rhetoricians—-to aid in the discovery of pract—
ical means of persuasion, and to enhance the message design-
er's ability to induce belief changes as a result of per-
suasive communication. The design procedure is one which
broadcasters and other mass media practitioners might use
in motivating their audience members to become more fully
committed to, and constructively active in, the social—better-
ment programs in their community. Presumedly, the procedure
can be adapted to a wide range of message design problems in
which strong persuasive effects are sought.

To achieve these purposes the study encompasses the

following activity objectives:

6

1. Completion of a comprehensive review of the
literature of the behavioral sciences and comm-
unication arts, with an emphasis on identifying
those survey works and compendia which outline
in concise form communication theories and models,
research findings and message design principles
relevant to the development of persuasive program
materials for the mass media, principally television,
film and radio.

2. Delineation of some basic assumptions relative
to the idea of message design and formulation of
a basic operating rationale for development and
use of a message design procedure.

3. Conceptualization of a message design procedure
which is hypothesized to be effective and appro-
priate for designing persuasive messages for sup-
port of social problem-solving communication
efforts.

In essence, then, the purpose has been to develop a
generalized message design procedure which has specific pro-
visions for leading the designer to consider strategy resources
and support materials which he might otherwise overlook. HOpe-
fully this more formal, more searching, more disciplined pro-

cedure will enable the mass media practitioner to achieve

7
consistently high persuasive potency or yield from his

message design.

Scope and Limits of the Study

To focus the study and keep it within the limits of
feasibility, a number of delimitations were imposed. Some
were necessitated by the limits of what a single investigator
can accomplish by himself with limited resources. Other
delimitations were dictated by the need to keep the design
procedure simple and straightforward enough so that mass
media practitioners would be inclined and able to use it.
Also the economic facts-of-life and program development
traditions of mass media practice have suggested the need
for a middle ground between the traditional skilled-art
approach which is in wide use today and the research or sci-
entific approach which is attracting advocates.

For one thing, it was found that the literature of
persuasive communication has become so voluminous that the
review of literature chapter had to be limited to a random
survey intended only to suggest the wide variety and the
broad range of materials available in the field. More
specifically, the literature chapter cites and comments on
only major compilations, compendia works, and review public-
ations which will enable the message designer to make his own

search for theory models, research findings, etc., which are

8
relevant to his particular task.
It was also deemed necessary and desirable to limit
consideration in development of the design procedure to

materials of "program-lengt to the exclusion of the more
widely researched "commercial" or public service announcement-
1ength materials--those messages two minutes or less in total
running time. The design procedure developed through this
study will be specifically applicable in deve10ping "program-
length" broadcast materials--those having more ambitious per-
suasive objectives, multiple themes, and a wider range of more
fully-developed behavioral change strategies than can be in-
corporated in "announcement-length“ materials.

Also, a sincere attempt has been made to incorporate
in the design procedure problem analysis and diagnostic tech-
niques, solution generating procedures, decision making
routines and other methodological tools from the management
sciences and technology. These tools appear to have great
potential for helping the message designer formulate sharply-
focused, powerful strategies for his persuasive messages.
But, here again, there was a need to avoid encumbering the
user with methods so complex and technical that he cannot or
will not use them. This has necessitated some compromises.

The design procedure developed herein will incorporate only

the broad, non mathematical essentials of such techniques as

9
systems analysis, management problem—solving, information
science and decision-making and other sophisticated tech-
niques which have become such powerful design and development
tools in many sectors of human activity.

It is hoped that these delimitations will not be taken as
irresponsible dilutions of the study but as a necessary response
to the realities with which the potential user of a more for-
malized, theory—and research-based design will be faced.

These limits are also an attempt to avoid imposing upon the
potential user so much scholarly rigor and technical complex-
ity that the total design procedure will be rejected by all
but a small handful of the more academically trained media

practitioners.

Justification and Impetus for the Study

A preliminary review of the literature of persuasive
communication has failed to identify a single study dealing
with design and testing of social—action promoting materials
of program-length for broadcast distribution. There is an
extensive body of literature relating to the persuasive effect-
iveness of broadcast "commercials," and other "announcement-
length" materials. Some studies in this area deal with limited-
objective social action inducing efforts such as "get out the
vote" campaigns using material prepared by the Advertising

Council, Inc., the public service arm of the advertising

lO
industry. But, the development of and pre-testing of pro-
gram-length materials designed to alter peOple's basic social
attitudes and to induce sustained social action involvement
of the citizenry appears to be a virgin territory. It should
be noted, however, that the findings of advertising research
and the design principles used in advertising practice
would represent a valuable resource in formulating the unique
kind of message design procedure envisioned in the present
study.

Another area of activity which appears to be relevant
to the purposes of the present study is that of instruct-
ional communication, wherein film and television have been
extensively researched in recent years. The problems of
making application of the findings of these studies are
typical of those encountered in putting to practical use
the findings from other areas of communication research.

Most studies in instructional communication, for example,
have dealt with problems of learning and behavioral change
in formal classroom situations wherein the viewers are an
essentially captive audience. Also, there are gaps, con-
tradictions, and other deficiencies in the research done
in this area. And, in spite of intensive experimentation
in the use of film and television media at all levels and

in all sectors of education and training, "research supporting

11

techniques for producing strong (underlining mine) message

effects is notably lacking."l

An appraisal of the limitations of prior research on
instructional television, and support of the aims of this
study, are found in a statement by Greenhill:

One disappointing aspect of the research
on instructional television over the past decade
is the relatively small number of studies that have
dealt with production variables or variation in
content. This is rather surprising since television
production facilities are widely available and since
it is not difficult to develop differing versions
of televised lessons or courses for comparison under
controlled conditions. Furthermore, it is not
unreasonable to expect that manipulation of the
stimulus materials which are presented to students
might be one of the most likely ways of producing
differences in learning.

Interestingly, it is in the area of instructional film
where there is a near-tradition of research, dating back to
the 1940's, using manipulation of content variables to study
audience effects. In the World war II Air Force studies

and in the Instructional Film Research Program at Pennsylvania

 

lRobert‘W. Schlater, Effect of Speed of Presentation
and Irrelevant Cues on Recall of Television Messages (Unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Communication Arts,
Michigan State University, 1966), p. 2.

2Leslie P. Greenhill, "Review of Trends in Research on
Instructional Television and Film," in J. Christopher Reid and
Donald W. MacLennan, Reseggch in Instguctional Television agg
Film: Summaries of Studies (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government
Printing Office, 1967). p. 14.

12
State University, for example, there was a variety of exper-
iments in which separate versions of films were produced
incorporating content variations for the purpose of enhancing
the effectiveness of the message. Such studies were fairly
common in the studies of the early and middle fifties.
Curiously, there have been relatively few studies of this
type in recent times. Greenhill summarizes the current status
of the instructional film area as follows:

There is not the slightest doubt that suit-
able films stimulate learning and that the way in
which films are produced can influence the degree
of learning. On the other hand, it would appear
that no techniques have been discovered for consist-
ently producing large and consistent differences
in learning.

Commenting on what might be done to break through this
"no significant difference“ barrier which has been encountered
in virtually all media research studies, Greenhill concludes:

. . . it is suggested that possibly the
most fruitful areas for future research lie in
structuring and organizing the stimulus materials
themselves, and in manipulation and control of
student responses . . . thereby producing sign-
ificant effects on learning.

The above observations by Greenhill, and his views con-

cerning the limitations and strengths of prior research, have

 

11bid., p. 15.

21bid., p. 16.

13
served as a major take-off point in formulating the present
study.

Further impetus for the study comes from the findings
and recommendations of Edling, who tested for persuasive
effects of a message upon high school seniors, using a motion
picture based on "some principles commonly associated with
motivation research."1 The principle objective of the Edling
study was to determine if filmed audio-visual materials pro—
duced with a knowledge of learner characteristics and motives
are more effective in changing attitudes among those for
whom the materials were intended than among individuals in
general. In the report of this study Edling states that:

. . . among subjects involved in the study
there is a significant relationship between ident-
ifiable learner characteristics and the content of
a message. Mean gains in post treatment scores
‘were found to be between four and seven times greater
for individuals possessing specified characteristics
than comparable individuals who did not possess
such characteristics.2 '

Attitude changes of such magnitude, growing out of

exposure to a single film, are so rare that further studies

 

lJack V. Edling, A Study_of the Effectiveness of Audio-
Visual Teaching_Materials When Prepared According to the Prin—
ciples of Motivational Research, Final Report, Title VII,
NDEA Project No. 221, (Monmouth, Oregon: Division of Teaching
Research, Oregon State System of Higher Education, 1963),
p. V111.

2Ibid., p. 118.

l4
utilizing the Edling model would appear to be warranted.

To a degree, the present study replicates Edling's work
in message design. His procedure for designing a "mass media
message intended to modify a specific attitude" is refined and
extended in the present study in line with Edling's own con-
clusion that the procedure develOped for his study was "sat-
isfactory as far as it goes."1

While the work of educators Greenhill and Edling would
appear to constitute the primary impetus for the present study,
encouragement and support for the project are found in the
recent writings of researchers concentrating more generally
upon communication as an act of human behavior. Joseph Klapper,
to cite just one example, makes a case for "cautious optimism"
relative to achieving strong message effects. In a "state-of-
the-art" chapter in a recent book on public relations, Klapper
says:

This Optimism is based on two phenomenon.

The first of these is a new orientation toward

the study of communication effects which has recent—

ly become conspicuous in the literature. The

second phenomenon is the emergence from this new

approach of some generalizations. It is prOposed

that these generalizations can be tied together

and tentatively developed a little further, and

that-~when this is done--the resulting set of gen-

eralizations can be extremely helpful. More spec-

ifically, they seem to be capable of organizing
and relating a good deal of existing knowledge about

 

11bid., p. 120-122.

15

the process of achieving communication effects,

the factors involved in this process, and the dir—

ection which effects usually take. They thus pro—

vide us some hOpe that the vast and ill-ordered

array of communication research findings may be

eventually moulded by these and other generalizations

into a body of organized knowledge.

The orientation Klapper speaks of is essentially a
shift away from a tendency to regard mass communication as a
necessary and sufficient cause of message effects, toward a
new view of the message as one influence working amid other
influences in a total communication environment. It is this
new approach, Klapper suggests, which has made possible a
series of generalizations capable of relating a good deal of
what is already known:

. . . about the processes, factors, and
directions of communication effects, and of doing
this in such a way that findings hitherto thought
to be anomolous or contradictory begin to look like
orderly variations on a few basic themes.

The generalizations that Klapper refers to--scattered
as they are throughout the literature of the behavioral sciences,
the several communication arts disciplines and the fields of

education and training-—appear to comprise a rich resource

for augmenting the potency of persuasive messages. The

 

1Joseph T. Klapper, "What We Know About the Effects
of Mass Communication: the Brink of HOpe," in Otto Lerbinger
and A. J. Sullivan, Information, Influence and Communication
(New York: Basic Books, 1965), p. 316.

21bid., p. 318.

16
message design procedure which is developed in the present
study encompasses a search for and utilization of relevant

theory generalizations at all stages of the design process.

Implications for Broadcasters

 

More and more frequently today broadcasters (primarily
network and station owners and managers, program executives
and directors of news and public affairs programming) are
being accused of exhibiting an inadequate sense of social
justice. Not all of the critics are patrons, regulators,
and self-appointed "guardians of the public good." Increas-
ingly criticisms by "insiders" within the media establishment
are finding their way into the literature reproaching broad-
casters for failing to be sufficiently responsive to the
needs of society.

Typical is this assertion by a prominent defender
and commercial user of the broadcast media:

The facts are that not enough of the right
kind of public affairs programming is being done,
and the absence of it is particularly conspicuous now
because we have never needed it more badly. It
is on this score, I must admit, that the broad-
caster is guilty . . . . It is not necessary that
the networks or stations carve huge slices of
time out of their formats to "do their thing" for
the community. But announcing church dinners and
the like on the Sunday morning news does nothing
for the big problems of our country. Today, more
than ever before, it's a basic part of doing bus-
iness for companies to address themselves to their
rules (yes, their obligations) of responsibility

17

to society. Broadcasting has done too much re-
acting and not enough anticipating.1

Another facet of the problem which has engaged the
attention of critics is the seeming lack of problem-solving
potency of the public affairs programs the broadcasters do
offer. Increasing numbers of those persons probing this
problem are questioning the adequacy of the program develop-
ment procedures typically used by the mass communicators.
One teacher-researcher observes that, seemingly quite
oblivious to the turbulent revolutions of our time, the
development of mass media materials continues pretty much
as it has always done. The traditional approaches retain
the established formats, the same development and writing
techniques, resulting in far less probing, insight—prod-
ucing and clarifying presentations than the magnitude of
our present-day problems demand.2

Countering this observation is the suggestion that
the teacher-researchers have not been doing as much as they

might to assist the practitioner with his programming chal-

lenges. One teacher-researcher turned practitioner identifies

 

1Robert G. Wilder, "An Appeal for Efforts Adequate to
the Problem," Broadcasting (July 28, 1969), p. 16.

2Elwood Murray et al., Sppech: Science-Art (New York:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), p. 3.

18
this problem:
Audience research needs to provide the pro-
ducer with more insights and information than he

is presently receiving. Although much has been

done in academic areas criticizing the broadcaster,

few suggestions have been put forth to help him

The bulk of mass communications research in the

confines of academia have either parallelled present

commerical services, discovered whether television
was good or bad, or discovered what effect television
had on viewers. Very little has been done in mass
communications research to predict programs or to

"maximize" the enjoyment of the viewer.

Statements such as the foregoing appear to argue for
the development and testing of new, more comprehensive, more
systematic and more highly disciplined program development
procedures such as that sought in the present study.

It is obvious that the increased costs, the extended
develOpment cycle and the more specialized personnel needs
associated with this more ambitious message design procedure
would pose some problems for the broadcasters. There would
be definite limits at most stations in the extent to which
program developers could utilize such a demanding design pro-
cedure--even after scaling it down to its bare essentials.
However, a basic assumption underlying the study is that

there are in the communities served by all broadcast stations,

social, economic, environmental, human relations and other

 

1Joseph T. Plummer, A Systematic Research Approach
to Television Program Development (Unpublished Ph.D. dissert-

ation, Ohio State University, 1967), pp. 8-9.

19
problems which might be ameliorated in important ways through
develOpment and widespread distribution of ppmg high yield
social action promoting programs.

Undoubtedly, every community has problems of sufficient
magnitude to justify an extraordinary effort of stations to
tool up for development of ppmg_public interest serving mat-
erials having the augmented potency which might be achieved
through use of an intensive design procedure such as that
advocated here. Only one high impact civic or social action
campaign per year, cooperatively conceived and implemented by
local stations in partnerShip with apprOpriate agencies in
the community, could have problem solving consequences suffic-
ient to encourage exploratory efforts. The present study may
enhance the possibilities of broadcast stations achieving
this kind of service potential to the communities they are
licensed to serve. The design procedure developed for this
purpose may be readily adapted for use in increasing the
potency of persuasive materials prepared for the other media

as well.

Methods of Study

Basically the present study is an exploratory invest—
igation of a large, rather global, problem which has been
subjected to little prior research. Hence, the study com—

bines elements of several methods of scholarly research.

20

The investigation employs elements of the descriptive
method because of the need to establish at the outset the
present state-of-the-art relative to persuasive message
design. It also utilizes the historical-critical method
to the degree that it probes recent attempts of communication
researchers and practitioners to evolve procedures for achieving
effective persuasive communication and critiques their adequacy
relative to the magnitude of today's social communication
task. To a degree it is a creative study in that the invest-
igator has attempted to snythesize and proceduralize the
scattered pieces of other investigator's good works and to
invent the missing components needed for a total social
problem-solving communication system having a procedure for
developing strong message designs as its chief mechanism.
In the final analysis, however, this must be considered a
hypothesis-generating study because the end product is nothing
more nor less than a method for the use of persuasive com—
munication in solving social problems which is hypothecized
to be better than other methods currently in use. H0pe-
fully the method espoused here will be sufficiently grounded
in sound theory and principle that its premises will be proven

valid when the method is tried out and refined in practice.

21

Definition of Terms

Because certain terms used frequently in this report

cut across several disciplines and fields of practice, and

are liable to differing interpretations, the following def-

initions are provided:

1.

Persuasion refers to the process by which a

 

message designer secures acceptance of a
proposition and/or proposed action by connecting
it favorably with the audience member's needs,
interests, attitudes, beliefs, values, desires,‘
and other wellsprings of human action. As
pointed out by many writers on the subject, the
best persuasion is that which facilitates the
listener's giving rise to his own motivations,
the persuader's task being to elicit or summon-
forth these motivations and somehow channel them
in the direction of mutually desirable and desired
(by sender and receiver) action responses which
are the focus of the communication effort.

Persuasive message refers to the total "stimulus

 

package" to be used in a particular problem-solving
communication effort. Here we think of it as can-
prising a body of concepts, arguments, appeals,

data, etc., which is "packaged" using some recording

22
medium (film, magnetic tape, or whatever) in
such form that it can be played back and displayed
to separate audiences at differing locations,
at differing points in time, to help persuade
those audiences in accordance with the designer's
communication purposes.
Highpyielg_refers to the impact of a message on
members of a target audience measured against
some standard established by the sponsor and/or
designer as being high, as opposed, say, to med-
ium or low. The level of response or behavioral
change (in a specified direction) required to
classify a given message as high in yield can
vary according to the difficulty of the per-
suasion task. Typically the standard will be
set intuitively, based on the value standards
and prior experience of those having a vested
interest in the message outcomes.
Message design refers to the formal, systematic
process by which a person having certain communi-
cation intents goes about conceiving a mental
or graphic plan for a message apprOpriate to his
intended purposes. It implies that the communi-

cator engages in deliberate, purposive planning

23
toward his objective using science- and theory-
based resources. It also implies his working
within limits upon his freedom of choice relat-
ive to design decisions rather than being free
to fully indulge his purely creative or intuit—
ive impulses. (See Chapter III of this report
for further discussion of this concept.)
Designgprocedure refers to the predetermined
sequence of actions which the designer follows
to carry out the message design task. It suggests
or specifies what should be done, how it should
be done and in what sequence it might be done.
Rhetoric (or Rhetorical communication) refers to,
as Aristotle conceived it, the faculty of dis-
covering in a particular case what are the avail-
able means of persuasion. While this definition
is considered to be too narrow to incorporate all
that is encompassed in modern rhetorical practice,
it suffices for the purposes of this study: to aid
in the discovery of practical means of inducing
behavioral changes on the part of members of
specifically delineated or created audiences
implicated in modern societal problems.

Function refers to one of a group of related actions

24
contributing to a larger action, especially the
normal and specific contribution of a particular
part or component of an organization or social
system to the larger organization. (See Chapter
IV for further discussion Of this and related
concepts.)
A system is an organization Of interdependent
parts--including, possibly, a society comprised
of individual persons as parts of the system-—
that form an Operating unity, the parts being
interrelated in such a way that they work together
in carrying out certain Operations, tasks or
activities. A system is characterized by a
tendency to maintain certain boundaries relative
to its working setting or environment, by its
acceptance of inputs from that environment,
performing certain Operations upon these inputs
and then emitting the inputs (modified in some
fashion) as outputs back into the environment.
(See Chapter III for further discussion Of this
concept.)
System analysis refers to the identification and
separation of the total system (organization) into

its component parts with emphasis on delineating

10.

ll.

25
the interdependency relationships of the sub-
system components to each other relative to the
seeking after a stated objective. The emphasis
in this analysis is upon determining the manner
in which these relationships facilitate or impede
the efficient functioning of the individual compon—
ents and of the total system of which they are a
part. This should enable the analyst to determine
root causes of problems in the system and provide
clues as to what remedial action should be taken.
A system model is a partial and, frequently, a
miniature representation of a given system. In
the case Of message design such a model will be
a verbal, graphic, pictorial, diagrammatic or
symbolic representation Of the phenomenon which
the communication effort is intended to affect,
such representation created to facilitate analysis
and remediation of what is wrong in the functioning
of the system.

Environment refers to all the external and internal

 

conditions--the physical, sociO-cultural, psychol—
ogical, ecological, political, economic, etc.,
factors—-which influence the functioning of a

system in some way.

12.

13.

14.

15.

26
A communication problem exists when the message
designer perceives a certain state Of affairs
which he hOpes to alter through communication
and does not immediately know how to attain it.
A theory is a mental conceptualization by which
an investigator attempts to organize and simplify
what he knows about a phenomenon or situation
which he has studied, thus providing a basis
for formulating some kind of corrective or
remedial action in a problem situation. A
theory cannot tell the designer exactly what
to do, but it can suggest a strategy alternative
which can be, with the right degree of refinement,
tried out in practice to determine its validity
or non-validity.
A communication (or message) strategy is a means
for producing a desired effect upon an audience
through communication effort. As in the military
sense, a communication strategy is a grand design
framed to accomplish a given set of Objectives
by means of intelligent deployment of message
resources.
Invention is one of the so-called "canons of class-

ical rhetoric" which refers to the process through

16.

27
which the designer discovers, creates and/or
adapts to a particular audience the kinds Of mess-
age content that appears to be apprOpriate for
that audience, given the purposes of the comm-
unication effort. The term does not, as used
here, include the preliminary analysis, invest-
igation, identification and location of message
resources, but only the adapting or preparing
Of existing content materials for a specified
audience for a given purpose. It includes such
procedures as formulating the basic message strat-
egy or plan and the matching of arguments and
motivational appeals to identified character-
istics Of the audience members.
Disposition refers tO the process in classical
rhetoric by which the designer makes his final
selection of the content to be included in the
message and the proper arranging or sequencing
of it for maximum impact on the audience. It
involves converting the preliminary plan or out-
line developed in the invention phase into a
detailed blueprint which specifies what content
goes where for what intended purpose in what

finalized sequence.

17.

18.

28
Style refers to the conceptualizing the message
in the language and other symbolic forms which
will help assure interest, attention, comprehen-
sion and response by audience members to the
message stimuli presented. It determines in
a vital manner the meanings evoked in the minds
of the audience members and whether or not they
will be in a position to respond as the designer
intends. Style is the great facilitator or
inhibitor of communication effectiveness depending
on the extent to which, through skillful and
creative invention and disposition, the designer
has conceived a potentially powerful message. It
involves such concerns as clarity, prOpriety,
economy in the use of words, vivacity or provo-
cativeness Of expressions and the many other sty-
listic factors which have been identified by rheto-
ricians and modern mass media practitioners as
being effective for achieving given purposes.
Delivery refers to the "human performance"
technique by which the message stimuli is pre-
sented to the sensory organs of the audience
members. The Options for achieving this are

many: they include, in the present day, the full

29
range of technological means of extending the
human personality and the means by which human
beings can encode and transmit stimuli for evoking
response from those coming into contact with it
Some additional jargon will be found throughout this
report. Unfamiliar terms not included above will be defined

in the context in which they appear or by the use of footnotes.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Publications dealing with the varied facets of com-
munication theory and practice are more numerous and diverse
than those in any previous period of history. Among the
hundreds Of contemporary works on this subject there are
many similarities. These similarities can probably be
attributed to the fact that most have taken as their common
theoretical base aspects Of classical rhetoric. The dif-
ferences between them appear in most instances to be "depart-
ures from the classical foundation into many bypaths."l

Because the literature Of communication is so diverse
and so extensive it will not be possible to review any sub-
stantial portion Of it in this chapter. Neither will it
be possible to make a critical assessment of it nor to
place the relevant theory and research knowledge into a
coherent framework. Rather, the aim will be to "map the ter-

ritory" and identify those works which appear to be most

 

1James C. McCroskey, An Introduction to Rhetorical
Communication (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1968), p. 15.

30

31

relevant to the needs of the designer Of persuasive mass
media messages. The emphasis Of the review will be on
identifying and annotating those compendia works which
identify, summarize, evaluate and suggest practical applica-
tions of communication theory, process models, message
design principles, persuasive strategies and the like,

which have been validated to some degree by research and

practical application.

Works Dealing with Comprehensive Design Procedures

Although the literature of persuasive communication
is voluminous, writings describing comprehensive, total
systems for design of persuasive messages or message cam-
paigns are sparse. As previously indicated, this writer
has not been able to identify a single study or published
work of any kind dealing with the tactics and strategy of
designing programs specifically promoting involvement of the
audience members in the social action programs of their com-
munity. Neither have any studies been located in which a
comprehensive systematic attempt is made to utilize the
findings of communication and behavioral research or rhet-
orical theory as a means Of achieving augmented persuasive
potency.

What have been identified are a small handful Of studies

32
which deal with more general types Of message design. Most
are quite traditional in approach, with only peripheral
references to principles and theory. Those which use quan-
titative research techniques do so for the purpose of pre—
testing or post-testing of persuasive materials prepared
through traditional program develOpment techniques. These
works have been of great value in formulating the design pro-
cedures described in chapter IV Of the present study.

The work which reports the most comprehensive new
approach to program development is the recent (1968) doctoral
dissertation by Plummer.1 Much of what Plummer advocates
is valid, and aspects of his approach will be encompassed
in the design procedure outlined in chapter IV Of the present
study. But Plummer's study focuses on the considerations
involved in producing the more traditional entertainment,
cultural and informational programs without particular con-
cern for or concentration on the kinds of design techniques
required in producing programs having strong persuasive out—
comes.

Plummer's method is one which outlines some Specific

procedural steps in pre-production research and pilot testing.

 

1Joseph T. Plummer, A Systematic Research Approach
to Television Program Development (Unpublished doctoral dis—
sertation, The Graduate School, Ohio State University, 1967).

33
He also sets forth "five theoretic postulates" which he

suggests are "critical to the approach, the methodologies,

the instruments, and the analysis" used in his study.1

He does not have in his procedure provision for examining
and drawing upon findings or research relevant to message
design or the time-honored body Of "practical wisdom" which
appears to have such great potential for augmenting the
potency of message materials.

The major thrust of the Plummer approach is reflected
in this passage:

In television the success of a program is
measured by audience acceptance. In the past, however,
audience research has not been used in program
development until after a new program or pilot was
produced. This meant that some indication of
audience acceptance was not available until hundreds
Of thousands of dollars were spent and many commit-
ments made. The problem is "How does one predict
the success or failure of a televison pilot or prO—
gram before hundreds of thousands of dollars are
spent, commitments made, and the program goes on
the air?"

This study attempts tO provide some answers
to this problem and develOps a six step systematic
audience research approach, testing audience re-
action before the pilot is produced. The concept-
ualization of the problem in terms of our six step
approach is to determine the elements of content
and style most apprOpriate for a program in order
to appeal to a proposed target audience.

 

11bid.. pp. 33-34.

21bid.

34

In Plummer's approach with its crucial six stages of
development, recommendations are provided the producer at
the end of each step. These are as follows: (1) testing
the basic concept or idea for the new program: (2) using
the respondents favorable to the new idea as a sample, further
define the target audience (5) and test the format Of the
new program; (3) eliciting "treatment" variables for the
new program and providing statements from which a testing
instrument specifically related to the new program can be
constructed; (4) testing the pre-production aspects of
the new program such as the artist, story-board, or other
partial representation of the program: (5) rendering of the
pre-production decisions in the light Of audience reactions
and preferences: (6) execution of the program planning in
production of an actual pilot program for live on-the-air
testing.1

Plummer's conclusions concerning his study are pert-
inent:

Perhaps the crucial contribution of the
systematic approach to program development is that
the findings and recommendations validate the
thinking of the "creative team" in terms of 33g:
igpgg_preference. Using the target audience model
within our approach, the research aids the prod-

ucer's concept of the audience he hopes to attract
with the new program. There is predictiveness from

 

lIbid.. pp. 32-48.

35

step to step in the research approach which aids

the early program decision making. It appears

that the research approach could help in pred-

icting the perfirmance of a new program as a

regular series.

A going production organization which has used system—
atic research at the pre-production stages of program develop—
ment in a widely distributed national program series is the
Children's Television Workshop in New York City. The Work-
shop's widely heralded "Sesame Street" for pre-school young-
sters, which was the "sensation" of the 1969-70 television
season, uses a procedure which is referred to as "formative
research" to which the producer's attribute much of the success
Of the series. The Workshop personnel have not prepared a
published manual or handbook outlining their methods in detail,
but some insight into their methods is found in a letter which
came in response to an inquiry by this investigator to Edward
Palmer, Director of Research for Children's Television Work-
shop. In his letter Dr. Palmer outlines the essence Of their
approach:

. . .‘we have felt that one Of the most crucial
elements under broadcast conditions is content appeal.

Here we refer to anything that makes for heightened

attention and interest. Underlying this concern

is the fact that with broadcast television, aimed

at children in their own homes, not even a physi-

cally captive audience is assured. We have con-
ducted extensive research into the program elements

 

11bid.. pp. 297-298.

36

which capture and sustain the interest of young
children.

Another major element has been to explore
the arrangement of instructional elements in the
finished programs. We have produced a number Of
one-minute "spots" dealing with letters and numbers,
which will interrupt the program periodically, some—
thing in the manner Of television commercials. We
ran a series Of studies in an attempt to learn more
about the spacing Of spots, the Optimum number Of
repetitions, and the rate Of introducing new letters
or numbers.

A third major area of research activity
has attempted to explore the forms, styles of
presentation (or production techniques), and the
like, which are most appropriate for imparting
one or another type of concept.

In a brief working paper accompanying the letter,
Palmer briefly discusses the so—called "formative research
phase" of their total development procedure:

The formative research phase of Children's
Television Workshop (CTW) is one of several phases
making up the total research effort. Its chief
purpose is to provide the production staff with
information which will contribute to production
decisions. In addition, it will serve as a laborat-
ory for the preliminary development and valid-
ation of measuring instruments to be incorporated
into the summative research phase, which will include
a nationwide test of the overall impact of the
program on children . . . .One way to place the
formative research approach into perspective is
to characterize it in terms of the general model it
represents. First, it is distinguished by the
fact that it is tied directly into production.

 

1Letter from Dr. Edward L. Palmer, Director of Research,
Children's Television Workshop, New York City, N.Y., July
29, 1969.

37

Accordingly, the relationship between the research
and the context of application is relatively direct.
The typical formative research problem starts with
existing production questions, and proceeds to help
sharpen and extend and the research hopefully
answers those questions.

In drawing a distinction between the types of research
carried out at CTW and other forms of program related research
Palmer summarizes as follows:

/' A distinction between the present form of
research and certain other forms is that in the
present form there is no single theoretical position
underlying the various studies and forming the basis
for their coherence. Their coherence lies, rather,
in the fact that they all relate to the context Of
televised instruction for pre-school children. It
should be emphasized that every attempt will be

made to record and disseminate the results of this
research. In this way, they will serve not only

the immediate needs of this project, but other
related projects which now exist or which may exist
in the future. Thus, there is every expectation

on our part that the results of this research will
be generalizable.

More specific features of the CTW develOpment procedure
will be introduced in Chapter IV in connection with the design
procedure developed in the present study.

Proceeding further in the review Of those works out-

lining comprehensive design procedures, we cite now an

 

1Edward L. Palmer, The Formative Research Phase of
Children's Television WOrkshop (Unpublished Working Paper,
Children's Television Workshop, New York City: October 14,
1968). p. 1.

21bid.. pp. 1-2.

38

interesting manual developed for students Of public speaking.
Although there are over 100 textbooks or so-called handbooks
for public speaking currently in print, this writer was able
to identify only one which tried to do for the public speaker
what the present investigator has tried to do for the designer
of persuasively potent mass media messages. This is Amram
and Benson's Creating a Speech workbook which outlines a
step-by-step procedure for designing a speech. It provides
a full set Of checklists and accompanying worksheets upon
which the user may record, refine, and extend the results
Of his creative formulations and decision making. Also in-
cluded are specimen c0pies of model speeches and illustrations
Of how a speaker might develOp his own speech following the
same procedure.

The uniqueness Of this workbook, and its relevance
to the present study, is revealed in the emphasis given to
"principles and techniques Of creative problem solving to the
preparation of a speech."1 Further relevance is reflected
in this admonition to the message designer seeking maximum
potency for his message:

. . . in preparing your speech . . . you
will be more successful if, instead of selecting

 

1Fred M. Amram and Frant T. Benson, Creating a Speech:
a Student's Workbook (New York: Charles Schribner, 1968),
p. l.

39

the first ideas and techniques that come to

mind, you collect as many alternatives as you

can before you decide which are the best approaches

to your audience. You should stretch your imag-

ination in an effort to create new, more effect-
ive arguments. You need to be flexible enough

to adapt to a variety of audiences and points

of View. Finally, you need a strong desire to

succeed, an eagerness to communicate your skills

and Opinions, a will to be a full-time thinker,
communicator, and participant in a demogratic
society based on citizen participation.

Although geared to the beginning speaker, and far
removed from application of sophisticated communication
theories and the findings of behavioral research, this
workbook is premised on sound rhetorical principles. It
is also noteworthy in the extent to which it leads the
student to apply the principles and procedures of creative
problem—solving to problems Of message design. Elements
of Amram and Benson's approach find a unique place in the
design procedure discussed in Chapter IV of the present
report.

We come now to several other publications in the
field of speech communication which, while not qualifying
as "practical handbooks or manuals" for design of messages

as we define them in the present study, do have much to

offer the developer and user of a message design procedure.

 

11bid.. pp. 8-9.

4O

Probably the most comprehensive Of these studies is a disser-
tation study by Hickman.1 This study, entitled A System-
atized Theory and Procedure for the Production of Multi—
Channel Communication Messages, is anchored in classical
rhetoric but is greatly extended in its sc0pe by the inclu-
sion of concepts from modern information and communications
theory. Hickman's study, while not producing a workbook
like that Of Amram and Benson, is noteworthy in the extent
to which theory and principle become the basis for message
design explorations and decisions.

The tone and substance of the Hickman study is revealed
in this note from the introductory chapter:

This study utilizes as a base for its devel-

Opment of theory and procedure, aspects of aural

communication theory which have been handed down

from classical writers and added upon by contem-

porary scholars. . . .We have broadened our con-

cept of rhetorical theory to form a theory of

multi-channel communication. We will attempt tO

apply rhetorical theory to filmic presentation--

a form of dramatic art. ‘We will also attempt to

apply current concepts of filmic visual theory to

rhetorical communication. Thus, we will borrow from

each to improve the other.

