HON OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES rm LIBRARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT THE PERCEPTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES BY MEMBERS OF AN ORGANIZATION By Lawrence Joseph Rhoades The problem under investigation in this study was the perception of external influence by members of a social system. The specific goals of the investigation were (1) to determine the amount of influence two external sources were perceived to exert on the organization and (2) to isolate some variables which were related to the perception of that influence. The actual and ideal influence of customers and local union officials were measured. .Actual influence is the amount of influence the source does exert. Ideal influence is the amount of influence the source should exert. .Actual influence was measured on the departmental and work group levels. Ideal influence was measured only on the depart- mental level. The data for this secondary analysis were collected through self-administered questionnaires from workers in a district plant department of a telephone company. The 180 workers in the department were organized into 21 work groups. The group mean was used to compute mean rankings to determine the amount of influence exerted by the sources, and Kendall rank correlations were used to deter- mine the degree of association between the variables. Lawrence Joseph Rhoades Customers were perceived to exert more influence on the departmental and work group levels than local union officials. In addition, workers wanted customers to exert more influence on the departmental level than local union officials although the workers did reduce the gap between them. .Although customer and local union official influence are related to the same groups of variables the degree of relationship differs. Customer influence appears more highly related to the formal structure of the organization while local union official influence appears more highly related to the informal structure of the organization. The number and strength of the correlations relate customer influence more strongly to downward influence, upward influence, and external influence while local union offi- cial influence relates more strongly to external influence, intra-individual phenomena, work group characteristics and superior-subordinate relationships. The influence of customers and local union officials negatively correlate with variables which appear to measure a bid for functional autonomy by the front-line of the organization and positively correlate with variables which reduce the functional autonomy of the front-line of the organization. General statements are offered in regards to external sources of influence which call attention to the functional autonomy of the organization and its subparts, the dominance Lawrence Joseph Rhoades of internal sources of control, the base of support the external source has in the organization, the point of entry into the organization, and the interdependence of external sources. Some suggestions are made for future research. THE PERCEPTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES . BY MEMBERS OF AN ORGANIZATION By Lawrence Joseph Rhoades .A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1973 ""3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis could not have been completed without the guidance and assistance of several individuals and organi- zations. .Appreciation is particularly expressed to my major professor, Philip M. Marcus, and other members of my committee, Frederick B. waisanen, Harry Perlstadt, and Vincent J. Salvo. In addition, appreciation is expressed to the research team which originally collected the data analyzed in this study, to the researchers whose works are cited in this thesis and to Selz Mayo who provided a job atmosphere which enabled this thesis to be completed. Finally, the assistance rendered by the following organiza- tions was extremely helpful in this endeavor: National Science Foundation, North Carolina State University Compu- ter Center, Michigan State University Computer Center and the Survey Research Center, University of Michigan. ii 93.21933; II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . The Problem . . . . Review of Literature . Phenomenological Position . . Internal-external Dichotomy . . External System of Organization . Type of Organization Influence of Customers and Union Officials: Influence of Customers . . . Influence of Union Officials . External System of Individual . Outline of Study . ' DATA AND METHOD Introduction . . . Collection of Data . . . Description of POpulation . . . Operationalization of Variables Dependent Variables . . Independent Variables . Influence Structure . Intra-individual Phenomena . work Group Characteristics . . . Superior- -subordinate Relationships . Other Analysis of Data . CUSTOMER INFLUENCE . Introduction . Customer Influence on Department : Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Customer Influence on work Group . Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS, continued @flkr IV. Ideal Influence on Department Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Summary LOCAL UNION OFFICIAL INFLUENCE . Introduction . Local Union Influence on Department- .Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Local Union Influence on work Group .Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Ideal Influence on Department Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Summary CONCLUSIONS Introduction . Customer Influence : .Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Local Union Official Influence . Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . Customers vs Local Union Officials . .Amount of Influence . . Correlates of Influence . External Sources cf Influence Future Research BIBLIOGRAPHY . Mmmmn. iv 101 104 104 104 104 106 115 115 118 128 128 131 139 142 142 144 144 148 155 155 157 166 166 167 169 172 180 184 N 10. ll. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Demographic description of work p0pulation 'Workers' time in system and sub-systems . 'Wbrker p0pu1ation by sex, job title and skill level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘WOrk groups by size, occupational and sexual composition . . . . Mean rankings of sources of influence on departmental level Mean differences between customers and other sources of influence on the departmental level . Indexes and variables which correlate with customer influence on the departmental level Intercorrelational matrix of variables which positively correlate with customer influence on the departmental level . Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with customer influence on the departmental level . Intercorrelations between variables which positively correlate and variables which negatively correlate with customer influence on departmental level . Mean rankings of various sources of influence on work group level . Mean differences between customers and other sources of influence on work group level Indexes and variables which correlate with cus- tomer influence on the work group level . V 53 55 68 69 71 73 77 79 80 81 84 LIST OF TABLES, continued Table 14. 15. 16. l7. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Correlational matrix of variables which posi- tively correlate with customer influence on the work group level Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with customer influence on the work group level . Intercorrelations between variables which positively correlate and variables which nega- tively correlate with customer influence on the work group level Mean ranking of influence sources should ideally exert on the departmental level . Mean differences between customers and other sources of influence in the ideal influence structure of the department . Mean differences between the actual and ideal influence structures on the departmental level . . . . . . . Changes in the mean differences between cus- tomers and other sources of influence in the actual and ideal influence structures on the departmental level Indexes and variables which correlate with ideal influence of customers on the depart- mental level Intercorrelational matrix of variables which positively correlate with the ideal influence of customers on the departmental level Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with the ideal influence of customers on the departmental level Intercorrelations between variables which positively correlate and variables which negatively correlate with ideal influence of customers on the departmental level . Mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence on the depart- mental level vi 85 88 91 92 92 94 94 96 97 100 102 106 LIST OF TABLES, continued Table 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Indexes and variables which correlate with local union official influence on the depart- mental level Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with local union official influence on the departmental level . Intercorrelational matrix of variables which positively correlate with local union official influence on the departmental level . Intercorrelations between variables which nega- tively correlate and variables which positively correlate with local union official influence on the departmental level . Mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence on the work group level . Indexes and variables which correlate with local union official influence on work group level . . . . . . Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with local union official influence on the work group level . Intercorrelational matrix of variables which positively correlate with local union official influence on the work group level . Intercorrelations between variables which nega- tively correlate and variables which positively correlate with local union official influence on the work group level . Mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence in the ideal influence structure of the department . Changes in the mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence in the actual and ideal influence structures in the department . vii 108 110 114 116 117 119 121 124 127 129 130 LIST OF TABLES, continued Table 37. 38. 39. 40. Indexes and variables which correlate with the ideal influence of local union officials on the departmental level Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with ideal influence of local union officials on the departmental level . . . Intercorrelational matrix of variables which positively correlate with ideal influence of local union officials on the departmental level . Intercorrelations between variables which nega- tively correlate and variables which positively correlate with the ideal influence of local union officials on the departmental level . viii 132 134 138 140 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Problem External control of organizations is a highly salient issue in American society today. .Adyocates of several mass movements--consumer, environment, anti-war, women's liberation, civil rights--are attempting to exert influence on those organizations which are central to their concerns. Their attempts at exerting influence have met with a limited amount of success, leading many of the advocates to conclude that organizations cannot be influenced through legitimate means. The inability to influence organizations effectively further lends credence to what McKee calls the "mystique of bureaucracy"; the belief that the vast and complex social machinery of modern life has gone beyond humanly controllable dimensions.l weber, however, has stated that the role played by organizations is dependent on the external forces Operating upon it within a specific social structure.2 And, as he put it ". . . the (bureaucratic mechanism)--in contrast to feudal orders based on personal piety--is easily made to function for anybody who knows how to gain control of it."3 The 2 problem, then, appears to be not whether organizations can or cannot be controlled by external forces, but why are some external forces more able to control them than others. Many external forces which exert influence on organi- zations represent what Blau and Scott have called "publics."4 Organizations are in contact with many publics, including customers, unions, a multitude of suppliers, and government agencies. These publics repre- sent what has been called "constraints" and "contingencies" for organizations.5 Constraints are unvarying conditions to which an organization must adapt for some meaningful period of time. Contingencies, on the other hand, may or may not vary, but they are not subject to arbitrary control by the organization. Nevertheless, organizational researchers have largely failed to include publics in their studies. Blau and Scott have labelled this failure a "serious shortcoming of most organizational research."6 One of the major reasons for the lack of interest in the relationship that exists between organizations and their publics has been the adOption by organizational researchers of the closed-system approach to the study of organizations.7 This approach requires a severe limita- tion on the number of variables considered in an investi- gation, in order that, a determinant system be established which allows control over and reliable prediction of all the variables in the system and the relationships existing 3 among them. Consequently, researchers employing the closed- system approach have focused their attention on the struc- ture of the internal system of the organization while largely taking the structure of the external system of the organization as a given. The closed-system strategy per- meates three major schools of thought on organizations: scientific management, administrative management and bureaucracy. In more recent times, organization researchers have indicated a greater interest in external influences on organizations through such concepts as organizations set 9 and task environment;10 or web of organizations,8 domain, through the use of an open-system approach which allows more variables to be included in the analysis;11 and through 12 This a greater interest in inter-organizational studies. investigation is a further manifestation of that trend. The problem, then, is the relationships which exist between organizations and their publics. .As the preceding paragraphs amply demonstrate, the problem has practical and theoretical importance. However, the problem, as stated, is enormous and it may be attacked from numerous directions. Because of the limitations on this researcher's current resources--time, money, talent--this study is restricted to a small aspect of the problem which offers some h0pe of making a modest contribution to the existing knowledge in the area. Therefore, this study is limited to the following general theoretical problem: the perception of external 4 influence by members of a social system. The study deals with the perception of influence for two reasons: (1) Advo- cates of the phenomenological approach to the study of social reality have advanced a persuasive argument which asserts that human behavior is influenced as much or more by perceived or experienced reality as it is by objective reality. (2) The original study which furnished the data for this analysis does not contain objective measures of influence. In addition, two types of influence--actual and idea1--are analyzed. .Actual influence is the amount of influence the source is perceived to exert. Ideal influ- ence is the amount of influence the source should exert. .Actual influence is measured on two organizational levels: 'WOIk group and department. Ideal influence is measured only on the departmental level. Finally, the study is limited to a single department in a single organization and to two publics--customers and local union officials. More concretely, the study is concerned with the amount of actual and ideal influence customers and local union officials are perceived to exert on the Operations of a plant department of a telephone company located in a suburb of a metr0politan center by members of the plant department. The study attempts to answer the following questions: How much influence do customers exert on the department or work group? How much influence do local union officials exert on the department or work group? 5 Who has more influence--customers or local union officials-- on what organizational levels--department or work group? What are the factors which affect the perception of influ- ence exerted by customers and/or local union officials on the departmental and/or work group levels? .Are all factors pertinent to all sources of influence or are some factors pertinent only to some sources of influence? .Are the factors which affect the perception of influence the same on all organizational levels? The major undertakings of the study, then, are the determination of the amount of influence customers and local union officials are perceived to exert on the department and work groups and the produc- tion of an inventory of independent variables which affect the perception of that influence. Review of Literature Two general orientations guide this review of litera- ture: the structuralist approach to the study of organi- zations and the field-theoretical approach to the study of human behavior. Consequently, this review of literature reflects the interdisciplinary nature of organizational research; for it cuts across the disciplines of sociology, social psychology and psychology. The structuralist approach to the study of organiza- tions is an attempt at synthesizing and expanding the two predominant approaches in the field: scientific management and human relations.13 Scientific management views 6 organizations as planned structures striving for efficiency through rationality. It places its emphasis on economic rewards as a motivating force and the formal structure of the organization as its most important aspect. The formal structure of an organization is composed of those parts of the organization which have been consciously planned and constructed to produce desired results. Scientific manage- ment pays particular attention to the division of labor and the hierarchy of authority. Human relations, on the other hand, views organizations as emotional-laden, spontaneously created structures striving for efficiency through the creation of happy members. It places emphasis on social rewards as a motivating force and the informal structure of the organization as its most important aspect. The informal structure is not consciously planned, but naturally evolves from the interaction of the members. Human rela- tions pays particular attention to friendship and social groupings among workers, informal leadership, communication between ranks, participation in decision-making, and demo- cratic leadership. Both approaches have three shortcomings: (1) their studies are limited to the lower ranks of organi- zations; (2) their studies do not consider environmental influences; and (3) their studies are limited to work organizations. The structuralist approach has synthesized and expanded organizational analysis to include: (1) the formal and the informal aspects of an organization and 7 their articulation; (2) the sc0pe of informal groups and the relations between such groups inside and outside the organization; (3) the lower and the higher ranks in the organization; (4) the social and the material rewards available to organizations and their effects on each other; (5) the interaction between the organization and its environment; and (6) non-work as well as work organizations. Field theory is the most general theoretical orienta- tion employed to analyze human behavior in this study. According to Lewin the basic statements of field theory are that (a) behavior must be derived from a totality of coexisting facts, and (b) these coexisting facts have the character of a "dynamic field" in that the state of any part of the field depends on every other part of the field.14 In short, the explanation of human behavior requires the investigator to consider the total situation composed of interdependent parts. Shepherd has cited five basic assump- tions underlying the theory: (1) the phenomena to be studied are what the individual perceives in his environ- ment; this assumption leads to the concept of the psycho- logical field or life space of the individual; (2) that a person occupies a position in this life space which is related (near or far) to the objects of which it is com- posed; (3) that a person is oriented toward goals, which ordinarily involve a change in the relative positions of the individual and the objects in the life space; (4) that 8 the individual behaves in certain ways to achieve these goals, or locomotes; and (5) that in the process of loco- motion toward goals the individual may encounter barriers which have to be surmounted or circumvented, or which result in a change in goals or in life space or both.15 One of the major problems facing this review of literature is the specification of the concept of life space. To some extent this problem has been solved through the use of the field theory approach on the group level of analysis. This application of field theory on the group level has come to be known as "group dynamics." The extension to the group level, however, has required the addition of several concepts to the field theory frame- work: norms, referring to the rules governing the behavior of group members; roles, especially leadership, referring to the relative status and prestige of members and to their rights and obligations as group members; power and influ- ence, referring to the kind and amount of control members have over each other; cohesion, referring to the degree of attachment members have for the group; valence, indicating the potency of goals or of objects in the life space; interaction, referring to the type and degree of communi- cation between members; and consensus, indicating the degree of agreement regarding goals, norms, roles, and other aspects of the group.16 Phenomenological Position The use of perceptual data is justified by the phenomenological position taken in the field theory approach and in the empirical data gathered by organiza— tional researchers. The phenomenological position asserts that the phenomena to which the investigator should direct his attention are what the individual subjectively per- ceives, not what the observer perceives as the objective 17 The phenomenological approach underlies the reality. cognitive theories in social psychology, and these theories have their intellectual roots in Gestalt psychology which places heavy emphasis on processes of perception and perceptual organization. As their name indicates COgnitive theories emphasize the process of cognition: the gaining of information and understanding of the world. Consequently, these theories argue that the analysis of human behavior requires an explanation of the manner in which individuals organize their experiences of their worlds into coherent interpre- tations; for they assume the individual seeks "to order his experience, to have it make sense, and to experience the world as balanced, symmetrical, structured, and organized."18 Conscious experience, then, is of paramount importance to COgnitive theories. External stimulus conditions are regarded as impor- tant only as they are represented in experience or, stated 10 differently, as they are perceived by the individual. This claim runs counter to the belief of many social scientists that stimuli situations have objective existence and the implicit assumption that a given stimulus is interpreted or perceived in the same way by different individuals, although they may respond differently to it. Lewin and other cognitive theorists criticize this assumption vigorously.lg They claim objective stimuli are always per- ceived in a context of personal experiences and tendencies, past and.present. This does not mean that objective prOp- erties of stimuli situations are unimportant. What it does mean is that objective prOperties never determine com- pletely the observer's interpretation. As Lewin puts it, the objective or physical environment, interpreted by the individual makes up his "behavioral" or "psychological" environment. .And it is this psycholOgical environment with which investigators must deal to understand learning or any other form of social behavior. Among the most important elements in the phenomenal life space of an individual are experience representations of other peOple, and social and cultural institutions.20 Other social scientists, besides Lewin, who have offered support for the phenomenological approach include W; I. Thomas, Herbert Blumer, E. Wight Bakke, Joseph A. Litterer, F. J. Roethlisberger and‘W. J. DicksOn, and Paul R. Lawrence and.Jay W2 Lorsch. Thomas stated that "in 11 human behavior it is not the objective situation that leads to social action but the individual's perception and defi- 21 nition of the situation." Blumer made essentially the same argument when he cited the need for including an "interpretative process" between the stimulus condition 22 and the behavioral respOnse. Bakke suggests that some of the most difficult problems in organizations stem "from a lack of consistency in the experienced content for dif- ferent groups of bonds assumed to be 'the same for every 23 one." He elaborated his position in the following manner: 24 Not only is it clear from our observations that the social system or bonds supposedly the same for all participants is given varying content by experi- ence, and that the system experienced by individuals is the real and actual one affecting their behavior, but that the system contains elements for some which others have no Opportunity to experience at all. Litterer has stated that "perceptions are of extreme importance to understanding organizational behavior, for peOple act on the basis of what they think they see or "25 Roethlisberger and Dickson, in the classic understand. Hawthorne studies, found that although the workers' beliefs had little objective basis, they influenced, if not deter- mined, the level of production in the factory.26 Finally, Lawrence and.Lorsch, in a study of environmental influences on organizations, stated that "influence is essentially a matter of perceptions that arise from transactions among peOple. If these transactions are heavily constricted and 12 limited, the peOple in toto will see themselves as having very little influence on decisions, and we can accurately say that the system has a comparatively limited total 27 In addition, all organizational amount of influence." studies employing research techniques requiring self-reports end up using perceptual data. Two prominent techniques employing self-reports are survey and interviews. Internal-external Dichotomy The structuralist approach to the study of organiza- tions and the field-theoretical approach to the study of human behavior exhibit the internal-external dichotomy which appears in the works of several social scientists, including Homans, Loomis and Parsons. .According to Homans, a total social system is composed 28 of an external and an internal system. The two sub- systems are distinguished from each other in the following manner: we shall not go far wrong if, for the moment, we think of the external system as group behavior that enables the group to survive in its environment and think of the internal system as group behavior that is an expression of the sentiments towards one another developed by members of the group in the course of their life together.2 In addition, the internal and external systems are partially interdependent and partially independent: Thus the external system first gives us a set of initial conditions from which our exposition can take its departure and then takes account of the fact that the adaptation of the group to its 13 environment, while leaving us free later to show how this adaptation is also in part determined by the internal develOpment of the group.3 Loomis recognizes the internal-external dichotomy in two of the master processes outlined in his PAS Model: boundary maintenance and systemic linkage. Boundary main- tenance corresponds to the internal system for it "pre- serves the solidarity, identity and interaction patterns 31 within the system." Systemic linkage contains the same notion as the external system; for it is concerned with the relations between "members of at least two systems."32 Finally, Parsons believes that the action generated within any social system is in part directed toward its external situation and in part toward its internal situation.33 He employs the internal-external dichotomy in discussing the functional prerequisites for a social system: the adaptive and goal attainment functions are primarily concerned with the external system while the pattern maintenance-tension management function as well as the integrative function are primarily concerned with the internal system. This internal-external dichotomy is a useful framework for attacking the problem under investigation; for customers and local union officials are parts of the external system of the organization while the internal system of the organi- zation represents the most relevant external system for the individual. Our data do not allow us to consider the internal system of the individual in any detail. 