AS H “.ELP'fiIa-‘a - , PROGRAMMENG F mums m me C mucmom o emwmw ' mm; Effie $6!ng 0?“). 'D. - MECHQGAN SERGE UNNERSWY ~ Maurice G. Mame @652 LIBRARY " Michigan State University THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF PLANETARIUM PROGRAMMING AS IT RELATES TO THE SCIENCE EDUCATION OF ADULTS IN THE COMMUNITY presented by Maurice G. Moore has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Administration 8 degree in__._____ ‘ Higher Education Kipélzefl/ Maj\o; professor 8/18/65 Date 0-169 AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION CF PLANETARIUM PROGRAI‘EMING AS IT RELATES TO THE SCIENCE EDUCATION OF ADULTS IN THE COMMUNITY BY Maurice G. Moore AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1965 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF PLANETARIUM PROGRAMMING AS IT RELATES TO THE SCIENCE EDUCATION OF ADULTS IN THE COMMUNITY by Maurice G. Moore This study was concerned with the discovery of differ- ernees that existed between adults in a community who attended gilanetarium programs and adults in a community who did not. flflne measurement of these differences was confined to aspects of‘lnedia participation, attitude differences, and vocabulary Inacognition. The study was designed so that the discovery 81nd measurement of these differences would provide the plan- tatardunlprogrammer, not only with a more adequate means of ixientifying the participating adult, but also with some method of'xneasuring the effectiveness of current programming in a ccnnmunity where a major planetarium functions as an agent for ciispersement of astronomical and related sciences. The total pOpulation for the study was randomly selected frmnn a comprehensive list of adult education classes offered byr'the Mott Adult Education Program of the Flint Board of Ed- P'T‘r 4‘ a\\"‘- ) ucationo VGA/MAJ v'v‘- !Y :75 a C A total of one hundred seven adults enrollgd In eight Iclasses responded to a twelve-item inventory sheet designed 'ma reflect the data necessary for the study. This total pOp- ulaticmiwas then divided into two sub-groups, attending and non-attending adults, and a comparison of the two groups was - 2 _ C. "J .. s x . a: . . .IO rm q . a; a: .: . . . . . Iii a.“ » éng '1. I'm}: ' h. ‘ . .._...--'d '0 Q. I I Q‘N .u‘u . .- .. b. '~.‘ § A O§ vs 5 ‘ . V‘ .a. to V' ‘nc‘ H‘ \u. ?2 «a Q. :L _ 3 _ made in accordance with the objectives of the study. The analysis of the data in each of the two sub-groups varied slightly due to omitted or illegible reSponses on the part of the reSpondent. The findings revealed that the two groups were quite dissimilar in their media habits. Adults who do not attend planetariums tend to read more books than do those who do attend but they do not read newspapers as often. Although adults who attend planetarium programs also attend more mov- ies, thdfspend significantly less time watching television. The findings also revealed that those adults who did not at- tend planetarium programs Spent more time per week listening to radio broadcasts than do those who do attend the programs. From the data collected from the inventory sheet it was possible to determine that the attitude the adult holds con- cerning space research exPenditures, although influenced by factors such as age, is influenced even more, greater than the one per cent level of confidence, by his attendance at planetarium programs. The findings also indicated that multiple exposure of the adult to planetarium programs made a highly significant difference in the number of words recognized from a special- ized glossary of Space terms. When the multiple attending adult was compared to the single attending adult it was found that a level of confidence greater than 99.9 per cent existed in favor of the frequent attender of planetarium programs. -lL- This study represents an effort to identify and measure with care a segment of the adult community where a planetar— ium functions as a pOpular interpreter of a Specialized body of knowledge. It is hoped that additional studies will even- tually produce a body of knowledge which will give the plane- tarium educator a clearer picture of the peOple with whom he works. Only when this picture has been completed, through additional research, will the planetarium director be able to improve programming in order to meet the needs of the adult in contemporary society. AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF PLANETARIUM PROGRAMMING AS IT RBLATES TO THE SCIENCE EDUCATION OF ADULTS IN THE COMMUNITY BY (‘1 r? O Maurice G. Moore A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1965 ACENOWLEDGJMSNTS The writer wishes to express his gratitude and appre- ciation to Dr. Harold J. Dillon, Chairman of his Guidance Committee, for his encouragement and guidance during the planning of this study and preparation of this thesis. Ap— preciation is also extended to the other members of the Guidance Committee: Dr. Clyde R. Campbell, Dr. David C. Ralph/and Dr. Lawrence Battistini who provided the concep- tual and organizational insights necessary for the comple- tion of the project. The author wishes to acknowledge his Special indebted- ness to Dr. Myrtle Black who made the resources of the Mott Adult Education PrOgram available to the writer. Also, Spec- ial mention must be made of the area coordinators and class- room teachers who so capably assisted in the distribution and collection of the questionnaires from which the data of this study were derived. A CKN (FAIL EDGE‘II'MN T8 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. THE SEARCH FOR ORDER IN MODEL . . . . . Introduction . . . ,., . . . . . . The Great Departure . . . . . . . The DevelOpment of Major Planetar- iums in the United States . . . THE NEED FOR ASTRONOMICAL EDUCATION IN THE SPACE ORIENTED SOCIETY . . . . . Astronomy at the Primary and Sec- ondary Levels of Education . . . Astronomy and Higher Education . . Astronomy and Adult Education . . SCOpe and Limitations . . . . . . The Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . EXISTING PRCGRAIJIMING IN THE MAJOR PLANETARIUMS . . . . . . . . . . . . The K-lZ Programming in Major Planetariums . . . . . . . . . . Planetarium Education and the College and University . . . . . Adult Education and the Plane- tarium . . . . . . . . . . . . . EL fl‘iEIq TS C F P-{C GRADLII'i IN G o o o o o o o 0 Preparing the Materials . . . . . Preparing the Advertising . . . . Radio Advertising . . . . . . . . Television Advertising . . . . . . NewSpaper Advertising . . . . . . Oral Communication in the Plane- tarium . . . . . . . . . . . . . - iii - Us kUP' F“ 18 23 26 3O 31 32 36 no as 51 5s 61 63 66 h‘Ui.-— _ y - - Von-II. o—l-c I. 'V‘ "0 Io. 1-‘\ o '- r A , ‘- ~n'. CHAPTE1 VI. VII. -iv- CONTENTS (Continued) THE PILOT THE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA SUI-31A RY, CONCLUSIONS AND BIBL IO GRAPHY . APPENDICES STUDY The Composite Problem . Sc0pe and Limitations The Instrument Distribution . Grouping the ReSponses Analysis of Sex Differences in Media EXposure The Analysis of Newspaper Reading Order . Vocabulary Recognition and Plane- tarium EXperienoes Planetarium Experiences and the Expression of Attitude Revision of the Measuring Instru- ment Selection of Frame and Units Method of Procedure A General Analysis of the POpula- Statistical Treatment of the Data A Specific Analysis of Media Habits as Related to Adults Planetariums and Adults Who Do tion . in the Study . Not Summary . Conclusions and Recommendations RE C OIQMEN DA T ION S Concluding Statement . Who Attend Sampling 72 72 73 75 78 79 El . 83 51.- as 88 88 89 93 93 96 98 .111 111 113 115 118 121 A "4‘ 1‘" .1 i'l.‘ ' q‘-v - n T ‘ coo--4 -“. ‘Q Q'. ‘0 at. £1 TABLE I. II. III. VI. VII. VIII. IX. LIST OF TABLES DSTLRLILAIION CF THE ATTITUDE OF THE PUB- LIC RELATIONS PRCG1AP OF THE LCNGNAY PLANETAfiIUK o o o o o o o o o o o o o o SELEC“ED CLASSES, CUR ICULUHL ESIGNATION DISPOSITION OF TL? CLASSES USE D IN THE STULY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O COMPARISON OF DIFFERENCES IN MEDIA EXPO- SURE FREQ RICY BE THEE? THOSE ADULTS ‘WHO ATTEND PLANETARIUM PROGRAMS AND THOSE WHO DO NOI . . . . . . . . . . . . NEWSPAPER READING ORDER PIEEERDNCES . . . AN ANALYSIS OF CROSS- CULTURAL RESPONSES bAPflDDDDD IN TCTALS AND PERCJNTAJSS o 0 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF AGE AS A FACTOR IN ATTITUDE FORMATION . . . . . . . . . ANALYSIS OF VARIANEC HELATDIG SEX TO AGE . SINGLE AND MULTIPLE PLANETARIDM EXPER- EHCES AS RELATED TO VOCAEULAHY RECOGNITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLANE 'TARIUM ATTENDERS AND NCN- APTSnDDIS AS RELATE D TC VOCABULARY RECOGNITION . . Page 56 92 99 102 1011 105 106 108 110 CHAPTER I THE SEARCH FOR ORDER IN MODEL Introduction: Those who erroneously label "the space age" as being born during October of 1957 are incorrect by approximately one hundred million years. It is far more realistic to as- sume that the age of Space and the age of man commemorated their advent simultaneously. Perhaps it would be wiser for us, in attempting to apply an historical label, to separate eras by employing the terms consideration and conquest. It is true that we might correctly position the age of conquest in 1957, but it is equally true that the age of considera- tion must be linked unequivicgably with the age of reason. Etymologically Speaking, it is interesting to note that the word "consider," meaning to reflect upon, has its foundation in the word constellation since so much of man's early thought concerned itself with the discovery of his immediate and ul- timate position in his universe. There is a natural desire among men to bring order to that which is seemingly without order and to give form to that which is apparently formless. The reasons this desire lay fallow for so many centuries was that superimposed over the desire was the belief that the great celestial sphere was - 1 _ - 2 - the spawning ground of the supernatural. Ordering for the sake of understanding was impossible in such an environment. The pragmatic studies of celestial motion by the Egyp- tians and the Babylonians were soon to be wedded to the phil- osophic inquiries of the Greeks. This wedding, plus the gradual decay of the stellar god system, was reSponsible for jproducing, first of all, the celestial Sphere, and secondly, the planetarium as we now conceive of it. Both devices were instituted to produce an ordered awareness in a great univer- sal schematic. Helmut Werner has written, perhaps, the only complete historical treatment of this quest for understanding as it pertains to the development of the visible universe model. Werner speculates that the first celestial globe was prob- ably constructed by Anaximander in the sixth century B.C., but this speculation is based entirely on the fact that it was Anaximander who first eXpounded the Spherical nature of the universe.1 If we define the word "planetarium" as it is defined in Hgbster's New world Dictionary, then we must assume that in order for a model to be rightly considered a planetarium the relative motions of selected celestial objects must be por- trayed. The latter part of Webster's definition of the word, _ 1' Helmut Werner, From the Aratus Globe to the Zeiss Elanetarium, trans. A. H. Degenhardt (Stuttgart, 1957?: P. 1h. _ 3 - ". . .the relative motion of the planets around the sun. . ," must be purposely ignored since the heliocentric system was not widely accepted until sometime after the publication of 'the Copernican book dealing with celestial motion. The first evidence we have of a model capable of demon- :atrating such motion indicates that it was designed by Arche- xnedes in the second century B.C. Sulpicius Gallus' communi- cation.with Cicero tells us that such an instrument was taken :from Syracuse in 212 B.C. and ultimately carried to Rome where 2 ‘Whether it was the it was placed in The Temple of Virtue. cxriginal designed by Archemedes himself, as Dr. King reported to the annual general meeting of the British Astronomical As- sociation in 1960,3 that was so honored, or whether it was Sinmfly'a,c0py of the original, as Werner"L supposes, there can be no question as to the authenticity of its existence. It was through the genius of Archemedes then that the world was sugmflied with its first tangible model of order in celestial motion. Egg Great Departure: The weakness of all planetariums prior to the seventeenth century was that they, of necessity, reversed the position of stellar god and man. Man was able to view the constellations 2' Cicero, De Republica, Book 1, Ch. XIV. 3- H. C. King, "Presidential Address, The Journal of the §£itish Astronomical Association, Vol. 70, No. 1, (Jan. I96077 p. 8 u“ Werner, op. cit., ppo 18-19. _ LL - :superimposed on the stellar sphere only as they would appear 'to some infinite being occupying an unknown position within zin.infinite universe. At no time prior to the seventeenth (zentury did the achievements of man allow him to see his uni- xrerse from the position of the terrestrial bound creature that he was. During the years 1644 to 1664, Andreas Busch, at the or- cier of Duke Frederick III of Holstein, occupied himself with 'the construction of a hollow cOpper sphere weighing over 'three tons. The inside of the sphere was decorated with num- erous stars and constellations. And, more to the point of departure, a bench seating ten people was held stationary neithin the hollow casing while the outer Sphere was allowed 'to rotate about the observer.5 The quest for order was to reach its epitome in Germany in the twentieth century. 