Specifically, the Hickman study attempts to assemble

 

lHarold R. Hickman, A Systematized Theory and Proc-
edure for the Production of Multi-Channel Communication
Messages (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department Of
Speech and Dramatic Arts, Brigham Young University, 1971).

21bid., p. 5.

41
a body of theory and principle for the new branch of the
dramatic and graphic arts which he refers to as "filmic"
presentation. This he defines as "the various media in
which Optical or electronic film is used to store aural
and visual messages," principally motion pictures, telev-
ision, and sound-slide presentations. His contention,
quite ably defended, is that "much of the theory developed
for aural communication can be adapted and/or supplemented
to produce a theory of filmic visual communication as well."
He contends, further, that modern communication theory,
whether it deals with the aural or visual channels, can be
combined with classical theory to form a theory Of multi-
sensory communication.

In the synthesis of classical rhetoric and more modern
communication theory achieved by Hickman, there is much to
guide the designer of persuasive materials in the selection
or invention of persuasive strategies. What is lacking in
his report, and hOpefully will be supplied by the present
study, is a set of procedural mechanics and a clerical system
(design worksheets, specimen material, etc.) such as provided
in the Amram-Benson workbook.

Another work, which lays out a reasonably comprehensive

 

11bid.. pp. 4-5.

42

design procedure, is a report of the U. S. Office Of Education,
Title VII, NDEA study, entitled, Message Design: the Temporal
Dimension of Message Structure.1 The author (Fleming, 1968)
reports his research on the design of message structures for
teaching complex concepts to people not used to dealing with
complexity, capitalizing on visual conceptualizations which
"subsume and relate in meaningful patterns complex data re-
lationships."2 While his work does not deal with persuasive
communication per se, Fleming does report findings Which,
like the Hickman study, contribute to a practical theoret-
ical base for message design.

Fleming explains:

The reviews that follow have been selected
primarily to suggest the pervasiveness of message
structure variables across diverse media. None
of these studies employed the medium used most
frequently in the present study, the overhead pro-
jector and transparency. The reason, as suggested
earlier, is that the variable under study (temporal
order of presentation) is a message variable and
as such is to a considerable degree independent

of media, or at least is apt to be a larger source
Of variance in learning than in media.

 

1Michael Fleming and others, Message Design: the Tempe

oral Dimensions of Message Structure, Final report Of U. S.
Office of Education, NDEA, Title VII project, No. 1401, at
Indiana University (Washington: U. S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Bureau of Research,
March 1968).

21bid., p. 11.

3Ibid.

43

In the review which follows the foregoing statement,
Fleming cites and critiques Lumdaine's critical review of
audio-visual literature, the contributions of Hovland and
his colleagues on motion picture message design and also
goes into the literature of programmed instruction. He
presents some pithy findings relative to what he refers to
as the "message—tO-knowledge" task. The chief contribution
Of the Fleming study tO development Of a design procedure
appears to lie in his guidelines for structuring and se-
quencing complex concepts in visual form for efficient
learning and retention. His postulations appear to have
special relevance for helping the designer Of social-action
motivating TV programs portray the complex problems of modern
society in a clarifying and motivating manner while con-
serving precious air-time.

The next work to be cited was authored by James
McCroskey, a speech communicator with recent quantitative
research experience. His book (1968)1 comes close to being
a complete manual for message design, combining as does the
Hickman study, classical rhetoric with modern communication

theory. The initial section is devoted to what he refers to

 

1James C. McCroskey, An Introduction to Rhetorical‘
Communication (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1968).

44
as "basic theory." This contains chapters which subsume 1500
years of classical rhetorical theories and place these in
perspective with such concepts as communication models,
attitude formation and change, audience analysis, the nature
of persuasive argument and the like.

Section II is devoted specifically to "message prep-
aration." It is here that he prOposes a judiscious blend
of the ancient and the modern principles to achieve effective
communication. The initial chapter in this section is devoted
to "preliminary considerations" such as selection or purposes,
audience analysis, message channels, and "forms for the
preparation Of messages." There follows a series of chapters,
each entitled "message preparation," but each emphasizing
a different aspect of the classical "constituents of rhet-
oric," (invention, disposition, delivery and style) as
viewed in a modern setting. His chapter 10 goes into the
matter of strategies for differing communication purposes
and how these strategies may be augmented through use of
visual aids.

The final section of McCroskey's work is particularly
relevant to the social action concern of the present study.
Entitled "Rhetorical Communication and Society," this
section goes into the ethics Of "means and ends in persuasive

social communication," the ethics of intent toward the

45
audience, the dilemmas of classically-oriented "persuasion"
as Opposed to coercion, plus other vital tOpics related to
the uses of powerfully persuasive communication capabilities
once attained.

Two additional short works on message design are
worthy of mention here. Both were issued as part Of the
Bobbs-Merrill paperback series in speech communication.

Both bear the title, Message Preparation, but each author
emphasizes a different aspect Of the deSign task. Glen Mills'
work deals with the "analysis and structure" of messages.

He acquaints the reader with "both Old and new concepts

and theories relating to the selecting Of subjects for
communication, their analysis, their investigation and

their structuring."1 Definitions, illustrations, theoretical
distinctions and the findings of relevant research are
brought to bear on the subject. Analysis, which Mills
describes as the "most intellectually significant part

Of speechmaking," is clearly articulated in early chapters.

Outlining and alternative patterns Of arrangement
are presented in considerable detail in subsequent chapters
of the Mills book. Each principle is demonstrated, and the

findings Of recent research are cited to modernize traditional

 

1Glen E. Mills, Message Preparation: Analysis and
Structure (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.,
1966): p. iV.

46

theory- A particularly relevant section Of his Chapter
Three is an "analytical checklist" which enables the message
designer to "investigate his task with discrimination and
judgment," helps him limit his scope and guides him "in the
selection Of content vital to his purpose "1 Specimen
analyses for various types of messages, including the per-
suasive, occupy the remainder Of the chapter.

The dilemma encountered in outlining the message
preparatory to actual writing is especially well handled
in one chapter- Mills' conception Of the function of the
outline is refreshing. He says that the outline should be
thought of as:

. . . an organized storehouse of ideas.
When it is properly done, it helps the speaker
to observe in proper perspective the main lines
Of thought, the relationships among the several parts,
the adequacy of the forms Of support, and the unity,
coherence, and emphasis Of the speech as a whole.
This procedure can sharply reduce the incidence
Of omissions, disgressions, inconsistencies,
unsupported assertions and misplaced emphases.

The other message preparation book in the Bobbs-Merrill

3

series is by Bettinghaus. This work emphasizes the importance

 

1Ibid., p. 31.
21bid., p. 47.

3Erwin B. Bettinghaus, Message Preparation: The Nature
of Proof (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.,
1966).

47
of and the skillful use Of arguments or "proof" in the
design of aural messages. The vital nature of proof is
described by Russell Windes in the foreward of the BettinghaJS
book:

In persuasive communication, the advocate
defends a proposition. He builds a case for his
proposition through arguments which he asks his
audience to believe. The persuasiveness of his
advocate, the degree to which his arguments are
found acceptable, often hinges on the modes of
proof he elects to use. Consequently, the study
of proof is extremely important to the student
of communication.

Windes goes on to speak Of "analytical frameworks for
categorizing and working with arguments" and the various
methods of establishing the truth of propositions. He
points out that these frameworks, valid as they might be
to the philosopher in proving the validity Of arguments,
are not very helpful to the communicator in predicting how
a listener will react to such arguments when communicated to
him. He then says of Bettinghaus, the author, that he:

. . .has reviewed the common analytical ap-
proaches to message analysis and assesses their
usefulness to the communicator in predicting the
behavior of his receivers. . . . suggests ways in
which auditors react to argumentative materials.

He sets forth in some detail the Toulman model as

one useful tool to help the communicator take advant-
age of the knowledge we do have about human behavior.

 

11bid., p. vi.

21bid.

48

The broad scope of theory and principle encompassed
in the Bettinghaus treatise, and its emphasis on practical-
ity Of application, is revealed in Bettinghaus’s own words:

Materials are drawn for the most part from

recent findings on behavior from speech and social

science research, from the experiences Of teacher

and practitioner rather than from careful exper-

imentation. . . .care has been taken to insure that

”common sense" ideas presented are not antithetical

to the findings Of current researchers.1

Bettinghaus then expresses the hOpe that what he has
produced is a "thorough and practical reference for use by
the designer of messages, emphasizing the power and persuas-
iveness of 'proof'." This he defines as "the process of
using evidence to secure belief in an idea or statement."2
As with most Of the other works cited, Bettinghaus's treatise
has to be considered more a reference than a workbook outlining
a total design procedure. But, it should be considered a
most crucial adjunct to the formal design procedure developed
in the present study.

The final work to be cited in this section of the

review is a doctoral dissertation by James Wood which outlines

a theory of persuasion based on rhetorical theory.3 This

 

1Ibid.. p. 4.
21bid., p. 5.
3James A. Wood, An Application of Rhetorical Theory to

Filmic Persuasion (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The
Graduate School, Cornell University, 1967).

49
study, like the Hickman study reviewed earlier, deals
‘with filmic persuasion derived primarily by applying rhet-
orical theory to the resources of the film medium. Wood
states more specifically that:
The theory is developed for both fiction

and non-fiction films, and for films presented

on television as well as in theaters. The thesis

does not deal with the specialized area Of tele-

vision commercials.
Primary concern is with principles and
techniques of persuasion which can be employed

in the film. These principles and techniques

are systematically presented under the heading

Of invention and discovery of appeals, selection

and organization of materials, and persuasively

functional stylistic qualities of the film. The

thesis also notes ways in which the utility Of these
methods is conditioned by the audience and sit-
‘uation, the film maker's purposes and resources,

and the general type of film.

The early chapters set forth a theoretical frame-
work (mostly drawn from Aristotle's Rhetoric) and identifies
the peculiar resources of the film medium. The resources
of classical rhetoric are supplemented by research findings,
mainly from the fields of public address and social psych-
ology. A useful feature of WOOd's study is his Review

of Literature in which he describes a "random survey in-

tended only to suggest the wide variety and the broad range

 

lIbid., p. l (abstract).

50
Of materials available in the field."1 He delimits his review
(and this makes it particularly relevant) to filmed messages
"designed deliberately to meet a particular persuasive task."
Concerning the typical persuasive film he concludes:
The fact that film can be used to secure
persuasive effects has been convincingly demon-

strated by experimental evidence. This evidence

has shown, however, that many superficially well

develOped persuasive films actually have little

measureable effect. This irregularity of effect—
iveness is partly due, no doubt, to the absence

of a comprehensive and reliable theory guiding

construction of such films. . . . Even the theory

developed in the preceding chapters is somewhat
piecemeal and is supported by reliable evidence

only at some parts.

We have been reviewing thus far those printed works
which come close to outlining comprehensive, systematic
procedures for design of message materials. These have
dealt, to some extent, with preparation of persuasive messages.
All have their omissions and deficiencies in coverage as
acknowledged by their authors. Collectively, however, they
constitute a fine resource for development of a comprehensive
design procedure for persuasive mass media materials. They
have considerable relevance for design efforts which have

their prime aim the promotion of increased social-action

involvement of those who View.

 

lIbid., p. 4.

21bid., p. 270.

51

All Of the works reviewed thus far have value as
reference works for the designer. There are, Of course,
other works drawn from many fields Of scholarship and
communication practice in which persuasion is a major con-
cern. Hence, in the remaining pages of this review, we
review some of the resource publications which didn't quite
quality as sources of comprehensive design procedures but
which are highly relevant in the message designer's purposes
as he attempts to link theory and principle to his design

efforts.

References from the Field of Speech

The works of writers on the art of speaking, given
the nearly 2,500 year span of coverage, are so extensive
in number that we can barely scratch the surface Of this
rich resource for the designer of persuasive messages. The
sheer volume of writings in the field is staggering, taken
as a whole, but, fortunately, there are modern works which
have distilled out of the vast and varied literature of
rhetoric much which is relevant to our day and to today's
message design challenge. The aim in this section will be
to review in very brief fashion works which appear to be
especially useful to the developer Of message materials

which are pointedly persuasive in design.

52

The most comprehensive modern work--one which has
intrigued this developer of a design procedure emphasizing
reliance on the findings of behavioral science and communi-
cation research--is by Thompson.1 The stated purpose of this
work is "to summarize and evaluate quantitative research in
speech for the half century following the founding of the
organization now called the Speech Association Of America."
Thompson defines quantitative research as referring to those
studies in which numerical data are prominent, encompassing
both descriptive and experimental studies. Included in his
review are studies meeting this criterion reported in all
the regularly published speech journals (Quarterly_Journa1
of Speech, Speech Monpgraphs, Speech Teacher, Journal of
Communications, Southern Journal of Speech, Central State
Journal of Speech, Western Journalpof Speech) from their
first issues through 1964. Thompson's summary chapter in-
cludes criticisms of articles by speech peOple published
elsewhere, plus unpublished studies, if significant, printed
through July of 1961.

To justify his writing of a book which emphasizes
quantitative, scientific investigation of communications

phenomenon in a field almost completely oriented in the past

 

1Wayne N. Thompson, Quantitative Research in Public
Address and Communication (New York: Random House, 1967).

53
toward the "artistic," Thompson asserts:

Dissatisfaction with the status Of rhetorical
theory is at least as Old as Plato and Aristotle,
both of whom objected most vigorously to the prac-
tices and writings of their predecessors and con—
temporaries. Aristotle produced a comprehensive
system that in its Whatelian modification is still
dominant, and the rhetorical history of the inter-
vening twenty-three centuries can be written in terms
Of Aristotle's imitators, his modifiers, and his
dissenters. . . . To this day no complete non-
aristotelian rhetoric has been written, nor is
likely to be. . . . The perseverance Of classical
rhetoric through so many cultural ages and its cont-
inued dominance in a scientific age . . . suggest that
much must be right about it, for only a body of
principles having insight and near universality
could survive such a test.

Thompson goes on to say that there is much, therefore,
that is right about the contemporary accumulation Of beliefs
about speech communication. He then spells out what he feels
is the role of quantitative research. His viewpoint is that
quantitative research can generate knowledge which will extend
existing rhetorical theory. More specifically, he indicates
his belief that through quantitative research, generally held
precepts of rhetoric "may largely be confirmed but more pre-
cisely drawn." He notes that almost nothing in existing
theory has been proved with scientific rigor, and suggests
that "even though these generalities may prove largely tO

be true, experimentation should lead to increased confidence

 

1Ibid., p. 1.

54

and to more precise applications." Other benefits he fore-
sees include his conviction that the experimentalist could
create new theoretical doctrine, that they may invigorate
rhetorical thought, and that they may "overcome apathetic
acceptance of tradition and generate occasional short periods
of creative ferment."1

In the book prOper Thompson gets down to the business
Of reviewing and evaluating (to a degree, synthecizing) the
research findings Of the 1915-64 period. His stated pur-
poses are to "bring together in useable form those findings
that seem to warrant preservation" and "to state with varying
degrees of assurance the generalization that at this time
seem justified."2

He first examines studies dealing with basic theory,
then audiences, arrangements Of parts of the speech and other
traditional aspects of rhetorical theory and practice. His
concluding chapter offers encouragement to "would-be"
researchers and lists a number of recommendations to "guide
the researcher's efforts into fruitful paths."

This is an authoratitive handbook on rhetorical prac-

tice which can help the designer to sort the valid from the

 

lIbid., pp. 7-8.

21bid., p. 31.

55
invalid in the findings of contemporary communication research
and experimentation. It has to be labeled a "must" for the
message designer's reference collection.

An Often overlooked resource for the design of mass
media messages is the more traditional text or handbook on
public speaking. Organized, as most Of them are, around the
"Basic constituents of rhetoric," and adapted in varying
degrees to the requirements Of modern speech communication,
these books contain much which could bring continuity, coher-
ency and cogency to persuasive mass media messages. Much
time-honored theory and proven "practical wisdom," given
full development in the Speech composition texts, is over-
looked or bypassed by developers of public service television
or radio broadcast designed to achieve the vital purposes of
social communication.

Noteworthy among the over one hundred works in this

1 This work,

category is one by Hance, Ralph, and Wiksell.
intended for use as a college-level textbook, deals first
with the elements which lend believability to the message

and account for the credibility of the source or sponsor.

 

1Kenneth G. Hance, David C. Ralph and Milton J.
Wiksell, Principles of Speaking, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.:
Wadsworth Publishing CO., 1969).

56

The chapter dealing with this vital and Often neglected aspect
of message design adapts Aristotle's basic postulates of
"ethos" or "personal proof" for use with today's rather
sophisticated, often skeptical, and sometimes cynical,
persuasion-resistant message recipients.

The second chapter, which deals with "materials of
development,“ provides an excellent checklist of the kinds
of persuasive proofs which history and contemporary experi-
ence have proven to be most universally effective in pre-
cipitating belief. A third chapter deals realisticially with
the so-called "materials of experience"--those appealing
primarily to the listener's basic motives, his sensory
experiences and his memories of them--also his common needs,
hopes, fears, and desires--all known to be effective in
sustaining interest, reducing hostility and overcoming apathy
on the part of listeners. This third chapter includes a
listing of examples and sources of materials of experience,
plus alternative ways of "massing" and "showcasing" of these
potent materials for maximum impact. The methodological
tools offered in this text are representative of the many
strategy and content resources to be found in the better con—
temporary works on speech communication. A listing of other
such works will be found in the Bibliography.

An aspect Of traditional rhetoric which is the Object

57
of heightened interest to communicators at this time is that
of audience analysis. Even mass media communicators who
have tended in the past to Operate on the so-called "common
denominator" principle in approaching their audience are
becoming more concerned with the increasingly more diverse
and pluralistic interests and concerns Of their audiences.
There is growing awareness of the need to design messages
for more sharply delineated target audiences rather than for
one large "mass."

This concern has probably provided some of the impetus
for a series of new books devoted exclusively to the problem
of audiences. Theodore Clevenger's Audience Analysis is one
of the most widely used works from this group. The preface
refers to it as "a contemporary book which attempts to make
students familiar with what the best communicators have known
by intuition about audiences and what behavioral science is

1 The author indicates

organizing and proving about audiences."
that the book is directed to the so—called "new persuasion"
which is concerned with the "key determinants of audience

persuasibility, Opinion research, statistical analysis,

thought and belief systems, the effects of communication and

 

I
1Theodore Clevenger, Jr., Audience Analysis (Indianapolis:
The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1966).

58
strategies Of communication."1

Clevenger's chapter on planning is especially germaine
to the task of the persuasive message designer. One Of
Clevenger's advocacies is "deliberate formulation of a
communication strategy" based on careful audience pre-analysis:

In short, an accurate assessment of the
communications situation, and especially of the
audience, may play a significant role in the

success of a communication effort, whether we

evaluate success from the standpoint of the speak-

er's purposes or from the standpoint of how much

the audience profits from hearing the message.

Careful planning of the communication strategy

may contribute as much or more tO the realization

of the agdience's goals as it does to those of the

speaker.

subsequent chapters in the Clevenger book and others
of the several alternative works listed in the Bibliography
merit careful study and deliberate application of the prin-
ciples reflected therein.

Another sector of rhetorical practice which frequently
goes unexamined and unevaluated by the message designer is
that of written composition. Many mass media practitioners
are unaware that the area Of expository writing, as taught

and researched in university departments of English, have

strong and useful rhetorical underpinnings. A very recent

 

1Ibid., p. vi.

21bid., p. 31.

59
book by Tibbetts, a teacher Of English composition, appears
to have great relevance to mass media design. Entitled The
Strategies of Rhetoric, this book notes that in classical
terms rhetoric was primarily an oral art, but that today it is
applicable to all modes and media of communication. This
treatise, emphasizing an application of rhetoric in devis-
ing strategies for written communication, is vested with
concern for the ethical and moral dilemmas in communication.
Tibbetts expresses his views as follows:

Like many other human inventions, the dis-
cipline of rhetoric has Often been distorted and
dishonestly employed; but at its best it has been
of great value to western man. Aristotle claimed
that rhetoric is by its nature involved with
justice and that it is corrective of evil. The
responsible rhetorician wishes to be logical,
truthful and just. Moreover, he wishes strongly
to communicate clearly to others. Rhetoric, properly
used, is the art of finding the truth and convincing
others of that truth.

Part III of the Tibbett's book has an excellent chapter
on ideas and their organization, and a chapter on "creating
good content." Part IV has a chapter entitled, "Six Rhe-
torical Strategies," Which has much to Offer the message

designer that is Of practical value, as does his concluding

chapter, "Some Modern Uses of Classical Rhetoric."

 

1A..M. Tibbetts, The Strategies of Rhetoric (Glenview,
Illinois: Scott-Foresman, 1969), p. xi.

60
Reference WOrks in the Field of General Communication

The general communication movement is a very new one
considering the recency of its independent status apart
from the several parent disciplines which gave it birth.

As it struggles to become a scholarly discipline in its own
right--no longer fettered by the somewhat contradictory
traditions and constraints of its mixed parentage--the field
is dismissed by some critics as largely a recasting Of trad-
itional rhetoric using an exotic new jargon. Other Observers
view the field as a maverick "spin Off" from the behavioral
sciences with little theory or content other than that pur-
lOined from the Older, more well established social science
disciplines.

Probably it is correct to say that, as the new movement
has striven to identify a content all its own, it has drawn
eclectically from just about every established discipline
which has made human communication a matter Of some study
and concern. But, what the laborers in the general commun—
ications vineyard say they are attempting tO do is to pull
together the bits and pieces of what should have long ago
been established as an integrated, independent field Of study
and experimentation. Much of what is encompassed in the new
field has previously been the province Of several of the

established disciplines which have listed communication as

61
part of their domain. These disciplines have not, however,
studied any but their specialized segment Of what has to be
considered as one of the most basic and most complex of all
human phenomenon.

It is no less true that the early teachers and research—
ers in general communication were trained in the more trad-
itional disciplines. But, most of these people became broad-
gauged scholars who viewed the act Of human communication as
an integrated but cross-disciplinary whole. From these
founding fathers Of the movement and their considerable num-
ber Of former students are coming a sizeable volume Of defin—
itive and insight-producing research studies and writings.
Although much of the work is exploratory and the conclusions
tentative in many instances, there are emerging from this field
of scholarship, many writings which can give the practicing
communicator some deep insights into the communication process
and how messages might be formed to Optimize that process.

The near-classic work in this area—-and forerunner of
the current tide Of published writings on the basic commun-
ication process--is Berlo's The Process of Communication.1
The most widely known and certainly the highly influential

feature of the Berlo book is his comprehensive "process model."

 

1David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication (New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960).

62
This Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model emphasizes the
"importance of a thorough understanding of human behavior
as a prerequisite to communication analysis."l Berlo Openly
attributes the basic idea of the model to Aristotle, the dean
<3f the classical rhetoricians. But, he quickly points up
the need for extending and reinterpreting of Greek rhetorical
thinking for our day, and for extensive research to verify

tflne validity for our time the "practical wisdom" of which

tine ancient art is largely comprised.

Berlo's basic contention is that "if communication is
ithended to affect behavior, we need to understand the var—
iafloles and the processes underlying change."2 He then asks

his readers to note the following:

There is more than one approach to the
analysis of behavior. If we separate psychology
from sociology, we primarily are separating a per-
sonal from a social approach to behavior. Stated
differently, a psychological or personal approach
to behavior looks for individualistic character-
istics of the organism, for what goes on between
the time he responds to it. A sociological approach
to behavior is more likely to emphasize relation—
ships among people as determinants Of behavior, e.g.,
how does the presence or absence of one person
or a group of persons affect the behavior of another
person or group. A third discipline, social psych-
ology, has developed in an attempt to bridge these
interests, and to relate personal and social factors

lIbid. , p. 73.

2Ibid., p. 73.

63
that go into the communication process.

To apprOpriately model the communication
process we must analyze communication behavior
from each of these vantage points. All three are
appropriate to the same thing; an explanation Of

how, why, when, with whom, and with what con-
sequences man behaves in a communication situation.

1
Berlo's book discusses in successive chapters a wide
range Of theoretical generalizations and research-validated
constructs drawn from the behavioral sciences which are ger-
maine to the communication process and to his basic model.
He Offers chapters on learning theory, the nature of meaning,
social role theory, and the like. His Chapter 6, "Social
Systems” presents an especially penetrating analysis of the
influence of group factors on individual behavior and discusses
the predictibility of auditor reSponse to messages from know-
ledge Of group characteristics and habits. Although not a
true sourcebook on message strategy, Berlo's book certainly
Offers the message designer many of the insights into behavioral
response to message stimuli he needs in order to come up with
realistic and potentially powerful communication designs."
The Berlo text is weighted heavily toward the social
sciences. There are, Of course, other general communication

works which are rooted heavily in rhetoric, though drawing

heavily from the behavioral literature. One book of this

 

lIbid., p. 74.

64

1

type is by Eisenson, Auer and Irwin. Although it is billed

as a treatise on speech communication, it bears the general
title, The Psyphology of Communication. They justify their
treating broadcast communication in a "public speaking frame—
work" as follows:

In summary, we restate our premise that
communication by radio and television is a spec-
ialized form of public address, and that the
psychological principles of effective public
address are generally applicable to the mass media.
At the same time we would note that significant
research gaps exist in understanding both tech-
niques and effects of communication by radio and
television. In surveying what we now know about
these matters both Hovland (1954) and Klapper
(1960) have only emphasized what remains to be
discovered by careful and intensive psychological
research.2
In their Chapter 16, the authors present a summary of

over 100 experimental findings relative to the influence of
various factors in the speech-communications situations upon
audience responses. Another includes a discussion of motiv-
ation which concludes with a comprehensive description of

”the fundamental drives affecting human behavior. . . the

basic unlearned drives, universally present in all human

 

1Jon Eisenson, J. Jeffery Auer, and John V. Irwin,

The Psychology of Communication (New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, 1963).

21bid., p. 318.

”a fi
0

5:

. 9

n-nr

53-“.
l

R vs;
S .u

65

beings."l

Relative to the uses the communication designer
might make Of knowledge of human drives, the authors
conclude:

A skillful persuader recognizes the pot—
ency of his listener's motivations when they can
be linked to his speech purpose. How does he tap
these resources? First, he considers whether he
can show that the adoption of his prOposal (or the
acquisition of the information he Offers) will
satisfy any fundamental wants, needs, or interests
of his audience. If he identifies any such relat-
ionships, he includes in his speech repeated ref-
erences to them. Second, he appraises the general
beliefs of his listeners and their probable attitudes
toward his proposition. In planning his speech he
attempts to integrate this thesis with the estab-
lished beliefs Of his listeners and devises ways to
reinforce their favorable attitudes and break down
hostile ones. Third, he inventories his stock of
available evidence and argument. He selects from
it for his speech content that material best suited
to persuading his particular audience, and in terms
of what his analysis has revealed about their basic
motivations, beliefs, and attitudes. Fourth, he
lists those emotionally loaded words and stereo—
types to which his listeners are likely to respond
favorably, and those to which they will reSpond
negatively. In phrasing his speech he makes free
use of the first list when referring to his prOposal
or those who already support it, and draws from the
second list when talking about his opposition.

Another book about communication in general which, like

the one just cited, is rooted in a traditional discipline

 

lIbid., pp. 245-246.

21bid.. pp. 295-296.

66
is Haney's Communication and Organizational Behavior.1
Speaking from his background in organizational theory, Haney
contends that:

Communication is one of the basic functions
essential for organized activities in society. Man's
progress has been facilitated through his skill in
communicating the knowledge generated by science and
technology. Through the function of communications,
men and women are able to share knowledge and inform-
ation for intelligent behavior in human endeavors.
Haney then presents a “logic of communication that can

be learned, taught, and applied by individuals who interact

with other individuals in organizations."3

The first chapter
focuses on what it is that happens inside a communicator
"before and as he talks, writes, etc., and as and after he
listens, reads, etc.," suggesting that perceiving, evaluating,
visualizing and interpreting are far more crucial in the
communications process than are phonation, articulation,
spelling and grammar which receive an inordinate amount of
attention in modern communication training.

The real substance of the Haney book appears in Chapter

V, however. Here he details the basic model of communication

 

1William V. Haney, Communication and Organizational
Behavior: Text apd Cases (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D.
Irwin, Inc., 1967).

21bid., p. vii.

3Ibid., p. viii.

67

which appears to be an extension Of the Berlo SMCR model.
In connection with his model Haney describes communication
as a "serial process involving the phases of encoding,
sending, medium, receiving, decoding."1 He likens each
step to a link in a chain, each link being absolutely crucial
if the message gets through. The most practically useful
concepts presented are those associated with encoding and
decoding, which he notes are far less understood and little
considered by most message designers. Haney concludes by
citing a number of case examples of miscommunication and
helps the reader analyze why--then suggests a number of very
practical techniques for correcting and avoiding message
contents which account for communication breakdown.

A fourth work considered worthy of mention in this
cursory foray into the literature Of general communication
is an anthology of writings edited by Richardson.2 Richardson
indicates that the book is designed for use in the "principles"
course in general communication, journalism, marketing
communications, advertising, and communications—oriented
courses such as political science, social psychology, socio-

logy, psychology, speech, management, and English. As he

 

lIbid., p. x.

2Lee Richardson (ed.), Dimensions of Communication,
2nd Ed., (NeW'York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).

68
describes it:

It brings together many develOpments in
communication research, consumer behavior, adver—
tising research, and areas Of the behavioral
sciences, in order to focus upon the problems of
communication and persuasion.

One of the editor's basic contentions is that:

. . . communication is still basically an
art . . . but we endeavor to intrude science into
this field in order to advance it. . . . We need
better balance between science and art . . . Organ-
ized research directed at specialized problems
‘will increase and bear better results if the findings
Of communications and behavioral science are used
as building blocks.2

Following a number of excellent papers by disting-
uished practitioners and researchers dealing cogently and
specifically with the topics enumerated above, Richardson
concludes the collection with a list of twenty-five tent-
ative but "empirically useful" communicative principles
extrapolated from a variety of research reports and theo-
retical writings. Speaking of a hoped for future state, he
speculates:

With such a set Of validated principles,
one could aspire to an engineering Of human comm-
unications. With sufficient pains and ingenuity
in application, messages then might be constructed

with some precision. Precisely engineered comm-
unication will require considerable time and resources.

 

lIbid., p. xi.

21bid., p. xii.

69

Such expenditures may be justifiable only in the

mass media. Here the possibility of extensive

reproduction and wide dissemination compensates

for the expense in their original design and con-

struction. But, for any communicator a set of

valid communication principles will provide a

standard against which a communication may be

checked and weaknesses discovered and corrected.

In view of our current intuitive procedures, this

would be a considerable step forward.

To conclude this section of the review we examine only
in passing a work so different from most issued on the sub-
ject that it has been branded by some critics as approaching
the heretical. The reason the work might invite such a label
(granted that much of it is "tongue in cheek") is hinted at
in the title, The Play Theory Of Communication.2 The author,
William Stephenson, begins by citing the previously referred
to impotence of mass media in producing significant effects
on the deeper or more important beliefs of people. He
deplores this kind of impotency in view of the urgent problems
facing our nation and the developing nations. Then he
proceeds to outline his own theory of mass communications
which he feels will ultimately result in more gains than

have been achieved through traditional belief and attitude

change strategies.

 

lIbid., p. 131.

2William Stephenson, The Play Theory of Communication
(Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1967).

7O
Stephenson's thesis is that important changes in
people's beliefs, their orientation toward the world and
their dispositions to change are more likely to result from
their involvement in "communication-pleasure." He points
out that most messages aimed at effecting change involve,
for the recipient, what he calls "communications—pain"-— in
reality, "work" with all its non-pleasureful demands, "un-
leavened by any conception of play or freedom from social
control, Which attempts to induce conformity, concensus and
established custom."l
Stephenson explains what happens as a viewer is enter-
tained in this way:
It brings no material gain and serves no
"work" function, it does induce certain elements
of self enhancement.
In vicarious identifications with persons
failing, indulging their weaknesses, the viewer
finds constant affirmation of his mastery over

the everyday threats, Of their being superior and
more capable of self-control than "those peOple."

2
Then, conceding a place for the deliberately persuasive
message, he notes that an important function of television and

motion picture entertainment programs which afford communication-

pleasure, is to keep an audience available and approachable

 

lIbid., pp. 1—2.

21bid., p. 57.

71
'with.§pp££_bursts of purposive persuasion. He reminds us
that a constant barrage of prOpaganda and persuasion will
find few viewers, or if found, the effect will be anxiety
and communication—pain which would preclude any positive
results. It would appear that what Stephenson argues for
is the very thing which appears to account for the unprec—
edented success of CTW's "Sesame Street" television series
for pre-schoolers. Few could quarrel with the degree to
which this program generates communication—pleasure, yet
still attains in an unprecedented way a wide variety of
purposive behavioral changes in the target subjects, as
well as their elders. Stephenson's "play theory" finds
much validity in the "Sesame Street" application and should
not be dismissed lightly by any serious designer of "pur-

posive" communication.

Reference WOrks on Persuasion

One of the specialized areas of communication which has
generated an impressive body of literature is that Of per-
suasion. It may be said that persuasive communication has
been a vital area of scholarly concern since the very dawn
of rhetorical thought. It must be remembered that at the out-
set the term rhetoric was all but synonomous with the term
persuasion; it has been the dominant concern Of communications

practice in just about every age down to and including the

vm- W
fiat-sh

n:

41..

72
present.

Today's literature of persuasion is a rich, vol-
uminous and varied one, but it is obviously Of uneven qual-
ity and validity. The job Of the practicing communicator
in trying to sift through even the contemporary writings
to extract that theory and those principles which are reliable
and relevant to his task is a formidable one. Little help
can be given here. The most that can be done in this chap-
ter is to review several of the more comprehensive works
which can help in a gross way in mapping of this rather
vast "territory" which, it would appear, is seldom traversed
by today's mass media practitioners.

A real foundation reference on contemporary persuasion
is Fotheringham's Perspectives on Persuasion.l Fotheringham
Opens by advising his readers that the literature Of persua—
sion is so diverse as to suggest a Tower Of Babel-—"a con-
glomeration of empiricism and ideology, of facts and pre—
scriptions, of principles and proverbs."2 He then quickly
assures the reader that there is hOpe of bringing the varied
literature into a coherent whole. Of the content of his own

book he declares:

 

1William C. Fotheringham, Perspectives on Persuasion
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1966).