14 External System 9: Organization Several organizational theorists have called attention to the influence of the external system on organizations. Blau and Scott used the concept of organizational sets or web of organizations to call attention to "the various other organizations to which any one organization is related."34 Dill used the concept of task environment to explicitly name some of the elements of the environment which have a bearing on goal setting and goal attainment.35 Among the elements are (1) customers (both distributors and users); (2) suppliers of materials, labor, capital, equip- ment, and work space; (3) competitors for both markets and resources; and (4) regulatory groups, including governmental agencies, unions and interfirm associations. Levine and White used the concept of domain to indicate the "claims which an organization stakes out for itself in terms of (l) diseases (products) covered, (2) pOpulations served, d."36 and (3) services rendere Finally, Thompson rec0gnized the importance of the external system when he called atten- tion to boundary-spanning units:37 Because organizations are always embedded in larger systems of action, some parts of the organi- zation must be interdependent with organizations not subordinated to the organization, hence not subject to authoritative specification or permis- sible action. The crucial problem for boundary- spanning units of an organization, therefore is not coordination (of variables under control) but adjustment to constraints and contingencies not controlled by the organization--to what the econo- mist calls exogenous variables. 15 Type 9: Organization Up to this point the discussion has been about organi- zations in general. Now, it is necessary to discuss the particular type of organization under investigation because its unique characteristics have a definite bearing on the organization's relationship with its external system. The data on which this study is based were gathered in the plant department of a local branch of the Michigan Bell Telephone Company. This fact is important for two reasons: First, as a regional corporate unit in one of the nation's largest vertical and horizontal combinations of companies, Michigan Bell certainly represents the type of organization to which the "mystique of bureaucracy" refers. In addition, the organization of the company faithfully follows the criteria laid down by Wéber in his model of bureaucracy.38 Second, as a public utility Michigan Bell is a government franchised monOpoly that has explicit legal responsibilities for providing service to the public. However, its monOpoly position in the area of instantaneous voice communication somewhat removes it from the market economy, and consequently, from control through consumption by customers. Since both of these character- istics have an important bearing on the organization's susceptibility to environmental influences, a brief descrip- tion of the Bell System and the characteristics of a public utility will be presented in this section. 16 The Bell System is composed of American Telephone & Telegraph Company, a holding-Operating company; 23 sub- sidiary or affiliated Operating companies providing tele- phone service to the public; the Bell Telephone Labora- tories, Inc., a research and develOpment subsidiary; western Electric Company, Inc., a manufacturing and pur- chasing subsidiary; and several miscellaneous subsidiaries holding real estate.39 Michigan Bell is one of the 23 associated companies and a wholly-owned subsidiary of American Telephone & Telegraph. Troxel outlines the connection between subsidiary companies and.AT&T in the following manner: "In addition to providing long-distance connections, AT&T agrees to provide the following services to its associated companies: (1) advice and assistance in general engineering, plant, traffic, Operating, commercial, accounting, patent, legal, administrative, and other matters; (2) advice and assist- ance in any required financing; (3) c00peration in employee relations; and (4) maintenance of needed technical specialists and information to assure the smooth running of the business."40 Michigan Bell is the dominant telephone firm in Michigan. The other major company in the state is the General Telephone Company. Michigan Bell Operates primarily in urban areas; General Telephone is primarily in rural or small town areas. The companies are not in direct competi- tive relations: 17 Thus, each of these two firms represents the classic public utility case of a single-firm monOpoly, and apparently has no plans to be any- thing else. Each of them is an enfranchised monOpolist, unchallenged by other firms in its established markets. Each is free to grow, innovate and request higher prices and.more revenue from the Michigan (Public Service) Commission, unfearful of territorial invasions by the other one. Each local branch of Michigan Bell is divided into four departments: (1) traffic, which completes telephone calls; (2) commercial, which arranges for service to sub- scribers; (3) accounting, which keeps the books and records; and (4) plant, which is reSponsible for the engineering and construction of the outside plant, the installation and connection of telephones, and maintenance of the entire plant including motor vehicles, tools and special equip- ment.42 .As a public utility Michigan Bell is part of a general class of businesses which are designated.by our laws and courts as "business affected with a public interest."43 The most common public utilities are electricity, natural and manufactured gas, water, telephone and telegraph com- munication, and urban mass transportation. The public utility industry was second only to manufacturing in size in the.American economy in 1960 as it had total assets of $89.9 billion. Public utilities are distinguished from stock companies by the following characteristics: They Operate under government franchise which provides them with an exclusive 18 right to serve a specific service area free of competition from another seller of the same service. They provide a service which is indispensable to modern living. Their prices and profits are regulated by public commissions on the state and federal levels in an attempt to achieve the results of competition in the form of reasonable rates, reasonable profits and adequate service to customers. Public utilities are legally required to serve every finan- cially responsible customer in their service areas at reasonable rates and without unjust discrimination. They must not enter a new market, supply a new service, or abandon an existing market without the consent of public authority. They must exercise care to protect the safety of the public. Finally, they are granted the power of eminent domain by law.44 Influence 2; Customers and Union Officials This review of literature may be viewed as an attempt to establish objective reality in terms of the amount of influence customers and union officials exert upon organi- zations. Before proceeding with that task, however, it appears necessary, at least, to indicate what is meant by the term "influence." The concept of influence, as used in this study, has a very broad meaning. It is defined as "any process in which a person or group of persons or organization of persons determines, that is, intentionally affects, the 19 45 This behavior of another person, group or organization." definition largely ignores the terminological disputes in the literature which attempt to distinguish influence from such concepts as power, coercion, persuasion, control and 46 In effect, the use of influence in this study authority. allows any and all of these concepts to be included under its global nature. The major justification for this defini- tion is the assumption that the subjects of the study most likely do not make the fine distinctions that the analyst feels should be made. Influence of Customers ' The unique relationship between a customer and.a public utility has definite repercussions for the customer's ability to influence the producer.47 The public utility is a natural monOpoly which supplies a particular product or service which is a necessity and for which there is no ready substitute. The producer cannot attract customers beyond a precisely defined area, and the customer cannot patronize anyone else. The seller goes to the buyer, and frequently, installs facilities on the buyer's prOperty. These facilities are physically connected with those of the producer, thereby, depriving the customer of any choice between producers of the service. Consequently, even if more than one firm Operated in the area, the consumer most likely would not be connected to more than one of them at the same time. 20 Nevertheless, the customer has several resources avail- able to him which he can use to exert influence: economic, political, legal, ideological and social. Classical eco- nomic theory claims customers hold the survival of organi- zations in their hands because of the control their pur- chasing power exerts over the production and distribution of goods and services.48 The maxim suggested by the theory seems to be: Conform to customer demands or perish. Etzioni questions this conception of the economic power 49 He believes the connection between con- of customers. sumption and control which previously was embodied in the role of customer has been broken; the customer has retained his consumption function, but has largely relinquished his control function. Etzioni argues that two major processes are responsible for the separation of consumption and con- trol: (1) the separation of consumption from direct financing and (2) the develOpment of private and public monOpolies. He further points out that customers are only one source of pressure, and certainly, they are not the most organized or the most powerful when compared to government agencies, trade unions, shareholders and finan- ciers. Canes, comparing state-owned telephone companies in England with commercially Operated telephone companies in this country, concluded that commercial redress is the best weapon the American consumer has because the telephone 21 companies are willing to meet his demands in order to insure a steady stream of profit.50 However, when the methods available to the customer for exercising his economic resource are considered, it appears that Etzioni is more correct than Canes. For the most part customers are what Blau and Scott call "unorgan- ized publics"; an aggregate of peOple unrelated to one another and who have only intermittent contact with an institution.51 In addition, Etzioni asserts most customers "have only a segmentary, limited interest in most products and are unwilling to devote energy, time, and money to the 52 Finally, the aim of organizing a consumers' strike." ultimate economic resource available to a customer of the telephone company, cancellation of service, may be an excellent example of Cartwright's discussion of the costs of exerting influence outweighing the benefits derived from that exertion of influence.53 There is no adequate alternative to the telephone for instantaneous voice com- munication. Etzioni thinks political power is the significant power in the hands of customers.54 By political power he means the ability of the consumer to exert pressure on political authorities to intervene in economic processes on his behalf. The consumer's ability to influence political authorities, however, will depend on his voting power and his communication abilities. Canes also sees the possi- bility of exerting political pressure through the public 22 utility commissions.55 However, he does not think a single complaint will be effective in obtaining commission action because committee hearings take weeks and sometimes months to conclude. In addition, a series of complaints would be necessary before the standing of the company would be impaired to the extent that future decisions on rates of return and tariffs would be affected. Canes calls attention to a legal resource when he raises the possibility of court action against delinquent companies.56 However, this course of action is Open to relatively few customers because of the expense involved. Etzioni cites an ideological resource when he calls attention to the "idea of service" which plays an important 57 role in the telephone industry. The base of this resource is the provisions for service cited in the charter the telephone company receives from the government as a public utility. Etzioni addresses himself to the idea of service in the following manner:58 The idea of service to the consumer implies that those who serve him will accept the idea, be rewarded for behavior conforming to its standards, and be deprived for deviating from it. It would be of much interest to study if and how the service idea can be institutionalized. we would suggest that some basic features of administrative structures make this norm difficult to reinforce. The basic features Etzioni has in mind are the orienta- tion of employees who are in contact with customers, the reward system and the mobility system. He hypothesized that many lower-level clerks and sales workers who are in 23 contact with customers are organization-oriented and not customer-oriented" He cited a study of retail grocery workers which showed that only five per cent of the workers classified customers as the most important aspect of their job while 22 per cent mentioned "like associates"; another 22 per cent named supervision, and 29 per cent chose future advancement.59 Thus it appears that co-workers and supervisors with whom clerks and sales workers interact intimately (as compared to the relatively impersonal contact with customers) are often the 'significant others' toward whom they are sensitized. This would be of little consequence if promotion, supervisors' approval, and co-workers' attitudes were geared to service ori- entation toward customers. The degree to which this is really so must still be explored, and the condi- tions that support versus those that suppress a cus- tomer orientation must be spelled out. It seems that promotion and other supervisory sanctions depend partly on other factors (e.g., obedience), while co- workers' attitudes are more influenced by other values such as friendliness and loyalty.60 Etzioni further asserts it is relatively unrewarding in many organizations to be client-oriented and to transmit clients' demands upward. He suggests it is personally advantageous to stick to the organizational norm rather than to bend the norm to meet the clients' demands. In addition, he asserts that a reduction in client-orientation is functional for upward-mobility because it prepares the person for the less-client-oriented upper levels. Finally, the idea of service appears to be related to the definition of customer. He states the term, customer, suggests "actors who have no moral commitment to their sources of . 61 products or seIV1ces." 24 Bakke and Etzioni suggest that customers have a social resource, in that they can reward telephone employees through expressions of personal approval.62 The customer's ability to exercise this resource depends on the quality of interaction, the frequency of contact, and the degree of identification the employee has with the customer. In addition, the customer must compete with other segments of the organization which have several bases of power: per- sonal approval, money and/or materials, physical comfort facilities, freedom, enlargement of functions, tenure, per- sonal advancement, stimulating work and c00peration.63 Etzioni sums up the relationship of customers to the control structure of organizations in the following manner:64 For the purpose of studying the consumer's rela- tion to control, the traditional organizational chart has to be expanded in two directions: (a) the dif- ferentiation of consumer publics and their various contacts, lines of communication, and ways of exerting pressure has to be incorporated on one end and (b) the various 'political' organs which control public administration and regulate some private economic activities have to be brought into the frame on the other end and the relationships between the consumer and these political authorities has to be analyzed. This review of literature on the influence of custo- mers is more suggestive of pertinent variables than it is of testable relationships. In fact, the conflict among the hypotheses suggested by the literature makes it difficult to predict the level of customer influence. For instance, the hypotheses suggested by the discussions of legal responsibility, the idea of service, and the possibilities 25 for economic, political, legal and social pressure call for some customer influence. On the other hand, the hypotheses suggested by the discussion of the monOpoly position the telephone company holds on instantaneous voice communica- tion, the difficulties involved in bringing economic, poli- tical and legal pressure to bear, plus the organization- orientation of workers predict a low level of customer influence. Influence of Union Officials This review of literature may also be viewed as an attempt to establish objective reality in terms of the influence of union officials on organizations. .Almost without exception, every local union of Bell System employees is an outgrowth of a company union.65 The company unions were started in 1919 and they were not organized as separate entities until 1937. The dominant union in the telephone industry, Communication WOrkers of America, an affiliate of AFL—CIO, was not founded until 1949. In his history of the CWA, Barbash states unions and collective bargaining "either as an idea or in action, have historically not been an acceptable part of Bell System's scheme of labor relations."66 In a summary statement based on twenty-five years of research in organizations, including the telephone industry, Bakke asserts the basic issue between unions and.management is the conception of power in relative terms. He said, 26 "Each appears to the other to be attempting to accumulate or regain power and sovereignty for their own organizations in ways that threatened the power and sovereignty of the other."67 Gillmore came to the same conclusion in his study of the labor economics in the telephone industry. He felt Bell management's attitudes toward unions has crystallized around the following points:68 (1) Union growth competes with management growth. (2) Telephone unions are apparently here to stay. (3) Union gains must be kept at a minimum each year because one gain is merely a point of departure for others. This attitude is summed up in the phrase 'hold-the-line.' (4) The weaker the unions, the better; except that measures to weaken them must be tempered with enough caution to prevent their demise, when they might be followed by even stronger unions. The concept of "dual allegiance" advanced by Purcell is also relevant to this study. Dual allegiance "means acceptance of the company as an institution (and therefore acceptance of its existence and.primary objectives), and acceptance of the union as an institution."69 Purcell found stewards had more dual allegiance than the work force in general. He explained this finding by saying stewards are more union-minded.but not much less company-minded than the rank-and-file workers. His data, collected in a meat packing plant, showed positive attitudes toward the company being expressed by 88 percent of the stewards and 91 percent of the workers while positive attitudes toward the union were expressed by all stewards and 79 per cent of the workers. 27 Only a slight majority, 57 per cent, of the foremen in the same plant had dual allegiance. Twenty-seven per cent of the foremen were Opposed to the union as an insti- tution. Purcell concluded that a sizeable minority of supervisors did not hold dual allegiance, primarily because they did not accept the union "as a necessary and important component in the plant community."70 .A summary statement based on case studies of twenty local unions in four northeastern communities by Sayles and Strauss sheds additional light on the amount of influ- ence workers want their unions to have:71 In summary, then 'working harmony' or 'indus- trial peace' means that the union official accepts increasing responsibility in areas at one time under the sole control of management. In turn, the offi- cial becomes charged by the members with additional responsibility for working conditions . Increasingly, members tend to vent upon the union some of the feelings which would otherwise be directed against management. Thus, wherever the union is strongly organized, the worker perceives his working conditions as to some extent being determined by both the union and the company. Bakke corroborates the above view to some extent; for he has pointed out that union officials have almost as many ways of rewarding and punishing employees as does manage- ment.72 Two management prerogatives, not shared by union officials, are the right to grant tenure and the ability to provide stimulating work. .Among the rights management shares with union officials are personal approval, money and/or materials; physical comfort facilities; amount of freedom; enlargement of functions and personal advancement. 28 A study of a telephone company by Seidman and associ- ates showed the strongest union sentiments were held.by employees of the plant department whose members are pre- dominantly male technicians.73 Some females were in the department to handle clerical duties. Of the 375 workers in the department, 296, almost four-fifths, were members of the union. According to Seidman, most workers joined the union, even though they held a very favorable view of the telephone company, because they wanted protection available should it become necessary; because of a back- ground of union membership in their families; because they became friendly toward the idea after joining the company; and because they wanted to go along with the group. Reasons given for not joining the union included an unwillingness to pay dues, particularly since non-members received the same benefits; prejudice against unions; company orientation; fear of losing promotion Opportunities, and a fear of being involved in strikes. Seidman states the workers generally felt that the union's achievements were substantial in such areas as wages, working conditions, job security, and the Oppor- tunity to settle complaints and individual problems. The workers were sharply divided on the effect of the union on their treatment by supervisors. The most prevalent Opinion was that the union had no effect since the super- visors had always treated them well. The union was 29 criticized for being, too, aggressive toward the company, for asking for too much money, for calling strikes, and for attacking the company too often and too bitterly in its publications. Seidman concluded, "attitudes such as these, which reflect middle-class values combined with a high degree of identification with a paternalistic employer, are seldom encountered among industrial employees."74 Barbash agrees that telephone workers consider themselves middle class.75 Gillmore gives a somewhat different appraisal of the influence and accomplishments of telephone unions:76 Even the cumulative effect of telephone unions has not been very great. They have had little effect on wages and fringe-benefits. Their greatest impact has been upon job Opportunity control, where they have strengthened the role of seniority in promotions, movement up the wage progression schedules, selection of hours of work and vacations, transfers, layoffs, and rehiring. They have also gained a voice in discharges and demotions. But a large prOportion of employees are still working under contracts that do not provide for arbitration of provisions relating to control of job Opportunities. Furthermore, the provisions covering seniority in layoffs and rehiring have not yet been put to test. And.much of the union impact has been via government bodies. But we should not overlook the less tangible nature of union impact. Unions must be dealt with, not only in formal bargaining sessions but in the day-to-day give and take of the grievance procedure. They stand ready for at all times to challenge management actions affecting employees, and in many cases the issues involved can be carried outside the realm of management decision to the arbitrators. Such vigilance puts management, especially on the bottom.level of supervision, on its good behavior, and greatly insures against arbitrary treatment of employees. 