THE ARMY GENERAL EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES: A SURVEY RELATIVE TO PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OE ADMINISTRATION AT THE ARMY POST LEVEL By Stuart R. Westerlund AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1963 ABSTRACT THE ARMY GENERAL EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN THE CON- TINENTAL UNITED STATES: A SURVEY RELATIVE TO PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF ADMINISTRATION AT THE ARMY POST LEVEL by Stuart R. westerlund The Problem The last decade has witnessed significant growth and accomplish- ments in the Army General Educational Development Program. With this growth has come an increased need for the establishment of a set of administrative principles and practices and for advancing the knowledge of these among Army Post Directors of G.E.D. The main purpose of this study was to develop a set of administra- tive principles and practices which can be used as a guide in the administration of the Army G.E.D. Program.at the post level. The study was delimited to the continental United States. Procedure The literature was reviewed to obtain a brief history of the Army G.E.D. Program. The researcher visited ten Army Education Centers for the purpose of interviewing post directors of G.E.D. From.these interviews, it was determined that three important areas of educational administration in the G.E.D. Program are supervision, guidance, and personnel administration. 1 2 Stuart R. Westerlund The literature was reviewed for the purpose of obtaining a set of administrative principles and practices for these three areas. A total of one-hundred and fifty principles and practices were listed on a rating form and were submitted to a panel of experts and also to every Army Post Director of G.E.D. in the continental United States. Each principle or practice was rated "important" or "not important", and the results were treated statistically by means of the chi-square technique and also by the Spearman rank order correlation technique. Chi-square tests at the .05 level revealed that eighty-two prin- ciples and practices were considered by both groups to be important. The rank order correlation - coefficients showed that a signifi- cant relationship exists relative to agreement of the panel and the field as to the importance or non-importance of the various principles and practices. Conclusions The Army General Educational Development Program.is an important part of the United States Army. The contributions of this program to the individual soldier, to the United States Army and to the nation have been significant. Goals and objectives are continually being raised, and increased command support contributes to the achievement of these goals and objectives. There are similarities between selected principles and practices which govern certain aspects of public school administration and those which are applicable to the Army G.E.D. Program, The G.E.D. Program is definitely unique in certain respects; nevertheless, specific principles Stuart R. Westerlund and practices of educational administration are as necessary for sound programs of education in the Army as they are in any other type of edu- cational program. Certain principles and practices of educational administration in public education can be used as a guide in the administration of Army Education Centers. There is considerable agreement between the field and the panel as to whether or not certain selected principles and practices are im- portant or not important for the G.E.D. Program, This would indicate that there is considerable agreement between those who formulate policy for the G.E.D. Program and those who implement the policy. Eighty-two principles and practices, from the one-hundred and fifty listed on the rating form, were considered to be important by both the panel and the field. They constitute a set of basic principles and practices which may have potential for the improvement of administra- tion of the G.E.D. Program at the Army post level. THE ARMY GENERAL EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES: A SURVEY RELATIVE TO PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF ADMINISTRATION AT THE ARMY POST LEVEL By \_ -¥\\\ \ AFR Stuart R} Westerlund A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1963 34430;» ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer acknowledges with appreciation the assistance and guidance of Dr. Donald J. Leu, major professor and friend, in planning and carrying out this study. He and other members of the writer's graduate committee, Dr. William.H. Roe, Dr. William.J. Walsh, and Dr. Charles Hanley, gave unselfishly of their time in consultations, meetings, and review of the manuscript. Mr. Wilmot Jacobs, Director of General Educational Development United States Continental Army Command, gave generously of his time and knowledge relative to the historical aspect of this thesis. The cooperation of the Directors of General Educational Develop- ment in the continental United States was excellent. The writer would like to pay special tribute to his wife and family who have carried extra responsibilities during the period of doctoral study. To all of these and many others the writer extends his sincere thanks. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................ LIST OF GRAPHS ................ LIST OF CHARTS ................ Chapter I. THE PROBLEM ............ Introduction Need for the Study Statement of the Problem Delimitations Assumptions Methodology Definitions of Terms Used Summary II. A HISTORY OF THE G.E.D. PROGRAM .................... Off-Duty Education Prior to Wbrld war II Off-Duty Education After world war II The United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI) The Group Study Program The Post-world war II Program The Education Program in the Continental United States Administration of the Army The G.E.D. Program Today Post G.E.D. Program Discussion of Accomplishments Summary III. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Supervision of Instruction Principles and Practices Guidance Principles and Practices Personnel Administration Principles and Practices Summary of Supervision of Guidance of Personnel Administration iii v1 vii 10 55 Chapter Page IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA .................. lO2 Procedure The Distribution of the Rating Form Treatment of the Data Data on Chi—Square Goodness of Fit Tests Significantly Important Principles and Practices Principles and Practices Selected by the Field But Rejected by the Panel Principles and Practices Selected by the Panel But Rejected by the Field Principles and Practices Selected by Neither the Panel Nor the Field Data on Chi—Square Tests of Independence Analysis of Data for Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Tests Analysis of Data for Chi-Square Tests of Independence V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................... 122 Conclusions Recommendations Recommendations for Further Study BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................. 129 APPENDIX A ................................................ 136 APPENDIX B ................................................ 152 APPENDIX c .............................. . ................. 160 APPENDIX D ...................... . ......................... 161 APPENDIX E ................................................ 162 APPENDIX F .................. . .......... . ............. ..... 178 APPENDIX G .......... . .................... . ................ 191 iv Table L.— 10. LIST OF TABLES General Educational Development of Military Personnel in the ZI Armies and Military District of washington FY 1951-FY 1960 .................................... Comparison of Educational Level Surveys (Continental United States) (as of 30 June l958-62) ............. Functions Frequently or Regularly Performed by Super- visors Responding to a Questionnaire Distributed by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development ........................................ location of Responding Posts by States ............... Tabulated Chi-Square Test of Independence Data ....... Tabulated Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Data ............ Rank Order Correlation Coefficient for Important Principles and Practices ........................... Rank Order Correlation Coefficient for Principles and Practices of Guidance .............................. Rank Order COrrelation Coefficient for Principles and Practices of Supervision ........................... Rank Order Correlation Coefficient for Principles and Practices of Supervision ........................... Page 1A8 151 191 105 162 170 178 182 185 188 LIST OF GRAPHS Graph Page 1. Funded Costs: General Educational Development (CONUS) .. 136 2. Basic and Transitional Education (Literacy Instruction) . 137 3. Preparatory and High School Preparatory Course Completions ........................................... 138 A. MOS-Related Instruction ...... . .......................... l39 5. High School and College Course Completions Through Correspondence Study .................................. lhO 6. High School and College Course Completions Through Civilian High Schools and Colleges .................... 1A1 7. High School and College Courses Completed Through Army Education Center Instruction .......................... lh2 8. High School G.E.D. Tests Passed ......................... 1&3 9. College G.E.D. Tests Passed ............................. 1AA lO. Number of Personnel Completing 2-Year College level G.E.D. Equivalency .................................... th ll. Number of Personnel Awarded Bachelor's and Advanced Degrees ............................................... 1&6 12. Total Course Completions G.E.D. ......................... 1A7 vi LIST OF CHARTS Chart Page 1. Table of Organization, Armed Forces Information and Education Division, Department of Defense ......... 27 2. Chain of Command Relative to Education in U. S. Army .................................................. 38 vii CHAPTER I TIE PROBLEM Introduction.--"The foundations of adult learning in the United States are imbedded deeply in the philosophy and history of a demo- cratic society. Freedom to learn meant to the American pioneers not only an open gate to knowledge wherever their curiosity led them, but also a long pathway on which they could travel all the days of their lives."1 Until world war I, adult education had been developed as an adjunct to other programs or institutions, and it was not until 1924 that the term "adult education" came into general use in America.2 Adult education has experienced a phenomenal growth in the past three decades. This was due in part to the great depression era which gave impetus to the growth of vast programs of special training; new educational activities having potential for fostering economic recovery were advocated by our nation's leaders. The federal government under- took several noteworthy programs in adult education such as the Wbrks Progress Administration, the National Youth Administration, and the Civilian Conservation Corps - as well as many other such programs.3 1Chris A. DeYong, American Education, Fourth. Edition (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960) p. 173. 2l'bid., p. 178. 3Ibid. These programs brought the field of adult education into a place of prominence in the education world and established it as the fifth level of our educational system - the natural culmination of pre- elementary, elementary, secondary, and higher education. WOrld war II increased the need for trained minds, and this led to additional expansion in the field of education. Economic and tech— nological developments demonstrated quite clearly that an inadequately educated adult was a liability in our society. The failure of indi- viduals to develop their potential meant failure to develop essential productivity, which situation the United States could not afford during this crucial period. Thus, our nation's leaders increasingly recognized the importance of adult education, and when WOrld war II began, and many thousands of young men were called into the armed forces, there went with them.a desire for advancement, which the depression of the 1930’s had taught them could best be achieved through education. This interest in adult education gave impetus to what was destined to be one of the world's largest adult education programs, the Army General Educational Development Program.(GED). Need Fbr The Study.--The growth of the G.E.D. Program.was cautiously slow in the early stages. The last decade has witnessed significant growth and accomplishments in the program, and with this growth has come an increased need for the establishment of a set of administrative principles and practices and for advancing the knowledge of these among Army Post Directors of General Educational Development. It is desired that the outcome of this study will provide a set of administrative principles and practices which Army Post Directors of G.E.D. can use as a guide in the development of administrative princi- ples and practices for their own respective programs. This study will also provide needed information for prospective Directors of G.E.D. Because, to the writer's knowledge, no such study exists, a study relative to administrative principles and practices for Army Pest Directors of General Educational Development is needed. Statement Of The Problem.-—The purpose of this study will be fourfold as follows: (1) To write a brief history of the Army Educa- tion Program with emphasis on the period l953-l962 relative to major developments and accomplishments. (2) Tb review literature on educa- tional administration for the purpose of obtaining a comprehensive list of principles and practices which may have potential for the improvement of the G.E.D. Program at the post level. (3) Tb develop a rating form relative to the selected principles and practices. This rating form will be submitted to apanel of experts and to Army Post Directors of G.E.D. in the continental United States. The principles and practices will be rated "important" or "not important" in terms of their applicability and merit to the Army G.E.D. Program (A) The rating forms received from the two groups -panel of experts and Post Directors of G.E.D. - will be analyzed and conclusions drawn. Recom- mendations will be made in the light of the analysis of data. Delimitations.--This study will consider only Army Education Centers in the continental United States. This will exclude Army Education Centers in other parts of the world, as well as programs of education of the other military services. The study of the principles and practices will be limited to those areas of educational administration which are discovered, by means of interviews with a number of Post Directors of G.E.D. to be the most critical areas of educational administration at the Army Post level. The rating form will be delimited to a total of one-hundred and fifty items. Assumptions.