«W A DEFINITIVE ANALYSIS OF BRASS EMBOUCHURE ABNORMALCIES INCLUDING RECOMMENDED :REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES Thosis for the Dogma of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY 'Lqrin C. Richtmeyer 1966 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled A DEFINITIVE ANALYSIS OF BRASS EMBOUCHURE ABNORMALCIES INCLUDING RECOMMENDED REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES presented by Lorin Richtmeyer has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph .D a degree in MUS iC /7§9:: rig /Z/;a4, lessor Date October 24 1966 0-169 ABSTRACT A DEFINITIVE ANALYSIS OF BRASS EMBOUCHURE ABNORMALCIES INCLUDING RECOMMENDED RENEDIAL TECHNIQUES by Lorin C. Richtmeyer The purpose of this study was two-fold: first, to determine the nature and frequency of embouchure abnormal- cies existing among students of applied instrumental music in our colleges; second, to identify any agreements as to the causes of these problems and possible standardizations of corrective treatment. The importance of the study appears self evident. With the growing number of students participating in music in our schools, and the consequent need for more music teachers, it is not surprising that a larger proportion of brass students are being taught by relatively ineXperienced newcomers to the profession. It is logical to assume that a growing proportion of these students not only will de- ve10p embouchure abnormalcies but will continue their studies in our colleges with the intent of becoming brass teachers. If more effective means are not made available to aid these prospective teachers in the correction of their own embouchure faults, it follows that they will be- come the propagation of their own failures. Three methods were employed in conducting this study: first, a search was made of all published literature Lorin C. Richtmeyer dealing with the brass embouchure; second, a survey was taken of a selected group of well known brass teachers and performers to gather information concerning successful re- medial techniques used by them. One hundred and eighteen professionals were selected with the criteria being either their distinguished playing and teaching careers, writings and research in the field, or reputations given them by their associates and institutions. A fifty-six per cent return of the questionnaire was judged sufficient to give trends and indicate basic agreements among the respondents. A third method used in the study included an experimental group of brass players which had undergone, or were under- going, remedial embouchure training at Northern Michigan University. Several findings resulted during the course of this study. One of these was a noticeable lack of published material concerned with the abnormal embouchure. There did emerge, however, from the comparisons of this litera- ture with the results of the survey, much more of a con- sensus as to what constitutes the normal embouchure than most brass teachers believe existed. Also revealed in the study was a confirmation of the high incidence of emp bouchure abnormalcies among brass students of college age. In addition, the respondents of the questionnaire rated two abnormalcies significantly more frequent than any others: excessive mouthpiece pressure on the lips; and stretching the lip corners back in an extreme smiling posi- tion. Lorin C. Richtmeyer The prevalence of these two abnormalcies, viewed con- currently with the opinion of the respondents that abnor- malcies on the whole were caused by improper methods, not physical malformations, led to the conclusion that teaching techniques were basically responsible for the majority of abnormal embouchures. Inadequate breath support, lack of proper warm-up routines, poor motivation and selection of beginning method books, all of which were listed by the respondents as most frequent external contributors to ab- normalcies, are directly or indirectly the result of poor teaching methods. The survey also indicated probable conclusions rela- tive to the methods used in remedial treatment. First, it was acknowledged that no remedial training could be under— taken successfully unless the student truly desired it; second, the correction is more successfully approached during the summer time than the regular school year; third, the survey revealed a surprising similarity of methods used, despite the admonitions of some that each student must be treated as an individual case unlike any other. By virtue of these similarities and their apparent wide usage, the author takes issue with those who claim there are no "standardized" treatments of embouchure abnormalcies. A major recommendation based on this study concerns the need for dissemination of remedial techniques to all future teachers of brass instruments. The brass technique classes offered in our colleges should devote a greater portion of their time to the analysis of good beginning Lorin C. Richtmeyer brass methods, selection of proper equipment, the physio- logical prerequisites for successful tone production, and discussions and demonstrations of abnormal embouchures along with their "standard" treatments. A DEFINITIVE ANALYSIS OF BRASS EMBOUCHURE ABNORMALCIES INCLUDING RECOMMENDED REP’LEDIAL TECHNIQUES by Lorin C. Richtmeyer A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1966 C x) E: Copyright by LORIN CAROL RICHTMEYER 1967 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express his gratitude to the members of his doctoral committee who have guided his efforts throughout the course of this study. To Dr. William R. Sur, Chairman of the Music Education Department, goes a special word of thanks for his