30 Gillmore attributes the lack of bargaining power on the part of telephone unions to the following conditions: Telephone unions are unable to withhold all labor when they strike; they cannot withhold labor long enough to cause great employer loss compared with union cost; the degree of automated equipment used in the telephone industry; the union's inability to influence public Opinion to a great degree; and the fact that unions have already improved the employee-employer communication channel as much as they ever will.77 Two factors contributing to the bargaining power of unions are the general climate of Opinion on labor rela- tions matters and the unions' abilities to harass manage- ment at little cost to themselves.78 This review of literature on the influence of union officials also is more suggestive of pertinent variables than it is of testable relationships. Again, the conflict among the hypotheses suggested by the literature makes it difficult to predict the level of influence. External System 9f Individual The field-theoretical orientation certainly emphasizes the importance of the external system for human behavior. Although this orientation gives priority to the subjective nature of the external system through the concept of life space, it also recognized the importance of the objective nature of the external system. Consequently, it behooves 31 us to specify the subjective and objective aspects of the external system which appear to be relevant. In order to specify the subjective nature of the external system we have turned to several middle range theories or perspec- tives--self-concept, balance, social comparison, role, reference individuals and groups. In order to specify the objective nature of the external system we have turned to organizational theory; for the most relevant aspect of the objective environment for the subjects of this study is the internal structure of the department. The formalized theory of the self-concept directs our attention to the external system of the individual because it asserts the responses of others affects the concept the individual has of himself. The self-concept, in turn, affects the behavior of the individual including his per- ception of the external system.79 The problem with the above formulation is the global nature of the concept "other." .An individual would find it impossible to respond to all others. Consequently, he must select the particular others to whom he will respond. It is at this point other middle-range theories fit into the picture. First, the two perspectives originating from cognitive theory-~balance and social comparison. Simply put, balance theory states that an individual finds cognitive imbalance painful, or, at least, psychologically disturbing, and so, he will attempt to maintain a balanced state among and.between his cognitions and take steps to restore balance when imbalance 32 occurs.80 .Although it was Originally formulated to account for intrapersonal phenomenon, the framework has been 81 extended to interpersonal phenomenon. The theory of social comparison moves us a step further toward specifi- cation by indicating to whom the individual will attempt to remain consistent. The theory states an individual will attempt to compare himself with those individuals with 82 whom he is similar. Besides enabling the individual to stay cognitively balanced the comparison with individuals who are similar may also enable him to maintain self- esteem which social psychological research indicates is one of several "needs" individuals possess.83 The remaining middle range perspectives--role, refer- ence groups and individuals, organization--further specify who the others are. Biddle and.Thomas have provided a definition of the role perspective which appears particularly relevant to this investigation:84 When actors portray a character in a play, their performance is determined.by the script, the director's instructions, the performance of fellow actors, and reactions of the audience as well as the acting talents of the players. Apart from dif- ferences between actors in the interpretation of their parts, the performance of each actor is pro- grammed .by all of these external factors; conse- quently, there are significant similarities in the performances of actors taking the same part, no matter who the actors are . . . . This emphasis on the controlling power of one's immediate environment-- past and present--reflects a doctrine of limited social determinism. The behavior of the individual is examined in terms of how it is shaped by the demands and rules of others, by their sanctions, for his conforming and nonconforming behavior, and.by the individual's own understanding and conceptions of what his behavior should be. 33 The reference group-individual perspective enters the picture because when an individual compares himself with others and adepts their standards or outlook he has made that group his reference group. Shibutani suggests that85 Men are primarily responsive to the judgments of those who constitute their reference groups. One gains a sense of personal identity by locating him- self within a meaningful social world and he seeks recognition within this web of social relationships. He becomes concerned with the expectations and responses of those who share his outlook. .A reference group is "that group, real or imaginary, whose standpoint is being used as the frame of reference by the actors."86 However, the groups to which a person belongs need not serve as his reference groups nor need he be a member of his reference groups. Shibutani suggests that membership groups may be more influential than non- membership groups.87 Besides designations as membership, non-membership, reference and non-reference, groups also may be classified as primary or secondary. Olmsted offers the following definitions of these two types of groups:88 In the primary group, members have warm, inti- mate, and personal ties with one another; their solidarity is unselfconscious, a matter of sentiment rather than calculation. Such groups are usually of the small, face-to-face sort, spontaneous in their interpersonal behavior and devoted, though not necessarily explicitly, to mutual or common ends. The characteristics of the secondary group are the Opposite or complement of those of the primary group. Relations among members are cool, impersonal, rational, contractual, and formal. PeOple partici- pate not as whole personalities but only in delimited and special capacities; the group is not an end in itself but a means to other ends. Secondary groups are typically large and members have usually only 34 intermittent contacts, often indirectly through the written rather than the spoken word. Shibutani contends that many primary groups are formed involuntarily. For instance, work crews initially formed for the pursuit of other interests in which close ties develOp among the members. An extensive quote from Shibutani follows, but I think, it is pertinent to this study:89 These primary groups differ from others in that the contributions expected of each individual are in part specified by the formal social structure; the goals of many of their common activities are dictated by the requirements of the larger unit of which they are a part. Whatever may be done for the personal satisfaction of the members is often subsidiary. Furthermore, authority patterns are imposed from with- out; sergeants and foremen are rarely selected by the men who serve under them. Since there is not much choice in the selection of one's associates, the ties in these primary groups are often less intimate than those found in the more spontaneously formed groupings. Indeed, in most cases smaller cliques arise within these groups. Nonetheless, the importance of these groups is not to be underestimated. 'What any person experiences of the larger organization is necessarily filtered through the eyes of those with whom he is in immediate contact. The particular ways in which he interprets new policies and events depend to a large extent upon the view of those around him. Thus, each local unit develOps a perspective and a set of norms, and the particular standards that arise make a difference in the manner in which official regula- tions are enforced. Such primary groups, even when the participants are not too intimate, exercise con- siderable control over the conduct of most of their members. Up to this point the discussion of reference groups has centered on membership groups as reference groups. Merton, however, claims the distinctive concern of refer- ence group theory is the orientation of individuals to 35 non-membership groups.90 He offers three conditions which may produce a greater selection of non-membership groups as reference groups: (1) If status and prestige is bestowed upon the non-membership group by the social structure; (2) if the individual is an isolate in his membership group; (3) if the social system of which the groups are elements has a high rate of mobility.91 In addition, he calls attention to the in—group vs outrgroup dichotomy advanced by Sumner, but he casts doubt upon the inner cohesion and outer hostility hypothesis.92 Merton also raises the question of conflicting value- 93 When orientations among members of the primary group. this occurs he expects the modal orientations of the larger social environment to become more influential while the influence of primary group members decreases or even becomes negligible. Merton further calls attention to the classification of reference groups--normative and comparative--and to the distinction between groups, collectivities and categories. The normative reference group sets and maintains standards for the individual while the comparative reference group provides a frame of comparison relative to which the indi- 94 He distinguishes vidual evaluates himself and others. these types from what Turner has called "interaction groups." Interaction groups are "simply parts of the social environment" which must be taken into account but which have no normative or comparative significance.95 The 36 primary bases upon which Merton distinguishes between groups, collectivities and categories are the existence of social interaction and a common body of norms.96 A group is characterized by normative social interaction. A collectivity may have a common body of norms, but there is little interaction among its members. .A social category has neither social interaction or a body of common norms. Finally, Merton indicates the complexity of the situ- ation when he discusses the existence of multiple group affiliations and multiple reference groups.97 His major concern in this regard is the characterization of the social situation in terms which "leads to one rather than another of these several group affiliations being taken as the significant context."98 The importance of organizational theory for the prob- lem under investigation should be fairly evident at this point; for it sheds considerable light on the immediate social environment of its members through the concepts of formal structure and informal structure. The formal struc- ture composed, in part, of a division of labor and systems of authority, standards, and rewards, partially determines the role to be played by each member, his role partners, some of his reference groups and significant others, his standards of comparison, and the kind of social and material support he will receive. In addition, the formal 37 structure may develOp through the establishment of work groups and the assignment of workers to each group. Litterer emphasizes the formal-informal dichotomy in his list of organizational attributes which affect perception: the amount of stress present in the situation; group pres- sures, particularly for conformity; the level of interaction among members; the role the individual plays in the organi- zation; the reference groups it contains; the hierarchical position occupied by the individual and the reward system of the organization.99 Finally, a considerable amount of the literature reviewed here calls attention to the immediate social environment of the individual and the other individuals it contains. This guidance directs our attention to the importance of the work group. .And our earlier discussion of group dynamics suggests some of the attributes of the work group which may be important to the perception of influence: norms, status and prestige, power and influ- ence, cohesion, interaction and consensus. Blau offers some empirical data on work groups which suggests relation- ships between seniority, informal status, orientation to clients, reference group selection and reaction to 100 In his study of a welfare agency, Blau divided clients. informal status along two analytical dimensions: informal rank and social integration. Informal rank was defined as the respect the individual and his opinions commanded among his peers. Social integration was defined as social 38 acceptance or the degree to which an individual was drawn into interaction by his peers. He found that social inte- gration influenced orientation to clients only among newer workers, three years or less seniority. Among workers with less than three years' experi- ence, more than half of the highly integrated but less than a quarter of the unintegrated were oriented toward service rather than toward eligibility proce- dures, but among old-timers (over three years' eXperience), integration among peers did not affect orientation to clients. Blau also found that low status newcomers (less than one year) and high status veterans had peer-group orienta- tions: It appears that newcomers who have already gained some pOpularity can turn their attention from their jobs--to their relations with clients and superiors. Newcomers who have not yet become pOpular continue to direct much of their energies toward achieving social status among peers. Older workers, on the other hand, have had time to adapt in some way to the social situ- ation; if they have failed to win friends among peers they do not continue to look for social support to their colleagues but rather turn to clients or superiors. If oldtimers have achieved pOpularity, however, the colleague group tends to be an important source of satisfaction for them and, hence, the reference group to which they often are oriented.102 Finally, Blau found that membership in cohesive work groups leads to an impersonal reaction toward clients regardless of the pOpularity of the individual in the group: These results suggest that cohesive ties make the work group a source of strong social support for members. In the absence of such peer-group support, the caseworker's relations with his clients tend to become an important source of ego support for him, and his resulting dependence on clients leads him to react to them in personal terms. Group cohesion furnishes social support that makes relations with clients less significant for the caseworker and helps 39 him to remain more impersonal toward them, while having personal ties with colleagues apparently does not furnish the social support needed for such independence from clients. 03 In summary, few testable relationships can be based on this review of literature, primarily because published stu- dies which have a direct bearing on the research problem under consideration could not be found. However, this review was more productive in suggesting variables and general orientations for an initial exploration of the problem. Consequently, this study should be categorized as an eXploratory rather than a hypothesis-testing investi- gation. Outline 2: Study The research problem under consideration in this study is the perception of external influence by members of an organization. The organization is a plant department of a telephone company. The members are the craftsmen or workers employed in the department. The sources of external influence are customers and local union officials. Two types of influence--actual and ideal--are measured. Actual influence is measured on two organizational levels-- department and work group. Ideal influence is only measured on the departmental level. The dependent variables in this study are the per- ception of actual customer influence on the department; the perception of actual local union official influence on the department; the perception of actual customer 40 influence on the work group; the perception of actual local union official influence on the work group; the perception of ideal customer influence on the department and the per- ception of ideal local union official influence on the department. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the amount of influence members of the organization per- ceived the external sources exerted on the organization and (2) to isolate independent variables which were related to the dependent variables. The exploration of the data, in order to find the independent variables, was conducted along the lines sug- gested.by the two general orientations presented in this review: the field theoretical orientation to the study of human behavior and the structuralist approach to the study of organizations. Both of these perspectives argue for a confrontation of the complexity of the situation even though the probability of getting lost in that complexity increases considerably. Consequently, a comprehensive approach to the data was adopted which required an investigation of formal structure, work group character- istics, interpersOnal relationships, and intrapersonal phenomena. LOQVICD 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 41 Footnotes James B. MCKee. Introduction to Sociology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and'Winston, Inc. 1969. pp. 166- 169. Nicos P. Mouzelis. Organization and Bureaucracy: .An.Anal sis 9f_Modern Theories. Chicago: .Aldine Publis ing Co. 1967. p. 26. Ibid., p. 25. Peter M. Blau and.WL Richard Scott. Formal Organi- zations. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co. James D. Thompson. Organizations in.Action. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1967. p. 24. Blau and Scott, pp. git” p. 74. Thompson, gp. cit., pp. 4-6. Blau and Scott, gp. cit., pp. 195-199. Sol Levine and Paul E. White. "Exchange as a Concep- tual Framework for the Study of Interorganizational Relationships, ".Administrative Science Quarterly, (5), March 1961. pp. 583- 601. William.R. Dill. "Environment as an Influence on Managerial.Autonomy, ".Administrative Science Quarterly, (2), March 1958. pp. 409- 443. Thompson, 9p. cit., p. 6-7. Eugene Litwak & L. F. Hylton. "Interorganizational .Analysis: A Hypothesis on Coordinating Agencies," Administrative Science Quarterly, (6), 1962, pp. 395- 420; Roland Warren, "Interorganizational Field as a Focus for Investigation,".Administrative Science Quarterly, (12), December 1967, pp. 396-419. Amitai Etzioni. Modern Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- Hall, Inc. 1964. pp. 20- 49. Kurt Lewin. Field.Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper-Row, Publisher. 1951. p. 25. Clovis R. Shepherd. Small Groups: Some Sociological Perspectives. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co. 1964. pp. 24-25. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 42 Ibid., p. 25. John.WL McDavid and.Herbert Harari. Social Psychology: lndiyiduals, Groups, Societies. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. 1968. pp. 30-32; S. Stansfeld Sargent and Robert C. Williamson. Social Psychology. New York: The Ronald Press Co. 1966. pp. 21-22, 212-241. McDavid and Harari, pp. cit., p. 31. S. Stansfeld Sargent and.Robert C. Williamson. Social Psycholpgy, 3rd edition. New York: ,The Ronald Press Company. 1966. pp. 213-214. McDavid and.Harari, pp. pi:., p. 32. Robert.A. Nisbet. Social Bond. New York: .Alfred.A. KnOpf. 1970. p. 39. Herbert Blumer. Symbolic lgtegyct onism: Perspective 1 and.Method. Englewood.C1iffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1969. pp. 2-6, 90-100. E. Wight Bakke. Bonds 9; Organization. Hamden, Conn.: .Archon Books. 1966. p. 206. Ibid., p. 206. Joseph.A. Litterer. The Analysis pf Organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1967. p. 62. Etzioni, pp. cit., p. 35. Paul R. Lawrence and.Jay W2 Lorsch. Orggpization and Environment. Boston:. Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University. 1967. George C. Homans. The Human Group. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. 1950. pp. 81-155. Ibid., pp. 109-110. Ibid., p. 95. Charles P. Loomis and Zona K; Loomis. Modern Social Theories. Princeton, N. J.: D. van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1965. p. 16. Ibid., p. 16.7 Talcott Parsons. The Social System. New York: The Free Press. 1951. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 43 Blau and Scott, pp. pit., p. 195. Dill, pp. 913., pp. 409-443. Levine and White, pp. pi:., pp. 583-601. Thompson, Organizations ip.Action, pp. 66-73. Max weber. The Theory pf Social and Economic Organi- zation. New York: The Free Press. 1964. pp. 329- 336. C. Emery Troxel. "Telephone Regulation in Michigan" in Utility Regulation, edited by William.C. Shepherd and.Thomas G. Gies. New York: Random.House. 1966. p. 450. Ibid., p. 451. Ibid., pp. 146-147. Jack Barbash. Unions and.Telephones. New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers. 1952. p. 161; Joel Seidman, Jack London, Bernard.Karsh, Daisy L. Tagliacozzo. "Telephone workers: ‘White Collar Unionism" in The WOIker Views His Union. The Univ. of Chicago Press. 1958. p. 140. Paul J. Garfield and wallace F. Lovejoy. Public Utility Economics. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- Hall, Inc. 1964. p. 2. Ibid., pp. 1- 3; Dudley F. Pegrum. Public Regulation pf Business. Homewood, Ill. Richard.D. Irwin, Inc. 1959. pp. 596- 601. Arnold.S. Tannenbaum. Control ip Organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1968. p. 5. R..A. Dahl. "The Concept of Power" in Behavioral Science, (2), 1957. pp. 201- 218, Dorwin Cartwright. "Influence, Leadership, Control" in Handbook of Organizations, edited by James G. March. Chicago: Rand.McNa11y & Company. 1965. pp. 1-47; H. Goldhammer and E. A. Shils, "Types of Power and Status" in.American Journal of Sociology, (45) 1939, pp. 171- 182;.Am1tai Etzioni. .A Comparative.Ana1y§is of Complex Organizations. NeW'York: Free Press. 1961; Max Weber. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, edited by Talcott Parsons. New York: The Free Press, 1964. p. 152; John Day. “Authority" in Political Studies (11) October 1963, pp. 257-271; James D. Thompson. "Authority and Power in 'Identical' 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 44 Organizations" in.American Journal p: Sociology, (62), November 1956, pp. 290-301; Robert V. Presthus. “Authority in Organizations" in Public.Adminiptration Review (20) Spring 1960. pp. 86-91. Pegrum, pp. cit., pp. 596-598. Amitai Etzioni. ”Administration and the Consumer" in Administrative Science Qparterly, (3), 1958. p. 251. Ibid., p. 251-257. Michael Canes. Telephones--Public p; Private? London: The Institute of Economic.Affairs. 1966. p. 54. Blau and Scott, pp. pi:., p. 79. r1— Etzioni, ”Administration and.the Consumer," pp. c1 p. 262. I o I ‘ Cartwright, pp. cit., p. 8-10. H- Etzioni, “Administration and the Consumer," pp. c1 pp. 263-264. I ‘ Canes, pp. cit., p. 52. Ibid., pp. 52-53. F'- ~ Etzioni, “Administration and.the Consumer," pp. ci pp. 258-260. Ibid., pp. 258-259. Mason Haire and Josephine S. Gottsdanker. "Factors Influencing Industrial Morale" in Persoppel, (27), May 1951. pp. 445-454. FF | o ‘ Etzioni, “Administration and the Consumer," pp. 01 p. 259. Etzioni,.§ Comparative Analysis p: Complex Organi- zations, pp. cit., pp. 10-18. Etzioni, "Administration and the Consumer," pp. cit., p. 264; Bakke, pp. cit., pp. 118-119. Bakke, pp. pi:., pp. 122-125. Etzioni, “Administration and the Consumer," pp. cit., p. 264. Seidman, et al., 22. cit., p. 144. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 45 cit., p. 170. Barbash, pp. E. Wight Bakke. Mutual Sprvival: The Goal of Unions and.Management. Hamden, Conn.: .Archon— Books. 1966. Curry'W. Gillmore. Bell Telephone Labor Economics. Ph. D. dissertation. Columbia University. 1952. p. 123. Theodore V. Purcell. The worker Speaks His Mind.pp Company and.Union. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1954. Ibid., p. 265. Leonard.R. Sayles and George Strauss. The Local Union. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers. 1953. p. 235. Bakke, Bonds pf Organizations, 22. cit., p. 122-125. Seidman), et al., pp. p_i_t., p. 148. 1p;p., pp. 158-159. Barbash, pp. pip, p. 223. Gillmore, pp. pi:., p. 115. lp;p., pp. 117-120. l]_o_i_p.., pp. 120. John W. Kinch. “A Formalized Theory of the Self- Concept" in Symbolic Interaction: .A Reader pp Social Psychology, edited.by Jerome G. Manis and Bernard N. Meltzer. Boston: .Allyn and Bacon. 1967. pp. 232- 240. Fritz Heider. The PsycholOgy of Interpersonal Rela- tions. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1958. pp. 174-217. . . Theodore M. Newcomb. WAn.Approach to the Study of Communicative Acts" in Psychological Review, (60), 1953. pp. 393-404. Morton Deutsch and.Robert M. Krauss. Theories ip Social Psychology. New York:. Basic Books, Inc. 1965. pp. 62-68. .Arnold S. Tannenbaum. Social Psyghology of the work Or anization. Belmont, Calif. 'wadsworth Publishing 0., Inc. 1966. pp. 27-31. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 46 Bruce J. Biddle and.Edwin J. Thomas. Role Theory: Concepts and.Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1966. p. 4. Tamotsu Shibutani. §pciety and Personality. Engle- wood.Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1961. p. 274. Ibid., p. 257. Ibid., p. 258. Michael S. Olmsted. The Small Group. New York: Random House. 1959. pp. 17-19. Shibutani, pp. cit., pp. 406-407. Robert K. Merton. Social Theory and Social Struc- ture. New York: The Free Press. 1964. p. 234. Ibid., p. 305. Ibid., . 298. Ibid., p lpgg., p. 333. p 283. P lpgg., . 284. lg;g., pp. 299-300. lpig., p. 239. gpgg., p. 239. Litterer, pp. pl:., pp. 51-62. Blau and Scott, pp. p;:., pp. 96-108. lpig., pp. 97-98. 1p;g., pp. 99-100. lg;g., pp. 107-108. CHAPTER II DATA AND METHOD Introductipp This chapter is concerned with the methodology employed in the study. It is divided into four sections: (1) col- lection of data, (2) description of pOpulation, (3) Opera- tionalization of variables and (4) analysis of data. Collection p: Data The data for this study were collected in a pilot study of a district plant department of the Michigan Bell Telephone Company.1 The district is located in a suburb of a metr0politan center. The study was conducted from September, 1963 to May, 1964 by a research team from the Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan. The research design incorporated various methods of data collection: Field observation, company records, depth interviews, and self-administered questionnaires. The latter were administered in.May, 1964 to the total population of the department. The questionnaire was pre- tested on retired telephone employees and active super- visors and workers from.another district before it was administered for the purposes of this study. 