--There are similarities between selected principles and practices which govern the Army Education Program and those which govern public education. Accordingly, a set of principles and practices having potential for the improvement of educational admini- stration at the post level can be determined. This study will help to create an "awareness" on the part of Post Directors of G.E.D. of the need for the development of a framework of principles and practices for their own respective education centers; principles and practices set forth in this study will serve as a guide. Methodology.--The plan to be followed includes these points: (l) The literature will be reviewed to obtain a brief history of the Army General Educational Development Program. (2) The researcher will visit a minimum of ten Army Education Centers for the purpose of con- ducting interviews, a determination will be made as to which areas are of most concern relative to the administration of the Education Centers. (3) Having determined the several broad areas, literature will be re- viewed for the purpose of selecting a comprehensive list of suggested principles and practices for each area under consideration. This com- prehensive list of principles and practices will be analyzed and those which appear most frequently will be included on the rating form. The \fl writer's own professional judgment will also be used in selecting the principles and practices for the rating form. On the basis of the writer's own intimate acquaintance with the Army Education Program, and interviews with a number of Post Directors of G.E.D., a determination of applicability can be made concerning a large number of suggested principles and practices. Those principles and practices which are definitely foreign to the G.E.D. Program will be excluded and will not be listed on the rating form. The total number of principles and practices to be listed on the rating form will be limited to one- hundred and fifty. (A) The selected principles and practices will be submitted to a panalconsisting of persons from Department of Army; Headquarters, Continental United States Army; Headquarters, Zone of Interior Armies; and persons from several universities currently par- ticipating in the General Educational Development Program. The selected principles and practices will simultaneously be submitted to every Army Post Director of G.E.D. in the Continental United States. The principles and practices will be rated "important" or "not H important in terms of their applicability and merit to the G.E.D. Program. An explanation of the purpose of the study, as well as definitions of "important" and "not important" will be included in the rating instrument. (5) The completed rating forms will be treated statistically by means of chi-square gpodness of fit tests and chi- quare tests of independence at the .05 level of significance. A two- by-two chi-square goodness of fit test will be made for each principle and practice rated by the panel,and a separate test for each principle and practice rated hy the Post Directors of G.E.D. chi-Square tests of Independence will then be made for each principle and practice utilizing the ratings of both the panel and the post directors of education. The result will be a total of approximately three-hundred chi-square goodness of fit tests and one-hundred and fifty chi-square tests of independence. The results of these tests will disclose those principles and practices which both the panel and the post directors of education agree to be important to the Army General Educational Development Program. This set of principles and practices will be furnished to every Army Post Director of G.E.D. in the continental United States to be used as a guide in es- tablishing a framework of principles and practices for their own programs. Spearman rank order correlation coefficients will also be computed to determine the extent of agreement between the panel and the field. Types of Source Material.-- Various types of source material will be used in the study, including (1) Data received from the completed rating forms, (2) Army Regulations, (3) Letters on file at Department of Army Education Section, (A) Department of Army and CONARC Directives, (5) Books and articles relating to the topic under study, (6) Personal interviews with a number of Post Directors of G.E.D., and (7) The personal experience of the writer. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED General Educational Development Program.—- That part of the Army's educational system which is devoted to instruction in subjects normalLy taught in civilian academic and vocational schools. It is not an ! integral part of the military training program.4 1tDA Pamphlet. No. 20-125, "Army Forty Hour Discussion Lead—e—rs' Course,“ Department of the Army (washington: United States Government Printing Office) p. 100. Army Education Center.--"A portion of an installation, together with its personnel and equipment, provided and designated by the commanding officer for Army Education Program activities."5 The United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI).--Serves educa- tion centers with texts, tests, correspondence courses and many other educational facilities. Testing Center.--"That part of the education program conducted by a military installation which has been authorized by its responsible service agency to stock and administer USAFI tests."6 May also administer other standardized as well as teacher-made tests. Army Post Director of General Educational Development.-—The individual employed by the Army to administer the G.E.D. Program at the Army Post level; to act as technical adviser; to guarantee continuity in the education program; to render guidance to service personnel; and to act as a coordinator between the G.E.D. Program and civilian educa- tional institutions. Formerly called Education Advisor. Off-Duty Program.--Includes that part of the educational activity that occurs during the soldier's leisure time while he is not engaged in performing his normal military duties. Administrative Principles and Practices.--Principle is here meant to imply something established as a standard or test, for measuring, 5AR 55-30, "Troop Information and Education, Army Education Program,” iNashington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 2A April 1951) p. 3. 6Armed Forces Education Program Study Guide, l9h9 (Pennsylvania: Armed Forces Information SEhool, Carlisle—Barracks, July 19h8) p. l. 78R 355-30-1, "Troop Information and Education, The Education Program Administration," (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2 August 1950) p.h. regulating, or guiding conduct or practice. In operation, a principle usually involves a number of specific practices. Example of principle: asasssnazsarrassmesrpnsgjiassaris rrnwrnweawarjraai Practice is here meant to follow, observe, or use habitually or in customary practice. It is also meant to imply methods or techniques involved in putting a principle into practice. With reference to the example above, practice would have reference to the "how". Example of practice: The guidance staff should be involved in a program-budget- The term administrative is used in a broad sense to include educational services for which the administrator is held responsible. SUMMARY Interest in adult education gave impetus to what has become one of the world's largest adult education programs, the Army General Educa- tional Development Program. Growth was slow in the early stages; however, the last decade has witnessed significant growth and accomplish- ments in the programi This has resulted in an increased need for the development of a set of principles and practices having potential for the improvement of the program. To this end, the literature will be reviewed and a rating form developed. The rating form will be sub- mitted simultaneously to alxnel of experts and to every Army Post Director of GILIL in the United States for the purpose of determining which principles and practices both groups agree to be important for the Army G.E.D. program. The data obtained from this survey will be treated statistically and those principles and practices discovered to be statistically sig— nificant will be furnished to every Army Post Director of G.E.D. in the United States to be used as a guide in the development of a framework of principles and practices for their own respective programs. CHAPTER TWO A HISTORY OF THE G.E.D. PROGRAM In 1777, General Washington, on behalf of his Army, requested from Continental Congress a small printing press to follow Headquarters. He also requested other educational materials, and, though both requests were tabled and forgotten, it nevertheless illustrated the importance placed upon education by military leaders.1 In W0r1d War II the armed services of the United States were not subjected to such limitations. During that war, men in uniform com- bined their efforts with those of civilian consultants to define the purposes of and to develop in the field an extensive program of off- duty educational opportunities. The words of Major General F. H. Osborne, Director of the Information and Education Division, Army Service Forces, in writing of the Division‘s accomplishments during the war years, might well be taken as a summary of the purposes of the entire off-duty educational efforts of the armed services during World War II.2 It has been the purpose of Information and Education that the American Soldier should be the best informed and best educated soldier in any army. To reach this objective, the following methods were evolved over the past four years: 1Philip S. Foner, Morale Education in the American Army, (New York: International Publishers, 19h57'p. 17. 2F. H. Osborn, Information and Education Division, (Privately printed and distributed by the author, October 19A5). 10 I'll ‘1- (Ill .l?..l. {(1 f. {2" I .‘I. II. II (I. (II I (II II. 9 [It It llnl‘ III I ll- .i l.‘ 1: rl’i wll'l‘f fl! 1‘ . LIEIE'FI .hi Pill. [I'll-I’ll... ll Provision of full and unbiased information; oppor- tunities for free discussion of that information; and the opportunities for formal education in off-duty time or during training prior to discharge. The value of such an approach for an American Army in time of war has been proved by its broad acceptance in train- ing for combat; In time of peace the practice of these fundamentals of the American tradition will help the Army to maintain public confidence in the type of training given its young men. Off-Duty Education Prior to World war II During the First WOrld war, the Army had come to recognize the need for assuming a direct responsibility for many activities which were loosely defined as affecting morale. Backing was given to a pro- posed postwar education program, in the beginning largely financed by the YMCA. The YMCA education officers were later transferred into an Army Education Corps, and the War Department set up an education and recreation program which was active after WOrld war I in the camps in the United States. Just prior to the end of the war, a Morale Branch was established in the General Staff for the purpose of coordinating work of the civilian welfare agencies and taking appropriate action relative to factors influencing morale in the Army.3 A new Morale Division was organized twenty years later when the Mobilization Regulations of October 28, 1939, were written. Morale was then defined in terms of physical welfare: food, leave, discipline, and recreation. A Morale Division of the Adjutant General‘s Office was established when the provisions of these regulations were put into iv "Study of Information and Education Activities: WOrld war II," (washington: On file in the Historical Division, Office of the Secre- tary of Defense, Education Division, Special Staff) p 20. ii! 1! alll.".' {Ill ‘III‘JIII‘ [{[r..l.{ {II .1 l2 effect in the Summer of 19h0. In actuality, this Division had no responsibility to develop a program of education; but was an administra- tive office performing such services as: the showing of films, hiring librarians, etc.h The Mobilization Regulations of 1939 also provided for the appoint— ment of a committee of civilian and military experts in welfare and community - service activities, to advise the Secretary of war on the relation between activities of the Armed Services and those of other governmental and private agencies. This committee was not an operating agency, but played a major role in the establishment of educational pro- grams for service personnel. The first chairman was Frederick H. Osborne, later director of the Special Service Division and the Infor- mation and Education Division.5 Several months after the establishment of the Morale Division in the Adjutant General‘s Office, a conference of morale officers was held in washington. It became clear during the conference that morale theory and practice were far apart. It had also become quite clear during the months preceding the conference that the war Department's existing machinery was not adequate to do the job of welfare and recreation, or to "enable the Chief of the Morale Division at all times to know the state of morale of the Army."6 Therefore, on March 1%, l9hl, a Morale Branch of the Army was established, and functioned under the control of hCyril O. Houle, The Armed Services and Adult Education, (washington: American Council on Education, 19h7) p. 15. 5Ibid., p. 16. 6Ibid. 13 the Chief of Staff. Major General James A. Ulio was named Chief of the Branch; and when he became ill in August l9hl, Frederick Osborne was commissioned a Brigadier General and appointed Chief of the Morale Branch.7 The following four factors help to explain the rapid expansion of the education program.under General Osborne's direction.8 1. General Osborne‘s background and interests enabled him to select personnel interested in matters of education, information, and the Social Sciences. 2. The morale of the Army came into the public eye as evidenced by the stimulus of public interest and criticism. 3. An intensive research project on matters of morale was initiated right after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The results served as a scientific background for the growth of the program. A. The most important factor of all was the de- velopment of the needs and demands of an expanding Army which were reported to the war Department. Among these demands were requests for off-duty classes on non- military subjects. Until the outbreak of war in December, l9hl, the education pro- gram was confined to the field of leisure time activities in the plan for military personnel.9 Off-Duty Education After World war II After war was declared, the education program was reconsidered in terms of immediate and long-range objectives. The immediate objective 7Ibid., p. 17. 