patience and encouragement. Without his confidence and understanding it is unlikely that this final goal could have been achieved. Appreciation is also expressed to Professor Leonard Falcone, Director of Bands and chairman of the disserta- tion study. His wide knowledge of the tepic area was in- valuable in keeping the objectives and conclusions in proper focus. And to the other members of the committee, Dr. Robert Sidnell, whose advice and criticism of the manu- script was always pertinent and helpful, Dr. H. Owen Reed and Dr. Walter Hodgson, who gave of their time to counsel the writer during his study, this acknowledgement of their concern and assistance is offered. Finally, to my wife goes my deepest appreciation for her moral support and encouragement through the years. Her unfailing belief in the successful completion of the task was a continuous source of inspiration. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKIJOWLED GEI'Equ S O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPEIJDICES O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . The Problem . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem Importance of the Study Methodology of the Study Limitation of the Problem Definition of Terms Used . . . Embouchure Abnormalcy II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . Jaw Position . . . . . . . . . Lip Position . . . . . . . . . Correcting Faulty Lip Positions Function of Muscles . . . . . . Correcting Faulty Muscle Function Lip Aperture . . . . . . . . . Mouthpiece Placement . . . . . Mouthpiece Pressure . . . . . . Lip Lubrication . . . . . . . . iii PAGE ii vi vii viii 12 14 17 22 25 55 41 4s III. IV. PRESENTATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA Source of Data . . . . . . . . Description of Sample . . . . . Analysis of the Questionnaire . The Normal Embouchure . . . . . Jaw Position Corners of Mouth Position of Lips Vertical Mouthpiece Placement Horizontal Mouthpiece Placement Embouchure Changes for Ascending The Abnormal Embouchure . . . . Types and Frequency Causes of Abnormalcies Effect of Physical Conditions Effect of External Factors Quivering Corner Muscles Suggested Remedial Techniques . Puffed Cheeks Extreme Pressure Excessive Pucker or Extreme Smile Pressing Lips Tightly in Center Lips Tight on Teeth Bunched Chin Forcing Upper Lip Down on Lower Overlapping Lips Air Pockets Improper Mouthpiece Placement Summary Recommended Materials and Exercises SELECTED CASE STUDIES . . . . . . Case Study I . . . . . . . . . Case Study II . . . . . . . . . Case Study III . . . . . . . . Other Experiments Utilizing Remedial Techniques . . . . . . iv Tones 55 56 58 59 75 100 122 127 128 157 142 148 BIBLIOGRAPHY e o e e o e e e o e e e o o e e e o e o e 165 APPENDICES e o e e e e e e e o e e o e e e e e e e e e 175 TABLE II. III. IV. VII. VIII. IX. LIST OF TABLES Factors indicative of normal embouchure according to survey of college brass instrument teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . Opinions of college brass teachers concerning vertical placement of mouthpiece on lips . . . . . . . . . . . . Embouchure changes recommended for ascending tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequencies of abnormalcies encountered in teaChing O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Frequency of other abnormalcies not listed in questionnaire, but given by respondents Degree to which physical weaknesses or conditions are apt to cause embouchure abnomalCieS O O O O O O O O O O O C O O 0 Degree to which external factors lead to embouchure abnormalcies . . . . . . . . Frequency of responses concerning methodology of correcting quivering corner muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods for curing quivering corner muscles not listed in questionnaire but given by respondents . . . . . . . . . Published materials used by questionnaire respondents for assigning remedial exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi PAGE 60 65 71 '75 78 82 87 94 96 124 PLATE I . . . Figure l. PIJ-ATE II 0 O 0 Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. PLATE III . . Figure 8. Figure 9. Figure lO. Figure 11. Figure 12. Figure 15. PLATE IV . . . Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18. Figure 19. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE ...................19 Embouchure Muscles Recessed Jaw with Overlapping Lips--Front View Recessed Jaw with Overlapping Lips--Side View Upward Angle of Mouthpiece—-Front View Upward Angle of Mouthpiece——Side View Misplaced Mouthpiece--Front View Misplaced Mouthpiece--Side View Off-Center Placement--Front View Off-Center Placement--Side View Normal Trumpet Embouchure--Front View Bunched Chin--Side View Corrected Embouchure--Side View Overlapping Lips with Bunched Chin C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 151 Extreme Smiling Position--Front View Extreme Smiling Position--Side View Air Pocket and Bunched Chin-- Front View Air Pocket and Bunched Chin-- Side View Extreme Air Pockets--Front View Extreme Air Pockets--Side View vii LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX PAGE A. The Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 B. Respondents Taking Part in Survey . . . . . 182 C. Sample Use of Schlossberg Method . . . . . 