'Whether the credit for the devel- Opment of the Zeiss Optical planetarium belongs to Max Wolf Who suggested the possibility of such an instrument, Oskar von Miller who approached the Carl Zeiss Company with the idea, or Walther Bauersfeld who eventually brought fruition to the prOposal, depends, it is supposed, on whether one con- ceives of a Splash to be the pebble or the ripple it produces. Professor A. E. H. Bleksley of the University of Witwaters- rand in Johannesburg, South Africa, said in his dedication book: 5' For a complete description of the Gottorp Globe, see Werner, op.cit., pp. 20-21. -5- The idea of building a large example of the rotating globe type was considered, but the solution finally came when Profes- sor Walther Bauersfeld, in a sudden flash of genius, saw that it was possible to in- vert the problem. Instead of reproducing the Sky by means of a large hollow sphere rotated about a fixed axis, as had always been done in the past, Bauersfeld suggested transfering the entire mechanism for the movement of heavenly bodies to a central projector, which.would throw images of the stars and planets onto the inner sur- face of a fixed dome in the form of a large hemisphere. In the month of August, 1923, the Special genius of one than.and the accumulated genius of all men was demonstrated (an.the roof top of the Carl Zeiss Works in Jena, Germany. Ifler the first time it was demonstrated that the visible uni- xrerse could be adequately and correctly reproduced inside a Sphere only forty feet in diameter. Eflae Development of Major Planetariums in the United States: Seven short years after the "miracle of Jena" was intro- duced, a similar model was shipped to the United States of lhnerica where hundreds of thousands of peOple crowded through the doors of the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, Illinois, in Order to see for themselves how it was possible to recreate the visible universe with such incredible accuracy within the comfortable confines of the inner chamber. 6' A. E. H. Bleksley, The Planetarium, (Johannesburg, Africa: Swan Press Limited, 19597. p. 71. _ 6 - Max Adler, a prominent Chicago industrialist, explained ‘his gift to the people of Chicago like this: "The pOpular conception of the universe is too meager and the planets and the stars are too far removed from general knowledge."7 The decade of the thirties was a pOpular one for the in- :stallation of planetaria in this country. On November 6, 15933, the FelS Planetarium of the Franklin Institute was ded- iicated in the beautiful and historic city of Philadelphia. 111 the Spring of the following year the peOple of California tuad their first Opportunity to view the wonder of the simu- leated universe when Colonel Griffith J. Griffith of Los Angeles Ixresented the third of the major planetaria of this country to tile people of Los Angeles, while less than six months later, (Haarles Hayden of New York donated the Hayden Planetarium to tflie.American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Hayden's interest in popularizing astronomy was equally as intense as Adler's, but its eXpreSSion took quite a dif- ferent form: "I believe the planetarium is not only a place of interest and instruction, but that it Should give a more lively and sin- cere appreciation of the magnitude of the universe and of the belief that there must be a very much greater power than man re- Sponsible for the wonderful things wgich are daily occuring in the universe." ¥ 7° Rhoda M. Musfeldt, staff writer, Chicago Park Dis- tr‘1ct, "Adler Planetarium and Astronomical Museum," Illinois EEEEE; January-February, 1962. 8° American Museum - Hayden Planetarium, published by AmGI‘ican Museum of Natural Hisfiry, Rev. Ed. 1961. . Cw- . Q . . a r. ( 1... . . «I 1 <. 9 .. . . . 3 to E» 3 C : s S :L .r.. Tu .34 r.“ 1:. a. a“. Y“ e t s 4.. .3 n.» .1. . a D. C Q.“ .h n; a i P n. 8 C 5 r“ r. C a u .3 Q. #9 rd .Q D. v!- c 3-. S a «C "V HA 5 33 T, . .na 8 s (A 44 t a 39 {A are a u a. . vb C n: A e K oi :L a.» : A At h... v v at All. 3 a "I a. is is as. c ule 'U S I I Av .. Ugvuou ‘v ‘. 1‘ 0 § KC." Ix 1‘ FIT! - 7 _ As the decade of the thirties closed, its conclusion was rnarked noticeably by the dedication of the Buhl Planetarium and Institute of POpular Science in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. {The Buhl Planetarium became the fifth of the major installa- ‘tions Operating in this country, and represented an institu- ‘tional number that was not to be doubled for the next thirty years. The decade of the forties, although far from quiet for tile nation and the world, was somewhat hushed for the world (If popular astronomy for, and for a myriad of Obvious reasons, Otlly one new major planetarium was dedicated during this per- iod. Although the avowed principal purpose Of the planetarium vmas one of education, it is interesting to note that until l9u9 no planetarium had been established as an adjunct to an existing educational institution. John Motley Morehead who, as a result Of a conversation with Dr. Harlow Shapley, de- cided to donate a Zeiss Planetarium and science museum to the University of North Carolina. The decision stands as a far- sighted recognition of the importance Space study and related sciences would some day play in the university curriculum. The decision also represented the last of the major planetar- iums of this country to install the Zeiss equipment as its or1ginal equipment.9 \ 9' Billy Arthur, "Please Fasten Seat Belt, next stOp {REE MOON," Tarheel Wheels, Feb. 1958, Vol. XV, NO. 2, p. 5. r“ o.‘ rm u: .U Nth ‘M Qty 5-: p 01 ab I‘L ~k/ ‘ u h. a J m S «I. by b o e. A We h v o O u s 9 a .1 r“ C r C 61v . .6.“ h W‘U “4 AIU l a. J ad I: at p Ta C .1 3 0 C n. a u n l l 3 iv 1 T. a. . .. a . e at o P a J L Tu C) .1 e a S i t t P P. .1 L H n . a .. . h. pu he an ..d .v 3. at fit. 3 s s .. a . . r a at a. £4 . .v a: n... s... pl“ is We . .s \ us 3.. at. . ,u "r. In st ~\~ 9!: .ru .94 .L we B. xv. we. lil‘iil if Zr. . fir” -‘ . -8- In 1952 the Alexander F. Morrison Planetarium was ded- ixzated to serve as a functional part of the California Acad- enny Of Sciences. The planetarium instrument itself was a 'rbome-made" one, prepared in the Academy's own highly com— pilex workshOps. Dr. King describes the instrument as one of tflne finest mechanical achievements of the present age.10 New planetariums were also Opened in the United States (hiring the year 1958. The first was the Robert T. Longway IfiLanetarium of Flint, Michigan. The equipment installed in ttiis planetarium was manufactured by Spitz Laboratories of karklyn, Delaware, and although not the first major instru- auent completed by the Spitz Company, it was, nevertheless, tkle first such installation Of major equipment in the United States.11 The second inportant dedication during the same ytaar occurred in Boston. The Charles Hayden Planetarium, rust to be confused with Hayden of New York City, was designed ixy F. D. Korkosz and J. J. Korkosz, two brothers who turned tflaeir highly creative genius to the production of a revolu- ‘bionary portrayal of the universe in motion.12 During the year 1959 the United States Air Force Acad- Bug in Colorado Springs unveiled the second of the Spitz Model 10' King, op. cit., p. 18. 11° Maurice Gene Moore, "The Longway Planetarium in l:‘Ilint, Michigan," Sky and TelescOpe, Vol. XVII. (August, 1958), pp 0 500-501 0 12. John Patterson, "Boston's Planetarium Opens," Sk Egnd TelescOpe, Vol. XXV, NO. 6. (June, 1963), pp. 316-325. _ 9 _ E3 instruments to be installed in this country. Although the iJnstrument designated for the United States Air Force Acad- emy was completed by the Spitz Laboratories prior to the FfiLint instrument, its actual dedication did not take place 11rflfll.1959. At the time of their installation both instru- nuents were basically the same, however, the Air Force plan- erbarium'was almost immediately modified to make use of a mul- txiple incandescent light source as Opposed to the zirconium source employed by the Flint instrument. The last of the major planetariums was Opened in St. Imyuis, Missouri, on the evening of April 16, 1963. It rep- rwesents several unique departures from the commonly accepted IfiLanetarium concept both from an architectural standpoint 811d an instrumentation standpoint. Originally the architect, Gyo Obata, had designed the outer surface of the inner dome tc> represent the surface of the moon, somewhat reminiscent cxf the celestial globes of antiquity. This highly unusual Irroposal was only partially modified in the final building IfiLans. Also, a further departure is represented by virtue OI? the fact that this is the first time the Goto Optical Com- Pany of Tokyo has reached the major pOpular astronomical mar- ket of the United States.13 13' Charles A. Schweighauser, "New Skies for St. Louis," §§y and Telescope, Vol. XXV, No. 6, (June, 1963), pp. 316-320. .VIACIAVS: o";- a.. A\.~ l- w v “I‘VE. . It!» .4”— . . C; «C \ 0C Q o ax.» - 10 _ Historically, then, we may summarize the important steps in the progression of man's search for order through model as follows: Sixth Century B.C. -- Anaximander becomes convinced of the Spherical nature of the heavens and probably constructs the first celestial globe. Fourth Century B.C. -- The Atlanta Farnesiano was sculpted by an unknown artist. The model Shows forty-two re- lief constellations. Third Century B.C. -- Aratus wrote a poem called "Phe- nomona." The poem was written to explain earlier writings by Eudoxus, but it had itself to be ex- plained by the production Of Several Aratus Globes. Third Centurny.C. -- Archimedes constructed the first model based on the geocentric system of Eudoxus. Second Century A.D. -- Claudius Ptolemy improved the ce- lestial globe without changing the geocentric ori- entation of Eudoxus. Sixteenth Century A.D. -- COpernicus published De Revolion- ibus Orbium Coelestium, establishing the heliocentric position and thereby reversing the causes for motion. Seventeenth Century A.D. -- Olearius, court mathematician Of Duke Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, suggested the construction of a hollow c0pper Sphere by Andreas Busch of Limberg. The globe was designed to be viewed from the inside rather than from the outside. . H Y. .3 ~ . .. a h s .. ~ r” c . n . n1. .... C “m. .. . : . mu .9 5 .1 a-.. n: r.» C , . \ , . a x .C s C h. C e To \2 5 3 C a v n. wtu «c C. bk 3 A h . nu n . a h. a c we a a u .3. a: e . flu in «Q n: c: I w... wt . a a . e5. . - ~ - 11 _ Seventeenth Century A.D. -- Johannes von Ceulen of the Hague built a planetarium from designs created by Christian Huygens. Eighteenth Century A.D. -- George Graham of the Royal Observatory Greenwich produced a model for Charles Boyle, the fourth Earl of Orrery. Nineteenth Century A.D. —- The largest Gottorp type plan- etarium was designed by ROger Long, professor of as- tronomy at Cambridge. Twentieth Century A.D. -- Walther Bauersfeld of Zeiss I Works in Germany designed the first planetarium with a fixed Sphere and a movable projector. It must be realized, Of course, that the historical sum- rnary'here is only a summary of the important changes taking Ifllace in man's quest for understanding the order of his uni- Vserse. The blank centuries are not meant to imply a complete leick of interest of investigation. Each step, every modifi- csrtion, however small, was designed to move the knowledge of asrtronomy forward to a position where scientists like Robert Ehaker could say "Planetariums in increasing numbers in var- iJJus parts of the country and abroad offer impressive views Of? the heavens and the movements of celestial bodies. They Show'replicas of the skies more clearly than many city dwel- lers are likely to see the real sky. By Speeding up the ce- lestial movements they make these motions easier to see and 3‘ rt. 0C [I ”V V I1 earl I qya ‘f‘V‘ L.’:SS.VA- V I v-‘r.-' V .35“; L. ~— . or ,- fl Q. xPrs'. E ‘rc6301 " 3:2. \ H Kr? C I L" (D *1 In _ 12 _ ‘tc> comprehend."uIr The brief historical summary of the pro- gxmession also demonstrates quite clearly that man, as a reas- rne the worldis leading spacefaring nation. We sail on tfilis new sea because there is new knowledge to be gained and \ ho Material taken from a report to the American Asso- ‘rlation of Physics Teachers, University of Maine, June 28, 963. See NASA publication, NASA EP-12, page 11. (‘5’,‘3’ O u. ’4. L' If) -16- mind rights to be won and they must be won and used for the n5 pxwogress of all pSOple. In 196h, President Johnson af- fiurmed his intention to carry out the Kennedy Space PrOgram tc> the best of his ability. Perhaps the official government position, both for the present and the future, has been summed up best by James C. Webb, NASA administrator, in these words: The resources Of Government, industry, and education have been mobilized to achieve our goals in Space. Rapid progress is be- ing made in the development of advanced launch vehicles and Spacecraft, in the es- tablishment of essential facilities and in organizing the scientific and technological support required in the great pioneering endeavor. We must learn about space because knowledge begets progress and new and better ways of life for all mankind. Just as past invest- ments in scientific research and technolog- ical develOpment are largely reSponSible for the comfort and convenience of life to- day, so will our Space dollars contribute to the improvement of our lives tomorrow. Scientific and technological prowess is achieving increasing recognition throughout the world as a social, economic and politi- cal force. Our position as leader of the Free World requires that we continue to demonstrate our leadership in this field, in Space, as well as on the earth.6 The problem of disseminating scientific knowledge to tale broadest possible population base is important for still \ 5. NASA, "Historical Ori ins of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration," U. . Government Printing Office, Document 686-672, page 116. 