2Ibid., pp. xiv-xv.

He.

73
The chapters of this book will contain an
examination of the findings of those who have studied
the process of persuasion. Among the contributors

are communication specialists, rhetoricians, semant-

icists, psychologists, sociologists, educators,

industrial economists, business organization experts,
political scientists and others. From the fields

of applied persuasion-~journalism, public relations,

politics, television, social work and business-—many

have written their experiences and Observations.

The book contains three sections. Part I lays out the
author's conception Of persuasion. Chapter 4 on the “Dom-
inance of Message Effects in Persuasion" is noteworthy.

Part II, dealing with the potentials and limitations of
persuasion, should be of great interest to message designers.

Part III, comprised Of a single chapter on "functional
analysis of persuasion," is of particular relevance to the
present study. The list of basic design functions found in
the concluding chapter occupies an important place in the
comprehensive design procedure which is the Object of the
present study.

A not quite so modern but nevertheless comprehensive
survey of persuasion is J. A. C. Brown's Techniqpes of Per-

2

suasion from Propoganda tO Brainwashing. The title connotes

its emphasis--propagandistic persuasion. Pr0paganda and

 

1Ibid., p. xv.

2J. A. C. Brown, Techniques of Persuasion: From Prop—
aganda to Brainwashing (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963).

9.. o

‘58

74
its sub—specialty, brainwashing, are listed by the author
as two among the several techniques of persuasion. Brown
defines propaganda as:
. . . an association or scheme for prOp-
agating a doctrine or practice . . . the more or

less deliberately planned and systematic use of

symbols, chiefly through suggestion and related

psychological techniques, with a view to altering

and controlling Opinions, ideas and values, and

ultimately to changing overt actions along pre—

determined lines.

Propaganda, Brown reminds us, may be Open and its
purposes avowed, or it may conceal its intention. The fea-
ture which most precisely distinguishes it from other forms
of persuasion is its "attempt to induce in others the accept-
ance of a specific belief without giving any self-evident or
logical ground for its acceptance whether this exists or
not."2

Several chapters are of interest, notably Chapter 3
on changing attitudes using propagandistic techniques, Chapter
6 on propaganda in the mass media (which deals the part-
icular challenge of tailoring prOpaganda campaigns to a

mass audience with pluralistic characteristics), and Chapter

8 which offers insight into the techniques of so—called

 

lIbid., p. 9.

2Ibid.

12

qv
“-
C

If

75
"scientific mind—changing" using findings of psychiatry and
medicine. The concluding chapter lists a number of general-
izations concerning the proper and improper applications of
prOpaganda in the service of man. The designer of mass media
messages will gain much insight from a careful reading of
this work, now available as a paperback.

Another treatise on persuasion, which is worthy of
brief mention because it represents another sector of the
total persuasion spectrum, is Exposition and Persuasion,
edited by Robert D. Brown and David Spencer.1 It is an
older book but is noteworthy because of its roots in the
rigorous traditions of written persuasion. The chief value
of this work, although it has much to Offer in the area Of
techniques, is its advocacy of approaching the persuasive
task deliberately, analytically, and systematically, sub-
jecting the effort to the discipline of a critical coach or
taskmaster to help avoid loose, sloppy, and lazy thinking
and jumping to ill-advised conclusions. Good specimen
material is offered, along with some excellent evaluation
criteria for use in producing taut, forceful and efficient

persuasive materials.

 

1Robert D. Brown and David G. Spencer (eds.), Expgs-
ition and Persuasion (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957).

76

It is interesting to note, in the area of written
persuasion, the appearance, recently, of a book designed
to help peOple in the science-technology field. This is
J. G. Bank's Persuasive Technical Writing,1 which contains
much to assist the message designer who must interpret in
a clarifying convincing manner, complex, technical concepts
to semi-technical or lay audiences.

In concluding this section on persuasion, brief refer-
ence is made to the prestigious group of quantitative, exper-
imental research studies frequently referred to as "The Yale
Studies." This series of several hundred studies carried
out by a varied group Of behavioral scientists working
under the direction of Carl Hovland, are reported in a series
of books published from 1949 through 1961 by varied publishers.
Because there is not sufficient time or space to even begin

an adequate review, only the senior author and book title

 

 

are listed below:2
Volume I Hovland and others, The Order of
Presentation in Persuasion.(1949).
Volume II Janis and others, Personality and

 

Persuasibility (1959).
Volume III Rosenberg and others, Attitude Organ-
ization and Change (1960).

 

 

1J. G. Banks, Persuasive Technical Writing, (New
York: Pergamon Press, 1966).

2For full bibliographic description see the Biblio-
graphy.

77

Volume IV Sherif and others, Social Judgment:
Assimilation and Contrast Effects in
Communication and Attitude Change (1961).

 

The last volume (Sherif, 1961) will probably be one
most likely to be consulted by message designers because it
digests many of the findings reported in earlier publica-
tions.1 The Sherif volume also eliminates or modifies
findings of the earlier studies "which have failed to sur-
vive the rigors of repetitive testing and replication."

The book deals generally with "the basic processes underlying
expression of attitudes and their modification through com—
munication." It examines a number of studies—-including
prior research in the Yale Series--to Obtain "leads as to

the factors which will be relevant for the complex prob—

1em of social attitudes and attitude change."2 The central
focus is upon the judgmental process and the studies of

human judgment as a response to persuasive stimulus materials.

Chapter 8, "Summary and Implications,“ lists general-
izations from studies of stimulus arrangement, and judgment

3

of sensory message stimuli, plus a listing of implications

 

1Muzafer Sherif and others, Social Judgment (New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961).

2Ibid., preface.

31bid., p. 179.

78
for the effects of communication.1 The chapter closes with
some illustrative applications of which the following is
typical:

A possibility for producing change through
communications might be that of stating a position
which differs so slightly from the individual's
own position that it falls at the limit of his
zone of acceptance and rejection. . . . In this
'way the limits of the latitude of acceptance might
be expanded slightly to include the few new diver-
gent points of the communication. Conceivably, in
such small doses, the holder of an intense position
might be gradually shifted.2
There are, of course, many additional publications

focusing on persuasion which can enrich the designer's store-
house Of ideas, useful theories, strategies, and design
principles. Perhaps it would be helpful to close this
section of the review by listing a few by title (the more
complete description is found in the Bibliography). Some

of the more interesting ones include: Abelson's Persuasion
(1959), Abernathy's The Advocate: A Manual of Persuasion
(1964), Brembeck and Smiley's Persuasion: A Means Of Social

Control (1952), Merton's Mass Pepsuasion (1946), Minnick's

The Art Of Persuasion (1957), and Samstag's Persuasion for

 

Profit (1957).

 

lIbid., p. 191.

2Ibid., p. 195.

79

References in Advertising, Public Relations and Sales

Prior reference has been made to the fact that the
areas of marketing, advertising, consumer behavior, salesman-
ship and public relations have been subjects for extensive
research and experimentation. It was noted, too, that the
extensive literature generated by this activity is focused
almost exclusively upon the short, single-theme message,
the announcement-length commerical, or the single panel
print advertisement. Relatively little investigation has
centered upon the longer program-length presentation having
multiple themes which are given more or less full development.
NO studies were found to deal with broadcast presentations
designed to alter peOple's basic social attitudes and to
induce sustained involvement of members of a particular
intended audience in the social betterment activities of
their community--the prime concern of this study.

However, as suggested earlier, the research studies
in advertising and related fields can be a valuable resource
in formulating messages of the type envisioned in the present
study. It is this potential which prompts reference here
to a select few publications which the user of the compre-
hensive design procedure outlined in Chapter IV might find
useful in using the procedure for his own purposes.

Some Of the most relevant strategy material identified

80

anywhere in the literature by this investigator is that
found in recent published books on consumer behavior. Those
recent publications which set forth theories of consumer
behavior based on the findings Of social science research
are being especially well received by today's advertising
and marketing practitioners. Typical is the 1966 anthology
collection edited by Britt.l He describes his book as a
"special volume on consumer behavior designed to integrate
the best thinking of psychologists, sociologists, and anthro-
pologists with respect to human behavior-—plus significant
ideas from marketing experts.2 His announced intent is to
bridge the gap between the behavioral sciences and marketing
practice.

The behavioral science concept dealt with in Parts I
through VI, and the special marketing parameters discussed
in Parts VI through VIII, constitute the theoretical base
for analysis in Part IX of decision-making by consumers.
The concluding chapters deal with believability, motivation,
emotion, personality traits and attitudes, perception, rational

and non-rational thinking, characteristics of the self and

 

1Steuart H. Britt, Consumer Behavior and the Behav—
ioral Sciences: Theories and Applications (New York: Wiley,
1966).

2Ibid., p. xxix.

81
and the manner in which wants and needs become organized
around the self. It also lists other important message
design variables Which appear to be applicable to design Of
longer messages. Chapter 34 relates this imposing group of
concepts to the challenges of persuasive communication.
A slightly older, but highly practical, work is

1 Dichter

Dichter’s Handbook for Consumer Motivation.
indicates that the book is intended for the communications
expert, whether he is in advertising, sales, marketing,
promotion, public relations, teaching or politics. His
basic assumption is that:
. . . in modern communication we have
to penetrate to the deeper meaning which prod-

ucts, services and objects that surround us have
for the individual. Only by this deep insight

can we be truly creative and communicate effectively.’

He explains that his book is based on the varied aspects of
human motivation as they apply to consumers of all kinds of
products and services. His source material is drawn from
the over 2500 studies he conducted in the United States,
Canada, Europe, Latin America, Africa and Australia-—

. . . studies in almost all fields of human

endeavor concerned with the motivations of con-
sumers in the broadest sense, whether they bought

 

lErnest Dichter, Handbook of Consumer Motivations
(NeW'York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1964).

2Ibid., p. vi.

2

82

cars or were consumers of ideas or services, such
as political concepts or charity contributions.

Dichter then lays out in palpable lay terms an en-
cyclopedia of findings and principles. He attempts to
"organize consumer motivations so that each section deals
with loftier and loftier motivations" beginning with Objects
such as food and shelter and continuing to the more abstract
aspects of human motivation or "tools that forge social links
of communication." He includes in this latter category values
which have been elected to such a high level "that for cen—
turies people have readily died for them-~among them flags,
and churches, the cross, and other revered objects."2

A third work on consumer behavior is worthy of mention
here. This one, edited by McNeal, is noteworthy in the extent
to which it draws upon the findings of learning theory.3
The place of this body of theory in influencing consumer
behavior is indicated by one of the contributors:

Most advertising men don't realize it, but
their work requires them to use psychological prin-

ciples of learning. Both advertising men and
psychologists want to know more about people's minds.

 

lIbid.

21bid., pp

3James U. McNeal, Dimensions of Consumer Behavior
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).

83

Every time an advertisement or commercial
appears, the Objective is to have the reader or
viewer learn something . . . and remember what
he learned.

In other words, whether advertising men

are aware of it or not, they constantly employ

psychological principles. And when psychologists

pin down additional facts about learning, they may

be making contributions to advertising.

The contributor of this observation (Steuart Britt)
then proceeds to present twenty principles of learning which
have been established experimentally by psychologists and
which have practical application for persuasive message de-
signers. Following this list of apparently highly valid
principles, the author concludes with thisadvise:

We should not just blindly apply every one

Of these principles to the field of advertising.
However, we can point out certain applications that
the principles suggest to the advertising pract-
itioner. After all, individuals exposed to adver-
tising and people used in learning experiments are
much the same kind of people, and all are reacting
to materials that someone wants them to learn.2

Additional relevant and practical material for the
designer is to be found in the more recent handbooks on sales-
manship which are rooted deeply in the findings of behavioral

science. One of the best is Baker and Phifer's Salesmanship:

CommunicationL,Persuasion, Perception. In this book the

 

1Ibid., p. 81.

21bid., p. 88.

84
authors treat selling as a persuasive communication activ-
ity. They describe persuasion as a "powerful tool in the
hands of a salesman," and insist that, because it is so
powerful, it must be based on sound moral and ethical
conscience.

’//Part II will be the section of most interest to the
persuasive message designer. Here it is pointed out that
although the book centers on personal selling, the principles
apply to advertising, sales promotion, public relations,
trial law, speechmaking, writing, lecturing, and all other
persuasive activities. They argue that:

. . . the basic principles of persuasion
do not change from one situation to the other
despite differences in audience and purpose.
Even the minister seeks to influence the thinking,
attitudes, values and behavior of his congregation.

What must each do in order to accomplish this
Objective? He must have a total unit of persuasion.

2
The book proceeds in detail to help the reader learn how to
produce such units.

In the area of advertising an attempt to review the

literature of even the past year would be futile. The volume

of research reports, new textbooks, monographs, research

 

1Richard M. Baker, Jr. and Gregg Phifer, Salesmanship:
Communication, Persuasion, Perception (Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, Inc., 1966).

2Ibid., p. 7.

85

abstracts, journal articles, etc., remains unbelievably
high. Much of the literature, as noted earlier, is not
very applicable to the purposes of the present study, but
even that which might be applicable is too voluminous to
allow even token coverage here. There is one area, however,
which is so germaine to the purposes of this study that mention
Of a few key works in the area will be made. This is the area
of pre—testing of television and radio commercials, an act-
ivity carried on so extensively and so rigorously that many
techniques have been developed which can be readily adapted
for pre—testing of program length materials of a persuasive
nature.

The benchmark study in this area was published in
1963 by the Industrial Conference Board. This publication,
issued to subscribers to the Public Policy Series, was titled
simply, Pretesting Advertising. The opening paragraph in
the first chapter states the problem:

Millions of dollars have been spent on un-
tested advertising that small groups of agency or
company executives believed would be effective.

There are numerous, well-cited examples of how

such intuitive judgments, Often made by a single
man, have led to spectacular advertising success.
More numerous, but of course less publicized, are

the instances in which such intuitive approaches to
advertising have completely failed.

 

1National Industrial Conference Board, Pretesting
Advertising: Policy Paper NO. 109 (New York: The Board, 1963).

86

One Of the basic assumptions of the present study is
that what might be said of the advertisement relative to
reliance on the intuitive design approach may also be said
Of the long, program-length persuasive presentation. The
technique of pre-testing reported in the Conference Board
manual for advertising--particular1y those developed for
use with television and radio commercials--can be readily
adapted tO most program types.

A number of new techniques have been developed and some
of the commonly used methods of the fifties and early sixties
reported by the Conference Board review have been discarded.
A reasonably recent updating effort is a master's thesis by
Sibbett.l The author's stated purpose was to gather and
evaluate data on television commercial pre-testing practices
and to determine if there is one method which appears to hold
more promise than others. Although forced to conclude that
no one method appears to be superior to the others across
the whole range of purposes, Sibbett's study does provide
an excellent review and evaluation of the techniques in actual
use and their relative merits for various purposes. He sets

forth many seemingly valid arguments for broadened use of

 

1Kent H. Sibbett, An Exploratory Investigation of
Television Pretesting Practices (Unpublished master's thesis,

Department of Communication, Brigham Young University,
1967).

87

(of pre-testing to enhance message effectiveness. The biblio-
gyraphy is extensive and would provide much help to the mes—
sage designer who might like to probe the subject in depth.

Half a dozen recent works in the area of public rela-
thons were examined and were found to be relevant. Here,
also, the findings of the behavioral sciences are in vogue
as; the theoretical base. One book which is of particular
.iriterest to the present study is one which not only develops
:Lt:s rationale around behavioral principles, but also advo-
czattes the kind of research prior to and during the design
<31? public relations message material that will be advocated
.111 the methodology chapter of the present work. This book,
iillthored by a widely discipled public relations practitioner,
i4; titled, Public Relations and Survey Research.1 With
reSpect to the role of "formative research," as the "Sesame
Street" people refer to it, the author says:

. . . we have stressed the point Of view

that the public relations practitioner must make

use increasingly of research in order to guide

the planning and implementation of his public

relations programs. In fact, this entire book

can be seen as a modest effort toward inducing

the public relations practitioner to visualize

his work in this light.

We have learned that research can be viewed

\

1Edward J. Robinson, Public Relations and Survey
Eisésearch (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).

88

as a process made up of nine basic steps. The
first requires that the researcher be able to

state explicitly the problem he is going to invest-
igate, and the last that he note the implications
of his research and carefully spell out any result-
ing generalizations.

It is interesting to note the degree of importance

anfforded by Robinson to the literature search phase. He

rustes that in scientific circles the literature search is

2111 almost inviolate prerequisite, but it is not necessarily

so in his field:

The action-oriented practitioner somehow
regards the literature search as a waste of time,
and it is a rare occurrence when he takes the
time to do a careful literature search. The author
is aware that this attitude does not exist in a
vacuum: he realizes that the available literature
in public relations sources is not what it could
be in terms of helpfulness--and that it is often
not worthy of the time it takes to read it. How-
ever, there is much valuable material, especially
in the literature of the social and behavioral
sciences, that is consistently overlooked. This
lack of faith in the literature is a circular pro—
cess, and the only way to break the reaction is to
examine every literature source that might prove 2
useful in helping to solve a public relations problem.

Elsewhere in his book Robinson develops the other nine

Steps in his proposed research—based, problem-solving process.

His conception of research as a process or method "used to

(SEJtain reliable knowledge" is especially relevant to the

 

lIbid., p. 259.

21bid.

89
laurposes of this study. He notes, for example, that the
rmesearcher Who Obtains his knowledge scientifically, "follows
cnertain rules and introduces controls that help him evaluate
Tris information--What phenomenon cause other phenomena, or
“flaat.event correlates with what other event."1 To help
tile practitioner get and maintain a perspective, Robinson
provides a drawing which he calls a "problem-solving con-
tzjgnuum." His purpose is indicated as follows:

To summarize, briefly, we have tried to
establish a context in which to place research and
then relate it to public relations practice. We
have illustrated, by means of the prOblem-solving
continuum, what happens when an individual prac-
titioner in any applied field tries to solve his day-
to—day problems. We see that he can work from either
end of the continuum--or from a point someWhere in
between--making a decision from knowledge based on
scientific research (which is more reliable), or
from one based on hunches, previous experience or
guessing (less reliable). This same range of pos-
sibility is found in public relations practice, in
that occasionally certain decisions or certain
portions of an overall program can derive from
either extreme--scientific knowledge or intuition.

In concluding chapters Robinson presents a number of
cases in which a high degree of success was achieved using
‘Slllfvey research, combined with intuition, in solving some

gstztibborn, long-standing public relations problems. In several

cases persuasive message campaigns released through the mass
\
1 .

Ib1d., p. 10.

2Ibid., p. 17.

90
Inedia comprised the "backbone" of the problem solving effort.
From the many publications which could be cited in the

area of marketing, only one is singled out. This is a new

vn>rk (1970)‘On marketing research by David Luck and others.1

A. feature of this book which was helpful in formulating the
deasign procedure reported in Chapter IV of the present study
is; the author's conception of "problem definition" research:

Identifying and stating the problem is the
first, therefore the most essential, stage Of problem
solving. Poorly defined problems lead to poor re-
search results. Yet nothing can be done until the
researcher determines the principal decision that
needs to be made. Formal research may be instigated
to serve these stages, although more typically the
"tip off“ of a problem's existence is likely to
emerge from completed research as a by-product and
from clues received through less formal data funnel-
ing through a marketing intelligence system of the
economy or firm. Regardless of whether formal study
is conducted that is directed mainly to this step,
the marketing researcher needs to be apprised of the
factors that generated or cregted the problem and how
the problem is to be defined.

.Efiégierences ip Instructional Commupipation

One of the accelerating trends in education today is
-t11€3 inclination to regard teaching and learning as a communi-
cartI-ion transaction. In this view learning occurs as a result

\

(2 1David Luck and others, Marketing Research (Englewood
:lfiiffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970).

21bid., p. 56.

 

91

of direct contact by the learner with stimulus-generating

objects and influences--live persons, information-bearing

materials, environmental influences and the like--with some

change occurring in the learner, and often, the teacher as

a result.

In an Obviously oversimplified view it can be said

that the kind of change in the parties to such a transaction

(21nd the degree of it) is a function of the mix that ensues
as new stimuli interact with each party's prior experience.
EXperience may be termed the composite outcome of each per-
son's prior encounters with varied sources of stimuli. Com-
munication can be the term used to label the stimulus trans-

actions among persons.

With acceptance of this view it is then possible to

entertain the notion that the teacher's prime role is to
"manage" the stimulus environment in such a way that certain

learning outcomes--some predetermined and some not--actually

take place. And, concurrent with the shift to this view,

tl‘lere has been increasing acceptance of the fact that instruc-

ti(Dnal technology can be used in a systematic way to both

p3'¢‘c>vide and manage instructional stimuli.

A technology of instruction involves, of course, a

Q0Inplex of activities, peOple, materials, machines, systems,

and patterns of organization. It is the search for Optimal

92
ways in which to introduce technology into the teaching-
1earning transaction and render it effective that has stim-
ulated the considerable amount of research and experimentation

which can be examined with profit by the designers of mass

media messages. As with the literature of the other fields

considered, only a few of the works on instructional communi-
cation can be reviewed here.

A work which is reflective Of the trend in education
just cited is the Educational Communication Handbook issued
by the Division of Educational Communication, the University

of the State of New York.1 This handbook deals with the

full gamut of functions, policies, standards, etc., involved

in establishing an instructional communication program in a
SChool system. It does not devote much attention to materials
design. However, there are some basic concepts in the book
wl'lich are insight-producing. An example is the authors'
definition of educational communication, which is described
as "that branch of educational theory and practice concerned

pli‘imarily with the design and use of messages which control

the learning process."2

\

Q 1Division of Educational Communication, Educational
wunications Handbook (Albany, New York: The Division, The
Iliversity of the State of New York, 1968) .

21bid., p. 77.

93
Cited in connection with this definition is this
elaboration of the concept drawn from another work:

It undertakes (a) the study of the unique
and relative strengths and weaknesses of both pic-
torial and non-representational messages which may
be employed in the learning process for any pur-
pose: and (b) the structuring and systematizing of
messages by men and instruments in an educational
environment. These undertakings include the plan-
ning, production, selection, management, and
utilization of both components and entire instruc-
tional systems.1

The writers go on to explain that learning theory and
communication theory offer the basic concepts for a defi-
nition of the educational communications field. The message
incorporates the information and concepts to be transmitted--
the body of knowledge and its related skills and under-
standings. Technology and equipment applies to the way the
message is transmitted to the learner.

Another recent book indicative of the trend is J. J.
Thompson's Instructional Communication. The book's purpose
is set forth as follows:

This book is for all students of teaching

who wish to influence student learning more profound-

ly through the many media available to educators

today. . . . Its subject is the way in which com-

munication in all forms comes into play in the instruc-

tional process. It is a relatively short, non-technical

synthesis of the more significant ideas about com-
munication becoming current trends inside and outside

 

lIbid.

94

our colleges of education. . . . This book was
written in order to lay the theoretical ground-
work that is necessary before fundamental questions
about the Objectives and processes of modern
instructional communication can be asked and at
least tentatively answered.

Chapters which follow are entitled, "The Anatomy of

Communication," "Teaching as Communication," and "The Con-

cept of a System" all of which are relevant to the message
design task. In the first of these chapters the author tells
us that to be effective communicators:

. . . we must adopt a scheme for organizing
data. It is important to identify all the com-
ponents of a communication system, to assign functions,
and to analyze processes. Ready made theoretical
models are available, all of which agree, basically,
on what seems to be the nature, form, and function
of communication. They tell us that communication,
as it occurs among people, animals, and even things--
involves the transmission of information from senders
to receivers and from receivers to senders. It en-
compasses all the behaviors and conditions employed
by any logical organization, human or mechanical,
to influence and be influenced by any other logical
organization.2

Also included in the Thompson book are separate chapters
on film and television which are specifically relevant to the
concerns of the present study.

A third book which reflects the communications emphasis

 

1J. J. Thompson, Instructional Communication (New
York: American Book Company, 1969), preface.

21bid., p. 4.

95

l

is by Len Powell, a Britisher. In his Communication and

Learnipg, Powell speaks of teaching, instructing, persuading,

 

explaining--the entire repertoire of activities we go through
in order to get people to 1earn--as essentially communica—
tional tasks. Interestingly, he talks at some length about
the need for more persuasion along with imparting the knowl-
edge tO help assure ethical and conscienced applications
of that knowledge. He indicates that his book is written
for those who must "make tactical decisions" as to how
instruction is to be carried out. He strongly advocates
looking at this communication task from the point of View
of the learner.2
The next example is the second unpublished report by
designers of the "Sesame Street" television series for pre-
school children to which previous reference has been made.
This report by Gibbon and Palmer is entitled, "Pre-Reading

on Sesame Street."2 The report is referred to by Palmer in

a letter to this investigator as "our most recent bit of

 

1Len S. Powell, Communication and Learning (New York:
Elseview Publishing CO., 1969).

2Ib1d., preface.
3Samuel Y. Gibbon and Edward L. Palmer, Pre—Readipg

pp Sesame Street (Prepared by the staff of the Children's
Television‘WOrkshop, New York City, July, 1970), mimeographed.

96
writing about the research and production being done here."1
The paper describes the widely acclaimed television series,
produced by the Children's Television WorkshOp, as:

. . . the product of a deliberate effort

to apply the production techniques and entertain-

ment values of popular commercial television to an

instructional curriculum for pre-school children,
with special emphasis on the needs of the urban
disadvantaged.

The paper reviews the evolution and implementation Of
"Sesame Street" and describes the theoretical and Operational
models followed by the producers—-a model which they indicate
"provides for a unique collaboration of educational research—
ers, academic advisors, and television producers." The
latter are described as skilled communicators who have
learned how to successfully unite mass communication tech-
niques to formal instruction on a grand scale.3

An important segment of the literature Of instructional
communication is that reviewing and analyzing the hundreds of

research studies conducted in the past decade or thereabouts.

One work which is particularly germaine to message design is

 

1Letter from Edward L. Palmer, Vice President and
Director Of Research, Children's Television WorkshOp, New
York City, June 22, 1970.

2Gibbon and Palmer, p. 1.

3Ibid.

97
l .
that compiled by Reid and MacLennan. Entitled Research
in Instructional Television and Film, this compilation con-
tains an introductory review of trends in research on instruct—
ional films by Greenhill which should be most revealing and
helpful to the communications practitioner who has not been
able to follow developments in this area. Of particular
value is Greenhill's discussion Of the possibilities for en-
hancing message effectiveness through systematically varying
the contents, organization, treatment, etc., of television and
film materials in differing versions of the same presentation
2

until the most potent mix is achieved.

Speaking of the untapped potential in this sort of
design procedure for television programs, Greenhill says:

One Of the most disappointing aspects of the

considerable research on instructional television,

in particular, has been the relatively small number

Of studies that have dealt with the variation in

methods of organizing and presenting the program con—

tent. This appears to be the case in spite of the

fact that the television mode of production makes

it quite feasible to develop differing versions of

televised presentations, lessons, or, even complete

courses for comparison under controlled conditions.

This suggests that possibly the most fruitful areas
for research Open to investigators might lie in the

 

1Christopher J. Reid and Donald W. MacLennan (eds.),
Research in Instructional Television and Film: Summaries of
Studies (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1967).

21bid., p. 16

98
structuring and organizing of the stimulus materials
themselves, and in the manipulation and control Of
student responses.1
The remainder of the Reid and MacLennan book is devoted
to thumbnail sketches of the more noteworthy research studies

along with suggestions as to the implications of the varied

findings for instructional communication practice.

References in Broadcast Program Development

No review of the literature on the design of message
material for broadcast would be legitimate unless coverage
were given to the program development literature of the
broadcast media. One Of the Objectives Of this study is,
however, to bring to public service broadcasting new, novel,
and, hopefully, more potent design approaches and ideas from
other fields. This will legitimize, perhaps, the singling
out for review here only a few publications which reflect
novel or innovative thinking within the field.

A particularly interesting work incorporating applica-
tions in broadcasting of theory from other fields is one by

Britisher Gerald Millerson.2 His Technigues of Television

 

lIbid .

2Gerald Millerson, The Techniques of Television Pro-
duction (New York: Hastings House, 1968).

99

Production is a complete handbook for design and production
ch TV programs. But, whereas American works on production
tusnd to emphasize studio production, Millerson offers many
jxieas and concepts which are more particularly relevant to
Lilanning and scripting. For one thing, he sets forth a
'joroductional rhetoric" which is certainly novel for our
day. He explains:

Rhetoric is the art of persuasive or impress—
ive speech and writing. How does it differ from
daily speech? In the first place, it stimulates
the imagination. It does so in many ways, through
Style and technique. By inference, by allusion,
instead of direct pronouncement. By appealing
to the inward ear and eye. The rhetoric of the
screen has similar roots; and we shall find the
work of the foremost film directors studded with
powerful examples.

These techniques do not classify too neatly,
for they spring from relationships that are them—
selves unsystematic. Often the demarcations are
slight. And, depending upon hOW’We lay the emphasis,
so a situation's category can vary. But the real
value of such analysis is the way it can trigger
our imagination, to help us think up ideas.

The new ideas Millerson speaks of are DGW‘WEYS to
‘SEDark the imagination and the interest of viewers, to gain
atrld maintain interest, to involve and "move" viewers and

il'lfluence their attitudes and sympathies. In the seven

IPEiges which follow the above quotation he summarizes his

lIbid., p. 212.

100

. . . . 1
d£SV1ces as used 1n productional rhetoric.

Millerson deals in his Chapter 12 with the matter of
"gxroduction treatment." Here he takes some exception with
tfiie oft quoted truism in the trade that it is the program
(nontent that matters most. He claims this is only a half-
tzruth and outlines his argument for at least equal concern
Viith.treatment of concept:

The purpose of production treatment is clear.
It is devised in order to arouse calculated thought-
processes in our audience. More exacting, we are
arranging and relating a series Of visual and aural
stimuli. We are not just providing variety and
continuity of action, although that is many director's
interpretation of the term. Whether we choose these
stimuli carefully, or haphazardly, they will evoke
responses in our audience. From skillfully devised
stimuli, we can expect effective, reasonably predict—
able influences. From random or erroneously chosen
stimuli, we shall get unpredictable results.

Must we rely here on chance inspiration, or
is there any rational basis for our choice? There
is plenty of evidence to suggest that logical prin-
ciples underly production treatment--not rules,
but maxims that time has shown to be valid. Not
a strait jacket to originality, but a foundation
of understanding from which our techniques may dev-
elOp--unconscious1y or consciously.

Continuing the discussion on stimuli, Millerson talks
Eihhout certain kinds of stimuli which have an almost universal

al'ld unpredictable effect and about that which will have

lIbid., pp. 213-219.

21bid., p. 203.

i.

q)

(I)

F".

r)

(u

.1

r!’

a:

101

different meanings for different kinds of people. Then he

concludes :

How strongly we manage to influence our
audience will depend, initially, upon how forceful
the stimuli are which we present. Effects can be
deliberately cumulative and built up to a com-
bined strength: or if we are not careful, they
may nullify one another. The underlying influences
of our production treatment are there, and we
cannot run counter to them.

Of all the books on program development examined,
Millerson's is the most exemplary of the kind of approach

Sought for in the present study.

Two additional books by British authors are worthy

Of mention. One, entitled The Impact of Television,2 relates

'tTue particulars of how research during the formative stage
has been used in program develOpment at the British Broad-
Cnasting Corporation. The varied chapters of this book by
Bealson can provide the producer of public service and infor-
Inaitional programs valuable insights as to varied patterns for
usBing research as an aid to design. His chapter, "The
Te"chniques for Measuring the Effects of Programs" is prac-

tical and thorough. His case for this kind of research is
a simple one:

\
111616.. pp. 204-205.

2W. A. Belson, The Impact of Television (Hamden,
QOnnecticut: Archon Books, 1967) .

102

The main case for conducting studies of the
effects Of programs is that, for better or for worse,
particular programs may not do what was intended of
them. With an Operation as expensive and as time-
consuming as broadcasting, neither the industry nor
the public can afford to remain in ignirance of what
effects of a program are likely to be.
Belson's chapter, "Television Research: Past and

Future,‘ singles out areas where more work needs to be
done. Pre-analysis Of audience characteristics and "design
which proceeds on the basis of such data" which Belson
discusses in some detail are areas to which the present
study gives emphasis.

The third British author, Trenaman, also argues in his
Communication and Comprehension,2 for the use of research in
augmenting program effectiveness. As the title suggests,
his emphasis is on comprehension of message content and the
implications of it for program development. His principle
point is that, given the plurality of interests and variances
in ability to comprehend the complexities of modern life,
differentiating the mass audience into smaller target units
is essential if anything truly substantial is to be accom—

plished through the mass media.

Trenaman notes that in the world of education the

 

lIbid., p. 158.

2J. M. Trenaman, Communication and Comprehension
(London: Longmans, Green and CO., Ltd., 1967).

103
differentation is very clear. Children are divided in
school according to ability and aptitude, but this is seldom
the case in factual or public service television where we
often attempt to convey bodies of factual information and
expound principles or explain complex processes as if we
are quite unaware of the limitations in ability of many
persons in the mass audience to come to grips with our sub-
ject matter. He asserts that developing different versions
of the same message for people of different abilities in com—
prehension is sometimes very necessary and suggests we must
work for a system of mass communication which makes this
economically feasible. He then notes the need for developing,
with the help of pre—testing and other kinds of formative
research, single versions Which Will be relatively more
interesting and comprehensible across all levels Of the
audience. This would be less than ideal but could be done
now.

Subsequent chapters are devoted to work done at BBC
in develOping sensitive, easy—to-administer measures of com-
prehension, and to findings Of studies using those measures.
He also assesses the implications of such studies for prod—
uction practice. A final section summarizes some producer's
and editor's observations as to what factors they believe to

be important in increasing the appeal, the attention-getting

104
and holding powers and overall effectiveness of serious
programs prepared for their medium.

The closest thing to an American counterpart to the
British works is a book, now nearly ten years Old, by Bluem,
Cox and McPherson.1 It is titled Television and the Public
Interest, and is totally devoted to issues, problems, and
suggested techniques for developing and producing public
service TV programs. The general tenor of the work is set
by I. Keith Tyler in the foreward:

Effective broadcasts require the active
participation of groups and individuals vitally
concerned with significant issues and problems.

