AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COGNITIVE AND NON-COGNITIVE VARIABLES RELATING TO A STUDENT'S P’ERSISTENCE IN A MAIOR AREA OF STUDY AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY The“: {:09 the Degree of“ EJ. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Wilma Nash Bradley 19 62 This is to certify that the thesis entitled ' AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COGNITIVE AND NON-COGNITIVE VARIABLES RELATING TO A STUDENT'S PERSISTENCE IN A MAJOR AREA OF STUDY AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY presented by . A... Ffl*_ Wilma N. Bradley has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed.D degree in Education I Major professor Date October 24, 1962 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University ’- ..-w..__...._._-‘_.............ofi . -744fl44*.~—_.' ~n-O V*Hw‘ A .- .. _ _. .m — M..- .—..t- AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COGNITIVE AND NON~COGNITIVE VARIABLES RELATING TO A STUDENT'S PERSISTENCE IN A MAJOR AREA OF STUDY AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By Wilma Nash Bradley AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1962 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COGNITIVE AND NON-COGNITIVE VARIABLES RELATING TO A STUDENT'S PERSISTENCE IN A MAJOR AREA OF STUDY AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ~ by Wilma Nash Bradley The purpose of this investigation was to determine if stu- dents who change their major area of study after college entrance differ in certain cognitive and/or non-cognitive variables from students who choose a major area of study at time of college en- trance and remain in that major area. Two major hypotheses were formulated: (1) There is no difference between female students who change major on the basis of academic aptitude, critical thinking ability, attitudes, and values, and (2) There is no difference be- tween male students who change major and those who do not change major on the basis of academic aptitude, critical thinking ability, attitudes, and values. A review of the literature revealed no studies directly relating to the problem under consideration. The population for the study consisted of the American-born .freshmen students who entered Michigan State University the fall quarter of 1958 in a specified major area of study and were still enrolled fall quarter, 1961. Wilma Nash Bradley The cognitive variables, critical thinking ability and academic aptitude, were measured by the Test of Critical Thinking, Form G and The Collegngualification Tests, Total Score, respec- tively. The non-cognitive variables, attitudes and values, were measured by the Inventory of Beliefs, Form I, Rokeach's Dogmgtism Scale, and the Differential Values Inventory, reSpectively. Data pertaining to male and female students were examined independently. Data pertaining to those who changed major area of study were classified as above or below a passing grade-point- average of 2.0. Data relative to the cognitive variables were analyzed by analysis of variance. Due to the significant differences found, the non-cognitive variables were analyzed by the use of analysis of covariance, using the mean scores on the cognitive variables as the control factors. The analyses of the data yielded seven variables of significant difference at the .05 level of confidence, and one (female attitudes) as of no significant difference. 0n the basis of these results the null forms of the two hypotheses were rejected. Findings of the study 1. A significant difference was found among the three female groupings on the basis of their academic aptitudes. 2. A.significant difference was found among the three female groupings on the basis of their critical thinking abilities. 3. No significant differences in stereotypy and adap- tivity were found for the female groupings. Wilma Nash Bradley 4. A significant difference was found among the three female groups on the basis of their traditional-oriented values. 5. A significant difference was found among the male groupings on the basis of their academic aptitudes. 6. A significant difference was found among the three male groupings on the basis of their critical thinking abilities. 7. A significant difference was found among the three male groupings on the basis of their stereotypic beliefs and receptivity to change. 8. A significant difference was found among the three male groupings on the basis of their traditionally-oriented values. AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COGNITIVE AND NON-COGNITIVE VARIABLES RELATING TO A STUDENT'S PERSISTENCE IN A MAJOR AREA OF STUDY AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BY Wilma Nash Bradley A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1962 , I\) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to eXpress her sincere appreciation to Professors Max S. Smith, Chairman of her guidance committee, walter F. Johnson, and Robert N. Hammer for encouragement, guidance and helpful criticism. The author is capecially indebted to Dr. Irvin Jack Lehmann, Department of Evaluation Services, without whose encouragement and able assistance over an extended period of time, the dissertation would not have been completed. The author wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to Paul L. Dressel, Assistant Provost, for granting permission to use a portion of the data from the investigation of "Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Values in Higher Education," sponsored by Michigan State University and the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . Introduction . Need for the study The problem . Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . Scape of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the study Definitions of terms used . Cognitive variables . . . . . . . . . . . Non- cognitive variables . . . . . Changes in major areas of study or majors . . . The p0pulation . . . . . . Critical thinking . Values . . . . Attitudes . . Stereotypic beliefs . . Assumptions upon which the study is based . Hypotheses to be tested . . . . Hypothesis I . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis II . Organization QOOOQQWVVO‘O‘O‘O‘GU'IMUJWNH H II. LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Rating scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 History of rating scales . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Studies done with rating scales . . . . . . . . . 13 Related studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 III. THE METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Definition of the papulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2? Source of the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Design of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Chapter Page Collection of the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Description of the instruments . . . . . . . . . 27 The Test of Critical Thinking, Form C . . . . . . 27 College Qualification Tests . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Inventory of Beliefs, Form I . . . . . . . . . . 30 Differential Values Inventory . . . . . . . . . . 31 Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Form E . . . . . . . . 33 Statistical treatment of the data . . . . . . . . . . 34 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Hypothesis I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Academic aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Critical thinking ability . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Hypothesis II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Academic aptitude . