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LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
VISUAL ARTS PROGRAMS: A HOLISTIC

APPROACH TO EDUCATION

presented by

Gretchen A. Boyer

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M.A. degree in Department of Art

 

Qflmw (gig/Cd \.

Major professor

Date 8/3Q/ 73

0-7639

 

 

 

VISUAL ARTS PROGRAMS: A HOLISTIC-

APPROACH TO EDUCATION

BY

Gretchen A. Boyer

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Art

1978

ABSTRACT

VISUAL ARTS PROGRAMS: A HOLISTIC
APPROACH TO EDUCATION

BY

Gretchen A. Boyer

This paper presents concepts which, if put into
effect, would balance the cognitive and affective aspects
in general education and allow for learning through visual
images, learning which promotes the holistic development
of the child.

The problem is the lack of such a balance. The
rationale for this program is that arts provide a median
for self-expression, motivation and communication. The
review of literature discusses pertinent information
relative to a visual art-centered program. A description
of the program follows stating aims, objectives and
methodology.

In conclusion, factors for change are stated.
They include administrative support, joint planning for
teachers, proper scheduling and program structure, and
more interdisciplinary teaching methods in higher edu-

cation. Each discipline has qualities that are unique

Gretchen A. Boyer

to that discipline; therefore, infusion should take place
only where natural connections occur and retain the

uniqueness of each discipline.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express her appreciation
for the help and guidance of her chairman, Dr. Charles
Steele, and of the committee members, Professors Mabel
Nemoto, Nancy Stackhouse, and James Victoria.

Finally, the support and understanding of my
husband, David, were helpful in the completion of this

thesis.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O I 1
Background of the Problem . . . . . . 1
The Problem. . . . . . . . . . . 2
Rationale for an Art-Centered Program . . 3
Outline of the Thesis . . . . . . . 6
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . 7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 7

Perception and Creativity: Concepts for
a Holistic Program. . . . . . . . 7
Perception . . . . . . . . . . 7
Creativity . . . . . . . . . . 10

Types and Theories of Visual Arts
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Goals for an Arts-Related Program. . . 16
Applicable Learning Theories . . . . 17
Creative Thinking . . . . . . . 17
Discovery Learning . . . . . . . 20
Visual Instruction . . . . . . . 21
Principles for a Successful Program . . 23
Curriculum Alternatives . . . . . . 24
Teaching Approaches . . . . . . . 26
Summary: The Balanced Philosophy. . . 30
III. COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE CONCEPTS IN EDU-

CATION O O O O O O O C O O O O 33
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 33

Perception and Creativity: Requirements
for the Learning Process. . . . . . 34

iii

Page

Educational Principles and the Role of
Communication in the Learning

Process 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 38

IV. A VISUAL ART-CENTERED PROGRAM . . . . . . 41
Aims for Education . . . . . . . . . 41
Cognitive vs. Affective Learning . . . . 42
Objectives of an Art-Centered Program. . . 43
Methods Promoting Subject Relationships . . 44

The Optimum Learning Environment . . . . 47

V. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Factors for Change . . . . . . . . . 49
Implications for Curriculum . . . . . . 51
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . 60

iv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Problem

 

A revision of the curriculum to stress both the
cognitive and the affective would offer a more holistic
approach to education. The current "back to basics"
movement in education tends to stress cognitive skills,
particularly in the Language Arts, Science, and Math cur-
ricula. Yet visual education as it is presently practiced
does not adequately deal with affective interests such as
self-expression and emotionality. The basic skills of
communication, which are verbal, written, and pictorial,
are indeed basic and should not be neglected. But the
arts, which have traditionally included the creative and
imaginative as a vital part of the curriculum, have been
rejected by other disciplines as being too subjective
despite the fact that the arts offer a natural way in
which to fulfill affective needs. For example, the art
object gives the individual the opportunity to become

more aware of and personally involved with what he is

doing; he must decide how he is going to solve his problem,
an activity which affords him self-expression, a purely
affective experience.

Stressing affective behavior also helps to train
the student's perception. The student becomes more dis-
criminating in his ability to accurately see what really
exists rather than what he would like to see exist. The
arts allow the individual to look at problems through
different viewPoints rather than coming to one set con-
clusion. The powers of observation are thus sharpened,
and the student becomes more aware of his environment.

Presently, education uses the visual program in a
cognitive manner as a tool for learning (i.e., audio-
visuals). The program should be extended, however, so
that both the cognitive and the affective are utilized.
In that way, the visual program would use the eyes and
mind to stimulate experiences which produce a richness
of meaning and satisfaction, a process which would be

both intellectual and emotional.

The Problem

 

It is this author's belief that if education
does not educate the whole child, it is not meeting
societal needs. This paper will thus discuss some of
the advantages of a holistic approach to education, par-
ticularly in relation to the imbalance between affective

and cognitive development as it now exists in the

elementary curriculum. Parallels will be noted where
affective development compares and contrasts with cogni-
tive development.

The art experience as a structure for learning
is based on six components that children need to exper-
ience: perceiving, responding, understanding, creating,
evaluating, and developing skills. The advantages of
the arts is that the whole student is engaged in the arts
process. It is a means for expressing and interpreting
human behavior and experience. If the arts are not a
part of the daily teaching and learning process, the
child's educational experienCes are not complete and the
whole child is not educated. Visual art-centered programs
should thus be designed to make visual art part of general

or basic education.

Rationale for an Art-Centered Program

 

There are many specific ways in which the arts,
if presented in a proper manner, contribute to every
child's education. Given a learning situation which
allows for divergent thinking, the arts can provide the
child with a median for self-expression. The teacher
influences which learning situations occur in his class-
room. Care should be taken to establish learning situ-
ations and atmospheres which would enhance self-expressive
activity. Often, for the inhibited or unsuccessful

child, the arts may act as a motivator or give positive

reinforcement. Through this reinforcement, the child's
self-confidence may be increased. This may influence
success in other learning areas as well. The arts may

also encourage more relaxed communication with increased
self—esteem. As children gain confidence in their own
abilities, they are more able to take command and integrate
their mental, physical, and emotional facilities to cope

with the world around them.

Through arts experiences children become more
aware of themselves as well as the environment around
them. They develop a sense of keen observation and are
able to distinguish between quality and mediocrity. They
become more discriminate in their dress and actions. The
arts also promote a deeper, more sensitive understanding
and acceptance of similarities and differences among
races, cultures, and religions. Cultural aesthetics and
the social development of man are more fully understood
as children become more aware of their own cultural
heritage.

The arts are a tangible expression of human
creativity. They not only are a reflection of an indi-
vidual's perception of the world, but also make the indi-
vidual aware of his own creative and human potential.
Personal and creative involvement in the arts, then,
provides children with a source of pleasure and mental

stimulation. In fact, learning through the arts is

viewed as a pleasant learning experience which may
encourage a positive attitude toward school as a whole.
The arts elements common to many subject areas

include sound, movement, color, mass, energy. space,

line, shape, and language. Thus, problems in social
studies, math, or science may have concepts in common

with the arts. For example, a child having difficulty
understanding volume measurement in math class may increase
his understanding by actually measuring out proportions

for dye baths. He may also, in science class, learn about
color fastness of fabric or the chemical makeup of various
tints of color.

In addition to the above advantages for children,
the visual arts as useful tools for everyday living offer
them incentives for career exploration. This process
influences their choices about the environment in which
they live, their lifestyle, and the manner in which they
occupy their leisure time.

The arts can also contribute to special education
in that the art experience helps to develop both the
physically and mentally handicapped. First, art can
improve motor control in the physically handicapped
through the manipulation of various art media. Second,
art may help the mentally handicapped child to identify
feelings he may not have recognized earlier.1

It is important to note here that mentally handi-

capped children go through the same stages of development

as normal children; "the difference is that they move
through the stages at a slower rate and seldom achieve

the highest stages of development."2 Yet their sense of

achievement can be heightened by the art experience.
Indeed, the arts encourage confidence by giving indi-
viduals feelings of success or accomplishment. Art
stimulates the creative imagination or expression of
ideas and feelings. And for the mentally handicapped
it may be easier to express such ideas and feelings

through an art rather than a verbal medium.

