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A Study of Competitive Alpine Skiers

Between the Ages of 13 and 18 Years

presented by

Alfred H. Bransdorfer

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M.A. degree in The School of

Health Education, Counseling
Psychology and Human Performance

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A STUDY OF COMPETITIUE QLPINE SKIERS
BETUEEN THE REES OF 13 AND 18 YEARS

Bu

Alfred H. Bransdorfer

R THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State Universitg
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MHSTER OF ARTS
School of Health Education, Counseling Psgchologg
and Human Performance

1888

 

 

V//~ 9’9 3' If

ABSTRACT

*3
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A STUDY OF CDMPETITIUE ALPINE SKIERS
BETNEEN THE AGES DF 13 AND 18 YEARS

Bu

Alfred H. Bransdorfer

Coaches and instructors of ski racing need
appropriate methods to measure ski racing abilitg so that
they match potential talent with the requirements of the

sport, therebg facilitating the development of successful

 

teams. The studg attempted to determine if a predictive
relationship existed between the three tests and points as
determined by the United States Ski Association.

Eight male and eight female ski racers, ages 13 to
18 gears, of the Central division of the United States Ski
Association (CUSSA) volunteered as subjects for the studg.
The subjects were tested using the hexagonal obstacle
test, the jump-box test and a SO-sec sit-up test. The
subjects were tested during the CUSSA Point Improvement
race Sundag, March 2, 1888 at Bogne Highlands Resort in
Michigan. A multiple regression equation was used to
treat the data.

Data analysis showed that a predictive relationship
did not exist between the three tests and USSA points in
the male subjects. The analgsis also showed that a
predictive relationship did not exist between the three

tests and USSA points in the female subjects.

ACKNDWLEDGHENTS

I would like to thank Dr. william Heusner for his
help and support during my graduate work at Michigan State
University. I am grateful to my wife, Irish, for her love
and constant support. I also deeply appreciate my

families’ support and belief in me.

ii

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Bane
CHAPTER 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Specific Aims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Research Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Research Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
CHAPTER II - Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Skill Testing of Alpine Skiers . . . .,. . . . . . 10
Descriptive Studies in Alpine Skiing . . . . . . . . 11
Energy Cost of Alpine Skiing . . . . . . . . . . . . 1%
Youth Skiing Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CHAPTER III - Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Hexagonal obstacle test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Jump- box test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Sit-up test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Treatment of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
CHAPTER IU - Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . 88
Male Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Female Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
CHAPTER U - Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations . 88
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Recommendations for .Further Study. . . . . . . . . . 26
APPENDIX A - Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

iii

Ehggggg 1

A significant concern of coaches should be the
measurement of athletic ability to determine the strengths
and weakness that may influence the success of athletes.
Coaches and instructors of ski racing need appropriate
methods to measure ski racing ability so that they match
potential talent with the requirements of the sport,
thereby facilitating the development of successful teams.

Ski racing and skiing in general involve many unique
and specific movements that pertain only to skiing. In a
similar manner running, baseball, football and other
sports require specific qualities. These requirements can
include physiological variables of muscular power,
strength, endurance, and flexibility. Furthermore, each
sport requires that specific equipment be worn during
competition. Skiing has its own special equipment
requirements. These specific equipment requirements tend
to separate skiing from other sport activities. Of all
athletic events only skiing requires immobilization of the
ankle joint. This is due to the design of the boot, which
aids in changing the direction of the skis. The direction
changes are crucial for a racer to negotiate a race

course .

 

The design of ski equipment makes the movements of
the skier’s body unique to sports. As a skier descends a
mountain the body encounters many forces. Gravity allows
the skier to descend in a straight line without much
physical effort; however as soon as the skier starts to
turn, either by an abrupt movement or a subtle one, the
body experiences centrifugal force which must be
controlled by the application of centripetal force if the
skier wishes to maintain the arc of the turn. If these
forces are not properly balanced the desired arc of the
turn will not be maintained.

To overcome many of the constantly changing forces, the
skier must be able to quickly exert large amounts of
force. Most of the forces encountered are determined by
the skier’s weight, velocity, turning arc, terrain and
snow conditions. Ski racers often encounter extreme‘
forces during competition due to the steep slope of the
hill, high velocity, and short turn radius (wantanabe,
1881). Ski racers need to develop specific techniques to
control these forces. The control of these forces is
based on the skier’s techniques, developed and inherited
physical attributes and past experiences.