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Critical thinking ability . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Purpose of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Design of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Findings of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Suggestions for further research . . . . . . . . 58 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 APPENDIX B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 iv Table 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES Identification of the Groups Used in the Study . Test of Significance for Academic Aptitude for Groups I, III, and V, Females Mean Scores and Adjusted Means for Groups I, III, and V, Females Test of Significance for Critical Thinking Ability for Groups I, III, and V, Females . Tests of Significance for Attitudes for Groups I, III, and V, Females . Test of Significance for Values for Groups I, III, and V, Females . Test of Significance for Academic Aptitude for Groups II, IV, and VI, Males . . Mean Scores and Adjusted Means for Groups II, IV, and VI, Males . . . . . . . Test of Significance for Critical Thinking Ability for Groups II, IV, and VI, Males . . . . . . Test of Significance for Attitudes for Groups II, IV, and VI, Males Test of Significance for Values for Groups II, IV, and VI, Males . . Page 26 38 39 40 41 42 44 45 46 47 48 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM INTRODUCTION New students for the undergraduate program at Michigan State University, at East Lansing, Michigan, are encouraged to undergo a pre-entrance testing and counseling program. When this is not feasible, the students are given their orientation tests during registration week, and may or may not undergo subsequent counseling. However, the results of these testing programs are available to the academic advisors for educational and/or vocational guidance purposes, Students who undergo counseling prior to registration at Michigan State University are encouraged to enter as non-preference freshmen if they have any question relative to their choice of major area of study. However, there are many students who declare a major as entering freshmen, and who later change to different areas of study, and often-spend an appreciable period of confusion in the process of making these decisions. Educators have been aware for some time that many entering college freshmen are in need of guidance if they are to choose a major area of study in which they can hOpe to succeed. The problem of counseling a student relative to his major area of study is so 2 aptly described by Whiteley1 in her discussion of the use of rating scales, in which she points out the difficulties incumbent in their use as indicators of vocational guidance in the statement that Given a wealth of information about occupations and accurate measurements of the individual in all his phases, one can only say at most: "If you enter this particular vocation you will have this much in your favor. If you have sufficient determination you may rise above the handicaps and attain to some degree of success in the calling. Science, however, cannot place a tag upon you that will guarantee a safe journey over the road of least resistance to a goal of gratified ambition and unallyed success." NEED FOR THE STUDY The administration and faculty at Michigan State University are very cognizant of this problem in counseling students entering the university. Discussions between the investigator and various academic advisors and deans at Michigan State University revealed that they feel this changing-of-major-area-of-study should be of definite concern to all involved. All of these peeple stated that more information on the entering student would undoubtedly be of help in academic advising. Some feel that information is needed on the students which could be related to previous patterns studied of students with similar record patterns that have found successful fulfillment in their academic programs. Others felt that follow-up studies might be the answer. Everyone contacted at MSU had views on how to attack this problem. However, no one contacted had made any 1Mary T. Whiteley, "An Empirical Study of Certain Tests for Individual Differences," Archives of Psychology, No. 19, (August, 1911), p. 79. 3 detailed studies to substantiate their theories, nor were there con- venient literature references readily available on this subject. There are many factors involved when considering a study of such problems. What is the effect on the student when making a change in his major area of study? Is the student in a state of confusion and depression at this time? Does his scholastic record decline during this period? Do many students withdraw from school because of this academic indecision? After due consideration of the many facets of this over-all problem in guidance and counseling, it was decided, for the purposes of this investigation, to make a study of students who change their major area of study after college entrance to determine if there are any significant differences between students who persist in their original choice of major, and those who change to a new major area at the undergraduate level. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem The purpose of this study is to determine if any differences can be discerned between certain cognitive and/or non-cognitive variables for students who specify a major area of study as entering freshmen at Michigan State University and later change to another major area of study. Scope of the problem Since this appears to be a problem in all major areas of 4 study, it was decided to make this study as inclusive as reasonably possible. On this basis, it was decided to study the entire group of students from one given class who changed major within a deter- mined period of time. At this time a four-year study2 was (and is) underway at Michigan State University on academic aptitude, critical thinking abilities, attitudes of stereotypy and dogmatism, and a traditional value orientation. Scores for the tests taken by this group were available, and follow-up studies in progress made current data accessible for this group, hence it was decided to add this study to the already extensive investigation underway using this group of students. The results.of five tests,3 covering academic aptitude, critical thinking ability, values, and attitudes were determined as the cognitive and non-cognitive variables to use for the purposes of this study. The individual tests, their purpose, general format, reliability, and validity, will be discussed in detail in Chapter III. 2This major study is the parent papulation of the present investigation, and consists of the American-born students enrolling for the first time (in any college or university) at Michigan State University, fall quarter, 1958, for twelve or more credit hours. This pepulation consists of 2,746 students for whom useable data was complete on the entire general test battery given during fall registration, September, 1958. 