It is not enough for television to tell about
important matters; it must show the impact of
conditions upon people; it must present dedicated
persons doing something about their problems.
Leaders in all walks of life share the responsib—
ility with the broadcasters for using television
intelligently to reveal today's conditions and
stimulate appropriate attitudes, understandings

and actions. The pity is that at the very time
when our citizenry--men and women, boys and girls--
have such a terrifying array of needs, many helps
and solutions are at hand in existing organizations
and institutions, unused because of a failure in
communication.

4”

Tyler continues with reference to the cruciality of

groups and individuals learning to use the mass media effectively.

 

1A.‘Wi11iams Bluem, John F. Cox, and Gene McPherson,

Television in the Public Interest (New York: Hastings House,
1961).

2Ibid., p. 6.

105
He notes how carelessly-prepared and otherwise faulty pro-
gramming can deter rather than aid in accomplishing worthy

group goals:

This is especially true of television. Skill-
fully used it can reach selected audiences with telling
impact, revealing vital problems, presenting pert-
inent facts, suggesting alternative solutions, demon-
strating activities and processes, and motivating
types of action. Poorly used, it can confuse, annoy
or make apathetic those who watch, and drive count-
less others away from their sets.

The foreward concludes by explaining that the book
supplies needed background to community members and leaders
who would use television to advance the problem solving aims
of their organizations.

In the book proper, the authors provide the neophyte
users of public—service TV a behind—the-scenes acquaintance
with a station and its facilities, then Offers guidance in
initial planning, approaching a station, and suggestions for
scripting, performance and audience promotion. Compared to
the British works reviewed above, the Bluem, Cox, McPherson
book is quite elemental, as it must be for the audience to
which it is directed. Its chief value is its basic simplicity
and practicality.

The last work to be cited in this review is one of

American origin which deals with program development only

 

lIbid .

106

obliquely. This is Glick and Levy's Living with Televisionl

which views the medium as a major influence on the total
cultural and social setting. One of the statements made by
L. Lloyd Warner, the author of the preface, articulates the
basic theme of the book and points up a vital function which
television programmers and designers might incorporate into
their public service goal structure:

No society can exist without a common core
of understandings that are shared by all and cont-
inuously re-expressed and reinterpreted in such a
way that they viably persist through time in the
minds of most people. The newly invented tech-
niques Of the mass media, television among them,
provide the technological channels that help main-
tain and change traditional understandings for all
and that through time allow new knowledge, new
beliefs, and new values to be disseminated among
the millions and through their diversities of
understanding. They can contribute, and usually do,
to the maintenance of shared knowledge and shared
sentiments and sBared experiences necessary for
social cohesion.

The preface writer also reminds his readers that if
programs are to perform this integrative function, their mean—
ings must be acceptable to large groups of people, must
transmit basic, traditional understandings, and contribute

new meanings to them, or they fail to serve their primary

 

lIra Glick and Sidney J. Levy, LiVing with Television

(Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1962).

21bid., p. 9.

107
social purpose. It is in this book's perceptive analysis of
the television mass audience and what designers Of programs
must do to accommodate that audience that Glick and Levy
make an important contribution.

Most of the other works having relevance to broadcast
program development reflect the traditions of the craft.
Increasing support for the idea of using research of various
kinds during the development process can be noted. But, as
stated in Chapter I, there is little evidence in the lit—
erature of broadcasting in the United States of a swing
toward formal design procedures which utilize rhetorical and
behavioral science theory or design principles generalized
from mass media research. What little discussion of the
possibilities of such a move noted by this writer appears
mostly in the scholarly periodicals rather than in the trade
journals read by television program developers. However, it
must be said that the success of the "Sesame Street" mode of
program development is turning the heads of some program
developers in both the commercial and non-commercial tele-

vision movements.

Other References

There are, of course, other fields which have a studied

interest in communication. These are fields in which

108

persuasive communication is not a prime concern but which,
nevertheless, have generated concepts, theories, principles
and methodologies which are relevant to the design of per—
suasive messages. Space does not permit a review of specific
publications in these fields, although some references from
these areas are listed in Chapter IV as being relevant to
certain aspects of the design procedure set forth therein.

One of the most important of these adjunct fields is
that of public Opinion and attitude change which has generated
a rich and varied literature. A second adjunct field, which
at first glance would seem to have little relevance, is that
area Of systems analysis or systems theory. Considerable
reliance on systems thinking is reflected in the message
design procedure outlined in Chapter IV. Hence, some refer-
ences from this field are cited there. A third adjunct field
is that of management or organizational theory in which are
found concepts of problem—solving and decision theory which
were found by this investigator to be uniquely relevant to the
concept of prOblem-solving communication.

In closing this review, we state, as we did at the out—
set, that the total literature which deals with communication--
and this includes persuasive communication--is voluminous and
varied. we have been hard pressed to even sample it and to

demonstrate its variety, its flavor and some of its potential.

CHAPTER III

RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURE

As previously noted, the aim of this study was to dev-
elop a procedure for the design of high impact or "high yield"
persuasive messages. A major assumption has been that aug—
mented potency for message materials intended to modify
people's beliefs and dispositions to action might be achieved
through more intensive utilization of appropriate theory
and principle from all fields of communication scholarship
and practice.

It has also been noted that there is a substantial
body Of empirically useful theory generalizations and design
principles which are seldom utilized by communication pract-
itioners in the design of their messages, and that failure
to systematically examine and utilize this resource may
account in part for the generally low persuasive effective-
ness of, particularly, public service television and radio
programs, motion pictures, and other media presentations
designed to stir people to action on the problems of present-
day society. This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the
methods used in develOping such a design procedure and of the

rationale which undergirds the procedure. Chapter IV descrflaes

109

110

the design procedure itself. Chapter V summarizes the study
and reports the investigator's conclusions concerning the
procedure and his recommendations for further study.

The ideas, the techniques and the basic approaches
used in the development of the design procedure are not
novel nor are they revolutionary. The design procedure is,
for the most part, an amalgamation and expansion of concepts
drawn from the literature (including those publications re-
viewed in Chapter II) and from the writer's own ideas and
background of twenty years involvement in both the teaching
and practice of commercial and educational mass communication.
The approach in developing the design procedure has been
deliberately eclectic.

As previously stated, a prime aim has been to develop
a methodology which will facilitate the consideration and
selective utilization of a wide variety of design resources
at all stages of the design process. It also makes provision
for securing, Organizing, analyzing, and utilizing the varying
kinds of data so vital in making correct design decisions.
This is facilitated by the use of a set of procedural check-
lists and accompanying worksheets for use by the designer in
recording data as it is gathered, in processing and arraying
it in such form that it can be duly considered in generating

design alternatives and rendering appropriate decisions along

111

the design path.

The Concept of Message Design

Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines
design as "deliberate, purposive planning toward a specific
purpose or end: the arrangement of elements that make up a
work of art, a machine, or other man-made object." The
dictionary indicates that one aspect of design is the con—
ceiving of a mental or graphic plan for some Object; another
aspect is that of creating, fashioning, executing or con-
structing the object according to plan. For the purposes
of this study the term design will be limited to "planning"
only. The term "production" will be used to refer to the
execution of the design.

In ascribing an appropriate meaning to the term, it
may be desirable to consider it in the light of other related
human activities. One distinguishing feature of design is
the practical constraints the designer must work under com—
pared to other kinds of creative effort. The distinction
is indicated by Pye:

The thing which sharply distinguishes useful
design from such arts as painting and sculpture is
that the practitioner of design has limits set upon
his freedom of choice. A painter can choose any
imaginable shape. A designer cannot. If a designer
is designing a breadknife, it must have a cutting

edge and a handle: if he is designing a car, it must
have wheels and a floor. These are the sort of

112

limitations which arise, as anyone can tell1 from
the "function" of the thing being designed.

Another dimension of design cited by Pye which will be
of significance in the present study is this:

It must be emphasized that design, of every
kind, is a matter of trial and error. There are
always some trial assumptions which no calculation
or drawing can verify. Men cannot foresee the
future. Design, like war, is an uncertain trade,
and we have to make things we have designed before
we can find out whether our assumptions are right
or wrong. There is no other way to find out. When
we modify our prototype, it is, quite flatly,
because we guessed wrong. It is eminently true
of design that if you are not prepared to make mis-
takes, you will never make anything at all. "Re-
search" is very often a euphamism for trying the
wrong ways first, as must all do.

Science has enabled us to make a few advances
in techniques which are obviously desirable. . . . It
has not enabled us to predict the behavior of people,
which many designers urgently need to be able to do.
It has not enabled us to foretell what will actually
happen in any particular case. It has enabled us
to make better predictions about responses than
our forefathers could make, but our predictions
about responses are still pretty shaky.

What Pye says about research and the methods of science
relative to design—in—general applies equally to the design
of mass media message materials. His conception of research

as "trying to do the wrong things first" certainly squares

 

1David Pye, The Nature of Design (New York: Reinhold
Publishing Company, 1964), p. 7.

21bid., p. 27.

113

with the raw empiricism which has guided the efforts of
program develOpers in designing materials for broadcast.
Pye's observations about use of the methods of science in
advancing the techniques of design, and the need to predict
the behavior of people, appear to be most relevant to pur-
poses Of the present study. One of its major aims is the
development of a procedure which would enable us to make
better predictions about the audience members' responses to
message appeals.

Another vital aspect of design is, of course, artistry.
This is defined by Webster as "showing taste and imagination
in the arrangement and execution of a design." The field Of
communication practice does now and, hopefully, will continue
to rely heavily on the artistic and the intuitive in getting
its jOb done. This will continue to be so because success-
ful practice requires-—even as we demonstrate concern for
intellectual mastery of the theory of practice--artistic skill
and insight, plus a "dash of the intuitive to concretize
and apply theory and principle."1

Art and intuition inject the creative factor into prac-

tice. A communication practitioner can rarely approach a

 

1Ernest Greenwood, "The Practice of Science and the
Science of Practice" in Warren G. Bennes and others, The
Planning of Chapge, (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,
1961). p. 83.

114
design or production problem as he would conduct a rigidly-
structured laboratory experiment. It is a fact of life, too,
that the practitioner is often confronted with problems
for which there is no guide in practice theory. He cannot
afford the luxury of withholding action because of insuffi—
cient validated knowledge. It is a universal fact of every
practice situation--and this is the case even with the high-
ly science based practice of medicine--clients, customers
or employers want action even if it is based on less than
v//ideal knowledge. Hence, every seasoned practitioner must
carry with him a fund of knowledge and skill gained through
experience which he has never systematized and verbalized.
This knowledge is his personal property, and he falls back
upon it when systematic guides and theories are lacking. In
such instances he is acting intuitively.1
Resort to the artistic and intuitive is inevitable
in practice because the growth of practice theory and valid—
ated knowledge cannot keep pace with every new and novel
problem of a world in constant change. This certainly is
true with the practice of communication as has been previously

pointed out. But, the problem with communication is that it

has been practiced almost exclusively as a "skilled-art,"

 

lIbid., p. 73.

115
completely lacking a foundation of integrated, underlying
principles such as undergird many fields. What is needed
in the communications field is the kind of foundation for
practice which the field of engineering has derived from
the physical science disciplines.

The point we make here is that--as today's mass com-
municator faces today's challenges--experience, judgment,
intuition and artistic skill are not enough. To this must
be added an adequate body of theory and principle for the
design of messages drawn from the disciplines in which the
social, psychological, and physiological functioning and the
communication behaviors of people are studied systemat-
ically and scientifically. Only as investigative methods
are extended, only as the gap between theory and practice
is closed, can communication become a unified, integrated
power field of practice such as engineering has become.
What the theory-generating fields of mathematics, physics,
and chemistry have done for the practice of engineering we
can hOpe the varied disciplines of social science will some-
day do for the practice of communication.1

It is a fortuitous fact that even in the present there

 

1James N. Holm, Productive Speaking for Business and
the Professions (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1967), pp. 51-57.

116
is hardly a problem of communication around which there
has not developed Eggs social science theory. There is
hardly a facet of the communication phenomenon to which social
scientists cannot contribute some clarification. But, the
scientific propositions available to the communications
practitioner cannot find application without recourse to
the artistic. Neither can the artistic be fully exploited
without internalization of some scientific propositions.
It appears, then, that it will be through patient, persistent
collaboration between applications-oriented social scientist
and theory-oriented communications practitioners that the
more powerful, more viable message design procedures such

as that sought for in the present study will emerge.

The Concept of Problem—Solving,Communipation

Our time might properly be known as the age of pro-
blems, nor can we expect the situation to improve, for this
is a time of change and the more change, the more problems.
We dO have the capacity as a people, however, to solve our
problems and go on solving them in ways that make life exhil-
arating and exciting.

What is a problem? The compilers of the Webster dic-
tionary define it as an intricate, unsettled question, a
source of perplexity or vexation. Looking at another dim-

ension of the concept, we might say that we have a problem

117
whenever we have an objective or a goal to attain. When
our task involves significant unknowns and non-predictable
events, or when the right course of action is unclear, we
must conduct problem-solving if our efforts toward the goal
are to be effective and efficient.

Hodnett, who has written an entire book on problem-
solving,1 Offers sound advice on how to approach the problem-
solving task:

Eagerness to solve a problem before the
problem has been prOperly identified accounts for
much of the inefficiency and grief associated with
the vast human activity. Your first rule as a
practical problem-solver should be to withhold
action until you have disentangled your problem
from the general problem situation that enfolds
and obscures it. . . You face two tasks basical-
ly. You have to identify the real problem, and
you have to identify the total problem. Other-
wise, you find that it is not The Problem you
have solved, but merely part of a larger, un-
solved problem.

Hodnett elaborates by suggesting that a person's
skill as a problem-solver must include the ability to see
that there is a problem in a situation. But the key to
solution is in the ability to distinguish the real prob-

lems from the apparent ones. If this can be accomplished,

identification of the problem becomes part of the solution.

 

lEdward Hodnett, The Art of Problem Solving_(New
York: Harper and Row, 1955).

2Ibid., p. 3.

118

Failure to size up the total problem is the most common
cause of failure. Hodnett then warns that few of today's
problems reveal themselves in their entirity, and that con-
siderable effort and persistence is necessary to bring the
true causes to light. They unfold step-by-step over a
period of time, increment-by—increment, in response to
insistent probing and analysis, until some order begins to
appear and the sources of difficulty reveal themselves.
until the wrongs or difficulties are spotted and their con-
tributions to the total problem situation are established,
the problem-solving task does not become clear—cut enough
that action can be taken with efficiency, decisiveness and
assurance of success.1

For these reasons, Hodnett warns, we must beware of
"the easy-answer people who cause more problems than they
solve" (some broadcasters have been so branded). Many of
today's problems are not only complex, they are in reality
”complexes of problems" put under one general heading for
convenience and reference. As such, problems have to be
worked out through detailed analysis of hosts of factors

and by a multitude of decisions and actions relative to the

many sub-prOblems. Few such problems have entirely

 

lIbid., chapter 1.

119

satisfactory solutions for it is seldom possible in today's
kind of world to wipe out our problems. we may find that
the most we can do is ameliorate them—~make them less trouble-
some to live with.1

It has occurred to this writer--and it is one of the
prime assumptions for this entire study--that the designer
of persuasive communication materials can gain valuable in-
sight and increased behavioral change power by looking upon
his task as "full-blown" problem-solving. Virtually all
message design assignments involve the attainment of goals.
There are always unknowns in the phenomenon we may be attempt-
ing to influence with our message stimuli. There are always
Operating influences and human factors Which are difficult
to assess and predict. In the face of such uncertainties the
right course of action is quite unclear. All of this argues
for some kind of formal, proceduralized problem-solving action--
this in addition to the intuitive skilled-art competencies
which might be brought to bear.

Proceeding from such a viewpoint, the designer's work
can begin with an attempt to find answers to this crucial
fundamental question: Given a certain problem situation, ’/

what kinds of message-induced behavioral changes on the part

 

lIbid.

120
of the persons contributing to the situation will help solve
or ameliorate this particular prOblem? This places the
designer's essential task in a very advantageous perspective.
It gives him a meaningful context for his labors and indicates
to him that his initial task is to isolate or identify the
people behaviors (or non-behaviors) which are contributing
to the problem, and which must be altered in some way if
improvement in the situation is to be achieved. A precise
definition of the problem behaviors (or absence of desirable
behaviors) is crucial because these are the only causitive
or contributive factors which communication effort can in any
way influence.

In essence,then, problem-solving communication gains
its power and viability through its capacity for influencing
human behavior. This capacity to influence behavior depends
heavily upon the communicator's diligence in identification
and analysis of the "people" problems--the purely human
aspects of the larger problem which are brought on and per-
petuated by the behaviors (or non-behaviors) of the human
participants in the overall problem situation. And, it is
a fact that even the non-human factors (physical phenomenon,
raw materials, operating capital, facilities and equipment,
etc.) can be purposefully influenced through appropriate

human functioning. Hence, there is great potential for

121
improved problem solving as we realize the extent to which
problems can be solved or ameliorated through appropriately
designed persuasive messages. Identification and analysis
of the principle causitive factors is the key to it all.
/' It is particularly with the description and diagnosis
task that the problem-solving communicator can benefit so
much from the scientific method and the products of scholar-
ship. Those who approach the problem—analysis task without
a repertoire of descriptive or diagnostic theories have a
difficult time organizing and comprehending What they see.
Those with a systematic body of theory at their disposal
enjoy the advantage of recourse to the analytical work of
other analysts who have studied the same or similar pheno—
menon using the painstaking and systematic methods of obser-
vation and evaluation. They also presumedly will have done
a good deal of organized, creative thinking relative to the

problem.

Some Basic Methodological_A§sumptions

One of the prime assumptions of this study is that the
methods of science can be successfully adapted to practical
communication problems. An important science-and-theory-
based descriptive and diagnostic tool in wide use today--and
one adapted to the purposes of this study--is that of systems

analysis. Some basic systems thinking has guided the development

122
of the present message design procedure; a systems analysis
phase constitutes a vital part of the design procedure itself.
The view of systems analysis adopted as most relevant
to the purposes of this study is that expressed by Ramo:

In the systems approach, concentration
is on the analysis and design of the whole, as
distinct from the analysis and design of the com-
ponents or parts. It is an approach that insists
upon looking at the problem in its entirety,
taking into account all the facets, all the inter-
twined parameters. It is a process of understand-
ing how they interact with one another and how
these factors can be brought into proper relation-
ship for the optimum solution of the problem . . .
indeed, it starts by insisting on a clear under-
standing Of exactly what the problem is and of
the goals that should dominate the solution and
lead to Ehe criteria for evaluating alternative
avenues.

Another aspect of Ramo's conception of the systems
idea which was found to be particularly relevant to the pro—
blem—solving emphasis of the present project is as follows:

. . .without a good systems analysis and
system design as a first step, or at least as a
parallel effort, it is not easy to describe, under-
stand, and specify the pieces of the solution.
If the parts required are not called out, no one
will set out to make them available. These com-
ponents, which the system design will bring to-
gether into a harmonious ensemble to meet the
problem, include many items; needed equipment and
material; people trained in Specific jobs with
spelled out functions and procedures: the right
kind of information, stored and flowing, so that

 

lSimon Ramo, Cure for Chaos: Fresh Solutions to
Social Problems Through the SystemsyApproach (New YOrk:
D. McKay CO., 1969), p. 11.

123

the people and the things know what do do and
where to be to make the system operate.

The systems approach takes note of the fact that an
organization accepts as inputs information, energy, and other
resources from its environment, converts these resources and
outputs them as information, products, services, and waste
materials. The outputs may consist of finished products
or ready-to—use services; they may consist of semi-finished
outputs which will be inputs to other components of a larger
system or to other organizations. Hence, a system model
based on this kind of thinking provides a means of describing
and explaining the behavior of organizations as if they were
living organisms and combinations of organisms, differentiated
from, but dependent on, the larger stream of life of which
they are a part. Such organisms are Open systems in contact
with their environment with continual input, conversion
and output across system boundaries.

Each system (or sub-system of a larger system) must
be fed, nourished and stimulated. The boundaries must be
porous to allow easy flow for the desirable imputs and out-
puts. Some filtering and screening is desirable to modify
or exclude certain inputs and outputs which can be detri-

mental tO other organisms attempting to operate in the same

 

lIbid.

124
environment.

Growing out of this kind of thinking are some prom-
ising new approaches to organizational and inter—organi-
zational problem—solving. These approaches are based on
emerging theories of organizational functioning which focus
upon the relationships--for good or for ill--among the func-
tional parts of an organization viewed as a living organism.
They acknowledge the cruciality of information and message
flow among and through the components of an organization and
the extent to which the health and productivity of it are
dependent upon a sustained, responsive flow of the right
kinds of information- and message-bearing materials.

These theories hold that a system acts as it does
depending upon its capacity to gather, synthecize and act
rationally on both raw information and formal messages. The
system must be able to transform, transfer, select and act on
information--both that originating from within the system
boundaries and that coming from outside the boundaries--if it
is to function efficiently and effectively. Desirable data
and message materials flowing in the system are those which
help to adjust the interplay of forces between the parts of
the system, help maintain systemwide consistency of functioning
and provide for continuity of operations, this tempered by

adaptive change. Analysis of the breakdowns, constraints and

125

distortions in the flow of data and information into and
‘within a system is recognized today as a vital diagnostic
tool for the organizational problem—solver. In fact many
modern organizational analysts are on record as stating
that--assuming an adequate availability of the more tra-
ditional, more tangible resources--communication is the most
vital facilitating or constraining factor in determining the
productivity and efficiency of an organization.1

Communication of the type referred to here is also
being singled out as a crucial factor in the present state
of chaos and dissension in society as a whole. Increasingly,
it is being viewed as the single most crucial variable to
be appropriately controlled and manipulated if the funda-
mental institutions of society are to rediscover their proper
course and re-establish the harmonious and mutually support-
ive relationships they need if we as a people are to survive.
ApprOpriately designed message materials--many of them per-
suasive in character and flowing freely between the functional
components of the total social organism--are essential if
each institution is to become a powerful contributor to the

solution of the total human problem rather than a cause.

 

1Bruce H. Westley, The Functions of Public Communica-
tion in the Process of Social Change (Unpublished manuscript
prepared for AID-MSU Seminar on Communication and Change,
Michigan State University, April 4—7, 1966), pp. 32-34.

126

A fundamental assumption in utilizing in the message
design process such intellectually demanding tools as the
scientific method (as it is embodied in systems analysis) is
that the magnitude of today's problems warrants it. Another
assumption is that present and future problem-solving communi-
cators will be willing to rise to the challenge of more rig-
orous approaches to the message design task. For those who
are not by temperament or tradition given to careful analysis
and fine detail in order to COpe with complexity, perhaps
these observations by Leonard Doob will bring some comfort:

. . . the operational kit of the communicator
and the conceptual one of the analyst contain many
tools. At a given moment only a handful of these
tools need to be employed, and it is usually pos-
sible to see at a glance which ones are inapplicable
and hence to be kept in reserve for some other com-
munication in the future.

The diversity and complexity that have been
emphasized should not be in the least bit discour-
aging. Rather, it is false simplicity that ought
to produce dismay, for ruin can come when the under-
standable but foolish attempt is made to comprehend
behavior with too few variables. Diversity and
complexity, furthermore, are not synonomous with chaos.
Only the intellectually weak give up the struggle
and say that nothing about peOple is lawful just
because everything about them is likely to be
diverse and complex. . . . When understanding of
these numerous factors has been gained, it is pos-
sible to look at the village or the world with
greater skill and satisfaction.

 

lLeonard Doob, Cbmmunication in Africa (New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968).

127

The basic assumption which guided the conduct of this
thesis study is that some methods and some approaches to a
given task are better than others. The search, therefore,
has been for a better method and a better approach to design-
ing persuasive messages for release on broadcast stations and
for other forms of distribution. The hope is that there will
emerge from this study a more effective means of harnessing
persuasive communication to the solution of problems.

The guiding philoSOphy--and an important impetus for
the search--has been a quotation copied into the notes of
the present investigator attributed to the French psycholo-
gist, Claude Bernard:

Good methods can help us to develop and use

to better purpose the facilities with which nature

has endowed us, while poor methods may prevent us

from turning them to good account. Thus, the

genius of inventiveness, so precious in the sciences,

may be diminished or even smothered by a poor method,

while a good method may increase or develOp it.

The method sought herein is a general purpose one which
can help solve relatively large, complex problems using the
persuasive power of the mass media to alter the perceptions
and behaviors of the persons who contribute by action or inter—
action to such problems. The more immediate problem has been

to find a method by which to develop at the outset the mes-

sage design procedure itself.

 

1Source of the Bernard quotation is unknown.

128
The method adopted for the latter purpose is the gener-
alized, well known problem-solving procedure attributed orig—
inally to pioneer social scientist, John Dewey, but adapted
to the purposes of the present study by communicator William
Smith.1
Under the heading "The Pattern Of Constructive Think—

ing," Smith sets forth the Dewey rationale as follows:

STEP I. Identify the Problem

STEP II. Analyze the Problem

STEP III. Suggest All Possible Solutions

STEP IV. Select the Best Possible Solution

STEP V. Suggest Ways in Which to Implement the
Solution

Generally speaking the work of developing the message
design rationale has followed these activity steps. In real-
ity the early explorations were devoted to identifying and
analyzing the problem to which the present study is addressed.
The investigation and analysis reported in the introductory
chapter and in the comprehensive literature search consti-

tuted the major activity relating to Step II. In this phase,

 

1William S. Smith, Group Problem-Solving Through Dis:
cussion: A Ppocess Essential to Discussion (Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill CO., 1965), p. 107.

2Ibid.

129
the major barriers to achievement of the project were iden—
tified, along with possible ways by which to surrount the
barriers. Many alternative solutions were discovered or
invented as a result of the considerable effort expended in
Step III.

The activity associated with Step IV is that which
precipitated the decisions as to what procedural and method-
ological features would be incorporated in the message design
procedure. The remaining chapters are devoted to reporting
suggestions, recommendations, evaluations, etc., which could
be subsumed by Step V, Suggest Ways in Which to Implement

the Solution.

CHAPTER IV

THE DESIGN PROCEDURE IN CHECKLIST FORM

In previous chapters a good deal has been said con-
cerning the idea of message design and the potential of
the design approach for augmenting the potency of per—
suasive messages. In the present chapter we set forth and
discuss the comprehensive working procedure for the design
of such messages alluded to in all prior chapters.

It should be made clear at the outset that the pro-
cedural checklist and the design worksheets which accompany
it do not purport to be the only, or even the preferred,
approach to the design task. It is a_procedure developed
for a particular purpose; there will be limits in the extent
to which it can be adapted to other purposes. It must be
considered as one man's attempt to develop "one alternative
among many" which, hOpefully, will always be available to
the designers of persuasive messages.

The present design procedure may be characterized as
having these particular features:

1. It will be most applicable in designing the

message materials needed for attacking large

scale, multi—faceted problems through the mass

130

131
media--those problems in which searching, full-
Scale investigation and diagnosis Of causitive
factors becomes a basis for effecting the message
design.
It will be most useful to and useable by those
who feel that the finding of problem solutions
is of such importance that no source of ideas,
strategies, approaches and other design resources
should be overlooked until a satisfactory high-
potency design has been achieved.
It is a method which will generate considerable
data and will hence require unusual methods for
handling, processing, and storage of data for
later retrieval when it is needed as an aid in
the making of design decisions.
It is a method which requires acceptance of the
idea of designing separate messages (or adap-
tations of the original message) for one or more
Sharply delineated "target audience."
The procedure calls for searching fact-finding
investigations, field research, scouting and
brainstorming activities, literature searches,
and the like at several points along the design

path. The procedure, if used "full-blown," will

132
require a considerably larger allocation of
time and energy for the pre—scripting phase
than is traditional in broadcast program devel-
opment.
It will require the designer to identify and
try to make application of relevant behavioral
science and communication theory and research
findings.
It may require the designer to discipline him—
self to deal intellectually with more fine detail
and complexity than he may be accustomed to under
the more traditional methods.
Because of the inordinate demands it can make
on the resources of the producing agency, "full—
blown" use of the procedure may have to be limited
to problems of such cruciality or such high prior-
ity that the ends justify considerable means. Full
exploitation of this means of attacking problems
may be limited to those instances in which fed-
eral government or foundation grant support or
substantial appropriations from other sources are
available——resources not typically available for
public service mass communication ventures in

the nation's present system of priorities.

133

Basically, this procedure provides a broad frame-
work within which a wide range of resources can be brought
to bear on the social communication task. A broad frame-
work is needed if the designer is to avoid a fragmented,
piecemeal and superficial attack on complex problems. In
traditional broadcast program development, the process by
which crucial design decisions are made is often quite hap-
hazard, left to chance or to unaided intuition. Whether the
design decisions to be made in a given instance are crucial
or of little consequence, intelligent decision-making is
difficult if there is "nothing to go by." In the absence
of a procedural framework of considerable scope and depth,
there is danger that the design decisions will be made on
the basis of outmoded tradition, personal whims or biases,
irrelevant criteria or a limited range of alternatives.

Advocacy of the comprehensive, formalized procedure
set forth in this chapter should not be construed as a whole—
sale indictment of traditional mass media development proce-
dures. Our aim is, essentially, to augment the "tried-and-
true" aspects of traditional program development procedures
and make them equal to the magnitude of today's societal
problems and dilemmas. We merely suggest that to create
the kind of message designs called for in solving or amelio-

rating today's complex multi-faceted problems, we need a

134

'bIKDader, all-encompassing, more sweeping rationale or frame-
‘work.for program development than we have used heretofore.
This we attain largely through broadening, refining, inten-
sifying and formalizing the viewpoints and techniques which
have served the mass media SO well in past years.

An assumption which underlies this study is that such

a rationale must be comprehensive, inclusive, discriminating
and flexible. Comprehensive refers to the degree that the
procedure encompasses a wide enough spectrum of factors and
considerations that no important facilitating or inhibiting
factors fall outside the scope of the design investigation.
Inclusiveness is the degree to which possibilities within
the span of coverage of the investigation are in reality con-
sidered—-nothing important by—passed or skipped-over by
accident or Slothful omission. The rationale will have dis-
criminate power to the degree that it enables the designer
to generate a variety of Options from which to choose and to
assess their appropriateness—-the distinctive advantages
and disadvantageS--of each of these Options. Flexibility is
a measure of the degree to which the procedure can be adapted
to the varying analytical and Option-generating requirements
of differing design tasks. To achieve these qualities requires
that we shed some traditional ways and adopt some new, more

viable ones.

135
Operationalizing_the Concept of Message Design_

One of the requirements in implementing any theory of
action is some means of "Operationalizing" the underlying
concepts and principles. Development of a checklist of
procedures or clusters of activities--shaped by certain
concepts and principles and directed toward a particular
goal--is one approach to achieving "operationalization."

It is the approach selected for Operationalizing the con-
cept of message design as conceived here.

The procedural checklist which will be set forth in
this chapter is designed to help the designer proceed system-
atically through the several stages of analysis, alternative-
generation and decision-making which will presumedly result
in powerfully persuasive problem-solving message designs.
Hopefully, it will enable the designer to apply what research
and prior experience can contribute without unnecessarily
restricting creativity. Hopefully, it encompasses the cru-
cial factors which behavioral scientists and communication
practitioners, ancient to modern, maintain must be taken into
account when undertaking a major and important design task.

Although an attempt has been made to deve10p a middle-
of-the-road procedure applicable to a wide range of problem-
solving tasks, some adaptation will be necessary for just

about every task. Typically, the designer will find it

136
necessary and desirable to cutback--to bypass or be satisfied
with the "once-over—lightly" treatment of certain steps in
the design process. Experience indicates, however, that
there is no short-cut to excellence in anything. In the case
of message design there is great loss of power and potency
in slighting, particularly, the pre-analysis and alternative-
solution generating phases. This has been found to be true
whether the problem involves a major campaign or a so-called
"one-shot” effort. This suggests that the user bypass stages
or steps in the procedure only after satisfying himself that
adequate prior work has been done by someone (and the efficacy
of that work verified in some fashion), or that it does not
apply to the case in point. But, in all, the user will be
guided in deciding the amount of time and effort to be applied
to each task by established priorities, available resources
and the other factors which govern in each instance.

Another of the dilemmas the user of an eXhaustive
investigative and analytical tool faces is how to best handle
the essentially "clerical" aspect of his task. A very fun-
damental question in approaching any complex activity which
generates data is: Where and in what form are we to record
the facts, ideas, hunches, insights, Options, alternatives,
etc., which are generated as we move along the procedural

path--as we respond to the analytical and methodological

137
directives. Getting the initial raw data recorded is only
Part of the problem; getting the data processed, refined,
organized and arrayed in some meaningful form for later
retrieval is another.

The raw information turned up by any searching inves-
tigation is voluminous and difficult to process effectively
and efficiently. This is no less true for the conscientious
problem-solving communicator. Hence, a good deal of the
effort in the present project has been devoted to deve10p-
ment of a comprehensive set of forms or worksheets which:

(1) embody in brief form the procedural steps of the problem-
solving design process, and (2) provide a physical location
and, hopefully, an orderly means of recording, analyzing,
transforming and refining the data generated by the design
activity. The prime aim in developing the worksheets has
been to help the user move beyond the surface manifestations
or symptoms of problems to root causes--to help him peel-
off the successive layers of ambiguity and (sometimes) de-
ception which may prevent the analyst from taking decisive,

effective and enduring corrective action.