8"Study of Information and Education Activities: world War II," gp. cit., p. 22 9History of Army Education Branch to 30 June l9hh, (washington: Office, Chief of Military History, December 19hh) I, 6. It was to help the Army Commanders maintain high morale and increase the efficiency of military personnel. The long-range objectives were planned to educate military personnel relative to the resumption of civilian life.10 To meet these objectives, three important educational activities evolved: The United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI), the off- duty Education Program, and plans for the post-hostilities program for inactive theaters. As a result of new demands and renewed interest, the Morale Branch changes its name, established new services, and began implementing its field operations. On January 15, l9h2, the name of the Branch was 11 On June 30, 19A2, officially changed to the Special Services Branch. The Education Section removed from the welfare and Recreation Division and set up as a separate division within the Special Services Branch. Later, the Special Services Branch became the Special Services Division, and the Education Division was designated as the Education Branch. In November l9h3, Education, Information, Orientation, and Research Activities were separated from Special Services and redesignated the Morale Services Division. A short time later, the Information and Education Division was formed as a part of the training program, but this arrangement lasted but a very short time; and on November 10, the Morale Services Division was formed with Information and Education as one of its functions. Finally, in the Spring of l9h5, Information and 10Ibid., p. 6 llHoule, 9p. cit., p. 19. 15 Education was separated from Special Services and was established, as an independent division in the European Theater.12 The United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI) The Army Institute, the predecessor of the United States Armed Forces Institute, was established at Madison, Wisconsin on April 1, l9h2. As a result of changed conditions created by the declaration of war, earlier plans to use only military personnel in the operation of the Institute were altered to include the maximum use of civilian personnel. Instructional service in connection with noncredit courses offered directly by the Institute was provided by the University of Wisconsin under government contract.13 After the Army Institute was formed, it became evident that self-teaching and test materials would be needed in addition to the normal type of correspondence courses. In April 19h2, the Chief of Special Service requested that the subcommittee on Education of the Joint Army and Navy Com- mittee take the necessary steps to provide such materials. The Subcommittee appointed a group of experts as an advisory committee on the Army Institute to recommend administrative procedures for the development of the education program and to work with staffs handling testing and teaching materials. Later, as the Advisory Committee for the United States Army Institute, this group continued to review the Institute's educational program and to plan for accrediting educational work in the Army.1 In February 19AM, civilians began to replace commissioned and 12David Berry, The Principles of Non-Military Education as Practiced In The Education-Program of the United States Army,’ (University of Maryland: Unpublished Master‘s Thesis, 1952) p.9 l3Houle, op. cit., p. 8h. lulbid. l6 enlisted personnel at USAFI, and many of the enlisted men were assigned to overseas branches of the Institute. Following the successful establishment of a USAFI branch in Hawaii, requests by other Commanding Generals were received and acted upon. By August 30, 19hh, USAFI had expanded its services throughout the entire world.15 This rather unparalleled expansion resulted from excellent support on the part of military and civilian personnel in overcoming such major problems as supply and the proper training of education officers. Until February 15, 19hu, the matter of supplies was handled by the various Ports of Embarkation. The Sub-committee of the Joint Army and Navy Committee on welfare and Recreation assisted in accomplishing the selection and placement of education officers.l6 Throughout the entire war period, USAFI continued to expand its services. In order to allow soldiers and sailors the opportunity to work directly through various colleges and universities, eighty-five American universities cooperated with USAFI in providing courses. The Army agreed to pay one-half of the cost of each course. This tremendous expansion of USAFI resulted in the distribution of educational materials, selecting and editing textbooks, and developing special training aids to be used in off-duty classes in the Army. The keen interest and serious attitude of soldiers towards the education program had been manifested even during the war in the unusually high percent of all enrollees who 15History of Army Education Branch to 30 June 19th, pp, cit., p. 12. l'6Berry, op, cit., p. 16. 17 successfully completed their correspondence courses.l7 On July 1, 19h2, the Institute's total enrollment in correspond- ence courses was 1,255; a year later enrollment increased to h0,80h; and by June 19th climbed to 250,000.18 As a result of this expansion, Secretary of war, Robert D. Patterson, when making an inspection of USAFI in 19h5, announced that "it had earned its full place of import- ance in the Army and was now to be considered a regular establishment of the peacetime services."19 In l9h9, one year after the establishment of the Department of Defense, the Armed Forces Information and Education Division was established as a part of the Office of the Secretary of Defense. USAFI was then transferred from the Department of the Army to the Department of Defense.20 Trends in USAFI enrollments in 1950 showed that one percent of enrollees were at the elementary level; about AS percent in high school; about 28 percent in college; and approximately 26 percent in vocational-technical courses. It should be noted that this represents individual enrollees only. Inasmuch as most of the elementary courses in the USAFI program are offered only through group enrollment, a much larger percentage of elementary enrollees would be indicated if group 177Study of Information and Education Activities: World war II, op. cit., p. 5. 18Houle, op. cit., p. 96. l9Berry,_p. cit., p. 15. 20Information Pertaining to the Origin, Growth and Mission of the United States Armed Forces Institute, compiled by the Staff, USAFI, 2BIApril, 1950. 18 Study classes were included.21 The Group Study Program Many civilian educators believed that the primary features of the armed services off-duty educational programs were to be found in leisure-time classes, in the methods of teaching spoken foreign languages, and in Army discussion groups. These programs had a broad curriculum, and the courses offered were designated to meet the needs and desires of the soldiers.22 The end of the war had opened a wider field for non-military study, and the preparation of three years for the Army Education Pro- gram after the war was bearing fruit. "Army University Centers at Florence in Italy, at Shrivenhan in England, and at Bearritz, France were providing for over seven thousand men, courses of study equal in range and quality to the best American university summer schools."23 The Army recognized the need for carefully selected education officers both for staffing new USAFI branches and for planning and supervising arrangements for locally organized classes. In February l9h2, steps were taken to obtain Reserve Officers for this purpose. This was unfavorably considered; however, on May 5, l9h2, the Chief of Staff approved the procurement of 150 specialists through the Army Specialist Corps to serve as education advisors. éIIbid. 22Houle, 9p. cit., p. 102. 23Study of Information and Educational Activities: world war II, pp. cit., p. 5. 19 With the active assistance of the Sub-Committee of Education of the Joint Army and Navy Committee on welfare and Recreation, the selection of educational advisers was begun on 3 July l9h2. Because these advisers were needed for administrative planning and general supervision of educational programs, selection interviews were held with men serving as deans of colleges, superintendents and principals of schools and in other supervisory or admini- strative posts in educational organizations.2 Local off-duty study programs increased rapidly as education officers were assigned to headquarters and to local posts and units, and as specially selected textbooks and other materials for group instruction were made available through USAFI. In some organizations where person- nel were sufficiently permanent to warrant their enrollment in local classes, the offerings of off-duty schools were comparable in scope and variety to those of outstanding civilian institutions.25 Recognizing the fact that soldiers would be located in many foreign countries and would be required to perform duties requiring the knowledge of as many different languages, the Education Section of the welfare and Recreation Division was requested to help in the preparation of foreign language texts to supplement information manuals in foreign countries. The supplement manuals were designed to maintain morale by assisting troops to speak the language of the area in which they were stationed. In addition to the handbooks, phonograph records and special teaching aids were to be prepared and distributed for use in group instruction. By early 19h3, "the Director of Special Services Division was made responsible for the preparation of foreign language materials. These projects now included 2LMemoraindum f5} the Chief of Staff, Subject: "Outline of the Education Program," SS 353.0 (5-5-h2) Ex, dated 5 May l9h2, p. 2h. 25Hou1e,‘gp. cit., p. 102. 20 the language guides and accompanying phonograph recordings in a total of thirty-seven foreign languages, military phrase books in thirty—one languages, military dictionaries in twenty-two languages, and general-purpose dictionaries in nine languages. The development of these ma- terials was assigned to the Education Branch."26 Under the supervisory and editorial control of the Education Branch, D. C. Heath and Company and the American Council of Learned Societies prepared the various courses, with a special edition of each course to be published as a War Department Education Manual for the USAFI. They soon became known as the Spoken Language Series designed for instruction in beginning spoken foreign languages by means of rote memory.27 The Post WOrld war II Program Early in 19u3, the Army Education Branch began to formulate ten- tative recommendations for an Army Education Program to be conducted following cessation of hostilities. This phase of the program is referred to as the Army Education Program, or the AEP. On November 30, l9h3, the Morale Services Division, in recommending policies and plans for the AEP in the post-hostility period, utilized materials already developed and procedures previously established. In December 19h3, the technical services were requested to submit training course outlines and other instructional material for possible use in the AEP. After careful examination of courses and after conferences with the technical services, however, it was found that the Army's training courses were 251bid., pp. 106:107. 27Ibid., pp. 107—108. 21 not suitable for the AEP because service operations in the Army in war- time are necessarily different from those in civilian occupations in peacetime. It became clear that if the vocational instruction and training offered Army personnel in the AEP were to prepare them for readjustment to civilian occupations, the instructional materials used must be obtained from civilian sources.28 Vocational education experts in the United States Office of Edu- cation were asked to provide a standard "blue-print" of vocational courses for the AEP. That office however, indicated informally its reluctance to make such a definite "blue-print" and suggested that its recommendations should be supplemented by the suggestions and criticisms of other vocational experts. The "blue-print" as finally drawn up con- tained some 200 courses.29 It was recognized that many individuals who desired to participate in the program would have very little education; therefore, it was de- cided that literacy training would be stressed. For both the current and the contemplated post-hostilities programs, the USAFI editorial staff intended to make available certain essential materials at elemen- tary school level and a reasonably complete coverage of secondary- school subjects and of college subjects through the sophomore year.30 The Army Education Program, as laid down by the War Department Readjustment Regulations, RR 1-h (Army Education Program), and TM 28-205, (Army Education Program for Inactive Theaters), continued to be in effect for the first six months of 19h6. The inactive theater program provided the following types of QBMemorandum for Chief of Staff, 9p. cit., p. 25. 29Ibid., p. 29. 3OIbid., p. 20. 22 educational opportunities: (1) Literacy training for those whose level of educational achievement was below the fifth grade; (2) Technical and vocational instruction, including supervised on- the-job training; (3) General education ranging from elementary through college courses; (M) University instruction; (5) Educational advising; and (6) USAFI courses which provided---upon appli- cation---technical, elementary, high school, and college correspondence and self-teaching courses. General Educational Development tests were also available from.USAFI to assist the soldier in his readjustment and educational placement in a civilian school or college upon return to civilian life.3l During the latter part of l9h6, educational advisement policy changed very little. "While the need for counseling and the benefits to be derived therefrom continued to be recognized, some of the former emphasis on advising military personnel on civilian educational and occupational matters was diminished in conformity with the changing outlook of members of the Armed Forces."32 When demobilization was accomplished, the career soldier started to think of his educational needs as a serviceman rather than as a prospective civilian; educa- tional advisement changed to follow that new interest and need.33 Elementary education for adults continued to be an important part of the education program. In spite of changes incident to the shift from a war—time to a peace-time army, it was necessary to continue the 31"History of Army Education Branch, January - June, l9h6" (washington: war Department, Special Staff, Information and Education Division, Army Education Branch, On File in Office, Chief of Military History) p. 33. 32Ibid., p. 3h. 33Ihid. w 23 adult education program on the elementary level for an indefinite period.3h In June, l9h6, a conference was held in the I.G. Farben Exposition Building in Hoechst, Germany, to de- sign the administrative structure for a new education program.which would provide for the educational facili- ties in the shortest possible time within the limits of the available funds. The conference was opened by Colonel Edwin P. Lock, then Theater Chief of Information and Education Services. According to the plan presented, off-duty schools were to be distributed over ten districts in the United States Zone. Each district was to have a civilian education supervisor, whose responsi- bilities would include the establishment and operation of local education centers wherever troop strength warranted it. The zone was divided into areas, each area further divided into two districts. Each area was to have a consolidated school (so-called because it consolidated all education activities in a sector of the zone into one center) and each district was to have a district school. Further, this plan called for some standardization of the curriculum to provide an effec- tive method of providing an education program for the greatest number of troops in the most efficient manner. Special schools were to be established where specialized subjects, such as literacy training, were to be given. While in a sense this new plan curtailed the education program, it provided a sane operational basis for an extremely critical period of transition. On March 23, 19MB, Army Regulations Number 85-10 was published. It defined the Army Education Program as being that part of the educa- tional activity "which is devoted to instruction in subjects normally taught in civilian academic and vocational institutions for the purpose of raising the educational level of the individual, and which is a part of the training program established to meet military requirements."36 3thid. 35Berry, 92, 933,, p. 33. 