6‘ NASA, "1-2-3 and the Moon," U. S. Government Print- 1ng Office, Document EP-Y, pp. 28-29. vs”. ”a. v' E n" ‘5- U. 5. . PM «U v.0 n11 nih 7.. \ t av flu .Fs DO ‘~¢ - 17 - zatiother'reason. If the vast majority of the citizens of this (:cruntry are to accept, understand and support the Objectives ()1? Space eXploration)then every effort must be made to human- ize both the science and the scientist who practice it. Ac- cepting, understanding, and supporting are all conditions nuare easily attained if a correct interpersonal identifica- 1xion.can be establiShed. Slabaugh and Butler define physi- ceil science as a process as well as a body of knowledge. '“Phis process," they continue, "known as the scientific unethod, involves making Observations under controlled con- ciitions with an attitude of impartiality and open-minded- ness."7 Contrast this cold, impersonal definition with the (definition given by Warren Weaver, Vice-president of The lllfred P. Sloan Foundation. "Science is an adventure of the Enlman Spirit. It is essentially an artistic enterprise, stim- IIlated by curiosity, served largely by disciplined imagina- 1710n.and based largely on faith in the reasonableness, order 811d beauty of the universe in which man is a part."8 Americans are confronted with two possible courses of action here in the latter half of the twentieth century. IEither they can develop an adequate understanding of the ob- jectives and requirements of the age and thus become partners 7‘ Slabaugh, Wendell H. and Butler, Alfred B. 9%11353 Pb Sical Science, 2nd edition, (Englewood Cliffs, New ersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959). Page 2. 8' Weaver, Warren. "Science," Think Magazine, Decem- ber, 1960, page 15. _ 18 _ 1:1 a great adventure, or they can function with inadequate kzlcywledge and become nothing more than Oilers and stokers of? a costly government research machine. If the former of tl1esse two alternatives is chosen then it must become the ob- ligation of each diSpersing medium of scientific knowledge IKDt3 only to reach the maximum number of citizens but to trans- lajse all available information in such a manner that it re- flxects both the realized truth and the future challenge. Aertronomy at the Primary_and Secondary Levels of Education: There are numerous stories circulating now about young- stears at elementary levels in our school systems who are con- vexrsant with such things as propulsion theories and angles of 1rljection, and who, due to their ages and the nature of the System, must sit quietly while their teachers eXpound on ele- Huintary multiplication and addition. Today's children find tflne world of the teacher to be slightly tainted with the musk Of? the dinosaur and today's teachers, all too Often, regard tflleir pupils as creatures from some unknown, undiscovered IXLanet. Yet the principal difference between the two groups 18 that where one has been born to the vastness of some uni- ‘Versal perception, the other has had to be adOpted into it. IPerhaps it was a premonition of the problems to rise out of education's struggle with astronomy and Space sciences that Prompted Professor George S. Counts to remark: The schools lag far behind the march Of events. Although the service they ren- der in their present form is indSSpens /ytle , /(_ - 19 - to the functioning of our society, they fall well below the requirements of the age. The school systems of our country have many of the same cflnearacteristics as people. Perhaps this can best be explained by' saying that school systems are almost perfect reflections of' the communities they serve. The sociologist who researches thus community finds that it tends to become more conservative iri its approach as the area under consideration is reduced. inns educationalist researching the primary and secondary lev- eles finds much the same attitude reflected in that conserva- tism "at home" is an invisible community force Operating against change in the school system. To prove this point quickly one need only go back a few years and review the pro- fileion of emotional outbursts against a principle of change called consolidation. It is unfortunate, perhaps, that public education did that study medicine's great move to strengthen preventive tHaalth measures in the latter part of the forties. If they had, perhaps the crisis of the fifties would have been either Ininimized or avoided completely. The fact that we were far Outdistanced by the Soviets from 1957 through 1960 was prob- ably no more due to the failure of the schools than to the failure of society in general. Yet, education had been en- ‘trusted, in an implied fashion, with preservation of the 9' Counts, George S. Education and American Civiliza- tion, (New York: Teacher's College, Columbia University; ), page 201. A"- Vs-.. awry has. - .Av w a o e :4 «v ru . a r A e .u I h . Q: Q 01 y A. y A 5.58 w‘ r r: . c p,» a DA n... In 3.. ... a. C. . L. rt . J1 . e- g a: 7' .u a My; 4 . my Ce vi. \ n T: .t S v 0‘ § un‘ & f. h». - 20 - cccrnmon defense. "The soft-pedagogy," wrote Carleton Wash- bixlrne, "of our whole educational system from kindergarten t<3 'university got blamed for not having given enough empha- sis to science and mathematics to enable us to shoot bigger and better rockets into Space."lo Although a great public complaint was directed against orur teaching, or lack of it, in the areas of science and nurthematics in the Fall of 1957, and although educators at aJ_1 levels were subject to criticism by men like Admiral Rixzkover, it is important to notice that even these torrents 0f? criticism had little immediate effect upon the modifica- tixon of the curriculum. From.June 15, 1959, to July 10, 15959, the National Science Foundation conducted a neglect Siirvey in St. Cloud, Minnesota. The findings of this sur- VWsy indicated that the most neglected sciences were geology, firundation of the earth sciences and astronomy, foundation or the Space Sciences.“- One cannot place the reSponsibility for this lack of ‘adaptability on commercial companies marketing printed class- room materials. A Simple survey of new elementary science texts indicates that publishers are devoting an ever-increas- ing amount of Space to the study of earth and space sciences. ‘ 10° Washburne, Carleton. "An Eighty Year Perspective on Education," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. XLV (December, 1963), Page 150. 11. Price, Roger W. "Improvement of Astronomy Educa- tion (K-l6) through a State-Wide PrOgram," published by St. Cloud College, Vol. 15, No. h, (January, 1960), page u. _ 21 - 1,1.kewise, at the secondary level, the new approach to phys- ticzs, as developed by the National Science Foundation, con- centrates an adequate amount of attention on the discovery (>f‘ physical law as it relates to the area of astronomy. In order to explain the failure to institute courses of? study in astronomy, one need look no further than the pro- fwessional preparation of the nation's teachers. The colleges 311d universities, particularly in the preparation of the 8&30,000 elementary teachers, have woefully failed to provide tilese teachers with the means of answering the questions of FTJung, inquiring minds. The Spitz Laboratories published a tuook in 1960 that included the following suggestions as pos- Sible units of study for K—l2: The Earth as an Astronomical C>bject, Reasons for the Seasons, Latitude and Longitude, Time 811d Place, The Earth's AtmOSphere, The Sun and Its Energy, ShanSpots and Prominences, The Suan Family, The Moon, The Eitars, The Galaxy, Nebulae, Extragalactic Structure, Con- stellations , and Ins truments . 12 The simple fact is that these suggested units are impor- ‘tant to our young people if they are to develOp the under- Standings necessary to relate to their age but conversations with any group of teachers would quickly reveal that there 12' Early, Roger Neil. The Use of the Planetarium in the Teachin of Earth and S ace Science, (Yorklyn, Delaware: Spitz Laboratories, Inc., 1550). p, . a t 5.! as .u 3' 2. o. P.— ‘c- .v' '1‘ «av 0“ 8.,- CU cu :5 " "'5‘ ,. - Italy. :75 v,‘_ . r... r: c U - 22 - is just not enough Specialized training in this area to en- atfile them to transmit this kind of information. What the teacher does not understand well certainly cannot be trans- [hitted through educational processes. It would Seem that once again we are faced with two a1- ternate courses of action. Either we must find some effec- tive means Of teaching astronomy and related earth and Space sciences during the primary and secondary years or we must postpone such education until the student has registered for college and university work. In light of world conditions, and in consideration with known facts, the latter alterna- tive would seem inadvisable. In government publication SPE 63-C-3a the following statement appears: "The National Sci- ence Foundation recognizes that careers in science engineer- ing and mathematics may often be started in the elementary Schools and that later professional work depends upon the groundwork of the earlier years in school."13 A similar po- Sition regarding the importance of this early training was taken by the American Astronomical Society. "A survey of the members of the American Astronomical Society showed that Sixty per cent developed their interest in astronomy before they entered college . . . It is thus to the advantage of 13° Government Publication SPE 63-C-3a, "Suggestions and Forms for Preparing a PrOposal for a Summer Institute for l96h." Published July, 1963, page 1. ‘v‘. R. .3 r: - 23 - ttre student and the science if his or her interest and abil- itries are discovered and nurtured while he is young."lu Astronomy and Higher Education: A study of astronomy in higher education would seem at figrst glance to indicate an adequate amount of attention to tflae propggation Of the thirty-seven colleges and universities lxocated5in twenty-one different states offering work in as- tznynomy at the undergraduate level. Twenty-six of these col- lJegeS Offered the Doctor of PhilOSOphy degree in astronomy in 1962.15 Even though the number of graduates in astronomy has been increasing, the demand for these graduates by industry ‘bas risen so Sharply that university increases have not been igreat enough to keep the deficit in professionally trained aStronomers from increasing. Government concern with the Space Sciences is naturally INDinted toward maximum industrial utilization Of both person- Inel and the findings gathered from astronomical research. 'Pherefore, most college graduates in this area have been siphoned off without ever having had the Opportunity to ac- Quaint the average citizen with his own Specialized contri- butions to the wider field of complete scientific knowledge. 19' Pamphlet, "A Career in Astronomy," Published by the American Astronomical Society, Revised in 1962. u’) Ibid., "A Career in Astronomy." ‘ _.~ \ - 2h _ This consequential develOpment of knowledge as a result of in- teuraction.between government and industry on the program and jpznaduct of the universities has resulted in astronomy as a bcrdy'of knowledge taking the form of an extended rectangle twesting on its lesser Side and increasing the length of the grweater without appreciably increasing the width of its base. Otie can.easily infer this structure of astronomical knowledge fxwmn the Objectives Of the National Aeronautics and Space Ad- nrinistration as they were presented by John T. Halloway in ‘the Summer of 1963: In the Summer of 1961, with the Pres- ident's decision to accelerate the national space effort and accomplish a manual lunar landing before the end of this decade, con- Sideration was given to what steps NASA could take to increase materially the uni- versities' contribution to the aCcomplish- ment of our total mission. Several princi- pal goals emerged from some rather careful studies: (1) An increase in the production rate of highly trained people. (2) More adequate laboratory facilities in which to conduct research to sup- port NASA'S mission. (3) Removal of interdisciplinary barriers in research and fostering of genuine cOOperation between workers in col- lateral fields. (h) An increased awareness by universi- ties of their national reSponSibil- ities in the attainment of national goals. ' (5) Application by universities of their unique and extensive talents to an understanding of the interrelation- ship of Space research and technology, “A akb . nu y t CH 6‘ .- A“ “V M 2 .. ~ N CH r» '1‘ H v NV -25- academic processes, industry, com- merce, and society in general. Astronomy and Adult Education: There is no escape from the urgency of providing high-grade and plentiful adult education in Science. Major na- tional decisions are being made now which affect our scientific efforts; these de- cisions will be made without the partici- pation of our people if the citizenry does not understand scientific matters. Fur- thermore, major scientific and engineering achievements can be counted upon to raise, as they have already serious social and international problems which will need the attention of an enlightened citizenry. Science must be made interesting and chal- lenging to the non-scientist and all means at the popularizer's command -- TV, radio, the press, films, museums -- must be used effectively for adult education in science.17 The above statement by Robert Briber, formerly techni- cal assistant to the Panel on Science and Engineering Edu- cation of the President's Science Advisory Committee, sum- nuirizes quite concisely the importance of widely distributed Seience information to the adults of our country. We can no longer afford to keep any area of Specialized knowledge closeted in the towers of a university, eSpecially “Haen that knowledge can and does affect every adult Of every community so directly. The argument that we should leave de- cisions concerning the further utilization of Space to the 16' Op. cit., NASA, EP-12, pp. 60-61. 