Skiers should be subjected to periodic physiological
testing and evaluation of their technique in order to
remain competitive. Technical evaluation is accomplished
on the hill under the watchful eye of the coach.

Modifications in technique then can be developed.

The development and evaluation of physical
characteristics can take many forms. For example, maximum
oxygen consumption can be determined on a treadmill.
Anaerobic capacity and power can be determined with a
treadmill or bicycle ergometer. Strength and power of the
musculoskeletal system can be evaluated by isokinetic or
isotonic testing. The question remains, can measures of
the physiological characteristics be used to predict
success in competitive skiing.

Several studies have investigated selected
physiological and anthropometric variables in an attempt
to describe ski racers. Two studies completed by Haymes
and Dickinson (1880) and Brown and wilkinson (1883)
described selected physiological variables of elite alpine
ski racers. Their work is important in determining the
most effective form of evaluation for subsequent testing
and the development of elite ski racers. The currently
available studies cannot be be used effectively to predict
a skier’s ability because of a lack of skiing specificity.

Uery few studies have included skiing-specific
components in their test batteries. A battery of skill
tests to select and train team members was developed by
McGinnis (1881) for the U.S. Ski team. Presumably, this
battery represents skiing-specific test items that
presently are available to racers. However, the

predictive nature of McGinnis’ test was not determined.

Competitive skiing requires specific physiological

 

characteristics and overall skiing technique to be
successful. A skier must be able to respond quickly and
precisely in a turn. It is assumed that the hexagonal
obstacle test and the jump-box test simulates skiing.
Thus, they could be used to evaluate skiers.

The hexagonal obstacle test (McBinnis, 1881), the
jump-box test (McGinnis, 1881) and the 50-sec sit-up test
(AAHPERD, 1881) were selected for the current study
because they presumably measure strength, power, and
endurance in a way that simulates skiing movements. The
hexagonal obstacle test requires the subject to jump over
a series of barriers laterally, diagonally, and forward
and backward as fast as possible. This action may
simulate the agility and leg power needed in skiing. In
an unpublished cinematographical study of gymg training:

: h:-:--n-_ .._ ; ; =n- ‘ _ _— - f.n- 1. . ‘ ; jn.
by Bransdorfer (1885), several similarities were observed
between the hexagonal obstacle test and skiing. A small
vertical displacement of the body’s center of gravity is
present while a subject performs the hexagonal obstacle
test. This is similar to what is seen in skiing because
of the extension and flexion of the legs under the body of
a skier in a turn. A limited amount of horizontal
displacement of the body’s center of gravity also is
observed during performance of the hexagonal obstacle test

in films taken from the frontal plane. The downward

vertical projection of the body’s center of gravity tends
to remain within the physical confines of the hexagonal
obstacle while the legs clear each of the hexagon’s
barriers. In skiing it has been shown that the body’s
center of gravity moves to the inside of the arc of a
turn. As the velocity and ability level of the skier
increase, this repositioning of the center of gravity is
more pronounced (Sodeyama, Miura, Kitamura, and Matsui,
1876). This movement towards the center of the arc is
important to the skier in order to control centrifugal
forces that are experienced in a turn. These observed
similarities were used to substantiate the skiing
specificity of the hexagonal obstacle test and thus to
justify its use in this study.

The jump-box test was selected because of the leg
power and muscular endurance required to jump laterally
off of and onto the box for 80-sec. The duration of the
test is similar to the duration of a ski run. The
jump-box test also fits the description of lateral
movement of the legs and therefore, was deemed to evaluate
leg power and endurance while also being skiing specific.

Abdominal strength/endurance is important to a skier.
The abdominal muscles are used to stabilize the trunk in
the preparatory phase of turning. Therefore, the 50-sec

sit-up test was selected to evaluate abdominal strength.

Need for the study

In order to evaluate a ski racer’s ability, selected
tests need to be skiing specific. Given such tests, it
may be possible to predict a skier’s performance level.
Furthermore, predictive tests could provide important
criteria for training team members. Therefore, there is a
clear need to identify discriminative tests of skiing
ability.

EHEDQ§§_QE_£D§_§§HQH

The purpose of this study was to determine whether
the three selected test variables could predict
performance levels of competitive ski racers between 13
and 18 years of age. The tests were hypothesized to
predict ski racing performance.

5 'E' .