3The Test of Critical Thinking, Form C; The College Qualification Tests, Total Score; The Differential Values Inventory; The Inventory of Beliefs, Form 1; and Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Form E. Limitations of the study The limitations within the study appear to fall into three main categories. The first is concerned with the type of institu- tion from which the p0pulation was taken. Michigan State University is a land—grant college, and as such differs in its philosOphy from that of private colleges and universities, and also from many state universities. It leads one to consider if the results of the study would be different if the attitudes and values of students from a university of different phi1080phical approach to education were to be considered. A second limitation could be cited in reference to the choice of the papulation. The students who withdrew have not been included in this study as they would not be included in the Fall, 1961 enroll- ment. Also, the study does not include freshmen who entered as non-preference status. Therefore, the group studied is not repre- sentative of the entering freshmen at Michigan State University. A third, and certainly not insignificant factor, is the choice of the non-cognitive factors used as the measured variables for this particular study. Would different variables have led to different conclusions? These, and possibly other factors, have to be considered in every investigation. For the purposes of this study, the scape and .limitations set seemed to be in keeping with the aims of this in- vestigation. This does not, however, rule out the need for future investigation using different population limits and additional or different variables. 6 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Cognitive variables Cognitive variables are defined, for the purposes of this study, as the following tests: The Test of Critical Thinking,_Form G; and, The College Qualification Tests,,Total Score. Non-Cognitive variables Non-cognitive variables are defined, for the purposes of this study, as the following tests: The Differential Values Inventory, The Inventory of Beliefs,_Form I; and, Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Form E. Changes in major areas of study or majors Changes in major areas of study, or majors, were defined, for the purposes of this study, by a panel of judges according to the breakdown of the Michigan State University curriculum as given in Appendix A. (Changes such as mathematics to music are considered changes in major areas of study; whereas, changes within the engi- neering curriculums or to or from the physical sciences are not con- sidered as changes in major area of study.) The papulation The pepulation is defined, for the purposes of this study, as those American-born students who enrolled at Michigan State University 7 for the first time during the week of registration, fall term, 1958; who were enrolled for twelve or more credits in a Specified major area of study; and, who also were enrolled at Michigan State Univer- sity at the beginning of the fall term, 1961. (This excludes those students who (a) either transferred to Michigan State University after attending another college or university, or (b) were foreign students.) The total number of students considered eligible for this study, and for whom useable data were available, included 561 females and 792 males. Critical thinking Critical thinking is defined for the purposes of this study as the ability of a student to carry on types of mental activity more complicated than simple recall and restatement of ideas, facts, principles, etc., as given in a textbook or presented by the lecturer. For the purposes of the Test on Critical Thinking, critical thinking was defined as the ability to particularize.4 Values A value is herein defined as a standard for decision-making, held by an individual student, and to be identified when it is articulated in (a) an eXpressed verbal statement or (b) response 4This is the definition accepted by the Committee on Measure- ment and Evaluation in preparation of the items for the Test of ,Critical Thinking. See Paul L. Dressel and Lewis B. Mayhew, General Education: Explorations in Evaluation. (American Council on Education, washington, D.C., 1954), pp. 176-7. 8 to a verbal statement of an overt conduct.5 Attitudes An attitude is a tendency to act for or against something.§ Stereotypic beliefs Stereotypic beliefs is defined, for the purposes of this study, as the body of tenets accepted by a student which depend on irrelevant drives and/or arbitrary reinforcements from external authority.7 ASSUMPTIONS UPON WHICH THE STUDY IS BASED The following assumptions were made as the limiting factors for the purposes of this study: (a) the group studied is representative of students at this level at Michigan State University who declared a major area of study at time of entrance as freshmen at Michigan State University. (b) the major listed for the student at time of enrollment, fall quarter, 1961, is assumed, for the purposes of this study, as his final choice of major area of study ,for the baccalaureate degree at Michigan State University. 5Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in Colleggif An Exploratory Study of the Impact of Collgge Teaching. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), Forward xii. 6This is the definition accepted by the Committee on Measure- ment and Evaluation in preparation of the items for The Inventory of Beliefs test. Dressel and Mayhew, loc. cit., p. 211. 7Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind. (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960), p. 61. 9 HYPOTHESES TO BE TESTED Hypothesis I There is no difference between female students who change major and those who do not change major on the basis of academic aptitude, critical thinking ability, attitudes, and values. Hypothesis II There is no difference between male students who change major and those who do not change major on the basis of academic aptitude, critical thinking ability, attitudes, and values. ORGANIZATION The general plan of the study has been organized into five chapters: Chapter I: The introduction presents the problem, its scope, the definition of terms, the assumptions upon which the study is based, and the hypotheses to be tested. Chapter II: The survey of the literature includes a brief review of the useage of rating scales and the related studies pub- lished to date, and a summary. Chapter III: The methodology presents the limitations of the study, a description of the tests used, and the statistical techniques used to analyze the data. Chapter IV: The analysis of the data includes the results of the statistical analyses of the data, the findings, and the inter- pretations of the results. 10 Chapter V: The final chapter presents a summary of the findings of the study, the conclusions based on the findings, and the implications for further study based on these findings and conclusions. CHAPTER II LITERATURE A variety of studies have been undertaken in recent years in attempts to determine if certain cognitive and/or non-cognitive factors can be associated with a personality pattern that is indica- tive of educational and/or vocational success in certain occupational areas. A few of these studies, concerned with the methods and variables under consideration in this investigation, are cited here as a background for this study. RATING SCALES History of rating scales The use of rating scales as supplementary aids in academic and vocational guidance is considered to date back to the 1880's, when Galton1 in England devised a series of mental and physical tests which could be given to a large number of individuals con- currently. Prior to this experimental psychology had been concerned with the single individual and how he perceived himself in relation to his external world. The work by Galton Opened an entire new world of investigation, 1Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its ngelOpment (London: Macmillan & Company, 1883), pp. 3-83. 