The Procedures Checklist and Qiscussion
We turn now to a step-by-step articulation and dis-
cussion of the message design procedure which has resulted

from this study. The flowchart (Figure l) embodies the

138

 

Sktep I. Describing the Project and Target System :]
A. Gathering basic descriptive data
B. Identifying and analyzing the system functions
C. Analyzing and modeling the total system
Step II. Identifying and Analyzing the Problem y]
A. Isolating what is wrong in the problem situation
B. Getting the facts and pinpointing deficiencies of
function
C. Investigating possible causes and identifying
the real problem
D. Requirements of a satisfactory solution stated
as objectives
E. Restrictions or limits on possible solutions

 

 

 

F:§IStep III. Considering Communication-Based Solutions 1
A. Translating deficiencies of function into "people"
deficiencies

B. Identifying target audiences and formulating
message goals for each

 

 

 

2] Step IV. Developing the Best Communication-Based Solution?
A. Deciding which design projects will be undertaken
and projecting the total design task
B. Breaking general objectives into attackable
sub-objectives
C. Analyzing audience characteristics and situational
factors
D. Identifying message design resources
E. Formulating the overall problem-solution strategy
F. Formulating the basic persuasive strategy

 

f Step V. Executing the Message Design —j
A. Preparing the script and other design documents

B. Producing and pretesting the "pilot" message
C. Adjusting the design to pretest findings
D. Completing the "finished" version of the message

 

 

-L—§fl Step VI. Executing the Total Problem-Solving Action 1

A. Finalizing the total problem-solving rationale aw

B. Executing the planned action using finished message

C. Carrying out the in-process and post-execution
evaluation

D. Adjusting the design for subsequent action

 

Figure l.--The message design procedure in the context of
the total problem-solution strategy.

139
total process in broad outline, beginning with the prelim-
inary project description and related "housekeeping" chores,
and concluding with finalization of the total problem-solution
and message design activities. Although the total operation
is envisioned here, the fullest develOpment—-and the central
focus of the work reported here—-is found in the processes
most closely related to the design of the message materials
which may undergird a total problem-solving effort. The total
action plan is envisioned in broad outline because of this
writer's conviction that powerful and appropriate message
designs can be conceived only in the context of the total
operation of which appropriately designed messages--those with
good "fit"--are only a part.

As indicated in Chapter III the design procedure is
patterned basically after the generalized problem-solving
procedure frequently attributed to John Dewey and adapted to
the requirements of the present study by communicator William
Smith. The procedure outlined here amplifies and elaborates
Smith's pattern of constructive thinking, and operationalizes
the fundamental concepts incorporated therein. The procedure
also incorporates concepts and methodologies drawn from the
literature of business management on the premise that in the
pre-analysis stage, especially, the requirements of communic-

ation planning are not appreciable different from those of

140
business planning.

Only the procedural or operational concepts are pre-
sented and discussed in this chapter. The actual working
documents incorporating the procedural mechanics are the
"Problem-Solving Design WOrksheets" which are found in
Appendix A. Although some open Space is provided between
items on all worksheets and open columns on others to in—
dicate that statements or data should be entered, it is not
expected that these sheets will be used "as is." In practice
the user will find it necessary, in appropriating the work-
sheet headings, analytical questions and other features of
the worksheets to his own purposes, to use large sheets of
paper leaving considerable space between the items. The key-
note here should be "think-big" and "open up.“ This will
help avoid crowding in making the initial entries; it will
also facilitate the valuable "add-ins" or after thoughts
which seem inevitably to come to light as the analysis
proceeds.

Another feature of the design procedure is a list of
references which the designer may find essential and/or use-
ful in carrying out certain of the operations indicated. These
references appear in the text of this chapter in connection
with the procedural step to Which they are applicable. The

reference lists are only partial and exemplary; they are

141
comprised primarily of books rather than periodical works
because of the greater scope and depth of coverage typically
found in book length treatments of the subjects. Only abbre-
viated descriptions of these works are given here in the
text. A full bibliographic description of them is found in
the Bibliography. Annotations for many of them are found in

the Review of Literature, Chapter II.

Step I. Project Description and Organizational Analysis /’
A. Gathering Basic Descriptive Data

Recorded in connection with this initial step is the
basic descriptive data which will place the design project
in some kind of frame and label it for reference purposes.
Such data as the project title, the client organization, the
name of the person who requested or initiated the project,
what the impetus for undertaking the project is and a prelimi-
nary and tentative description of the problem is called for.
A brief history of the problem is recorded, along with a
review of prior efforts, if any, to deal with it, plus an
indication of what can be learned from prior attempts.
REFERENCES :

McPherson, J. H., The People, The Problems and Problem-

Methods, 1967.

National Training Laboratories, Problems Analysis
Workbook, 1965 (pp. 3-4).

 

142

B. Identifying and Analyzing System Functions

The assumption underlying this activity is that things
go well—~that the purposes of the operations conducted within
the system under study are well executed-~on1y if certain
functions are carried out by or under the direction of
human beings carrying out certain job-dictated assignments
with sufficiency and efficiency. On the multi-column work-
sheet provided for this analysis are listed the kinds of
operational functions typically necessary for the effective
and efficient functioning of service or production organi-
zations accepting inputs and delivering outputs. An attempt
is made here to identify the functions presently being
carried out in the enterprise and how they are grouped orga-
nizationally. Preliminary notice is taken of what functions
normally required for successful operations are missing or
are being neglected in the target system, and of the programs,
activities, mechanisms, techniques, strategies and tactics
presently in use to carry out these functions. Suggestions
for more effective groupings of functions and more appropriate
and viable programs, activities, etc., for carrying out the
necessary functions should emerge from this kind of analysis.
Also, some preliminary indications should emerge as to what
departments or divisions are most deeply implicated in the

problem under study and should be the focus of primary concern

143
in the more detailed problem identification and analysis
phases of the study which follow.
REFERENCES :
Argyris, Chris, Understanding Organizational Behavior,
1960.
Association of Management Consulting Engineers, The
Common Body of Knowledge for Management
Consulting, 1956.
Likert, Rensis, New Patterns of Management, 1961.
Perrow, Charles, Organizational Analysis: A Socigr
logical View, 1970.
Reeder, William, Simplifying the Study of Organ-
izational Behavior, 1969.
, Outline for Analyzing an Organ-
ization, 1968.
Thompson, James, Approaches to Organizational Design,
1966.
C. Analyzing and Modeling the Total System
In this activity an attempt is made to describe or
"model" the organizational unit or "target" system upon which
the project activity is focused. The administrative, super-
visory or social units comprising the organization are des-
cribed and the authority and working relationships between
them are noted. The larger environment--the parent orga-
nization or "supra—system" of which the target system is a
part--are indicated, along with external authority units
and other social units with which the target system has input-
output relationships. All these units or system components

can then be "plugged-into" a systems model diagram which will

place all units in context, identify the primary and secondary

144
inputs into the target system, the units which process and
transform the inputs, and, finally, the primary and secon-
dary outputs from the system back into the environment.

It should be acknowledged here that most human systems
or organizations are only partly "knowable." Some are
exceedingly complex, containing many sub-systems, not always
sharply delineated from each other. Most systems constitute
one unit or sub-system in a hierarchy of ever enlarging supra-
systems. The system under study (the target system) may also
be criss-crossed by overlapping systems seeking to perform
functions of a similar nature. In addition, there will be
"black" areas or "black box" elements both inside and outside
the boundaries of the target system to which the analyst will
be denied access. Even though he may enjoy full access rights,
he may not have the time, the capacity nor the disposition to
comprehend fully what is going on in "all those boxes." Thus,
every system model is a partial representation of the real
thing, an over-simplified but still vital capturing of the
"organismic nature" of the system under study. This kind of
insight, though incomplete, can still be very vital to the
designer-analyst in comprehending and sizing up his problem
diagnosis task.

The worksheets develOped for this activity include a

dummy system diagram and space in which to enter the names

145
of the divisions or subsystem components of the target system
as it presently exists, and to describe preliminarily the
contributions of each to the total functioning of the target
system. This will constitute the raw data for preparing a
diagram of the system as a total function entity in terms
of what is required to achieve a compatible, interconnected,
functionally-efficient ensemble for achieving the purposes
for which the system has come into being. The speciman
model diagram is for illustrative purposes only. In practice
the analyst will find it desirable to prepare a large dia-
gram on a large sheet of paper in order to encompass nec—
essary attributes of the system under study and to include
essential detail without excessive crowding.
REFERENCES:
Barish, Norman, Systems Analysis for Effective
Administration, 1951.
Buckley, Walter, Sociology and Modern Systems Theory,
1967.
Buffa, F. 8., Operations Management, 1968.
Cleland, D. I., Systemey Organization Analysis,
Management, 1969.
Emery, James, Planning and Controlyof Systems, 1969.
Lazzarro, Victor, Systems and Procedures, 1961.
Ramo, Simon, Cure for Chaos, 1969.
Step II. Identifying_and Analyzing the Problem
A. Isolating What is Wrong in the Problem Situation

In any problem solving effort it is necessary that an

attack be made on the right problem. If a doctor, for example,

146
diagnoses his patient's problem as appendicitis and pre-
scribes treatment for that when the problem is ulcers, the
treatment will, for obvious reasons, fail. So it is with
problem-solving communication. If we do not correctly and
completely identify the causative factors, one of two things
will happen: (1) our attempt to design messages through which
to help effect a solution can fail completely--there will be
no perceivable impact from the communication effort, or (2)
we will treat only the symptoms and the problem will fester
and flare anew at some later time.

Thus, in Step II we attempt to shear through all the
surface manifestations of the problem to root causes. Knowing
what is wrong in the total problem situation, we will have
the criteria for establishing apprOpriate problem-solution
goals. The single multiple-column worksheet provided for
this activity calls initially for detailed analysis of the
symptoms of the problem as they relate to a preliminary
statement of what is wrong with the basic functioning of the
target system as determined in Step I. This information will
provide entree points for the more searching analysis to be
taken in subsequent phases of Step II.

REFERENCES :

Hodnett, Edward, The Art of Problem-Solving, 1955
(Chap. 1).

147
Scanlon, Burt, Results Management in Action, 1969
(Chap. 1).
National Training Laboratories, Problems Analysis
Workbook, 1965 (pp. 5-19).

B. Getting the Facts and Pinpointinngeficiencies of Function

The key to piercing diagnosis is to ask the right
questions, to conduct the right kind of investigations and
to be persistent in getting factual answers to those ques-
tions. Getting accurate answers to the wrong questions is
likely to be far less helpful in finding solutions than getting
incomplete answers to the right questions. For this reason
the problem analyses carried out in Step II is systems-
oriented. As a precaution against isolating only part of
the problem, diagnostic questions should be formulated rela-
tive to all parts of the functioning system, expanding the
boundaries of inquiry as far as necessary to encompass rele-
vant problem factors. This means that the conscientious
problem-solving communicator will go beyond the obvious and
immediately apparent symptomatic indications and try to ferret-
out all relevant information that may help explain what is
going on in the total problem situation and to determine the
reasons why. This necessarily has to include intrusion into
potentially sensitive areas such as the extent to which de-
ficiencies in the operating environment (organizational weak-

ness, management and supervisory neglect or ineptitude,

148
inadequacies in training and orientation, etc.) may be
contributing to the problem.

The analyst's major challenge is to get into all
facets of the problem--even the difficult ones involving
human egoes and self-protective defenses—-in ways which
will preserve his integrity and his rapport with all the
people who are parties to the problem solution effort. Work-
sheet II-B is designed to assist the analyst in proceeding
systematically with this task and in comprehending and orga-
nizing what he finds:

REFERENCES :

Argyris, Chris, Theories of Organizational Functioning,

 

1971.
Blake and Mouton, Corporate Excellence Diagnosis,
1969.

Hodnett, Edward, The Art of Problem Solying, 1955
(Chaps. 3 and 5).

Johnson, Wendell, People in_Quandries, 1946 (See
checklist, pp. 404-407).

Lippitt, Ronald, "Dimensions of the Consultant's
Job," in Bennis, Benne and Chinn, The Planning
of Change, 1961 (pp. 157-163).

Newman and Summer, The Process of Management, 1970
(Chapter 12, "Diagnosis--A Prerequisite for
Sound Decisions").

Scanlon, Burt, Results Management in Action, 1969
(Chapter 3).

 

C. Investigating Possible Causes and Identifying the Real
Problem

Once the facts relating to the problem indicators
(symptoms) have been gathered, it is possible to begin the

deeper analysis which will eventually pinpoint the specific

149
causes of the problem under investigation. This is the
stage at which the problem-solving communicator must analyze
the factual data he has gathered, draw conclusions as to what
factors may be interrelated. Precautions must be taken to
avoid basing conclusions on only surface manifestations;
the analyst must insist on getting beyond the symptoms to
the complexes of factors which may be operating below the
surface and not open to view. Some factors may be obscured
by the inherent complexity of the situation; others may not
be visible because of deliberate attempts by people close
to the situation to cover-up, distort or minimize the true
facts.

Also, there are pressures in most problem situations
for quick action; the temptation will be to complete the
diagnosis quickly and get on with the solution. But, the
enlightened, conscientious problem-solving communicator will
resist pressures for quick and easy solutions. To the extent
his circumstances permit, he will insist upon deep and rigor-
ous analysis of the total problem situation in search for
solution "attack-points." The worksheets prepared for this
phase are designed to lead the message designer to this kind
of effort. Supplemental sheets listing common problem areas
in organizations are provided as an adjunct to the worksheets

to help the analyst consider the widest possible range of

150
possibilities. Recourse to the functional makeup of the
target system as determined in Step I will be vital in com-
pleting this task.

Use of one or more of the descriptive—analytic or
diagnostic theories articulated in the references which follow
may help the analyst in more methodically approaching this
task, comprehending his findings and coming to realistic
conclusions.

REFERENCES :

Allen, Myron, Morpholggigal,Creativity, 1962
(Chap. 1).

Beveridge. W. I. B., The Art of Scientific Invest-
igation, 1957.

Ewbank, Henry L., Discussion and Debate, 1951
(Chap. 4).

Hodnett, Edward, The Art of Prdblem Solving, 1955
(Chaps. 3 and 7).

Pheiffer, John, A New Lookyethducation§l_Systems
Analysis, 1968.

Scanlon, Burt, Results Management in Action, 1969
(Chaps. 4 and 6).

 

D. Requirements of a Satisfactory Solution Stated as
Objectives

Once a correct diagnosis has been achieved, it is
possible to begin formulating the requirements for a satis-
factory solution to the problem. A useful way in which to
set forth such requirements is to state them as objectives
for problem-solving action. This helps ensure that the action

ultimately taken has direction and that it is results-oriented.

151
It is axiomatic that, if we do not first Specify what results
are expected, the action may be misdirected. Stating the
requirements as objectives also provides a necessary focal
point for choosing the best or most appropriate of the so-
lution alternatives later on. Worksheet II-D has features
designed to aid the analyst in formulating the solution
requirements and stating them in this fashion.
REFERENCES :
Argyris, Chris, Organization and Innovation, 1965.
Humble, John W., Management by Objective, 1967.
Juran, J. M., Universals in Management Planning and
Controlling, 1954 (See, especially, pp. 7-8).
Miller, Gerald, Speech Communication: A Behavioral
View, 1966 (Chap. 2, "Purpose and Speech
Communication").
Morrell, Robert W., Management: Ends and Means, 1969.
Odiorne, George, Management by Objectives, 1965 (See,
especially, Chap. 4).
Scanlon, Burt, Results Management in Action, 1969
(Chap. 6).
E. Restrictions or Limits on Possible Solutions
This final stage of the problem identification and
analysis process calls for ascertaining and stating any
restrictions or limits on what can be considered as satis-
factory solutions to the problem under study. Typical re-
strictions would be in the area of budget, personnel, time
requirements, acceptability to workforce or membership,

effects on other organization units of the system or supra-

system and other so-called "constraining" factors. There is

152
little point in expending time and energy developing and
refining solutions which, although promising and appropriate,
are beyond the realm of possibility as far as implementation
is concerned. New, novel and creative approaches to solving
the problem through communication should be sought, but
development should not proceed too far before pausing to
check the approaches for feasibility and practicality under
the conditions which prevail.

To identify such factors will require rather candid
discussion with the sponsor or client (possibly others, as
well) to arrive at understandings relative to allowable
cost, performance expectations, policy prohibitions and the
like. It should include an attempt to identify taboos and
the personal likes, dislikes and other predispositions of
persons in the authority hierarchy who have the power to
"shoot—down" any proposed solutions which do not square with
their conception of hOW'the effort should proceed. It is
well to know about these at the outset and devise strategies
through which to deal with them. Help with this sometimes
delicate but important operation is offered in the reference
which follows.

REFERENCE:

Scanlon, Burt, Results Management in Action, 1969
(pp. 192-193).

153
Step III. Considering Possible Communication-Based Solutions

A. Translating Deficiencies of Function into "People"
Deficiencies

Up to this point the emphasis in the analysis has
been on getting a clear conception of the structure and
functional character of the target system and getting the
problem areas in the system identified. An effort has also
been made to "zero-in" on specific deficiencies of function
in those problem areas which are major contributors to the
unwanted condition—-the problem. An attempt has also been
made to determine preliminarily what the requirements are
for overcoming these deficiencies and what restrictions and
limits should be observed in formulating solutions.

As we begin the search for solutions, we are led in-
evitably to consider the "human" aspects of the functional
deficiencies identified. Deficiencies of system function
can invariably be traced to deficiencies in the functioning
of people, to the failures of persons responsible for the
functions to behave as they are supposed to, and failures
of people outside the system to desist in behaving in ways
detrimental to the target system. It is even realistic today
to consider such physical problems as raw material shortages,
equipment failures, inadequate funding--even inadequacies of
equipment and facilities and the like-—as essentially people

problems. With the power that human beings hold over the

154

physical world (or can achieve through additional effort),

even the unwanted non—human afflictions of organizations can

be dealt with by precipitating the right kind of action re-

sponse from people possessing the right kind of knowledge,

competence and power. By this reasoning it becomes possible

to assume that, in the end, all deficiencies in organizations

are people deficiencies.

This suggests that there are two basic problem solving

strategies:

1.

Identify unwanted behaviors (or absence of behav-
.ig£§) of people directly responsible for carrying
out assigned organizational functions and then
attempt to change the people in the desired di-
rection. Here the emphasis is on adjusting and
improving both individual and collective behaviors
of people without changing the system.

Identify unwanted physical or non-human impediments
to organizational functioning--inc1uding, pos-
sibly, impediments to satisfactory human perform-
ance--and attempt to overcome these by eliciting
the right kinds of human-action responses from

the knowledgeable and competent peOple who hold
power over such impediments. Here the emphasis is

on adjusting the organization to the behavioral

155
dispositions of people.

One of the most potent means of eliciting both kinds
of action responses is persuasive communication on the part
of those individuals whose function it is to lead and direct
the programs and activities of the organization. Although
some desirable behaviors of people in organizations is self-
motivated--and this should be nurtured and encouraged--there
are limits as to how far the organization will progress to-
ward its goals without good leadership. This suggests that
there are, in the final analysis, two basic persuasive leader-
ship strategies for overcoming system deficiencies: (1) com—
municate with people in ways which help them adjust to the
organization and the environment in which it functions, or
(2) communicate with the people both inside and outside of
the organization who have the power and authority to adjust
the non-human attributes of the organization and its Oper-
ating environment to the desires, needs and behavioral dis—
positions of the people. Both can be difficult to achieve;
it is seldom possible to change the one without simultaneously
Changing the other. Typically, problem solutions can best
be found in communication strategies which work for needed
adjustments in both. WOrksheet III-A is designed to help

the designer achieve the necessary translations.

156
REFERENCES :
Berne, Eric, The Games Pegple Play: The Psychology
of Human Relationships, 1964.
Mehrabian, Albert, Tactics of Social Influence, 1970
(pp. 13-14).
Perrow, Charles, Organizational Analysis: A Socio-
lggical View, 1970.
B. Identifying Target Audiences and Formulating Message Goals
One of the important assumptions underlying this mes-
sage design procedure is that separate sharply-targeted mes-
sages communicated to groups of people holding functional
deficiencies in common will result in greater problem-solu-
tion yield than a single message designed for use "across
the board" with all persons implicated in the problem.
This assumption holds that a given set of communication re-
sources allocated for several separate messages will result
in more problem-solving-yield than putting all the resources
into one "slick," professionally-polished, generalized
message for delivery to all implicated persons en masse.
Rather than try to deal with the total mass, an attempt is
made here to break the "overwhelming whole" into more manage-
able segments using some meaningful criterion, in this case
common functional deficiencies which might be remedied by
communication-induced individual and group action.

As a practical matter, it will almost always be nec-

essary to do some lumping of discrete, smaller sub-audiences

157
into larger amalgamations referred to here as "target"
audiences. Since a separate message--or, at least, a
separate adaptation of the original or basic message--is
to be required for each target audience, lumping is done
to the extent that lead—time, available resources and other
factors operating in the situation dictate. Worksheet III-B,
associated with this step, requires the designer to con-
sult prior worksheets to process, refine, and interpret
the entries therein, and then make decisions relative to
this crucial, but always difficult, task of differentiating
audiences. The action here involves:

1. Distinct target audiences--What clusters of
people (sub—audiences) have deficiencies suf—
ficiently in common that they may be grouped
into larger, more economical target audiences
for communication purposes?

REFERENCES :

Allport, Gordon, "Attitudes," in D. Murchison
(ed.), A Handbook of Social Psychology,
1935.

Haney, William, Communication and Organizational
Behavior, 1967 (Chaps. 1 and 2).

Schramm,‘Wilbur, "The Challenges to Communication
Research," in Nafziger and White, Intro-
duction to Communication Research, 1958.

Stephenson, Orrin, Facts to a Candid World, 1955
(pp. 20-24).

158

2. Message design objectives appropriate to each
target audience-AWhat specific behavioral change
objectives appear to be appropriate to each
target audience in order to solve the problem?
What generalized results must be attained with
the audience members as a result of their being
exposed to the message?

REFERENCES :

Berlo, David, The Process of Communication, 1960
(Chap. 1).

Dawe, Jessamon, Functional Business Communication,

1964 (Chap. 4, "Persuading Toward Pre-Determined
Action").

Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, Research,
Principles and Practices in Visual Communi-
cation, 1960 (Chap. 9).

Ewbank, Henry, Discussion and Debate, 1951 (Chap. 5).

Killian, R. A., Managing_by Design, 1968 (Chap. 16,
"Communication: Focusing on Action Response").

McCroskey, James, Introduction to Rhetorical Communi-
cation, 1968 (pp. 104-105).

Olson, D. E., Management byyOpjectives, 1966 (Chap. 1).

Vardaman, George, Management Control Through Communi-
cation, 1968 (Chap. 19).

Step IV. Developinggthe Best Communication-Based Splption

A. Deciding Which Design Projects Will Be Undertaken and
Projecting the Total Design Effort

This step requires that a tentative decision be made
as to what design efforts will be directed toward what target
audience. This decision is crucial because, in practice,
either a separate design will be envisioned for each audience,

or, at least, separate adaptations of the original design for

159

one of the audiences will be prepared for each of the remain—
ing ones singled out for inclusion in the total problem-solving
effort. This means that in Step IV, several independent but
correlated design projects may be undertaken, each calling
for execution of a separate full set of worksheets, all aimed
at solving the generalized problem isolated in Step I. Thus,
some time and cost estimation and priority setting is called
for at this stage. WOrksheet IV-A is used in identifying
and evaluating what is involved in each of the several design
projects envisioned and for recording the tentative decisions
rendered as to which projects will be undertaken.
REFERENCE :

Killian, R. A., Managing by Design, 1968 (PP. 253

267).

B. Breaking General Objectives into Attackable Sub—Objectives

Completion of this step requires that the designer re-
examine the general objectives specified on WOrksheet III-B
for the various target audiences designated. The analyst is
asked--as preparation for breaking the general objectives
down into attackable sub-objectives--to rework, restate or
refine the original goal statements, and to add new ones
which might have emerged in the interim. He must also deter-
mine which objectives are feasible and important enough that

they should be pursued in a formal communication effort. In

160
the refining process precautions should be taken to assure
that objectives are a clear statement of what the audience
members should be like as a result of exposure to the message
or message campaign.

Each of the reworked goal statements should be entered
one to a sheet on a separate IV-B worksheet preparatory to
breakdown. This is followed, then, by breaking each general
objective into its cognitive, affective and psychomotor sub-
objective components. Essentially, the designer responds
to this basic question: What set of sub-objectives, if
achieved, will result in achievement of the general objec-
tives? The types of sub-objectives considered are:

1. Cognitive sub—objectives——specifications as

 

to what units of information or knowledge
each audience member should receive and com-
prehend and principles each should understand
and be able to apply as a result of exposure
to the message campaign.

2. Affective sub-objectives--specifications as to

 

what attitudes, feelings, beliefs-disbeliefs,
action dispositions, and the like, that audience
members should have following exposure to the

message.

161
3. Psychomotor sub-objectives--specifications as to
what manual skills, physical dexterity or ma-
nipulative capabilities audience members should
acquire, if any, as a result of exposure to the

message.

Under each of the above headings on the worksheet should
be entered the very specific tasks which must be accomplished
by some aspect of the total message specifically selected
or invented for that purpose. With each of the several
general objectives broken down into attackable sub-objectives
in this fashion, the designer should be able to proceed with
a clear-cut conception of what his job is and what the spec-
ified outcomes of his design efforts should be. This kind
of goal analysis must be afforded a place of crucial import-
ance in the message design process. The key to formulating
such objectives, it must be remembered, lies in the consci-
entiousness, persistence and perceptiveness of the designer
in identifying the causes of the problem which, in turn,
reveal the needs for message-induced changes in the people
who are contributing to the problem. Generation by the
designer of sub-objective statements which truly "get-at"
the key performance deficiencies of members of judiciously-

formed target audiences could be the single most crucial task

 

162
faced by the designer in achieving high-yield message designs.
If he can with thoroughness and precision identify perform-
ance deficiencies of the people involved and can specify
in statements of objectives the remedial action called for,
the designer greatly enhances his prospects of solving or
ameliorating the problem through persuasive communication.
REFERENCES :

Andersch, Elizabeth, Lorin Staats, and Robert
Bostram, Communication in Everyday Use,
1969 (pp. 24-29 on typical communication
purposes).
Armstrong, Robert, et al., The Development and
Evaluation of Behavioral Objectives, 1970.
Berlo, David, The Communication Process, 1960 (pp.
7-8; 17-18 and the chapter on learning).
Bloom, Benjamin, et al., Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: Handbook I, Cognitive Domain,
1956 (summary in Appendix).
, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Handbook II, Affective Domain, 1964.
Estvan, F. J., Social Studies in a Changipg World,
1968 (see, especially, pp. 93-113 on art-
iculation of goals in operational terms).
Gross, Bertram, "What Are Your Organizational Object-
ives?" in D. I. Cleland (ed.), Systems,
Organization and Analysis, 1969 (pP- 101-111).
Perrow, Charles, Organizational Analysis, 1970
(pp. 134-136).

C. Analyzing Audience Characteristics and Situational Factors
Both communication research and practice confirm that

learning about the target audience and the situational factors

likely to be operating in the viewing-listening situation

are crucial to formulation of high-yield message designs.

In short, the message should be specifically designed in

163

accordance with what can be learned about the audience
members and the circumstances under which the communication
must take place. This suggests that the designer devote
as much time, energy and imagination as his circumstances
allow to a formal assessment of the characteristics of his
target audience and what the implications of these character-
istics are for decisions on the design.

Worksheet Ivec provides a checklist of characteristics
and factors plus space for entering specific facts about
the target audience relative to these items. Items listed
are those known to be related to persuasability. In practice
the designer has the task, first, of determining character-
istics of the individuals comprising the group, then trying
to determine what these factors add up to collectively. If
the group is rather homogeneous in character the task of gen-
eralizing is less difficult; if the group is heterogeneous,
the designer has a very challenging task ahead of him. In
mass communication the tendency has been to rely on the
"universal trait" idea with too little attention to adjusting
the design-~or at least making some special provision--for
exceptions and differences in audience composition. Recent
experimental evidence suggests that, although identification
of universal traits is desirable and necessary, high yield

results from persuasive communication are highly correlated

164
with attempts to determine existing audience predispositions
or inclinations to accept or reject the specific arguments
and propositions to be offered in the message and with making
compensatory adjustments in the message strategy where dif-
ficulties are anticipated (see references below).

In particular, the analysis should attempt to identify
those members of the audience whose power position in the
group is such that their response to the message can either
enhance the impact of the message on the other audience mem-
bers or impede it. Some experiments reveal that centering
the message on such opinion 1eaders--neutralizing their
apathy, hostility or open opposition--can pay big dividends.
It is, of course, possible to analyze audiences indefinitely
and still not learn all that might be helpful in avoiding
factors which can confound the purposes of the message. It
remains for the designer to go as far as his circumstances
will permit, realizing that the extent to which his message
design can be made congruent with the characteristics of his
audience and the viewing-listening situation will largely
determine his potential for success in the persuasion effort.
REFERENCES :

Allbricht, Thomas, Informative Speaking, 1968

(Chap. 3).
Amram, Fred and Frank Benson, Creating a Speech:

A Workbook, 1968 (Introduction: PP. 19-20;
pp. 49-54).

165

Berlo, David, The Process of Communication, 1960
(Chap. 1).

Bryant, Donald and Karl Wallace, Fundamentals of
Public Speaking, 1969 (Chap. 19, "Materials
from the Audience").

Chickering, Arthur, Education and Identity, 1969
(Part III, "Theory and Action").

Clevenger, Theodore, Audience Analysis, 1966.

Ellingsworth, H. W. and Theodore Clevenger, Speech
and Social Action, 1967 (PP- 114-127).

Evans, Rdbert (ed.), Readings in Collective Behavior,
1969.

Gibbon, Harold and Edward Palmer, Pre-Reading on
"Sesame Street," 1970.

Hegarty, Edward, Successful Speaker's Planning Guide,
1970 (Chap. 3, "Qualifying Your Listeners").

Hickman, Harold, A Systematic Theory and Procedure
for the Production of Multi-Channel Commun-
ication Messages, 1971 (Chap. IV, "Audience
Analysis," noting especially his audience
analysis system and checklist).

McCroskey, James, Introduction to Rhetorical Commun-
ication, 1968 (Chap. 3, "The Nature of the
Audience").

Martin, Howard, Speech Communication: Analysis and
Readings, 1968 (pp. 58-84, "Communication
Settings").

Platt, Washington, National Character in Action,
1961 (PP. 30- 43).

Plummer, Joseph, A Systematic Research Approach to
Television Program Develppment, 1967 (PP. 22-
23, outlining use of "set theory" for noting
commonness of audience characteristics).

Rokeach, Milton, Beliefs, Attitudes and Values: A
Theory of Organization Change, 1968 (see,
especially, pp. 146-161).

Shidle, Norman, The Art of Successful Communication,
1965 (pp. 100-103, "Finding Out Before Writing").

Trenaman, J. M., Communication and Comprehension, 1967
(Chap. 1).

Willing, David, The Human Element in Management, 1970
(Chap. 12, "Communication").

 

166

D. Identifying Message Design Resources

It may appear that this step in the problem solving
process is a relatively simple one compared to that of iden-
tifying and analyzing the problem. It is true that having the
varied aspects of the problem identified and the required
problem-solution actions set forth as objectives helps fa-
cilitate the formulation of a solution, but there is a dan-
gerous pitfall to be avoided here. This is the temptation to
choose the most promising of the first one or two viable sol-
utions Which the immediately known and available resources
suggest. This temptation should be normally avoided, for the
quality design decision is highly dependent upon the extent
to which there are strong alternatives from which to choose.
A limited choice of alternatives can mean the difference be-
tween a low or high yield from the communication effort in
terms of persuasive impact. Powerful designs are most likely
to emerge when the designer has a wide variety of promising
persuasive strategies from which to Choose and when he has a
rich storehouse of content resources to draw upon in implement-
ing the message strategy eventually adopted.

On the worksheet provided for this activity will be
recorded the widest possible variety of ideas, arguments,
supporting data, theories, strategy models and other design

resources that circumstances permit. In completing the worksheet

167
the designer needs to probe deeply into his prior expe-
rience, search his files or idea banks, stir his imagination,
solicit the ideas and counsel of others and consider every
source he can think of which might contribute to the power
of his design. The focus should be on identifying persuasive
strategies and message content materials capable of influencing
the competencies and behaviors of the members of the target
audience in ways which will lead to solution of the problem
under study. It goes without saying that the more quality
resources identified, the more promising can be the alter-
native solutions generated.

Worksheet IV-D has columns headed as follows:

1. Reworked sub—goals-AWhat particular sub-goals,
reworked, refined and transferred from WOrk-
sheet IV-B should be pursued in this particular
design effort? Use separate copy of this work-
sheet (IV-D) for each class of goals--cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.

2. Important audience characteristics-AWhat audience
characteristics, viewing occasion, time and place
factors should be taken into account in inven-
torying design resources for this message? What
kinds of content, strategy and other kinds of

resources are most likely to appeal to and be

168
effective in influencing this particular au-
dience?
Possibilities from designer's own experience-—
What specific facts, experiences, arguments,
examples, case materials, bits of evidence from
your own background and experience might be
effective in influencing members of the target
audience in the direction of these subgoals?
Possibilities from printed sources-AWhat printed
reference works, files, data collections, indexes,
periodical publications, pamphlets, and the like
might yield ideas, approaches, strategies, and
other content possibilities for design of messages
that will influence this particular audience rel-
ative to these goals?
Possibilities in consulting other_persons-4What
specific people might you contact and/or inter-
view for information, ideas, suggestions, leads,
etc.? Where and in what way shall they be con-
tacted?
Possiblelpresentational aids-AWhat existing aural
and visual materials (still picture sets, slides
and transparencies, motion pictures, videotaped

materials, charts, maps, specimen materials,

169
apparatus and the like) might be available as
content for this message? What adaptations of
existing materials might enhance the persuasive
potency of the message? What new materials will
be needed?
REFERENCES :

Amram, Fred and Frank Benson, Creating a Speech,

1968 (pp. 77—79, "Deciding What to Say").
Belson, W. A., The Impact of Television, 1967.
Bettinghaus, Erwin, Message Preparation: The Nature

of Proof, 1966.

Bryant, Donald and Karl Wallace, Fundamentals of
Public Speaking, 1969 (Chap. 18, "Basic Mater-
ials of the Persuasive Situation").

Cantril, Hadley, The Pattern of Human Concerns, 1965
(Chap. 1 and Appendix A).

Crocker, Lionel, Public Speaking for College Students,
1956 (Chap. I, "Principles of Speech Comp-
osition").

Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, Research,
Principles and Practices in Visual Commun—
ication, 1960 (Chap. 12, "Selection and Use
of Visual Media;" Chap. 9, "A Basis for Dec-
isions in Planning Communications").

Dichter, Ernest, Handbook of Consumer Motivation, 1964.