Competitive male and female alpine ski racers of
various abilities, between the ages of 13 and 18 years,
were evaluated on three tests. A hexagonal obstacle test
was used to evaluate leg power and agility, a jump-box
test was used to evaluate leg power and muscular endurance
for SO-sec, and a BO-sec sit-up test was used to evaluate
abdominal strength/endurance.

Wheels

The following research hypothesis was tested. The
selected tests of leg power, leg endurance, agility, and
abdominal strength are significantly predictive of ski

racing ability.

 

Research glen

Normative values describing performance on selected
variables are prevalent in many sports. Ualues for
competitive alpine ski racers, however, are not available.
Only a few studies, such as those by McGinnis (1881),
Haymes et a1. (1880), and Brown et a1. (1883), have
measured the physiological capacities of skiers.

This study attempted to predict ski racing ability
using three test variables. The three test variables
were: the hexagonal obstacle test, the jump-box test and
the SO-sec sit-up test. The hexagonal obstacle used was
constructed using the dimensions of McGinnis (1881). The
subject was required to jump laterally, diagonally,
forward and backward over barriers of different heights.
Dne revolution was defined as successfully jumping over
all six barriers. The time required for three revolutions
was recorded as the subject’s score. This test evaluated
leg power, muscular endurance and agility.

Leg power and muscular endurance were determined as
the subject jumped laterally off of and onto a SO-cm high
box. The number of times the subject returned to the
starting position in 80-sec was used as the score. The
jump-box test was found to be objective, reliable and
valid by McBinnis (1881) and Brown and milkinson . (1883).

Abdominal and hip flexor endurance was determined by
a 80-sec bent-knee sit-up test. A standardized test from

the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,

Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD, 1880) was used. The
completed number of sit-ups in a 80~sec time period was
recorded as the score.

Measures of central tendency and variability were
recorded, and multiple regression procedures were used in
an attempt to determine if the three test items were
predictive of skiing ability. The independent variables
in the analysis were the three tests used. The criterion
variable was seed points as determined by the United
States Ski Association (USSA). USSA points are determined
in the following manner.

The winner of any seeded race is given zero ’race

points’, a penalty is calculated for every event and

added to each racer’s points to produce the racer’s
results for that event. The magnitude of the penalty
depends upon (1) the seed points of the best five
racers among the top ten finishers and (8) whether
the times of those five racers are clustered near the
winner’s or relatively widely dispersed (Crane,

1883).

This method of determining point levels allows all racers
in any event to be compared with the top seeded racers.

The tests used have been shown to be reliable in
previous studies. The hexagonal obstacle test was
investigated by McGinnis (1881). The jump-box test was
used in the studies of McBinnis and Brown et a1. (1883).
Good reliability was reported in both of these studies.
The 50~sec sit-up test was taken from the AAHPERD Health
Related Physiggl Fitn§§§ test manual. Reliability has

been determined, and norms have been established for

children between S and 18 years of age. The similarities
between the test requirements and the motor patterns
involved in skiing were taken as justification for use of
the three tests selected for inclusion in this study.
Assumgtions

The investigator assumed that the efforts of all
subjects were representative of their abilities. He also
assumed that the volunteer subjects were representative of
the population being studied.
W

Participation of the subjects was voluntary, thus
recruitment was difficult. The number of subjects could
not be controlled due to the voluntary participation of
the subjects. The sample size used was deemed to be
reasonably appropriate as this was a preliminary
investigation of the predictive nature of the three
independent variables. Uolunteers were obtained from the
participants of the Point Improvement Race of the Central
USSA held March 8, 1888 at Boyne Highlands Ski Resort in
Michigan. The results of this study must be interpreted
with caution because the sample size was limited.
Signifigangg

The information obtained from the study can be used
by coaches and other ski professionals in further

evaluation of the three selected test items.

Chapter 2

WM

Presently, research on ski racing in the United
States is limited. The available literature is either
descriptive or normative. There is a definite need for
further research, especially in the area of alpine skiing.
S ' ta t'n of A ine ski rs

In the past, skill test batteries for Alpine skiers
were developed to evaluate unskilled or inexperienced
skiers. Collins and Hodges (1878) have described two
skill test batteries designed for skiing. The Roger’s
skiing test, as reported by Collins and Hodges (1878),
objectively measures selected skills of beginning skiers.
These skills included climbing, turning, and stopping.
Scoring is based upon the overall time the subject takes
to complete the test. The Street skiing test, as reported
by Collins and Hodges (1878), measures the general ability
of downhill skiers, but it also incorporates a specific
component for more skilled skiers. The Street test is
composed of two sections. The first is used regardless of
skill and the second is used only for more skilled

subjects. Both the Street and Roger’s tests require the

10

 

 

11

subjects to move around a series of obstacles. Use of
these tests is limited to teaching skiing. They are not
appropriate for evaluating racers because of the lack of
difficulty involved.