17° Briber, Robert M. "Education for the Age of Sci- ence," Phi Delta Kappan, (October, 1959), Vol. XLI, page 3. — v » - 26 .. academicians and the technologists is, Of course, partially ccxrrect. Yet, in such an attitude, in the desire to be un- diesturbed by the march of science, lies a danger that threat- 6118 to destroy, not only the individual but the very basis of? the society he has formed. When a science such as astron- onny becomes an adjunct of government, as it has, we can no nque afford to be uninformed as to its progress than.we can tc> be uninformed as to the qualifications of a candidate seeking political office. If the adults of our nation do Inst use every available means of informing themselves as to ‘this progress then they are allowing themselves to be taxed yrithout representation. It is not a luxury to be an informed adult in this society. It is a vital necessity which may Idell determine our national survival. S_cope and Limitations: “1 Due to the tremendous increase in the number of plane- tariums as institutions charged with the distinct obligation (If interpreting the science of astronomy and related sci- ences to the community, it was felt that a study should be Inade to analyze and evaluate planetarium prOgramming as it relates Specifically to the science education of a commun- ity. Since it would have been impossible to analyze all of the distinct programming elements of over two hundred such institutions now functioning within the United States of America, it was decided that only the eleven institutions designated as major planetariums should be subjected to - 27 _ analysis and that the study Should concentrate only upon those points of similarity. in the programming structure rather than attempting to Specify their many and important differ- {a 611068 c The analysis of these similarities revealed that eaCh plelnetarium, regardless of specific defferences in program- mirig, had to concern itself with the following basic elements iii order to develOp a program of successful service to the scrientific and technolOgically oriented society in which it functions: 1. Preparation of material content a. relationship between the program context and the limitations imposed by the science b. relationship between the context and the basic in- strumentation and its supporting auxillaries 2. Attracting and holding an audience a. the role of the public image in continuing commun- ity support b. the role of radio advertising in the solicitation of public support c. the role of television advertising in the solici- tation Of public support d. the role of newspaper advertising in the solicita- tion of public support 3- Narrating the program a. acquainting the lecturer with his materials _ 28 _ b. acquainting the lecturer with the unique require— ments of the medium The absence of any qualitative research in the area of pleanetarium programming, when combined with the understand- ing that the responsibility of the institution is to serve thus total community, seemed to preclude the possibility of narrowing the SOOpe of the investigation. Rather, the na- tnire of planetarium programming was perceived to be of such £1 nature as to recognize no artificially erected gradations. For the purpose of this study, then, astronomical education teas viewed as a continuing process, extending from the ele- tnentary schools through the post-professional period Of life. Since a complete analysis of the effectiveness of sci- ence education through effective planetarium programming Seemed impossible to complete, it was decided to limit the Inwestigation to a few selected problems that are applicable 'to the general success of the institution as it strives to I’Eaalize its objectives. The problems selected for investi- gation were as follows: 1. Is planetarium instruction capable of producing better learning among students and adults than is the conventional classroom situation? 2. IS the impact of the planetarium experience such as to produce a noticeable change in attitude to- ward the area Of astronomical science? 3. Can predictions be made as to the type of adult Slides... 1* r ‘- I - er - RE fl¥ -29- most likely to avail himself of Special instruc- tion in the area Of astronomy? A. Is planetarium programming providing the informa- tional needs of the adult in today's society? Atfirst, even the limitation Of the investigation to _/ 4 these (git/6.8mm questions seemed too broad in sc0pe to be ' answeredflin a single investigation. However, in actual prac- tice and experimental design it was found to be possible to pr<>xride satisfactory answers to these questions by initiating only three separate research projects, each of which plays an important role in the determination of the effectiveness of planetarium programming. In designing research that would provide answers to the first three questions to be answered in this study, several forms of statistical treatment were employed on the collected data. In each instance the non-eXperimental variables were controlled as closely as possible. There was one variable, however, within these particular investigations that was not controlled. That was the quality of the classroom teaching involved. The experiments were designed in each instance to control the amount of time devoted to the material, the na- ture of the material presented, but not the inherent quality of the presentation. The effect of this particular variable "111 have to be determined by subsequent investigations. TwO other possible limitations of this study should a1- 30 be considered. The evaluation of the data from the inves- tigation included in this study was limited due to the - 30 - instruments used in the investigation. Further, Since the investigations were made at different educational levels, it is doubtful that the results of the study can be gener- alized to pOpulationS within strata different than the one lheasured in the experimental Situation. The Hypothesis: This thesis is an analysis of planetarium programming 111 order to determine: 1. the actual value of this type Of science instruc- tion as it relates to the areas the planetarium serves, 2. the actual value of the planetarium as it functions within the adult level Of our society, and 3. the isolation of factors that will increase the gen- eral effectiveness of communications with the citi- zens Of the community. The general or collective hypothesis to be proved by this! study is that planetarium programming, although appar- ently effective by virtue of the great numbers involved, can be ixnproved by correctly identifying those areas of pOpula- tion; in which the strongest potential planetarium support may be IOcated. CHAPTER III EXISTING PROGRAMMING IN THE MAJOR PLANETARIUNS Planetariums all have as a centralized Objective, the teaching of astronomy, but the methods by which this objec— tive is realized are as divergent as the personal philoso- phies of the men who Serve on their governing bodies. Speak- ing to this divergency in programming, Dr. H. C. King said, "While some can keep closely to a Schedule Of formal lectures, others have to tell the story of astronomy through entertain- ment and a third group must resort to all sorts Of optical "1 This statement implies an "either- tricks and expedients. or" approach.which is probably somewhat misleading in light of the fact that all planetariums combine, at least to some degree, the three approaches mentioned by Dr. King. Without some element of these three possible approaches it would be impossible to generate an effective interest in the topic under consideration and, as Richard Weaver has said, "We do not undertake to reason about anything until we have been drawn to it by an effective interest."2 Perhaps it would be more apprOpriate then to say that the ultimate Objective 1’ Op.cit., King, page 19. 2' Weaver, Richard M. Ideas Have Consequences, (Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, l9h8), page 19. - 31 - - 32 - of any planetarium programming is to generate reason based upon a stimulation Of the interest. The K-l2 Programming in Major Planetariums: From January 1, 1962, through December 31, 1962, a to- tal of 5,791,192 youngsters representing all grades K-12 at- tended the ten major planetariums of the United States in )\““‘0; order to become better acquainted with the science of aS— rm;( (v tronomy.3 It should not, however, be assumed from the previous figures that all grade levels were equally represented in these educational prOgrams. Customarily, instruction in the science of astronomy is postponed until the pupil has reached the fourth grade level. We may generalize to this observa- tion by saying that the bulk of planetarium school attend- ance represented grades h-l2 rather than grades K-12. There does seem to be some trend toward moving instruction in very Simple astronomy to a lower level as evidenced by the fact that each year the number of requests for Special programs designed for grades one and two show notable increases. In part, we may assume that this53his;tendency is simply fol- lowing the "push-down" "Beef-up" process prevalent at all levels of education, and, in part, it may be attributed to an attempt to create a kind Of atmosphere of scientific 3° Material from Director's Conference, May 20, 21, 1963. Figures include only organized school groups. - 33 - appreciation and readiness in which later and more advanced scientific studies might be couched. Recently the United States Air Force Planetarium in- itiated the most comprehensive school program to be Offered by any of the major planetariums. Each teacher in the Den- ver-Colorado SpringS-Pueblo area iS familiarized with two existing series. Series A is to be offered during the fall semester and Series B is to be Offered during the Spring semester. In order to present an accurate picture of the comprehensiveness of the program, let us consider only those programs listed as Series A. Grade K: "Zoo Grade 1-6 "The "The "The Fall Semester -- Series A in the Sky" Apparent (daily) motion of sun and moon Twilight and the stars Constellations of the Zodiac and the northern sky Twilight, sunrise, and daylight (Graded Lectureo) Sun.- Our Star" A solar furnace Daily motion of the sun Moon - Our Natural Satellite" Features, characteristics, and distance The month of phases Length of a lunar day or night - as seen from the moon. Earth Shine on the lunar surface Earth and Its Motion in Space" "The "The - 34 - Day and night - rotation Reasons for the seasons - revolution Solar System - Family of the Sun" Terrestrial planets Jovian planets The dark planets Direct and retrograde motion - the Copernican solar system Gravity on the planets Possibility of life in other planets The planets are named - history of discovery The mystery planet - Vulcan Stars in the Sky" Composition of the stars Temperature, Size and distance Stellar motions Differences between a star and a planet Twinkling or scintillation Stars in the Big Dipper Why the stars are visible only at night Constellations of the current evening sky "Space and Travel" Grade 7-8: A rocket trip to the moon Can we live on the moon? Travel time to our nearest star Why is Space dark? Setellites in orbit around the earth "ASpects of the Sky" "The "The Locating cellestrial Objects Identifying the constellations Motions on the cellestial Sphere: Earth in Motion" Rotation of the earth on its axis Revolution Of the earth about the sun Precession The earth clock - time keeping and the seasons MOon" Origin and physical characteristics ,1» - 35 - Motions of the moon The lunar surface Eclipses and tides "The Solar System" Planets and their characteristics Other members of the sun's family Life on other planets Origin of the solar system In programming for pupils at the elementary, intermed- iate and secondary levels of education, there are two dis- tinct points of departure. Some planetariums, such as the United States Air Force, present a series of graded lectures, carefully selected and controlled as to materials and vocab- ulary. Careful review of these programs will Show that they are designed to be cumulative, building one layer Of knowl- edge On another with the greatest complexities of pure and applied science occupying the apex Of its pyrimidal struc- ture. Other planetariums, notably Hayden of New York City andgAdler of Chicago present only the public program in which the lecturer tries to adapt the material to the needs of the classroom and the interests of the pupils. Due to the great differences existing among the insti- tutions themselves it is impossible to list all of the ac- tivities for young peOple which lie outside the province of the classroom. Each year thousands of Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts study formal programs in astronomy in order that they might fulfill the requirements for receiving astronomy and star badges. Buhl Planetarium of Pittsburgh Sponsors a highly successful summer course called the "Junior Space Academy" in -36.. which approximately six hundred boys and girls participate in science instruction at four separate levels of difficulty. In addition, during the Christmas vacation, Buhl conducts a School Science Congress in whicn students of junion and sen- ior high levels present papers dealing with some aSpect of original scientific inquiry. It would be possible to go through the entire list of major planetariums and select numerous prOgramS uniquely de- signed to serve the youth Of the area in which the planetar- ium Operates. Planetarium Education and the College and University: Only three of the major planetariums, as has been seen, are associated directly with colleges and universities. The Morehead Planetarium at Chapel Hill Operates as part of the University of North Carolina. Longway Planetarium of Flint, Michigan, is classified as an adjunct of the Flint Community Junior College and The United States Air Force Academy Plan- etarium is part of the parent inStitution whose name it bears. Of these three college associated planetariums only the Longs ’7 0T wayJPlanetarium of Flint, Michigan, offers accredited courses 1,“, wa’ in astronomy as a laboratory science with degrees granted by the parent institution. Courses offered in Flint are trans- ferable, not only at the junior college level if offered by the community college, but also at the graduate level if of- fered by the Extension Service of The University of Michigan. In spite of the fact that the majority of the planetar- iums in this country are not associated fiscally or adminis- - 37 - tratively with institutions of higher education, most plane- tariums do conduct a lively program of college and university instruction and research. This instruction is not always re- lated exclusively to the science of astronomy, but, rather, it is related to many different areas. Colleges may offer credit courses at planetariums in celestial navigation or geodetic survey. The "Sky theater," as it is customarily called, may be used for biological studies dealing with the nocturnal migratory habits of birds or for psychological sen- sory experiments dealing with Space and depth perSpectives as they relate to a non-fixed reference. Once again, it