186 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION There has been much research in the past few years dealing with the remedial aspects of teaching--remedial reading, remedial writing, remedial speech clinics--so much so, in fact, that it is with great expectations that one looks to the field of applied music to see what new ideas have been introduced in this same span of time. Un- fortunately, many areas of applied music study are still approached with methods and conceptions that were widely held in the early years of the 1900's, but which are being found increasingly inadequate today. One of these areas is that dealing specifically with brass embouchure abnormalcies. With the growing number of students participating in music in our schools, and the consequent need for more music teachers, it is not surprising that a larger propor— tion of brass students are being taught by relatively inex- perienced newcomers to the profession. At the same time, an exhaustive survey recently undertaken of brass publica- tions and instructional materials has revealed comparative- ly little of a specific nature in remedial work that would aid the effectiveness of these teachers. Even successful brass performers and instructors find it difficult to put 2 their methods into words and are wont to qualify every bit of information with the statement that "it all depends on the student." This infers that every student is a unique entity, with his own private problems differing appreciably with those of thousands like him. Unfortunately, for the student in need of special help, the guide lines for the teacher are vague at best, and in many instances, contradic- tory. The Problem Statement 2; Egg problem. It is the purpose of this study (1) to determine the nature and frequency of embouchure problems existing among students of applied instrumental mu- sic in our colleges and universities; and (2) to identify, through a survey of selected brass instructors and experi- mentation with a selected number of brass students having embouchure abnormalcies, any agreements as to the causes of these problems and possible standardizations of corrective treatment. Importance 2; Egg study. The importance of this study seems self evident and has already been alluded to earlier. There is no reason to believe that the number of young musicians studying brass instruments in the United States is going to decrease in the next few years. Indeed, according to a report by the American Music Conference in 1964, there has been an increase of approximately five per 5 cent each year for the past ten years in the number of ama- teur brass players in this country.1 There is no doubt that this upward trend will continue in the coming years, keeping pace with our growing population and schools. It seems logical to assume, also, that a growing proportion of these students will continue their study of applied brass instruments in our colleges and universities with the in- tent of becoming brass teachers. If more effective means are not made available to aid these prospective teachers in the correction of their own embouchure abnormalcies, then surely they become the prepagation of their own failures, and the vicious cycle remains unbroken. Methodology 9f the study. The means by which this study has been undertaken are three-fold: First, a diligent search has been made of all the published literature dealing, even in part, with the brass embouchure. The majority of this literature, both here in the United States and in Europe, is to be found in the various trade periodicals, authored by welleknown professional players and teachers as well as by neophyte brass instructors. Second, a survey was taken of a selected group of well-known brass teachers and.performers to gather information concerning successful techniques used 1American Music Conference, A Re ort Prepared by a Non-Profit Organization (Chicago: 1964 , p. 10. 4 by them in handling brass embouchure abnormalcies, in the hopes that some consensus might evolve. Third, a selected group of brass students majoring in music at Northern Michigan University and having embouchure abnormalcies, has served as a testing laboratory for various techniques for the past four years. It is upon the results of these three investigations that this study is based. Limitations 2; the problem. In undertaking this study, it was decided to limit abnormalcies to those of the embouchure only, although acknowledging the many other phy- sical factors involved in producing an acceptable sound on a brass instrument. Factors such as the breathing appara- tus, tongue, size of the oral cavity, are discussed only as they relate to a method of alleviating a condition of ab- normalcy already existing in the embouchure. The methodolo- gy used in correcting the abnormalcies is concerned only with those functions with which the brass teacher can be expected to be knowledgeable. No attempt is made to offer treatment of abnormalcies which can only be resolved by an orthodontist. For several reasons, it was decided to limit the ex- perimental group of brass players to students planning to make music their professional teaching career. First, they were at an age where they could understand the necessity for certain trial and error approaches without being discouraged; second, it was possible for the teacher to guide them by 5 frequent checks on their correct and continued application of the techniques used; and lastly, it was felt that these students were typical of young brass players who, for vari- ous weaknesses in their embouchures, were not performing satisfactorily on their instruments. Definition 2; Terms Used Embouchure. There is generally a tendency on the part of brass teachers to avoid isolating a single part of the anatomy when discussing factors involved in tone produc- tion. It is felt, and aptly so, that all things are inter- related and dependent upon one another. Therefore, the term "embouchure" is often approached in connection with, and in- separable from, tonguing and breathing. However, for the purpose of this study, the use of "embouchure" will refer only to that portion of the player's face identified as mouth, lips, chin, and cheeks, and the manipulation of the controlling muscles. The relatively simple but concise defi- nition used by Philip Farkas in his discussion of the embou- chure should suffice: "The mouth, lip, chin and cheek muscles, tensed and shaped in a precise and cooperative man- ner, and then blown through for the purpose of setting the air-column into vibration when these lips are placed upon the mouthpiece of a brass instrument."2 gPhilip Farkas, The Art 9: Brass Playing (Bloomington: Brass Publications, 19625, p. 5. 