At the present time, only one skiing specific skill
test battery has been developed for evaluating elite or
highly skilled racers. A battery of skill tests for the
evaluation and selection of United States Ski Team members
was developed by McGinnis (1881). This battery evaluates
neuromuscular determinants of alpine skiing. The subjects
performing the battery of tests ranged from 11 to 88 years
of age. The subjects’ skill levels varied from that of
recreational skiers to U.S. Ski team members. The testing
procedures contained nine test variables: three of jumping
dexterity, two of strength and local endurance of the leg
extensor muscles, one of jumping strength, and three of
flexibility. Included in the jumping dexterity tests are
the jump-box test and the hexagonal obstacle test. Both
items were found to be objective, reliable and valid
(P<0.001). Group comparisons were made on all of the test
variables, and the results showed that older, more
experienced racers scored higher on the tests than did
younger, less experienced racers. This can be attributed
to age, maturity, skiing ability or all three.

'v . . A 'n k"n
Descriptive studies characterizing ski racers are

more prevalent than are skill test batteries for racers.

 

 

fi_- .—.,- wvwminaa- V ~.--,.

 

18

Brown and wilkinson (1883) compared Canadian national,
divisional and club racers in tests of flexibility,
muscular strength, power, endurance, and aerobic and
anaerobic capacity. Club skiers were found to score
significantly lower in sit-ups, the vertical jump, the
jump-box test, and an anaerobic treadmill test then did
the other two groups of racers (P<0.01). The differences
in age and physical maturity level may have contributed to
this finding. The club skiers were the youngest of the
groups tested. No significant differences were found
between national and divisional team members. All of the
skiers, even though the club skiers scored lower, had high
levels of abdominal muscular endurance as measured by a
80-sec sit-up test. All racers had high levels of leg
muscular endurance and anaerobic capacity as measured by
the jump-box test. The authors did conclude that
non-physiological factors also may be involved in
determining elite skiing performance. This may account
for the lack of difference between the national and
divisional racers.

A study of physiological characteristics, using U.S.
Ski team members was conducted by Haymes and Dickinson
(1880). They examined aerobic capacities as well as
strength and power measures of highly trained ski racers
competing in Alpine, Cross-Country, and Nordic combined
events. The racers were tested for isometric and

isokinetic quadricep strength and leg muscular endurance.

13

Maximal power, agility, response time, and balance also
were tested. The study showed that male alpine racers
were the strongest but had only moderate maximal oxygen
uptakes. The female alpine racers were stronger than the
other female skiers and also scored higher in leg strength
than did the men in the cross-country and nordic combined
events. Significant correlations between International
Ski Federation (FIS) points and isokinetic strength were
found (males: r--0.80, females: r--0.78). Significant
correlations between FIS points and percentage fat, body
weight and lean body mass also were found.

Investigations of specific physiological parameters
also have been completed on Alpine ski racers. Eriksson,
Ekholm, Hulten, Karlsson and Karlsson (1878) studied
anthropometric, physiological, and histological factors
common to downhill skiers. Much of their work involved
observed changes in muscle usage during competition with
different angles of inclination of the ski boot.
Histological changes were noted with different boot
inclinations. Muscle activity was determined by use of
EMS. The vastus laterelis was found to be involved to a
large extent in competition.

EMS procedures were used by Karlsson (1877) to
investigate muscle activity during skiing. The data
showed that unskilled skiers utilize a static position

more than skilled skiers. The static contractions of

1%

unskilled skiers results in an inefficient use of the
musculature during activity.

Karlsson also compared muscle activities during
on-snow slalom skiing and off-snow slalom running. The
results showed very different EMS patterns. It can be
concluded that the use of slalom running is of little
neuromuscular value as a training device for alpine skiers
because of its lack of skiing specificity.

n r t A in k’in

Energy sources of Alpine skiers need to be determined
if appropriate training methods are to be developed. That
is, training procedures must be specific to the metabolic
requirements of the task if the ski racer is going to be
competitive.