47 48 Through the questionnaire the respondents provided data on themselves, their jobs, their supervisors, and their work groups. Except for sociometric items and some item completions, the questionnaire was composed of close- ended questions. Usually, five point rating scales measured intensity, degree, importance and frequency. The overall quality of the data is very good. .All respondents returned completed questionnaires. The non- response rate to specific questions was rather low. Respondents were able to discriminate among the various sources of control; blanket answers were seldom given. Finally, the use of close-ended questions eliminated the possibility of interpretation errors in coding. Two sources of bias, however, are inherent in the data collection procedures. The first source is similar to the problem of multiple testing in experimental studies.2 The research team informally interviewed a number of respondents before they were asked to complete the question- naire. The effect of this bias, however, is apparently negligible because comparisons between those workers inter- viewed and those not interviewed showed no difference. The second possible source of bias is contamination. The self- administered.questionnaires were not simultaneously com- pleted by all members of the department. Consequently, it cannot be assumed that the answers to all the questions are independent of each other. However, the questionnaires were simultaneously administered to members of work groups. 49 The effect of this possible bias is apparently negligible, too, because comparisons between those work groups which filled out the questionnaires earlier and those work groups which filled out the questionnaires later showed no differences. Description pf POpulation In order to acquaint the reader with the subjects under investigation this section analyzes the pOpulation along several dimensions on the individual and work group levels of analysis. On the individual level the pOpulation :is described in terms of sex, age, formal education, mari- 'tal.status, number of children, time in system and occupa- t:ion._ On the work group level the pOpulation is described 111 terms of size, occupational composition and sexual compos it ion . The plant department contained 180 workers; 164 males iind.16 females. Females represent 9 per cent of the ‘worker group. The vast majority of the workers are in the "over 30" generation. The mean age is 36.7 years. High school is the dominant and modal level of formal education. {The mean is 12.0 years. Almost all workers are or have Ibeen married. The mean number of children is 2.5. Con- :sequently, the worker population of the plant department Inay be succinctly described as family men of the "over 30" HoQ5m EOHN myaoaflagaoo NH 73 I—lNCOV‘IDLOBmO) ma. QsOHO Mhoz no whoaoymso Ha ON. «m. scans Hmooa so anoaooOch OH mm. mm. on. noes; Hmooa so Hama\mhoxhoz m ma. hea.mN. oN. ycoayhmmop do mafia ymhfim w mm. mN. NH. mN. mN. ycmaomcqoa #:oymflp no mafia ywhflm N as. am. NH. mm. ca. mm. psoaooosca psceneo so Hoooccs o as. oo:.ma. HN. Nd. ON. ma. Naomaflo voopoonOH no Homcacs m mo. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mo. om. cane cocoon so ascdaoo 3 NH. mN. oN. mm. mm. NN. mN. mN. Hm. QsOHo MH03 no mafia Uncoom m doc.mo. mo:.No. «N. mN. ma. ma. mN. so. pump no “cosmoonoa chvmfla N HN. oN. ma. mm. mm. ma. Nm. mm. ma. mm. NN. mHoMH03\ocfiH ymhfim so Hommnoz H NH Ha OH m m h o m w m N H Ho>oa Hoyzoawnoaoo may so monOdeafl Hoaowmso ayes ovmaouhoo hao>flyflmom £Ofl£3 moanmflho> mo Naheofi HonoHHMHOHHOOHoynH "w canoe 74 company and.AT&T. These correlations indicate that inter- nal pressure is being exerted by the formal authority structure on behalf of customers. The pressure, however, is not overwhelming, judging by the number and strength of the correlations. Upward influence exercised by the district manager and first line supervisors on distant management is posi- tively correlated with customer influence: district manager on distant management (.55) and first line super- visors on distant management (.47). These correlations indicate that the perception of customer influence on the department is related to the ability of local management to successfully represent the customer to higher levels of management. This representation, most likely, is aimed at securing additional organizational resources for customer service: technical assistance, rapid delivery of equipment, overtime, additional facilities, more workers and quality production. This interpretation seems plausible since these two forms of upward influence positively correlate with downward influence in the organization and customer influence on the work group. The external flow of influence from management and workers to local union officials positively correlates with customer influence: workers/management on local union officials (.44) and management on local union officials (.39). Management is defined as company and district manager. The ability of management and workers to control 75 local union officials positively correlates with downward influence within the district and with upward influence of the district manager and first line supervisors on distant management. Customer influence on the department, then, may be related to the efficient employment of resources, particularly manpower resources, on the district level. This finding points to the interdependence of the elements of the task environment. External influence is not only beneficial for customer influence on the department when the influence flows from the organization to local union officials, but also when the influence flows from customers to the organization and enters at a different level: customer influence on work group (.37). The conditions which enable customers to exert influence on one level are related to the conditions which enable customers to exert influence on other levels. The downward pressure for customer service on the depart- ment filters down to the work group. 'While the upward influence which produces customer influence on the depart- ment, most likely, starts at the work group level. One other variable positively correlates with customer influence on the department: compliments from supervisor (-26). Compliments from the supervisor correlates with upward influence on distant management and worker/manage- ment control of local union officials (see Table 8). Con- sequently, the compliment from the supervisor may 76 represent favorable feedback from a customer for whom the worker and organization provided a special service. Just as the positively correlated variables correlated positively with each other, so do the variables which nega- tively correlate with customer influence positively corre- late with each other. Consequently, we assume these vari- ables are also components of a global variable called func- tional autonomy (see Table 9). Upward influence which negatively correlates with customer influence originates at the front line of the organization with first line supervisors and workers: workers on district manager (-.26) and first line super- visors on local management (~.25). These correlations are interpreted as an attempt by the front-line to defend itself against over-zealous pursuit of customer service. It should be noted this buffer is only against local management - district manager and second line supervisors. The four remaining negative correlations shed some light on the conditions which enable workers to close themselves Off from external influence: freedom to set own work pace (-.47), satisfaction with work (-.32), skill level (-.23) and time worked with group members (-.29). A person who feels free to set his own work pace has suc- cessfully insulated himself from external sources of influ- ence. Satisfaction with the type of work being done dampens mobility aspirations, and consequently, reduces the person's sensitivity to external pressure. Skill 77 u—INO’DV'LDLO Hm. HH. NN. 5N. mm. NH. dm. HH.u No. 0 m mnonama adOHm HHHs UOMHos oaHB o HO>OH HHHMm m Mhoz HHHz aOHHommmHyom d mN. coma MHoz :30 How OH HopOOHm m «0. pH. HcoaomOdoa HmOOH so ozHH HmHHm N HH. HO.: OH. Homosma HOHHHmHU do mHOMHoz. H d m N H Ho>OH Hcyaoayhomop ooH so moaodeaH Hoaoymdo LHHS OHOHOHHOO >Ho>Hyommo HOHHS mOHooHpr Ho NHHHOE HoaOHHmHOHHOOHmycH ”m OHQoH 78 level may tie the worker into complex tasks or complex technology which precludes influence attempts from the company or customers. Finally, the longer members of a group work together the more likely it is that they will develOp a definition of the situation on which most members Of the group agree. Our argument, then, is that customer influence on the departmental level is the product of two conflicting processes. On the one hand, the organization is exerting pressure on its members and on an element of the task environment on behalf of customers while, on the other hand, the front line of the organization is making a bid for functional autonomy. Our analysis points to some of the factors which promote functional autonomy. The plausi- bility of this argument is enhanced when it is noted that the variables which positively correlate with customer influence and the variables which negatively correlate with customer influence are negatively correlated with each other (see Table 10). Customer Influence pp WOrk Group .Amount p: Influence Fourteen sources of influence were measured on the work group level of organization. Four measures of impersonal control--tools and equipment, job specifica- tions, units of productivity, equipment designer--were added to the ten sources already cited in the discussion 79 wH.u 0N.u 50.: 00.- H0.- 0H. HomH>Hoo5m scum mwooaHHano 0H.n 00.: 0N.u 0N.n 0N.u 0H.u macho MH03 do whoaowmou Ho. pm.- HN.- am.. pm.- so.. does: HoooH so oooamocccz 0H.u N«.- 0N.u NN.- 0N.u HN.- :OHas HOOOH co Haoa\mHOMHOB N0. 00.- N0. 00.- $0.: 0H.u HomaHHoQoo so oaHH HmHHm «H.u 00.- 0N.s HN.: NH.- 00.0 #505 Hooymflo no ooHH HmHHm om.- «0.- 00.- om.- oH.- mo.- econ eccenao so access: 50. 00.- 00.- 00. HH.- 0w.u wHomaHo HoooooomOH no Mommas: «H. 0N.- 00.- NH.- H0.u mH.u ooHH ooooom no hoooaoo N0. NN.: H0. 0N.- 00.: 0H.: QSOHO Mhoz so ooHH poooom Na. Hm. aH.- oo.- oo.- HN.- esoaopcdoo so Hana oooeoem 00. 0H.u 00. $0.: wN.u 0¢.u mHOMH03\ooHH HmH do Hoooomz QHG AHH3 Ho>OH make MADE comm Hams H02 OOMHOB. HHHMm oOHHOom MHDB How Hoooq no oaHH umHHmm EQUOOHm \ooHH HmH mHoMHOB Ho>OH Hoyooayhomoo no oooosHmoH Hoaowmdo HHHS OHMHOHHOO >Ho>HHoooa HOHHS mOHQo uHHO> poo OHOHOHHOO hHo>HHHmOQ HOHAS mOHQoHHo> amozpoo moOHHwHOHHOOHOHoH n0H OHQOB 80 of customer influence on the department. .A mean ranking was constructed to measure the amount of influence cus- tomers exercised on the work group and their position relative to other sources of influence (see Table 11). Table 11: Mean rankings of various sources of influence on work group level S (D m D Source First line supervisors Second line supervisors District manager Tools and equipment Job specifications Division level peOple Units of productivity Customers Company level peOple WOrkers AT&T level peOple Equipment designer Local union officials , Respondent himself NNNNNNNOOOOOOODODOOOO OI-‘GQQDLOLOONNNl-PI-hfl Customers hold a middle rank in the influence struc- ture with a mean of 2.9. They rank below first line supervisors, second line supervisors, district manager, tools and equipment, job specifications, division, and units of productivity. They are equal to company and workers. They rank above AT&T, equipment designer, local union officials and the respondent himself. .A qualitative interpretation of the mean keeps customers at the high end of the "some influence" category. The means range from 2.0 to 3.7. 81 Mean differences were computed between customers and other sources of influence on the work group in order to get a clearer picture of the relative influence customers exerted on the work group (see Table 12). These differ- rences show customers only exercise considerably less influence on the work group than first line supervisors (.8). They further indicate that customers are slightly less powerful than second line supervisors (.5), district manager (.5), tools and equipment (.3), job specifications (.3), division (.3) and units of productivity (.1). On the other hand, customers are considerably more powerful than local union officials (.8) and the respondent him- self (.9). In addition, customers are slightly more influ- ential than AT&T (.2) and equipment designer (.3) and equal to company and workers. Table 12: Mean differences between customers and other sources of influence on work group level Source Mean Difference First line supervisors Second line supervisors District manager Tools and equipment Job specifications Division level peOple Units of productivity Customers Company level peOple WOrkers ATdT level people Equipment designer Local union officials Respondent himself (DCDOONOOOI-‘ODOOOOCDOTOD 82 Some changes have occurred in the influence structure on the work group level as compared with the departmental level which are worthy of note. First, the range of means has decreased considerably on the work group level as compared to the departmental level. The mean difference between the most powerful and least powerful on the work group level is 1.7. On the departmental level the mean difference is 2.6. Second, the influence on the work group is much more evenly distributed. Customers are not con- siderably more powerful or considerably less powerful than most other sources of influence. Third, the most powerful sources of influence on the work group sit closer to the boundary of the organization and spend some of their time beyond the organizational boundary. Consequently, they are more accessible to customers than were the most power- ful sources on the department. Fourth, the sources of influence which supported customer influence on the depart- ment appear to be less influential on the work group while the sources which attempted to block customer influence on the department appear to be stronger. It is difficult to be at ease with the above com- parisOns because the addition of the four impersonal con- trols prevents a direct comparison of customer influence on the department and the work group from being made. Inclusion of the control mechanisms may, in fact, distort the position of influence customers hold on the work group. .According to the ranking customers are above 83 company management and.AT&T but below tools and equipment, job specifications, and units of productivity. However, these impersonal controls are largely in the hands of company management and.AT&T personnel. Correlates pf Influence Customer influence on the work group exhibits the same pattern which was revealed in the analysis of cus- tomer influence on the departmental level. The three perspectives--organization as a whole, organization com- posed of subparts, and the individual--which were useful on the departmental level are also useful on the work group level. The organization as a whole perspective largely accounts for the variables which are positively related to customer influence while the organization composed of subparts and the individual perspectives account for the negative correlations (see Table 13). All variables which positively correlate with cus- tomer influence on the work group positively correlate with each other (see Table 14). Again, we interpret the list of variables to be components of a global vari- able called commitment to customer service. Five measures of downward influence positively corre- late with customer influence on the work group: local/ distant management on work group (.35); district manager on first line supervisors (.32); first line supervisors on workers (.29); company on work group (.23); and 84 Hm.- hawoaoo poo ooh no macho MHoz nH msmoomaoo mOHHmHHOmeMOHO mmomo MHOB 0N.u mood MHOS ozo How OH aoooonm 0N.- MH03 AHHs oOHHoommHHom mm.- Hosea Haemm 00. QSOHO mooouommh mo whoaoymno HHHz qOHHcOHMHyaooH cooaoooom AwooH>flpoHucHHnH 00. osoao MH03 no mHoHOHmmO aoHnd HoooH d0. mHoHOHmmo ooHod HoOOH do Hooaoooacz um. Ho>OH Hoyooawhmmoo no whoaovmdo cw. mHoHOHNmO aqus HmOOH no Hooooca HOHHHmHo\homoaoo cocoonaH Hmonmyxm 0N.n HO>OH HoyaoaHHono no mHoMHDB 0N.u mHOmH>Honm oaHH ooooom no mHOmH>HOQ5m ooHH HmHHh 0N.s Hmmmooa HOHHHmHo so mHomH>Homdm ooHH HmHHh 0N. OHQOOQ HO>OH oOHmH>Ho no mHOmH>HoQSm ooHH HmHHm Hm. OHQOOQ Ho>OH oOHmH>flp so Hoocsma HOHHHmHQ N0. OHQooQ Ho>OH HwH¢.:o mHomethdm ooHH HmHHm moaosHmoH pnozmn 0N. odono Macs so wHOHHoOO HmoomHoQaH 0N. QsOHo MHOS no mHQooQ HO>OH hoodaoo 0N. mHOMHoz no mHOmH>HoQom ooHH HmHHm N0. mHOmH>Hoodm mcHH HmHHm do Hoomoca HOHHHmHQ mm. odoso Mho3 no Hoodoomqoa HsonHo\Hoooq monodwwdH pumzazoo moOHHoHOHHOU mOHQcHHc>\moxoooH mace Hecocou HHNuov HO>OH nacho Mao: wow so monOdeoH Hoaovmdo AHHS oonOHHOO HOHoz mOHQcHHo> poo moxopoH "0H OHQMH 85 NCOV'LOCOBCDCD r-l mHmEOHmoo "macho couchomom 0H 00. macho Mhoz no GOHod HOOOH NH 0«. H0. oOHod HOOOH so Homecomaoz HH N0. 0N. N0. HO>OH HoHooaHHcQoo no mHoaOHmso 0H Hm. s«. 00. 0«. ooHss HoooH do Hoomsoa\homoaoo 0 002.00. 0H. m«. HN. :onH>Ho so ooHH HmHHm 0 sor.H0. «H. m«. HN. 0N. oonH>Ho so Hoomoma HOHHHmHQ N «0.-003.NH. mm. «N. H0. 0N. HQH¢ no moHH HmHHm 0 H0. «0:.H0.-00. N0a.00. 00. 0N. macho Mhoz no mHOHHoOO HooomumoaH 0 ON. «of ad. 3. mo... cm. «a. mm. mm. 858 once. so sopasse 9 0H. 0N. NH. 0H. NN. H0. 0H. HN. 0N. 00. mHoMHos no ooHH HmHHm m 50. 0H. 0N. 00. «N. 0H. NH. N0. 00. H0. 0N. ooHH HmHHm no Homoqca HOHHHmHm N HN. mN. HH. 0H. 0H. 00. 00. 0N. NH. m«. 0H. «0. macho Mhoz no Hams HochHp\HmOOH H 0H NH HH 0H 0 0 h 0 m « m N H Ho>OH macho Mhoz moH no mooodeoH Hoaoumdo AHHB OHOHOHHOO hHo>HHHmOQ 50H53 mOHQcHHo> mo XHHHME Hc:OHHcHOHHOOHOHoH "«H OHQMH 86 impersonal controls on work group (.23). Local/distant management is defined as.AT&T, division, district manager and second line supervisors. Impersonal controls are defined as job specifications, equipment designer and units of productivity. These correlations are interpreted as evidence that the formal authority of the organization exerts pressure internally on behalf of customer service. The upward flow of influence is positively correlated with customer influence when it flows from the district manager and first line supervisors to management levels above the district level: first line supervisors on AT&T (.32), district manager on division (.31), and first line supervisors on division (.29). Since the upward flow of influence between the district and higher management levels positively correlate with each other, the flow of influence is conceived as a feedback mechanism by which the Operating forces call upon higher management levels for assistance in meeting the goal of customer service. The external flow of influence continues to be posi- tively correlated with customer influence. The flow of influence is from the organization to the environment and from the environment to the organization: company/ district manager on local union officials (.44); customers on department (.37); management on local union officials (.34), and local union officials on work group (.30). Management is defined as company, district manager and first line supervisors. The flow of influence between 87 the organization and the union is important to customer influence because the downward and upward flows of influ- ence which are positively correlated with customer influ- ence are positively correlated with management influence over union Officials. Consequently, the amount of influ- ence an external source of influence exerts on the organi- zation appears to be related to the ability of the organi- zation to exert influence over other external sources of influence. Identification with customers as a reference group is the only variable under intra-individual phenomena which positively correlates with customer influence (.38). Acceptance of a class of individuals as a reference group includes the adoption of that group's frame of reference. Consequently, workers who accept customers as a reference group are more likely to see their jobs from the standpoint of customers. Therefore, they are more Open to influence attempts made by customers or on behalf of customers. The seven variables which negatively correlate with customer influence on the work group positively correlate with each other. These variables, therefore, are again interpreted as components of a global variable called functional autonomy. The variables point to the front- line as the organizational subpart seeking functional autonomy and they call attention to the factors which allow functional autonomy to develOp (see Table 15). 88 r-{NC’Jfi‘LDCOB NH. 0N. 0N. 00. 00. NN. 0H. 0H.: NN. «H. NN. 0H. «0. 0«. NH. «N. 00. NN. N 0 m « Nocafioo\£ofl so odouo :H momaomooo N comm MH03 :30 How OH_aoooonh 0 MH03 AHHB :OHHommmHHom m HO>OH HHHMm « Homayhmmmp no mHOMHDB m 00. ocHH ooooom do ooHH HwHHm N 0N. mm. Hoocowa HOHHHme no ocHH HmHHh H m N H HHNndV Ho>OH mooao MH03 OAH do monOdeoH HOEOHmoO oHHB OHMHOHHOO NHo>HHMOOo HOHAS mOHQwHHm> mo KHHHOE HMdOHHMHOHHOOHOHGH "0H OHQMB 89 Upward influence within the district level of organi- zation negatively correlates with customer influence on the work group: first line supervisor on district manager (-.28); first line supervisor on second line supervisor (-.26), and workers on department (-.26). These correla- tions are interpreted as an attempt by the front-line-- first line supervisors and workers--to insulate the work group from over-zealous pursuit of the customer service goal. Three intra-individual variables which appeared on the departmental level remain on the work group level: skill level (-.33); satisfaction with work (-.29) and freedom to set own work pace (-.26). .All three of these variables enable the individual to close himself off from external influences. The arguments for the above conclu- sion were given in the previous section. The final negatively related variable is consensus in work group on job and company (-.31). Consensus among group members on the definition of the situation provides the members with peer support for their actions. With peer support the individual may feel more comfortable engaging in behavior which is deviant from the organiza- tional perspective. Consequently, we continue to advance the argument that customer influence is the product of two conflicting processes--compliance to customer service goal and a bid for functional autonomy. Therefore, we expect the variables 90 which positively correlate with customer influence and the variables which negatively correlate with customer influ- ence to be negatively correlated with each other. They are (see Table 16). Ideal Influence pp Department .Amount pf Influence The composition of the influence structure on the department and the ideal influence structure on the depart- ment is identical. .A mean ranking of these sources was constructed to determine the amount of influence each source should exert on the department and their relative position to each other (see Table 17). Customers hold a middle rank with a mean of 3.3. They are below division, district manager and company. They are above first line supervisors, local union offi- cials, workers and the respondent himself. They are equal to AT&T and second line supervisors. A qualitative interpretation of the mean places customers in the "quite a bit" category. The means range from 2.0 to 3.7. Mean differences were computed between customers and other sources of influence on the department in order to get a clearer picture of the relative influence custo- mers should exert on the department (see Table 18). These differences show customers should exert less influence than division (.4), district manager (.4) and company (.1), but not much less. Customers should be as influential as 91 0H.: 0H.: 0H.: 0N.: 0H.: 00.: 0N.: whoaoymdo "QSOHO mooOHomom 00.- 0N.- 0H.- 0«.: 0H.: N0.- 0N.: macho MHo3 do oOHoo HcOOH N0.n NN.- HN.- 00.- 0H.: NN.- 0H.- doHos HMOOH so Haoaoooooz NH.- N«.u N0.u 0N.- 00.- NN.- NN.: HooaHHoQop no whoaoymdo HH.- mm.- ow.- HH.- mm.- HN.- 0H.- noes: Hoooe so noa\sccdaoo N0. 0N.- NN.- 0H.- 0N.: 0H.- N0.- :OHmH>Ho no oaHH HmHHm 0H.- 00.- 00.: 00.- 00. 00. 0N.: sonH>Ho so Hooocoa HOHHHmHQ «0. 0H.- 0N.- N0. N0.. 00.: HH.: 5050 so moHH HmHHm HH.- NH.- 0H.- 0H. 0H.- 00.- H0.u mam Mhoz so mHOHHaOO HonomHoQEH 00. 0H.- 0H.- «0.: HH.- «N.u 00.- mocha Mhoz no Namgfioo N0. 0H.: 00. 00. 00. NH. 0H.- mHOMhoz no oaHH HmHHm NH.u N0.n NH. NN.- 0N.: NN.- N0.u ooHH HmHHm do Hoocoma HOHHHmHm HH. HH.- 0H.- NH.- 0H.- om.- mm.- duo Macs no page ecoeueo\acooq mom comm MH03.:HH3 Ho>oH Homo ooHH H02 no room MHDB How oOHHOMH HHHMm so ooN so ooHH taco .aooooum :mHHom mHOMHoB oaHH HmH HmH HO>OH Qdono MHo3 o:# no monodeoH HoaOHmdo HHHS OHoHOHHOO NHO>HHoooo HOHoz mOHno uHHM> poo OHcHOHHOO NHO>HHHmOQ ooHns mOHocHHo> coozyon mGOHHMHOHHOOHOHoH H0H OHQMB 92 Table 17: Mean ranking of influence sources should ideally exert on the departmental level Source Mean Division level peOple District manager Company level peOple Customers AT&T level peOple Second line supervisors First line supervisors Local union officials WOrkers NNNOOOOODOOOJOOOD OOVLOl-‘OOOOOOI-Rflq Respondent himself Table 18: Mean differences between customers and other sources of influence in the ideal influence structure of the department Source Mean Difference Division level people District manager Company level peOple Customers AT&T level peOple Second line supervisors First line supervisors -. Local union officials -. WOrkers -. Respondent himself -1. co \Jve mac: c><3 kdvp or 93 AT&T and second line supervisors and they should exercise slightly more influence than first line supervisors (.2) and local union Officials (.4). In addition, customers should exert considerably more influence than workers (.7) and the respondent himself (1.3). .A comparison between the actual and ideal influence structures on the department gives some indication as to how the new situation should develOp for customers (see Table 19). The ideal influence structure gives increases in influence to workers (.8), local union officials (.7), first line supervisors (.6), the respondent himself (.6), customers (.4) and second line supervisors (.1) while it decreases the influence of AT&T (.6), company (.3), division (.3) and district manager (.3). This adjustment in the influence structure indicates workers are seeking more functional autonomy from the upper levels of manage- ment for the plant department, but, more particularly, for the work group. 