 

Outline of the Thesis

Following this introductory chapter, Chapter II
will present a review of literature pertinent to the
development of an art-centered visual program; it will
discuss the concepts underlying such a program and sug-
gest theories relative to its establishment. Chapter III
describes in greater detail the cognitive and affective
components which must be integrated in a holistic edu-
cational approach, an integration which is made possible
through a visual art-centered program as outlined in
Chapter IV. Then, Chapter V summarizes the main points
of this thesis by indicating factors which must be changed
in order to put such a program into effect and by pointing
out the implications of an operative program for the

general education curriculum.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

 

The discussion of related literature will be
divided into two sections. The first section will explore
and explain various concepts in education that would
enhance a more holistic and balanced program, the balance
being between cognitive and affective concepts, while the
second will present information related to various types
of arts and art interdisciplinary programs.

Perception and Creativity: Concepts
for a Holistic Program
Perception

Perception is a complex process that has been
defined in many ways by philosophers, psychologists, and
educators. All agree that perception involves man's
interpretation of his environment and his feelings about
it. S. Howard Bartley states: "We are focusing on how
the human being interacts with his environment to cope
with its forces, to gain satisfactions and to express his

3

feelings." And, according to R. H. Day, "Perception is

defined here as the organism's maintenance of contact
with its environment, its internal state, and its pos-
tures and movements,"4 a definition with which Julian E.
Hochberg is in agreement when he claims that:

We study perception in an attempt to explain our
observations of the world around us. . . . The
perceived world is not identical to the world we
learn about through physical measures, and one of
the primary tasks of the study of perception is to
discover the relationship between them.

There are vast differences between the "real," or
physical world, as it is defined and measured by instru-
ments of physical science, and the perceived world of
normal unaided observation.

1) Many physical events cannot be observed by
the unaided sense organs. The reverse is also here.
There are numerous properties for which no physical
instruments can presently devise such as tastiness,
sexual attractiveness, and artistic quality.

2) What we observe is never in exact correspon-
dence with the physical situation. Some aspects
are omitted, some added, some distorted. An
illusion exists when observations made with the
aids of physical instruments yield different results
from those made without such instruments.6

R. H. Day also believes that perception may be influenced
by environment. He clarifies this when he states:
Although some features of perception are innate,
much perception is dependent upon experience with
the environment. It is convenient to consider three
classes of learning in perception; discrimination
learning, learning new relationships between infor-
mation from different systems and learning resolving
information for ambiguous stimuli.
Rudolf Arnheim maintains that cognitive operations
or thinking is an essential ingredient of perception.

Operations involved with perception are apprehension,

exploration, selection, grasping of essentials, simplifi-
cation, abstraction, analysis and synthesis, completion,
correction, comparison, problem solving, as well as comb—
ing, separating, and putting into context. Most of these
involve the individual in a judgment or decision-making

8
process.

Discrimination is an important component of per-
ception for it influences how a person perceives his
environment. S. Howard Bartley explains what is meant
by discrimination:

To make clear what is meant by discrimination we can
say that to discriminate is to make a choice reaction
in which contextual conditions play a deciding role.
The cerebral cortex is the best example of a system
that discriminates; hence, when we find behavior that
involves cortical participation, we may arbitrarily
class it as discriminatory. The determination of
whether certain reflexes will occur or to what extent
or in what context they will occur often depends on
the cerebral cortex: such reflex behavior is there-
fore certainly discriminatory.9

He continues: "Such systems possess a particular form of

organization and choice reaction is determined by the

characteristics of this organization."10

Perception also includes sense data and sense
response. H. H. Price comments that:

This peculiar and ultimate manner of being present
to consciousness is called being given, and that
which is thus present is called datum. The mental
attitude is called acquaintance, intuitive appre-
hension or sometimes having. Data of this special
sort is called sense data, and the acquaintance with
them is conveniently called sensing. Sense data are
mental events.1

10

Bartley comments, too, on sense response in regard to
experience and the phenomenological approach:

A great deal of sensory response consists of exper-
ience. Many experiences are experiences of objects
and other entities that as a class are called phe-
nomena. Allport states that any experience reported
upon as to how they "appear" as in contrast to how
they "are" are called phenomenological. The pro-
cedure of observing and reporting such experience is
called the "phenominological method." It has also
been called introspection. The topic as a whole is
called phenomenology.12

Creativity
The creative act is described by Bruner as effec-
tive surprise:

What is curious about effective surprise is that
it need not be rare or infrequent or bizarre and is
often none of these things. Effective surprises
. . . seem rather to have the quality of obviousness
to them when they occur, producing a shock of recog-
nition following which there is no longer astonish-
ment.l3

He further identifies two implications that occur in
relation to creativity:

Firstly, creative quality can reside in any human
activity. Man can be creative not only in painting,
writing poetry, discovering, or scientific theories,
but also in cooking, carpentering, playing football,
or making love. Secondly, it is not only the genius
who produces creative acts, but this quality can be
present in many minor acts at many different levels
of ability or intelligence.14

Creativity may be broken into two categories:
objective and subjective creativity. Concerning objective
creativity, Lytton states:

The first and most important is perhaps appro-

priateness: The product must make sense in the

light of demands of the situation and the specifi-
cations of the producer.

11

The second criterion is novelty: The product
should be unusual as judged by appropriate norms,
or should lead to an uncommon way of experiencing
the work.

Thirdly--and this is the highest standard--we
may judge a creative product by its power to trans-
form the traditional constraints of reality and to
yield a radically new perspective.

On the other hand,
Subjective creativity is judged by different canons.
It can occur when a person combines things in ways
that are individual to him, when he does not simply
imitate, but regroups given stimuli or data by
means of his own thoughts or actions, irrespective
of the effect his creation has on others.

Thinking, a component of creativity, may be clas-
sified in several ways. Writing on divergent and conver-
gent thinking, Guilford states: "In divergent thinking
operations, we think in different directions, sometimes
searching, sometimes seeking variety. In convergent
thinking, the information leads to one right answer or to
a recognized best or conventional answer."17 Divergent
thinking is generally associated with creative thinking.

Another manner in which thinking may be clas-
sified is according to the kind of material or content
involved. Hugh Lytton lists the classifications:

Figural content is concrete material such as
perceived through the senses. Symbolic content is
represented by letters or numbers or other con-
ventional signs. Semantic content takes the form of
verbal meaning or ideas. Behavior content was added
on a theoretical basis to include what has been
called social intelligence.18

The creative process, according to Dr. Marksberry,

is a series of experiences or parts of experiences, each

12

of which continues what has occurred in the previous exper-
ience and leads directly into the next experience, so that
there is a continuous merging until the final whole is
achieved. Paul E. Torrance supports this by further
stating that the creative process has four stages. These
consist of the following: a period of preparation; a
period of incubation; a period of insight, illumination,

or inspiration; and a period of evaluation, verification,
and perfection.19

The period of preparation in the broad sense con-
sists of all past experience, though the immediate prepar-
ation period occurs when there is sufficient desire strong
enough to cause activity. This activity is concerned with
the problem and the collection of information or material.
There is no set time for this period; it can be a short
amount of time or many years.

In the period of incubation, there is unconscious
activity occurring in which there is a ripening or germi-
nation of a solution within the individual, a searching
for solutions. During this time the individual may be
restless and have feelings of inferiority.

The period of insight occurs after there has been
a reorganization of previously accumulated experience.
Insight may occur in a flash, when the creator sees an
answer, thinks of a hypothesis, or has a hunch. After

this happens, he engages in intensive activity to put

13

the idea in a more permanent form. And during the period
of verification that form is checked, tested, evaluated,
and finalized.

Similar to the above stages in the general
creative process is the developmental process in artistic
creativity which consists of four basic steps: initial
conception, conceptual refinement, selection of medium,
and production of work. These four steps represent a
general consensus by people who study and make art, a
fact which may be substantiated in Howard Conant's book

Art Education.

 

Dr. Marksberry names five general principles of
learning that, if utilized, will provide for increased
creativity. The first is that the student must be given
the opportunity to practice the kind of behavior stated
in the particular objective and be able to use the content
with which the behavior deals. The student must be able
to explore and use his own feelings and ideas, remember
facts and generalizations, comprehend meaning, analyze
this meaning, and select the best idea. The second
general principle of learning is that the behaviors
desired must be achievable for each of the students
involved. The teacher must be aware of the learner's
past experience, interests, intellectual capacity, and

emotional make-up.

14

The third principle of learning which can provide
for increased creativity is that the learning situation
should be structured in a manner that the learner obtains
satisfaction from carrying out the behavior demands in
the objectives. In order to do this, the teacher should
have knowledge of the basic human satisfaction as well as
needs and interests of the students. The fourth, and a
very important principle to remember, is that many par-
ticular experiences can be used to obtain the same edu—
cational objectives. The teacher is only limited by his
own ingenuity and criteria for effective learning. The
last principle is that the same learning experience should
contribute to many different outcomes which means that
the student will learn ideas that are related to the
major objective and that he will be cultivating a like
or dislike for the subject.