11 12 and Cattell and Farrand2 attempted to determine a relationship be- tween a variety of human traits and academic success. Their data provide some of the first information concerning relationships of individual differences. However, much of the data collected in these testing programs by Cattell and others were done for the single individual and were based to a great extent upon the inter- pretation of the interviewer on non-cognitive aspects of the individ3 ual; for example, personal appearance, type of feature and coloring, attitudes, and personal behavior. Studies done in the early years of this century at the Univer- sity of Chicago show that at that time it was apparent to college faculty and administrators that over a third of the students were in need of vocational counseling at the time of entrance to the univer- 'sity.3 In 1913 a system of psychological examinations for entering students was introduced at the University of Chicago for the general purpose of advising in educational guidance.4 These rating scales were predominantly of the type to ascertain academic ability or aptitude. Hence, an understanding of problems related to educational and vocational guidance has been of concern to college personnel for over a half century. 2J. McKeen Cattell and Livingston Farrand, "Physical and Mental Measurements of the Students of Columbia University," Psychological Review, Vol. 3 (1896), pp. 618-48. 3Harry Dexter Kitson, "The Scientific Study of the College Student," Egychological Monographs, Vol. 23, No. 98 (1917), p. 72. 4Ibid., p. 14. 13 Studies done with rating scales Rating scales have been, and are being used with increasing frequency in attempting to predict academic and vocational success. One of the predominant tests used in such investigations is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Norman and Redlo,5 using the MMPI in rating satisfaction with major area of study, reported that: l. The MMPI is valid for distinguishing personality trends amongst various major groupings. Certain scales signifi- cantly discriminated major groupings from the remainder of the students. 2. There is a tendency for students who are strongly satis- fied with their major to resemble their own groupings on discriminative scales. 3. Significant differences were found between strongly satisfied and satisfied-and-less students on g; (masculinity—feminity) and PE (psychoasthenia). The former were higher on Mg, and the latter on P5. 4. When mean T-score deviations from average T-scores are calculated, there is a tendency for students who would rechoose the same major to deviate less from their own groupings than those who would rechoose a different major. It will be noted that this study showed definite personality trends for major areas of study, and that students within a Specific major area tend to resemble each other. In another investigation conducted by Centi6 relative to the 5Ralph D. Norman and Mirimn Redlo, "MMPI Personality Patterns for Various College Major Groups," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 36 (Dec., 1952), p. 409. 6Paul Centi, "Personality Factors Related to College Success," The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Dec.-Jan., 1962), pp. 187-8. 14 effect on achievement of selected personality factors, using the MMPI, the results of the study indicated that a definite relationship existed between the level of achievement and certain selected adjust- ment factors. However, it must be remembered that Centi's study was for only one major area of study--education majors. RELATED STUDIES An investigation by Warnath and Fordyce7 in the relationship between non-intellective factors and a student's selection of a major in which he meets with the best chance of success, revealed that significant differences in value patterns emerged on the Poe Inventory of Values (PIV) between the five groups of freshmen divided in the major areas of study they indicated at time of testing. The areas indicated were humanities, natural science, business, social science, and education. This study indicated that the PIV is of definite value in differentiating between students at the beginning of their freshman year relative to their choice of major. The study revealed that students entering as business majors were low on aesthetic, intellectual, religious, and humanitarian scales but high on material values scores; humanities majors were high on the aesthetic and humanitarian scales; the natural science majors were low on the aesthetic scales but high on the intellectual scales; but, the social science and education majors did not show definitive patterns except 7Charles F. Warnath and Hugh R. Fordyce, "Inventoried Values of Entering College Freshmen," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Nov., 1961), pp. 277-281. 15 that the education majors tended to be low on the intellectual scales and about average on the aesthetic scales. Here again the study indicates that students within a Specific major area of study tend to resemble other students within that same grouping. A number of research studies have been devoted to the use of groups of tests for prediction of differential success in college. Horst8’9 presented relatively elaborate procedures for selecting sub— tests from a large test battery which would predict relative success in a student's college curriculum. However, a subsequent study by Eells,10 using sub-battery-groups (for Liberal Arts, Engineering, and Commerce), led to the conclusion that separate prediction batteries for different curricular groups are of doubtful usefulness. In a study by Middleton and Guthrie,11 in which they were attempting to delineate the personality syndromes among high and low achieving students, they found that different grouping of personality factors can apparently be associated with different levels of achieve- ment. 8Paul Horst, "A Technique For the Development of a Differential Prediction Battery," Psychological Monographs, Vol. 68, No. 9, Whole No. 380 (1954), pp. 1-31. 9Paul Horst, "A Technique For the Deve10pment of a Multiple Absolute Prediction Battery," Psychological Monographs, Vol. 69, No. 5, Whole No. 390 (1955), pp. 1-22. ' 10Kenneth Eells, "How Effective is Differential Prediction in Three Types of College Curricula?" Journal of Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 21 (Summer, 1961), pp. 459-471. 11George Middleton, Jr. and George M. Guthrie, "Personality Syndromes and Academic Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 50 (April, 1959), pp. 66-69. 16 Many other independent investigations have been conducted on the relationships between a student's values and other a8pects of his career. One of the better known studies in this area would be that of Philip Jacob12 in which the central problem studied was rela- tive to what changes occur in students' patterns of value during college. The overall conclusions of the study revealed that ”college does make a difference--but not a very fundamental one for most students. Basic values remain largely constant through college." Numerous studies have been conducted on students' attitudes. The Mary Conover Mellon Foundation has supported an extensive program of study for the purpose of increasing the understanding of the learning and personality develOpment of the student. Webster13 reports from one of these studies that his data support the theory that substantial changes take place in the attitudes of a student during his college career. The stereotypic beliefs of students are probably one of the most difficult aspects of a student's attitudes to work with. Re- search as a whole tends to agree with the work of Frumkin,14 which showed that stereotypy is a function of the level of education, and as the student advances in college he becomes less dogmatic. This 12Jacob, loc. cit., p. 38. 