'External sources of influence, customers and local union officials, increase in power. Changes in the mean differences between customers and other sources of influence in the actual and ideal influence structures support this argument (see Table 20). The power differential between customers and second line supervisors, district manager and distant management are considerably reduced, thereby, creating greater pressure for customer service from customers. However, the power differential between customers and first line supervisors, 94 Table 19: Mean differences between the actual and ideal influence structures on the departmental level Source .Actual Ideal Difference Division level peOple 4.0 3.7 -.3 District manager 4.0 3.7 -.3 Company level peOple 3.7 3.4 -.3 AT&T peOple 3.9 3.3 -.6 Second line supervisors 3.2 3.3 .1 Customers 2.9 3.3 .4 First line supervisors 2.5 3.1 .6 Local union officials 2.2 2.9 .7 'WOIkers 1.8 2.6 .8 Respondent himself 1.4 2.0 .6 Table 20: Changes in the mean differences between cus- tomers and other sources of influence in the actual and ideal influence structures on the departmental level Source .Actual Ideal Difference District manager 1.1 .4 .7 Division level peOple 1.1 .4 .7 AT&T level peOple 1.0 .0 1.0 Company level peOple .8 .l .7 Second line supervisors .3 0.0 .3 Customers 0.0 0.0 0.0 First line supervisors -.4 -.2 -.2 Local union officials -.7 -.4 -.3 WOrkers -l.l -.7 -.4 Respondent himself -l.5 -1.3 -.2 95 local union Officials, workers and the respondent himself is also reduced, thereby, giving the front line of the organization some autonomy in deciding how it is to go about providing the service desired by customers. Correlates pf Influence The same basic pattern which was revealed in the analysis of influence on the department and on the work group reappears in the analysis of ideal influence of customers on the department. Two of the perspectives used in the previous sections continue to be useful: organization as a whole and organization composed of subparts. The individual perspective does not appear to apply to ideal influence (see Table 21). All of the variables which positively relate to the ideal influence of customers on the department are posi- tively related to each other. Consequently, we again interpret this finding to mean our variables are compo- nents of a more global variable: commitment to customer service (see Table 22). Three measures of downward influence positively corre- late with ideal influence: company on second line/first line/workers (.40), local/distant management on workers (.35) and manager on manager/first line/workers (.30). Local/distant management is defined.as AT&T, division, manager and second line supervisors. These correlations may be interpreted in the following manner. The downward 96 0N. mHoMH03 nHHB HOoHnOU «0 mnOHchanoHO HonHo nH QHanonfios HonHo H0.: hncmnoo Ono ooh no anono Mao: nH mnmnomnoo mOHHmHHOHoonnO QnOHo MHOB 0N. HO>OH HoHnoaHHoQoo no mnoEOHmno NN. mHmHOHHNO noHnn HOOOH no Hoocnoa HOHHHmHm 0«. Ho>OH QnOHo Mnoz no whoaovmno mononHmnH Honnoyxm N0.: Hnoaoomnma HcOOH no mnoMHoz 00.: HOmH>Hanm onHH onooom no HomH>thnm onHH HmHHm N«.: Hoomnoa HOHHHme no HOmH>Hanm onHH HmHHm «N. nOHmH>Ho\50H¢ no mHOmethnm onHH HmHHm mononHmnH pnozmu 00. mHoMHos\onHH HmHHm\Hoocnoa no Hooonos 00. mHOMnos no Hnonoomnoa HnonHo\HcOOH 0«. mHoMH03\OnHH HmHHm\onHH onooom no knogaoo mononHmnH oncsnzoa mnOHHcHOHHOU mOHQmHHm>\moNoonH Moon :cosoM HHNnnV HO>OH HoHnoaHHonp onH no mnmaOHmno mo mononHmnH HoopH nHHz OHOHOHHOO nOan mOHQoHHo> Ono monoan "HN OHQoH 97 r-INC‘Ofi‘LDLOBQDC) mHOMHos nHHz HOOHnOO 0 00. mnOHHcNHnooHo nH QHanonfioz 0 NN. 00. HO>OH HmHnonHHoQop no whosonno N 0H. 00. N0. chHOHmmO nOHnn HMOOH no Hoomncs 0 0H. N0. N0. 00. HO>OH onono Mnoz no mHoEOHmno 0 mo.- we. we. so. as. nonunseo\amae so osnn pupae a N0. 00. N0. H0. N0. N0. mHoMnos\onHH HmHHH\Hooonca no nooonoz 0 HH.- on. on. em. mm. mm. mo. unconoz so naps oconuno\nooon N mo. 0n. om. nn. pm. we. ma. om. uncnnoz\ocnn HmHHm\mnHH pnooom no knogaoo H Ho>mH HcHnonHHoQoo onH no whoaowmno Ho mononHmnH HoopH onH AHHB OHcHOHHoo NHO>HHHmOQ nOan mOHAcHHo> mo NHHHca HonOHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "NN OHQMB 98 influence from management is impressing upon the workers the necessity for greater service to customers. This downward pressure, however, is not followed by a suffi- cient commitment of resources. Consequently, the more pressure the company exerts on the workers for customer service the more influence the workers want the customers to exert on management in order to get the resources needed to provide the service customers desire. The ability of first line supervisors to influence distant management positively correlates with ideal influ- ence of customers: first line supervisors on.AT&T/division (.24). The more influence first line supervisors can exert on the upper levels of management the more resources and OOOperation they can secure from these levels in pro- viding customer service. Under these conditions workers are willing to give customers more influence on the depart- ment. External influence positively correlates with ideal influence: customers on work group level (.45), district manager on local union officials (.27) andcustomers on departmental level (.26). .Again, we find that actual influence is related to ideal influence. The interesting point is that the correlation is much stronger on the work group level than it is on the departmental level. The difference in the strength of the correlations on the two levels may be accounted for by assuming that much of the influence customers exert on the work group requires 99 action on the departmental level. Consequently, the more influence customers exert on the work group the more influ- ence workers want them to exert on the departmental level. Since the ability of customers to exert influence on the department may require workers to extend special services, workers do not want to give customers more influence unless the district manager can influence local union officials in order to prevent labor-management difficulties over the situation. Two other variables positively correlate with ideal influence of customers on the department: membership in other organizations (.34) and contact with workers (.26). Membership in other organizations places workers in contact with customers on an extended basis in primary group situ- ations. Consequently, workers may see the customer per- spective more clearly. Finally, contact with workers may positively correlate with ideal influence of customers because workers receive most of the negative feedback when customers are unable to exert influence on the department. The four variables which negatively correlate with ideal influence of customers on the department positively correlate with each other. .Again, we suggest that these variables are components of a more global variable called functional autonomy (see Table 23). Three of the negatively correlated variables are measures of upward influence within the district level of organization: first line supervisor on district manager 100 Table 23: Intercorrelational matrix of variables which negatively correlate with the ideal influence of customers on the departmental level 1 2 3 4 1 First line on district manager .53 .15 .17 l 2 First line on second line .31 .22 2 3 'WOrkers on local management .41 3 4 Consensus on job and company 4 (-.47), first line supervisor on second line supervisor (-.38), and workers on local management (-.32). These correlations suggest that customers may be a countervailing power which workers employ in their bid for functional autonomy. If workers are unable to govern their own affairs, they want customers to be influential. If workers can govern their own affairs, they do not want customers interfering. Consensus in the work group on job and company is also negatively correlated with ideal influence of cus- tomers (-.31). Consensus within the group provides a barrier to external influence. As in the previous sections we find that the vari- ables which positively relate with ideal influence and the variables which negatively relate with ideal influ- ence are negatively related to each other. This finding is interpreted as evidence for our conclusion that customer influence is a product of two conflicting processes: com- mitment to customer service and a bid for functional 101 autonomy by the front-line of the organization (see Table 24). Summary Customers appear to exert a moderate amount of influ- ence on the department and work group. On both organiza- tional levels, however, they rank below several levels of management and above organizational members most directly responsible for customer service. 'WOrkers would slightly increase the amount of influence customers exert on the department, but they give more influence to the front-line of the organization, thereby, reducing the gap between cus- tomers and themselves. The variables which correlate with customer influence exhibit a consistent pattern which holds across type of influence and level of organization on which influence is exerted. The consistent pattern is revealed when the vari- ables are classified under seven headings: downward influ- ence, upward influence, external influence, intra- individual phenomena, work group characteristics, superior- subordinate relationships and other. Downward influence is positively related to customer influence. Upward influence is positively related to cus- tomer influence when it originates within the district and is directed toward distant management. Upward influence is negatively related when it originates with the front- line of the organization and is directed toward local 102 HN.: 0H.: N0.: N0.: mHOMH03 HHHS HoanOO HN.: 0N.: «H.: 00.: mnOHHoNHnmoHO nH QHanooaoz NH.: 0N.: NN.: NN.: Hnoaynoaoo no whoaOHan 0H.: 00.: 0N.: «N.: noHnn HoOOH no Hooonoz H0.: HN.: 0N.: 0N.: mocha MHoz no mHOfiOHmno No. S. we: 8.- 53203.02 so on: tuna NH.: H«.: 0N.: 00.: mnoMH03\mnHH HmHHm\Hoocnoa no Hmoonoz HH. 00. 00.: 00.: mHOMn03 no Hnoaooonon HnonHp\HMOOH 00.: 00.: «H.: «H.: mHoMH03\onHH HmHHm\onHH onooom no nnomaoo mnmnomnoo HEOS HoOOH onHH pnN HOS no no manHOB no onHH HmH onHH HmH Ho>OH HMHnoaHHono onH no mHoEOHmno mo mononHmnH HoopH nHHs OHMHOHHOO NHO>HHooon HOHAS mOHAm :an> Ono OHcHOHHOO NHo>HHHmOQ AOHAB mOHQoHHo> nomzuon mnOHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "«N OHQoB 103 management. External influence is positively related whether the flow of influence is from the organization to local union officials, from customers to the organiza- tion or from local union officials to the organization. Intra-individual phenomena, for the most part, negatively relate with customer influence. WOrk group characteris- tics were negatively correlated while the superior- subordinate relationships were positively correlated. The other category also produced positive correlations. Customer influence, consequently, appears to be the product of two conflicting processes: commitment of the organization to customer service and a bid for functional autonomy by the organizational members most directly responsible for customer service. CHAPTER 1v LOCAL UNION OFFICIAL INFLUENCE Introduction This chapter presents the findings which are related to local union official influence. The findings are pre- sented in three sections: (1) local union official influ- ence on the department, (2) local union official influence on the work group and (3) ideal influence of local union officials on the department. Each of these sections is divided into two parts--amount of influence and correlates of influence. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings. Local Union Influence pp Department Amount pf _nf1uence The plant department, like most social systems, must contend with influence attempts from several sources. Measurement of ten sources of influence on the department were available for this study. The sources are AT&T level peOple, company level people, division level peOple, dis- trict manager, second line supervisor, first line super- visor, customers, local union officials, workers and the respondent himself. The measurement scale contained the following categories--little or no, some, quite a bit, a 104 105 great deal and a very great deal. .A mean ranking of the sources was constructed to determine the amount of influ- ence exerted by each source and their positions relative to each other (see Table 5). Local union officials hold a low rank in the influ- ence structure with a mean of 2.2. They rank below the district manager, division, ATdT, company, second line supervisors, customers and first line supervisors. They rank above workers and the respondent himself. .A qualita- tive interpretation of the mean places local union officials at the low end of the "some influence" category. The means range from 1.4 to 4.0. Mean differences were computed between local union officials and other sources of influence on the department in order to get a clearer picture of the relative influence local union officials exerted on the department (see Table 25). These differences show local union Officials exercise considerably less influence on the department than the district manager (1.8), division (1.8), ATdT (1.7), company (1.5), second line supervisors (1.0), and customers (.7). They further indicate local union officials exercise slightly less influence than first line supervisors (.3) and slightly more than the workers as a group (.4). Local union officials are only considerably more influential than the individual worker (.8). Local union Officials, then, exert a low amount of influence on the department and they rank below customers and all levels of management. 106 They only exert more influence than the individuals they represent. Table 25: Mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence on the depart- mental level Source Mean Difference District manager Division level peOple AT&T level peOple Company level peOple Second line supervisors Customers First line supervisors Local union officials 0. WOrkers Respondent himself HHHHH Cpl-pOOOQOCfiQmCD Local union officials face a problem also encountered by customers: the organizational distance separating the local union official from the most powerful sources of influence on the department is considerable. In fact, the problem may be more acute for local union officials as they must work through the organizational structure of the union as well as the organizational structure of the company in order to reach the most powerful sources of influence on the department. Correlates pf Influence The classes of variables which correlate with local union official influence on the department are different than the classes of variables which correlate with customer 107 influence on the department. Local union official influ- -ence appears to be related to the individual worker, his work situation and his interaction with union officials more than it is related to the formal authority structure within the organization (see Table 26). t The variables which correlate with local union Offi- cial influence on the department appear to be most readily understood from the perspective of the individual worker rather than from the perspective of the organization. These variables appear to revolve around the ability of the worker to create a viable life space in which he can function on a day-to-day basis. These variables suggest that the more successful the worker is in creating a viable life space the less influence he perceives local union officials to have. The viability of the worker's life space may reduce the perceived influence of local union Officials in two ways: (1) it may reduce the amount of assistance workers need from local union officials, thereby, limiting their Opportunities to exercise influence; (2) it may reduce the dependence on local union officials, thereby, reducing the Obligation workers feel toward following union leadership. The argument that a viable life space for workers reduces the influence local union officials exercise on the department is based on the variables which negatively correlate with local union Official influence on the department. These variables, for the most part, are 108 0N.: mnOHHONHnooHO HOAHO nH QHanoQamz H0. mHmHOHmmo nOHnn HcooH nHHS HOoHnoo Honyo 00.: HomH>Hanw Hnomonm Hopnn oaHB maHnmnOHHoHon OHonHonoonm:HoHHomnm 00.: Hoonoono noHn_ono noanHom Hmoa pnoSOH oanHHH¢ H0.: QnOHo Mnoz mo mHoanE nHHS poMnoz oaHH mOHHmHHOHOMHonO mmOHO MHOS 0N.: hon HHHS noHHoommHHom NN.- noson nanom 00.: anono Macs HO mmono>Hmonoo\Qnono Mao: OH onHonOHon mo canon 00.: Mnoz mo OQNH nHHB nOHHOonHHom 0N. anono oonmnommn mm mHoHOHHmO noHnn HoOOH nHHz nOHHMOHmHHnoonH onoaononm Hoan>HanHmHHnH NN. chHOHNmo noHnn HoOOH no mnHH HmHHm\Hooonoa HOHHHme\Nnc@aOU 00. mHoHOHmmo noHnn HoOoH no Hooonma HOHHHmHo pnm mHOMHOB N0. anono Mnoz no mHoHonmo noHnn HmooH oonOnHmnH chnoyxm 0«.: anono Mhoz no HHomEHn Hnoonommom mononHmnw_pHonnm 0N.: mHOMHoz no hnooaoo 00.: anono MHOB no mHOHHnOO chOmeQaH mononHmnH phosnzom mnoHHMHOHHOU mmHQmHHm>\mononH Mncm HHmonoM :1: not: Hopscotcdoc 9: so mononHmnH HoHOHmmo nOHnn HOOOH nHHS OHoHOHHOO HOHHS mmHfloHHo> Ono moxoonH ”0N OHQoB 109 (positively correlated with each other which suggests that they may be components of the global variable we are calling a viable life space (see Table 27). Several correlations suggest that a stable working situation characterized by primary relations among peers, harmonious relations with superiors and norms supportive of company goals results in the reduction of local union official influence. The influence of stability is based on the correlations between union influence and time under present supervisor (-.39) and time worked with members of group (-.3l). These correlations imply that an enduring social relationship among members of a work group and between workers and their supervisor reduces the percep- tion of union influence. ‘Why? Given the existence of an enduring social relationship, it can be inferred, even in imperatively coordinated activities, that consensus has develOped on the definition of the situation. The defini- tion of the situation, then, provides guidelines for behavior which tend to reduce the level of conflict among peers and between superior and his subordinates. The reduction or elimination of conflict reduces the percep- tion of local union official influence because it reduces the Opportunities for union Officials to exercise influ- ence. Several correlations suggest that the influence of local union Officials decreases as the dependency on union protection decreases: influence of respondent on work 110 HH Homenanm Hnomonm moons oaHB HH 0H N«. mnoHHoNHnooHO monHo nH oHanoanS 0H 0 0«. 0N. whooama duo nHHS OOMH03 oEHH 0 0 «N. 0H. N0.: HoonpOHQ \nmanme panOH oanHHH< 0 N HN. 0N. H0. «H. Ho>oH HHHMm N 0 «H. «0. N0. NN. 00. onono Macs NO mmono>Hmmnoo\onHonOHom 0 n mm. on. so. om. am. am. sad non: donoocmunoom m « 0H. 00.: HH. NH. NN. 0H. 0H. MHOS nHHS nOHHOommHHom « 0 N0. «H. «0. 0«. H«. H«. 00. 00. QSOHO Mnoz no HHomEHn Hnoonoamom 0 N pm. «N. am. co. an. no. mo.- on.- mo.- dcono Mnos no mHOHHnoo HonomHOQEH N H 00. 0H. 0H. NH. HH. 00. 00. 00. N0. 00. mnoxnoz no knnomaoo H HH 0H 0 0 N 0 0 « 0 N H AHNnnv Ho>OH HcHnoaHHoQoo mow no mononHmnH HMHOHHHO noHnn HwOOH AHHS oHMHOHHOO NHO>HHooOn nOHns mOHQoHHo> mo xHHHoa chOHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "NN OHQMB 111 group (-.40), satisfaction with type of work (-.33), sense of belonging to group/cohesiveness of group (-.33), satis- faction with pay (-.25), skill level (-.27) and attitude toward best salesman and high producer (-.30). If a person perceives personal control over his work group, he is less likely to develOp grievances. If grievances occur, he should be able to solve them as well as the union official can. By solving the problem himself he reduces his dependence on the union, and consequently, reduces its control of him. Satisfaction with type of work and satisfaction with pay reduces the worker's dependency on the union in two areas in which unions have traditionally based their appeal to workers. .A sense of belonging to the work group removes the individual from the highly vulnerable position of the isolated individual and gives him another base of support besides the union. In addition, the greater his sense of belonging to the group the more loyal he will be to it. The more loyal he is to the group the less likely he is to act contrary to the wishes of group members. Consequently, if he devel- ops grievances which are in line with the group's defini- tion of the situation he can count on the group's support and need not get union officials involved. In addition, cohesiveness and sense of belonging negatively correlate with conflict between work group and its supervisor (-.40 and -.35 respectively). This indicates that groups with strong interpersonal bonds do not get into conflict with 112 their supervisors, possibly because the supervisor does not want a mutiny on his hands. Finally, favorable feelings in the group toward the high producer and the tOp salesman are not likely to create problems for the group either with its supervisor in the department or with upper levels of management. In fact, attitudes which are favorable toward high productivity are likely to bring the group favorable reactions from management when problems occur. Again, the dependency on union officials is reduced. Two other correlations suggest that union official influence decreases because workers do not feel the union can improve the situation they face: company on workers (-.28) and impersonal controls on work group (-.35). Both of these impingements on the worker's life space originate from sources outside of the power sphere of local union officials. Finally, membership in other organizations correlates negatively with union Official influence (-.25). Member- ship in other organizations may place the worker in contact with individuals who view the union as an ineffective organization. The variables which positively correlate with local union official influence are positively correlated to each other. This suggests that these variables are com- ponents of a more general phenomenon. However, it is difficult to put a name on that phenomenon. It appears that local union official influence on the department is 113 linked to the willingness of union officials to cooperate with management (see Table 28). Five variables positively correlate with union influ- ence on the department: workers/manager on local union officials (.30), local union officials on work group (.37), company/manager/first line on union Officials (.27), reference group: local union officials (.25) and contact with local union officials (.31). The external flow of influence from.management and workers to local union officials and from local union officials to the work group suggests that local union Officials increase their influence on the department when they act as agents of control for the company. Local union officials can exercise upward influence in the company when they demonstrate the ability to control their own members. This ability to act as an agent of control, apparently, leads some union members to identify with local union officials. Contact with local union officials enables workers to see the union officials in action and enables the Officials to justify their actions to members. Finally, the variables which are negatively correlated with local union official influence on the department and the variables which are positively related with local union Official influence on the department are negatively corre- lated to each other. These findings suggest that the construction of a viable life space results in the isola- tion of the worker from the union. 'WOrkers with a viable 114 0 mHoHOHHHO nOHnn HcOOH nHHB HOoHnoo 0 « HH. mHoHOHmmo nOHnn HcOOH "onono mononomom « 0 NN. H0. mHoHOHmHO nOHnn no onHH HmHHm\Hoocnoa\Nnoofioo 0 N 00. H«. H0. anono Mnoz no chHOHmmo noHnn HoOOH N H 00. «N. 0«. «0. chHOHmmo noHnn HoOOH no Hoocnon\mHmMH03 H 0 « 0 N HHNunV HO>OH HcHnoaHHoQoo onH no mononHmnH HoHOHmmo noHnn HMOOH nHHS OHMHOHHOO NHo>HHHmoQ nOHnB mOHQMHHo> mo KHHHME HonOHHcHOHHOOHOHnH "0N OHQcH 115 life space appear to see union Officials as more inde- pendent from workers and.management and less able to con- trol union members (see Table 29). Local Union Influence pp WOrk Group Amount p: Influence Fourteen sources of influence were measured on the work group level of organization. Four measures of imper- sonal control-~tools and equipment, job specifications, units of productivity, equipment designer--were added to the ten sources already cited in the discussion of local union official influence on the department. .A mean ranking was constructed to measure the amount of influence local union Officials exercised on the work group and their position relative to other sources of influence (see Table 11). Local union officials hold a low rank in the influ- ence structure on the work group level with a mean of 2.1. They rank below first line supervisors, second line supervisors, district manager, tools and.equipment, job specifications, division level peOple, units of produc- tivity, customers, company level peOple, workers, AT&T level peOple and equipment designer. They only rank above the respondent himself. .A qualitative interpretation of the mean places local union officials at the low end of the "some influence" category. The means range from 2.0 to 3.7. 116 NN.: 0«.: 0N.: «N.: 0N.: HomH>Hanm Hnomonm Hound oaHB 00.: NH.: 0H.: N0.: HN.: mnOHHoNHnooHo HonHo nH QHanooaoz 0N.: 0H.: H0. 0H.: 0N.: mnonaoa anono nHHz UOMHoz QEHH 0H.: 0«.: «H.: N0.: «N.: noonpono\noamOHom pHMSOH wonHHHHN. 0«.: «0.: 00.: 0«.: 00.: Ho>mH HHHMm «0.: 0N.: 0H.: 0H.: 0H.: anono mo mmono>Hmonoo\onHonOHom 0H.: 0«.: 0N.: H0.: HH.: Non HHHS nOHHoommHHom 0H.: 00.: HN.: 0H.: 0H.: Mnos nHHz noHHoommHHom 0H.: H0.: «H.: H0.: NH.: QnOHo HMO: no wHomaHn Hnopnommmm 00.: 00. H0.: «0.: «N.: anono Mnoz no mHOHHnOO HonomHanH N0. NH.: 00. 