In his book Teaching Creative Thinking and

Problem Solving, John F. Feldhusen lists a number of

 

suggestions for establishing an atmosphere conducive to
creative thinking. He believes educators should:

1. Support and reinforce unusual ideas and responses
of students.

2. Use failure as a positive to help students
realize errors and meet acceptable standards
in a supportive atmosphere.

3. Adapt to student interests and ideas in the
classroom whenever possible.

4. Allow time for students to think about and
develop their creative ideas. Not all creativity
occurs immediately and spontaneously.

15

5. Create a climate of mutual respect and acceptance
between students and between students and teachers,
so that students can share, develop, and learn
together and from one another as well as inde-
pendently.

6. Be aware of the many facets of creativity besides
arts and crafts: verbal response, written
responses both in prose and poetic style, fiction
and non-fiction form. Creativity enters all
curricular areas and disciplines.

7. Encourage divergent learning activities. Be a
resource provider and director.

8. Listen and laugh with students. A warm supportive
atmosphere provides freedom and security in
exploratory thinking.

9. Allow students to have choices and be a part of
the decision-making process. Let them have a part
in the control of their education and learning
experiences.

10. Let everyone get involved, and demonstrate the
value of involvement by supporting student ideas
and solutions to problems and projects.2

John Dewey believes that art should not be an
isolated learning situation; art should be related to
the student's life and the environment in which he lives.
He also states that art is a continuation of the learning
process by means of intelligent selection and arrangement
of natural tendencies in natural situations. In theory,
perception or aesthetic appreciation is enhanced.21

Pestalozzi asserts that the emotional needs of
a student must be satisfied in order to provide for a
successful educational beginning. He assumes that intel-
lectual curiosity will be a motive for learning. The
problem with this is the educational timetable under
which schools operate since variables in the educational
process such as intellectual curiosity do not have a

timetable, nor do variables like social experience,

16

motivation in general, personal motivation, intuitive
rational learning, and special devices and techniques.
Corresponding to this idea is John Dewey's belief that
education is conditioned by social experience which also
does not operate on a scheduled basis. He believes a
child learns from examples of others, competition, the
need to communicate, sympathy, censure, tolerance, and

harsh reality.22

Types and Theories of Visual
Arts Programs

 

This section of the review of literature will be
devoted to explanations of various types and theories of
arts related, interdisciplinary, or visual education
programs that would be suitable for use in a visual art-

centered program.

Goals for an Arts-Related Program
The Interdisciplinary Arts and Humanities Programs
and Cultural Centers for Elementary Programs, Title III
Final Report states the following goals which are often
common to many visual arts related programs:

Educators involved in interdisciplinary experiences
seem to exert personal efforts to work in a unified
and unfragmented manner. They seek to facilitate
among the teaching-learning community the inter-
dependencies and interrelationships of (A) the
environments and personal expression; (B) of human
problems and the expression of those problems;

(C) of environments and of styles of living, of
learning, and of being; (D) of styles of living

and of human expression; and finally (E) of the
interrelationships of human expression and of

human problems.2

17

To further these ideas Glenys G. Unruh and Stanley
Madeja in their article "The Arts in General Education:
An Interrelated Approach" add: "In this program . . .
present units and tOpics in academic subjects are being
rethought and reframed to provide for learnings that main-
tain the integrity of the disciplines but juxtapose or
interrelate them when theoretical and substantively

sound."24

The interdisciplinary programs discussed in
Kaleidoscope 12 have similar goals, namely: ". . . the
simultaneous strengthening and expansion of the affective
and cognitive areas of learning. This process, known as
confluent education, provides the students with a more

stimulating and meaningful educational experience."25

Applicable Learning Theories
Several learning theories would be utilized in a
visual art-centered program. These include creative
thinking, discovery learning, and visual instruction.
Even though all of these theories do not necessarily
include the visual, they do possess characteristics

necessary to make students feel successful.

Creative Thinking

 

In order to feel successful, the student must have
a positive self-concept. Wallace D. LaBenne states:

The process of developing a self-concept is based on
changes to be made in attitudes, beliefs, and expec-
tations. To some extent, expectations are the most
important, since most of us tend to move in the

18

direction of what we expect to occur. Therefore,
any attempt to alter expectations must also result
in a change of behavior. It is at this point that
past experiences are important, because they con-
tribute to current beliefs, predispositions, and
expectations. Experiences that have resulted in
failure over a prolonged period of time color one's
willingness to try again and lead one to expect

to fail.2

He further summarizes:

The self-concept is presented as a construct of
linking mechanism used by psychologists to infer a
process from observable behavior and to help explain
the causes of that behavior. We hold that a person's
feelings and cognitive processes, of which he has a
conscious awareness, are the major components of his
self-concept. We further maintain that the indi-
vidual's self-concept is that which primarily guides,
controls, and regulates his performance and action.

Self-reporting is probably the most common means
of obtaining a measure of self-concept. Here a sub-
ject reports his own inner experiences and feelings.
From a peer measurement standpoint, this procedure
is somewhat weak in that it does not possess external
validity. When the self-report distorts or camou-
flages the real beliefs and feeling the person holds
about himself, there can be no accurate estimate of
his self—concept. Despite its subjective nature,
the self-report yields evidence that can be obtained
in no other way. The self-concept is built or
achieved through accumulated social contacts and
experiences with "significant others" during the
growing up process. These "significant others" pro-
foundly affect young people and precondition the
development of the self-concept. Significant others
are parents, peers, and teachers.

The perceptual selections one makes invariably
relate to past experiences as well as to present needs
and current self-conception. The concept one has of
oneself is also a factor in expanding or limiting the
richness and variety of the perceptions one selects.
To imply that this process is a conscious effort is
to ignore the impact past experiences have on the
developing self-concept.

In the article "Creativity and the Curriculum,"

Louis J. Rubin states that:

19

Human beings are essentially "symbolic" organisms;
they learn to select information and "construct" it
into a uniquely human world. Children should recog-
nize their own power in giving shape to their ideas
and feelings; they need to learn that what they do
suggests other possibilities; they need to become
aware of the poetry in their vision, of the drama in
their lives. Such learning should draw upon ideas
and experiences that are part of the child's life--
the people he knows, the places he has seen, and the
ideas he has. As the student's intellectual and
experiential horizons expand, the potential for
ideas and forms is thus enlarged.2

He suggests how teachers can promote creative thinking:

Teachers can help recognize their own power in giving
shape to their ideas and feelings by the emphasis and
directions they foster in the classroom. At the
simplest and most obvious level, the activities
selected and the task presented must be such as to
allow for the shaping of visual forms. Hence, it is
easy to see that the "coloring in" of already pre-
pared forms (e.g., turkeys, Christmas trees) does

not allow much latitude for personal choice. At the
other extreme, a blank piece of paper with a "do
whatever you wish" instruction provides little or no
help for a child whose thoughts and feelings may not
be sufficiently structured for approaching the task
of drawing. Teachers must be sensitive to a balance
in which there is sufficient "structure" to enable

a student's moving ahead with confidence but suf-
ficient latitude for choice to invite and encourage
uniqueness of expression. . . . Thus, the model that
I am projecting involves two matrices: the first
made up of an "outer structure" created by the
teacher--the nature of the task or assignment pre-
sented to the students; and the second, made up of

an "inner structure" provided by the students--his
private values and directions as he views the task.
The meeting place of these interlocking matrices is
in the classroom.29

He concludes by maintaining that the teacher can:

. . . encourage the making of visual judgments. Much
of our communication is based upon verbal and/or
mathematical symbols; yet much of our experience is
based upon visual symbols. From pictures in text-
books to mass-produced images in our magazines, on
our television screens, and on our highways, we are
being confronted with powerful and pervasive images.

20

Children need to learn to see the world about them;
they need to learn to make visual judgments. They
can be helped to talk about what they see--by com-
paring and noticing differences and similarities, by
becoming aware of shapes, textures, and other visual
qualities, and above all, by making judgments as to
qualities. Judgments of quality are not simple,
yes-no, good-bad judgments. Children should be
helped to realize their own feelings about what

they see; they should be helped to develop and
refine their own criteria for the judgments they
make.

Discovery Learning

 

Discovery learning may also aid the visual art-

centered program. Helen Coe, M.S., defines discovery

learning:

The

Discovery learning is, as its name implies,
learning through discovery--on your own, partici-
pating in discovering ideas and relationships for
yourself.