36AR 85-10, "Troop Information and Education, Army Education Program,II Department of the Army (Washington: Government Printing Office, April at, 1951). 2L This regulation presented four main objectives: 1. Provided the education necessary for the soldier to perform his assigned duties efficiently and to enable him to under- stand the significance of those duties in relation to the functions of his unit and the over-all mission of the Army. 2. Enable the soldier to meet the educational requirements for promotion. 3. Provide continuing educational opportunities for the soldier. h. Assist the soldier to employ his leisure time profitably, and to satisfy intellectual interests.37 After joining the staff of Brigadier General Charles Lanham, Chief of the Army Air Force Troop Information and Education Division, Colonel Stephen McGiffert i spected the Information and Education Pro- gram in the European Command. Upon his return to Washington, he de- veloped a completely new series of regulations on Troop Information and Education, including Army Regulations 355-5, Army Regulations 355-20, and Army Regulations 355-30. This series of regulations presented the idea of eliminating, by means of education, illiteracy in the Army and reducing the intermediate educational level groups within the Army.38 Special regulations outlining the administration procedures for the operation of the Army Education Program appeared on August 2, 1950. This Special Regulation, SR 355-30-1, outlined specific provisions for the administration of the Army Education Program. The results of a survey in l9h8 revealed that fifty-five percent of the regular Army officers had earned a Bachelor's Degree. This fact 37lbid., p. 1 38AR 355-30, "Troop Information and Education, Army Education Program,’i Department of the Army (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2h April 1951). 25 resulted in the publication of the Department of the Army Circular lh6, Dated May 20, l9h8, which announced that all officers of the Regular Army should acquire at least 2 years of college training, with a Bachelor's Degree as the ultimate goal. In an effort to alleviate the problem of interrupted education on the part of those called into the armed forces, the University of Mary- land established the Bachelor's Degree of Military Science and offered at nearby military establishments, classes leading to that degree. These classes were offered first at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Holabird Signal Depot, Fort George G. Mead, and the Bureau of Ships. This was in l9h7 and shortly thereafter, classes in speech were con- ducted at the Pentagon, where forty-four students enrolled at the first registration.39 This was the start of a program which brought the college class- room to military personnel the world over. Other colleges in the country established similar programs on military installations pro- viding opportunities for military personnel to achieve college degrees. At the end of the first quarter, 1951, there were 300 education centers in the Army, serviced by a staff of more than 1,200 instructors and advisors. These centers became the focal points of educational activity in the entire program. During the same period, more than 170,000 students were engaged in some type of educational activity in the Army Education Program.”0 39Berry, _p. cit., p. 38. hoFigures from Quarterly Statistical Report, First Quarter, 1951 (washington: Troop Information and Education Division, Office of Chief of Information, Office of the Chief of Staff). 26 Shortly after the creation of the Department of Defense, there was created as one of its component elements an Armed Forces Informa- tion and Education Division. Working directly under the supervision of he Personnel Policy Board, the Armed Forces Information and Education (AF I & E) Division was charged with the responsibility of achieving the following objectives: 1. To assist commanders through the media of information and education, in developing among service personnel, intelligent, cooperative and loyal effort toward the accomplishment of any mission. 2. To provide commanders with specific means whereby members of the Armed Forces will be informed (l) on matters significant to them, as individual service- men and citizens, irrespective of their service connections and (2) on the missions and mutual relationship of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and other separate services, to the end that they may better understand and evaluate their responsibilities as servicemen and citizens. 3. To provide common services and materials by which commanders may assure for members of their commands educational opportunities in subjects normally taught in civilian academic and vocational institutions, in order that the individual may render efficient services in his present assignment, increase his capabilities for assuming greater responsibilities and, in his leisure time, satisfy his intellectual desires.l‘l Chart I shows in graphic form the structure of the Armed Forces Information and Education Division.he The mission of each of the sec- tions is outlined in the Charter. 1. To develop basic plans, after consultation with the three services, and under policies prescribed by the Chairman of the Personnel Policy Board, to carry out -——-.._-——— thharter, Armed Forces Information and Education Division, 20 July l9h9 (Washington: On File in Education Division, Office of the Secretary of Defense). ugOrganization and Manning Charts, Education Division, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 5 December 1950. 27 CHART I TABLE OR ORGANIZATION, ARMED FORCES INFORMATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION, DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE cums 1 SECRETARY OF DEFENSE PERSONNEL OSD AGENCIES FISCAL INFORMATION] POLICY BOARD _L ARMED FORCES INFORMATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION * I ] ATTITUDE EDUCATIO N RESEARCH T DDS ANGELES BRANCH OFFICE UNITED STATES ARMED FORCES INSTITUTE NAVY AIR FORCE 28 the objectives of the Armed Forces Information and Education Program. 2. To develop and coordinate plans for attitude and opinion studies among military personnel of the Armed Forces, and on request by any one of the separate services, to assist that service in making such studies. 3. To supervise and coordinate approved information and education programs in the United States and overseas commands. h. To prepare, procure, and distribute required infor- mation and education materials. 5. To issue directives on matters falling within policies approved by the Chairman of the Personnel Policy Board on Information and Education. 6. To exercise policy supervision of the Information and Education curriculum and instruction at the Armed Forces Information School.h3 The Office of the Chief of Information had two divisions, the Public Information Division and the Troop Information and Education Division. Charged with carrying out the general policies as defined by the Armed Forces Information and Education Division, the Army Troop Information and Education---in implementing the Army's program--- wrote the Army Regulations. Regulations pertaining to the education program were prepared in the Education Branch, which branch was divided into three sections: the College Program Section, the Analysis Section, and the General Education Section. Though each section was charged with a specific task, together, these three sections were charged with the following responsibilities: 1. Develops, plans, and coordinates staff supervision for the world-wide implementation of the Army Educa— tion activities. 13Charter, AFI8cE Division, op. cit., p. 2. 29 2. Conducts staff liaison visits to Army field installations, including headquarters of major commands and posts, camps, and stations. 3. Furnishes information and advice relative to the scope and techniques of program activities to Government agencies, individuals, educational organizations and institutions, and Department of the Army general and special studies. A. Formulates plans and policies and establishes standards in Army Education for inclusions in Army Regulations, Special Regulations, and administrative directives pub- lished by the Department of the Army. 5. Exercises staff supervision over the operation of Army Education Program schools by units in the field, in- cluding review of curriculum and materials utilized. 6. Makes recommendations concerning allocation of Troop Information and Education funds appropriated for Army Education Program activities, both in continental United States and oversea areas. 7. Consolidates world-wide statistics and other data pertinent to the field implementation of the Army Education Program. 8. Maintains liaison with Armed Forces I&E Division, OSD and USAFI, Madison, on educational matters pertaining to the Army Education Program, including recommendations for additions to or deletions from USAFI curriculum, 9. Supervises and coordinates Special College Programs for officers (SR 355-30-10), including maintenance of central record files, conduct of credit evalua- tion and advisement service, and perparation of official reports of educational achievements in the case of Regular Army officers and warrant officers. 10. Advises and assists concerned overseas Army Commands in the administration and operational control and logistical support of oversea United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI's) establishment to provide educational services and materials to military person- nel stationed outside the continental United Statesfl‘h thnformation Sheet, "Functions of the Education Branch, Troop Information and Education Division," (Washington: Published by the Education Branch, Troop Information and Education Division, Department of the Army, 1951). 30 THE EDUCATION PROGRAM IN THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES Within the Continental limits of the United States, there are six Armies and the Military District of washington. Each Army is comprised of numerous units of varying size and mission and each Army covers a geographical area of several States. The line of command goes from the Department of the Army level, through the Commanding General of the several Armies (Commanding General, USCONARC), through the Commanding Generals of the various Armies, to the individual military post. "The Commanding General of the Army delegates the responsibility of running and operating a military post to a Post Commander and charges him with the task of rendering logistical and administrative support to all units and troops on the post. Troop Information and Education was a matter of logistical support, and the responsibility for the implementa- tion of the program on the post level lay directly with the Post Com- manding Officer.)45 ’ The organizational plan of the Army Education Center must be con- sidered before the operation of the Army Education Program is clearly understood, but, it must also be recognized that the program at the post level can be extended only as far as the directives of the higher echelons will permit. Mention has been made of the writing, by the Army Troop Informa- tion and Education Division, of Army Regulations. AR 355-5, published on March 12, 1953, was one of these. This Army Regulation furnishes the following information: CERBerry, gp. cit., p. 80. 31 a. The Chief, Troop Information and Education Division, Office of the Chief of Information, Department of the Army, is responsible for the development of policy for and the staff supervision and coordination of troop information and education throughout the Army within policies established by the Secretary of Defense. b. The Chief, Army Field Forces is responsible for the direction, supervision, coordination and inspection of all troop information and education matters in the continental United States.... c. Commanders are responsible for the effective conduct of troop igformation and education within their com- mands....' Principles of Troop Education: a. Education within the Army must support military train- ing. The better educated a serviceman is the more readily he can assimilate military training; conversely, the presence of individuals with little understanding of reading, writing, and arithmetic usually necessi- tates a slow-up of military training. Troop education provides a program of academic and vocational subjects for military personnel in order that they may: 1) Improve their value to the Army. 2) Make profitable use of their spare time. 3) Have an opportunity to continue civilian education while in the Army. b. It is a function of command to insure that all assigned personnel obtain sufficient education to be able to read and understand written orders and basic training manuals. c. It is a responsibility of troop education to offer a varied program of academic and vocational subjects to military personnel wherever located so that they may have an opportunity to continue their schooling while in military service and be better prepared for the occupations of civilian life. d. Troop education must conform to the standards established by civilian educational institutions in order that Army personnel obtain maximum benefit from the classroom 7+6ery Regulations 355-5, "Troop Information and Education, General Provisions," Department of the Army (washington: 12 March 1953) p- 10- 32 instruction and in order that educational achievement of Army personnel will be generally acceptable for accreditation purposes by these institutions. 7 For the purpose of troop education, instructional areas are out- lined as follows: (a) English Language training for personnel so lacking in the English Language that they are unable to absorb success- fully basic training; (b) Basic education for those individuals who have not successfully completed the fifth grade either by test or classroom instruction while in the Army; instruction in this area con- sists of reading,writing and arithmetic; (c) Intermediate education for personnel who do not have a recorded educational level of eighth grade; (d) High School education for personnel who have completed eighth grade but have not yet completed the twelfth grade. Offerings in both voca- tional—technical and academic education are provided in the high school educational area; and (e) College level for those individuals who have completed high school but have not obtained a Bachelor's Degree.”8 The first priority and maximum effort was to be utilized in the elimination of the basic and non-English speaking categories through education. The second priority was completion of eighth grade by all non—commissioned officers, and priority number three was provision of group—study classes in those vocational-technical subjects related to military specialities. The fourth priority was the provision of educa- tional opportunities for Army personnel at all educational levels through college undergraduate, and the fifth and final priority allowed for the completion of at least two years of college by all L7ibid., pp. 10—11. 