Studies investigating the energy cost of skiing
generally have been done with Cross-Country skiers. These
endurance athletes clearly are not similar to alpine
skiers because of the different time involved in the two
sports. The Alpine racer competes in races ranging from
30-sec to approximately two minutes, whereas the
Cross-Country skier engages in events which may last for
hours.

The aerobic and anaerobic metabolism of ranked
Italian national slalom and giant slalom racers was
investigated by Ueicstinas, Ferretti, Margonato, Rosa, and
Tagliabue (188%). A field test was performed using a

backpack with a meteorological balloon attached. This

.15

procedure allowed measurement of the expired air of the
skier under actual race conditions. Because of the
complexity of the sport and the unique types of movements
involved, the investigators concluded that field tests
provide the most appropriate methods of evaluating alpine
ski racers. By using the backpack with the Douglas bag
system, the skiers can be evaluated on the hill making the
evaluation skiing-specific.

Evaluation of muscle glycogen depletion and blood
lactate concentration during alpine skiing was
investigated by Tesch et al. (1878). The study provided
depletion patterns for the indirect assessment of muscle
fiber recruitment. Also, anaerobic metabolism was
investigated in terms of lactate accumulation in skilled
and unskilled skiers during competitive and recreational
skiing. Swedish national ski team members and Swedish
physical education students were compared. The results
showed that there was a more pronounced glycogen depletion
in the fast-twitch fibers of the unskilled than of the
skilled skiers. The skilled skiers had a greater tendency
to use slow-twitch as well as fast-twitch fibers. This
suggests that skilled skiers recruit different muscle
fibers than do unskilled skiers. Lactate accumulation was
shown to be related to each subject’s overall fiber type
and not necessarily to skill level. The subjects with the
greatest proportions of fast-twitch fibers accumulated the

most lactic acid.

18

Yguth skiing researgh

Uery little research has been done in the area of
youth racing. Performance and body physique of
competitive alpine skiers was compared by Ross and Day
(1878). The study used skiers, ages 1% years and under,
who were assigned to teams based on previous racing
performance. Somatotype was determined by the
Heath-Carter method. Performance was defined as the
points earned per race entered by the subjects.
Zero-order and first-order partial coefficients, with age
held constant, did not reveal significant relationships

between body physique measures and performance.

Chapter 3

Wu

The selected tests were chosen because of their
movement similarities with alpine skiing. The hexagonal
obstacle test is similar with regards to the extension and
flexion of the knee and hip joints during skiing. Because
skiing is primarily anaerobic, the short duration of the
hexagonal obstacle test also was an important similarity.

The jump-box test and the hexagonal obstacle test
include jumping and landing phases. The landing phase can
be compared to the control phase of skiing. The control
phase occurs when the skier maintains the arc or present
direction of a turn. An eccentric contraction is needed
to effectively control centrifugal force. The jumping
phase of the tests can be compared to the extension phase
of the legs during a turn. A concentric contraction is
needed to initiate the direction change. If this
extension did not occur the skier would be unable to
change direction and would fall or come to a stop. Both
tests include lateral movement of the legs as the body’s
center of gravity tends to remain over the center of the

test device.

17

18

Abdominal strength is important as a stabilizing
force in the preparatory phase of a turn. A BO-sec sit-up
test was selected to test abdominal strength.

The selected tests were used in previous studies to
characterize alpine ski racers (McGinnis, 1880; Brown and
wilkinson, 1883; Haymes and Dickinson, 1880). The
determination of a predictive relationship between these
independent variables and skiing performance was needed to
further evaluate them.

Subjects

Male and female ski racers, between 13 and 18 years
of age, who attended the United States Ski
Association-CD-Region III (CUSSA) Point Improvement Races
at Boyne Highlands Resort in Michigan, on March 8, 1886
were asked to volunteer for the proposed study. Nineteen
subject volunteered for the study, eight males and 11
females. An informed consent form signed by a parent or a
legal guardian was required for participation.
flatbed;

Three tests, the hexagonal obstacle test, the
jump-box test and the 80-sec sit-up test were used in the
study. These independent variables were selected because
of similarities between their mechanics and those of
alpine ski racing (Abraham, 1883).