A discovery-oriented classroom calls for changes
in the traditional roles of both the teacher and
the student.31

teacher plays a unique role in discovery learning:

--The teacher's responsibility becomes that of
planning a sequence of learning activities around
basic concepts, ideas, topics, and generalizations
the students want to explore.

--The teacher provides the initial springboard
which he carefully prepares to cause perplexity.

--The teacher continuously Operates under the
assumption that the student is capable of thinking
for himself.

--The teacher sustains interest in the topic
through:

a. redirecting students' questions to sources

other than himself,

b. prodding students to explore and test new

alternatives,

c. summarizing and asking for clarification of

students' statements, and

d. raising additional questions.

21

--The teacher legitimizes and rewards free
exchange and the testing of new ideas in the class-
room. This sort of exchange takes place in a dialec-
tical format between student and student, rather than
between student and teacher.

--The teacher no longer exercises a monopoly over
class discussions and is no longer the "accepted
authority."32

The student also has specific responsibilities in
discovery learning:

--Though students are often insecure and frus-
trated when first allowed to think for themselves in
the classroom, they begin to value the opportunity to
learn how to learn--to understand what Jerome Bruner
calls the "hueristics" of learning. When confronted
with a problem, they find they do in fact possess the
skills needed to explore the problem.

--Students begin to view knowledge as tentative
rather than absolute. This attitude is reinforced
by the teacher, who encourages students to critically
evaluate ideas presented to them.

--Students gradually incorporate what is learned
into their own personalities. Individual thought
processes do not move in any set order. The learner
often makes false starts, races up blind alleys,
then leaps, skips steps, takes shortcuts. This pre-
cludes the concept of a single program for all stu-
dents. As Leslie A. Harts says in a recent Saturda
Review article, "To search for a sequence that wiIl
'fit better' is futile--one might as well hunt for
a single garment that will 'fit better' on all the
children."33

Discovery learning is thus an important facet of edu-
cation "because preparing the student to solve social and
intellectual problems on his own will hopefully better

equip him to solve inevitable problems in his own life."34

Visual Instruction

 

Johnson summarizes the visual learning process

by stating that:

22

. . . learning which is based upon visual sensations
(in fact upon all sense experiences) involves first,
the adequate provision of the sensory impressions as
to kind, number and emphasis; second, the selection
and arrangement of those impressions which will best
provide for the building of the prOper percepts;
third, the storing of these percepts in memory;
fourth, a subsequent revival of these percepts in
imagination; and fifth, the re-arrangement and re-
combining of the various percepts in such a manner
as to reveal an underlying generalization or concept.
The success of instruction which relies largely on
visual impressions will depend primarily upon the
skill of the teacher in the selection and presentation
of the visual materials. Furthermore, the use of
visual methods and other teaching devices must be
adapted to the psychological age development of the
particular pupils.

According to James C. Mills in "The Teaching of
Reading and Arts Education: An Approach to Reading
Improvement,"

Many studies have shown that the visual per-
ception and understanding of line, shape, size,
texture and color are as basic to reading, math,
science, music and social studies as they are to
art. In other words, there is a close correlation
between school achievement and visual perception
scores.36

The eye is the most elaborate, the most subtle,
and the most versatile of all our senses; it domi-
nates our other senses; it is the door through which
90% of our learning enters. It is the most sensitive
of our senses, yet we know very little about the
training of the eye and leave that training up to
chance. I think that some day in the near future,
there will be some time alloted in the elementary
school for "visual education" and art will be a
large part of this "visual education."37

William H. Johnson in Fundamentals of Visual Edu-
cation gives us a brief history of visual methods of

instruction:

23

At least two classes of educators clearly utilized
visual aids. One group of educators may be called
realists. They believed that the teaching of children
from books (humanists taught children largely from
books of good authors) was secondary in importance to
bringing them into direct contact with nature and the
real world. One of the leading exponents of this
method of visual instruction was John Amos Comenius
(1592-1671). Comenius was convinced that the child
could not learn through words alone. Words and ideas
should be made real through the use of the objects
themselves when possible or through pictures. His
Orbis Pictus was in reality a textbook containing
many drawings and pictures and was probably the first
textbook to include instructive illustrations. Accord-
ing to Comenius, everything in the intellect comes
through the senses. The perceptions are stored in
memory and called up by imaginations. According to
Comenius we must first educate the senses, then the
memory, then the intellect and finally the critical
faculty.

The second group or school of educators includes
the so-called naturalists.- They maintained that the
child could be prepared for life only by actually
living life and carrying on life activities during
the learning period. Here we find the germ of the
modern notion that the school should not be merely
a preparation for life but actually a living of life.
Rousseau (1712-1778) and Pestalozzi (1746-1827) are
representative of this school of naturalists.38

 

He compares visual learning to factual learning:
Most of us think largely in terms of visual images.
Factual learning is in fact, for the most part, a
procedure of recording pictures in memory. This in
itself is undoubtedly the chief cause of the general
interest which visual materials have stimulated.
Principles for a Successful Program
The project personnel of the impact program have
emphasized the importance of the following ideas when

developing a program:

1. Meeting human needs is of greater importance
than disciplinary content.

24

2. Through careful and thoughtful planning, com-
munity and school can join forces in much more sig-
nificant accomplishments than have resulted from past
efforts.

3. Insightful and dynamic leadership can make
full use of human resources to meet human needs in
school and community. Human resources as a kind of
conservation is a part of the effort of innovative,
inter-disciplinary education.

4. Helping each child reach his full potential
by offering him relevant involvement and experiential
education begins to remove boredom and offers purpose
to living and to learning, and relates the two.

5. As the local community and the school organi-
zation need closer working relationships, in parallel
ways there is a need to close the gap between higher
education and education "in the field." As elementary
and secondary education must be relevant to life, so
teacher education must be relevant to teaching and to
preparing the teachers to relate to children, to the
children's lives, and to their environments.

6. The abilities of administrators and teachers
to launch and to maintain interdisciplinary programs
or cultural centers include many personal and intel-
lectual qualities, among which are the following:

a. sensitivity to human need;

b. recognition of interrelationships and
interactions among mankind and the

-environment;

c. recognition of interrelationships between
mankind and the realms of knowledge and
meaning;

d. dedication to the roles of educators in
improving the status of mankind;

e. the imagination, vision, and courage to
be different, to take a risk, and to do
something innovative if it meets the needs
of the students and of the community. 0

Curriculum Alternatives
Various methodologies oriented towards meeting
those principles are stressed in a variety of curricula.
The following examples were taken from the book Philoso-

phers Speak of Aesthetic Experience in Education. The

first is the platonic curriculum which is a balanced

25

curriculum. The student's learning is divided into seg-
mented subject areas. This is a more widely accepted
type of curriculum.

The second type of curriculum utilizes contrasting
situations as shock to stimulate a greater awareness for
learning. This type of learning is exhausting and does
not produce a long—lasting interest in a particular area.

The applied curriculum, which is the third type
of curriculum, stresses the usefulness of the information
that the students learn. This type of curriculum is
highly individualized and thus changes constantly with
regard to the student's experience, needs, and desires.

The fourth type of curriculum, the activities
curriculum, stresses the pleasure of doing. Its activi-
ties have direction and purpose which lead to a specific
goal, a factor which separates activities from play.
Activities don't have to be physical. They can be
mental. In fact, generally the two are inseparable.

The open curriculum, which delights in freedom,
is the fifth type of curriculum in which structure and
restraint are removed. Some find it difficult to Operate
under this structure, though the open classroom does have
a certain framework of organization.

The sixth type is the concept curriculum which

stresses the beauty of insight. Instead of learning

26

through separate disciplines students learn by focusing
on one concept and then relating all experiences to that

concept.

Teaching Approaches
There are varied theories and teaching practices,
some of which are called different names by different

people. Mildred M. Landis in her book Meaningful Art

 

Education discusses the Directing Method, the Free-

 

expression Method, the Eclectic Method, and the Meaning-
ful Method, which is her method. And Howard Conant in

his book Art Education considers Directed Teaching,

 

Laissez-Faire Teaching, Child Centered Teaching, Cultural
Context, Aesthetically Oriented Creative Art Teaching,
and the Balanced Philosophy of Art Education.