1'3Harold Webster, "Changes in Attitudes During 0011983," .Ihe Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 49 (June, 1958), pp. 109-117. 14Robert M" Frumkin, "Dogmatism, Social Class, Values, and Ikcademic Achievement in Sociology," The Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 34 (May, 1961), pp. 398—403. 17 was also shown in the study by Payne15 who found that test-retest data using the Inventory of Beliefs and the Differential Values Inventory indicated that students became less stereotypic during their freshman year in college; and, that many students, both male and female, exhibit significant values changes and become less traditional upon completion of one year of college. In a study of the authoritarian type personality; Neel16 found that this type person has difficulty in mastering theoretical material, whereas this type learns more easily where factual materials are used. It should be noted that this study was based upon thirty senior medical students in one psychiatry course, and may not apply to students of different curricular backgrounds. A preliminary report17 published on the initial phase of the four year study using the parent population of this study considered the two hypotheses: 1. There is a significant relationship between various measures of scholastic performance and critical thinking, attitudes, and values. 2. The prediction of scholastic performance can be increased by the inclusion of a battery of affective variables. 1Slsabelle K. Payne, "The Relationship Between Attitudes and Values and Selected Background Characteristics," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1961), pp. 77-81. 16Ann Felinger Neel, "The Relationship of Authoritarian Personality to Learning: F Scale Scores Combined to Classroom Performance," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 50 (Oct., 1959), pp. 195-199. 17Irvin J. Lehmann, "The Relationship Between Scholastic Per- formance and Critical Thinking; Attitudes, and Values," 17th Yearbook of National Council on Measurements Used in Education (1960), p. 84. 18 The results were summarized, after adjustment for CQT, as follows: 1. Non-stereotypic and non-dogmatic students receive significantly higher examination grades in both CS (communication skills) and NS (natural science). 2. The "better" critical thinkers receive significantly ‘higher grades from their NS instructors and on the CS and NS final examination. They also have a higher first- term GPA. 3. The non-dogmatic students are superior performers in terms of CS and NS.19 Another report on this same overall study revealed in the initial phase of this study that: 1. There are significant socio-cultural differences in selected cognitive and affective variables. 2. There are significant differences in stereotypy, critical thinking ability, general academic aptitude, and socio- economi-educational index between students who complete their freshman year and those who withdraw from college during their first year. 3. The relationship between grades (and over-all academic performance as measured by the grade-point-average) and the affective variables varies for different courses and terms. The relationship is generally lower than that between grades and the cognitive measures. 4. Over a period of time, students become less stereotypic, .better critical thinkers, and more emergent in their values.20 18CS (communication skills) and NS (natural science) are required general education courses at M;S.U. and are normally taken during the freshman year. 19Lehmann, loc. cit., p. 87. 20Irvin J. Lehmann and Stanley 0. Ikenberry. Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Values inggigher Education: A Preliminary Report. (Paul L. Dressel, Principal Investigator) East Lansing, MEchigan: Office of Evaluation Services, Michigan State University, (1959), p. 86. l9 lehmann and Ikenberry21 report that their study revealed that the least stereotypic females were predominantly in the areas of humanities and social science; the more stereotypic females were found in medical technology; the least stereotypic males in physical and biological sciences; and, the more stereotypic males in the education curricula. However, it should be noted that their study also revealed that though the more dogmatic males were found in physical education, they were also poorest on cognitive measures, whereas, the less dogmatic males in the sciences also rated much higher on the cognitive measures. The above reports support the view, inherent in this investi- gation, that differences do exist between groups of students, and that students might be grouped according to these differences. They also support the view that a student's success in a given academic area of study may be related to attitudes, values, and critical thinking abilities. The study of Lehmann and Ikenberry indicates that success or failure in certain areas may be predictive from these variables, as is seen, for example, in the high stereotypy and low critical thinking ability of males in physical education as against males in science who were less dogmatic and higher on aptitude and critical thinking scales. Another brief publication on this same pOpulation reported that: Students tend to become more receptive to new ideas and to 211bid., p. 27. 20 question more deeply during the four years in college.22 Another area investigated in attempting to establish predictor patterns is represented by the study done by Holland23 in which he explored the usefulness of nonintellectual factors in the development of a theory of academic prediction by the use of college grades. However, his findings appeared to be inconclusive for deve10ping such a theory. In another study using grades as the measure of achievement, Marshall and Simpson24 reported that the student who comes to college with a definite vocational field in mind has an advantage over the undecided student. They found that the students who are definite in their vocational choice on college entrance rank lower in academic aptitude than those making tentative vocational choices, but the academic performance of both of these groups (as measured by grades) is definitely higher than the entering college students who are undecided as to their vocational choice. A study by Brasszs of students who changed schools within V_f 22Irvin J. Lehmann, "Students' Ideas Do Change," State News, Vol. 53, No. 198 (May 15, 1962), p. 1. 23John L. Holland, "The Prediction of College Grades from Personality and Aptitude Variables." The Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 51, No. 5 (Oct., 1960), pp. 245-254. 24M” V. Marshall and E. W. Simpson, "Vocational Choice and College Grades," Journal of Educational Research” 37 (Dec., 1943), p. 303. 25Robert V. Brass, "An Investigation of Selected Personal Background Factors and Reasons Related to Students who Change Schools Within Purdue University," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Psychology, Purdue University, 1956), p. 84. 