00.: 00. mHoMHoz no knoQEOU nOHnD nOHnD noHnD no anono nOHnD no "HOoHnoo "mono Onam HmH Mnoz.no no: :Homom \Hoz\ anaOU nOHnD \mHOMHoz HO>OH HoHnmEHHcQQp onH no mononHmnH HcHOHmmo nOHnn HMOOH nHHB OHMHOHHOO NHo>HHHmOQ HOHHS mOHQo :an> Ono OHMHOHHOO NHObHHmoon nOHns mOHQcHHo> nooszQ mnOHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "0N OHQMH 117 Mean differences were computed between local union officials and other sources of influence on the work group in order to get a clearer picture of the relative influence local union Officials exerted on the work group (see Table 30). These differences show that local union offi- cials exercise considerably less influence than first line supervisors (1.6), second line supervisors (1.3), district manager (1.3), tools and equipment (1.1), job specifica- tions (1 l), division (1.1), units of productivity (.9), customers (.8), company (.8), workers (.8), AT&T (.6) and equipment designer (.5). Local union officials only exercise slightly more influence than the respondent himself (.1). Table 30: Mean differences between local union Officials and other sources of influence on the work group level Source Mean Difference First line supervisors Second line supervisors District manager Tools and.equipment Job specifications Division level peOple Units of productivity Customers Company WOrkers AT&T level peOple Equipment designer LOcal union Officials 0. Respondent himself - HHHHHH l—‘OCDCDCDCDCDLOI—‘I—‘l—‘wwm 118 Some of the changes which have occurred in the influ- ence structure on the work group level as compared with the departmental level have already been noted in the section on customer influence on the work group. .An addi- tional change which appears pertinent to local union offi- cial influence is that union officials exercise consider- ably less influence on the work group than do workers as a group and only slightly more influence than the respond- ent himself. On the departmental level local union offi- cials exercise more influence than workers and the respondent himself. Correlates pf Influence Local uniOn official influence on the work group exhibits the same pattern which was revealed in the analysis of local union official influence on the depart- ment. Local union influence continues to be negatively related to a viable life space and positively related to the willingness of local union officials to cooperate with management (see Table 31). All the variables which are negatively related to local union official influence on the work group are positively related to each other. This finding is inter- preted to mean these variables are components of a more global variable which we are calling a viable life space (see Table 32). 1 Several variables which negatively correlate with local union official influence on the work group also 119 0N.: moon Mno3 How OH aopoonh H0.: hon nHHs nOHHoommHHom me.- Hosea Hnnmm 00. anono mononomon mo mnmEOHmno nHHS nOHHoOHHHHnooH H«. nacho oononomon mo mHoHOHHHO nOHnn HmOOH nHHS nOHHonHHHnopH onoaononm.Hoan>Han:oHHnH N0. Hm>OH HcHnoaHHoooo no mHoHOHHHO nOHnn HoOOH 00. HHomaHn Hnopnoomon .mHoHOHHmo noHnn .mHOMHoz no mHmMHOS H0. mHoHOHHHO noHnn no onHH HmHHm .hncmaoo .Hmomnoz 00. mHoHOHHmo noHnn no onHH HmHHH .Nnonaoo .Hooonca .mHOMHDB mononHHnH HonHMHNM H0.: Ho>OH QnOHo.MHo3 no HHomaHn Hnopnommom N0.: HomH>Hanm onHH Onooom no HomH>Hanm onHH HmHHm mononwwnH onczob 0N. mHmMHos no mHOmH>Hanm onHH HmHHm NN. Ho>mH anono MH03 no Hooonoa HOHHHmHm 00. Ho>OH QnOHO MHos no mHOmH>Hanm onHH pnooom mononHHnH ohmsnzoo mnoHHcHonnoo mOHQcHHo>\monan Mncm HHopnoM HHNnnv HO>OH QnOHo Mhoz no mononHmnH HMHOHHHO nOHnn HMOOH nHHB OHmHonnoo AOHnn mOHQoHHo> ono moNoonH "H0 OHQoH 120 N0.: mnOHHmNHnmmno HonHo nH QHanoQEmS 00. meHOHHHO noHnn HmOOH nHHS HOoHnoo 00. whoaOHmno nHHz HooHnoo HoHHO NN.: mnoHHmmoonm Hmoooo OH mmmnonHHHHB m.HomH>Hanm 00.: mHOmH>Hanm onHH HmnHm nHHz HOMHnOU 0N. non Ho whomHoz nH HmOHOHnH m.HOmH>HOQnm mQHnmnoHHOHOH OHoannonnm:HowMoanm N0.: Hoonponm noHn Ono ncEmOHom Hmon pnoon oanHHH¢ 0N. ouHm mOHHmHHOHomMonO mnonm Mnoz mnoHHwHonnoo mOHQoHHo>\moNoan Mnmm HHopnoM ocean oboe .8 £82. 121 0 mnOHHcNanoHo HmnHO nH QHanonaoS 0 m NN. osnn noneu nos: Hocoooo b N H0.: 0H. mnOHHmooonm mHQoooc HOmH>Hoonm N b an. «9. NH. noocooHQHccanonou onczoo oooanHm b b no. HH.- mo. 0H.- mood Mnos you on soooonm b a an. No. be. NN. an. and opns conHooLunncm « m bN. NH. on. «H. mm. NN. Hoson nnexm m N «H. «m. Hm. N«. on. am. no. moons once so mnonano oscosodnom N n HH.- on. on. NN. on. NN. as. am. moan cocoon so coon nonnm n m m N o b e m N n AHNHGV HO>OH QSOHO MHOS maz- fiO mofimdamfifl HMflUfiMMO 504mg HMOOH nHHS OHoHOHHOO NHOpHHooon AOHHS moHQoHHO> Ho NHHHma HonoHHmHOHHOOHOHnH "N0 OHQMH 122 negatively correlated with local union official influence on the department: respondent himself on work group (-.31), skill level (-.43), satisfaction with pay (- 31), attitude. toward.best salesman and high producer (-.37), and.member- ship in other organizations (-.37). It is assumed that the interpretations given to these correlations on the departmental level also hold on the work group level. Four other negatively correlated variables appear at the work group level which did not appear on the depart- mental level: first line supervisor on second line super- visor (-.32), freedom to set one's own work pace (-.25), contact with first line supervisors (-.38) and supervisor's willingness to accept suggestions (-.27). Influence of the first line supervisor on the second line supervisor may be negatively correlated with local union official influence because the first line supervisor may be using his upward influence to meet the demands of his workers and to improve their working situation. Freedom to set one's own work pace may be negatively correlated with union official influence because the per- ception of freedom reduces the ability of union Officials to exercise control. Contact with first line supervisors may correlate with union influence for the following reasons: (1) the contact may produce beneficial results for the workers and consequently decrease their dependence on the union; (2) the contact may lead to grievances which the union 123 official cannot do anything about; (3) the contact may lead to identification with the supervisor and a pro- management attitude. Supervisor's willingness to accept suggestions nega- tively correlates with union official influence because the acceptance of suggestions may eliminate possible sources of irritation. In addition, the acceptance of suggestions may lead to friendlier relations between the supervisor and his subordinates. It most likely reduces the level of conflict which might exist between the work group and the supervisor. .A considerably greater number of variables were found to correlate positively with local union Official influ- ence on the work group level than on the departmental level. Again, all the variables which positively relate to local union official influence are positively related to each other. The additional variables which appear on the work group level appear to strengthen the argument that local union official influence is related to the willingness of the Officials to COOperate with management; for a number of new variables measure the effectiveness of the formal authority structure and the commitment of workers to the goal of customer service. In short, the influence of local union officials is related to their ability to discipline union members to perform their roles in the system (see Table 33). 124 mHoHOHHHO nOHnn AHHS HOOHnOU 0H N0.: mHQfiOHmno nHHS HooHnoo NH NN. 0H. no& mo OHOHHos "HomH>HOQnm HH H0. N0. Nor QnOHo MH03 mo ONHm 0H 00:.0«. 00n.00. mHOEOHmnO "mononomom 0 HH. NN. NH:.N0. 0«. wHoHOHHmo nOHnn HMOOH "mononomom 0 0N. NN. 00. NN. 00. H0. nOHnn no onHH HmHHH\NnoQaOO\Hoomncz N «0. 0N. 0H. 0N. 00. 00. «0. noHnn no onHH HmHHH \Nnooaoo\nooonma\mnoxnoz 0 H0. «02-0H. N0. Non-0N. NN. 0N. HnoaHHmmop no mHoHoHHHO noHnD 0 00. 0H. 0N. NH. Hon-00. 00. 00. 0H. Hnopnoomon \noHnn\wHOMHo3 no mHOMHOB. « NH. N0. 0«. 00. 0H. Nos-NH. 0N. 00u.00. mnthoz no onHH HmnHm 0 cm. No. on. HN. NN. bn. «N. bn. No. no. NN. dsono Mnoz so pompous N N0. 00. «N. 0H. 0H. N0. 0N. 00. 00. 00. ««. 00. Qnono Mnos no onHH onooom H 0H NH HH 0H 0 0 N 0 0 « 0 N H AHNunV Ho>OH QnOHo Mnoz onH no mononHmnH HMHOHHHO noHnn HMOOH nHHB OHOHOHHOO hHo>HHHmoQ noan mOHQoHHw> Ho NHHHmE HonoHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "00 mHQcH 125 Three variables which measure the dbwnward flow of influence within the district positively correlate with local union official influence on the work group: second line supervisor on work group (.35); district manager on work group (.27), and first line supervisor on workers (.26). These correlations suggest that union officials exert influence on the work groups to the extent that their influence facilitates orderly Operations within the department. The external flow of influence from.management and workers to local union officials and from local union offi- cials to the organization positively correlates with local union official influence on the work group: workers, manager, company, first line supervisors on union Officials (.59), manager, company, first line supervisors on union Officials (.51), local union officials on the department (.37) and.workers on workers, local union officials and the respondent himself (.39). These correlations suggest the following interpretation: local union officials exert influence on the work group when they take actions with which the management of the company and/or union members agree. Union Officials are able to get COOperation from the company when they learn how to play ball with the company. Local union Officials get cOOperation and backing from workers when they take actions which are supported by union members. In addition, union officials increase their influence when workers are able to exercise control 126 over their co-workers. Finally, their ability to exercise influence on a higher organizational level allows or con- tributes to their ability to exercise influence on a lower level. Six other variables are positively correlated with local union official influence on the work group: refer- ence group: local union officials (.41); reference group: customers (.38); group size (.28); supervisor: welfare of men (.25); contact with custOmers (.36); contact with local union officials (.33). These variables suggest that the influence of local union officials on the work group increases as they come under the influence of management and reinforces the exercise of organizational authority that is aimed at providing customer service. Finally, the variables which negatively relate to local union official influence on the work group nega- tively relate to the variables which positively relate to local union official influence on the work group. This finding suggests that local union official influence on the work group is the product of two conflicting processes. The influence of local union officials increases as their actions support the exercise of formal authority that is aimed at the goal of customer service. The influence of local union Officials decreases as workers are able to construct a viable life space which gives them some func- tional autonomy (see Table 34). 127 00.: 00. N0.: 0H.: N«.: 0H.: 0«.: 0H.: 0N.: mHoHOHmHO nOHnn nHH3 HocHnOU 00.: 00.: 0H.: 0N.: N0. 0H.: 0H.: 0H.: 00.: whoaOHmno nHHS HooHnoo H0.: 0H.: NH. 0H.: 00.: 00.: 0H.: 0H.: HH.: non Ho chmmHoz "nomH>Hanm 0H.: 00.: 00.: «N.: «H.: 0N.: 0N.: 0N.: 0H.: Qnono Mnoz Ho ouHm «0.: N«.: NN.: 0N.: 0H.: HN.: 0N.: N0.: 00.: mnoaOHmnO "mononomom NH.: 0H.: 00.: 0«.: N0.: 0«.: «0.: H0.: 0N.: mHmHOHHHO noHnn "mononomom 0H.: NH.: H0.: «H.: NN.: 0N.: 00.: «H.: NN.: nOHnn no onHH HmH\OO\HoocnoS 0N.: NN.: 0N.: 0H.: 00.: 0N.: 0«.: NH.: 0N.: noHnn no onHH HmH\oo\Hoa\mHOMHOB 0N.: 0H.: NN.: 00.: 0N.: 0N.: NN.: 0«.: 0H.: Hoop no mHmHOHHmO noHnD 00.- 00.- 00.- HH.- NN.- 00.- 0N.- H0. 00. Lnon\sosco \mHOMHos no mHOMHOB 0N.: 00.: NN. H0. 0H.: HH.: 00. H0.: N0. mHOMHoz no onHH HmHHm 00. N0. 0n.- 00. 00.- HH.- 00.- NN.- N0.- moons macs so Humane: «0.: 00. «0.: «0. 0N.: 00.: NN.: 0H.: 0N.: anono MH03 no onHH onooom mono onHH anfiHHoonpoum comm mom HO>OH QnOHw onN HonHo HmH :moo mOHcm Mnoz. HHHMm no no nocHsoo -000 am Lnom Henna Hm>OH QnOHo Mnoz onH no mononHmnH HMHOHHHO noHnn HoOOH SHHS OHoHoHHOO NHO>HHHmom HOHnS moan :HHo> pnm OHoHOHHOO NHO>HHooon HOHns mOHooHHm> nooszQ mnOHHoHOHHOOHOHnH .00 canoe 128 Ideal Influence pp Depprtment Amount p: Influence The composition of the influence structure on the department and the ideal influence structure on the depart- ment is identical. .A mean ranking of these sources was constructed to determine the amount of influence each source should exert on the department and their relative position to each other (see Table 17). Local union officials hold a low rank in the ideal influence structure of the department with a mean of 2.9. They rank below division, district manager, company, cus- tomers, ATdT, second line supervisors and first line super- visors. They rank above workers and the respondent him- self. .A qualitative interpretation of the mean places local union officials at the high end of the "some influ- ence" category. The means range from 2.0 to 3.7. Mean differences were computed between local union officials and other sources of influence on the depart- ment in order to get a clearer picture of the relative influence local union Officials should exert on the depart- ment (see Table 35). These differences show local union officials should exert considerably less influence than division (.8), district manager (.8) and company (.5) and slightly less than customers (.4), AT&T (.4), second line supervisors (.4) and first line supervisors (.2). Local union officials should exert slightly more than workers 129 as a group (.3) and considerably more than the respondent himself (.9). Table 35: Mean differences between local union Officials and other sources of influence in the ideal influence structure of the department Source Mean Difference Division level peOple District manager Company level peOple Customer AT&T level peOple Second line supervisors First line supervisors Local union Officials WOrkers ReSpondent himself cocoon-pHm-moooo Although the rank of local union Officials does not change between the actual and ideal influence structures of the department, their relative influence certainly does. The relative influence of local union officials is increased in two ways. First, local union officials receive the second highest increase in influence. Second, the influence of several other sources is reduced. This process results in a shorter range of means and.a more equal distribution of influence (see Table 19). A comparison of the mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence in the ac- tual and ideal influence structures shows that local union officials would gain on all other sources of influence except workers if the ideal influence structure became 130 reality (see Table 36). The ideal influence structure gives local union officials considerable gains over AT&T (1.2), company (1.1), district manager (1.0), division (1.0) and second line supervisors (.6). Minor gains are granted to local union Officials Over customers (.3), first line supervisors (.1) and the respondent himself (.1). The ideal influence structure, however, would reduce the difference in influence which local union officials and workers have on the department (-.l). Table 36: Changes in the mean differences between local union officials and other sources of influence in the actual and ideal influence structures in the department Source .Actual Ideal Change District manager Division level peOple AT&T level people Company level peOple Second line supervisors Customers First line supervisors WOrkers . - Respondent himself - HHHH HHHHH HHHQGHNOO CDHPOOQOCfiQGDCD (cameo-9010000 These findings suggest that workers want to increase the capability of local union Officials to protect them from customers and management, particularly second line supervisors and above. 'WOrkers want slightly more protec- tion from first line supervisors; however, they do not want to increase the power of local union officials on the 131 department relative to their own power. In fact, workers want to decrease the power differential between themselves and local union Officials. Finally, workers feel local union Officials should be considerably more powerful than any individual worker, possibly to protect the group against any deviant individual. Correlates pf Influence The basic pattern which was revealed in the analysis of influence on the department and on the work group reappears in the analysis of ideal influence of local union Officials on the department. .A viable life space continues to be negatively related to local union offi- cial influence and the willingness of local union officials to COOperate with management continues to be positively related to local union Official influence (see Table 37). All variables which negatively correlate with the ideal influence of local union officials positively corre- late with each other. .Again, we suggest that these variables are components of a global variable which we are calling a viable life space (see Table 38). The following variables are considered cOmponents of a viable life space: workers on district manager and first line supervisors (-.36); individual on work group (-.35); first line supervisors on second line supervisors (-.27); a sense of belonging to work group (-.42); satis- faction with work and pay (-.40); skill level (- 31); 132 0N. Ho>oH HoHnoaHHonO no HHomaHn Hannonom 00. Ho>OH HoHnoaHHoQQO no Hooonoa HOHHHmHQ mononHHnH HooOH NN. Ho>OH HoHnoaHHoQoO onH no mHoEOHmno N0. Ho>OH anono MHOS no mHoHOHHHO noHnn HoOOH «0. mHoHOHmHO nOHnn HoOOH no mHOmH>Hanm onHH HmHHm N«. HO>OH HoHnonHHoQoO no mHoHOHHHO noHnn HoOOH N0. mHoHOHmmo nOHnn HoOOH no Hooonofi HOHHHmHm monumenH HonHOHNm NN.: mHOmH>Hoonm onHH Onoomm no mHOmH>Hanm onHH HmHHh 00.: Ho>OH QnOHo Mnos no HHomaHn HnoOnonom 00.: mHOmH>Hanm onHH HmHHH\HOoonoa HOHHHmHO no mHoMHoz mononHHnH Onozmd 0N.: HO>OH mocha Mnoz no Anogaoo 0N.: nOHmH>HO no hnogaoo monOnHHnH mmo3n3om mnoHHoHonnoo mOHQoHHo>\moxoOnH Mnom HHoOnoM :anv noson noosoatodoo one. so unononmoo condo HoooH mo mononHmnH HooOH onH HHHB OHoHOHHOO HOH53 moHQoHHo> Ono moxoOnH "N0 OHQoH 133 00.: mnoHHmooonm Haoooo OH mmmnonHHHHB m.HOmH>Hanm 0N. HowH>nanm Ono QnOHo Mhoz nooBHoQ HOHHHnOU mmwnmnOHHoHom oHonHOHOommeOHnomnm 00.: snoonoo Ono ooh no QnOHo nH mnmnomnoo 00.: anono mo wmono>Hmonoo 00.: HoonOOHQ noHn Ono noanHom Hmon OHoSOH oOnHHHHo. meHmHHOHOoHonO mmOHm Mnoz. NN.: now no no>Ho NHHHHQHmnOQmOH Ho Hnnoa¢. n0.- noson nnan 0«.: NoQ\MHO3 Ho OQNH nHHz noHHoommHHom N«.: mocha OH onHonOHon Ho omnom H0. anono mononomon mo mHoHOHmHO noHnn HoOOH nHHS noHHoOHmHHnoOH onoaonmmm HonOH>HOnH:oHHnH mnOHHoHoHHOO mOHQoHHo>\moxoOnH Moon nnooson ooscaocoo .NN onoca 134 mnOHHmooonm mHQoooo "HOmH>Hoonm 0H r-INC’J'diLOLOBGDO‘) 00. Nnooaoo Ono now no mnmnmmnoo NH 0«. NN. mocha Mao? mo muonopHmonoo HH NH. 00. 0H. annOOHQ\noamOHom OHoSOH oOnHHHHH. 0H NH. N0 .0N. N0. sssnsssusodocs Lo sssoss 0 00. 00. N0. on. 00. spoon nassm 0 n0. 0N. 00. 0N. HN. 0N. sod\sso3 sons sossosonssom N 00. 0N. 00. 0N. NN. 0n. HN. dsoso ssoz cs ossosonom 0 0n. NN. 00. 0N. Nn.-0a. on. 00. ossn osoooo so ossn susss 0 n0. «0. 00. 00. 00. no. 00. N0. 00. dso sacs so Lnonsss osmosonuom a 00. 00. 0s. 0N. 0H. 00. 0n. 0N. 00. NN. ossn son\sooosos so nsossoz. 0 N0. 00. 0H,.0n. 0n. e0.-0n .N0. 0N.-00.-0n.- dsoso ssos so ssodsoo N 00. N0. N0. 00r_00. NN. 00. 00. N0:.Nn. e0. 00. sosussso so ssodsoo n 0H NH HH 0H 0 0 N 0 0 « 0 N H HHNHnV HO>OH HoHnoaHHoQoO onH no mHoHOHHHO nOHnn HoOOH Ho mononHmnH HooOH nHHz OHoHOHHOO NHO>HHooon nOHns mOHQoHHo> HO NHHHoS HonOHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "00 OHQoH 135 amount of responsibility given on job (-.27); attitude toward best salesman and high producer (-.38); cohesiveness of group (-.30); consensus in group on job and company (-.30); and supervisor's willingness to accept suggestions (-.3s). I The first three variables listed above can be classi- fied as measures of upward influence. The more upward influence workers can exert on their behalf the less they need union officials to intercede for them. Consequently, the less influence they want to give them. The ability of first line supervisors to influence second line super- visors may negatively correlate with ideal influence of local union officials because the upward influence attempts by first line supervisors may be in support of better working conditions for the workers. Four other variables which negatively correlate with the ideal influence of local union officials measure intra- individual phenomena. When a worker develOps a sense of belonging to his work group, he is no longer an isolated individual. He forms primary relationships with his co- workers and he no longer feels like an outsider. In addi- tion, he can count on his co-workers for support independ- ent of any support he may receive from union officials. Satisfaction with type of work and pay makes the work situation more tolerable for the individual feels that he is getting an adequate return for doing something he likes to do. .As his skill level increases he becomes more 136 indispensable to the company and less able to be assisted by the union because of his link to technology. .As the amount of responsibility the worker is given on the job increases to the point where it is burdensome, the union official is seen as having little influence on his job. Several work group characteristics also contribute to the viable work situation. The feelings in the group toward the highest producer and tOp salesman are attitudes which support the company goals and consequently the rela- tionships between the work group and its superiors should be amiable. Cohesion allows the group to act as a unit rather than as separate individuals. Consequently, it is more able to protect its members and to get its demands met than the less cohesive group. Consensus on job and company enables the work group to develOp a definition of the situation which will guide its member's actions. .A common definition of the situation should reduce grievances and therefore reduce the need for union intervention. Superior-subordinate relationships also play a role. Acceptance of suggestions by the supervisor may eliminate irritations as well as give the worker some control over their jobs. It also provides the worker with Opportunities for self-enhancement. The correlations between company influence on the division and.work group levels and ideal influence of local union officials are not readily explainable. 137 .All variables which positively relate to the ideal influence of local union officials are positively related to each other. This suggests that these variables are com- ponents of a more global variable which we are calling the willingness of union officials to cOOperate with management in providing customer service (see Table 39). Most of the variables which positively relate to ideal influence of local union officials are measures of the flow of influence from management to local union officials and from local union officials to the two organizational levels: district manager on local union officials (.52), first line supervisors on local union officials (.34), local union officials on department (.47), local union offi- cials on work group (.32) and customers on department (.27). These correlatiOns suggest that the ideal influence of union officials is related to the willingness of union officials to support the demands made by management on workers in the name of customer service. When this occurs, it appears workers are more likely to take local union officials as a reference group (.31). Three other variables suggest the possibility that the increase in the influence of local union officials is associated with the conception of the union as a counter- vailing power: ideal influence of manager (.33), respond- ent himself on department (.26) and conflict between work group and supervisor (.26). 138 0 HomH>Hanm nHHB HOHHHnOU 0 0 00. wHoHOHHHo nOHnn noonmuomom 0 N 00. 00.- oHousHs HsoosodooH 0o oososHssH HoooH N 0 0N. HH. NH. sooosos 0o oososHssH HomoH 0 0 0H. N0. 0H. 0N. Hsosssodoo so msososnso 0 a N0. He. 0H. 00. 0N. noose Hsos so mHoHonoo soHsp a 0 NH. NN. 0H. 00.- NH. 00. mHoHoHHHo soHss so osHH HusHm 0 N 0H. 0N. N0. NH. 0N. N0. 0H. Hsosssodoo so nHoHoHLHo soHsp N H 0N. NN. NH. 0N. N0. 00. «a. 0N. uHoHoHLHo soHss so soocsos H 0 0 N 0 0 « 0 N H HHNunv HO>OH HoHnoaHHoQoO onH no mHoHOHmmo noHnn HoOOH HO mononHHnH HooOH nHHS OHoHoHHOO NHO>HHHmOQ HOHHS moHQoHHo> mo xHHHoa HonOHHoHoHHOOHoHnH "00 oHQoB 139 The variables which positively correlate with ideal influence of local union officials and the variables which negatively correlate with the ideal influence of local union Officials are negatively correlated with each other (see Table 40). This suggests that the ideal influence of local union officials is a product of conflicting processes: the attempt by workers to develOp a viable life space which includes functional autonomy and the willingness of local union Officials to support demands made by management on workers for customer service. Ideal influence of local union officials also appears related to the conception of the union as a countervailing power. Summary Local union officials appear to exert a low amount of influence on the departmental and work group levels. On the departmental level they rank below all other sources of influence except workers and the respondent himself. On the work group level they rank below all other sources of influence except the respondent himself. On both organi- zational levels the mean differences separating local union officials from other sources of influence are considerable. The rank position does not change for local union officials in the ideal influence structure; however, their relative influence increases as they receive the second largest increase in power while the most powerful sources suffer decreases in influence. 140 0«.: 00.: «H.: N0.: 00. NN.: ««.: 0N.: 00.: mnoHHmooonm mHQoooo "HomH>Hanm 00.- HH.- 0N.- 00.- NH.- 00.- 00. 00.- 0H.- Nsodsoo oso soH so monsonsoo 00.- NN.- 0N.- 0N.- 0H.- 0H.- 0H.- 0N.- 0N.- moon0 ssos 0o unosossoosoo 00. 00.- 00.- 0H.- NH. N0.- 0N.- 00.- 0N.- HoosoosfisosmoHso "oosHHHHs H0.- 0H.- NN. HH.- NN.- N0. N0.- 0H.- 0H.- NHHHHoHnsodoos Ho Hssoss 0H.- 00.- 0H.- 0N.- 0N.- N0.- 00.- NN.- NN.- HosoH HHHHm 0N.- 00.- 0N.- 00.- 00.- 0N.- 0H.- 00.- 0N.- NodHHsos sHHs soHHoosoHsom 00.- 0N.- 0N.- 0H.- N0.- 00.- 0H.- 0N.- 0N.- noose Msos oH osHosoHom 0H.- 0N.- H0.- 0N.- NN.- N0.- 0H.- 0H.- 0N.- osHH osoooo so osHH HmsHm NH.- H0.- 0N.- 0N.- N0.- H0.- NN.- 00.- 0H.- one ssos so HHonsHs Hsoosonoom HH.- 0H.- 00,- H0.- 0H.- 0H.- N0.- 00. N0.- osHH HosHHHsooosos so psossoz 0H. 00. 0N. HH. 0H. 00.- 0N.- NH.- N0.- nooso ssoz so Nsodsoo 0N.- HH.- 0H. 0H.- 00.- 00. NH.- 0N.- 00.- soHanHo so Nsonsoo HoHHH soHss HHom so: some ass soHsp Hops soHs: :noo "mom HooOH HooOH mamaOH no no no no :mno nOHnD HmH nOHnD no: Ho>oH HoHnoaHHoQoO 05H no mHoHOHHHo noHnn HoOOH mo mononHmnH HooOH onH nHHz OHonHHOO >HO>HHHmOQ JOHHS mOHQo :HHo> Ono OHoHOHHOO >HO>HHoOon HOHHB mOHQoHHo> noozHoQ mnoHHoHOHHOOHOHnH "0« OHQoB 141 The variables which correlate with local union offi- cial influence exhibit a consistent pattern which holds across type of influence and level of organization on which influence is exerted. The consistent pattern is revealed when the variables are classified under six headings: down- ward influence, upward influence, external influence, intra- individual phenomena, work group characteristics and superior-subordinate relationships. Downward influence negatively relates to local union official influence when it originates above the district and positively relates when it originates within the dis- trict. Upward influence is negatively related to local union official influence. External influence is positively related to union influence whether the flow of influence is from the organization to local union officials, from customers to the organization or from local union officials to the organization. Intra-individual phenomena, for the most part, negatively relate with local union official influence. WOrk group characteristics and superior- subordinate relations also negatively relate to the local union official influence in most cases. Local union official influence, consequently, appears to be the product of two conflicting processes: construc- tion of a viable life space by workers which allows them some functional autonomy and the willingness of union Officials to support demands made by management in the name of customer service. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS Introduction The problem under investigation in this study was the perception of external influence by members of an organiza- tion. The specific goals of the investigation were (1) to determine the amount of influence the external sources were perceived to exert on the organization and (2) to isolate some variables which were related, positively or negatively, to the perception of external influence. The data for this secondary analysis were collected in a district plant department of the Michigan Bell Telephone Company. The pOpulation of the plant department included 180 workers and 27 supervisors. This study is limited to the workers who were organized into 21 work groups. These work groups were primarily responsible for the construction of the outside plant and for the installa- tion and maintenance of telephones and related equipment. Two sources of external influence were investigated in this study--customers and local union officials. Both of these sources are considered part of the task environ- ment of a work organization. The influence of customers and local union officials is measured on two organizational levels--departmental and work group. 142 143 Two types of influence are measured--actual and ideal. Actual influence is the amount of influence the source does exert on the organization. Ideal influence is the amount of influence the source should exert on the organi- zation. .Actual influence is measured on the departmental and work group levels. Ideal influence is measured only on the departmental level. Perceptual data are employed in the study because advocates of the phenomenological approach to the study of social reality have advanced a persuasive argument which asserts that human behavior is influenced as much or more by perceived or experienced reality as it is by objective reality. The unit of analysis is the work group. The pOpula- tion contains 21 cases. The measure of association is Kendall rank correlation. Group means are employed in the correlations rather than individual scores because the group means are more stable and reliable; for the random errors of individuals are much more likely to cancel each other out. The remainder of this chapter is divided into the following parts: (1) Customer influence, (2) Local union official influence, (3) Customer vs local union official influence, (4) External sources of influence and (5) Future research. 144 Customer Influence .Amount pf Influence Customers are a moderate source of actual influence on the plant department. The mean influence of customers on the departmental and work group levels is identical, 2.9. Customers rank sixth among the ten sources of influence measured on the departmental level and they rank eighth among the 14 sources of influence measured on the work group level. .A qualitative interpretation of this mean places customers at the high end of the "some influence" category. The sources of influence measured on the depart- mental level were AT&T, company, division, district manager, second line supervisor, first line supervisor, customers, local union Officials, workers and the respondent himself. Four additional sources were measured on the work group level: job specifications, units of productivity, tools and equipment and equipment designer. .Although the absolute amount of actual influence cus- tomers are perceived to exert on both organizational levels is identical, the relative amount of influence customers exert on the two levels is quite different. In part, this is due to the difference in the range of means on the two organizational levels--l.4 to 4.0 on the departmental level and 2.0 to 3.7 on the work group level. Customers are considerably less powerful than four sources of influence on the departmental level and considerably 145 more powerful than three sources. On the work group level customers are considerably less influential than only one other source and considerably more influential than two sources. Sources much more powerful than customers on the departmental level are the district manager, division, AT&T and company. Customers are considerably more powerful than the respondent himself, workers and local union Offi- cials. Customers are slightly less powerful than second line supervisors and slightly more powerful than first line supervisors. The major sources of influence on the depart- mental level, then, are well within the boundaries of the Bell System, but above the department in the organizational hierarchy. Customers are only more influential than the front-line of the organization-~the first line supervisors and workers who directly provide them with service. The picture changes somewhat on the work group level where the range of means decreases sharply because of a more even distribution of influence among the 14 sources measured. Consequently, customers only exercise consider- ably less influence than first 1ine supervisors and con- siderably more influence than the respondent himself and local union Officials. The other sources of influence are either slightly above the customers--second line super- visors, district manager, tools and equipment, job specifi- cations, and division--or slightly below customers--equip- ment designer, AT&T, and workers. Customers exert about 146 the same amount of influence on the work group level as the company and units of productivity. It is difficult to be at ease with the above compari- son because the addition of the four impersonal controls on the work group level prevents a direct comparison of cus- tomer influence on the two levels from being made. Inclu- sion of the control mechanisms may, in fact, distort the position of influence customers hold on the work group. .According to the ranking, customers are above the company and.AT&T but below tools and equipment, job specifications and units of productivity. However, these impersonal con- trols are largely in the hands of the company and AT&T. The position of customers improves in the ideal influ- ence structure on the departmental level. The mean increases to 3.3 and customers move up the ranking struc- ture to a tie for fourth place. .A qualitative interpreta- tion of the mean places customers in the "quite a bit" category. The means range from 2.0 to 3.7 in the ideal structure which is identical to the range of means on the work group level. Customers do not exercise considerably less influence than any other source, but they do exercise considerably more influence than the respondent himself. Customers should exercise slightly less influence than division, the district manager and the company and they should exercise slightly more influence than local union officials and first line supervisors. Customers should be about equal with.AT&T and second line supervisors. 147 The improvement in the position of customers in the ideal influence structure on the departmental level is due to two factors: (1) an increase of influence for cus- tomers and (2) a redistribution of influence within the Bell System. The amount of influence customers should exert on the departmental level was slightly increased. The redistribution of influence within the Bell System took influence away from AT&T, company, district manager, division and gave additional influence to workers, local union officials, first line supervisors, the respondent himself, and second line supervisors. This adjustment in the influence structure indicates workers are seeking more functional autonomy for the plant department, but, more particularly, the front line of the organization--first line supervisors and the workers--from the upper levels of management and customers. In addition, the redistribution of influence reduces the influence gap separating customers from upper management; however, it also reduces the influ- ence gap separating customers from the front-line of the organization. Consequently, this change in the structure would allow customers to exert more pressure on upper management for service, but it would also allow the front- line of the organization more autonomy in deciding how the service would be provided. 148 Correlates p: Influence The variables which correlate with customer influence exhibit a consistent pattern which holds across type of influence and level of organization on which influence is exerted. The consistent pattern is revealed when the variables are classified under five headings: downward influence, upward influence, external influence, intra- individual phenomena and work group characteristics. Downward influence is positively related to actual customer influence on both organizational levels and to ideal customer influence on the departmental level. Customer influence on the departmental level positively correlates with the following measures of downward influ- ence: district manager on first line supervisors and workers, distant management on department, second line supervisor on work group, company on second line supervisor, and district manager on the respondent himself. Distant management is defined as AT&T, company and division. On the work group level, customer influence positively corre- lates with the following measures of downward influence: local and distant management on work group, district manager on first line supervisors, first line supervisors on workers, company on work group, and impersonal control on work group. Local management is defined as district manager and second line supervisors. Impersonal control is defined as job specifications, units of productivity and equipment designer. Ideal customer influence also 149 positively correlates with three measures of downward influence: company on second line supervisors, first line supervisors and workers, local and distant management on workers and.manager on manager, first line supervisor and workers. The correlation between the downward flow of influ- ence within the organization and the perception of cus- tomer influence on the organization is consistent with existing organizational theory. The Michigan Bell Telephone Company is an organization in business to make a profit by selling a service to customers. Consequently, it can be assumed that customer service is a goal of that organiza- tion. Given that assumption and taking a functional perspective, one would expect the formal authority struc- ture to exert internal pressure on behalf of customers. The number and strength of the correlations, however, suggest the pressure is not overwhelming. The upward flow of influence within the organization also correlates with the perception of customer influence. Some of the correlations are positive; others are negative. The nature of the correlation appears to depend on the source and the destination of the influence attempt. Up- ward influence positively correlates with the actual influence Of customers on both organizational levels when the influence flows from the district manager and first line supervisors to distant management. Two correlations reflect this relationship on the departmental level: 150 district manager on distant management and first line super- visor On distant management. Three correlations support this conclusion on the work group level: first line super- visors on AT&T, district manager on division and first line supervisor on division. The relationship between upward influence and ideal customer influence is consistent, but weak: first line supervisors on.AT&T and division. Upward influence which originates at the front-line of the organization and is directed at local management negatively correlates with the actual influence of customers on both organizational levels and with the ideal influence of customers. Two correlations on the departmental level support this conclusion: workers on district manager and first line supervisor on local management. Three correla- tions appear to support the finding on the work group level: first line supervisor on district manager, first line supervisors on second line supervisors and workers on department. The upward flow of influence from the front line of the organization to local management is much more strongly related to ideal influence of customers than it is related to the actual influence of customers. This conclusion is based on the following correlations: first line supervisor on district manager, first line supervisor on second line supervisor, and workers on local management. The upward flow of influence which positively corre- lates with customer influence may be interpreted in terms of real and stated goals of an organization. The downward 151 flow of influence, most likely, promotes customer service as a stated goal. .Actions, however, speak louder than words. Consequently, the perception of customer influence increases when upper levels of management accede to demands made upon organizational resources by organizational members who are directly responsible for providing cus- tomer service. The upward influence which negatively correlates with customer influence appears to be a bid for functional autonomy by members of the front-line of the organization; for it negatively correlates with downward influence, upward influence on distant management and ideal influence of customers. Consequently, this flow of influence appears to be boundary maintaining activity by the front-line, possibly to defend itself against over- zealous pursuit of customer service by either local manage- ment or customers. External influence which measures the flow of influ- ence between the organization and its task environment appears to be positively related to the actual influence of customers on both organizational levels and to the ideal influence of customers. The flow Of influence moves along three paths: (1) organization to local union offi- cials, (2) local union officials to organization, and (3) customers to organization. The data did not contain a measure of the influence flowing from the organization to customers. The flow of influence from the organization to local union officials correlates with customer influence 152 on the departmental level--workers and management on local union officials and management on local union officials-- and with customer influence on the work group level--manage- ment on local union officials. Management is defined as company and district manager. The influence flow from the organization to local union official also correlates with the ideal influence of customers--district manager on local union officials. The reverse of the above flow-- local union officials to organization-~only correlates with customer influence on the work group--local union officials on work group. The flow of influence from customer to organization shows the ability to influence one organiza- tional level correlates with the ability to influence the other level. In addition, the ideal influence of customers correlates with the actual influence of customers on the departmental level and the work group level. The flow of influence from the organization to local union officials may positively correlate with customer influence because the ability of management to influence local union officials may result in fewer work stOppages or slowdowns and to a liberal interpretation of the work rules in the contract which increases the organization's flexibility in handling demands for customer service. The flow of influence from local union officials to the organi- zation may positively correlate with customer influence because local union officials may enforce work rules and productivity standards. Finally, the ability of 153 customers to exert influence on one organizational level may be related to their ability to exert influence on another level because once the boundary of the organiza- tion is spanned the organizational members who have respon- sibilities in the area must respond. Their response to the influence attempt may involve other organizational levels. Intra-individual phenomena only correlates with the actual influence of customers and the correlations are primarily negative. Three variables account for the nega- tive correlations on both organizational levels: freedom to set own work pace, satisfaction with kind of work per- formed and skill level. The only positive correlation was between customer influence on the work group level and identification with customers as a reference group. The intra-individual phenomena may negatively corre- late with customer influence because the specific vari- ables measured decrease the individual's sensitivity to environmental pressure. The one variable which positively correlates with customer influence links the worker with the customer and consequently Opens him to influence at- tempts from customers. 'WOrk group characteristics also negatively correlate with customer influence. Consensus on job and company negatively correlates with actual influence of customers on work group level and with ideal customer influence. Time worked with group members negatively correlated with 154 actual customer influence on the department. These vari- ables support the argument that functional autonomy decreases the perception of customer influence. Three other variables which positively correlate with customer influence strengthen the functional autonomy argument because they reduce functional autonomy. Actual influence of customers on the departmental level corre- lates with compliments from supervisor while the ideal influence of customers correlates with membership in other organizations and contact with workers. Finally, it should be noted that the variables which positively correlate with customer influence on each organizational level positively correlate with each other while those variables which negatively correlate with customer influence positively correlate with each other. Consequently, customer influence appears to be the pro- duct of two conflicting processes: commitment to the goal of customer service and the bid for functional autonomy by the front line of the organization. The commitment to customer service can be seen in the downward flow of influence, the upward flow of influence to distant manage- ment, the external flow of influence and the adOption of customers as a reference group. The bid for functional autonomy is exhibited in the influence attempts the front-line makes on local management, the intra-individual phenomena and.work group characteristics. 155 Local Union Official Influence .Amount pf Influence Local union officials are a low source of actual influence on the plant department. The mean influence of local union officials on the departmental level is 2.2; on the work group level it is 2.1. ,A qualitative inter- pretation of these means places local union officials at the low end of the "some influence" category. Local union Officials rank eighth among the ten sources of influence measured on the departmental level and thirteenth among the fourteen sources of influence measured on the work group level. The sources of influence measured on the departmental and work group levels are given in the sec- tion on customer influence. The ranges of means on the two organizational levels-- l.4 to 4.0 on the departmental level and 2.0 to 3.7 on the work group level-~are quite different. However, the rela- tive position of local union officials remains approxi- mately the same. Local union officials are considerably less powerful than several sources on both organizational levels. On the departmental level mean differences show local union officials exercise considerably less influence than the district manager, division, ATdT, company, second line supervisors and customers. They further indicate local union officials exercise slightly less influence than first line supervisors and slightly more than the 156 workers as a group. Local union Officials are only con- siderably more influential than the respondent himself. Local union officials, then, exert a low amount of influ- ence on the departmental level and they rank below all levels of management and customers. They only exert more influence than the individuals they represent. On the work group level, mean differences show that local union officials exercise considerably less influence than first line supervisors, second line supervisors, district manager, tools and equipment, job specifications, division, units of productivity, customers, company, workers, AT&T and equipment designer. Local union offi- cials only exercise slightly more influence than the respondent himself. Local union officials continue to rank eighth in a field of ten in the ideal influence structure on the departmental level; however, the absolute amount of influ- ence they should exert increases and their relative posi- tion improves. Mean differences show local union offi- cials should exert considerably less influence than divi- sion, district manager, company and slightly less than customers, ATdT, second line supervisors and first line supervisors. Local union officials should exert slightly more influence than workers as a group and considerably more influence than the respondent himself. A comparison of the mean differences between local union Officials and other sources of influence in the 157 actual and ideal influence structures shows that local union officials would gain on all other sources of influence except workers if the ideal influence structure became reality. The ideal influence structure gives local union Officials considerable gains on AT&T, company, district manager, division, and second line supervisors. Minor gains are granted local union officials over customers and first line supervisors. The ideal influence structure, however, does not give local union Officials any gain on the respond- ent himself and reduces the difference between local union officials and workers. These findings suggest workers want to increase the capability of local union officials to protect them from customers and management, particularly second line super- visors and above. In addition, the findings suggest workers do not want local union officials to have addi- tional influence over the front line of the organization: first line supervisors and workers. The large differ- ential which is maintained between local union officials and the respondent himself suggests the local union officials should keep individual workers in line. Correlates pf Influence The variables which correlate with local union Offi- cial influence also exhibit a consistent pattern which holds across type of influence and level of organization on which the influence is exerted. The consistent pattern 158 is revealed when the variables are classified under six headings: downward influence, upward influence, external influence, intra-individual phenomena, work group charac- teristics and superior-subordinate relationships. Downward influence is positively and negatively related to local union official influence. The positive relation- ship only appears at the work group level: second line supervisor on work group, district manager on work group and first line supervisor on workers. The negative rela- tionship only appears at the departmental level, but it includes both types of influence. .Actual influence of local union officials on the departmental level negatively correlates with impersonal controls on work group and with company on workers. The ideal influence of local union officials negatively correlates with company on division and company on work group level. The positive correlations between the actual influ- ence of local union Officials on the work group level and downward influence suggests local union officials increase their influence by supporting the formal authority struc- ture within the district. By supporting the formal authority structure local union officials obligate local management to respond fairly to their requests. The nega- tive correlations between the actual influence of local union officials on the departmental level and downward influence indicates the limitations which local union officials have on their influence. The company level of 159 management appears to be outside of their sphere of influ- ence. The negative correlations between the ideal influ- ence of local union officials and downward influence may be the result of pro-company attitudes. Upward influence is negatively correlated with the actual influence of local union officials on both organi- zational levels and to their ideal influence on the depart- mental level. On the departmental level the actual influ- ence of local union officials negatively correlates with the amount of influence the respondent himself has on the work group. On the work group level the actual influence of local union Officials negatively correlates with the influence of first line supervisors on second line super- visors and with the respondent himself on work group. Ideal influence of local union officials negatively corre- lates with workers' influence on district manager and first line supervisors, influence of respondent himself on work group and first line supervisors on second line supervisors. The flow of upward influence which correlates with the influence of local union Officials is contained within the district; it does not involve distant management. These correlations suggest the more influence the front line can exert over its behavior the less influence local union officials are perceived to have. The functional autonomy of the front line may reduce the perception of local union official influence because it may reduce the number of grievances and quickly solve those which do arise. 160 External influence which measures the flow of influ- ence between the organization and its task environment appears to be positively related to the actual influence of local union officials on both organizational levels and to the ideal influence of local union Officials. The flow of influence moves along three paths: (1) organiza- tion to local union officials, (2) local unionofficials to organization, and (3) customers to organization. The data did not contain a measure of the influence flowing from the organization to customers. The flow of influence from the organization to local union Officials correlates with local union Official influence on the departmental 1evel--workers and district manager on local union offi- cials and company, district manager and first line super- visors on local union Officials--and with local union Official influence on the work group level--workers, dis- trict manager, company and first line supervisors on local union officials and district manager, company, first line supervisors on local union officials and district manager, company, first line supervisors on local union officials. The influence flow from the organization to local union officials also correlates with the ideal influence of local union officials--district manager on local union officials and first line supervisors on local union officials. The reverse of the above flow-~local union officials to organization--shows the ability to influence one organi- zational level correlates with the ability to influence 161 the other level. 