needs to be pointed out that each planetarium is uniquely related to higher education in its own area, but common to all is the dedication to the extension of human knowledge, both ver- tically and horizontally among the peOple. Adult Education and the Planetarium: The position of the planetarium in the area of adult education has become increasingly important as man has, through the application of newly discovered principles, shortened the bridge that separates him from the rest of the universe. The need to understand imposes itself just as strongly in the life of the adult as it does in the life of the child. As Thomas D. Nicholson said, "The planetarium lecture occupies a rather unique position in an age in which television, radio and motion pictures dominate the competi- tion for the recreational time of the American public. r up; 1w - 38 - Planetariums present what is probably the most pOpular suc- cessful and heavily attended lecture program in our country today."u If one doubts as to whether the statement by Dr. Nichol- son is correct, at least in SO far as its quantative aSpect is concerned, it is only necessary to glance at the figures representing attendance at public programs during the year 1962. Since the purpose of the public program can be con- sidered to be one of adult education, and Since the year 1962 Showed a total attendance of 1,950,683 persons at the ten ma- jor planetariums, it seems fair to assume that the reference to the prOgram as being the most heavily attended lecture program in this country is quite accurate. The fact that approximately two million peOple attended public programs at institutions designated as a major plane- tarium does not mean that each person, assuming that he at- tends each public program, would receive instruction in as- tronomy equal either in quantity or quality to that received at some other major institution. In order that this differ- ence may be apparent, let us select three Of the eleven planetariums and trace their public Show programming from September, 1962, to June, 1963. ___._ u’ Nicholson, Thomas D. "The Planetarium Lecture," 9232.22, Volume II, No. 3, 1959. Page 269. - 39 - Buhl Planetarium -- Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania September l-h . . . "Tomorrow's Target: The Moon" September 5-6 . . "Stars over Pittsburgh" September 27 - October 31 . . . ."The Sea and the Stars" November 1 - 27 . "Conquering New Horizons" November 28 - January 2 . . January 3 - 23. January 2h - February 19 . . . "GeOgraphy of the Moon" March 1-19 . . . . "Legend of Stars" March 20 - April 15 . . . . "Easter - The Awakening" April 16 - May 8 . "Tomorrow's Target:~ The Moon" May 9 - June 19 . . "Weather in Action" . "Star of Bethlehem" . "Earth's Neighbors in Space" Charles Hayden Planetarium -- Boston, Massachusetts September 1 - 30 . ."Skies and Storms" October 1 - December 2 . . . ."Man on the Moon" December h - Januarg 6 . . . . "Annual Christmas Show" January - March 31 . . . . ."Beyond the Moon" April 2 - June 30 . "The Sun in Action" Adler Planetarium -- Chicago, Illinois September . . . . . "Wanders of the Sky" October . . . . . . "Between the Planets" November . . . . . ."Stars of Winter" December . . . . . ."Star of Bethlehem" January . . . . . . "The Nearest Star, Our Sun" February . . . . . ."What are the Stars" March . . . . . . . "Origin of the Stars" April . . . . . . . "Stars in Motion" May . . . . . . . . "Variable Stars" June . . . . . . . ."Time and Navigation" The three planetariums selected Show three distinct philos- 0phies in programming for adult education.in astronomy. Both - no - Buhl and Charles Hayden are tOpic oriented while Adler is definitely subject oriented. A glance at the titles of the public presentations will demonstrate that the Adler Plane- tarium will concentrate more heavily on information than will either of the other two. Even though there is a sur- face similarity between the two topic oriented institutions, it is apparent that Buhl offers more programs outside the fundamental realm of astronomical science, than does Charles Hayden. It is safe to assume from the material presented here that there can be no standard of quantity or quality derived that can be used as an effective yardstick to measure adult education on an inner-institutional basis. Adult education takes many forms in planetarium pro- gramming. Some of the most interesting contacts the adult Of a given community may have with science may not come with a blare of stereOphonic trumpets or the glare of a thousand Stars. Some prOgrams offered by a planetarium may have lit- tle direct relationship to astronomy and may be justified Only on the cause that the institution is well-known, well- respected and has acquired, usually over years of sorting 8uccess from failure, the reputation for being a reputable Spokesman for the sciences. In designing a program to give adults a better under- atending usually involves a series of lectures by "experts" who are imported because of their publicized achievements. - 41 - It is true that each community Should have such talent made .available on occasion but it is equally true that any com- rnunity can provide capable men and women who are more than urilling to make available whatever Specialized knowledge 'blney might have accumulated. The Robert T. Longway Planetarium initiated a "home- town" kind of approach in 1962 in a series of lectures called "EScience and You." The series was held on Sunday afternoon Eirld the voluntary attendance at each session fluctuated be- I, ,a: v «mm-y} 1rhreen.seventy and eighty. Only oommunity leaders, scientists Elrld educators were asked to participate but the reSponse to title Series justified its inception. A list of tOpicS and lec- trtlrers demonstrates the flexibility of the program. "Violence and the Weather" -- A. E. Burgtorf, Meteorologist in Charge, U. S. Weather Bureau "The Meteorologist at Work" -- A. E. Burgtorf "What Kind of Day Will it Be?" -- Don Bradley, WJRT-TV, Flint, Michigan "Exploring Below the Surface" -- Gerald Welsh, Depart- ment of Geology, Flint Junior Community College "The Development of Man" -- Dr. Mona Meltzer, Flint Community Junior College, Department of Anatomy and Physiology "Defense: Above and Beyond the Earth" -- Harry Carnaham, Public Relations, Bell Tele- phone Company "Rockets into the Future" -- Leonard Batz, Senior Contact Engineer, A.C. Spark Plug Company, Flint, Michigan - 1+2 .. "Gas Between the Stars" -- Dr. William Howard, As- tronomy Department, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan In considering the effect of planetarium programming, c>ne must also take into consideration the pOpularity of non- <32cedit courses designed primarily for the adults of the com- rniinity to be served. The total number of 102,106 enrolled 1111 Special classes, institutes and workshOps during the year 315962 fails to tell the complete story of planetarium educa- tion in this area. Dr. Kenneth L. Franklin, writing in §_k_y forid TelescOpe Mogazine had this to say of adult education and the planetarium: At planetariums, public attendance has increased, for peOple seek to experience the excitement and fascination Of astron- omy. Six years ago here at the American- Museum-Hayden Planetarium, there were only a few adult lO-week courses. Now, our introductory course alone fills two sections twice a year, and we are adding Several intermediate courses to enable a student to pursue a curriculum in modern astronomy at a pOpular level for three years. In one reSpect both the public presentations and the Srneoial courses for adults may be considered formal attempts tO broadcast selected astronomical information over a wide alwaa since both are planned and repetitive. However, the na- tnxre Of the planetarium experience was to be more far reach- iJHS than one would expect of the classroom type Of lecture demonstration. Because the planetarium is both informative and entertaining, hundreds of non-specialized interest groups 5' Franklin, Kenneth L. "Careers in Astronomy," Sk ‘and Telesco e Ma azine, Vol. XXIV, N0. 3, September, 19 : Po 128- 11.111 - 1,3 - are exposed to science education with little or no conscious Sittempt to learn. The statement of Hayden Planetarium, New lfork City, that "Numerous organizations as widely separated ELS the Society of Electrical Engineers and the Lumberman's Aksssociation have engaged the planetarium for private perform- ances"6 could be said to be equally true of any of the major 13].anetariums in the country. AS an example, the records of Longway Planetarium, located in one of the smaller cities, (:1-early demonstrates the wide divergency of interests one (zesriexpect to find in groups contracting for private perform— 8.11068: Asbury Methodist Church Business and Professional Women's Group Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints Society Of Tool Engineers Opti—Mrs. Club Flint Society of Medical Technologists Flint Rotary Club Bad Axe Rotary Club Central High School Senior Class Job's Daughters This group represents only organizations that rented tile planetarium for Special paid programs during the year 15962L That portion of admissions listed as "Special Demon- Stxrations - no charge" lists approximately one hundred or- Eaxlizations during the same period and demonstrates with greater clarity the divergency of the organizations within Euflllt society who avail themselves of the planetarium exper- ience in.science education. ‘— American Museum-Hayden Planetarium, Published by Same, Revised in 1961, page 2h. .1" uni-Ilsa... -141,- It is often the tendency of the public to disregard the great volume of quality work done in science education in fa- vor of something much smaller but more spectacular. The training of America's first group of astronauts was certainly spectacular enough to capture the attention of both press and public. The report of Sky and Telescope in 1962 was only one of many reports dealing with the processes involved in prepar- ing the astronaut for his ultimate mission. "Part of the ex- tensive training by Schirra and his back-up pilot, Major L. Gordon COOper, Jr." the article said, "was astronomical." It is important for an astronaut to be able to recognize stars seen through the viewports of his capsule, and be able to check its altitude and angular estimates of yaw. The two men received special preflight training at Morehead Planetarium, Chapel Hill, North Carolina."7 The importance of such work cannot and should not be minimized, but the true reSponsibil- ity Of the planetarium lies not in preparing the few who will actively participate in our new adventure but rather the mil- lions who will only sit and watch. There can be little doubt that the planetarium is play- ing an ever increasing role in the education of all, both young and Old alike. The pressures of the age demand release through knowledge. The newly discovered mysteries of the uni- verse demand answer through knowledge and man, clothed yet in 7- "Schirra's Flight," (no author listed), Sky and Tele- scOpe Magazine, Vol. XXIV, NO. 5, November, 1962, page 247. .u;. the ill-fitting garments of the past, demands new apparel for the new age. Joseph Miles Chamberlain made this com- ment on the charge that has been placed before our plane- tariums: The time may not be far distant when plan- etariums will be as numerous as museums. In this age of emphasis on science, such a trend is more than welcome; it is mandatory. For, in the modern context, "planetarium" connotes a great deal more than a model of the solar system. It refers not only to the instrument and its great hemiSpherical dome: the word goes on to embrace exhib- its concerning astronomical, navigational, and related subjects, and instruction in a field of interest that weighs ever more heavily on today's imaginative accomplish- ments along the new frontier of outer Space. In the second half of the twen- tieth century, centers in this field are no longer the playthings of latter-day Earls of Orrery: instead, they are very nearly necessities for most modern communities. 8' Chamberlain, Joseph M. "The Sky in Replica," a re- print from Natural History Magatine, Vol. 69, No. 2, 1960. CHAPTER IV ELEMENTS OF PROGRAMMING Preparingothe Materials: The universe of the planetarium is a wide one, but it fails to challenge our concepts of infinity. An unpredju- diced appraisal of the medium quickly convinces the plane- tarium practioher that his medium is neither infinite nor universal.» Where the movie producer is free to select num- erous backgrounds and themes that run the complete gamut of human emotion, the planetarium Operator has no such freedom. The planetarium Operator is, due to the inherent nature of the medium itself, confined to the background of the heav- ens that his basic instrumentation and auxillaries dictate. In preparing the material for prOgramming the basic context of the evening sky cannot be ignored. If a theme can be related to a planetarium audience without using the planetarium illusion then it follows that it is largely the prOperty of some other medium, not the planetarium. However, one frequently finds programs related to such subjects as geography, geology, history, holiday, and meteorology. The principal question that must always be answered is, "Is the relationship between the material and the context in which it is to be offered Obvious enough to justify its inclusion in planetarium programming?" -ug- r»... B7. eh - A7 - During the month of December in 1962, all of the major planetariums were featuring the traditional Christmas pro- gram. The content of this particular program has been printed in booklet form by three of the major planetariums: Morehead of North Carolina, Morrison of San Francisco, and Adler of Chicago. Although the approach is slightly different in each of the three booklets the basic content is comparitiVely con- \. ./‘ stant, combining religion and astronomy. A brief analysis of the booklet "The Star of Bethlehem" published by Adler Planetarium of the Chicago Park District illustrates clearly how tOpics that superficially do not re- late well to science may be produced effectively in the planetarium medium. Specifically, "The Star of Bethlehem" is a booklet of approximately three thousand words. A brief analysis of its content in terms of a percentage relation- ship to the whole provides us with the following facts: (1) Approximately Sixteen hundred words or fifty per cent of the total content is devoted to selected and related aSpects of astronomy; (2) Six hundred and sixty words of the content deal with the establishment of time and the calendar as they to the Christmas celebration; (3) Three hundred and thirty words of the total are used to explain the astrological sig- nificance of the "star" as it related to Magism of early Persia; and (h) The remaining twenty per cent of the content is devoted to Biblical and historical materials. In programming it is necessary, not only to relate the subject matter to the medium, but also to relate the subject I C. s s v. s rk We Pd do .. u.