21 Purdue University revealed that students who transferred from one degree-granting curriculum to another tended to increase their grade-point-average after changing curricula. However, a contemporary study by Fullmer26 revealed that students who change major persevered longer than non-changers, and that fewer students withdrew failing than in the non-changers group. Other information collected on these groups relative to academic success revealed no significant differences in the mean grade-point- average of the two groups; mean grade-point-average was not changed significantly after change (correlation of .98 before and after change); and, the non-change group scored highest on the American College of Education Psychological Examination. There is a divergence of opinion as to the relative equality of the sexes, which seems to depend on large measure on which traits are being considered. Kuznets and McNemar27 found that when large unselected groups were tested, when age was considered, and bias on test items allowed for, little or no difference between the mental abilities of the sexes was found. A study by Abelson28 on predictability of freshman grades 26D. W. Fullmer, "Success and Perseverance of University Students," Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 27 (1956), pp. 446-447. 27G. M. Kuznets and Olga McNemar, "Sex Differences in Intelligence-Test Scores." The Thirty-ninth Yearbook, NSSE (Bloomington, 111.: Public School Publishing Company, 1940), pp. 211-20. 28Robert P. Abelson, "Sex Differences in Predictability of College Grades," Educational and Psychological Measurements, Vol. 12 (Autumn, 1952), pp. 638-644. 22 for the separate sexes revealed a highly significant sex difference when the prediction was based on high school grades, but no signifi- cance when aptitude test scores were the predictors. However, using both high school grades and aptitude test scores simultaneously, the over-all test was highly significant. Researchers have shown that there are significant sex dif- ferences in attitudes and values. For example, Allport, Vernon, and Lindzey29 reported that women are high on aesthetic, social, and religious scales, whereas men are higher on the theoretical, economic, and political scales. Studies on the parent pOpulation of this study revealed that differences exist between the sexes on all of the non-cognitive factors being considered in this investigation.30 A number of studies have been conducted on why students change their major while in college. In his study of curricula changes at Purdue, Brass31 found that the majority of reasons given by the students for changing major involved interest changes, curricular preferences and dissatisfaction, and generally low grades. 0n the whole, studies dealing with why students change major are not directly related to the present investigation. However, 29Gordon W. Allport, Philip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lindzey. Study of Values: A Scale for Measuring the Dominant Interests in Personality, Manual of Directions (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951), p. 17. 30Lehmann and Ikenberry, loc. cit., p. 17. 31Brass, loc. cit., pp. 79-81. 23 the study by Pierson32 would undoubtedly be the closest related in background and time as it used Michigan State University graduates with the bachelor's degrees in June, 1958. This study revealed that the three predominant reasons for changing majors were (1) the extent Of curricular Opportunities in the University, (2) the content of courses in their original major, and (3) the requirements and Opportunities in vocations related to their original choice. It must be noted that, in contrast to Brass's33 study and the present investigation, Pierson classed changes within an area, such as from engineering to physical science, as changes of major. It might be noted that Pierson's post-graduation study revealed that eighty-five per cent of the graduates appeared to be satisfied with their final choice. However, it should be remembered that the group studied are those students who had successfully completed a major area Of study for a bachelor's degree. This does not include students who did not finish, which the present study will undoubtedly include. Also it does not show any relationship between a student's cognitive and/or non-cognitive variables as related to the reasons why he changed major. As stated above, this type Of study does not lend itself to clarifying the issues being considered in this investigation. 32Rowland R. Pierson, "Changes of Majors by College Students," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 41 (Jan., 1962), p. 461. 33Brass, loc. cit. 24 SUMMARY As can be seen from the representative studies cited, many investigations have been conducted, or are in progress, on a student's attitudes, values, stereotypic beliefs, and academic aptitude. Many of these studies have used various rating scales as the predictors as related to the cognitive and/or non-cognitive factors investigated. The use of rating scales as related to academic aptitude have not been reviewed to any appreciable extent in this section for two reasons, (a) the reader is undoubtedly familiar with many studies citing the use of rating scales as indicators of students' academic ability and (b) the validity and reliability of the cognitive variables used in this study are discussed in Chapter III. Other studies have been conducted in attempting to establish personality patterns as related to such items as college grades; sex; and, other variables not directly related to this study. However, the factors associated with specific major areas Of study have not been Of a nature as to allow one to indiscriminately predict that Shig student will achieve more in Ehig area of study, to the exclusion Of all other areas Of interest. It has been the purpose of this chapter to show that numerous investigations have been conducted on students' attitudes, values, beliefs, and aptitudes. However, none Of these studies have ade- quately explained if any differences exist between students who change from one major area Of study to another, as related to students who choose a major and remain in the major area Of study through their undergraduate program. CHAPTER III THE METHODOLOGY DEFINITION OF THE POPULATION All students who entered Michigan State University the fall quarter of 1958 as new, American-born freshmen with a Specified major area of study, and who were still enrolled at Michigan State Univer- sity in the fall quarter Of 1961 were identified for the purposes Of this study. This group, for which useable data were available, con- sisted of 1353 cases (561 females and 792 males) of which 690 remained in their original choice of major area of study, and 663 changed their major area of study. SOURCE OF THE DATA The data for this study were collected at Michigan State University, located at East Lansing, Michigan. DESIGN OF THE STUDY The two groups, consisting of 690 non-changers and 663 changers, were each subdivided into two groupings on the basis of sex, giving a. non-changers, female (288) b. non-changers, male (402) 25 26 c. changers, female (273) d. changers, male (390) Groups (c) and (d) above were again subdivided according to the cumulative grade-point-average at the time Of change of major, as to whether the grade-point-average was above or below 2.0, which is the passing grade Of'g on the four-point-system1 used at Michigan State University. given in Table 1. The resultant six groups used in this study are TABLE 1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE GROUPS USED IN THE STUDY Group Status G.P.A.a Sex Number I non-changers ..... female 288 II non-changers ..... male 402 III changers below 2.0 female 40 IV changers below 2.0 male 106 V changers 2.0 + female 233 VI changers 2.0 + male 284 aG.P.A. at time Of change Of major. COLLECTION OF THE DATA The scores on the rating scales used in this study were a part 1Grade-point-system at Michigan State University: A = 4.0 points per credit hour B = 3.0 points per credit hour C = 2.0 points per credit hour D = 1.0 points per credit hour 27 Of the information collected during the registration period, September 21-26, 