'In addition, the ideal influence of local union officials correlates with the actual influence of local union Officials--local union Officials on department and local union officials on work group. The flow of influence from customer to organization is only related to the ideal influence of local union officials--customers on the departmental level. The flow of influence from the organization to local union officials positively correlates with local union official influence because local union officials lack a base of support given the technology employed in the telephone industry and the ambivalent attitude workers have toward the union. Therefore, the influence of local union officials is based on the support they give the formal authority structure. The more local union officials support the formal authority structure the more they come under the control of management. The positive correlation between management control of union officials and the ideal influence of local union officials indicates the membership is satisfied with the situation. The ability of local union officials to exercise influence at one organizational level may be related to their ability to exert influence on another level because the interdepend- ence of the levels may require action at other levels when influence is successfully exerted at any level. Finally, the correlation between the ideal influence of local union officials and the actual influence of customers on the 162 department indicates that local union officials may be a countervailing power of customers. .Another correlation which links the ideal influence of local union officials with the actual influence of the district manager on the department supports the conceptualization of local union officials as a countervailing power. Intra-individual phenomena is positively and nega- tively correlated with local union official influence on both organizational levels and with the ideal influence Of local union Officials. The positive correlations are all related to reference group phenomena: identification with local union Officials as reference group on depart- ment, on work group, and ideal influence. Identification with customers as a reference group also positively corre- lates with local union official influence on the work group level. Four variables negatively correlate with local union official influence on the departmental level: satisfaction with type of work, sense of belonging to work group and cohesiveness of work group, skill level and satisfaction with pay. Three variables negatively corre- late with local union official influence on the work group level: skill level, satisfaction with pay and freedom to set work pace. Four variables negatively correlate with the ideal influence of local union officials: sense of belonging to work group, satisfaction with type of work and pay, skill level and amount of responsibility given on job. 163 The reference group variables positively correlate with the perception of local union official influence because the adoption of a reference group Opens the indi- vidual to influence attempts from the reference group since he has adOpted its definition of the situation. Consequently, he is more likely to perceive influence attempts from it and to use the attempts as guidelines for his behavior. The variables which negatively correlate with local union official influence reduce the perception of union influence because they reduce the worker's reli- ance upon the union to provide him with an amenable work environment. WOrk group characteristics also positively and nega- tively correlate with local union official influence. Two variables positively correlate with union official influ- ence--size on work group level and conflict between work group and supervisor with ideal influence. Attitude in work group toward best salesman and high producer negatively correlates with union official influence on the depart- mental level, on the work group level, and with ideal influence. .Another variable which negatively correlates on the departmental level is time worked with members of work group. Two other variables negatively correlate on the work group level: cohesiveness of work group and consensus in group on job and company. Local union official influence is related to size of work group because the largest work groups are the 164 least skilled work groups. Conflict between work group and supervisor is positively correlated to the ideal influ- ence of local union officials because workers need more representation when they are in conflict with their superiors, and consequently, they want more influence for their protectors-~union Officials. The negatively corre- lated variables contribute to a productive working relation- ship between the workers and their superiors and provide the security of a stable, closely-knit work group which agrees on the definition of the situation. These condi- tions further reduce the worker's reliance on union offi- cials and consequently leads them to perceive less influ- ence. Superior-subordinate relations positively and nega- tively correlate with local union Official influence. There is only one positive correlation in this grou -- supervisor's interest in the welfare of his men with union influence on the work group level. Four negative corre- lations appear in this group. On the departmental level local union official influence negatively correlates with time under present supervisor. On the work group level local union official influence negatively correlates with contact with first line supervisors and.with supervisor's willingness to accept suggestions. Ideal influence of local union officials negatively correlates with super- visor's willingness to accept suggestions. 165 The positive correlation between supervisor's interest in the welfare of his men and union influence on the work group level indicates the union is given some credit for this interest. The negatively correlated variables again suggest that stable relationships between superiors and subordinates which are characterized by frequent contact and the superior's willingness to listen to his subordinates reduces the dependability of the worker on the union, and therefore, reduces his perception of union influence. Three other variables appear to be moderately corre- lated with local union official influence. Membership in other organizations is negatively related to union influ- ence on the department and on the work group. Contact with local union officials positively correlates with union influence on the department and on the work group. Contact with customers positively correlates with union influence on the work group. Membership in other organizations may negatively correlate with union influence because it puts the worker in contact with other individuals who may convince him of the ineffectiveness of the union. Contact with local union officials, on the other hand, positively correlates with union influence because the contact allows union officials to report their successes and defend their failures. Finally, it should be noted that the variables which positively correlate with labor union influence on each organizational level positively correlate with each other 166 while those variables which negatively correlate with local union Official influence positively correlate with each other and negatively correlate with the positively corre- lated variables. Local union official influence, conse- quently, appears to be the product of two conflicting processes: construction of a viable life space by workers which allows them some functional autonomy and the willing- ness of union officials to support demands made by manage- ment in the name of customer service. The bid for func- tional autonomy is exhibited in the influence attempts the front-line makes on local management, the intra-individual phenomena, work group characteristics and superior- subordinate relationships. The willingness of union offi- cials to support management can be seen in the downward flow of influence within the district, the external flow of influence and the adoption of local union officials as a reference group. Customers yp Local Union Officials .Amount pf Influence Customers exert more influence on the department and work group levels than do local union officials and the workers want customers to exert more influence on the departmental level than do local union officials although the workers did reduce the gap between them. Customers have an identical mean, 2.9, on both organi- zational levels. They rank sixth on the departmental 167 level and eighth on the work group level. Local union officials have a mean of 2.2 on the departmental level and 2.1 on the work group. They rank eighth on the depart- mental level and thirteenth on the work group level. The amount of influence customers and local union officials exert on one organizational level approximately equals the amount of influence they exert on the other level. Both customers and local union officials receive increases in power in the ideal influence structure. Cus- tomers move to a mean of 3.3 and a tie for fourth place. Local union officials move to a mean of 2.8 but retain their eighth rank. The mean increase for customers was .4 while the increase for local union officials was .7, thereby, decreasing the gap between customers and local union Officials by .3. Correlates pf Influence The influence of customers and local union Officials appear to be related to the same groups of variables-- downward influence, upward influence, external influence, intra-individual phenomena and work group characteristics. The influence of local union officials also relates to superior-subordinate relationships. The correlations between these groups of variables and customer and local union official influence support the broad approach taken toward the problem in this exploratory study. 168 .Although customers and local union officials' influ- ence are related to the same groups of variables, the degree of relationship differs. Customer influence appears more highly related to the formal structure of the organi- zation while local union official influence appears more highly related to the informal structure of the organiza- tion. The number and strength of the correlations relate customer influence more strongly to the flow of influence within the organization while local union official influ- ence relates more strongly to intra-individual phenomena, work group characteristics and superior-subordinate rela- tionships. External influence appears important to customer and local union official influence. Customer influence appears to be actively supported by the organization. The formal authority structure exerts pressure on behalf of customers and it is receptive to pressures originating from customers. In addition, the organization takes steps to control relevant elements of the task environment which may take actions that are harmful to customers. Local union official influence is more directly related to the life space of the individual worker than it is to the formal authority of the organization. Local union officials appear to lose influence when the life space of the individual improves while their influence appears to increase when the life space of the individual 169 worker deteriorates. In comparison with customer influ- ence, the influence of local union officials seems to increase as they actively support the formal authority structure rather than the other way around. Finally, both customers' and local union officials' influence negatively correlates with variables which appear to measure a bid for functional autonomy by the front-line of the organization and positively correlate with variables which reduce the functional autonomy of the front-line of the organization. External §ources pf Influence Up to this point the conclusions of this study have stayed close to the data. Since one of the tasks of science is to produce general statements which cover a wide range of phenomena, the remaining conclusions of this study will be stated at a higher level of abstraction. Consequently, these statements will be phrased in terms of external sources of influence rather than the influ- ence of customers and local union Officials. The data presented in the preceding section of this chapter suggest the following five general statements about external sources of influence: 1. The amount of influence external sources may exert on an organization is inversely related to the functional autonomy of the organization and its subparts. This is the most general statement suggested by this study. The statement, in fact, is true by definition; 170 for the more autonomous the organization the less Open it is to external pressure. The statement, however, is not limited to the organization as a whole. It also deals with the organization composed of many subparts all of which are seeking functional autonomy. The functional autonomy of the organization as a whole determines whether the external system will be able to enter the internal system. The functional autonomy of the subparts determines the sc0pe of the impact the external pressure will have on the internal system. 2. External sources of influence are subordinate to one or more internal sources of influence. This statement is based on the finding that in all three influence structures the external sources of influ- ence are always less influential than one or more internal sources of influence. Our definition of an organization as an Open system seeking closure in order to pursue goals through decision making in bounded rationality would lead one to expect this result. An organization whose major sources of influence on the internal system.were in the external system would find it difficult to pursue its goals rationally because of the constraints and contin- gencies the external sources would pose for them. In addition, the basic Opposition between in-groups and out- groups argues against the control of in-groups by out- groups. 171 3. The amount of influence an external source of influence exerts on an organization depends upon its base of support in the organization. The amount of influence customers and local union offi- cials did and should exercise on the plant department dif- fered. Customers consistently exercised.more influence than did local union officials. The difference may be due to the fact that the formal authority structure of the organization supported the influence of customers but not the influence of local union officials. The influence of customers was more directly related to organizational goals while the influence of local union officials was more directly related to individual goals. In addition, the organization depends on customers more than it depends on the union. 4. The ability of an external source of influence to exert influence on one organizational level provides a basis for exerting influence on other levels. The ability of customers and local union Officials to exert influence on the departmental and.work group levels is moderately correlated. This means the ability to influ- ence one organizational level provides a basis, but it does not guarantee the ability to influence other organi- zational levels. The ability to influence one organiza- tional level correlates with the ability to influence another level because once the external source of influ- ence crosses the organizational boundary at one point it has entered the internal system. Then, the part of the 172 internal system at which the pressure is being applied may or may not be able to exert pressure on other parts on behalf of the external source. This reasoning draws atten- tion to the point at which the influence attempt enters the organization and the distance between that point and the position of authority which must be influenced. 5. External sources of influence are interdependent. The amount of influence an external source of influ- ence can exert on an organization is related to the amount of influence other external sources of influence can exert on the organization. In fact, the influence of one source may depend on the ability of the organization to counter influence attempts from other sources. This is demonstrated by the correlations between management control of local union officials and customer influence and the correla- tions between customer influence and local union Official influence. In addition, the correlations between member- ship in other organizations and customer influence and local union influence indicate that environmental elements not included in the task environment may affect the influence elements of the task environment have on an organization. Future Research In this section some suggestions are Offered for fu- ture research which call for modifications in existing organizational theory and research strategies. The sug- gestions are concerned with the flow of influence from 173 environment to organization; the flow of influence from organization to environment; the interdependence which exists between the flows of influence between the organi- zation and its environment; the definition of organization; and.the global nature of the concepts of organization and environment. The findings of this study provide empirical support for the prOposition that the external system or environ- ment exerts influence on the internal system or organiza- tion. The influence of the environment, however, was hardly deterministic and the environmental forces were always subordinated to internal sources of influence. These findings seriously question the ability of the environment to exert substantial influence on the internal system and, therefore, point to the necessity of deter- mining which characteristics of organizations coupled with which characteristics of environments permit the environ- ment to exert more or less influence over which types of organizational behavior. In other words, we suggest looking for the factors which affect the dependency rela- tionship which exists between the organization and its environment and asking which organizational behavior can the environment affect when the dependency relationship is in its favor. This study suggests four variables which strengthen the position of the organization: monOpoly of a necessity, size, chronological maturity and automated equipment. 174 Organizational theorists appear primarily concerned with the flow of influence from the environment to the organization, largely ignoring the fact that organizations do not passively accept influence from the environment, but actively seek to shape, block, and control the type and.amount of influence the environment can exert upon it. Consequently, it appears necessary to determine which characteristics of environments permit the organization to exert more or less influence over which types of environmental behavior. These factors may or may not be the same factors which allow the environment to exert influence on the organization. This study points to this dimension in the findings reported on the ability of the organization to control local union officials. Another line of thought worth pursuing is the inter- dependence which exists between the flows of influence between the organization and the environment; for the ability of the environment to influence the organization may rest on the ability of the organization to influence the environment. Remember the ability of local union officials to influence the organization depended upon the ability of the organization to influence local union Offi- cials. In addition, the influence of customers was linked to the ability of the organization to influence local union Officials. These findings also point to the necessity of differentiating the concept of environment into its com- ponent parts. 175 The above conceptualization of the relationship between the organization and its environment questions the definition of an organization as an Open system seeking closure in order to pursue goals through decision making in bounded rationality. Rather than seeking closure it appears the organization attempts to regulate the permea- bility of its boundary in order to Obtain the information about the environment which leads to the predictability required by the organization in order to pursue goals through decision making in bounded rationality. Closure is not a sufficient condition for the reduction of uncer- tainty. In fact, the rational pursuit of goals may require a boundary whose permeability varies with the amount of information required from the environment. Another obstacle in doing research on the relation- ships which exist between the organization and its environ- ment is the use of the global concept organization and conceiving it as a highly integrated, homogeneous unit. This study suggests a model which conceptualizes the organization as a set of interrelated systems, all of which are engaged in boundary maintenance activities in order to pursue their own goals in bounded rationality. This model should be extended to all subparts of the organization, including individuals. Using the above model it becomes difficult to refer to environmental influ- ences on the organization. Instead, one is interested in environmental influences on parts of the organization. If 176 one is to determine environmental influences on an organi- zation, one must know how that influence is felt through- out the organization. A straight summation of the amount of influence the environment exerts on each part is not an apprOpriate measure, however, because the parts must be weighted for their dominance in the organization and their concern for whatever is being influenced. The question, then, is no longer what influence does the environment exert on the organization, but what amounts of influence are exerted by the environment on what parts of the organi- zation. The bonds which unite parts of the organization to the same external sources of influence are different as well as the bonds which unite the same organizational part to different external sources. Consequently, the relationships to analyze are not limited to the organiza- tion and its environment, but also include what part of the organization is related to the environment. .As our study indicates some organizational parts want more environmental influence. Others may want less. The above conceptualization also calls attention to the concepts of entry point, organizational distance, interdependence, functional autonomy and power differen- tials. Entry point is the part of the internal system on which the external influence is originally applied. Organizational distance is the number of levels of authorities and roles which stand between the entry point and the authority position which must act on the influence 177 attempt. Interdependence is the type and degree of inter- relationship which exists between the subparts. Func- tional autonomy is the ability a subpart has to act inde- pendently of the other subparts. Power differentials are the ability various subparts have to affect the action of other subparts even in face of Opposition. Consideration of these concepts indicates the ability of the environment to influence the organization appears to be a much more complex undertaking than has been heretofore reCOgnized. The ability of the environment to influence an organiza- tion, then, depends to a large extent, on the structural arrangements within the organization. Just as the global concept organization needs to be differentiated into its component parts so must the global concept environment be differentiated into its component parts. The environment is not an integrated, homogeneous unit either. Just as it is a part of the organization and not the organization as a whole which is being affected so it is part of the environment and not the whole environ- ment which is exerting the influence. Consequently, the prOblem of organization-environment relationships needs to be posed in a very specific manner: how much influence can this part of the environment bring to bear on this part of the organization over this type of issue? The first distinction which may be used to differ- entiate the global concept environment into its component parts is the degree of relatedness environmental elements 178 have to goal accomplishment by the organization. This dis- tinction yields two categories: task environment and non- task environment. The task environment has already been classified into four sub-categories: customers, suppliers, regulatory agencies and interfirm associations. These categories, however, are not homogeneous. Customers are not all alike; neither are suppliers, regulatory agencies or interfirm associations. Therefore, an effort should be made to discover the dimensions on which these various environmental elements differ. In addition, little is known about the interdependence which exists within and between these categories. The other major classification, non-task environment, is totally underdevelOped. This category may include other organizations, families and social groups to which the members of the focus organiza- tion belong. The major classifications, task and non- task, may be further categorized as to whether they provide inputs for the organization or absorb outputs or both. All of the above suggests that a much more compre- hensive research design is required for investigations of the relationships which exist between the organization and its environment. 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New York: The Free Press. 1964. APPENDIX 184 N0. 0H. 0H. N0. N0. 0N. oHoood HosoH soHnHeHs H0.- H0. - NH. 0H.- 00. N0. oHdood HosoH Nsodsoo 00. N0. 00.- 00. 0H.- 00. soansodsn osHH osooom 0H. 0H. 0N. 0N. N0. 0H. sHonsHs Hsoosodoom 00. 00.- 0H. 00. 0H. H0. osossoz 00. N0. 00. 00. NH. 0N. sooosos HoHssnss 0N. 0N. 00.- 0H. N0.- NH. 0song-spoon osHH Hnan NH. 00. N0. 0N.- 0N. ososososo N0. 00. N0. N0. NN. nHoHoHHHo soHss HoooH NH. 00. N0. H0. - NH. 00. oHnood HosoH 0000 Hmon\oononHmnH HooOH NH. N0. 0H. NH. 0H. NH. sooosos HoHanHs 00.- NH. 00. NH. H0. - H0. oHdoon HosoH 0000 00. 0H.- 0H. 0H.- 00. 00. osoansodsn osHH osooom 0N. N0. NN. 0N. 0N. nsososnso N0. H0.- N0. 0N.- 0N. oHoHoHHHo soHss HoooH 0N. N0.- HN. 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