“ .Fa 0 v ?U o . .r.‘ C blv *U a a: RV SSS! ‘3 C-CY y- -w- matter in such a way that the optical system of the plane- tarium is diSplayed to its maximum advantage. As Nicholson has commented, "It is almost an axiom in large planetariums of the United States that nothing is described in the lec- ture that is not also supported by some visual material."1 "The Star of Bethlehem" not only fits the subject mat- ter to the medium, but it also offers the planetarium Oper- ator the Opportunity to make maximum use Of the basic in- strument and its auxillaries. Further reading of "The Star of Bethlehem" reveals that there are five basic effects nec- essary to support the material. They are: (l) the genera- tion of the ecliptic path by the sun, (2) the natural phas- ing of the moon in its orbit about the earth, (3) the appar- ent motion of the sun as it marks our summer and winter solstice points, (A) the natural designation of constellation positions, and (5) the apparent motion Of the three naked-eye superior planets. In addition at least three auxillary ef- fects are necessary in order to support the material content of the program: (1) a projection Of a meteor Shower indi- cating a clearly marked radiant, (2) a projection of a comet in apparent motion among the stars, and (3) a projection 11- lustrating the growth and develOpment Of the nova and super- DOVE. 1‘ Nicholson, Thomas D. "The Planetarium Lecture," Curator, Vol. 11, NO. 3, 1959: page 271. .19. Since programming must be determined in light of the basic instrumentation and its auxillaries, it is advisable to be cognizant of the limitations and latitudes allowed during the organization of prOgram materials. The follow- ‘1ng list of basic and auxillary effects is common to all ‘bypes of major instrumentation now in Operation in this country. Basic Instrument Effects 1.. Stars all stars down to 6m. all stars visible from any latitude position. 22. Sun eclipses total annular .3.. Moon phases eclipses total partial LL. Planets five naked-eye 5 . Motions diurnal annual precessional Basic Auxiliary Effects 1. 11. Complete celestial co- ordinates. PrOper motion overlay of Ursa Major. Three types of Aurora Borealis. Sunrise and sunset ef- fects. Geocentric earth pro- jactor. Earth satellite pro- jactor. Constellation projec- tors. Meteor Shower projector. Bolide projector. Comet projector. Sumner bearings and as- tronomical triangles. It may appear that such an impressive array of instrumen- tNation should offer unlimited selection in the material content -59- of planetariums, but judgment such as this is illusionary. If the planetarium is to fulfill its assigned obligation to acquaint the public with those facets Of science affecting their daily living patterns, then the sc0pa of augmentation must be expanded. For example, a few basic astronomical con- cepts, important to all planetarium programming, that cannot be demonstrated by the aforementioned supports are listed below. 1. Even though the stars can be.made to drift across the Sky, the audience cannot see the earth rotate on its axis. Even though the sun can be seen moving along the ecliptic, the audience cannot be Shown the revolu- tion of the earth. 8 Although the apparent raising and lowering Of the sun's position can be demonstrated on the meridian, the audience cannot be shown the earth's polar axis as it is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic. Although an earth satellite can be projected moving among the stars, the launching of the rocket and the orbit established cannot be Shown. Even though artificial reddening, sun dOgs, halos, and other meteorological phenomena can be discussed, the actual cause of the phenomena cannot be demon- stratad. The list of such "cannots" is as infinite as the uni- verse with which the planetarium deals, and yet, such blocks - 51 - to ready visualization need not deter programming in these particular areas. The planetarium workshOp has as its func- tion to support the basic instrumentation and the basic auxillary instrumentation in such a way that each support of the theme becomes easily understandable even to the most un- interested and most unenlightened audience. The men who man these important workshOps are more than electricians, Optic- ians, and machinists and they are much more than "gadgetaers," as some have called them. These men have the reSponsibility to provide, through their creative genius, those aSpects of programming that cannot be purchased at any price. Proparing the Advertising: It is unfortunate that concern with the public image has become passe in such a short period. Any institution that deals in goods and services, any institution that mod- ifias or adjusts its product in terms of feedback from the consumer, any institution whose success or failure is trans- lated in terms of quantitative nature must be extremely sen- sitive in its regard of the public. Since the planetarium is a community institution, functioning within the boundar- ies of certain pre-described determinants, it must, if it is to be successful over a long period of time, be sensitive to outside pressures and be in a continual state of adjust- ment to the changing requirements of the times. This does not mean to imply that the planetarium must always follow the social-scientific caprices of the public. On the "all: 'r J . ‘- — m -52.. contrary, there are times when the planetarium must strike off alone into new areas but, as with all types of public institutions, there must be maintained a healthful inter- change between the two extremitias Of action. One of the factors influencing the public planetarium image can be seen in the allegation that planetariums, like art galleries and museums, are the playthings of the idle rich. A glance at the names attached to the major planetar- iums would appear to lend credence to such an allegation I since nine of the eleven bear the names of principal donan§// or benefactors. However, a careful study of the lives ofwthe men after whom these institutions are named would clearly in- dicate that there is to be found in each instance a sincere concern for the fellow man, a sincere desire to relate man more meaningfully to his greater environment. If the planetarium is to function as a useful institu- tion in the society that creates it, that is, if it is to transmit the knowledge Of astronomy over the broadest pOpu- lation base, than public Opinion, correctly or incorrectly founded, must be Shaped through the process of programming. In 1962 the assistant editor of one of Michigan's daily newspaper stated that he regretted that he was having diffi- culty in finding Space for planetarium news because the comic page was already SO crowded. The remark was not intended to be facetitious. Behind it lay the Sincere belief that plan- etariums were for children. Perhaps some planetarium -53- personnel have themselves constructed this particular public image because it is usually easier to attract large numbers of children than to attract large numbers of adults. Chil- dren are more frequently members Of captive groups than are adults. The figures collected from the reports Of the plan- etarium directors of the United States do not corroborate this particular image. L:y/ The total figure of school attendance of 5,791,192, as previously mentioned in the compilations of the directors‘ reports, does not tell a complete story. The percentage com- parison of school attendance to total attendance ranged from a low of one per cent for the United States Air Force Acad- emy Planetarium to a high of seventy-two per cent for Morehead of the University Of North Carolina. AS an average, each of the major planetariums had 33.65 per cent Of its total atten- dance composed of young people attending in Special school groups.2 , Another public image of the planetarium can be seen re- flected in the statement, "I don't want to go there. It would be too far over my head." The regrettable fact about this eXprassion of image is that it is often true. In the too-professional planetarium one finds that not only the cen- tral objective, but the only objective, is to teach the science 2' Figures compiled from reports presented in Philadel- phia, Pennsylvania, May, 1963. -5u- of astronomy. While such a philOSOphy, viewed independently of its perlferal associations, seems both fitting and prOper to its Objective, it often leads to Serious omissions in mak- ing use of the instrument's capabilities. There one discov- ers too much reliance on fact and too little on fascination. At the other and of this continuum one finds the plane- tarium that is too non-professional. Here the visitor is xfl.>”ilh .t‘ PMH’ subjected to all kinds Of misinformation and the showmanship L'z'“i involved in the planetarium programming tends to be almost comic-bookish in its approach. Where the too-professional planetarium tends to enforce apathy, the too non-professional planetarium tends to encourage ridicule of the very science it was designed to promote. Perhaps the book issued by Spitz Laboratories presents something of the compromise that must be made between these two public image extremes: As you become familiar with the plane- tarium lecturing techniques you will find this unusual classroom session is capable of a little more than the or- dinary educational experience. In a sense the planetarium Offers a chance for a bit of theater -- the correct combination of lighting, illusion and the Spoken word. It need be no more Spectacular than this. A "Trip to the Moon" is not necessary to hold the at- tention of the group. 3° Early, Roger Neil. The Use of the Planetarium in the Teaching of Earth and Spoca“Sdiances, publidhedJEy Spitz LabOratories, Inc., Yorklyn, Delaware, 1960, page h. -55- In the summer of 1960, the Robert T. Longway Planetar- ium decided to conduct a community survey in order to determ- ine the effectiveness of its public relations prOgram to mod- ify, if necessary, the approach to the media regarding the programming and purposes. The questionnaire was designed to reveal the listening, viewing and reading habits of a randomly selected pOpulation drawn from within the city limits of Flint, Michigan. In addition, the questionnaire was designed so that an accurate image of the planetarium might be determined from the re- sponses and so that a public preference in periodic adver- tising might be expressed. 7 v.9 The survey was by no means a comprehensive onefpyfl to- tal Of one hundred and one Flint families were selected to generalize to a total pOpulation of approximately 200,000.;? It should be pointed out also that the survey was not in- tended to pose as scientific research. Rather, the only in- tention of the survey was to reflect the attitudes and pref- erences of a community at the time the questionnaire was ad- ministered. In order tO determine the attitude of the public to- ward the Robert T. Longway Planetarium four picture cards ‘were prepared. Each card represented a different age and economic grouping of peOple. The respondents were then aSked the following question: "The planetarium wishes to uSe a picture in its advertising that will best represent -56- its activities to the public. Here are four different groups of peOple. 