1958, on entering freshmen at Michigan State University. The names, student numbers, and grade-point-averages for the individual members used in this study were Obtained from the Office of the Registrar at Michigan State University. DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENTS In order to achieve the purposes of this study, it was neces- sary to Obtain measurements of the academic aptitude, attitudes, values, and stereotypic beliefs of all students in the study. The following instruments were selected to measure the above characteristics. Each of these rating scales will be discussed in relation to the purpose of the instrument, evidences of validity and reliability, and other distinguishing characteristics. The Test Of Critical Thinking, Form G The Test Of Critical Thinking, Form G, was developed as part Of the COOperative Study Of Evaluation in General Education, under the Sponsorship Of the American Council on Education, Committee on Measurement and Evaluation.2 The test consists of fifty-two Objective-type questions, which were built from the definition that "an attitude is an emotional tendency, organized through eXperience, to act for or against 2Dressel and Mayhew, loc. cit., pp. 174-207. 28 something."3 The skills chosen by the committee for the test items in form G were selected to fall into the following categories: 1. The ability to define a problem. 2. The ability tO select pertinent information for the solution Of a problem. 3. The ability to recognize stated and unstated assumptions. 4. The ability to formulate and select relevant and promising hypotheses. 5. The ability to draw conclusions validly and to judge the validity of inferences. The reliability of the test, as given in the manual for the Test of Critical Thinking,5 was reported as ranging from .71 to .89. A reliability coefficient Of .79 was found by Lehmann and Ikenberry.6 The committee was aware that reliability was being sacrificed for eXpediency when the test was limited to a 50-minute period.7 The validity of the test as determined in relationship to the American Council on Education Psychological Test is reported in the manual for the Test Of Critical Thinking_as .54.8 31bid., p. 211. 4Ibid., II, pp. 179-180. SCOOperative Study of Evaluation in General Education, Paul L. Dressel, Director. Instructor's Manual for the Test of Critical Thinking, Form G, The American Council on Education, Committee on Measurement and Evaluation, 1953 (Mfimeographed). 6Lehmann and Ikenberry, loc. cit., p. 12. 7COOperative Study, loc. cit., p. 6. 81bid., p. 10. 29 CollegeQQualification Tests The College Qualification Tests consist Of a series Of three ability tests develOped for colleges for use in admissions, placement, and guidance procedures. These tests were develOped to predict learning in the cognitive fields and "the majority Of the coefficients found in the prediction of grade-point-average in fourteen institutions strongly indicate that . . . the COT-Total Score appears to be highly predictive of first semester grade-point-averages . ."9 The College Qualification Tests consist Of three subtests which consist Of 75 items designed to measure verbal ability, 50 items which measure skill in handling numerical concepts, and 75 items on general information. The Total Score was used in preference to the separate sub-tests because of its greater general predictive power.10 The manual for the College Qualification Tests reports a reliability coefficient to approach or exceed .90.11 The College Qualification Tests, Total Score were found to be a very good predictor for first semester grade-point-averages in the fourteen institutions where it was used. Hence the manual reports the validity Of the College Qualification Tests, Total Score as very favorable for forecasting college success. 9George K. Bennett, Marjorie G. Bennett, Winburn L. Wallace, and Alexander G. Wesman, College Qualification Tests, Manual, 1957 (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1957), p. 25. 10Ibid., p. 50. 111bid., II, p. 28. 12 Ibid., III, p. 25. 30 Inventory Of Beliefs, Form I The Inventory Of Beliefs, like the Test Of Critical Thinkigg, was developed as part of the COOperative Study Of Evaluation in General Education, under the sponsorship of the American Council on Education, Committee on Measurement and Evaluation.13 The fundamental assumption underlying the Inventory Of Beliefs is that "the Objectives Of general education can serve as a base from which may be inferred the model organization characterizing the personalities of those most adaptable to the purposes Of general education."14 The Inventory of Beliefs test consists Of 120 statements dealing with (a) ideas and intellectual abstractions; (b) social groups and identifications; (c) interpersonal relations; and, (d) the self. ReSponses to these items are made by means Of a four- element key: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. The Inventory Of Beliefs identifies students who tend to accept stereotypes. Hence, individuals who reject the majority of the statements (or high scorers) are considered to be more adaptive, 15 independent, and non-stereotypic in belief systems. The reliability as reported in the manual for the Inventory 13Dressel and Mayhew, loc. cit., pp. 208-241. 4COOperative Study Of Evaluation in General Education, Paul L. Dressel, Director. Instructor's Manual for the Inventory Of Beliefs, The American Council on Education, Committee on Measurement and Evaluation, 1953 (Mimeographed). p. 4. 151bid., p. 9. 31 Of Beliefs, shows a median of .86, calculated by the Kuder-Richardson Split halfs method.16 The validity for the Inventory of Beliefs was studied in several different ways, and finally the test was designed to serve two purposes: one relative to the achievement of the Objectives Of general education and the second related to personality dimensions which are, at one and the same time, the psychological base for the product Of effective general education.17 The manual for the Inventory Of Beliefs reports the validity as .35 in terms Of psychological dimensions, using the American Council On Education Psychological Examination.l8 Differential Values Inventory The Differential Values Inventory was develOped by Richard Prince19 using the new concepts of values of Spindler, who categorized values as traditional and emergent.20' 16Ibid., II, p. 5. 17Ibid., III, p. 9. 18Ibid., IV, p. 10. 19Richard Prince, "A Study of the Relationship Between In- dividual Values and Administrative Effectiveness in the School Situation," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University Of Chicago, 1957). 20George Spindler, "Education in a Transforming American Culture," Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 25 (Summer, 1953), p. 149: TRADITIONAL VALUES: Puritan MOrality —-respectibility, thrift, self-denial Work-success Ethic --successful people work hard tO become so 32 The test consists of 64 forced-choice items and was designed to "determine whether the individual holds to the traditional set Of values--Puritan morality, individualism, work-success ethic, and future-time orientation--Or to the emergent set Of values--relativistic moral attitude, conformity, sociability, and present-time orientation."21 Items in each of the four traditional categories are paired four times with items in each of the four emergent categories. The individual chooses either the traditionally-oriented or the emergent-oriented statement, giving a traditional score Of 0-64. (Subscores, not used in this study, are also available for each Of the value-areas measured.) A high traditional score indicated that the person emphasizes reSpectability, self-denial, hard-work as a measure of success, and a need to build for the future. Lehmann and Ikenberry22 found correlation coefficients of .61 Individualism --the individual is more important than the group Achievement Orientation --success is a constant goal Future-time Orientation --the future is most important EMERGENT VALUES: Sociability --SUSpicious of solitary activities Relativistic moral attitude --morality is what the group thinks is right Consideration for others -—harmony Of the group should not be disrupted Hedonistic, present-time orientation --enjoy the present Conformity to the group —-everything is relative to the group 21Prince, loc. cit., pp. 135-6. 