1+8Ibid., p. 11. .c!a||I||1.[l callll A’lll. Ill" {Bit} III I till: I ['1 . 1.! [1.1"]. '11“ 33 officers on active duty.l*9 Relative to scope within the provisions of AR 355-5, troop educa- tion provided group study classes in English language training as well as the basic, intermediate, high school and college areas. Competent military and civilian personnel were utilized as instructors. Pro- vision was made for enrollment of individuals in classes sponsored by accredited high schools, colleges, and universities; correspondence and self-teaching courses offered by USAFI; testing and examination services; and educational and vocational advisement.50 Personnel who required English language training received in- struction during normal duty hours. The following types of instruction were also authorized to be scheduled during normal duty time: classes in the basic area, and academic and vocational courses which aid in the training of military specialists or technicians. Ordinarily, participa- tion in the other educational areas was conducted during off-duty time.51 AR 355-5 called for the establishment of an Army education center at all military installations, except combat areas, servicing 1,000 troops or more. "An Army education center is utilized for meetings of classes or study groups, administration of tests and examinations, indi- vidual study, processing of USAFI enrollments, and conduct of educa- tional advisement. It may include class or study rooms, workshops, auditoriums, reference libraries, and other facilities for troop educa- tion activities."52 1*9Ib id . 5OIbid., p. 12. 51Ibid. 52Ibid., p. 13. 3h It is not within the scope of this study to consider all the changes that have occurred in the Army Education Program in the past decade. Nevertheless, some of the major changes must be considered as they have greatly affected the program in terms of both structure and accomplishments. On 1 February 1955 ... the United States Continental Army Command (USCONARC) was created in order to provide for more economical and effective direction of the six continental armies and the Military District of washington (MDW) in the United States. Its headquarters was located at Fort Monroe, Virginia. HQ. USCONARC, although a relatively young organization, is often referred to as the lineal descendent of General Headquarters (GHQ), United States Army, which was created in l9h0 in washington, D.C. GHQ was organized to facili- tate and speed up mobilization by taking over direct super- vision of the organizing and training of the field forces within the continental United States (CONUS). In March 19h2 the war Department was reorganized and three new commands were created--eArmy Ground Forces (AGF), Army Services Forces, and Army Air Forces. GHQ was termi- nated and its training functions transferred to AGF. The mission assigned AGF, with headquarters in washington, D.C., was to provide ground force units properly organized, train- ed, and equipped for combat. Thus, AGF took up where GHQ left off and additionally added responsibilities formerly vested in the chiefs of Infantry, Calvary, Field Artillery and Coast Artillery.... Following World war II, the Army was reorganized, elimi- nating the Army Service Forces and the nine service commands within CONUS. This move created the six continental armies and MDW. The armies were so organized that in the event of an outbreak of hostilities the tactical and administrative section could be separated with administrative elements assuming the duties and functions formerly handled by the old service commands. The tactical groups would be free to constitute a mobile tactical headquarters. In March l9h8, two years after it was moved to Fort Monroe, Hq AGF was relieved of much of its administrative responsibility for the armies so that greater effort could be concentrated on training. Hq AGF was redesignated the Office of the Chief of Army Field Forces. Command of the continental armies and MDW passed to Headquarters, Depart- ment of the Army, washington, D.C. Then on 1 February 1955, Headquarters, Continental Army Command was created with its commander responsible for com- mand of all the continental armies and MDW and the ground defense of the entire continental United States. On 1 January 1957 the "United States" was added to the name of the command, making it United States Con- tinental Army Command, or USCONARC as it is generally known . 5 3 One of the most important shifts in the Army Education Program was the separation of Troop Information and Troop Education. This sep- aration occurred formally on 26 October 1956 on which date it was pub- liShed in Department of Army Circular No. 355—6, as follows: 1. Recent Department of the Army actions reassigned staff responsibility for the educational development of mili- tary personnel from the Chief of Information to the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, and placed the office of the Chief of Information (including the troop information, public information, and civil liaison functions) directly under the Chief of Staff in the Department of the Army Staff organization. Comparable changes in staff organization throughout the Army Establishment are being implemented by appropriate directives. 2. These changes are designed, through a more appropriate staff organization, to: a. Facilitate the use of troop information as an integral part of command leadership. b. Insure that public and troop information activities, as separate but equal staff sections under an informa- tion officer reporting directly to the commander of his chief of staff, are closely coordinated and mutually supporting. c. Insure that Army Education Centers perform command responsive services and support Armyawide personnel procurement, training, and utilization objectives through standard civilian school courses of functional importance to the military profession. 3. In furtherance of the above concepts the following actions have been initiated: a. Changes to manning tables, including TOE's and TD Staffing Guides, in accordance with the organizational concepts in paragraphs 1 and 2 and the following: (1) At regimental and battalion levels the officer previously assigned additional duty as troop informa- tion and education officer will perform both troop and 53Past in Review: 1955-1962, United States Continental Army Command (Virginia: Headquarters, Fort Monroe) pp. 1-2. 36 public information staff functions, and in these capacities, function as a member of the commander's personal staff. (2) Implementation of the Educational Development of Military Personnel function, directly under the G1 (81) will be accomplished by carefully selected professional civilian personnel as follows: (a) Headquarters, Continental Army Command, Senior Education Adviser (Consultant or Coordinator). (b) Headquarters, major oversea command, Senior Education Adviser (Consultant or Coordinator). (c) Headquarters, ZI armies and Military District of washington, Senior Education Adviser). (d) Headquarters, post, camp, or station, Educa- tion Advisers (Army Education Center Administrators, and Test Control Officers). b. Revision of Army Regulations. AR 355-5, Troop Information, and AR 621-5, General Educational Develop- ment, superseding AR 355-5, AR 355-20, and AR 355-30, all dated 10 August 1955, will be published and distri- buted at an early date. c. Appropriate revisions to the military occupational specialties in the information and education fields will be accomplished in accordance with the organizational and occupational considerations given above. d. Revision of TM 28-210, Troop Information and Education. e. Revision of FM 101-5, "Staff Officers‘ Field Manual: Staff Organization and Procedure," to reflect changed organizational concepts. f. Deletion of MOS-directed troop education training from the Army Information School curriculum effective with class cycle beginning 28 October 1956. g. Effective with the first class cycle after 1 January 1957, two courses only will be offered at the Army Information School, one for information officers, and one for enlisted information specialists. Commanders will take appropriate action to: a. Discontinue use of the terms, "Troop Information and Education" and TI&E, "Troop Information" and "Educational Development of Military Personnel" will be applied to the separate activities, and "Information Activities" applied to embrace both troop and public information. b. Effect reorganization necessary to implement orga- nizational concepts in paragraphs 1 and 2. c. Reorient troop information and the program for the educational development of military personnel in accordance with the above concepts. 37 5. To implement actions outlined in paragraph A, commanders are authorized to make the necessary changes in TOE organizations pending publications of revised TOE‘s. Thus, the responsibility for developing policy relative to the General Educational Development Program was shifted to the Education Branch of the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel at Department of Army level. The responsibility for implementing the pro- gram was given to the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel (G1) at Head- quarters, Continental Army Command and Headquarters, major oversea command. From this level, the responsibility was delegated to the G1 of each of the several armies and MDW. Mr. Wilmot Jacobs was appointed the Director of General Educa- tional Development at USCONARC and, under the immediate supervision of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, has the responsibility of im- plementing the General Educational Development Program in the Continental United States. In this connection, directives are written under his guidance at USCONARC for the purpose of program.implementation. This has resulted in excellent guidance and augmentation of the G.E.D. Pro- gram in USCONARC. Presently, the chain of command is from Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Department of the Army (DCSPER) where policy is written; to DCSPER, USCONARC where emphasis and guidance is furnished in the form of USCONARC directives; to DCSPER at each of the several armies and MDW; and finally to the various Army Posts. (See chart 2). A Post Commander is delegated, by the Commanding General of the Army, the responsibility of running and operating a military post. He 514"Department of the Army Circular 355-6," (Washington: October 26, 1956). 38? CIART 2 CHAIN OF COMMAID RELATIVE TO EDUCATION IN U. Department of the Army 1 1 ? : First 1 Second Third | Fourth } g Army 1 ‘ Army \Army 1 Army ’ ; DCSPERI ‘DCSPEP. . DCSPER .‘DCSPER ) i i __L__ ’ . 1 Pest Pbst ‘ Post Pbst Level . Level Level Level I SIH i S1 '1 l 81 S1 I i 9 . 3 " | l I I ' Pest 1 0 Post ImP-Ost T Post ( Director‘ 3Directo Direch%r iDirector‘ ‘ of . 3 of 1 of of 1 ‘ GED . GED 1 GED ] , GED . ._GE1L_J * Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel. ._____...—fl Post . Directoi of i **FUnctions much the same at this level as does the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel at the higher echelons. 39 has the task of supporting, both logistically and administratively, all units and troops on the post. This includes the General Educational Development Program which relies upon the Post Commander for logistical support. 0n the staff of the Post Commander is an individual known as the 81 who functions at this level much the same as the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel at the higher echelons. A civilian educator ad- ministers the G.E.D. Program under the immediate supervision of the 81. It is at this level that the activities of the G.E.D. Program are actually conducted. Administration of the POS§_9:§LP;EE§9§I§T The Post Director of General Educational Development is in charge of the educational services program, with full responsibility for de- velopment, direction, maintenance, coordination, and adoption of the pro- gram to the changing needs of the installation. He determines personnel staff requirements for the Army Education Center and justifies required spaces to assure effective program implementation. He provides general supervision of all education center personnel, to include classroom teachers, test control officer, testing proctors, education advisers, and clerical and janitorial personnel. As the chief educational administrator, he makes final decisions on educa- tional matters referred to him by education advisers and other Army Education Center personnel. He is the final authority on the selection and retention of teaching staff (fee-contract personnel and military instructors). He writes local directives for implementing the educa- tion program at the installation level. He attends staff meetings to outside the education center and holds periodic staff meetings of the faculty, education advisers, and other Army Educational Center personnel. An important function of the Director is that of providing program guidance and justification of the education program. This has important implication in connection with the preparation of educational budget estimates, justification of funds and personnel, programming of educa- tional accomplishments, and the development of educational plans. To assure implementation of the education program, the director maintains a close working relationship with other sections and activi- ties, including Purchasing and Contracting, AG Officers and Enlisted Branches (personnel section), AG Publications, AG Reproduction, Finance, Comptroller, etc. The director assumes the responsibility for developing a sound and balanced education services plan in terms of the needs and desires of individuals and units stationed or satellited on the installation. This includes preparatory instruction, MOS-related (Military Occupational Specialty) instruction, high school courses, and college and University courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. He designs these pro- grams for the purpose of raising the educational levels of educationally deficient career non-commissioned officers, specialists, other enlisted men, warrant officers, and officers, and to accomplish the educational goals established for educational development of military personnel. In his supervisory capacity, the director assures sound counseling services for all personnel soliciting such services. This includes pro- viding educational advisers with the necessary requirements for effec- tive educational guidance. Al Another key aspect of the director's work is that of educational liaison agent. As such he develops methods to inform command relative to the contribution that college programs make toward the attainment of command missions and obtains the education services of colleges and universities in the implementation of such programs. This also means the