The directing method and directed teaching are
similar in that they both represent a very closed-ended
approach to teaching art. There is a specific prescrip-
tion and only one correct outcome. Landis concludes:

Such practices . . . reduce art to little more than
a mechanical skill. Under such procedures children
do not and cannot use art as a means of expression.
Drawing becomes a kind of practice for the few who
persist under such methods; for others (as the
excuse is often given)a something for which they
have no talent anyway. 1

Conant agrees with this statement, but delves
further into the matter by maintaining that the directed

teaching method "is probably the only prevailing practice

which has been shown to be harmful in part and outmoded

27

as a whole by most professional organizations and leaders
in art education."42 He further states from "A Study of
the Effect of Workbook COpy Experience on the Creative
Concepts of Children" that it is "a procedure which has
been shown as harmful to the development of children's
conceptual and expressive abilities."43
In both the free-expression method and laissez-
faire teaching, children do whatever they please as long
as they work creatively and behave. Landis frowns on
this method and claims that "there are no particular
standards to be met as far as the product is concerned.
It matters little what the child produces as long as he

44

is happy in his work." Conant agrees, but also adds

that "laissez-faire art education ranges from complete
irresponsibility to competent, creative teaching."45
This is where the similarities between Landis
and Conant stop. Landis speaks next of the eclectic
method which mixes a little of the directed method and
free-expression. She states:
Such attempts usually meet with little success, for
both the imitative and free-expression practices
lack a most essential element for effective edu-
cation--purpose on the part of the child. The mere
combining of two methods lacking purpose may hardly
be expected to provide this essential element.
She then discusses her meaningful art education method
in which two main principles are (1) that purpose is

essential and (2) that a relation of means to consequence

(end) must exist. This method is supported by John Dewey

28

when he states that learning is controlled by two prin-
ciples: "One is participation in something inherently
worthwhile, or undertaken on its own account; the other
is perception of the relationship of means to conse-
quences."47 Landis also stresses that value judgments
are important in the development of the ability to use
idiosyncratic symbols. Throughout the remainder of her
book she considers meaningful art education with regard
to aesthetic principles, value, and meaning for society.
"Child-centered teaching refers to a situation
in which the child's happiness and welfare and the growth
of his total personality is regarded as all-important,
and in which special subjects (such as art) are intro-
duced only as called for by the total needs of the
moment."48 Some believe that the elementary teacher
would best be qualified to teach all subjects including
the arts because of his knowledge of each individual
child. Conant definitely disagrees with this by stating
that:
Supporters of the child-centered teaching theory
should, of course, be helped to realize that art
teachers are usually as much concerned with indi-
vidual children and their needs as anyone else, and
that they, too, have been trained in child psy-
chology and the general theories of elementary edu-
cation. It is difficult to imagine that there
could be more than a few gifted classroom teachers
who could possess enough training in language arts,
social studies, art, music, the dance, biological
and physical sciences, and mathematics to be able
to teach these subjects as well as a team of elemen-

tary school specialists who attempt to supplement
and enrich regular classroom experiences. To train

29

significant numbers of classroom teachers for the
assumption of total responsibility for their pupils'
educational needs, if this could indeed be done,
would require at least twice the number of years
now needed for elementary school teacher prepar-
ation.

Art educators generally support one of the teach-
ing methods in the child-centered program. This would be
picture making that reveals personal experience, interest,
family, and environment. Unfortunately, supporters of
child-centered programs neglect three-dimensional con-
struction and nonrepresentative art as mere play.

A newer philOSOphic emphasis in art education
which Conant discusses is cultural context. Followers of
this mode of teaching see art study and expression as
relating to everyday life through the academic disciplines.
Art educators work closely with elementary classroom
teachers, with specialists, with parents, and professionals
in the community to provide a skillfully integrated sub-
ject study.

At its finest, this form of art education is markedly
superior to earlier, comparatively feeble efforts to
integrate school subjects which used art merely to
illustrate various topics of current interest. At
its best, cultural context art education retains the
aesthetic identity of the arts, fosters significant
art expression, and contributes richly to pupils'
learning experiences in other subjects.

One of the most recent emphases in art education
is the aesthetically oriented creative art teaching.

According to Conant, "Pr0ponents of aesthetically

oriented creative art teaching want their pupils to

30

develop an understanding of the arts of all periods and

to strive for the attainment of the highest possible

level of quality in their own creative works."51 Teachers

attempt to achieve these results through active teaching.
This approach would include lecture, small group dis-

cussion, and detailed criticism of pupils' art work. In
addition, audio-visual aids are used extensively to make

students aware of professional artists' work.

Summary: The Balanced Philosophy
A balanced philosophy of art education consists
of the following elements. These elements have been
studied, researched, or practiced long enough and widely
enough to prove their worth.

1. Art is a fundamental element of human life; it is
a major discipline as essential to education as
the language arts and the sciences. Both the
ability to express oneself creatively in a
variety of media and a knowledge of major art
forms of the past and present are of highest
importance to all human beings. Art education
contributes significantly to essential human needs
by developing the ability to respond creatively to
various stimuli; by making constructive use of the
tendency to rank and imitate things; by encourag-
ing the expression of profound beliefs and the
revelation of subconscious attitudes; by heighten-
ing perception of essence and details as well as
of relationships by encouraging the creation and/
or enjoyment of objects of great artistic sig-
nificance; by developing the ability to make per-
sonally and socially constructive as well as more
pleasing use of leisure time; by providing a
balance for the stress on scientific, political,
and military matters; by providing an antidote to
conformist and materialist pressures found in
large organizations, the mass communication media,
certain forms of suburban living, and even in
children's toys and games; by contributing to

31

intellectual growth; by enhancing the ability
to organize disparate elements; by improving
emotional sensitivity and balance; and by
strengthening the total personality.

In addition, it is believed that art education
provides an internationally communicable visual
language, makes possible a visual documentation
of contemporary culture, and aids in the visual
interpretation of societies of the past.

All persons should receive a thorough education
in art . . .

An education in art should include a wide variety
of opportunities for personal creative expression;
All persons are capable of developing proficiency
in one or more forms of creative expression and
can be helped to develop an understanding of the
arts; (with proper and knowledgeable instruction).
Major and lasting contributions to individual
welfare, community and national life, and inter-
national relations can be made through a wide
spread and intensive study of and participation
in the arts. For this reason, government aid to
and support of the arts is imperative.

At all educational levels . . . it should be
taught by a specialist who has had four or more
years of preparation, who understands the complex
delicacy of the creative process in art and is
able to nourish its growth, who is well prepared
in art history, and who can foster the development
of aesthetic value judgments on all types of fine
and applied art objects . . . supplemental art
educational experiences should be provided by
classroom teachers, teachers of other special
subjects, parents, and the environments in which
we live.

Personal art expression is best fostered through
aesthetically oriented creative art teaching . . .
A knowledge of art is best fostered through broad
studies of periods and styles; through depth
studies of major works within particular periods
and styles; through emphasis upon the aesthetic
qualities which underlie and interrelate the arts,
rather than memorization of names, dates, and
places; through personal creative work in media
related to the periods and styles being studied;
and through carefully planned correlation of the
art studies with other subjects.

A modest collection of original art works, fre-
quent field trips, an extensive collection of
color slides and reproduction art films, and a
complete stock of art supplies are essential to
the implementation of a program in art education.

32

Conant states that such distinguished art educators,
artists, art historians, and philosophers as Cizek,
D'Amico, Dewey, Gropius, Hauser, Langer, Logan, Lowenfeld,
Malraux, Mumford, Munro, Read, and Taylor have written

52
or taught most of these elements.

CHAPTER III

COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE CONCEPTS

IN EDUCATION

Introduction

 

Communication, which is used in the educative
process, "can be described as consisting of the use of
a set of symbols, through a channel or channels, to

53 Education

convey a message which produces a response."
has a responsibility to insure the integrity of this
process. In fact, in terms of mass media influence,
"formal education will continue to add new things, but
it has the additional obligation of bringing order and
perspective and selectivity to what is already present
as well as to help the individual screen the constant
flood of new stimuli which will pour in from mass com-
munication."54
It also may be stated that education has the
responsibility of training individuals in selectivity
which "involves an understanding of the perceiving pro-

cess, and the ordering of it as far as possible to

select that which is good in preference to that which

33

34

is inferior, that which is applicable in preference to
that which is irrelevant, and that which is accurate
in preference to that which is misleading."55
Artistic communication is different from communi-
cation in that "a truly classical work can emit infor-
mation at different levels, both simultaneously and
successively or in simpler terms, it can speak to all
men, although it does not say the same thing to all of

56

them." Further,

. . . the value of artistic communication lies
in its power to unite the feelings of one person
with those of another. In art, we do not get mes-
sages; we receive affirmations of our common
humanity. Although knowledge may be transmitted
when art is experienced, it is primarily in the
sharing of feelings that artistic communication
takes place. Our endeavor in education is to
enlarge the capacity to share these feelings.