Hance, Kenneth, David Ralph and Milton Wiksell,
Principles of Speaking, 1965 (Chap. X,
"Materials of Development").

Hilliard, Robert, Writing for Television and Radio,
1968 (pp. 50-55).

Mills, Glen, Message Preparation: Analysis and Struct-
pge, 1966.

Palmer, Edward L., The Formative Research Phase of
Children's Television Workshop, 1968 (pp. l-lO).

Snow, Richard, Importance of Selected Audience Char-
acteristics as Determiners of the Effective-
ness of Instructional Films, 1965 (Report to
U.S. Office of Education financed project).

Stephenson, William, The Play Theory of Communication,
1967 (pp. 57+).

 

 

 

 

 

170
Tibbetts, A. M., The Strategies of Rhetoric, 1969
(Chap. VIII, "Personal Experience:" Chap.
IX, "Discovery;" and pp. 133-137, "Creating
Good Content").

Trenaman, J. M., Communication and Comprehension,

1967 (pp. 181-185 relative to "personifica—
tion").
E. Formulating the Overall Communication Strategy

As the final act preparatory to design of the message,
an attempt should be made to envision the total context or
strategy framework in which the problem solving communi-
cation act will take place. The assumption here is that
to be maximally effective, the message must interface with
"good fit" into the total problem solving system. There is
considerable merit, therefore, in viewing the message design
process as taking place in a complex of actions comprising
a total problem solving effort. Considering the design
task in this broad total-system context enables the designer
to isolate many of the factors which must be taken into account
and/or controlled to maximize the behavioral change potency
of the message.

WOrksheet IV-E provides a reasonably comprehensive
checklist of the factors commonly considered to be important
in designing a message which has good fit. Most are self
explanatory and require no elaboration here. However, Several

are sufficiently crucial to merit brief comment here, plus

the citation of several references which offer the designer

171

assistance with the dilemmas typically encountered.

The first problem is that of compromising the care—
fully delineated, crucial problem solving objectives of
the client organization with the goals, concerns and aspir-
ations of the other parties whose rights and interests will
be affected by the problem solving action. Some of those
whose interests may come in conflict with the client's are,
importantly, the audience members, the client's peers or
parent agencies and the community or society at large. The
task of the designer here is to first identify and evaluate
the other interests and then to find a way to resolve them
or compromise the more serious or potentially damaging con-
flicts. His most serious challenge will be to honor the
research-validated need in persuasive communication to center
the message in the interests and needs of members of the tar-
get audience without abandoning or excessively diluting-down
the painstakingly formulated problem solution goals. The
following references may be of assistance:
REFERENCES :

Allport, Gordon, "Attitudes" in D. Murchison (ed.),
Handbook of Social Psychology, 1935 (suggests
attitudes and values a people must hold in
common if they are to have a stable society).

Armstrong, Robert, Development and Evaluation of Be—
havioral Objectives, 1970.

Berlo, David, The Process of Communication, 1960

(pp. 9—17 on the "hOW’Of purpose" and the "con-
sumatory VS instrumental purpose" continuum).

172
Berman, Mark, "Motivating Learner-Centered Instruction"
Educational Technology, Vol. XI, No. 4, April,
1971 (entire issue devoted to this prdblem).
Duncan, Hugh, Communication and Social Order, 1962.
Edling, Jack, A Study of the Effectiveness of Audio-
Visual Teaching . . ., 1963 (pp. 120-122).
Hegarty, Edward, HOW’tO Write a Speech, 1951 (pp.
34-37, "Their Interests, Not Yours").
McCroskey, James, An Introduction to Rhetorical Com-
munication, 1968 (pp. 104-107).

Morris, Jud, The Art of Motivating, 1968.

Olbricht, Thomas, Informative Speaking, 1968 (Chap.

2, "An Audience—Centered Approach to Discourse;
Chap. 4, "Resolving the Message-Centered vs
Audience-Centered Dilemma").

A second strategy factor singled out for brief treatment
here is the choice of the media form in which the message
will be recorded and presented. The dilemma here is that of
compromising the need for an optimal stimulusebearing mode
of presentation against the relatively high skill require-
ments and production costs of the media forms having high
stimulus-bearing capacity. In general, the cost of pro- ~7
duction is proportional to the stimulus-delivery capacity of
the form selected, the continuum ranging essentially from
the printed page to the theater-size, multiple-screen, mul-
tiple-soundtrack, color motion picture. However, the imagi-
nation, ingenuity and artistry of the designer are the key
factors in the choice. The constraints imposed upon the

Q
designer may narrow the continuum of choice in selecting the

medium, but creative conscientious design may enable the

producers to still achieve inexpensive stimuli-rich messages.

173

The aim should normally be to arrive at an appropri—
ate cost-effective choice, resisting the tendency to insist
on the costly, high-capacity media forms (such as animated
film and television) with the inherent dangers of low cost-
efficiency and of stimulus "overkill," i.e., imposing such
a high volume of stimuli upon the audience members that they
cannot perceive or comprehend it all. The references on
audio—visual methods in teaching and presentation-making
listed below should be of help to the designer in resolving
the dilemmas of media choice.
REFERENCES :

Brown, James, Audio-Visual Instruction: Media and
Methods, 1969.

Dale, Edgar, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, 1969
(see, especially, the chapter dealing with
Dale's "cone of experience" model).

Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, Research,
Principles, and Practices in Visual Communi—
cation, 1960 (Chap. 9, "A Basis for Dec-
isions in Planning Communications;" Chap. 12,
"Selection and Use of Visual Media").

Herrick, William F., "Audio-Visual Choice Criteria,"
Audio-Visual Communication, June, 1970 (pp.
16-19, a listing of twenty criteria for sel-
ection of the appropriate medium for a given
task).

Thompson, J. J., InstructionalyCommunication, 1969
(Chaps. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 12).

University of the State of New'York, Educational Com-
munication Handbook, 1968.

The final strategy factor to be discussed here is one
Which is of very crucial importance in determining the yield

from persuasive messages. This is the factor which Wiebe

174
(see reference below) refers to as social mechanisms or
"mediating institutions." These, he indicates, are the
instrumentalities through which audience members may act
upon the motivations aroused and the action-decisions elic-
ited by a persuasive message. Wiebe, in his article "Mer-

chandising Commodities and Citizenship on Television,‘ asks
why TV can sell soap but not, it seems, good citizenship.

He then answers his own question, pointing out that there is
usually an institutionalized and normalized procedure and
mechanism through which to act on a decision to buy soap--
drive to a nearby supermarket, for example. He points out
that commodity merchandising works because advertising mes-
sages give a strategic last push to people's motivations and
then directs them to an appropriate social mechanism--
usually a retail store within easy range--for expression of
the motivation.

Wiebe also notes the cruciality of providing, as an
adjunct to attempts at social persuasion, facilitating mech-
anisms which are--re1ative to the audience members--physica11y
and psychologically "close-by" and apprOpriate to the action—
thrust of the message. In his view variations in yield from
communication efforts may be strongly related to the strength

of the connection between the audience members and those

"particular others" who constitute an apprOpriate social

175

mechanism. This could be a social reform group, the local
chapter of a service club or political party, a neighborhood
civic-action group, a school class, a training group or the
like. If, upon being aroused and motivated by powerful,
Sharply targeted messages, the audience members feel phys-
ically and psychologically close to an appropriate group,
the audience's message—aroused intentions are far more likely
to be translated into action than if there is no such group.

Important factors influencing the helpfulness of such
groups are: (1) the frequency of the individual's associ-
ation with such a group; (2) the degree to which he shares
the values, norms and purposes of the group; (3) the degree
to which the group supplements or reinforces the intent of
the problem-solution message; (4) the degree to which the
group is "hooked—up" to the message source, i.e., the extent
to which the mediating group has "been in on" the design of
the message and is sympathetic and/or supportive of the mes-
sage intent, and (5) the degree to which the group provides a
suitable outlet through which to give expression to message—
induced action dispositions.

It would appear on the basis of this discussion that
the absence of the right kind of linkage to the right kind of
facilitating mechanism--either existing or specially created

for the intended purpose--may be the Single most devastating

176
deterent to persuasion-induced change on the part of indi-
viduals. The basic problem--manifest in many of the problem—
solving communication efforts with which this writer is fa-
miliar--is "admonition without facilitation." Wiebe's writings
and other references listed below should be of help to those

designers who desire to overcome serious strategical weaknesses.

REFERENCES :

Dale, Edgar, "How Do You Get Action?" The Newsletter,
Ohio State University, College of Education,
Vol. XXV, No. 4 (January, 1960).

Diel, George, A Citizen-Committee Complex as a Per-
suasive Communication System, 1967 (see final
conclusions and recommendations chapter).

Farnsworth, Dana, Psychiatry, Education and the Young,
Adult, 1966 (p. 233, the concept of facilit-
ating environments for change).

Hollander, Edwin, Leaders, Groups, and Influences,
1964.

Klapper, Joseph, "Stimulation of Primary Groups," in
O. Lerbinger and Charles Sullivan (eds.),
Information, Influence and Communication, 1965.

Wiebe, G. D., "Merchandising Commodities and Citizen-
ship on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly,
Vol. xv (1951). pp. 679-686. Wiebe also writes
on this subject in his chapter in Katz and Laz-
arsfeld, Personal Influence, 1952.

F. Formulating the Basic Message Strategy

With the overall strategy or "grand design" for the
communication structured on a tentative basis, the designer
can, at long last, proceed confidently and realistically with

the design of "the message" which is so strategically vital

to the total problem-solving effort. Based on the formulations

177
and decisions recorded on all prior worksheets, the designer
should now have his essential task in sharp focus. He
should now be in a position to generate one or more precise,
sharply targeted designs which will provide the right kind
and the correct amount of message stimuli to elicit the nec-
essary responses from his target audience(s). In the per—
spective of the immediately preceding discussion the stimulus-
generating activity may be focused principally upon inducing
the audience members to affiliate (or reaffiliate) with a
high level of new or rekindled commitment with one or more
of the mediating or facilitating groups to which they have
been directed.

An assumption underlying this stimulus—generating
activity is that the designer has essentially two crucial
tasks to perform if he is to get his job done. These are
(l) generating message content which is sufficiently clear,
meaningful, interesting and enjoyable that audience members
will attend to, perceive and comprehend the message, i.e.,
opening a path to the audience member's consciousness and
holding the path Open long enough that members can be in—
fluenced by the purposive content of the message, and (2)
generating and weaving into the message the stimuli nec-
essary to influence the audience members in the right dir-

ection, i.e., to elicit the desired response.

178

The first will typically require inclusion in the
message of such elements as entertainment, novelty, humor,
provocative delivery and the like, which may be quite un-
related to the purposive intent of the message but included
for the purpose of sustaining attention and keeping the
communication channels Open. Other content choices will
be based on the need to override the "noise" or competing
stimuli eminating from each audience member's own stream of
consciousness--his own thoughts, urges, motivations, in-
process responses to the message and so on. Some choices
will be aimed at keeping competing stimuli originating in
the presentational environment within tolerable limits and
at producing a message powerful enough to override that
stimuli from the environment which does enter into the con-
sciousness of the audience members to compete with the
message stimuli.

All this calls for the kind of imagination, artistry,
and "Show business" finesse advocated by Stephenson in his
"play theory" of communication (see references below) and
achieved so admirably by the producer's of the "Sesame
Street" television series using their powerful Operational
model. A OOpy is included in the Appendix (see the Palmer
reference below for discussion). Operationalization Of these

kinds of message development strategies calls for a good

179
deal of what the classic rhetoricians referred to as
"invention." Invention, as we recall, has to do with
identifying, creating and mobilizing content resources for
what the ancients referred to as "suasory" (persuasive)
communication. Others Of the so-called canons of class-
ical rhetoric--disposition, style, delivery (but excluding
memory)—-are also deemed applicable to the design approach
advocated in this report, along with certain conceptual—
izations drawn from modern communication and behavioral
science theory.

To carry out the design Operations suggested by these
rhetorical canons and modern theory conceptualizations, the
work of step IV-F proceeds in three phases, each requiring
its own separate worksheet. The first focuses on helping
the designer generate out of the resources he has assembled
a stimulus package which, hopefully, contains that content
which will precipitate the required audience responses, pre-
suming that "the message gets through." The second asks the
designer to take a penetrating look at what adjustments
might be made or what additional features might be intro-
duced to the design to help assure that the message does, in-
deed, get through to a consciousness of each audience member.
Here the concern is for the factors of attention, perception

and comprehension. The third phase is the one in which the

n _ “

180

the designer must amalgamate and integrate this multiplicity

of contents and strategies into a working outline prepa-

ratory to formal scripting of the message. The specific

Operations,

1.

as reflected in the worksheets, are as follows:

Generating a persuasively powerful stimulus

package--equating high priority Objectives with

the persuasive means for their attainment (in-

vention or "inventio" as conceived by the an-

cient rhetoricians).

a)

Alternative means of eliciting required

responses.

(1) Basic strategy models--What existing
comprehensive models or strategy for-
mulations might be apprOpriate for gen—
erating the required stimulus?
REFERENCES:

Amram, Fred and Frank Benson,
Creating a Speech: A Student's
Workbook, 1968 (a complete
methodology, including work-
Sheets).

'/Anderson, Kenneth, Persuasion:
Theory and Practice, 1971
(Section III, "The Message").

Bettinghaus, Erwin, Persuasive
Communication, 1968 (a comp-
rehensive review of models).

Daniels, Philip, Strategles to
Facilitate Problem-Solving,
1964 (a report of a U. S. Office
of Education financed project).

181

v Edling, Jack, A Study Of the Ef-
fectiveness of Audio—Visual
Teachinngaterials . . .,

1963 (a report of a bench-
mark study financed by U.S.
Office of Education; includes
his powerful ”relevancy"
model).

Greenhill, Leslie, "Review of
Research on Instructional
Television and Film" in
J. Christopher Reid and
Donald MacLennan (eds.),
Research in Instructional
Television and Film, 1967
(note his "empirical valid-
ation procedure for enhanc-
ing the effectiveness Of
instructional materials).

Hickman, Harold, A Systematized
Theory and Procedure for the
Production of Multi-Channel
Communication, 1971 (includes
a set of system models and a
basic design model subsuming
them all).

Palmer, Edward, The Formative Phae
of Children's Television
WorkshOp, 1968 (an explan-
ation of their total strategy,
including their working model,
Figure 2 in this chapter).

Plummer, Joseph, A Systematic Re-
search Approach to Television
Program Develgpment, 1967
(a complete design procedure
for traditional television
cultural and informational
programs).

Schneider, Carol, Tactics Of Per-
suasion: A Conceptual and
Experimental Approach, 1965
(a doctoral dissertation offer-
ing some useful alternatives).

Stephenson, William, The Play The—
orylof Communication, 1967.

 

 

 

(2)

182

Wood, James, An Application of
Rhetorical Theory to Filmic
Persuasion, 1967 (a doctor-
al dissertation developing a
strategy based on rhetorical
theory).

Bodies of theory and principle-eWhat
compilations or research findings and
theory generalizations, checklists of
design principles, compendia Of "con-
ventional wisdom," and the like might
be consulted for help in heightening
the persuasive potency of the message?
REFERENCES:

Berlo, David, The Process of Com—
munication, 1960.

Boyd, Harper, Promotion: A Benny:
ioral View, 1967.

Hickman, Harold, A Systematijz_e§_
Theory and Procedure for the
Production of Multi-Channel
Communication, 1971 (Chaps.
II and III).

Highbrow, Robert and Don Brown,
Communication and Public
Administration, 1965.

Karlan, Marvin and Herbert Abel-
son, Persuasion: HOW'Opin-
ions and Attitudes Are Changed,
1970 (a complete modern hand-
book).

Kebler, RObert and Larry Barker,
Conceptual Frontiers in Speech
Communication, 1969.

Martin, Howard and Kenneth Ander-
son (eds.), Speech Commu-
nication, 1968 (see "predic-
tive generalizations" at con-
clusion of most chapters).

 

183

Monroe, Alan and Douglas Ehninger,
Principles and Types of
Speeches, 1967 (pp. 272—287,
"motivated sequence" ap-
proach).

Nadeau, Ray, A Basic Rhetoric of
Speech Communication, 1969.

Parry, John B., The Psyehology of
Human Communication, 1968.

Reeder, William W., Summary of
Research and Bibliography
Relevant to a Theory of Bellefs,
Disbeliefs and Social Action,
1969.

Reid, Christopher and Donald Mac-
Lennan, Research in Instruct-
ional Television and Film,
1967.

Sereno, Kenneth K., Foundations of
Communication Theory, 1970.

Smith, R. G. Communication: Theory
and Models, 1970 (PP- 15-

26, basic communication var-
iables and alternative strat-
egies incorporating them).

Stewart, Daniel K., The Psye -
ology of Communication, 1969.

Thompson, Wayne, Quantitative
Research in Public Address
and Communication, 1967.

Thorpe, Roland G., Behavior Mod-
ification in the Natural
Environment, 1969.

Watzlawich, Paul, The Pragmatics
of Human Communication, 1967.

Wemrich, W. W., A Primer of Behav-
ior Modification, 1970.

b) Choosing content through which to operation-
alize these strategies (more invention).
(1) Logical support material (”logos" as
conceived by the ancients)-4What argu-

ments, propositions, supporting evidence,

(2)

184
facts, expert testimony, and the like,
can help activate these strategies
through appeals to reason?
REFERENCES :

Bettinghaus, Erwin, Message Prep-
aration: The Nature of Proof,
1966 (a thorough and up-to-
date treatise).

Bryant, Donald and Karl Wallace,
Fundamentals of Public Speak-
ing, 1968 (Chap. 20, "Select-
ion Of Materials and Strag-
egies").

Hance, Kenneth, David Ralph, and
Milton Wiksell, Principles of
Speaking, 1965 (Chap. 2 on
the "materials of proof").

McCroskey, James, An Introduction
to Rhetorical Commnnication,
1968 (Chap. 7, "Message
Preparation: Invention").

Ross, Raymond, Speech Commpnication:
Fundamentals and Practice,
1970 (Chap. 10, "Logical
Supports of Persuasion").

Walter, Otis, Speaking_to Inform
and Persuade, 1966 (Chap. 6,
"Persuasive Logic: The Tactics
of Persuasion").

Windes, Russell and Arthur Hastings,
Argumentation and Advocacy,
1970 (a systematic present-
ation of principles and tech-
niques).

Emotional support materials (fpathos"

as conceived by the ancients)--What
human needs and interests, common emo-
tional attachments and feelings, persua-

sive appeals, human yearnings, value

185
symbols, and the like, can help in
activating these strategies and theory
generalizations?
REFERENCES :

Baker, Richard and Gregg Phifer,
Salesmanshipy,Communication,
and Persuasion, 1966.

Bettinghaus, Erwin, Message Prep-
aration: The Nature of Proof,
1966 (Chap. 6, "Motivat-
ional Proofs").

Bryant, Donald and Carl Wallace,
Fundamentals of Public
Speaking, 1969 (pp. 309-312
on emotional proofs).

Cantril, Hadley, The Pattern of
Human Concerns, 1967 (Appen-
dix summary of universal
concerns).

DeArmand, Fred, How to Sell and
Unsell Ideas, 1954 (Chap.
XII, "Playing Upon the Emot-
ions").

Dichter, Ernest, Handbook Of Con-
sumer Motivations, 1964.

Eisenson, Jon, Jeffrey Auer and
John Irwin, The Psychology
of Communication, 1963.

Fotheringham, William, Perspect-
ives on Persuasion, 1966
(Chap. 6, "Persuasive and Non-
Persuasive Use of Signs").

Gordon, George, Persuasion: The
Theory and Practice of Man-
ipulative Communication,

1971 (Part 3, "Motives, Per-
ception, Man/Attitudes and
Beliefs").

Hance, Kenneth, David Ralph and
Milton Wiksell, Principles of
Speaking, 1965 (Chap. 3 on
"materials of experience,"
those appealing to listener's
basic motives).

 

 

(3)

186

Hickman, Harold, A Systematized
Theory and Procedure for the
Production of Multi-Channel
Communication, 1971 (Chap.

V, "Emotion and Persuasion").

Hillard, Robert, Writinglfor Tele-
vision and Radio, 1968 (pp.
50-55, listing of emotional
and logical appeals and dis-
cussion of each).

McCroskey, James, An Introduction
to Rhetorical Communication,
1968 (pp. 129-132 for listing
of "Topoi of American Values").

McNeil, James, Dimensions of Con-
sumer Behavior, 1968.

Otis, Walter, Speakinglto Inform
and Persuade, 1966 (Chap. 7,
"Emotion and Motivation: The
Strategy of Persuasion").

Robinson, Edward, Public Relations
and Survey Research, 1969 (use
Of surveys to determine peo-
ple's interests and concerns).

Ethical support materials (”ethos" as
conceived anciently)--What qualities
in what human personalities should be
sought to lend strong ethical support
or credibility and prestige to the mes-
sage as a whole, to the arguments, prop-
ositions and advocacies therein"
REFERENCES :
Anderson, Kenneth, Persuasion:
Theory and Practice, 1971
(Chap. 12, "Ethos: Creation
and Effects").
Bettinghaus, Erwin, Message Prep-

aration: The Nature of Proof,
1966 (pp. 89-96 on source

C)

187

credibility and ethos as
factors in effective proof).

Culp, Ralph, Basic Types of Speech,
1968 (p. 15, a chart summar-
izing kinds of proof with func-
tion of ethical proof con-
trasted with other forms).

Hickman, Harold, A Systematized
Theory and Procedure for the
Production of Multi-Channel
Communication, 1971 (pp. 82-
83 on attitudes of audience
members toward producer and/
or presenter.

Martin, Howard and Kenneth Ander-
son (eds.), Speech Communi-
cation, 1968 (pp. 177-200,

a summary of experimental
research on ethos).

McCroskey, James, An Introduction
to Rhetorical Communication,
1968 (Chap. 4, "Ethos: A Dom-
inant Factor in Persuasive
Communication").

Miller, Gerald, Speech Communi-
cation: A Behavioral View,
1966 (PP. 36-49, determinants
and dimensions of credibility).

Oliver, Robert, The Psychology of
Persuasive Speech, 1957 (pp.
224-225, outline of his theory
of dynamic logic and the use
of ethical proof).

Deciding on a tentative structure or arrange-
ment for the message content (disposition or
"dispositio" as conceived anciently)-AWhat
‘will be included in the message; hOW'Will it
be sequenced; how will it be apportioned;
what will be contained in the principle seg-

ments and what will be the function of each

188

element in the completed message?
REFERENCES:

Anderson, Kenneth, Persuasion: Theory
and Practice, 1971 (Chap. 9,
"Organizational Effects").

Bettinghaus, Erwin, Message Preparation:
The Nature of Proof, 1966 (PP.
110-119, mistakes in proof pat-
terns and proper placement of
materials).

Crocker, Lionel, Public Speaking for
College Students, 1956 (Chap. 17,
"Techniques of Structuring a
Speech").

Culp, Ralph, Basic Types of Speech,
1968 (pp. 9-20, varied patterns
of arrangement).

Hegarty, Edward, The Successful Speak-
er's Guide, 1970 (Chap. 6,

"Learn to Use the Storyboard").

Hickman, Harold, A Systematic Theory_
and Procedure for the Production
of Multi-Channel Communication,
1971 (pp. 47-55, his arrangement
system and its components).

Kelly, Win, The Art of Public Address,
1965 (pp. 40—47, organizing Speech
content and completing the outline).

McCroskey, James, An Introduction to
Rhetorical Communication, 1968
(Chap. 8, "Message Preparation:
Disposition" see, especially,

p. 147 for listing of alternate
patterns of arrangement.

Mills, Glen, Message Preparation:
Analysis and Structure, 1966.
Monroe, Allen, Principles and Types of
Speeches, 1967 (pp. 294-299, types

of outlines and how to prepare
them).

Olbricht, Thomas, Informative Speaking,
1968 (Chap. 4, "Structuring the
Informative Message").

 

 

189

d) Choosing the appropriate style and mode

of treatment ("elecutio" as labeled by

the classical rhetoricians).

(l)

(2)

Choice of language and other stylistic
features-AWhat vocabulary level is
appropriate, what are the dialectical
and colloquial considerations, what
level of sophistication in terminology
or jargon will be appropriate? What
will be the expectations of the audi-
ence members relative to grammar, sen-
tence structure, figurative expressions,
etc.?

Choice of treatment modes-eWhat modes
of treatment or presentational tech-
niques (lecture, illustrated present-
ation, live-action motion picture, pho-
tographic slides with taped narration,
and the like) will be most suitable?
Considering costs and other resource
factors, what modes Of treatment will
be acceptable even if not ideal from
the point of view of appeal and attrac-

tiveness?

e)

190
REFERENCES :

Anderson, Kenneth, Persuasion:
Theory_and Practice, 1971
(Chap. 10, "Language and
Style").

Clevenger, Theodore, Audience
Analysis, 1966 (p. 4, the
stylistic approach to study
of communication).

Culp, Ralph, Basic Types Of Speech,
1968 (p. 15, chart listing
"stylistic proofs").

Hickman, Harold, A Systematized
Theory and Procedure for the
Production of Multi-Channel
Communication, 1971 (Chap.
VI, "Style," including his
style system).

McCroskey, James, An Introduction
to Rhetorical Communication,
1968 (Chap. 9, "Message Prep-
aration: Style").

Trenaman, J. M., Communication and
Comprehension, 1967 (PP. 166-
170, "Some Producer's Obser—
vations;" pp. 181-185, styles
of "personification" and
portrayal).

 

Choosing an appropriate method for delivery
or presentation ("pronuntatio" as labeled

by the ancientS)--What would be the best
choice of a presenter (or of presenters)

and what sort of personality should he (they)
have? What should be their style Of de-
livery, their pattern relative to inflec-
tional variation, change of pace and volume

level, tone, mood and the like? Should

191
presentation be light or serious, genteel
or "folksey," conversational or presenta-

tional, or a combination of several of these?

REFERENCES :

Anderson, Kenneth, Persuasion: Theory
and Practice, 1971 (Chap. 11,
"Delivery: The Message Comes
into Being in a Channel").

Belson, W. A., The Impact Of Television:
Methods and Findings in Program
Research, 1967 (Sec. III, Tele-
vision Research: Past and Pre-
sent).

Culp, Ralph, Basic Types of Speeches,
1968 (pp. 20-24, "Rehearsal and
Presentation").

Dentsman, Hal, "Presentations: Visual
Material," Audio-Visual Communi-
cations, June, 1968, pp. 9-22.

Hickman, Harold, A Systematic Theory,
and Procedure for the Product-
ion of Multi-Channel Communication,
1971 (Chap. VII, "Delivery,"
including his fully developed
system for effective presen-
tation).

Martin, H. W. and K. E. Anderson,
Speech Communication, 1968
(pp. 126-147, "Communication
Strategies").

Managing the stimulus environment--equating audi-
ence characteristics and other facilitating or
inhibiting factors operating in the presentational
environment with the requirements of attention,
perception, comprehension and response.

a) Needed adjustments or changes in the overall

message strategy-—reinventing or modifying

b)

C)

d)

192
the strategy to help assure that it is an
appropriate one for this particular audience,
that it will be acceptable to them, that
it does not infringe their perceived rights,
their conceptions of prOpriety, their pre-
conceptions of the occasion or purpose and
their other pre-exposure expectations.
Needed adjustments or changes in message
content--reinventing as necessary to assure
adequate interest-attracting and holding
power, to enhance audience member's per-
ception and comprehension of the message
contents and their intended meanings.
Needed adjustments or changes in the initial
structural plan and outline—-resequencing,
adding transitional or connecting material,
editing-out redundancies and ambiguities,
and the like, to help assure that the message
will get through.
Needed adjustments in style and modes of
treatment—-changing style of language,
forms of expression, vocabulary level,
modes of treatment, etc., as the analysis

indicates.

e)

193
Needed adjustments or changes in methods
of delivery--specifying different present-
ers, providing a better mix of presenters
and presenter styles, seeking higher ethos-
generating presenters and presentational
strategies as will heighten audience mem-
ber's attention, perception, comprehension
and, ultimately, response.
REFERENCES :

Baker, Richard and Gregg Phiffer, Sales-
manship: Communication, Persuas-
ion, Perception, 1966 (Chap. 14,
"Influencing Client Perceptions
Through Emotions").

Belson, W. A., The Impact of Television:
Methods and Findings of Research,
1967 (Sec. III, VI, V).

Cohen, Arthur, Attitude Change and
Social Influence, 1964.

Crocker, Lionel, Public Speaking for
College Students, 1956 (Chap.
16, "How to be Interesting").

Dember, William, The Psychology of
Perception, 1960 (PP. 314-317,
summary of noteworthy experiments).

Hovland, Carl, et al., Communication
and Persuasion, 1953 (Chap. 9,
"Summary and Emerging PrOblems").

, The Order of
Presentation in Persuasion, 1967
(pp. 136-148, summary of findings).

James, William, "Attention" in Paul
Bakan (ed.), Attention, 1966.

, Talks to Teachers
on Psychology, 1958 (pp. 78-87 on
keeping pupils attention and
interest).

Killian, R. A., Managing by Design, 1968
(Chap. 16, "Communication: Focusing

 

194

on Action Response").

Levine, Jacob, Motivation Througn
Humor, 1969.

Mendelsohn, Harold, Operation Stope
gap, 1968 (PP. II-9 through II-l6).

Morris, Jud, The Art of Motivating:

A Guide to Getting_More Accomplish-
ed Through People, 1968.

Nettars, Gwynn, Explanations, 1970.

Olbricht, Thomas, Informative Speaking,
1968 (Chap. 7, "Reinforcing and
Emphasizing").

Palmer, Edward, The Formative Research
Phase of Children's Television
Worksho , (pp. 1-10, description
of development procedures for
"Sesame Street").

Plummer, Joseph, A Systematic Research
Approach to Television Program
Development, 1967 (pp. 16-17: 30-31;
and 300 to conclusion).

Rogge, Edward and James Ching, nee
vanced Public Speaking, 1966
(Chap. 2, "Making the Speech
Interesting").

Rokeach, Milton, The Open and Closed
Mind, 1960 (pp. 67-68; 400-401
for summary).

Sanford, Fillmore and Lawrence wright-
son, Psychology: A Scientific
Study of Man, 1970 (Chap. 10,
"Attention and Perception").

Stephenson, William, The Play Theory
of Communication, 1967 (see
pp. 57-58 for essence Of his
theory).

Trenaman, J. M., Communication and
Comprehension, 1967.

Vernon, M. D., The Psychology of
Perception, 1962.

 

Firming-up the content and structure Of the
message-~amalgamating and integrating revised
strategies and contents into a final working

outline for use in scripting the message

195

(disposition, again).

a) Basic organization and sequencing plan--

decisions as to how the message will be

segmented.

(l)

(2)

(3)

Introduction--What will be done to
attract audience member's attention

and gain entree into their conscious-
ness at the outset? What will be done
to orient them to the occasion and pur-
poses for the presentation, to estab-
1ish rapport, and in other ways set the
stage for delivery of the message
proper?

Body of message-AWhat'will be done to
introduce the problem, demonstrate its
magnitude, advise audience members of
their implications in it, and their
potential role in solving it?
Closing-AWhat'will be done to summarize
or recapitulate the essential thrust of
the message, achieve linkage to faci-
litating or mediating institutions

and then to elicit decisions, commit-

ments and other action responses on the

b)

C)

196

part of audience members as required

to achieve the purposes of the com-

munication effort?
Basic working outline--the detailed outline
of message content, a revision and expansion
of the initial plan, including the firm
strategy and content specifications the
designer needs in order to execute the
script.
Important notes and specifications not
included in content outline--notations in
a separate column indicating the functions
of each element of the message plan, plus
specifications as to how each element is
formed--in essence, a sort Of checklist to
help assure that content vital to the success
of the communication venture is, indeed,
included and that it will be shaped and
presented in the best possible manner.
Will include notations relative to precautions
and taboos to be Observed, abrupt "twists"
in the flow of content, injections of humor
and other so-called "relief" segments.

Also, planned changes in pace, volume, level,

197
inflectional pattern and the like—-any
and all devices and techniques for sustain-
ing interest, facilitating perception and
comprehension of the message content, and,
finally, to elicit the desired response
from audience members.
REFERENCES :

Andersch, Elizabeth, Lorin Staats,
and Robert Bostram, Commun-
ication in Everyday Use, 1969
(pp. 82-conc1usion, on struct-
uring the message using detailed
outline with descriptive notes).

Culp, Ralph, Basic Types of Speech,
1968 (pp. 9-20 on alternative
plans for arrangement; all
remaining chapters for specimen
of various types of outlines
‘with technical plot or "notation"
column as advocated above).

Kelly, Win, The Art of Public Address,
1965 (pP- 40-47 on organizing
speech content in outline form
with functional notes).

Monroe, Alan, Principles and Types of
Speech, 1967 (pp. 294-299, on the
"full content" outline).

Step V. Executing the Message Design

In this chapter we have considered many of the pre—
liminaries deemed essential to the preparation of high yield
persuasive messages. We have been concerned with the exten-
sive fact finding and analysis tasks, with the many data

and resource gathering activities, with sweeping explorations

198

and decisions which are required for good designs. We come
now to the execution of the design, to generate message pro—
ducts which can be used as a major source of impetus for the
solving of complex, multi-faceted problems of modern society.
It is at this crucial point, however, that we can consider
the work of the designer—~as we have conceived it here--as
being essentially completed.

The assumption here is that responsibility for exe-
cution of the design can--and Often will--be assumed by pro-
fessional production people using procedures and techniques
which are normalized and generally adequate to this task.
There is a growing professional literature available to
those who need help. An exception which may call for con-
tinued concern by the designer may be in the area of producing
and pre-testing a pilot version Of the message--this followed
by adjustments in the design preparatory to "finished" pro-
duction. The designer may want to be "in on" these activ-
ities; there may be instances in which he will be required
to render assistance, but this work can be done by others.
The specialist in problem-solving message design may elect
to terminate his involvement at this stage and move on to
neW'assignments calling for his particular kind of expertise.
'Fhe same reasoning may also apply relative to the designer's

linvolvement in execution of the total problem-solution

199

action, Step VI.