maintaining of contact with local high school principals and superintendents for teacher recruitment purposes, salary schedule infor- mation, and the provision of high school instruction on or off the installation. As the responsible property officer, the Post Director of G.E.D. maintains stock control records on all accountable property. He also provides adequate classrooms and other facilities for effective teaching and testing programs. Other responsibilities include the accurate preparation and sub- mission to local and higher headquarters of all special and recurring reports pertaining to education activities; participation in Army educa- tion conferences at universities and at various command levels; and other duties as directed or required for successful program implemen- tation. It is of interest to note that immediately after the supervision of the Army's G.E.D. services in the Zone of the Interior was assigned to Assistant Chief of Staff, G1, USCONARC, the following, relative to this assignment and incident to the second and third quarters of 1957, took place: a. Completions of courses and academic programs at the elemen- tary, high school, and college levels (26,12h) during the second quarter increased l6% over the achievements of the preceding three months period. In the third quarter, these accomplishments (33,651) increased by an additional 28.8% and exceeded total completions in the corresponding period of the previous fiscal year by 27.5%. b. Officer participation in the college General Educational Development services was of particular interest: 10.2% of commissioned officer strength in the AI completed one or more areas of instruction; and in excess of 35% of the non-college graduates availed themselves of opportunities for college study.55 It is also noted from Department of the Army Circular 355-6 that the Army Education Program was designated as the General Educational Development Program, commonly known as the G.E.D. Program. This cir- cular also provided for the revision of Army Regulations. AR 621-5, General Educational Development, was to supersede AR 355-5, AR 355-20, and AR 355-30. This new Army Regulations, 621-5, was written by Colonel Curnel S. Hampton, and published on 20 February 1957, set the stage for significant growth and accomplishment relative to education in the United States Army. These accomplishments will be noted later in this study, but reference will first be made to AR 621-5 which has served as the basis for the augmentation of the program. Following are the principles as set forth in AR 621-5: a. Each successive level of Army Training and duty requires a higher degree of understanding. Education of the type provided in accredited civilian schools increases understanding and raises military performance potentials. b. The general educational development of Army Military personnel on a continuing basis supports procurement, train- ing, and utilization. 55Statistical reports on file in the Office of Director of General Educational Development, USCONARC. h3 c. Commanders who personally concern themselves in the general educational development of their personnel contribute importantly to the Department of the Army‘s personnel quality and prestige objectives. d. Achievement through voluntary study in subject areas of functional importance to the military profession or completion of course and test sequences, as defined or prescribed by the Department of the Army or concerned commandegs, will be accorded appropriate official recog- nition.5 It has already been mentioned that the formulation of policy governing the general educational development of military personnel is a function of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Department of the Army. The Adjutant General, Department of Army: monitors programs developed by major commanders; consolidates and analyzes worldwide activity and achievements; prepares data and narrative for the Army Progress Report; communicates directly with Office of Armed Forces Information and Educa- tion, Department of Defense, in all matters pertaining to the common services and materials provided by the United States Armed Forces Institute; and maintains liaison with national educational organizations.57 The Commanding General, United States Continental Army Command, and major oversea commanders have the function of assuring implementation of general educational development through enunciation of personnel quality objectives and standards achievable within the educational facilities of their respective commands.5 The goals as set forth in AR 621-5 reflect the rise in the educa- tional level of military personnel: General educational development goals are: a. For commissioned personnel, completion of programmed college-level studies in subject areas of fUnctional importance to the military profession. Courses of functional importance to the military profession are those comprising the subject 56Army Regulations 621-5, "General Educational Development," (Washington: February 20, 1957) p.2. 57Ibid. 58Ibid. “— Ah matter fields of the academic curriculum of the United States Military Academy and pertinent regulations of the 350-series governing the training of military personnel in civilian educational institutions. b. For warrant officers, the achievement of at least 2 years of college. c. For non-commissioned officers and specialists, com- pletion of high school course and test sequences and, as desired, continuing higher level studies. Preparatory instruction (as necessary), further Army Education Center or local civilian school or college classes, and correspondence study will assist concerned personnel in preparing theme selves for service schooling in critical specialties or otherwise increased responsibilities of career service. d. For all other Army military personnel, resumption and continuation of academic studies at appropriate levels as duties permit.59 AR 621-5 further directed that Army installations having a troop strength of 750 or more will maintain at least one Army Education Center, and that other posts will be satellited for education services upon a larger installation. The Army Education Center is headed by a professional educator (Department of Army Civilian-DAC) and provides counseling, registration, instructional, testing, and supply services to the commanders and personnel of all units stationed on or satellited to the installation. Army personnel stationed on installations utilize the Army Education Center in applying for USAFI courses and tests.60 The Department of Army Civilian mentioned above plans, coordi- nates, and administers command programs and education services under the immediate staff supervision of G1 or 81 at all echelons. This individual must be a qualified professional educator with baccalaureate or higher degrees and appropriate teaching and administrative ex- 61 perience. 591bid., p. 3. 6OIbid. 61Ibid., pp. 3-h. #5 Concerning the activities of the General Educational Development Program, instruction is limited to standard civilian school—type course work.62 Consideration of "classroom instruction" is of key importance in this study relative to the terms used on the accomplishment charts, and also for an understanding of the activities of an Army Education Center and the work of the adviser. (Presently called General Director of Educational Development.) Each education center may offer not more than 15 USAFI courses that may be offered regularly in unit or Army Education Center classes. These classes can be organized only when tén or more military students appear capable of regular attendance and course completion. Further- more, a class is discontinued when attendance at three consecutive meetings is less than five military students. No charge is made for USAFI materials issued for classroom in- struction. These texts are issued on a loan basis and are returned at the completion of the course. Classroom instruction also includes transitorial training for all nonprior service enlistees or inductees entering the Army from conti- nental United States who admit to less than a fourth grade education, or who had Aptitude Area GT scores of 75 or below. These persons were administered USAFI Achievement Tests II, and those scoring lhh or less were to be assigned immediately to Transitional Training Units (TTU‘s). Personnel assigned to TTU‘s received minimum of two weeks and a maximum of four weeks of transitional training consisting of reading, writing, @Ibid” p. 5. #6 arithmetic, citizenship, and selected military subjects. One of the important objectives of transitional training was the early detection and elimination of uneducable or maladjusted individuals.63 Preparatory instruction was emphasized as "essential for personnel whose aptitude area scores were below those re- quired for service school attendance, who do not have a come plete grammar school education, or who otherwise require review instruction on the adult level in English, arithmetic, history, geography and science to meet minimal obligations of career service as non-commissioned officers and specialists. Commanders may prescribe this instruction, and consistent with training and/or operational missions, the use of duty time is authorized. 1. Texts, teaching aids, and collateral reading ma- terials available from.USAFI may be utilized in appropriate combinations. Instruction will be validated by available USAFI end-of-course tests. 2. Appropriate evidence will be made an official part of the records of each individual who satisfactorily com- pletes one or more 20-hour blocks of classroom instruction in any one or a combination of subjects. 3. While preparatory instruction is intended primarily for concerned career non-commissioned officers and specialists, commanders may designate other individuals to undergo this prescribed classroom instruction gnder proper conditions and within budgetary limitations. 5 Classroom instruction further includes MOS-related instruction for personnel requiring or desiring instruction in MOS-related subjects, spoken foreign languages, and English language. Major commanders could prescribe activity within this area, and the program was comprised of courses of 20 or more hours duration designed specifically to serve unit needs or responsive to immediate MOS-related objectives of a num- ber of individuals. USAFI materials and Department of the Army 631bid. “ 6hlbid. w 65Ibid., p. 9. in publications were used wherever appropriate to course objectives. AR 621-5 made provision for military personnel to attend classes in civilian high schools, junior colleges, and h-year degree granting colleges or universities, provided such activity did not interfere in any way with the performance of their military duties. Generally, such permission was granted only for attendance after normal duty hours. Appropriated funds could be used to pay a portion of the tuition fees for Army Personnel attending classes at accredited civilian institu- tions; however, this portion was not to exceed three-fourths or $7.50 per credit hour, whichever is lower. In addition to the above mentioned civilian school program, a final semester plan was established which permitted selected officers to satisfy the traditional residence requirement for the baccalaureate degree or accredited civilian colleges and universities. Personnel involved in these programs received pay and allowances, but assumed all other expenses.66 Various changes to AR 621-5 have been made since the initial Regulations was published in February 1957. In August 1957, tran- sitional training was rescinded effective 1 September 1957 and prepara- tory instruction was given increased emphasis.67 Change 6 published July 30, 1958 added foreign language instruc- tion as an area to be emphasized in the General Educational Development Program. Also added in this change was emphasis on post-retirement 66Ibid., pp. lO-ll. 67AR 621-5 Change 5, "Education and Training: General Educa- tional Development,Tr (washington: Headquarters, Department of the Army, 23 May 1958) p. l. teaching careers. Civilian education advisers provide professional guidance to those desirous of extending their public service careers as teachers in the Nation‘s schools upon retirement.68 The G.E.D. Program Today On December 7, 1960, AR 621-5 was rewritten by Lt. Col. Louis Strehlow in an effort to clarify and to further emphasize certain por- tions of the Regulation. In this new AR 621-5, education advisers in charge of G.E.D. Programs at Post level were designated as Directors of General Educational Development; education advisers under the super- vision of the Post Director of G.E.D. have retained the title of educa- tion adviser.69 The new AR 621-5 states that commissioned officers who have al- ready attained the goal of attainment of at least a baccalaureate degree are encouraged to continue their professional growth through graduate studies leading to advanced degrees. Other personnel are also encouraged to raise the level of their educational attainment in terms of their potential.7O ‘ In this connection, a recent change in Army Regulations extends the Degree Completion Program to enlisted personnel. To be eligible, a soldier must possess high scholastic aptitude and be able to obtain a baccalaureate degree within 12 calendar months, or a graduate degree SPAR 621-5 Change 6, "Education and Training: General Educa- tional Development," (Washington: Headquarters, Department of the Army, 30 July 1958) p. l. 69AR 621-5, "Education and Training: General Educational De- velopment'| (washington: Headquarters, Department of the Army, 7 December 1960) p. 5. 70Ibid., p. 3. L9 within one semester or two quarters. Personnel selected for the pro- gram remain in full pay status, but all schooling expenses, including cost of travel, must be paid by the student.71 Another 1962 change in Army Regulations increased the amount of tuition assistance to Army personnel under the G.E.D. Program. The Army will now pay $13.50 per semester hour (increased from $7.50), or 75 percent of the tuition cost, whichever is lower. A recent addition to the facilities at education centers is the language laboratories. Dual track tape recorders in these laboratories provide excellent opportunities for students studying various foreign languages. AR 621-5 authorizes commanders to prescribe the use of duty time for the study of foreign languages, and military personnel are urged to become proficient in at least one foreign language. USAFI currently offers the serviceman a choice of over 200 corre- spondence courses. These courses range from elementary to college level. In addition, forty-three fully accredited American colleges and universities offer some 6,LOO courses to Armed Forces personnel. Enrollment for these courses is through USAFI; however, the colleges themselves determine each serviceman's eligibility for the specific courses. The prepared lessons are sent directly to the college conducting the course. Classroom instruction is offered in group study classes conducted by qualified civilian instructors at Army Education Centers. Mathe- matics, English, science, social studies, and foreign languages are 71AR 621-5 Change A, "Education and Training: General Educa- tional Development,Tr (Washington: Headquarters, Department of the Army, 13 September 1962) p. 3. among the popular courses being conducted. Enrollment in these group study classes is usually free of charge, and this extends to other MOS- related courses as well as preparatory instruction. Over 1200 colleges and universities in the Continental United States currently participate in the Resident College Program. Many colleges and universities conduct courses at Army installations and courses on their own compuses which are open to military personnel. This, then, is the Army General Educational Development Program. It has been a very successful program and has been primarily responsible for raising the educational level of Army personnel. The establishment and raising of educational goals is clearly seen by comparing Army Regulations over the past decade. As the educational level of Army personnel has continued upward, so have the goals been continually raised. In his study completed in 1952 relative to non-military education in the Army, Mr. Berry alluded to that which at the time of his study was not available, but which is included in the tables and graphs showing the accomplishments of the G.E.D. Program. He pointed out that "it is easily discernible that these specific objectives can be more easily measured over a period of time as statistical studies can objectively show accomplishments. Eventually, it will be possible to determine the extent to which the overall objectives have been achieved.