In contributing to such an enlargement process,
education must stress the joint development of cognitive
and affective aspects of the individual. This chapter
will discuss those aspects in terms of parallels which
exist between the education and art processes with
regards to visual perception, creativity, teaching
theories and practice, and communication itself.

Perception and Creativity: Requirements
for the Learning Process

 

Perception, the ability to perceive one's
environment and give meaning to it, includes sensory

response, sense data, and discrimination. Sensory

35

response is a reaction to an individual's experiences
which, in the phenomenological approach, are evaluated
in terms of how they appear in contrast to how they
actually are. Sense data, mental events that are often
described as acquaintance with a subject or object, an
intuitive feeling or simply "having" a mental picture,
are collected through visual, audio, olfactory, tactile,
and taste receptors. Of these, the most dominant is the
visual which consists of approximately 90 percent of all
perception. Visual perception, then, is the ability to
see accurately and interpret visual stimulation, giving
recognition and meaning to what is seen. And visual
discrimination influences how an individual perceives
his environment and makes choices and decisions about it.

Many cognitive as well as affective operations
are involved in visual perception. Cognitive operations
include decision making, analysis, and synthesis, while
affective operations comprise the interests, attitudes,
and values formed from visual perceptions.

The need for nurturing creativity has been a
direct result of our industrialized society in which
scientific or technological advances have made life
without creative activity possible. Because of this,
education has the responsibility to help every individual

to achieve his fullest potential in this area.

36

The characteristics of creativity in general
education and creativity in art are similar. The
literature of Marksberry, Guilford, Lytton, and Torrance
all identify four basic characteristics: attitudes,
abilities, psycho-motor skills, and knowledge. The
attitudes consist of curiosity or an inquiring spirit
engaged in finding new ideas and searching out idiosyn-
cratic solutions to problems, all part of the art process.

In both creative processes, that in education and
in art, it is necessary for the individual to be flexible,
to be willing to change or develop ideas. Both also
require inventiveness and a high level of involvement.

The intellectual abilities required include comprehension,
application, analysis, and evaluation. In both processes,
too, the individual becomes aware of his materials and
ideas. He imagines his goals and possibilities, makes
choices, analyzes and assesses the progress of his work.
Psycho-motor skills are utilized in both processes through
the manipulation of materials and tools. It should be
noted that psycho-motor skills also include voice, body,
and writing tools, all of which are encompasses in the
nonvisual arts.

Knowledge in education encompasses vocabulary,
facts, concepts, principles, methods, and generalizations
in a particular field as well as in related areas. These,

too, occur in the art process. Art has its own vocabulary,

37

facts, artistic concepts, elements, and principles of
design, and there are various media and methods in which
they may be used. Further, generalizations may be made
about different periods of art and how they relate to
the people of those periods. Generalizations can also
be drawn to help the learner have a better understanding
of aesthetics and significant artistic expression.

The creative process the artist goes through is
not unlike the creative process in general education.

As stated in the related literature, both processes con-
sist of four main steps, the completion of which requires
no specific amount of time. The main creative steps in
education are the period of preparation, period of incu-
bation, period of insight, and period of verification.

The artistic creative steps are development of the initial
idea, conceptual refinement, selection of media, and pro-
duction of work.

The period of preparation and the development of
the initial idea both represent the beginning of an idea.
The period of preparation, in the broad sense, encom-
passes more of the individual's past experience. In the
immediate, it provides sufficient desire to cause activity
or problem-solving to begin. The initial concept may be
a flash of insight or inspiration. However, in both
general education and art processes the amount of time

may be relatively short or many years long.

38

The period of incubation or conceptual refine-
ment both deal with a time for reexamining the idea or
ripening the idea. Variations are often considered at
this point.

The period of insight or selection of media have,
perhaps, the most dissimilarities, though there are points
that relate them. The period of insight occurs when the
individual sees an answer, thinks of a hypothesis, or has
a hunch. During selection of media, the artist is deter-
mining a manner of presenting his idea (answer, hypothesis,
hunch) through his respective medium. Perhaps the only
difference here is the means by which the idea is
expressed: a discursive means or a nondiscursive means.

The period of verification and the product of
work are essentially the same. Both are a time of
checking, refining, and evaluating until finalization
or a state of rightness occurs. The creative process
involves both cognitive and affective processes.

Educational Principles and the Role of
Communication—in the Learning Process

 

 

The third parallel between art and general edu-
cation to be discussed here is methodologies and pro-
cedures. Dr. Marksberry offers five principles that
would further creativity in education for students.
First, the student must have adequate opportunities to

practice the behavior stated in the particular objective.

39

He must be able to explore his feelings and ideas, remem-
ber facts and generalizations, comprehend meaning, analyze
it, and select the best idea. Second, the objectives must
be achievable for each student. Third, the learning
situation should be structured so that the learners

derive satisfaction from carrying out the behavior

demands in the objective. Fourth, many different exper-
iences may be used to reach the same educational objec-
tives. Fifth, the learning experience should contribute
to many different outcomes.

In order for the above principles in education to
occur, several conditions need to be met. The teacher
should be able to motivate his students. He should be
creative, sincere, and patient and should promote an
atmosphere which is stimulating and conducive to learning.
The teacher should also act as a facilitator, giving
encouragement and constructive criticism when appropriate.
The stimuli or motivation he provides will initiate
thinking, feeling, or ideas. This is the process by
which students get involved in their work. The environ-
ment should be an unhurried one that allows the student a
pleasant place in which to work and provides materials
which are easily accessible. These principles and pro-
cedures enhance one another to give the student the best

learning situation.

40

Finally, the issue of educational and artistic
communication has relevance for our discussion here.
Although these two processes are distinctively different,
artistic communication definitely has a function in edu-
cation to enhance communication in general which has a
definite set of elements which include the message, the
channel, the context, and the response. Artistic com-
munication only has meaning if we are perceptive and suf-
ficiently prepared to understand it. Individual, personal,
unique, and rarely perceived the same way twice, it is
primarily a sharing of feelings, although knowledge may
be transmitted depending on the type of art piece. Gen-
erally, however, messages are not received from the art
piece; in fact, the opposite is true: individuals bring
to the art piece their feelings and ideas. Therefore, the
art piece may say something to all people, but it won't
say the same thing to all people. Artistic communication
in education endeavor, then, enlarges the capacity to
share feelings. It thus may, according to the book Humag

Communication, add to general education by teaching indi-

 

viduals to be selective, to distinguish quality, applica-
bility, and accuracy. It also may assist in decision

making and problem solving.

CHAPTER IV

A VISUAL ART-CENTERED PROGRAM

Aims for Education

 

The basic aim of education may broadly be stated
as deve10ping a person to his fullest potential in terms
of his personal happiness, citizenship and moral and
intellectual qualities. The following are more specific
aims for education: first, to develop a positive self-
concept in each student-~self-concept being the attitudes,
beliefs, and expectations an individual has of himself;
second, to teach the student to cope with his problems
and to come to conclusions about them; third, to develop
an understanding and appreciation of his environment;
fourth, to relate the understanding of his environment
to that of other cultures; and fifth, to communicate with
others. In order to meet these aims and objectives, edu-
cational materials will have to be used; use of these
materials in the implementation of programs is also the
second criterion of any educational theory. They are

defined as anything that stimulates the use of the mind.

41

42

Cognitive vs. Affective Learning

 

In formal education learning, which accumulates
experience and memory of that experience, constitutes
knowledge. And there are basically two kinds of learning:
cognitive and affective. Cognitive learning comprises
those objectives which relate to process or classification.
According to the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the
cognitive includes, "the recall or recognition of knowledge
and the development of intellectual abilities and skills."
The cognitive consists of knowledge, comprehension, appli-
cation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. On the other
hand, affective learning includes "objectives which
describe changes in interest, attitude, values and
development of appreciations and adequate adjustment."
Further, the affective consists of receiving, responding,
valuing, organizing, and characterizing by a value or
value complex. Neither type of learning should be
isolated from the other; in fact, there should be a
balance between both types in order to promote the
development of a more wholly developed individual.