In keeping with the previous advocacy of viewing the
design of a message in the context Of the total Operation
Of which it is a part, the remaining steps in the total
process are outlined in brief form below. References are
provided in connection with the scripting, pilot testing
and execution of the total action plan steps which can be
construed as design—related activities. No worksheets
are provided nor do they appear to be needed for these

culminating steps.

A. Writing the Script and Carrying Out the Pre-Production
Preparations Called for in the Script
REFERENCES:

Dunbar, Janet, Scripting for Television, 1966 (this
book is especially applicable to scripting
serious informational and cultural programs).

Hilliard, Robert, Writing for Television and Radio,
1968 (one of the most practical and widely
used handbooks in the field).

Parker, Martin, Audio-Visual Script Writing, 1968
(a first of its kind, which has much to offer).

Plummer, Joseph, A Systematic Research Approach to
Television Program Development, 1967 (valuable
for the manner in which research and evaluation
are used as an adjunct to script development).

Williams, Edgar, Writing Television and Radio Pro—
grams, 1967 (Chap. 6, "Designing the Script"
is especially applicable to dramatic portrayals).

Wylie, Max, Writing for Television, 1970.

200

B. Producing and Pre-Testing the Pilot Version of the Message

(or Segments of the Message)
REFERENCES :

Belson, W. A., The Impact of Television, 1967
(Section three, "Measuring the Effects of
a Particular Program“).

Berlo, David, The Process of Communication, 1960
(pp. 12—13 on conforming the design to the
purposes of the message).

Bowers, John, Designing the Communication Experiment,
1970.

Evans, Richard, Social-Psychology in Life, 1970
(Chap. 13, "New Measures of the Effectiveness
Of Persuasive Communication"). ‘

National Industrial Conference Board, Pre-Testing
Advertising, 1963.

Palmer, Edward, The Formative Research Phase of
Children's Television Workshop, 1968 (pp. 9-
12 on experimental production and pre-testing).

Robinson, Edward, Public Relations and Survey
Research, 1969.

Trenaman, J. M., Communication and Comprehension,
1967 (p. 43 to conclusion of chapter, research
on effects vs research on interests).

Yarbrough, James, A Model for Analysis of Receiver
Responses to Communication, 1968.

 

Step VI. Executinglthe Total Problem Solving Action
A. Finalizing the Total Problem Solution Strategy and the

Feedback Evaluation Rationale.

B. Executing the Planned Action and Shaping it to Plan.

C. Carrying-out the Post-Execution Evaluation of Message
Effectiveness and Adjusting the Message and Overall Strategy

for Future Use

201
D. Repeating the Cycle as Needed
REFERENCES :

Batten, J. D., Developing a TougneMinded Climate
for Results, 1965 (Chap. I, “The Winning Edge:
Self—Discipline"; Chap. III, "Organization
and the Taut Ship"; Chap. XV, ”Personal Organ-
ization for Tough-Minded Results").

Hodnett, Edward, The Art Of Problem Solving, 1955
(Chap. 23, "Summing Up—-Are All the Bases
Covered?").

McPherson, J. H., The Peoplelehe Problems and The
Problem Solving Methods, 1967 (pp. 23-42, "The
Implementation Step").

Scanlon, Burt, Results Management in Action, 1969
(Chap. 8, "Implementing the Decision--A Plan
for Action").

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this study an attempt has been made to deve10p a
formalized procedure for the design of high potency or high-
yield persuasive messages. An important consideration in
develOping the procedure has been a search for methodol-
ogical disciplines which will lead the designer of such
messages to identify and use valid theory and principle
drawn from the literature of the behavioral sciences and
the communication arts.

An important assumption has been that there is a sub-
stantial body of empirically useful theory generalizations
and design principles which are seldom utilized by commun-
ication practitioners in the design of their message material.

An underlying hypothesis for the investigation is that
the failure of design people to systematically examine and
utilize these and other design resources may account for the
generally low persuasive effectiveness of, particularly,
:public service television and radio programs, motion pictures
‘and.other media presentations designed to stir peOple to
action on the problems of present-day society.

202

203

A third assumption is that in the planning and prep-
aration of persuasive messages the communicator must make
many decisions which collectively determine the effectiveness
of his efforts. Decisions have to be made relative to the
content, treatment, organization and style of the message.

A particular choice of content, treated and arranged in a
particular fashion, using a certain style is referred to as
the "strategy" for that particular message. Prior research
has indicated that variations in the strategy or "mix" of
these factors can vary the observed effectiveness of a given
message. By-and-large the decisions which account for such
variations are made on the basis of hunches and intuition
rather than in terms of a set of ordered and validated prin-
ciples.

During the past twenty-five years, however, an in-
creasing number of social science and communication research-
ers have identified a variety Of message variables. Using
controlled variation experiments and other research proc-
edures, these investigators have studied many of these vari-
ables in practice and have found that these factors can be
manipulated in ways that can result in increased communication
effectiveness. Many of these prior studies are limited in
scope and in the generalizability of their findings to other

Inessage design situations. However, there is a sizeable body

204
of theory and principle which communication practitioners
could be utilizing to enhance the efficiency and effective-
ness of their work.

The problem of how to help developers of persuasive
materials to tap these conceptual resources and methodol-
ogical tools for generating increased power for their designs
has been the major concern of this study. In short, the
study represents an effort similar to that by the ancient
rhetoricians to aid in the discovery of practical means of
persuasion, and to enhance the message designer's ability
to induce belief changes as a result of persuasive communi-
cation. This particular effort was aimed at developing a
procedure which broadcasters and film producers might use in
motivating their audience members to become more fully
committed to, and constructively active in, the social bet-
terment programs of their community. Presumably, the pro-
cedure can be adapted to a wide range of problem solving
tasks in which strong persuasive efforts are needed to pre-
cipitate ameliorative action.

The approach in developing the procedure has been de-
liberately eclectic. The ideas for the procedural steps have
come from the literature Of many fields, from the investiga-
tor's own background of twenty years of involvement as a

‘teacher and practitioner in both commercial and non-commercial

205
mass communication, and from many of his teachers and associ-
ates with whom the problem has been a source of vexation
and concern over that period of time.

One of the important procedural concepts developed in
this study is the idea of "designing" a message rather than
merely "producing" it as practitioners normally conceptualize
their task. {Use of the term "design" infers--as Webster's
New Collegiate Dictionary puts it--"deliberate, purposive
planning toward a specific purpose or end?" Emphasis in
this case is on the "purposive planning" dimension of the
task and upon the disciplines or practical constraints im-
posed upon the designer as contrasted with, say, the artist.
The justification for adOpting the concept of design, as
conceived herein, is that, as today's mass communicator
faces today's problems--intuitive judgment and artistic
skill are no longer enough. To this must be added theories,
principles, strategy models and disciplined methodologies
drawn from the disciplines in which the social, psychological,
and physiological functioning and the communication behaviors
of people are studied systematically and scientifically.

What is called for in the message design approach advocated
here is a skillful blend of artistry and applied science,
achievable through patient, persistent collaboration between

applications-oriented social scientists and theory-oriented

206
communication practitioners. The unprecedented success of
the "Sesame Street" television series is cited as one example
of the kind of behavioral change leverage which can be gen-
erated when competent researchers, artists, communication
practitioners and content specialists come together in the
right kind of relationships, using an appropriate design
procedure and are provided the needed resources.

Another concept which has Shaped the development of
the design procedure set forth herein is that of "problem-
solving communication." AS a result of this study we hold
that the designer of persuasive communication materials
gains valuable insight into his task and increased behavioral
change leverage by looking upon his task as "full blown"
problem solving. Proceeding from such a viewpoint the
designer can get an unusually clear perspective of his assign-
ment by asking and finding answers to this basic question:
Given a certain problem situation, What kinds of message-
induced behavioral changes on the part of persons contribut-
ing to the Situation will help solve or ameliorate this par—
ticular problem? The analysis which answering this question
entails gives the designer a meaningful context for his labors.
It indicates to him that his initial task is to identify
the "people" behaviors (or non-behaviors) which are contrib-

uting to the problem and which must be altered in a certain

207
way if improvement in the problem situation is to be achieved.
A precise definition of the problem behaviors (or absence of
desirable behaviors) is crucial because these are the only
causitive or contributive factors which communicated mes-
sages can in any way influence. And, it is particularly with
the problem description and diagnosis task that the problem
solving communicator can profit so much from the scientific
method and the products of scholarship.

The investigative methods used by the present invest-
igator in carrying-out this study are several. Because the
study centers on a problem which has been subjected to little
prior study, some elements of the descriptive mehtod were
used to determine the current state-of-the-art relative
to persuasive message design. It also utilized the historical-
critical method to the degree that it probed both ancient and
recent attempts Of communicators and scholars to evolve pro-
cedures for achieving effective persuasive communication.

It has critiqued the adequacy of the formulations of these
pioneer theorists and practitioners relative to the magnitude
of today's social communication task. To a degree it is a
creative study in that the investigator has attempted to syn-
thesize and proceduralize a host of scattered methodological
bits and pieces drawn from other investigator's good works.

It has also involved inventing the missing components needed

208

for a total social-problems-oriented communication system
having a rationale for develOping strong behavioral change
power as its chief facilitating mechanism. It is a cre-
ative work, too, in that it has involved the develOpment of
an expansive set of original message design worksheets (see
Appendix) through which the design procedure is operational-
ized and which provide an organized pattern for recording,
organizing, refining in meaningful form--for retrieval at
the appropriate time—-the considerable data which the exten-
sive fact-finding and analytic activities called for in this
design procedure will generate.

In the final analysis, however, this must be considered
a hypothesis-generating study. The end product is nothing
more nor less than a method for use by persuasive communi-
cators in solving social problems which is hypothesized to be
better than other methods currently in use. Hopefully the
method espoused here is sufficiently grounded in sound theory
and principle--plus good common sense or "conventional wis-
dom"--that its premises will be proven valid when the method

is tried out and refined in practice.

Conclusions and Recommendations
While this study has emphasized the develOpment of

methodology rather than exploration of message effects, there

209
have nevertheless emerged from this investigator's struggles
some conclusions and concomitant recommendations for further
exploration and study. Incorporated in them is an indica-
tion of what the investigator feels are the limitations
of the procedure he has developed, followed by suggestions
as to what might be done to strengthen them. Consideration
is also given to constraints which might be encountered by
those communication practitioners who might be inclined to
utilize the procedure in undertaking their more challenging
assignments.

It will be plain to anyone who has read--or even so
much as scanned--this manuscript that the design procedure
set forth here is complex, eXhaustive (maYbe, even a little
exhausting) in scOpe, and rigorous in the demands it imposes
upon the user. We can only say to this that--as indicated
in the Opening chapter--the procedure is intended for use
in helping to solve complex, multi-faceted, previously un-
yielding, problems Of society. Logic will suggest that it
is wishful thinking to fancy we can solve these kinds of
problems with methodologically weak and oversimplified
tools. Also, the person trained in a technical discipline--
one who has used systems analysis and other analytical
tools in their most sophisticated forms--may feel that

the procedure advocated here is oversimplified. Others, not

210
so experienced in dealing with technical complexity may feel
a little overwhelmed by it all. The resolution of this
dilemma will be found in a willingness of users at both ends
of the continuum of sophistication to strive to adjust up-
ward or downward as the demands of the particular problem
may require, resisting the temptation to oversimplify.

It is Obvious, too, that the design approach advo-
cated here will require more manpower and other resources
than are typically available for problem-solving communica-
tion. It was obvious from the outset that "full blown" use
of the procedure, i.e., working in depth through all the
stages of investigation and analysis outlined, may have to
be limited to those instances in which an extraordinary
effort is demanded in reSponse to extraordinarily menacing
problems. Financing and lead—time requirements, teams of
talented and experienced performers and production personnel
on a par with what has been channeled into the "Sesame Street"
project represents an ideal toward which we must strive.

It will be futile for us to continue our frantic efforts to
suppress or allay the symptoms only. If communicators are

to make a perceivable contribution to solution of social
conflicts, of the social and economic inequities which gen-
erate them, the environmental hazards, etc., which are fester-

ing and enlarging all around us they must be willing to

211
sweep broadly and probe deeply enough to identify root
causes, then to bring the full weight to bear on solutions
widely subscribed to and supported by all parties. Hasty
program development efforts, "slick" production, glib
oversimplifications and good intentions are no longer
enough. Recourse to the more powerful and viable methodol-
ogies, whether the one attempted in the study or others more
sophisticated or appropriate, appear to be a "must."

One of the contentions of this report is that in
contemplating behavioral changes among people it is helpful
to View them as an independent component in a large human
system--as part of a matrix of relationships, practices,
values, ideas and the like. It is important to recognize
that the individual is in some ways Similar and in other
ways dissimilar to his fellow human beings, but that the
system does much to Shape his values, his interests, his
tastes and the like. One option in attempting to change
a person's problem behaviors--or, at least, his dispositions
to change, is to get him to expose himself to a persuasive
message which appeals to his reason, his emotions and other
wellsprings of his behavior as a unique individual. Mes—
sages designed to promote ameliorative change must focus on
individuals, but it is equally important to realize that

good intentions which may be aroused and inclinations toward

212
change may be confounded by myriads of influences converging
upon him from the system. However, relative to a persuasion
effort the influence of the system and the environment in
which it functions can be either inhibiting or reinforcing.
Thus, high yield from a persuasive message may, in the end,
he more dependent upon the problem solver's ability to ex-
ploit the reinforcing power of some manipulable part of the
system than from the message itself. What we are saying here
is that small yield from a single message or a sustained mes-
sage campaign can almost be assured with the communicator
acting by himself unmindful of and unlinked to the organi-
zed groups of people and the institutions of society which
exercise such an influence over the course of people's lives.
Changes of the magnitude required to solve our most difficult
problems can best be achieved by developing the most powerful
kind of persuasive messages the designer is capable of, but
in the context of the total real-world situation which influ-
ences the members of the target audience for that message,
utilizing the sustaining power of apprOpriate facilitating
institutions or programs. The designer should remember the
near fact-of-life that the absence of the right kind of linkage
of the persuasive effort to the right kind of post exposure
facilitating mechanism--either existing or specially created

for the intended purpose--may be the single most devastating

213
deterrent to persuasion-based change on the part of indi-
viduals.

One of the most potentially useful products of this
study is the set of design worksheets (see Appendix) deve1-
Oped as a means of Operationalizing the message development
procedure and the design concepts which undergird it. These
worksheets incorporate the essentials Of the total design
process, but also attempt to assist the user with the always
troublesome clerical aspect of an ambitious design effort.
This help comes in the form of Open Space in which to record
raw data, problem diagnoses, notations on alternative per-
suasive strategies, ideas for supporting arguments, appeals
and the like, plus, hopefully, the means for systematically
analyzing, refining, transforming and storing these vital
resources for retrieval as called for in the design process.
But, although the worksheet approach developed in this study
may be unique and useful in some ways, and, although the
worksheets may enable the designer to make a wider, deeper
exploration of the design possibilities, it has limitations.
For one thing, it represents only one way of putting a set
of worksheets together; experimentation with alternative
constructions is certainly needed. Also, despite their
number and their complexity, they represent a compromise

relative to the number of design factors and message variables

214
which it tries to encompass. Nearly a hundred design vari-
ables alone were identified as the project proceeded, but
it was possible to encompass in these worksheets only a
selection Of those considered to be most crucial and viable
for this particular problem—solving communication approach.
The pattern holds for the organizational functions, the
systems components, the input-output factors, the audience
characteristics, the occasion, place and other environmental
variables and the like. There are mechanical and organiza-
tional defects in the worksheets too. Some result from the
limits of working on a paper surface in two dimensions
rather than three as would have been desirable in trying
to interrelate the differing categories of variables. The
logic and phraseology of the worksheet headings and instruc-
tions may not be the best. The requirements of fitting every-
thing intO the eight and one-half by eleven inch format
of the report imposed limits in this regard.

It is expected that the user will expand the work-
sheets and the heading-explanatory materials out on extra-
large sheets Of paper in preparing working versions, leaving
a good deal of Open space for entries. The keynote here
should be "think big" and "open up." As worksheets are
completed the designer may find it useful to display each

in turn on a large bulletin board or wall in order that they

215
will be in easy view as the designer needs them to keep
his perspective, plus easy access to the data as he proceeds
through the various stages of message and overall strategy
development.

It has also Occurred to this investigator that a
set of worksheets already filled out with entries from a
previous realdworld design effort would be helpful to the
user coming to the worksheets for the first time to help
in visualizing the intent of the headings and legend, plus
the kinds of entries other users have found feasible and
useful. To provide this and other kinds of specimen mate-
rials would probably be a useful extension Of the present
study.

AS mentioned above, one of the greatest challenges--
and at the same time, one of the greatest sources of design
power--the message designer faces is that of identifying and
properly manipulating the wide range of variables known to
be operating in every design situation. Part Of the problem
lies in the fact that the communication and behavioral science
researchers have had difficulty in agreeing upon and codifying
those commonplace variables which operate in nearly every sit-
uation. Then there are the unique variables which appear to
be operating in different communication settings, each of

which is unique in some ways. Also, as indicated above,

216
one Of the acknowledged weaknesses of the present work is
the limited capacity the procedure has for accommodating
and adequately accounting for all that were presumed to
be relevant but which had to be set aside. It would appear,
as a result, that another logical extension of the present
study--and others like it--would be to concentrate a good
deal of research on identifying and learning how to con-
trol and manipulate relevant design variables. Additional
controlled variation experiments such as those referred to
elsewhere in this report and advocated by many authorities
in the field should be a high priority concern of all prac—
ticing researchers and communicators.

Another limitation upon the usefulness of the present
methodology is the fact that what is advocated here is essen-
tially hypothetical. Though what has been incorporated in
the procedure may make logical sense, is backed in many of
its dimensions by respected authority and the findings of
experimental research--and although the originator's prior
background and experience suggest that the procedure will
work--this will not be a completely reliable project until
it is tried out in practice. An Obviously needed extension
of the present study is a series of field trials in which
the procedure is utilized in attacking genuine real-world

problems and the methodology then being adjusted, refined

217
or even rejected as it fails to live up to expectations.
Some pilot application would be particularly valuable in
detecting and correcting logical, mechanical and other
limitations of the worksheets which comprise the real
essence of the work.

It should be noted here that a possibility for improv-
ing message effectiveness not considered is the idea of pre-
paring alternative pilot versions of the same basic message
prepared for a given target audience. Each version could
incorporate, relative to the original design, variations
planned in strategy and content. Using an experimental
evaluation procedure in which alternate versions would be
bested on equivalent control and experimental groups, it
might be possible to learn, prior to "finished" production,
which of the several treatments would be likely to produce
the strongest effects upon the greatest number of people
in the target audience. This is a procedure which increases
costs and extends development lead-time, but it, too, is
a procedure used selectively by the producers of "Sesame
Street" to generate the highest possible attention attracting
and holding appeal and behavioral change potency for their
productions.

Out of this kind of activity--conducted on a sustained,

large scale basis--could also come badly needed knowledge

218
about the control and manipulation of message variables
referred to above. From such knowledge might come the
long desired abilityto achieve predictably strong message
effects of the desired kind without the necessity of expen-
sive and time-consuming alternative versions and empirical
validation activities in the field or laboratory.

One of the crucial needs for achieving effective
message designs is reliable knowledge as to what kind of
program content will capture and sustain the interests of
peOple of varying ages, ethnic background, educational
level, sociO-economic status and the like. Much research
has been conducted--even a good deal of replication of re-
search studies to verify initial findings--re1ative to this
challenge. But, these findings are woefully scattered
through the voluminous literature of the communication arts
and behavioral science disciplines and have not been ade-
quately translated for use in communication practice. The
most complete and useable compilations are those prepared
for the advertising, merchandising fields, but much of this
knowledge is held back to enhance the compiler's compet-
ative advantage in behalf of commercial clients. Even less
help is available with this problem for the developers
of serious program length messages. The Children"s Television

Workshop people in their production of the "Sesame Street"

219

television series are finding out a good deal about appeals,
attention Span, instructional Showmanship and the like as
it relates to children. Much additional work can and must
be done relative to the other age levels. The cruciality
of extended research in this area is suggested by this pas-
sage copied into the notes of the present investigator so
many years ago that he has forgotten the source:

Nothing is more unassimilable nor less

inviting than gratuitous information or plead-

ings unrelated to needs or wants. Nothing is

more easily assimilated and gratefully received

than needed, wanted information accompanied by

non-patronizing counsel.

This suggests a need for the designer to struggle
to learn about people, what their common "yearnings and
searchings" are and how he can link these motivations and
the purposes Of his message as common strivings. He ought,
also, to labor with the behavioral scientists whose province
it is to validate and consolidate the needed bodies of theory
and principle for such accommodation.

The final conclusion is closely related to the
previous one. This has to do with the whole area of research
and the generation Of theories, hypotheses, process models,
etc., which relate to human communication. One of the common

assumptions of mass media practitioners has been that there

is hardly enough good theory and principle in the literature

220
to make it worth the trouble to search it out. In fact the
prevailing opinion among both the practitioner and the
patrons of the mass media has been that introduction of
such thinking is a deterrent--a "yoke of oppression" to be
avoided at all cost. This stems from the experience of
some in finding that a presentation conceived by people
who deal in theory can be counted on to be so dull, ponder-
ous and academic that only a small handful of ponderous,
dull and academic people will ever be induced to labor through
it. But this view of scholars and what they can contribute
appears to be softening some, thanks to successes such as
"Sesame Street." Communication practitioners are gradually
becoming aware that there is hardly a problem of communication
around which there has not developed some theory and prin—
ciple which enable social scientists to contribute some clar-
ification. There is also growing impetus for trying to bridge
the gap between researchers and practitioners with a "new
breed" of specialist-—a person with one foot in the research
and theory domain of the communication arts and behavioral
sciences and the other in the domain of the practitioner.
His role would be chiefly that Of a snythesizer, translator,
and applier of theoretical knowledge in communication prac-
tice. He would take the lead in a movement to either validate

or invalidate old assumptions and old models. He would also

221
try to work on the leading edge of new developments, per-
forming the same function. In his middle—man role he would
labor with administrative and production people in the media
fields in trying to help them see the value of their doing
something based in theory and research. At the same time
he would labor with the researchers whose outputs have sel-
dom in the past deserved serious consideration by the prac-
titioners. In the perspective of the present study it may
not be too far—fetched to envision the message designer ful-
filling that gap-bridging function.

In closing it should again be noted that each of the
steps in the design procedure articulated here could be con-
sidered a problem for in-depth study. Hence, the present
investigation has had to be largely an exploratory mapping
of a rather vast and imposing territory-~much of it virgin
to the majority of mass media practitioners. As we have
proceeded, each thrust into new territory has opened new
complexities and ambiguities. This study, therefore, is
only a start, an introduction, a foundation upon which to
build.
/ The investigation began with the assumption that high
yield problem solving communication will not come automat-

ically from the increasingly more sophisticated electro-

mechanical communication devices with their almost

222
unbelievable stimulus delivery capacities. It will come
rather through the development of less standard, more novel,
more sweeping, and more all-encompassing program develop-
ment procedures and production techniques emerging but not
yet validated for wide general use. In these innovations
there is a new wave of hope which appears to have gained
its impetus from the success of "Sesame Street" with its
systematized research-based Operational procedure and from
the persistence of its designers in searching for design
alternatives-—new ways to avoid tradition-bound, piece-meal
attempts to solve massive, previously unyielding national
problems.

Following their lead, this investigator has attempted
to develop an alternative procedure--this for a different
class of problems involving different populations. In
short, it purports to be a less intuitive, more rational,
more disciplined and more comprehensive method for bringing
appropriate message resources to bear on the achievement Of
a given set of social problem solving objectives than has

been available heretofore.

SE LECTED BI BLIOGRAPHY

SE LECTED BI BLIOGRAPHY

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the Production of Multi-Channel Communication Messages."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Speech
and Dramatic Arts, Brigham Young University, 1971.

236

Palmer, Edward L. "The Formative Research Phase of Children's
Television Workshop." Unpublished working paper. New
York, Children's Television Workshop, October 14, 1968.
(Mimeographed.)

Letter from Dr. Edward L. Palmer, Director of Research,
Children's Television Workshop, New York City, N. Y.,
July 29, 1969. (Typewritten.)

Letter from Dr. Edward L. Palmer, Vice President and Director
Of Research, Children's Television WOrkshop, New York
City, June 22, 1970. (Typewritten.)

Plummer, Joseph T. "A Systematic Research Approach to
Television Program Development." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Ohio State University, 1967.

Reeder, William. "An Outline for Analyzing Organizations."
Unpublished working paper, Ithaca, NeW'York, Cornell
University, Department of Rural Sociology, 1968.
(Mimeographed.)

. "Simplifying the Study of Organizational Behavior."
Unpublished working paper, Ithaca, New York, Cornell
University, Department of Rural Sociology, 1969.
(Mimeographed.)

. "Summary of Research and a Bibliography Relevant
to a Theory of Beliefs, Disbeliefs and Social Action."
Unpublished working paper, Ithaca, New York, Cornell
University, Department of Rural Sociology, 1969.
(Mimeographed.)

Schlater, Robert W. "Effect of Speed on Presentation and
Irrelevant Cues on Recall of Television Messages."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Commun—
ication Arts, Michigan State University, 1966.

Schneider, Carol. "Tactics of Persuasion: A Conceptual and
Experimental Approach." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of California, 1965.

Sibbett, Kent H. "An Exploratory Investigation Of Television
Commercial Pretesting Practices." Unpublished Master's
thesis, Department of Communication, Brigham Young
University, 1967.

 

237

Westley, Bruce H. "The Functions of Public Communication in

Wood,

the Process of Social Change." Paper prepared for AID-
MSU Seminar on Communication and Change, Michigan State
University, April 4-7, 1966. (Mimeographed.)

James A. "An Application of Rhetorical Theory to
Filmic Persuasion." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Cornell University, 1967.

Yarbrough, James. "A Model for Analysis of Receiver Responses

to Communication," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Iowa State University, 1968.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

MESSAGE DESIGN WORKSHEETS

.238

Step I. Project Description and Organizational Analysis

Worksheet #l-A. Gathering Basic Descriptive Data

 

 

Project Title Initiatory
or Description Date
Requested 0r Initiator's
Initiated by Phone NO.

 

 

Impetus for this Project: [:3 Organization dictated--requested by higher authority

[:1 Job dictated--inherrent in job assignment

C] Self dictated--initiative on part of initiator

[:] Client dictated-~initiative on part of client
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM--What is the problem you have been asked

to help solve? What is the undesired condition or state-of-affairs consti-
tuting the problem?

What are the consequences of the problem being present? What effect is the
problem having on the effective functioning of the total enterprise or activity?

What will be the likely consequences if the problem is not effectively dealt
with, i.e., how serious is the problem? In what way is it serious?

LOCUS OF THE PROBLEM--Where in the organization (what department, division or
sector) does the problem appear to be centered?

Does the problem appear to be pretty much confined to this area or does it
appear to extend through several? If several, what are they?

HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM--Have there been prior occurances of the
problem or is it a new one? Describe.

If it is an old or recurring problem, are there any new twists or novel aspects
not noted before? Does it seem to be worsening with each recurrence?

What prior attempts have been made to deal with the problem, if any?

2329

#IA, page 2.

5.

What were the outcomes of prior attempts, i.e., what successes and failures
ensued?

What can be learned from prior attempts which might help with the present one,
i.e., what obstacles were encountered, what limitations or weaknesses Of method
or approach, what resource limitations and the like?

OCCASION FOR THE PRESENT PROBLEM-SOLVING EFFORT--What events, incidents, cir-
cumstances or occurances appear to have precipitated this problem-solving
effort? What specific "happening" (or set of happenings) triggered consider-
ation Of the problem at this time?

 

What are the key factors--the really important ones--which justify this project
at this time?

 

What priority should this effort have (or does it have) compared to other
in-progress or pending problem-solving projects?

SUMMARY--In a few words, what is the pure essence of the task you are to under-
take in the investigation, i.e., what are you expected to accomplish?

What title for the project seems to be appropriate?

What appears at this time to be the organizational unit or set of units in
which the study should be centered, i.e., what appears to be the logical
target system?

24f)

 

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241.

 

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a mummuo Ou .uomsaouH>Cm Hanumuxm
Ora mucosamaa Ou pmcwwmop mawuwoud

 

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30C ma SOwuossm roars CH
sesame mo SOHuaHuomoQ

 

ofibwmsoaoou mausmu
nuso Beaumonbsm no pas:
apoofiumuwawmuo mo msmz

amummm
Emummm Ca Ca poo
.poflm«> uoz.poauuoo soz

 

 

 

 

 

 

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macauwnaawwuo Hamomwo

 

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on. )diad d: 4“.

 

242

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chofiumnaaowuo Op maowuwumao Buomsoo
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paw maoumoum moauooHo>m .wawuooam

use .ooamaaao>uamuufiouusoo muwamod .wH

 

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moausopafluuuaoBmOHw>oa paw noummmom .pH

 

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243

 

 

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wsadsouwunmwaumonmn psmxwawnanmwuo

 

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.mumpuo waHSmmu .xuoa wowfibmuoswu uo
wCAHSpmrom .mmsfiuupwoa wowumHsOHmuuu
immacuuwdman pow woAHSpmromxdw=HumsHumm

 

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uuomugp Hwow paw >0flH0d cu msowumumeo
wswauomsoouuwowuumuwm pom wwwafiouucou

 

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.mawow mCH>mwruw you nomad

paw macaw so magpwuop paw wdauuaaauOH
unonOSOEowmaH pSMHmmauummuamoo

 

 

 

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assume no COHuaauomOQ HmCOADuNHComHO mo 08oz

uso poauumo wagon

 

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mwuuwo 3oz

 

 

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244

 

 

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Ou hummmmoma poammp wmoruIImOOH>umm

quQQOm Horuo pom Hmoaumao,aamap0um=o

 

 

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muonaoa monomxuos dam: Ou pwswfimwp
maouwoua umruo paw muamoomb mmhoHa

use .aowuwuum«SHapw muwfiwm paw owes
numuamosmm pom mmoa>aom Hossomumm

 

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sesame mo SOaumfiuommn Hocowuwuacmwuo mo msmz mfibfimw> uoz Omuumo Boz

 

 

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acofiuwnwsmwuo Hommmwo

 

nusm as “so pmauuwu SHHwOHmNH mSOwuqum

 

 

.n omen .nuae

 

 

4245

Worksheet #I-C. Analyzing and Modeling the Total System

 

On this worksheet we attempt to identify the administrative or supervisory units
which make up the organization (departments, divisions, etc.). We try to identify
what Operational functions are grouped in what units, plus the inputs into the orga-
nization and the outputs therefrom. These attributes of the system and its Operating
environment are depicted or represented in a system model diagram from which we can
get a clear conception of the structure and processes, but also the dynamic Operation-
al characteristics of the system, the interdependency relationships between parts of
the system and critical areas of function in which problems may be present.

 

 

1. What are the organizational or supervisory units and what functions are encom-
passed?

 

Names Of departments or divisions Functions carried in each organizational unit
(sub—systems) comprising the target or sub-system of the target system. DRAW FROM
organization or system. WORKSHEET #I-B.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

246
Worksheet #I-C, Page 2

2. What are the primary inputs from the outside world (the supra-system) into the

target system? SEE ATTACHED SPECIMEN MODEL FOR LIST OF TYPICAL INPUTS.

What are the secondary inputs into the target system, i.e., those forces, factors,
material substances, etc., from the external world (supra-system) which inter-
cede, interrupt, or in other ways influence the internal functioning of the tar-
get system? SEE SPECIMEN MODEL FOR LIST OF TYPICAL INPUTS OF THIS TYPE.

4. What are the primary outputs from the target system into the external world (the

supra-system) and the external environment? SEE SPECIMEN MODEL FOR SUGGESTIONS.

5. What are the secondaryloutputs from the target system into the external world

and the external environment? SEE SPECIMEN MODEL FOR SUGGESTIONS.

What do these attributes of the system look like in model form, especially the
inputs and outputs, the organizational units which deal with them and the inter-
relationships which exist among these components Of the system in order for it
to function in accordance with system goals? IDENTIFY AND LABEL ON THE DIAGRAM
0R.MODEL--INDICATE INTERRELATIONSHIPS WITH SOLID ARROWS T0 INDICATE DIRECT

PROCESSING OR PRODUCTION FLOW, DASHED ARROWS TO INDICATE WORKING OR SERVICE
RELATIONSHIPS. ADAPT SPECIMEN DIAGRAM AS NEEDED.