'Which group do you feel would most correctly rep- resent the activities Of Longway Planetarium to the peOple of this city?" The tabulation of reSponses was as follows: TABLE I. DETERMINATION OF THE ATTITUDE OF THE PUBLIC TO THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAM OF THE LONGWAY PLANETARIUM Number Of Percentage Group Selected Choices of Total Group I (Consisting of husband, wife and two children) 62 61.4 Group II (Consisting Of one girl and one boy) 19 18.8 Group III (Consisting of one man and one boy) 3 3.0 Group IV (Consisting of one man and one woman, expen- sively dressed) 10 9.9 Group V (No answer group) 7 6.9 Totals 101 100.0 C The results of the survey, although perhaps ipconclusive 2» H ’19 '1' .' r e'. R222933_of the pOpulation_sample, seem to indicate the type mung“, (cu-9 ' l \ / 43‘ Of public image most desirable if a planetarium is to func- 39,";_ “tion.at optimum effectiveness in the community. The correct fTTHIS reflection of such opinion is always important, but as the s12e of the community being served decreases, the importance Of’ the image in the public mind increases proportionately. -57- The directors of the major planetariums have issued a state- ment for communities interested in establishing a new plane- tarium. The statement purports that an annual attendance of about five per cent Of the area pOpulation can be expected to attend the planetarium. In a large, heavily populated area this is probably adequate, but in smaller communities this percentage is insufficient. Therefore, every effort must be made, particularly in the smaller communities, to keep the public image balanced in such a manner as to be at- tractive to the largest potential audience. The nature of planetarium programming is such as\to pre- sent a Serious problem to effective advertising. The analogy of the public program at the planetarium to that of the movie at the city theater is not a good one, but the Similarity certainly extends to the fact that the existence of both de- pends on the voluntary patronage Of the public. The movie theater, however, changes its program weekly, thereby fore- stalling any theoretical saturation and providing, at the same time, a continually fresh approach to advertising the product. The average planetarium prOgram lasts for at least a month and some, particularly during the summer months, may run as long as three months. All planetariums have their origin in that nebulous un- definable something called community Spirit and it is oblig- atory that the planetarium develOp the type of program that can be truly classified as community service. Once this label -58- has been firmly bestowed upon the planetarium, the possibil- ities for inaXpenSiva advertising become practically unlim- ited. Briefly, let us consider only a few of the possible avenues of approach available to the community service—cen- tered planetarium. Radio Advertising: The planetarium is in the market to sell-a product, Spe- cifically, knowledge, and being placed in a competitive mar- ket where it is competing for a portion of the leisure time of the working adult, it becomes extremely important to ana- lyze each medium well and approach it in the best possible fashion. A correct analysis and approach to this area of radio advertising is more difficult than the approach to other forms of the mass media because of an unfortunate stere- otype that has developed. About l9h8, the broadcasting industry began to adapt a basic music-news format. From this basic shift in broadcast policy develOped the stereotype of radio as serving only the great mass of screaming, jumping adolescents. Since this type of person is not usually attracted to programs that can be Offered in a planetarium, the tendency is either to ig- nore the potential of the medium completely or to slant the prepared material in such a fashion that it will appeal to the caprices of the adolescent. That is that this stereo- typed notion of radio potential, as is generally true with all stereotypes, is only partially true. -59- In 1945, and again in l9h7, the National Opinion Re- search Center of the'University of Chicago made a survey of radio listeners at the request of the National Association Of Broadcasters. The results showed that forty-two per cent of the listeners were at least high school graduates and forty-six per cent of the listeners interviewed were between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-nine.Lt Disappointing per- haps to planetariums, which are generally located in large metrOpolitan areas, is the fact that radio listening increases perceptably in less urbanized areas. In 1959, William O'Hallaren analyzed a more contemporary radio audience in these rather uncomplimantary terms: There are many adults for whom radio is almost an unbreakable habit, no matter how surly it gets. These people find it a companionable noise while ironing or fighting traffic. There are always some waiting for the weather, the news, the baseball scores, or the word that the single tax has at last been adOpted. There are the blind, the lonely, the peo- ple who lug portables to beaches and parks. These are the core Of the radio listening public, long suffering, inured to insult, always available as survey statistics. Their number never grows, but nothing erodes it very much either. 9' Hazersfald, Paul F. and Kendall, Patriac H. Radio Listening in America, (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19H8), pp. 123 ff. 5' O'Halloran, William. "Radio is Worth Saving," At- lantic Monthly, Vol. 20h, October, 1959, pp. 69-72. -60.. Likewise, in planning a program of radio advertising, the director of a public institution, such as a planetar- ium, must not forget the phenomenal growth of the FM sta- tion nor its somewhat distinct role in radio broadcasting. AS C. P. Gilmore has pointed out, "The sale of FM receivers . . . has soared from fewer than 200,000 in 1955 to some two million in 1960."6 Correctly, or incorrectly, these two million listeners are assumed to be somewhat more se- lective in taste than are their comparable counterparts in AM listening and consequently programming is ordinarily de- signed with the selective listenar in mind. It is this prac- tice, that of putting on a variety of programs to attract Special-interest audiences rather than catering only to the majority, that has been called "narrowcasting" rather than broadcasting.7 The determination then as to who is the audience and what is the audience is somewhat nebulous, but it does seem certain that it is not all juvenile. Therefore, preparation of radio advertising must be such as to appeal to all seg- ments of the population equally. The salesmanship Of Science education must not be limited to any single strata Of society because of incorrect emphasis and improper planning. 6° Gilmore, C. P. "Tune in on the FM Variety Show," Roader's Digest, Vol. 78, June, 1961, pp. 193-8. 7' Gilmore, ibid. -61- Since radio stations, like every form of the mass media, depend solely on the quality of their product to appeal to the great mass of peOple it follows that even in their pub- lic service advertising and production they must constantly guard against inferior workmanship, discarding the material that is badly written and poorly produced and selecting those materials that have been tastefully executed. This means that planetariums wiShihg extensive radio coverage of their programs must see to it that material intended to be read by station employed announcers is prepared in the best possible radio style, or better yet, public service institutions should program their own materials and submit them in tape or cartridge form to the stations within the area. Television Advertising; No institution depending on public patronage can long exist if its advertising methods are delegated to a Single medium approach, even one as deeply penetrating as radio. It is better that advertising forms be as varied as possible in order to reach each layer of the potential market for knowledge. It would) be difficult to ignore "the David" or the industry even if one wanted to. No other form of mass communication reaches so many families in such a concen- trated form. Consequently, no other medium offers such a fertile field for effective planetarium advertising. The established facts are that in 1961, eighty-eight per cent of the households in the United States had television -52- Sets. These sets were in Operation on an average of five hours per day. Evidence of the pOpularity Of the medium is that in 1950 there were one hundred and four TV stations in Operation but by 1960 the number had increased to four hun- dred and thirty-one. "Television," said John P. Cunningham, chairman of Cunningham and Walsh Advertising, "has become a firmly established member of the American family: it ranks with the automobile (and even the home itself) in terms of family concern."8 Research has left little doubt that television is an admirable salesman of all sorts of products. It is reported that Steve Allen recommended a book called Brotherhood of Hill in a casual thirty-second Spiel and the next morning four thousand OOpies were sold.9 The planetarium wishing extensive television news cov- erage of its programs would do well to remember the simple but important difference between this medium and radio. Therefore, advertising material must be prepared so as to fit Specifically into the framework of the medium. Although a well-written piece of radio copy may Show some scattered results when mailed to radio stations, the same cOpy would, if submitted without supporting visuals, be ignored by tele- vision broadcasters. These supports must also be executed to 8- Television and Radio, edited by Payntz Tyler, pub- lished by H. W. Wilson Company, New York, 1961, page h5. 9' Television and Radio, loc. cit., page h7. -63- fit the limitations of the medium. Special attention in art preparation Should be given to contrast rather than to color and although stations may use artwork just as it has been prepared, the probability Of its use is increased if it is copied on 35 mm film and attached to the written OOpy. The planetarium, when considering the effect of adver- tising as an element of programming, Should never underes- timate the value of indirect promotion. AS a repository of a Specialized body of knowledge and as a repository for the specialized talent for distributing that information in mean- ingful form, the staff Of any planetarium will have ample Opportunity to place the institutional image before the pub- lic through the medium Of television. Again the Specter of mistake beckons enticingly to the planetarium director or his communication man. It is the Specter Of public service, that leads to the mistaken idea that quality iS unimportant. It is true that Newton N. Minow, president of the Federal Communications Commission, has threatened strict enforcement of this license qualifica- tion, but even under the most strict interpretation, local television stations are free to define for themselves that area that lies outside the area designated as seventy per cent entertainment. Nowepapar Advertising: Each year the newspapers of this country subscribe to Inuherous syndicated science columns. Each day service wires -6h- bring assorted pieces of information to the city desk, ma- terial that must be sorted, elaborated upon and than ac- cepted or rejected in light of a quality decision. The con- tinual, and Often Spectacular displays of the heavens, keep the telephones busy at the local newspaper office. It is under these conditions that the Specialized knowledge and capabilities of the planetarium staff are most required. The local neWSpaper and planetarium can, and Should, establish a cooperative relationship to provide both direct and indirect advertising, consequently exerting an important, positive in- fluence on programming. In the Spring of 1960, Ralph B. Curries, editor of the Flint Journal, Flint, Michigan, posed an interesting ques- tion that was to have far-reaching consequences in the area of newSpaper advertising. Although the neWSpaper, as a mat- ter of course, carried Special articles and editorials deal- ing with newsworthy aspects of the planetarium programming, the question was how to place program information before the community on a day-to-day basis. Less than one month later the question was to answer itself in such a fashion as to provide benefit to both the planetarium and the newspaper. One of the syndicated articles coming to the neWSpaper desk for consideration dealt with the times for Observations Such as rising and Setting sun, rising and setting moon, and Iniscellanaous Observations that might be of interest to ama- telrr enthusiasts in the area of astronomy. It was decided, fluids; . -65- after careful consideration, that the same information could be provided from a local source more conveniently and with equal or greater accuracy. At the same time, the column would also allow for mention of Special and continuing pro- grams at the planetarium. The daily "Skies Over" column became a reality of news-D paper advertising when the computer of General Motors Insti- tute was offered for use in computing the data needed for the astronomical phenomena. The idea of daily advertising for the planetarium com- bined with a daily service for people of the community Seemed to be such a good idea that other newSpaper editors in Michi- gan were approached with the possibility of incorporating the feature into their daily format. The following newspapers now carry the program regularly: The Flint Journal, Flint, Michigan The Jackson Citizen Patriot, Jackson, Michigan The State Journal, Lansing, Michigan~*'- , ‘ The Saginaw News, Saginaw, Michigan The Pioneer, Big Rapids, Michigan The Muskegon Chronicle, Muskegon, Michigan The Traverse Ciongecord-Eagla, Traverse City, Michigan The Port Huron Times Herald, Port Huron, ’Michigan Although advertising such as this has little immediate effect on planetarium attendance, its cumulative effect on image building is of inestimable value. This example of advertising by Flint is only one of many EKDSSibilities for promoting planetarium programming. The tihree important qualities of newspaper advertising; qualities -66- that must be given serious consideration by any institution engaged in day-to-day marketing of a product are repetition, localization, and intensification. These traits are empha- sized in the recent book Advertising in the following way: The newSpaper is primarily a local adver- tising medium. By a diversity of editor- ial content and emphasis on local news, it appeals to peOple of many different types within the community it serves . . . The newspaper provides intensive coverage of local markets at relatively low Space costs, and the advertiser cannot only time the delivery of his message for the most advantageous day, but he can also get it published via very Short notice, in many cases, within a few hours. Oral Communication in the Planetarium: If one considers the public Speech to consist of only the three basic elements of Speech, Speaker, and audience, than there appears to be no difference between the platform Speech and the planetarium lecture since all three of these elements unquestionably exist in both. A reading of Nichol- son's article on the planetarium lecture would lead the reader to concentrate on the Similarities and ignore the dif- ferences that exist. For example, Nicholson says, "At its (the planetarium lecture) best, it combines the formality of the lecture hall, the Spontanaity of the classroom, the ex- hibitionism of the museum, the showmanship Of the theater, and the casualness of conversation."11 10: Wright, John S. and Warner, Daniel S. Advertising, (liew YOrk: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962), pp. 168-9. 