If visual art-centered programs utilized a
holistic approach to education, there would be such a
balance between cognitive and affective learning. A
visual art-centered program stresses the use of visual
images to assist in learning. Through the inclusion

of the visual arts, students are given the opportunity

43

to visually express their interpretation of the learning
experience. Most of us think in visual images, and
factual learning, for the most part, is a process of
recording mental pictures in memory. The selection and
arrangement of visual materials is therefore very impor-
tant to the success of the program in which learning
situations should be developed to provide the student
with a richer and more appreciative understanding of the

learning experience.

Objectives of an Art-Centered Program

 

The purpose of this program would be to improve
the quality of education by making visual arts an integral
part of learning in the general elementary education cur-
riculum. This integration would provide natural oppor-
tunities to foster the child's development of and sensi-
tivity toward visual images. The arts can promote the
affective domain of learning, create a supportive value
system, help incorporate living and life styles, and be
a tool for a more effective learning experience. Empha-
sis should be placed on art, then, as an essential part
of all living, individual or group, rather than only on
those principles found in classic art or pure art forms.

Each discipline within a curriculum has unique
characteristics. And care should be taken that inter-
disciplinary learning occurs only where natural con-

nections between disciplines are present. Educators

44

who believe that the interdisciplinary approach fosters
learning strive to work in a "unified and unfragmented
manner." They also make every effort to seek out inter—
relationships of "the environment and personal expression;
of human problems and the expression of those problems;
of environments and styles of living and human expression;
and the interrelationships of human and human problems."58
Through the infusion of the visual arts into the
general education curriculum, students would learn to
become more aware of their environment and the world
around them. An art-centered program should be designed
to heighten their capacity for recognizing, analyzing,
and experiencing aesthetic qualities. It should enable
students to develop criteria for making aesthetic judg—
ments or solving problems. The arts curriculum should
also relate aesthetic values of other cultures to the
individual and should allow, too, for experiential learn-
ing in various art areas through the use of different
tools and media. In these ways such a program could
promote a progressive, open-minded attitude toward art
in the students along with a resourcefulness in their

leisure time pursuit and hobbies.

Methods Promoting Subject Relationships

 

There are three basic methods through which sub-

jects can be related. They are correlation, creative

45

problem solving, and the use of art as a motivating
instrument to increase learning in other areas.

In the methodology of correlation each of the
subjects is treated equally as a co-partner. Yet,
oftentimes, the subjects are not co-equal in that one
subject becomes the supporting discipline in order to
teach the other subject. Though the use of one subject
to understand concepts or facts in another is sound,
students will ultimately come to value and understand the
subject toward which the learning is being directed more
than the subject which is being used as the supporting
discipline in that learning situation. Only if the
teacher makes a conscious effort to explain the role of
the supporting discipline and places it in a position of
importance will learning occur in the supporting disci-
pline. If the arts are used only as a supporting disci-
pline, then, the value of correlation for the arts is
open to question. Gene C. Wenner of the J.D.R. the
Third Fund maintains that:

Correlation . . . demands that the artistic exper-
ience in the activity be of high quality and deal
with quality art forms. Correlation is a means by
which the arts can effectively be related to other
subject areas, but the quality of the arts experience
needs to be constantly improved so that children
perceive the equal value of the subjects being

related and gain more knowledge of the arts as well
as knowledge of the other subject area.59

46

The second method in which the subjects may be
related is through creative problem solving. Wenner also
states that:

Creative problem solving may be defined as 1. set-
ting up a task, 2. defining the materials, elements
to be used in solving the task, 3. planning the means
by which the task will be completed, and 4. the com-
pletion of the task by whatever number of attempts

or methods needed to be used.60

The main difference between creative problem
solving and other problem solving is that the creative
allows more than one logical answer, a fact which permits
individual expression in the student's methods of solving
problems. The evaluation, the final step in creative
problem solving, would assess how effectively the student
or group of students solved the problem within material
limitations.

In creative problem solving there is no correlation
between areas of study. The objective is to solve the
problem or gain more understanding by completing tasks
that have relationships to similar problems or tasks in
other subject areas. Creative problem solving thus helps
the student to make connections between subject areas.

The third method, promoting integration, may
occur when success in one area of study promotes a
behavior or attitudinal change in another area wherein
the student has been less successful. It may be stated

that the arts are a motivation for performance in other

areas of study. There is no specific instruction to

47

cause this integration to happen. Relying totally on

this type of approach, however, would limit potential

success. "That is to say, if the student is not, as a

regular part of instruction, encouraged to look for

relationships between areas of learning, his chances
61

of doing so himself are limited." Therefore, cor-

relation and creative problem solving should be included.

The Optimum Learning Environment

 

Instructional procedures and environment may
enhance the significance of the art experience. Though
the artistically creative person is usually self-motivated,
there are several characteristics that may influence the
art experience. These include the teacher, the stimuli,
and the environment.

The teacher should be able to successfully moti-
vate his students. He should be creative, sincere, and
patient, and the atmosphere in the art room should be
stimulating and conducive to learning. The teacher
should also act as a facilitator, giving encouragement
when necessary, and he should be able to offer construc-
tive criticism.

The stimuli or motivation is a very important
part of the educative process. The motivation, which
initiates thinking, feeling, or ideas, is the process
by which children become involved. This motivation

varies with age and experience. For young children,

48

the provision of materials and time is a sufficient
motivation. Powerful ideological concepts or daily
experiences enriched and clarified by the teacher also
provide a strong motivation. Finally, for older
adolescents and the adult professional, motivation is
usually self-induced or comes from teachers, peers,
nature, man-made objects, or external events.

The environment in which the student works
should possess several characteristics. These include
a pleasant atmosphere that is reasonably quiet. The
student involved in the art process should not be hurried
or interrupted. The environment should also be set up
in such a way as to provide easy access to materials
and a sufficient place for each individual student to
work. A give-and-take relationship should exist between

the teacher and the student.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Factors for Change

 

Among the many reasons why programs haven't changed
are: (1) lack of administrative support; (2) lack of
joint planning time for all teachers involved; (3) lack
of proper scheduling and structure; (4) lack of inter-
disciplinary approaches in teacher training in higher edu-
cation.

The first reason involves the administration's
attitude about the program. It is necessary that the
principal encourage his teachers to try new ideas for
instruction. This is not to imply, however, that the
principal does not support traditional approaches to edu-
cation. On the contrary, he must reinforce his teachers'
modes of instruction to provide a positive environment
for learning.

The second factor has to do with curriculum plan-
ning. Since every teacher should contribute to the pro-
gram, there should be a balance of all disciplines on

the planning committee. The arts should definitely be

49

50

included in planning, then, to insure that art is an
integral part of the program rather than something merely
fit into an already determined curriculum.

Structure and scheduling of time, the third
factor, is important for developing a cohesive program
and staff. There is a need for more flexible scheduling
in an interdisciplinary program than there is in a tra-
ditional program. The arts teachers and the classroom
teachers should have a common planning period in which
they can discuss different learning strategies so the arts
can be utilized to the fullest. And this planning period
must be frequent; a workshop once a month is not enough.

For the visual art-centered program to be continu-
ally successful, the importance of the fourth factor, that
of teacher training in higher education, must be empha-
sized. Presently, of the very few programs that focus
on visual art-centered programs, some have been used as
therapeutic, such as the model in the New York City's
Theodore Roosevelt High School. In this model, thirty
students labeled as failures in the present educational
system were taken out of their normal routine of Classes
and put into a special program which utilized the creative
approach. The students' new schedule consisted of one
period a day in the art studio, one period in the
theatrical arts, and a lightened academic program. The

teacher's (Miss Virginia Murphy) goal was to provide some

51

kind of needed education for each student. In this pro-
gram, the real elements of education were social under-
standing and cooperation and outlets for expression and
craftsmanship. Evaluation did not occur through the
average exam process but through observation of evolving,
growing human individuals. Miss Murphy achieved a high
success rate; however, once success was achieved, students
were placed back in the system that had previously failed
them.

Some of the few art-centered visual programs in
existence are geared for the disadvantaged of the urban
areas, while others are fundedby the government or pri-
vate foundations as new and innovative programs. Examples
of this latter type of program are the Owatonna Art Edu-
cation Project, Owatonna, Minnesota; the Copper Country
Intermediate School district, Houghton-Hancock, Michigan;
the Ann Arbor Teaching Learning Community; and the Waverly
Elementary Art Program, Lansing, Michigan. They are all
interdisciplinary approaches which can be effective tools

for learning and creating supportive value systems.

Implications for Curriculum

 

In the past, art programs, generally lacking any
applicability to other subjects in the school program,
appeared to be geared to the gifted and talented. This
occurred in both the elementary and secondary levels.