6 Abnormalcy. It is difficult to categorize any func- tion as being abnormal unless a very precise set of rules is agreed upon as to what constitutes normalcy. In the case of a brass embouchure, no one set of rules seems to apply in all cases because of the lack in unanimity among success- ful players and the effect of the differences in physical structure. Often, extremely proficient performers utilize methods which would be considered by others as abnormal. However, there is more of an agreement if normalcy is thought of in terms of "what is normal for that person." For example, an adjustment of the placement of the mouthpiece on the lips to accommodate a peculiarity of the teeth would be considered "normal," although this same placement without a like pecu- liarity would be categorized as "abnormal" and to be avoided. However, to avoid defining a term as one which changes ac- cording to the individual, "abnormalcy" in this study will refer to anything which differs from the usual accepted man- ner of embouchure employment according to the study of the current writings by brass teachers, and to the findings of the survey which are a part of this study. The methodology used in correcting these abnormalcies, therefore, will assume no unusual physical malformations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The number of articles, method books, and texts re- ferring to the preper formation and development of the brass embouchure are legion. Regrettably, however, upon examina- tion it becomes apparent that relatively few devote even a small portion of their instructions to the means of overcom- ing already existing problems. This, of course, is natural since the vast majority are directed to the beginner or the teacher of the beginner, and assume, correctly or incorrect- ly, no misinformation or prior experimentation on the part of the student. However, before any course in remedial ac- tion is to be taken by student or teacher, a clear concept of prevailing techniques is essential, and to this end a re- view of all related literature is imperative. It is at this point then that we should examine the areas of agreement or disagreement concerning the brass embouchure that are cur- rently available in print today, so that all remedial at- tempts are kept in proper focus. Jaw Position One of the least discussed criteria for correct em- bouchure development found in any of the articles, method books or texts studied-with one or two notable exceptions—— 7 8 was that concerning the position of the jaw as the basic foundation to the brass embouchure. This is unfortunate since, as it will be shown, it has a very distinct bearing on several embouchure faults. Philip Farkas's beck on brass playing has, perhaps, the most lucid description of the lower jaw's function and importance.1 He states that while most of us find that the natural position of our lower jaw when closed is slightly receded, causing the lower front teeth to go behind the upper, nature has also given us a second natural position of the jaw--that of being thrust forward, for instance in the manner used to bite off a piece of celery stalk. Farkas believes that only with the jaw brought for- ward so that the upper and lower front teeth are aligned as nearly as possible can the air column continue in a straight line through the mouth and lips into the mouthpiece. He continues with this assertion: The foundation or support of the lips is the re- sponsibility of the upper and lower front teeth. Therefore, if the lips are to line up so that they abut together without sliding one under the other, the upper and lower front teeth must also be exactly in line. As the upper jaw is immovable it becomes the duty of the lower jaw to adjust this alignment of the teeth.2 According to Farkas, playing with the jaw in its re- ceded position can cause several difficulties in proper tone ¥Farkas, pp. cit., pp. 7-10. 21bid., p. 7. 9 production: First of all it tends to put much of the pres- sure from the mouthpiece rim on the upper lip, which in turn causes a decrease in endurance, range, and quality of tone; secondly, it causes the upper lip to overlap the lower to a degree where if much mouthpiece pressure is applied it is apt to squeeze shut the aperture, thereby resulting in a pinched tone in the upper register; third, in an attempt to put equal pressure on both lips the player is forced to either hold the instrument in an extreme downward position, or tilt the head backwards. If he does the former, any ex- cessive pressure will result in the mouthpiece "riding up" on the embouchure towards the nose or in rolling the lower lip under the upper even more. If he chooses instead to tilt the head backwards the same conditions exist, plus the uncomfortable resulting constriction of the throat muscles which in turn impede the smooth flow of breath. Autrey, another author who is emphatic concerning the position of the jaw, also states that playing with a receded jaw in addition to putting pressure on the upper lip, may even cause the lower edge of the upper