11. Nicholson, op. cit., page 269. -67- Nicholson does, however, touch on a few of the dissim- ilarities existing between the two processes in the follow- ing paragraph: The lecturer's presentation should be fluent, casual, authoritative, and in- teresting. At the same time, he must have the presence of mind and dexterity to control the projection planetarium and his Share of the supporting visual effects without interruption in his pre- sentation. It is very Often imperative that he maintain a rigid time schedule, not only for the duration of the lecture, but also in timing the sequences that are part Of it so that they coorginate pre- cisely with visual effects.1 The planetarium lecture is exactly what the name implies. It is a public lecture, and as suCh it is subject to all the rules and restrictions used to determine the requirements of any good platform Speaking. If there is a difference, and indeed there are many, that difference lies not in the basic application of the rules, but rather in the additional re- strictions the inherent nature of the medium imposes upon the Speaker. Unfortunately, there has never been anything invented that will act as a synthetic for knowledge, and no instant wonder drugs have been develOped that will give the Speaker a prOper command of his subject. The fundamental that there can be no substitute for knowledge holds true for all Speak- ers, but most particularly for Speakers dealing with techni- cal and scientific materials. The planetarium lecture, 12- Nicholson, loc. cit., page 27M- - 68 - exclusively related to some aspect of the science of astronomy, demands of its lecturers the highest command of its subject matter, for only he who has mastered its content will be able to teach it simply and effectively. The converse of this position is not implied. The state— ment is not meant to imply that each student of astronomy, if well acquainted with its subject content, will also be pos- sessed of those qualities that make a good planetarium lec- turer. The nature of our educational system is such that it has created a false dichotomy between the arts and the sciences. The implication is that no common meeting ground can exist between these two divisions of human knowledge. If we ac— cept the Aristotelian definition of speech as an art, than we must also accept the fact that many college students maj- oring in the sciences refuse to recognize the values of speech in the total life picture of man. The Simple fact that man must always relate his ideas linguistically to his fellow man is all but forgotten in the meaningless chasm we have con- structed. The frequent lack of this necessary combination has caused many planetarium executives to Search for men who have the ability to express their ideas effectively and than, realizing the need for extensive knowledge in the subject area, Offer Special classes and seminars for the purpose of future planetarium lecturers. The planetarium lecturing Situation is, in many respects, a different kind of Speech eXperienca than the one in which 9..., . -69- the accustomed platform Speaker finds himself. Where the platform Speaker learns to be aware of such aSpects of per- sonality as dress, appearance, posture, and eye contact, the planetarium lecturer finds these aSpects to be of only mini- mal importance. The planetarium lecturer may have as much as three to five minutes of personal contact with his aud- ience, but as soon as the lights go down and the planetarium illusion is completed, the lecturer becomes nothing more than a voice out of the darkness, building emotion and coaxing the listener to move from known dimensions into the unknown and yet unexplored dimensions of his universe. As a general rule, the position of the Speaker's stand also prohibits the planetarium lecturer from assuming the same relationship with his audience as does the platform Speaker. Where the platform Speaker is placed in front of his audience, the planetarium lecturer is ordinarily placed behind it. Since the Operating console iszalways in the north)" and; since the nature of the medium dictates a Spher- rags-u” ”Wt “five :54. ‘ni‘ 1 ~- 4-1m... ical inner- dome structure, the planetarium lecturer must al- ways be behind at least half of the audience. Not too many years ago the student aspiring to become an accomplished platform Speaker was presented with a com- prehensive list of gestures which he was expected to memor- ize. Each gesture was carefully calculated to demonstrate (a;particu1ar emotion or emphasize a particular pOint. Al- though the concept of good public Speaking has changed con- - 7o - siderably since the days of elocution, bodily motion is still considered to be a desirable quality. To the planetarium lec- turer, however, any value of such motion is lost since he is working unseen by his audience. A great amount of manual dex- terity is required of him, to be sure, but it takes the form of coordinating his effects with the content of the material he is presenting. Correct manipulation of accompanying vis- ual effects is so important that the planetarium lecturer of- ten uses an outline that is divided into two parts. One part is devoted to the material content of the program and the other devoted to the accompanying effects. Another major difference between platform and planetar- ium Speaking lies in the area of what might be apprcpriately referred to as social binding forces. The platform Speaker must be able to analyze the audience in each of their many aspects in order to be able to most ef- fectively communicate his own ideas. Such an analysis is also necessary in order that he might more easily channel the reaction of his audience toward his communication into its most meaningful patter of reSponse. Fortunately for the plat- form Speaker, this analysis does not take place in a social Vacuum. 'With each audience the platform Speaker faces he finds a kind of binding force which allows him to make his Judgments with a fair degree of accuracy. The words organ- ization, club, or assembly connote some form of homogeneity baésed upon some solidly discernible premise. - 71 - The planetarium lecturer can expect to find no such bind- ing force existing in the average audience attending the pub- lic presentation. It would be disasterous to assume that each person attending such a program does so because of an overpow- ering interest in the science of astronomy. Many planetarium patrons attend because of interest, to be sure, but others may be attending simply because it is cheaper than going to the movies or because the darkness and the music are conducive to a good hour's rest. In addition, the typical planetarium audience cannot be grouped or analyzed according to age. The lecturer may be Speaking to children as young as Six and adults as old as eighty. The search for a common denominator among planetarium audiences can be frustrating simply because no such thing exists. The lecturer is forced, therefore, to search out some suitable middle-ground approach in the pre- sentation of his material, causing some to reach on intellec— tual tiptoe to graSp his ideas while others in the same aud- ience will be forced to stoop slightly in order to gather the material up to the eye-level of the intellect. CHAPTER V TEEPHDTSHWY The Composite Problem: The many facets of planetarium education will not allow the institution to be identified qualitatively with any par- ticular educational or social strata of the community. The label of the "Rich Man's Toy" or the "Poor Man's Movie" must be carefully avoided by develOping such diversity within the programming as to be of value to all segments of the commun- ity within which the institution functions. Failure to pro- gram effectively so as to appeal to the maximum number of adults can only result in the progressive decay of the value of the institution. There are, as we have seen, several important aspects to successful programming. Basically, however, it should be reiterated that programming should consist of: (l) the ef- fective use of the basic instrumentation, (2) the correct selection and employment of accompanying visual supports, (3) the best use of all available means to inform the gen- eral public as to the periodic changes in programming, and (ii) the program itself which consists compositely of the writ- tHan word and the Spoken.word. Each of these contributing el- ennents must be brought into effective use in order to create - 72 - - 73 _ a pleasurable and effective learning situation. The neglect of any of the aforementioned elements will result in only a partially adequate science education for the peOple of the community. Many articles have been written as to the use of the planetarium in today's scientific, Space-centered society. Each author of each article has assumed, because of its long and impressive history, and because of the prestige the plan- etarium enjoys in its relationship with the Space sciences, that it is an excellent teaching device; yet, in spite of the millions of people exposed annually to the magic of its self- contained universe, no research is now available in which the correlation of planetarium prOgramming to adult learning and habits has been carefully analyzed. Scope and Limitations: Since this study was designed to provide a comprehensive overview of the effectiveness of planetarium programming as it relates to the needs and desires of the adult, it was nec- essary to, wherever possible, correlate a series of data per- tinent to the stated thesis of the investigation. If one as- cribes no more than a quantitative aSpect to the improvement of programming to adults, it has merit since it may be as- sumed that the planetarium experience for many non-school adults is the only accurate interpretation of those scien- tific events so important in the shaping of our contemporary society. This investigation was designed to isolate and iden- tify selected patterns of reSponse among community adults who, -7u- through occasional participation in public program offerings, are subject to what might be referred to as non-sequential science education. This study assumed that the adult within a given commun- ity could be analyzed in regard to Specific aSpects of behav- ior patterns and reSponses, but the study did not assume that all non-experimental variables could be controlled in order that statistical levels of significance might be assigned with unerring accuracy. The investigation, it was understood, would be evaluated on the basis of design and on the basis of the data collected specifically in the investigation. Also, the study of the adults within the community was designed to determine to what extent, if any, planetarium attendance tended to influence the attitude of the adult toward the pro; jects of Space research undertaken by the Federal government. Third, the study was designed to measure the extent to which planetarium attendance as a form of incidental Science educa- tion would provide the average adult with a workable vocabu- lary that would assist him in the interpretation of the Space- age events that play an increasingly important role in the life of the well-informed citizen. General aspects of the study, Specifically responses to Questions ten and eleven, were to be subjected to statistical analysis, but due to the nature of the pOpulation and the necessary methods of data accumulation and treatment, it was decided to delay the assessment of statistical levels of .. 75 - probability and to analyze the results of the pilot study only in terms of tendency as they appeared to deviate from an expected norm. The latter seemed to be a more appropri- ate evaluation to the interpretation of the collected data. The Instrument: The measuring instrument was designed to be as brief as possible and still supply the data necessary to present an accurate composite picture of the adults attending public pro- grams at one of the major planetariums included in this study. Although the questionnaire was Specific enough in its design to measure certain pre-selected areas of reSponse and reveal certain patterns of cultural inter-relationship, it was, the- oretically, flexible enough to permit it to function in any community where the planetarium operates adjacent to or in conjunction with other cultural facilities. The respondent was informed that it was not necessary 'that the completed form he signed, but personal data such as Sex, age, and education were requested in anticipation that 'they might later serve as functional determinates in the an- alysis of the data. Since one of the major elements of planetarium program- rHing must concern itself with the most effective prolifera- tian of information, the first five questions were designed t“) determine if differences existed in the medium exposure habits of those adults who attended planetarium programs from thOse who did not. -76- The five medium items were: 1. 5. How many hours a week would you estimate you Spend viewing television? How many hours a week would you estimate you Spend listening to the radio? How many novels would you estimate you have read during the past year? Please list in the order you usually read the news- paper: (Let 91" stand for the section you usually read first.) Sports _____ Feature _____. Editorial Classified ______ Social _____ Comics How many movies have you attended during the past year? The next two questions appear at casual reading to be repetitive. However, a closer examination as to purpose and intent shows that question six is designed to provide data representing the cumulative effect of the planetarium exper- ience, while question seven is designed to provide data con- cerning the immediacy of the experience. 6. How many times have you attended public programs at the Robert T. Longway Planetarium? How many times have you attended public prOgramS at the Robert T. Longway Planetarium during the past year? Questions eight and nine were included in the instrument in. order to determine to what extent inter-cultural relation- - 77 _ ships may exist between adults who attend planetarium pro- grams and those who attend art galleries and theater pro- grams. 8. How many times have you attended plays at the Bower Theater during the past year? 9. How many times have you attended a Special show- ing at the DeNaters Art Institute during the past year? One of the major decisions facing the adult in this age of Space exploration is the degree of justifiability of large government expenditures of tax money on rockets, missiles, and satellites. It was hypothesized that those adults who avail themselves of planetarium programming would, because