“ It is now possible to determine the extent to which the overall objectives have been achieved, and the tables and graphs located in appendix A reflect the growth of the G.E.D. Program as well as the rise in educational levels. Data for these charts and tables was gathered from statistical reports on file in the office of the Director of General Educational Development, United States Continental Army Command, Fort Monroe, Virginia. Discussion of Accomplishments The average functional educational attainments of basic trainees in 1951-1952 were at the elementary level. Literacy instruction (later identified as transitional training) was instituted at training centers to provide educationally deficient persons with essential skills in reading, writing, simple arithmetic, health, sanitation, etc. In the ten year period 1951-1960, marked progress has been realized in the qualitative improvement of Army manpower. This improvement has been effected through changes in command emphasis in the procurement of quality personnel and on the educational development of the career soldier. The average educational level of total male enlisted strength as of February 1961, was 11.8 years with over 80% of EA‘s through E9's* having obtained high school graduation or better. The educational accomplishments of commissioned officers was 15.7 school years, with 62% having obtained college baccalaureate or higher degrees. Since this time, the level has continued to rise. Thus, the capabilities and educational attainments of commissioned and enlisted personnel now stand at the highest level in the history of the Army. Comparison of accomplishments in the individual program.areas for the period 1951-1960 is set forth in Table I, Appendix A. Table II in *Present system of rank for enlisted men. Rank goes from E-l through E-9. 52 Appendix A presents a comparison of educational level surveys for the Continental United States for the period 1958-1962. The graphs in Appendix A should be studied as a unit for a better understanding of the total accomplishments in the G.E.D. Program, For most of the graphs, the length of time covered is nine years. Account- ing on a fiscal basis was not started until 1954. Reporting was done on a different basis in 1953; therefore, for the graphs, data was not available for 1953 with the same degree of accuracy as data for the subsequent years. It should be pointed out, however, that much empha- sis was placed on transitional training during this period, and the accomplishments were very rewarding. With reference to the graphs in Appendix A, it should be noted that the numerical strength of the ZI Armies (Zone of Interior) and Military District of Washington has varied every year for the past decade. If the numerical strength would have remained for the succes- sive nine years what it was in 1952, it can be assumed that the graphs would reflect this in terms of accomplishments. Total accomplishments in the G.E.D. Program in the Continental United States have continued to increase even though the numerical strength of the ZI (Zone of Interior) Armies is under that which it was in 1952-53. A brief analysis is recorded on each graph to help explain and clarify the graphs individually and as a unit. Summagy The General Educational Development Program, formerly the Army Education Program, had a cautiously slow begining in the early stages of the program. During the First WOrld war, the Army's Education Pro- gram was closely associated with Mbrale. A Morale Branch of the Army was established in 1941, and under excellent leadership in this Branch, the education program experienced rapid expansion. The education program.was confined largely to the field of leisure time until the outbreak of war in 1941, after which time consideration was given to helping Army Commanders maintain high morale and increase the efficiency of military personnel, and also to educating military personnel for the resumption of civilian life. Three educational ac- tivities evolved to meet these objectives: USAFI, off-duty education, and the post-hostilities program. These activities have all con- tributed much relative to success of the Army’s Education Program. The education section experienced a number of changes relative to position in the Army's structure; however, in the Spring of 1945, Information and Education was separated from Special Services and was established as an independent division in the European Theater. The Army Education Program remained a part of the Information and Education Division until 1956, at which time it was separated from Troop Informa- tion and placed under the Education Branch of the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel at Department of the Army level. Under the Troop Information and Education Division, the Army Education Program.was regulated by Army Regulations 355-5. After the break from the information division, AR 621—5 was published and subse— quently rewritten. It is under AR 621-5 that the G.E.D. Program was so named and presently operates. 54 The G.E.D. Program.has demonstrated its value to the Army, to the nation, and to the individual and has thereby continued to gain in- creased command support. The objectives for the program have been varied, and the emphasis has been changed numerous times due to the rise in the educational level of military personnel. Accomplishments have been significantly great, and the present educational level of military personnel is the highest in the history of the United States Army. CHAPTER THREE A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE It is important that a program, as vast and complex as the G.E.D. Program, be administered in conformity with well established principles and practices of educational administration. It is recognized, however, that the G.E.D. Program is a unique program of adult education, and, as such, must carefully select only those principles and practices which are important to this program. The administrative framework in educational administration con- sists of many components. The Post Director of G.E.D. is an educational administrator Charged with the responsibility of implementing and ad- ministering a comprehensive adult education program" The administration of this program includes the administrative components alluded to above. The Post Director of G.E.D. must, within the framework of AR 621-5 and USCONARC Directives, organize and plan the education program.for his respective post. This includes personnel administration, organization and administration of the guidance program, instructional supervision, finance, educational plant and maintenance, public relations, and other facets such as records administration, supply management, etc. Every facet of the administrative framework must be carefully implemented and no aspect should be neglected. Some aspects, however, are more crucial to the overall success of the program than are other aspects. Interviews with a number of Army Post Directors of G.E.D. 55 56 revealed that guidance, supervision, and personnel administration are three aspects of administration in the G.E.D. Program which are of great importance. This chapter contains a large number of principles and practices gathered from a review of the literature pertaining to these three areas. Principles and practices listed on the rating forms were taken from the various lists in this chapter. SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Moore and Walters define supervision as "the emotional, intellec- tual and professional leadership of groups of teachers as they study and improve all of the factors involved in the creative act of teaching."1 The ultimate aim of supervision, then, is the improvement of instruction and accomplishment of program objectives. The teaching profession is very much affected by factors of a pro- fessional, economic, and social nature. It is also true that the influence exerted by these factors will vary relative to time, climate, prosperity, geographical areas, emergencies, community attitudes, and other conditions.2 In this connection, it seems important to note that, generally, the largest part of the faculty of an education center is comprised of part-time employees paid on a fee basis. These people are usually instructors from nearby local schools and colleges and are engaged on a fee basis for services separate and complete in themselves. lEflndn.Reeder, Supervision in the Elementary School, (Boston: Houghton Miffin Company, 1953) p. 167. 53W111iam.As Yeager, .Administration and the Teacher, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954) p{—49. 57 These instructors are employed as independent contractors and, as such, function somewhat differently from those instructors employed on a full-time basis in this program or full-time positions in public educa- tion. Also included in the instructional staff are full-time civilian personnel who are classified employees of the Department of the Army and who are appointed to the respective positions under Civil Service Regu- lations. Qualified military personnel may also be members of the in- structional staff. Finally, accredited schools and colleges, with whom contracts are negotiated and who have military personnel enrolled, pro- vide instructors. It is the first three groups in whom we are primarily interested in terms of this study. It is recognized that only qualified teachers are accepted as members of the instructional staff. It is assumed that these people have potential as successful teachers in this particular adult educa- tion program. It is the purpose and function of supervision to insure that these capabilities and potentialities are developed to the fullest possible extent. There are a number of different objectives in the G.E.D. Program; therefore, a further function of supervision is to make certain that the instruction is being directed toward the objective for which the class has been established and that the learning situation be conducive to the accomplishment of those objectives. According to Grieder and Rosen- tengel: In order to improve instruction, there is a definite need to evaluate the effectiveness of the total instruc- tional program. In other words, how well is the instruc- tional program doing what it purposed to do? Before a teacher can improve his work to any great extent, he needs to know how closely he has come to the realization of his 58 objectives or purposes.3 All too often instructional supervision is misunderstood and mis- interpreted to mean the type of supervision which is dictatorial and autocratic. According to Bartky, "Freedom to teach requires freedom from dictation."h The realistic question which faces administrators and supervisory consultants is not whether evaluations will be made, but on what basis and under what conditions one shall act on the choices before him. Burton and Brueckner state that "supervision is both scientific and democratic and that dynamic methods of problem solving are more important than insistence on rigid adherence to formal methods."5 Contrasts in supervision can be clearly seen in the following:6 Traditional Modern 1. Inspection 1 Study and analysis 2. Teacher-focused 2. Focused on aim, material 3. Visitation and conference method, teacher, student, 4. Random and haphazard, or and environment. a meager formal plan. 3. Many diverse functions. Imposed and authoritarian 4. Definitely organized and One person usually. planned. Derived and cooperative. Many persons. O\\D 0\\n Thus we note that, formerly, supervision was largely "directing", but today we realize that it must depend upon "leading". Educational 3C. Grieder and W. E. Rosentengel, Public School Administration, (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1954) p. 253. 1+John A. Bartky, Supervision as Human Relations, (Boston: Heath and Company, 1953) p. 4. 5William H. Burton and Leo J. Brueckner, Supervision: A Social Process, (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, Inc., 1955) p. 82. 6Ibid., p. 13. 59 leadership is mostly the art of working with people, and the term leadership describes a relation between persons.7 Mbreover, modern supervision is considerably broader in its scope than were earlier con- cepts and practices. It is recognized that modern supervision is co- operative and seeks to enlist co-operative efforts of the entire staff in the study of the educational problems.8 According to Elsbree and McNally, "Evaluation of the Program is the heart of the modern program of 'instructional improvement'. It is the expression of the experimental philosophy which undergirds and permeates the modern approach."9 Evaluation is the process of making judgments that are to be used as a basis for planning. It consists of establishing goals, collecting evidence concerning growth or lack of growth toward goals, making judgments about evidence, and revising procedures and goals in light of judgments. It is a procedure for improving the product, the process, and even the goals themselves. Evaluation is an important phase of group leadership. It is the procedure through which a supervisor can bring about group self-improvement. Reeder points out that the real aim of supervision is the improve- ment of teaching, which must be a combination of improving the ways in which teachers think and the quality of the things they do.ll 7Wahlquist _e_t. sin The Administration of Public Education, (New YOrk: The Ronald Press Company, 1952) p. 263. 8Willard S. Elsbree and Harold J. McNally, Elementary School Administration and Supervision, (New York: American Book Company, 1951) p- 399. 9Ibid. , p. 1131. loKimball Wiles, Supervision for Better Schools, (New York: llReeder, op, cit., p. 16. 