22Lehmann and Ikenberry, loc. cit., pp. 32-36. 33 for males and .60 for females when Michigan State University fresh- men were re-tested on the Differential Values Inventory at the end Of the freshman year, indicating a reasonable stability in the value scores . Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Form E The primary purpose Of the Dogmatism Scale,23 is "to measure individual differences in Openness or closedness of belief systems." The scale also serves to measure general authoritarianism and intolerance. The construction Of the test is essentially deductive in nature, consisting of the best 40 items taken from the original Form D, and scored on a 7-point agree—disagree scale, and stated in such a way that a high score indicates that the person is highly dogmatic24 in his beliefs. Rokeach25 reports correlations found between intelligence, using the American Council on Education Test, and the Dogmatism 23Milton J. Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960), p. 71. 24Milton J. Rokeach, "Political and Religious Dogmatism? An Alternative to Authoritarian Personality," Psychological Monographs, 70: NO. 425, (1956), p. 5. Rokeach has defined dogmatism in the following manner: (Dogmatism) represents a total ideological defense against threat and at the same time a cognitive framework for staisfying one's need tO know and comprehend the world one lives in. In other words, dogmatic thinking and believing makes it possible to ward Off threatening aspects Of reality and at the same time gives one the satisfaction of feeling that one understands it. 25Rokeach, loc. cit., p. 190. 34 S2212) as -.02. Hence, Rokeach concludes that the findings cannot be accounted for by differences in intelligence. Lehmann and Ikenberry26 found an internal consistency re- liability Of .76 for the Dogmatism Scale. They also reported a high correlation in the relationship between Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale and the Inventory Of Beliefs.27 The high correlation of these two independently constructed scales, measuring theoretically related phenomena, tends to support the claim for validity of both measures. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF THE DATA Significant difference in attitudes and values for males and females are reported in the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Test manual.2 Also, Lehmann and Ikenberry29 reported that significant sex dif- ferences were found on all the tests used in this investigation ex- cept for the Test of Critical Thinking. Since information would appear to be of more significance for the separate sexes, the grouping of the pOpulation and control group were made so that Groups I, III, and V (see Table l) were studied as a unit, and Groups II, IV, and VI (see Table l) as a unit. The hypotheses were stated in the null form which postulates, by definition, that the difference in the population means is zero. 26Lehmann and Ikenberry, loc. cit., p. 12. 27Ibid., pp. 55-6. 28A11port and others, loc. cit., p. 4. 29Lehmann and Ikenberry, loc. cit., p. 17. 35 A statistical method commonly used for testing for significance of difference among the means for two or more groups is the analysis Of variance. The analysis Of variance procedure for the difference in means is based on the separation Of a total sum of squares into several portions. If the mean square for the means is significantly large, the hypothesis Of equal means is rejected. An analysis Of variance was made on each of the groupings for the Test Of Critical Thinking, Form C, and the College Qualifica- tion Tests, Total Score. The results of these analyses of variance, showed significant differences between the means for the tests relating to academic aptitude. In order to determine if any significant differences exist in relationship to the non—cognitive variables, it was decided that the information would be more pertinent if a statistical technique were employed wherein the differences in academic aptitude could be controlled. Since the analysis Of covariance provides the investi- gator with a means of controlling the individual differences, it was decided to use this method of analysis for the non-cognitive vari- ables. The analysis of covariance procedure also leads tO a test for difference in means by separation of a sum of squares into several portions. In this case one tests for a difference in means of residuals. The residuals are the differences of the statistical Observation and a regression quantity based on the associated variables. In order to minimize the bias for scholastic aptitude and academic ability on the other criterion measured, the Test Of Critical 36 Thinking, Form G, and the College Qualification Tests, Total Score were used as the control variables in this investigation. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The analysis Of the data will be presented in two parts, in relationship to Hypothesis I and Hypothesis 11. Data pertaining to male and female students were examined independently because of sex differences found in initial studies on the parent population.1 Values used for means, correlations, and standard deviations in this study (Appendix B) were computed on the Michigan State Integral Computer, MISTIC.2 The analysis Of variance and analysis Of covariance techni- ques were used to ascertain whether differences between the groupings could be accounted for by chance. A significant difference is inter- preted to mean significant at or beyond the .05 level of confidence. HYPOTHESIS I There is no difference between female students who change major and those who do not change major on the basis of academic aptitude, critical thinking ability, attitudes, and values. 1Lehmann and Ikenberry, loc. cit., p. 17. 2Computer Laboratory, Michigan State University, "KS-M, Correlation, Means, Standard Deviation, Variance Card Input," MISTIC Library Index, East Lansing (April, 1959, Mimeographed). 37 38 Academic aptitude TABLE 2 TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR ACADEMIC APTITUDE FOR GROUPS I, 111, AND v FEMALES Source of Degrees Of Sum Of Mean Variation Freedom Squares Square F Total 560 317,869 Groups 2 8,190 4095 Within 558 309,679 554.99 7.3785 Results of the analysis Of variance for The College Quali- fications Test, Table 2, revealed that there is a significant dif- ference among the three female groups in their academic aptitudes. Reference to Table 3 shows that the group Of students who changed major with a passing grade-point-average rated the highest on the academic aptitude test, whereas the group Of students who changed major with a below passing grade-point-average were much lower on the whole than the other two groups. The mean score for the two groups, non-changers and changers above 2.0 grade-point-average, was 124.23, whereas the mean score for the group Of below passing changers was 109.725. 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