Hexagonal Dbstacle Test A hexagon (McEinnis, 1881)

consisting of polyvinylcholride (PUC) plastic pipe of

18

different heights was used to investigate the leg power
and agility of the subjects.

The obstacle’s construction consisted of six PUC pipe
barriers loosely mounted by plastic pins on three-quarter
inch plywood. In the event of a mistrial the barrier fell
over upon contact reducing the risk of tripping or
falling. The device was held together by one-eighth inch
spring steel slats to keep the obstacle rigid while in
use.

Each subject was asked to stand in the center of the
obstacle facing the front barrier. 0n the command of ”80”
the subject, while facing the front barrier throughout the
entire trial, jumped using both feet, back and forth as
well as laterally and diagonally, over each of the six
barriers in a circular pattern for three complete
revolutions. The time required to complete the three
revolutions was recorded using a stop watch. In the event
that a subject knocked over a barrier, the trial was
stopped and one additional trial was given after a S-min
rest period.

Jymg-Box Last A 30~cm high by BO-cm long by Sl-cm
wide box (McGinnis, 1881) constructed of three-quarter
inch plywood with two-inch by four-inch boards used
internally for support was used to evaluate leg power and
muscular endurance. \The subject stood on the box. At the
command ”80” the subject proceeded to jump laterally off

the box with both feet to one side then back onto the top

80

and off the other side. The number of times the subject
returned to the starting position in 80-sec was recorded
as the score. Dne trial was performed.

§i§;yg_1§§t. A standardized BO-sec sit-up test was
used to determine each subject’s abdominal and hip flexor
endurance and power. The subjects performed as many
bent-knee sit-ups in SO-sec as possible. The subjects
’were instructed to keep their arms crossed and knees bent.
Dne test administrator counted the number of sit-ups and
secured the subject’s feet, while another timed the trial.

Each of the three stations had two test
administrators who were familiar with the procedures of
timing and recording. Timing was accomplished by
stopwatches at each station. The scores of each of the
tests were recorded by a test administrator on the
subject’s score card. Each subject received a copy of his
or her score card. Each subject had an opportunity to
become familiar with the test procedures prior to starting
the test session.

The administrators either timed or recorded at each
of the three stations. Dne administrator timed the three
revolutions of the hexagonal obstacle test. A stopwatch
that counted down from 80-sec was used, as the
administrator counted the times the subject returned to
the top of the jump-box. During the sit-up test an
administrator counted the number sit-ups while holding the

subject’s feet and another administrator timed the test

81

for 80-sac. The order of testing was the hexagonal
obstacle test, the 60-sec sit-up test, followed by the
80-sec jump-box test. Because of the anaerobic nature of
the tests, a 10-min rest period was allotted between them.

Because the testing was administered during a racing
event, the racers completed the test sequence after their
racing for the day. Each athlete tested was given at
least a 30-min rest period following their racing prior to
starting the test procedures.

Wei:

Measures of central tendency and variability were
determined. Multiple regression procedures were used to
determine if significant predictive relationships existed
between the independent variables and the dependent or
criterion variable of USSA point level. USSA point levels
was used as the criterion because of its assumed ability
to differentiate performance levels. The giant slalom
race points were used as it was the only race run that

day.

Chapter 8
Regylts and Disgyssign

The results of this investigation are presented in
two sections: male responses and female responses. A
discussion will follow the results.

Male responses

Eight males volunteered for the study. Each subject
was tested on the hexagonal obstacle test, the SO-sec
sit-up test, and finally the jump-box test. Summary
statistics and multiple regression significance levels are
presented in Appendix A.

No predictive relationships were found between the
three independent variables and ski racing performance as
measured by USSA point levels. Sit-ups accounted for the
greatest amount of variance in USSA points (P-0.108),
followed by the jump-box test (P-0.115), and the hexagonal
obstacle test (P-0.E%8). The overall corrected multiple
correlation coefficient was R-0.808. The regression
equation used is as follows:

9-(3.87)xf(8.71)x;(-.68)x;(-188.EE).

22

EB

F ma r onses

Eleven female subjects originally were tested, but
three were dropped because of missing values. The results
are given in Appendix A.

No predictive relationships were found. Sit-ups
accounted for the greatest amount of variance in USSA
points (P-0.380), followed by the jump-box test (P-0.515)
and the hexagonal obstacle test (P-0.887). The overall
corrected multiple correlation coefficient was R-0.E76.
The regression equation used was as follows:
9=c~ee.ssnxyc115.80)x;cs.&e)x;(-1oss.esa.