Though many art educators feel that there are connectors

52

or links between the arts and other subject areas, most
art programs, when closely examined, appear to be insular
and self-protecting. oThey are separated from the general
curriculum.

Yet the curriculum should be designed to emphasize
the connectors between the arts and other areas of study.
Stanley S. Madeja states in his article, "The Arts in the
Curriculum," that what we teach about the arts, the con-
tent or subject matter, should be planned in such a way
that a relationship exists between the art curriculum and
the general curriculum. For example, if the fifth grade
is studying the community in the social studies program,
the arts program could focus on the role of arts in the
community. The curriculum can be designed to emphasize
such natural connectors between the arts and other areas,
a process which should not make art subservient to other
subject areas, but rather relate art to the students in
terms of their world.

The first implication for curriculum in visual
art-centered programs is the staffing patterns of which
there are many. In one pattern, the traditional elemen-
tary classroom teacher taught art. Then, there is the
situation wherein the art specialist, trained in the
visual arts, taught art once a month or at varying
intervals. Seldom was there a time space in which the
art teacher and the classroom teacher could discuss

classroom activities.

53

A second implication regards the way in which
an art program can be structured. The arts can be util-
ized as an area of study in itself in which the arts are
defined in terms of aesthetic content. For example, units
on aesthetics of language, science, and so forth would be
added to the curriculum.

A second possibility in structuring is to teach
each of the arts disciplines separately, having units
that correlate with other areas of study. Each unit is
designed to reach a wide range of students, not only the
talented. Interdisciplinary arts units can be developed
around concepts of aesthetic education, units which would
have concepts that would be common to all of the arts.

This kind of curriculum design has the disadvantage
of consuming more of the school day, and it does not
lend itself to the current organizational pattern of
most elementary school curricula. It is, however,
the most concentrated and strongest discipline-based
approach to curriculum design in the arts.62

Yet a third method of structuring an arts program
is to utilize the arts as the center of the total edu-
cational program. In this type of program all disciplines
are taught through the arts when natural connectors or
links occur. Some art educators feel that all learning
must be so centered around the arts and that the arts
should be taught as a separate discipline. Nevertheless,

this researcher recognizes that each discipline has

qualities that are unique only to that discipline. From

54

this point of view, then, it is necessary to infuse the
arts into the general curriculum, but retain the unique

characteristics of each discipline.

Summary

It has been this author's contention throughout
this thesis that there must be a balance between cognitive
and affective aspects of learning in order to meet
society's demand for education of the whole child. The
John D. Rockefeller III Fund lists the following as
characteristics of an arts in education program which
can meet that demand:

The goal of an arts in education program is com—
prehensive: to improve the quality of education by
incorporating all of the arts into the total edu-
cation of every child in the entire school system.

Arts in education programs relate structurally to
larger educational objectives and priorities estab-
lished by school systems.

Administrative decisions enable arts in education
programs to function in a comprehensive fashion within
the total organizational structure of a school system.
To be successful in arts in education program must
have the commitment and support at the highest
decision-making level. Arts in education programs
draw on and receive support from existing resources
within a variety of ways.

Planning for an arts in education program is com-
prehensive. It requires special attention to two
major elements: (1) changes in content of instruc-
tion, and (2) the process of change needed to imple-
ment the program.

Comprehensive arts in general education programs
are strengthened by effective communication networks.
Arts in education programs support and enhance

a humanistic concept of education.

Arts in education programs are a means for

effecting educational change.6

NOTES

lPauline Tilley, Art in the Education of Subnormal

 

Children (London, England: Pittman House, 1975).

2Charles D. Gaitskell and Margaret R. Gaitskell,
Art Education for the Slow Learner (Peoria, 111.: Chas.
A. Bennett Company, Inc., I953Y, p. 46.

 

3S. Howard Bartley, Perception in Everyday Life
(New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1972), p. 180.

 

4R. H. Day, Human Perception (New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969), p. I.

 

5Julian E. Hochberg, Perception (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall Inc., 1964), p. l.

 

6Ibid.

7Day, p. 183.

8Rudolf Arnheim, Visual Thinking (Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969).

 

95. Howard Bartley, Principles of Perception
(2d ed.; New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1969),
p. 190.

 

10Bartley, Principles of Perception, p. 190.

11H. H. Price, Perception (London: Methuen and
Company Ltd., 1964), p. 3.

 

12Bartley, Principles of Perception, p. 195.

 

55

56

13Hugh Lytton, Creativity and Education (New York:
Schocken Books, 1972), p.‘1.

 

l4Ibid., p. 2.

lSIbid.

16Ibid., p. 3.

17Joy Paul Guilford and Anna B. Cox, Creative
Thinking in Children at the Junior High School LeveIs,
Cooperative Research Project No. 737 (Los Angéies, Calif.:
University of Southern California, 1961).

 

18Lytton, p. 35.

19Paul E. Torrance, Creativity (Washington:
Washington Association of Classroom Teachers of the
National Education Association, 1963).

20John F. Feldhusen, Teaching Creative Thinking
and Problem Solving (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall7Hunt Publish-
ing Company, i977Y, p. 14.

 

21John Dewey, Art as Experience (New York: Minton,
Balch and Company, 1934).

 

221pm.

23Interdisciplinar Arts and Humanities Programs
and Cultural Centers for E ementary Programs, Title III,
Final Report (Muncie, Ind.: BalI State University, 1976),
p. 10.

 

 

24Glenys G. Unruh and Stanley Madeja, "The Arts
in General Education: An Interrelated Approach," Edu-
cational Leadership 26 (April 1969): 647.

 

25"Arts and Humanities," in Kaleidoscope 12, ED
103 342, eds. Beverly W. Lydiard and Natalie Norton
(Boston: Massachusetts State Department of Education,
Bureau of Curriculum Services, 1974), 74 pp.

 

57

26Wallace D. LaBenne, Educational Implications of
Self Concept Theory (Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear
Publishing Company, Inc., 1969), p. 23.

 

27Ibid., p. 20.

28Louis J. Rubin, "Creativity and the Curriculum,"
in Bold New Adventure, Teaching for Creative Endeavor, ed.
William B. MiChael (London: Indiana Press, 1968): P. 219.

 

291bid., pp. 220-21.

3OIbid., p. 224.

31Helen M. S. Coe, "Discovery Learning," Impact,
ED041836 Impact 70, eds. Bill M. Clark et a1. (Des Moines,

 

Iowa: Polk County Board of Education), 70 pp.

321bid.

33Ibid.

34Ibid.

35William H. Johnson, Fundamentals in Visual
Instruction (Chicago: EducationaIiScreen Inc., 1927),
p. 20.

 

36James C. Mills, "The Teaching of Reading and
Arts Education: An Approach to Reading Improvement"
(paper presented at the annual meeting of the Community/
Reading Conference, Nashville, Tennessee, June 16-20, '
1975) I pa 1.

37Ibid.

38Johnson, p. 10.

391bid., p. 15.

401m act, ED041836 Impact 70, eds. 3111 M. Clark

et al. (Des M01nes, Iowa: Polk County Board of Education,
1970), pp. 177-78.

58

41Mildred M. Landis, Meaningful Art Education
(Peoria, 111.: Chas. A. Bennett Company, Inc.,—1951),
p. 16.

 

42Howard Conant, Art Education (Washington, D.C.:
Center for Applied Research in EducatiOn, Inc., 1964),
p. 34.

43Ibid., p. 35.

44Landis, p. 19.

45Conant, p. 19.

46Landis, pp. 18, 21.

47John Dewey; Albert C. Barnes; Lawrence Buermeyer;
et al., "Individual and Experience," Art and Education
(Merion, Penn.: The Barnes Foundation Press, 1929), p. 177.

 

48Conant, p. 36.

491bid., p. 37.

5°Ibid., p. 39.

511bid., p. 40.

52Ibid., pp. 42-43.

53J. L. Aranguten, Human Communication (London:
World University Library, 1967), p. 10}

 

54Educational Policies Commission, Mass Communi-
cation and Education (Washington, D.C.: National Edu-
cation Association, 1958), p. 72.

 

 

55Conant, p. 4.

56Aranguren, p. 188.

57Edmund B. Feldman, "Nature of Aesthetics,"
Report of the Commission on Art Education (Washington,
D.C.: National Art Education, 1965): P. 41.

59

58"The Status of the Arts in Education: A Report
from the JDF 3rd Fund," The National Elementary Principle
55 (January/February 1976):i36¥42.

 

sglbid.

GOIbid.

GlIbid.

GZIbid.

631bid.

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