60 In the final analysis, good teaching is predicated on a proper balance of its professional aspects. There must be no conflict between the science and the art of education, and the ideals of good teaching. Each must be related to the other and all brought into proper per- spective. The problem is how best to accomplish it.12 Wiles points out that the supervisor‘s confidence in teachers is of utmost importance. Some teachers lose their enthusiasm and desire to grow professionally and to be better teachers. This is the result of lack of faith on the part of supervisors toward teachers, and also as a result of "frustrations in the teaching situation which has led them to feel that official leadership does not believe they are important."l3 Instructional and program evaluation is not confined to the public school system, but is included also at higher levels. Kelly reported on the returns from 727 institutions which revealed that college and university presidents and deans generally agree that their institutions should be doing more than they are to improve instruction.lh Although controversy continues to exist relative to the evaluation of faculty performance, there is fairly common agreement about the need for objective appraisal. Tead has this to say about it. "There will have to be more intelligent and continuous follow-up of teaching by deans, department head, and other competent advisors, including sympa- thetic class visitation. Also, methods of periodic teacher evaluation will have to be evolved and utilized more systematically."15 l2Yeager, op. cit., p. 15. 13w11es, op. cit., p. 91. lhEdwin J. Kelly, Toward Better College Teaching, (Washington: Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin Number 13, 1950) pp. h6-h7. l50rdway Tead, College Teaching and College Learning, (NeW'Haven: Yale University Press, l9h9) p. A9. 61 Tead further states that "One procedure of tested value in this connection is the development of an accepted practice of class visita- tion by teachers upon other teachers. Nothing can be more disturbing and more stimulating to an open-minded teacher than to attend the sessions of another teacher with kindred subject-matter problems, especially if he is a good exemplar of the art."16 Beecher and Bump stressed that all members of the instructional staff should have an opportunity to participate in the formulation of standards and procedures to be recommended in faculty appraisal.l7 Likewise, Tyler asserted that evaluations should be conducted coopera- tively and that action should be taken only when wide agreement exists.18 woodburne suggested that "Teaching effectiveness may be evaluated by some of the following forms of evidence: student opinion polls, the judgment of colleagues, the judgment and performance of former students."19 Tyler held that uncertainty concerning the uses to which it will be put is one of the major sources of confusion in faculty evaluation. He indicated that the first step in appraising faculty services is to determine the uses to which the evaluations will be put. Among the possible purposes, he suggested that faculty evaluations provide: 16Ibid., p. L7. 17Dwight E. Beecher and Janet W. Bump, The Evaluation of Teaching in New Ybrk State, (Albany: The University of the State of New Ybrk, 1950) pp- 33-36} 18Ralph W. Tyler, "The Evaluation of Faculty Services," Problems of Faculty Personnel, Chapter 12, John Dale Russel Ed., (Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1956) p. 198. 19Lloyd S. WOodburne, Principles of College and University Ad— ministration, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 19§8) pp. 69-70. 62 (1) evidence to determine the retention of faculty members, (2) bases for salary recommendations and promotions in rank, (3) bases for im- provement, diagnosis of weaknesses and strengths, (h) bases for making faculty assignments, and (5) means for checking the administrator's effectiveness in supervision.20 The improvement of the learning situation cannot be provided by centering supervisory attention upon teaching techniques. The teaching is the product of the teacher's total experiences. To improve instruction, supervision must provide: leadership that develops a unified educa- tional program and enriches the environment for all teachers; the type of emotional atmosphere in which all are accepted and feel that they belong; opportunities to think and work together effectively as a faculty group; personnel procedures that give the teacher confidence in the educa- tional program; and program change based on honest evalua- tion.21 Thus, the Army General Educational Development Program can ill- afford to neglect the practices of instructional supervision. It is true that not all educational programs require the same amount or the same types of supervision; nevertheless, within the broad meaning of the term, some type of supervisory program is essential to the accom- plishment of program.objectives, enhancement of the learning situation, and the human relations aspect relative to teachers. QOTyler, op. cit., Chapter 12. 21Wiles, op. cit., p. 17. 63 Principles and Practices of Supervision Burton and Brueckner point out that "supervision on a functional service basis is a necessary, integral part of any general educational program ..."22 A number of reasons are listed by them in support of this, one of which - in particular - seems to apply to the Army General Educational Development Program. Education is developing so rapidly that educational workers in general cannot possibly keep abreast of current developments. Supervisory services will bring to all mem- bers of the staff analyses and discussions of research findings, new departures, and creative suggestions. Burton and Brueckner also discuss the nature of supervisory plan- ning and some of its underlying principles. In this connection, they assert that the supervisory program should be a cooperative enterprise 1 involving teachers, supervisors, administrators, and students.24 This same idea is also suggested by a number of other authoris on the subject. Melchior points out that teachers should cooperate in the selection of textbooks and other instructional supplies and equipment.25 Ashby notes that effective supervision grows out of group thinking and group planning.26 22Burton, op: cit., p. 17. 23.9.1.9.- 241bid., pp. 130-131. 25WilliamT. Melchior, Instructional Supervision: A Guide to Mbdern Practice, (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1950) p. R30. 26Lloyd W. Ashby, "What Supervisory Practices Promote Teacher Growth and Cooperation?," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 36 (April 1952), pp. 26-32. 6h The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, in their list of characteristics of the group process, note that all action is cooperative.27 Grant Rahn notes that teachers should share in deciding what to do.28 Beecher,29 Elsbree and McNally,30 and Yeager3l point out that evaluation is also a cooperative process. Still on the theme of cooperative action, Burton and Brueckner suggest that the educational product be evaluated at various stages of development, in the light of accepted objectives, by means of suitable instruments and procedures of appraisal.32 Tb this end, they suggest that an analysis sheet be developed cooperatively for use by teachers, principals, and supervisors in the study of instructional practice. Melchior33 and Beecher3"+ also state that an analysis of objectives should be developed. Thus, it appears that cooperative action is im- portant for all educational programs where instructional supervision is practiced. 27lbid. 28Grant Rahn, "Appraising the Supervisory Program," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 3h (December 1950), pp. 281-288. - 29DWight E. Beecher, "Judging the Effectiveness of Teaching," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 3h )December 1950), pp. 270-281. 3OWillard S. Elsbree and Harold J. McNally, Elementary School Administration and Supervision, Second Edition, (New York: American Book Company, 1959), pp. 188-190. 31Yeager, op, cit., pp. 317-318. 32Burton, op. cit., p. 132. 33Ibid. 3hBeecher, op, cit., pp. 270-281. 65 Elsbree and McNally assert that, in the program of instructional improvement, the supervisory program should be functional.35 Burton and Brueckner state that the supervisory program.should be flexible.36 Mechior notes that "the evaluation techniques and procedures used should be as broad as the goals of the program.."37 Relative to the characteristics of an acceptable supervisory plan, "the details will differ widely with varying situations and groups. Certain common features should appear regardless of location or of the groups doing the planning. "38 A broad, flexible, and functional program of instructional supervision would include basic concepts in the evaluation of teaching, the application of basic principles, and the development and implementation of sound practices of instructional supervision. In this connection, Beecher presents the following basic concepts in the evalua- tion of teaching: 1. Basic concepts in the evaluation of teaching: Evaluation is a co-operative process. Evaluation is a guidance procedure. There should be adequacy and availability of evidence. Appraisal should be continuous rather than periodic. Teacher fear of appraisal should be dispelled. Findings of evaluation should be used. Ratings can be constructive. Teaching objectives are the criteria of evaluation. S‘OQP'tmDJOU‘SD 2. Applying the basic principles of evaluation: a. Validity. b. Reliability. c. Adequacy and availability of evidence. 35Elsbree, op: cit., pp. 188-190. 36Burt0n, op. cit., pp. 130-131. 37Melchior, op, cit., pp. h3h-h35. 38Burton, op: oi£., p. 132. 66 d. Objectivity. e. Relative values of weights and scores.39 In the literature concerning supervision, much has been said relative to evaluation of teaching. Burton and Brueckner note that the supervisory program should provide for the "evaluation of the educa- tional product at various stages of development, in the light of accepted objectives, by means of suitable instruments and procedures of appraisal." #0 In this regard, and relative to Beecher’s basic concepts of evaluation, Melchior furnishes the following, which he calls a Report on Guiding Concepts of Teacher Evaluation: Shane l. and WWI—4 The first and major purpose of any evaluation procedure should be helpfulness. The process should be continuous, allowing much opportunity for teacher self-evaluation and supervisory conferences to the end that each teacher may achieve his maximum.potential contribution to the school program, The process should be consistent with democratic phi- loSOphy. The individual teacher should participate in his own evaluation and contribute to his own confidential record of exceptional service. The process should be in accord with an effective learning situation. ' The evaluation techniques and procedures used should be as broad as the goals of the program. While a high degree of objectivity is to be desired, it must be recognized that strictly objective procedures in teacher evaluation are too limited adequately to serve the purpose. Where judgments enter into the record of observable activities, they should be made in consulta- tion with the teacher concerned and there should be no judgments of his effectiveness in the absence of supporting evidence.41 Yauch note the following steps in the evaluation process: Sensing a problem. Clarifying values that bear on it Developing criteria for studying the problem. 39Beecher, op. cit., pp. 270-281 L‘OBurton, op. cit., p. 132. thelchior, op: cit., pp. h3h-h35. CD40 U141" 67 Expressing the criteria in terms of desirable behavior. Establishing situations in which the behavior can be studied. Using instruments or procedures in the study of behavior. Analyzing the behavior change. Taking action compatible with the findings}‘2 Elsbree and MeNally list the following characteristics of good evalua- tive procedure in the program.of instructional improvement: 1. win h. 5. 6. Evaluation should be comprehensive: teaching, organiza- tion, administration, supervision, materials, equipment, curriculum, etc. Evaluation should be cooperative. Evaluation should be based on valid criteria. The cri- teria which are used in the evaluation should be consistent with the accepted philosophy and objectives of the staff. Evaluation should be diagnostic. Evaluation should be continuous. Evaluation should be functional)‘3 Regardless of the specific aspect of the supervisory program, general principles should provide guidelines along which practices or procedures would follow. Reeder and Ashby offer a number of general principles in connection with what supervision should be: 1. Supervision will re-direct and improve the work of the average and mediocre teacher. The standards and program of supervision must be fully understood by those supervised as well as by the super- visors. Supervision must develop and encourage on the part of the teachers, initiative, self reliance, intelligent independence, responsibility. It must capitalize on the teachers' ability and experience. The administrative aspect of supervision is secondary to the pedagogical. When supervision is inspectorial, it should never be simply that and nothing more. JUdgments should not be passed on the basis of brief inspectorial visits. The supervisor must be specifically and definitely trained for his work. tion, tharold G. Shane and Wilbur A. Yauch, Creative School Administra- (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 195k) p. 80. ' 1+3Elsbree and MCNally, op: cit., pp. 188-190. 68 7. The type of democratic leadership involved in super- vision demands the yery highest type of well rounded, poised personality.44 Ashby suggests the following as principles of good supervision: 1. Effective supervision is first of all concerned with attempting to build good morale. 2. Effective supervision finds ways and means to utilize and release the talents of teachers, students, and lay persons. 3. Effective supervision grows out of group thinking and group planning. h. Effective supervision goes hand in hand with curriculum developmen t. 5. Effective supervision respects those with whom the superior works. As mentioned earlier, sound practices or procedures of supervision are necessary for the implementation of basic principles. Melchior states that "the techniques employed by supervisors, which may well be called procedures of supervision, are concerned with many activities in "A6 which the instructional personnel are involved. Much has been written relative to methods and devices for supervision. Many of these techniques have been in use for years and are still considered to be as valuable as ever. Tb make it possible for these supervisory devices to be identified effectively, they have been divided tra- ditionally into two general classifications: (1) group devices and (2) individual devices. It is pointed out that no one device is, in and of itself, better for use than another; rather, each of them.has been proved to be sound upon occasions when the supervisory situation called for the employment of that particular method. Since the maximum growth and improvement of the teachers in service is the main goal for the supervisor, he must'be familiar with all of these devicei. Listed alphabetically, these supervisory devices are: 7 44Reeder, Edwin, op. cit., pp. 1-10. "5Ashby, op. cit., pp. 26-32. 46Melchior, _p: cit., p. h3h. 47J. 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