D. .

Several possible reasons can be cited for the
apparent lack of ability to predict the subjects’ point
levels. Because the subjects were 13 to 18 years of age,
their levels of physical maturity may have been an
uncontrolled factor. At this age the development of
strength and power probably lag behind the development of
skiing technique, and some of the subjects may have been
relatively underdeveloped in muscular strength and power
in comparison to older racers.

Comparisons with other studies are difficult. In the
study by McGinnis (1881) no data were presented for racers
under the age of 18. This makes comparisons non-specific
to the population of the present study. The same
observation is applicable to the study of Brown and

wilkinson (1883).

8%

Another factor may have been the duration of the
selected tests. Michigan races are approximately 30-sec
in duration. Therefore, the selected tests may not be
specific to actual racing conditions for this population.

The limited sample size may also have been a factor.
The study by McGinnis (1881) used a much larger sample and
more independent variables. It is not known, however, if
a larger sample size would yield different results.

Because of the absence of a ski boot while completing
the hexagonal obstacle test and the jump-box test it is
not known if the two tests are skiing specific. Inversion
of the ankles was observed as the subjects landed. This
inversion does not occur in actual skiing. It is not
known if the muscle recruitment is comparable between the
test and actual skiing. Furthermore, it is not known if
modifications of the tests, making them more skiing
specific, would change the results.

Although all relationships were non-significant, it
is clear that the independent variables selected were much
more highly related to racing performance in the males
than the females. Tests of the male subjects accounted
for approximately 60 percent of the variance while the
female subjects only accounted for approximately 87
percent of the variance. The female subjects point
standard deviation was 880.5 with an extreme outlying
value of 880 points. The male subjects standard deviation

was only 37.%. Such a large difference in the point range

85

may account for the difference in the correlation
coefficients. However, it is not known if a different
range of points or a larger sample would change the
results.

The known differences in male and female
physiological variables of muscular strength and power
could have been a reason for the differences. However, at
this time it is not known if this is the case.
Furthermore, it is not known if adjusting for these

physiological variables would change the results.

Chapter 5

Eight male and eight female members of the Central
division of the United States Ski Association, 13 to 18
years of age were subjects in this study. Participation

was voluntary. Data were obtained from the hexagonal

obstacle test, the jump-box test and a 80-sec sit-up test.

Multiple regression procedures were used to determine if
significant predictive relationships exist between the
selected variables and skiing performance. No such
relationships were found.
We

within the limitations of this investigation, the
following conclusions are warranted:

1) The selected tests are not predictive of skiing
performance for males or females age 13 to 18 years.

8) The skiing specificity of each of the selected
tests is not known.
W

In light of the questions posed by this
investigation, the following are recommendations for

further research.

26

~—

E7

1) A larger sample should be utilized in any further
investigation.

8) Different combinations of presumably skiing
specific devices should be investigated.

3) A stable criterion should be used. For example,
times of a particular race could be used.

H) Pooling the subjects by the number of races
completed to ensure experience of the racers does not
influence the results.

5) Differences of slalom, giant slalom, and downhill
racers should be completed, because of the differences
involved in each of the events.

8) Use of different sampling techniques should be
used. For example, using a stratified random sample could
be used.

7) Electromyographic (EMS) analysis should be
completed during the hexagonal obstacle test and the
jump-box test to determine the muscles used.

8) A comparison from EMS analysis of actual ski
racing and the two jump-training devices should be
completed.

8) The duration of the tests should be adjusted to be
more specific to the geographic location which influences
the length of the race courses.

10) A interdisciplinary study of ski racers should be
completed. Many factors in addition to physiological

variables probably contribute to skiing performance.

APPENDIX A

Tables

 

M is re

Sit-ups

Jump-box

Hexagonal
obstacle

USSA Pts.

n to

18.3

157.85

 

88

ct est v ‘ab e
1512-. E

5.8 P=0.108

7.8 P-0.115

1.8 P=0.8&8
37.38

 

:-

88

Female resggnses to selected test variables

[can §-_D_-- E
Sit-ups 50.5 7.0 P-0.380
Jump-box 58.5 18.7 P-0.515
Hexagonal 18.7 1.8 P-0.887

obstacle

USSA Pts. 311.58 880.80

REFERENCES

 

 

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