247

POTENTIAL PROBLEM AREAS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Typical Manpower or "People" Variables

--Overa11 job competence

--Match between job competence and job
requirements

--Ego needs, desires and wants

--Job satisfaction and morale

--0rientation to job requirements and
level of motivation

--Know1edge and appreciation of orga-
nizational and departmental goals

--Union memberships and strength of
commitments to union goals

--P1anning ability

--Role and status conflicts and ambi-
guities

--Reference group affiliations

--Other formal and informal group mem-
berships

--Attitudes, beliefs, feelings, action
dispositions toward organization and
job

--Absenteeism and tardiness

--Job turnover history

--Attitudes and loyalties to minority
groups

--Accidents and injuries

--Sickness and sick leave use patterns

--Cynacism and fatalism tendencies

--Interpersona1 relationships on-the-job

--Interpersona1 relationships off-the-job

--Theft and embezzlement
--0bstructionism

--Matching of man to machine and man-machine
relationships

--Wage and salary equity

--Desire for creative outlet in job

--Communication habits and abilities

--Overa11 physical health

--0vera11 mental health

--Loya1ties within the organization

--Competing loyalties

--Enthusiasm and optimism level

--Honesty and integrity

--Skill in laying-out and organizing work

--Flexibility and adaptibility

--Ethnic and cultural background

--Patriotic feelings and loyalties

--Military and draft status

--Re1igious loyalties and commitments

--Educationa1 attainment and literacy level

--Overall level of aspirations

--Degree to which aspirations include con-
tinued affiliation with the organization

--Desire for further school and training

--Job satisfaction

--Compensating off-the-job satisfactions

--Militancy and dogmatism level

--Lawabidingness tendencies

--Overall socio-economic status

--Innovativeness

--Cosmopoliteness

--Persona1 Off-the-job problems

--Vandalism, destructive neglect and
sabotage

Typical Organizational or Administrative Variables

--(A11 organization functions listed
on prior "functional analysis" work-
sheet)

--Current profit/loss status

--Overa11 profit/loss history

--Competative position

--Qua1ity control provisions and cor-
rective feedback mechanisms

--Bonus plans and profit-sharing

--Informa1 communication networks

--Formal communication networks

--Organization size and growth trends

--Job descriptions and performance stan-
dards

--Entertainment and social programs

—-Holidays and special leaves

--Type of organization plan in current use

--Leadership and supervisory styles

--0verall productivity and efficiency of
operations

--Current indebtedness

--Personne1 policies and advancement patterns

--Grievance handling procedures

--Wage and salary administration

--Employee fringe benefits

--Employee suggestion systems and management
responsiveness in acting

--Hiring and separation policies and procedures

--Policy and procedures guides or manuals

--Disciplinary and corrective procedures

--Vacation policy and flexibility

--Shift work rotation plan and seniorityplan

.248

()rganization Variables, Continued

--Stockholder or board member control

'--Goal mismatch and goal ambiguity

--Resource allocation procedures

'--Advertising and promotional effect-
iveness

--Pricing, fee schedules, terms of sale,
dues payment schedules and related

--Sales and merchandising effectiveness

--Membership drives and retention programs

Typical Resource Variables

Manpower or Personnel

‘--Overall adequacy (quality and quantity)

--Recruitment and induction proced-
ures

'--Orientation and training programs

‘--Competative position in manpower
market

--Stability and mobility of workforce

‘--F1exibility and adaptability of
workforce

--Covertability (retraining and
reassignment potential)

--Manpower versality

rdaterials and Supplies

--Overall adequacy (quantity and quality)

--Adequacy and responsiveness of inven-
tory controls

--Availability and accessability

--Return and exchange policy

--Workplace adjacency and availability

--Quality controls and delivery accept-
ance

--Special order and expeditive procedures

--Market surveillance and diffusion of
availability data on new products

Finances and Credits

--Overa11 adequacy

--Allocation and control procedures
--Flexib111ty vs rigidity of allocation
"Adaptibility to change

"Liquidity and availability
--Interest and discount rates
--Pr0duetivity of surplus investments
--ReS€I‘Ves and contingency allocations

Facilities and Equipment

--Overall adequacy (quality and quantity)

--Ammortization and replacement schedules

--Rates of obscelescence

--Availability and accessibility

--Arrangement and Placement

--Utilization patterns and "loading"
factors

--Accessibility for inspection and main-
tenance

--Responsiveness and adequacy of repair
and maintenance

--Extent and quality of preventive main-
tenance

--Space allocation and utilization poli-
cies and patterns

--Portability of equipment and components

--Adequacy, cost and reliability of energy
and power source

--Adequacy, cost, and reliability of other
utility services

--Adequacy of custodial and janitorial
services

--Securitive and protective measures

"Software" Resources Lnew ideas, new
knowledge, new designs, inventions, etc.)

--Sc0pe and productiveness of research
and develOpment programs

--Overa11 productivity of idea, knowledge
and innovation generating programs
and activities

--Productivity of creative and develop-
ment people

--Productivity of workforce generally

--Incentive programs of innovativeness

--Security and protection programs and
precautions

--Surveillance and monitoring of outside
sources

--Data storage, retrieval and use systems
and procedures

249

Typical Environmental Variables

--d&road, as well as specific, societal --Overall psychological climate and specific
ixnperatives psychic influences

--(}verall ecological climate and spe- —-Public opinion and other responses to
(:ific physical environmental factors organization presence

--()verall politico-economic climate --Regulatory and tax climate

--ldoney-market sentiment and Optimism- --Overall competative picture and expansion-
‘pessimism factors retrenchment pressures

--<30ngressiona1 and legislative climate --Ideological, moral and ethical trends and

--4Jnion and guild militancy and overall influences
‘bargaining climate --National and international tensions and

--fi[nflationary-deflationary pressures the climate generated by it

 

250

Worksheet #I-C,4page 3.

 

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amanonm on» wanwwamn< can wanhmnuame .HH mmum

 

 

(continuation of #II-A through E)

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.ooo .omoooon umwoon moomoo
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meOHuoHom ofinnmmoa wcnuoH55nom no conuonom ouooooom no on on on ononu ucoaunmmoo wnu nonnz dom: muaw

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mannmmom so munEnA no moonnonnumwm .m uuofiom mnOuommwnumm m now mucwswnnmvom .o

 

 

 

 

252
(continued next page)

mnouomm

:oanSHHo: nonuo pan ononnm .HonouHDo
«Hmowmmam .Hoononoown .Hmonononoama
.Honooo ozuuupouofiom mafiouooaoonn>om

 

.oum .oonmn>nomom .Honnowmnma
.m>nnmnumnanavo wanwofioon .maonwona
.maonnonoao .monun>nuoo mo swoon gnaw
mannnomuoaom connonnomdeVooonumnooo

 

Boommm nownou moo Bonn monouoo
no mnnomxo mannwoouan woo mannwomu
mo owaon anon onuuuomuonom uoauoo

 

Eoum>m man wannmuoo ..ouo .mmoon
.mooco5~mon .oooooumnoo .mnonnmu
use no swoon Hana onusuoouoaom nomoH

 

nofiuoguuoo Enownoo on ono ofiaoon
mxoou o:n::mouonmypoh no nonuoooh

 

 

 

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ans<m < m>mHmu< OH nmmmmz mH mwz<mo
mops 3cm mn<ono2n namnnona nocmnunn

now mnnn on conuonom monsoowo no anon
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zoom suns conuooacoo on owcono mo

 

omnwov nozzwnoovooz uwoonu mo oonmom

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mmoH><mmm mamomm mmezm wmononononmop man
a: nomHo cu cocoon on On noommo mamoom

mo moanx pass on mwmnoao woodmannaonuoo
.naoaaoo mo oven: nona .monooononmoo HoaOnn
sonny Honoono man wanuhaoco oHuumamHnonm

 

 

 

 

 

 

:owmoom: onan oouwfimoona monocononmon

 

zoqmm ozHa<mm mH<Hmmommm< mmnz: mmzo
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unomono on woman oaoonm so: was ¢uHH*
noosmxnoz no oonmnuaoon monocononmoo
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mama on om oommono oonodononmom nofimzl

 

 

 

monoawnonwmn :waaoom: OucH connoasm mo monocmnonmmn manumamcona

.<-nnn§ somamxnoz

 

mGOHuSHom pmmomuGOnnwoncsseou mannomom wannopnmcou

.nnn omum

 

(continuation of III-A)

 

 

 

wunommo wonoopanuomnmso o no ononm
nomos o znnoo cu omnmnanonmo on
unwne mamnoonooe nonuo no moonuouno
umwno .oEonwona .monocomo wonoooon
sowooso Hooonunooo nonzunmoonoomom

 

 

managean-wwaago nmaonunuc< ememmz

 

wfl.ouoxdmwoosom .monocowo wanonmnu

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monumnxm uwszuumoonosunumon :wonumnomz:

 

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.zoqmm HmHA

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.mumwnonan amnwfiwm .moonvsnonm .oooou
unuum .mwonfion .mmnoowoamu noes: noanu
owdozo non0n>onmm 0n muomanvooEH nnmxng

 

 

 

253

 

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.snns nHmoo ono annono osn mo mnooo

 

 

 

 

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n.

 

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unwoo nownon .Hoonsonooo
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on hos moan nosn nOano

an hannononmmoo mononononm
loo o>on Amoononooounomv
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.255

Worksheet #IV-B
Breaking General Objectives Down Into Attackable Sub-Objectives

 

As preparation for completing this worksheet, reexamine the general objectives spec-
ified for those target audiences toward which the present design effort is to be direct-
ed. On scratch paper rework, refine or restate those objectives entered on Worksheet
III-B which, on reexamination, appear feasible and important enought that they should

be pursued in design activity at this time. Be sure to include important new purposes
‘which may have emerged in the interim. In the refining process, be sure that each stated
ment is an indication of what you would like the audience members to be like as a result
of exposure to the completed message. Enter each of the new and/or reworked objective
statements on a separate #IV-B Worksheet (this one) for breakdown into smaller, more
"attackable" sub-objectives. Then proceed to break the general Objectives into their
cognitive, affective and psychomotor components as called for below. REMEMBER: COM-
PLETE A SEPARATE #IV-B WORKSHEET FOR EACH GENERAL OBJECTIVE FOR EACH TARGET AUDIENCE.

 

 

Target Audience This Sheet Applies To:

 

Reworked Objective # (NUMBER AND STATE A SINGLE GENERAL OBJECTIVE BELOW):

Sub-Objectives Relating to the Above General Objective--What set of sub-Objectives
will, if achieved, result in achievement of the broader general objective above? What
sub-objectives of what type--relative to the categories below-~must be achieved to
result in achievement of the message-induced outcomes implicit in the general objec-
tive statement?

1. Cognitive Sub-Objectives--Specifications as to what units of information or know-
ledge each audience member should receive and comprehend; concepts and principles
each should understand and be able to apply as a result of exposure to the message.

 

2. Affective Sub-Objectives--Specifications as to what attitudes, feelings, beliefs-
disbeliefs, action dispositions, etc., which audience members should have follow-
ing exposure to the message.

 

3. Psychomotor Sub-Objectives (if applicable)--Specifications as to what manual
skills, physical dexterity or manipulative capabilities audience members should
acquire as a result of exposure to the message.

256

Worksheet #IV-C
Analyzing Audience Characteristics and Situational Factors

TARGET AUDIENCE: PROBLEM:

 

 

As the magnitude of the problem and the circumstances may dictate, get to know the tar-
get audience using the checklist of characteristics and factors such as those in the
lefthand column below. Prior activities will provide the data needed in making some
entries in the righthand column. Further investigation--some of it by formal quanti-
tative survey methods--may be required for others. In either case enter such data as
will be useful when it comes time for identifying and choosing message resources and
rendering design decisions. Give special attention to the inference-drawing

questions on the last page.

 

Some Audience Characteristics and Specific Facts About Members of This Audience
Questions Which Might Be Asked Which Might Be Important In Rendering Design
Decisions

 

 

Demographic Characteristics--those
essentially factual in nature.

 

1. Age of members--range of ages,
average and median ages

2. Sex of members-- % male, % female

3. Educational attainment--highest
degree attained, total years in
school, honors received

4. Major and minor fields of study--
Z by field and degree of recent
activity

5. Occupation of members--% each
category, length of service,
position on promotion ladder,
happiness or unhappiness with
present status

6. National or ethnic background--
areas represented, degree of
Americanization

7. Size of family reared in--kind
of family, closeness of family
members, current home situation

8. Place and type of residence--kind
of neighborhood and status at-
tached to it

9. Political preference and degree
of activity and allegiance

10. Reference group affiliations and
degree of activity and allegiance

 

 

 

\

 

 

 

#IV-C, Page 2.

257

 

Some Audience Characteristics and
Questions Which Might Be Asked

Specific Facts About Members Of This Audience
Which Might Be Important To Design Decisions

 

 

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

Power and influence status in
target audience and in community

Informal social or friendship
group memberships and degree of
activity

Church membership and degree of
activity and conviction

Special interests, hobbies and
other leisure or avocational
involvements

Present State—Of-the- Audience Rela-
tive to the Problem—-Cognitive or

 

ffective States Principally

 

15.

16.

17.

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

24.

25.
26.

27.

 

Awareness of organizational

roles and performance expect-
ations associated with them
(target organizations and others)

Peer relationships and degree
influenced by peers

Favorableness toward education
and training

Degree of religiosity
Optimism-Pessimism rating
Militancy rating
Law-Abidingness rating
Self-Confidence rating
Critical-Cynicism rating

Dogmatism-Authoritarianism
rating

Fair-mindedness rating
Socio-political activism rating
Life style: outer, inner or

tradition-directed as per
Reisman

 

 

 

 

 

#IV-C, Page 3.

1258

 

Some Audience Characteristics and
Questions Which Might Be Asked

Specific Facts About Members Of This Audience
Which Might Be Important To Design Decisions

 

 

28.

29.

30.

31.

CosmOpOliteness--degree to which
familiar with other cultures and
general SOphistication level in
worldly matters

Opinion leadership status in
audience group and community-at-
large

General social attitudes

Atypical psychological and
sociological factors which may
distort attitudes and feelings
on a short-run basis

Situational Factors Aside From
State-of-the Audience

 

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

 

Message distribution and deliv-
ery variables

Physical setting in which mes-
sate is to be received by audi-
ence--type and size of viewing
room, seating arrangement and
closeness to screen, room light
level, temperature control, cir-
culation of air, etc.

Time of viewing, anticipated
fatigue-level, other psycholog-
ical factors operating due to
physical circumstances

Psychological environment--
degree to which viewers are sym-
pathetic, hostile, present on
voluntary or required basis, etc.

Social climate--familiarity of
members to each other, friend-
liness of associations, etc.

Unusual, accidental, emergency
or non-typical situations and
circumstances which might affect
viewers or the viewing situation

 

 

 

 

#IV-C , Page 4.

1259

 

Some Audience Characteristics and
Questions Which Might Be Asked

Specific Facts About Members Of This Audience
Which Might Be Important To Design Decisions

 

 

 

Inferences or Conclusions Which Can
Be Drawn From Foregoing Data

38.

39.

40. What does the information you

What percentage of the audience
members can be classified as:

a. Militant non-believers, non-
cooperators or skeptics?

b. Uninformed, uncommitted
neutrals?

c. Informed, uncommitted neutrals?
d. Uninformed partisans?
e. Informed partisans?

What implications does this "mix"
have for design of the message?
Does it suggest further sub-
division of the audience, or
what?

How inherrently interested and/
or concerned will the audience be
relative to the problems and your
admonitions concerning it? Any
groupings for which special con-
tent or treatment should be made?

have about the audience suggest
be done about the following?

a. Kind and style of language?

b. The general mood or tone of
message, informal vs formal
treatment, light vs serious,
humorous or straight?

c. The number and kind of illus-
trations or examples used in
message?

d. The overall level of sophist-
ication or difficulty level
of information and concepts
presented?

 

 

 

 

#IV-C, Page 5

26C)

 

Some Audience Characteristics and
Questions Which Might Be Asked

Specific Facts About Members Of This Audience
Which Might Be Important To Design Decisions

 

 

42.

43.

44.

as.

46.

47.

 

41.

e. Degree of reliance on logical
as contrasted with emotional
or ethical appeals?

f. Need for gimmicks or other
special features or devices
for attracting and holding
attention?

g. Need for repetition and
redundancy?

Can the remedies, the sacrifices
and difficult adjustments requir-
ed of audience members be por-
trayed as serving the member's
interests as well as those of
the presenters?

What kinds and what degree of
change on the part of members can
realistically be expected in
view of these characteristics
and circumstances?

Where, in general, are the audi-
ence members now relative to
their understanding and appreci-
ation of the problem, their over-
all persuasibility and their dis-
positions to change in the desir-
ed direction?

Will the audience look upon the
subject and intent of the message
in a negative or positive light?

Are the issues to be dealt with
likely to arouse audience mem-
bers emotionally and generate
controversy?

What social, cultural, religious,
ethnic or other taboos should be
avoided?

What reference group, peer group
or opinion leadership factions
are likely to be operating to
influence members of the audience
before, during and after exposure

 

 

 

 

#IV-C, Page 6.

261.

 

Some Audience Characteristics and
Questions Which Might Be Asked

Specific Facts About Members Of This Audience
Which Might Be Important To Design Decisions

 

 

47. (continued)

 

a. What beliefs and values must
the audience members share if
they are to respond as you
hope they will?

b. Are the beliefs and values con

ventional ones for all the
audience? For a majority?
For only a minority?

c. What could happen to confound
the results if receivers do
not share these beliefs and
values?

d. Will those who react negative-
ly or passively likely influ-
ence those who are neutral or
positively disposed?

e. What is the likelihood of thos
who respond favorable working
actively to win-over those
who are neutral or negative?

What conventional beliefs,

values and ideologies are likely
to influence member's reception
of and attention to the message?

Considering all the foregoing,
what message purposes or object-
ives appear not to be achieve-
able in this particular com-
munication effort?

What factors will operate to
affect the long-range outcomes
of the communication effort?
What can be done to compensate?

What re-inforcement or follow-up
communication seems at this time
to be called for to sustain the
effects of the initial message?

v

 

 

 

 

 

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(continuation 0% IV-D)

 

 

 

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unmowmom .oooon .connosnowsw now nomncoo
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snow nosnoxwonnwomooo on monnnnnnwmmom .m

 

wowommoe mwsn wo ownmov now

.oxnn osn Ono .monnoosn .owwmoo wo mono
twoawno .monwonmnnm .monooonooo .mmoOn
owow» nswnE ..ono .mnownoaoo .oxoonnooh
.mnOnnooanso Hoonoownoo .moxowon .maow
unooHHoo onoo .mownw .mooconowon non:
uuooonoom wononnm EOnm mownwwwpwmmom .q

 

 

ii.

263

Worksheet #IV-E
Formulating the Overall Communication Strategy

TARGET AUDIENCE:

PROBLEM:

 

 

In the space provided in the righthand column enter notations indicating tentative
decisions or possibilities for the overall communication strategy you might use with
this particular audience to solve the problem. Be as analytical and searching in
your investigations as time and circumstances permit. Make your entries as specific
as they can be at this stage in order that a message can be conceived that will have
"good fit" in the total, overall communication strategy. Not all questions can be
answered affirmatively at this stage, but tentative decisions can be made subject to
later modification.

 

Common Strategy Factors--add others
which occur as you proceed

Entries Relative To These Factors, Those
Appropriate To This Design Effort

 

 

 

 

1. Multiple Goal Dilemma--What total
range of objectives and interests
should be considered in this design
and communication effort? Can the
problem-solution objectives of the

communicator be made compatible with

those of the other parties whose
interests will be affected by the
communication effort?

a.

C.

Client/Communicator's problem-
solution goals?

. Designer's goals and aspirations?

Audience member's goals, aspir-
ations and interests?

. Cooperating agencies' interests

and goals?

Competing or contending agencies'
legitimate rights and expect-
ations?

. Societal or community interests,

rights and expectations?

8- Goals and aspirations of others

‘not listed above.

 

 

 

 

264-

IV-E, Page 2.

 

Common Strategy Factors

ntries Appropriate To This Design

 

 

2.

 

Goal Priority Listing--After giving
due consideration to legitimate
interests and concerns, and after
resolving or compromising to a rea-
sonable degree conflicts of interest,
what should the goal priorities of
this communication effort be? 923
the message be made audience-center-
2g, i.e., centered in interests, need
and concerns of audience members, and
still achieve the client's problem
solution aims? If not, what further
modifications or compromises can be
made?

 

 

Number of Audience Members and How

 

. Listening-Viewing Locations--What

to Group Them--How many people will
be in the total audience? What is
their availability for showings of
the message? How might they best be
grouped and scheduled for effichancy?
Should they be grouped according to
some overriding common characteristic

with some special introductory or pre«

paratory and follow-up activities
planned for each? What special show-
ings or "make-up sessions" should be
provided to pickup absentees? Would
second exposure be desirable for some
on voluntary or planned basis?

viewing rooms, theaters, and the
like are available for showings and
which would be preferable for expo-
sure of this particular kind of mes-
sage to this particular audience or
sub-audience? What locations would
be most convenient for audience mem-
bers? Should convenience be subju-
gated to other factors such as pleas-
antness of surroundings, room light
levels, extraneous noise level, pos-
sibilities of interruptions or dis-
ruptions and the like? What space
will be needed for introductory or
follow-up activities? Which rooms
would best accommodate the playback
equipment, have best sound charact-
eristics, etc.?

 

 

 

 

265

#IV-E, Page 3.

 

Common Strategy Factors

ntries ApproPriate to This Design

 

 

5.

10.

 

. Announced Occasion or Purpose--What

Preferred Date(s) and Time(s) for
Showings--Considering all applicable
factors, what times on what kinds of
schedule would be optimal for achiev0
ing the desired pattern of exposure
to audience members?

will be the publicized purpose or
occasion for exposing the audience
to the message? Can it be done in
such a way as to develop a favor-
able climate of acceptance, even
enthusiastic acceptance?

Segmentation of Message--Considering
the available time and the running
time tolerances of the audience,
should the message be presented as
one continuous showing or should it
be broken into segments for showing
at several periods? Should breaks
be provided, even if just one con-
tinuous showing?

Basic Packaging Medium--In what
media form might the messages be
recorded (film, slides, overhead
tranSparencies, filmstrips, audio,
video recordings, et al.?) What
medium do the presentational require4
ments seem to argue for as the most
desirable in view of cost and other
constraints imposed?

Distribution and Playback/Display
System--What equipment and facil-
ities, what channel capacity, etc.,
will be needed to carry out the pro-
posed communication effort as vis-
ualized at this stage?

Appropriate Preparatory Activities--
What longer-range preparatory act-
ivities or tasks (promotion, publi-
city, interpretation and other audi-
ence build-up activities) should be
undertaken? On what kind of schedule
with what prepared materials should
it be done?

 

 

 

 

 

266

IV-E, Page 4.

 

ommon Strategy Factors

Entries Appropriate to This Design

 

 

11.

12.

13.

14.

 

Immediate Pre-Exposure Preparations

 

--What kind of introduction should
immediately precede the showing or
playback? What mood or climate
should be sought? What explanations,
ethos-building remarks, disclaimers,
etc., can be used to heighten the
ultimate impact of the message.

Immediate Post-Exposure Activities--

 

What summary remarks, interpretative
or explanatory comments should immedu
iately follow the message to sustain
or heighten the impact of the mes-
sage? What should be avoided to
help assure the message-induced im-
pact is not eroded away or weakened?

Long:Range Reinforcement or Follow-

 

up Activities--What extending or re-

 

inforcing activities, out-growth or
"sustaining" materials (message sum-
maries, checklists, digests, suggest-
ions for further investigation or
study and the like) could be provided
to heighten or exploit the impact
of the message on the audience?

 

Possible "Mediating" Mechanisms--
What provisions can be provided
(organizations, agencies or other
operating entities) which will
enable the audience members to act
on their decisions and perform the
behaviors or performances advocated
in the message? What post-showing
programs, activities or other in-
volvements are already available or
should be deliberately created to
enable the audience members to make
good on aspirations and intents
aroused by the message with minimum
delay and with fewest constraining
or discouraging influences? SEE
COLUMNS 5 AND 6 OF WORKSHEET III-A
FOR EARLIER LISTING.

 

 

 

 

 

267

IV-E, Page 5.

 

Common Strategy Factors

Entries ApprOpriate to This Design

 

 

15.

16.

P7.

 

Possible "Spin-Off" or Bonus Out-

 

comes of the Communication Effort--

 

Aside from the desired responses from
the target audience, what other
values might be derived from this
communication effort? Can the mes-
sate, with certain adaptations, be
used with other audiences, with
other organizations for either good
will or earnings? What other side
benefits or "spin-offs" might be
engendered by the communication
effort?

Possible "Dysfunctional" Outcomes--

 

What undesired and possibly damag-
ing outcome might result from this
communication effort? What pre-
cautions or counter-measures ought
to be taken to prevent this from
happening, or, at least, to minimize
such outcomes?

Feedback Provisions-~What provisions

 

or mechanisms can be developed and
used to assure evaluation feedback
from audience members and others
having vested interests in the pro-
blem-solution effort? What prov-
isions can be made for analyzing
and evaluating the feedback data,
then correcting and adjusting the
overall strategy and message design
to compensate or correct for defects
and deficiencies?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

268
(continued on next sheet)

 

wmowwononno

omonn ono>nnoo anon
coo ..ono .%Gosnnmon
nnooxo .oocoon>o wan
unnoamoo .ooownwooaona

 

.onooeowno nonzunowon

 

unonoz nnommom Hoofiwow

wwwoennm wo nnwoonnm wan
noonsmnos an awos nzwnE
.oxnw onn poo .mconnoun
awonoOow znoonn woo oman
uponw nonoooon wo moonno

Noon:
uEnnm wonnmoo wannononow
nOw ononnoonooo on newnE
connowsanow mwononno no
HopoE o>nmoononaeoo wan

 

 

uwnmaoo noszuuomeooHnm unmwxo noLBuumwoooz hwon

 

Odo mnOoLH wo mowvomamnnm o>nmoownom onowmaou

 

noonoou mowmoozu

 

 

oomooamom nonwooom wannnonwm now memo:

 

 

mo<mmmz OH mammomxm
UZH3CAAom m><m oqbomm
mammzmz monHHmommHm
uzoweu< mo mZmMH zH
me<em .oo>onnoo on On
onw mo>nnoonno wn oon
nose mnonEoE mooooao
non onwwooaonummmmmmm
uom oooowos< nonwooom

 

 

 

.N soon .n->ne
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-uowuno nunnonnm-mwnm

 

"EMAmomm

owoxoom mowssnnm nownosomu%wo>nmo=mnom o wannonooou

"zwommnnm omommoz onmwm opn wannmnosnom

.vamn>w% noogmxnoz

"MDZMHQD< Hmom<H

 

 

 

 

 

 

NHoEnow
no wonoownmnnaom .mmxwom
wnmon on owooz oxnw osn

poo .wooE .oGOn .Ho>ow o8:
uwo> .anonnoouwoannoonnw
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sans ~m>me Anoauv we engage
annnooOmnoo nocz wnonoom
uona o wo oowoso noon onn

 

on onooz nonzuumo>nnoononw<
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owommofi onn wO noonaoo onn wo naoEnoonn
woo owmnm On o>nnowon ononaoe ooaon
undo onn wo nonnonoomxo onn on HHHB now
unwm no hMOHOonEnon an Hoonnmnsaoo wo
Ho>ow non3 .ooonnonovnoooo HonoooHnoo
no Hoonnoowono ness .no>ow xnowonoo
uo> nosz wvonoonmooo on coo mononoow
onnmnwmnm nozno poo owoowcow wo qudnu
nonznumo>wnoononn< nOoEnoonH no onnm

 

wonononn nonnon
ucoo monoooo>wo new moon
unnoooona .onnoEowno onn On
.onoza o no omommoa o£n On
mnnwnnnnono no nnommno woo
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on owoono mownnHoOOmnom cos
:5: non3 an oonnnnooo nonz
numwonnono: nnommom noonnnm

 

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woonwononnm ono>nnoo
anon coo ..ono .moonoe
.mwonnonono\owonwon
.moononwowno .monmon
.owoommo o>nmooonog
.mennoHnmaoo noon poo
nmononoH aosonuumwownon
no: nnomeom nooonnoew

 

 

 

 

L

o>nnonomo nonwononnm noooom On son£3.:moonsa

 

"zbgmm HZMZMH<Hm mMHZM w.ono .hmOHo

 

2659
(continued on next sheet)

unwsnon anns Annnonwwsow .hnnnwno owoswnow
nnosn ..o.n .mnoonnn owommoa coo onooo
noon onn wnwvnononoBOo nnosn wo voocwnxnw
onn noowwm Nanaonnomsn woo hawnonno canon
nosn .mnonBoE oooonvoo onn nsono Boax

o3 ow noszuuoOnmaononaBOo won>onno< .m

 

 

"zoqmm Hzm2my<em wmooomoonomooo
.mnonaoa oooonooo on swsonsn anon «no
nannm owommoa osn sown: on oonwoo osn oono

uswwon owaoo nons3 ..Ono .nnosnnm wonnoo
IEOO .onwo owoaw was noonoo .Ho>oH oEsHo>
onn .mnnwnno omodwnow nnosn ..o.n .omoomoa

onn wo mnoonoH woo noonooo osn_Nflmwmm
unooann>woonom nnonn wo oooswnxnw noowwo
%anonnom8w Ono mwmnonnm vwooo nmnn nOnno
nonnm won>nooon Ono ononaoa oooonvoo noono
zoox o3 oo nonznuGOnnmwonom(won>onso< .N

 

 

 

”sogmm HZHZMH<Hm

nm<zzom mmnzn nun an eo>no>an ano>nn
anonno van omommoa osn On vonOnno wonnnoa
non nnonn ooooSHwnn hos songs ..ono Son
nnona on noononOn nnonoson .nownoownoHSQOm
nnosn .wnonaoa oononvoo wo Ho>onuhnnn5nos
now own owono>o osn ..o.n .oownoonno wan
band he: no Banzai 2: tonne a
unnoman woo hdwdonnm canon nmnn sownoonnm
won>nooon vow mnonsos oooonoso onn noono
sonx o3 on nosBunGOHnnonn<lwnwOHom .H

 

 

 

 

 

.momoonso cam
mnoonOn omoomoa wo oOnmoononaaoo
Ono sonnooonoo o.nonaos ooaonoso

onn oonosoo On .nozoo wanonoc Ono
wannoonnnmunmononon onmoooco onomoo
On mnommoooo mo wownno>anonuunaon

 

 

nooo owommoz an mnooanosfiv< vooooz

 

«Nnonnmonm
wo muonnoooaoo nnonn coo moonnonoooxo
nnonn .mnamnn nwonn owownwan no: moon

nn nosn .Eonn On onnmnooooom on nn nonn
.oooonooo nowsownnmo onsn now ononnaonaeo
on nn nosn onomom anon on nwononnm omoo
umoE anono>o onn wawkwnvoa no wannao>nnon

 

uLNwononnm HHono>o On onaoanoofio< vooooz

.mammmmmm03.>H nz< HHH mmHm OH
Mo<m mmmmm .zwononnm owoomoz unmom an now
noonooOoo< on on onenoamnom osoonoo onoom

Ono monnonnonoonosu oooowvs< noonnanH

 

 

"Eownonm

"oooonoo< nownoa

92mzzomH>zm mDQDZHHm mmH OZHU<Z<Z

“amwmoo ommmmoz owmmm onn wownowsanom

.ANVRI>H§ noosoxnoz

 

 

 

(continuation of #IV-F(2)

 

 

 

.monwononnm HoOOwnonoomona woo
mnonoooonm moznonnwnn now wanxooo
.monmnm nonaomona poo mnonOomona wo
wa nonnon o w5w6n>ona .mnonaomonn
naonowwwo wanzwwooamuuNMMMMflwm.

wo moonnoz an oncoenmsfim< vooooz

 

.onwowcon omnomoon
woo Gownmoonom .aOHmoononnEoo nOw
oncoEonnovon mo ..ono .naoEnoonn wo ooooe
.Ho>ow knowsnooo> .GowomonaxoquImEnow

 

.owmnm owoomoow wo momaononunaosnoona wo

 

mono: Ono owNnm an ncoenmofiw< oocooz

 

 

.vovaosonaaoo on woo swoonzn

mnow owooooa onn nonn onoooo anon on
..ono .moonnnoomonm .onoow .mnOoEDwno wo
neoaowoonno .wnnoooovom now moonnoonnaan
unAnxo: dAn%Mr>H* noosmxnoz no Hwonop an
oonovnmooo on Onv ononoonnm owwomoz coo
noonooo wo nnoaowoonn< now mennoonnmsH

 

 

 

27C)

 

now
undaOoon wo moosnoa vomoaona
woo mo>nnonnonwo acnnonomnu

Sonnon9 onn
wo neoaonono new nonnnoo9x9uu

 

omommoz wo 2909

om09n99 no\voo oOnmoooo
wo nooaononm no connonnonno-u

nnO99on ooaonoso wO nooa
unannnonmo Ono 9ono nonnOonn¢nn

 

nonnoowonnaw

 

 

 

.nooooa co

nnnooo onn an womoso Ono oouoaoon wooodn

on

nnowwo onn wo mmoooom oan on 9onw>

UGOUGOU uwfiu whflwmw Cu HGUHH3 uQfiHUm Ou

mmuOfl

Oo9¢ .ponwooc mnoowwo osn o>ownoo
On wonoonn woo noEnOw naoaowo nooo

so: On mo oaonnoonwnoo9m openoon ooHo

9993

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wo oownoan onn wonnoonvoH ooOHnonoc

 

nononnoonwwoonm paw monoz noonnomaw

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moonno> onn now oesoovoo noon onn on
On mnoo99o nozB on owooooa osn wo oanw

 

unoo HononoxmuuooHHnoo monxnoz onoom

 

 

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osn so: On mo moonmnoovuuaonm
mononoooom one nOnnounoowmo unmom

 

 

 

Nomooooa osn wo nooean osn wonunanxoa now omnm Hononoonno was oownounnowno o>nnoowwo
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onn wo oEom
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“ono coxmo on On moonnooou

ononn9on99o snns ooooonoooo an wononomnooauunnonooo ponooHom osn onoaomwoao On nmaonno o3 noosoxno3 onsn no

ononosnnm owooooz owoom osn wannoazanom

“2999099

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"9029H99¢ Hmum<H

. GEL/E» n oonmxnoz

 

271

 

 

owooooa osn wo nonmen
osn anonoso 99o: On oon>oo
nonno no Koawwo noo9an smnmnu

maonoonooa

no mOOnn9nnann wonnonnnnoow
on omoxnnn Ono nonnoo now Hoo99¢nn

nonnowonn9ooon no\ooo connoaaomuu

wonoOHQ

 

 

 

 

ooOnnoonwnoomm woo monoz noonnoaawc

 

onwanoo wonxnoz unmom

 

oowm
wonoooooom coo connonnoowno unmom

 

.N swan .AmVn->ne

APPENDIX B

CHILDREN'S TELEVISION WORKSHOP
OPERATIONAL MODEL

run.

 

 

I--..Ill|!l‘!ll'llnl.l.'llll 1".Iilli'li' lull."lllllrr

272

 

 

 

 

 

 

CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT

 

 

 

 

 

BEHAVIORAL
GOALS

 

 

\ I

 

 

MEASUREMENT OF
EXISTING COMPETENCE
IN TARGET AUDIENCE

 

MEASUREMENT OF
APPEAL OF EXISTING
MATERIALS

 

 

 

 

 

 

y

EXPERIMENTAL
PRODUCTION

 

x/

 

 

 

TESTING FOR
EDUCATIONAL

 

EFFECT

 

TESTING FOR

 

. .
w.--

 

 

APPEAL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

/

 

PRODUCTION OF
BROADCAST
MATERIALS

 

 

 

SUMMATIVE
EVALUATION

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2

The Children's Television Workshop Operational model for
developing the "Sesame Street" television series.

HIIH

3 1293 03178 6779

l

HUIHIHIN