teeth to dig into and irritate the inside tissues of the upper lip.5 And finally, Fitzgerald in his discussion of forming the "correct embouchure" begins with instructions to point the chin downward, with lower jaw extending front or back 3B . . . yron Autrey, Ba51c Guide 39 Trum et Pla in (Chicago: M. M. Cole Publishing Co., I9655, p. g. 10 until the upper and lower front teeth are even, and then, keeping the jaw in this position, to part the teeth slight- ly, keeping the throat, jaw, and chin muscles relaxed.4 It is significant, though, that not all brass instruc- tors are in complete agreement with the alignment of the up- per and lower teeth. Reinhardt, in explaining his pivot system of embouchure use, acknowledges four different clas- sifications of teeth and jaw formations and goes into great detail concerning the placement of the mouthpiece and the "pivoting" of the instrument to best suit each of these for- nations.5 Since the instrument itself is moved to facili- tate register change, it is assumed that he intends the jaw to be kept in its "natural" receded or protruded position. However, in his summary listing of the mechanics for "down- stream" type players--those with receding lower jaws--this seemingly contradictory statement appears: "Co-ordinate the movement of the jaw and the PIVOT, remembering to slightly protrude the jaw."6 If one may safely use the consensus regarding the position of the jaw as a proper guide line for either the beginner or for remedial work, however, it must be said 4Bernard Fitzgerald, "Tone Production," The Instru- Inentalist, III (January-February, 1949), p. 15. 61bid., p. 13. 11 that the majority of writer-teachers favor bringing the lower jaw into, or as close to as comfortable, alignment with the upper so that the upper and lower front teeth are even, or nearly so. In addition the jaws should be separated slight- ly, from one eighth to one quarter of an inch, which in turn prevents the embouchure muscles from becoming cramped or from reducing the size of the aperture between the lips. It should be pointed out, however, that even though the teacher and pupil may be cognizant of the need for the aligned jaw it is not always easy at first to discern that ideal position by feel or looks. Again referring to Farkas' treatise on the subject he suggests a two-fold plan to aid the player.7 First, to find out the effect that manipula- tions of the jaw and lip has on the air stream, he advises blowing air both downwards so that it can be felt flowing past the chin, and upwards towards the nose and into the nostrils. To make the air stream go in a downward direction one must recede the jaw considerably and pull the lower lip under the upper. To make it go upwards the jaw must be thrust forward and the lower lip protruded beyond the upper in the manner of a pout. Secondly, using the technique men- tioned above, one then finds the point of alignment where the air stream goes directly ahead. Farkas claims this can lbest be done by observing the following in~a mirror: I7Farkas, 2p. cit., p. 10. 12 Hold the hand up and feel for the air current. Better yet, move a thin little strip of tissue paper edgewise in the vicinity of the air-stream until it flutters. When the air-stream is really under con- trol and can'be directed forward with assurance, one can assume that the resulting jaw and lip posigion are very close to the best and proper setting. Sometimes the pressure of the mouthpiece can change a newly found position of the jaw, but with the aid of a mouthpiece rim and the repeated application of the above techniques the proper alignment can be found and maintained. Lip Position As to the exact position of the lips when forming the brass embouchure, much more detailed information is given in most texts and method books and, fortunately, show a fairly high degree of conformity. A typical description of the "correct" lip formation, for example, is found in Winter's book on the brass instruments: The first step is to say "em" and hold the result- ing position. The lips will be touching lightly, and lying in a vertical plane; the corners of the mouth will be drawn back slightly, but not in an ex- aggerated smile; the chin will be pointed, so that the "button" of flesh coincides with or slightly ex- tends the point of the jaw (when viewed from the side, the chin will have a concave curve); and the upper lip will be braced upwards by a slight pull from the two pairs of levators, resulting in a slight charac- teristic flaring of the nostrils and two distinct lines curving down from the outside of the nose to the corners of the mouth. The whole formation of 9 muscles in the cheeks is flat and firm, but not tense. 81bid. 9James Winter, The Brass Instruments (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1964), p. 2I. 15 Note the careful reference to the nonexaggerated smile. The so-called "smile system" of stretching the lips over the teeth has almost universally been discarded. How- ever, as so often happens, in its place some teachers have advocated the opposite extreme, or the "pucker," as evidenced by this passage from the Reinhardt method: The eventual goal of the PIVOT-SYSTEM is a natural LIP-FUCKER. Your lips go forward to meet the mouth- piece-rim; you should not bring the mouthpiece to meet the lips. This mode of playing reduces all lip- pressure to a minimum and the extreme top-register can be played with apparent ease. Replace the old- fashioned "smile system" with the PIVOT and the LIP- PUCKER, and many unnatural lip complications will vanish.10 However, the most commonly used approach today in the great majority of articles, texts and method books, and which is borne out in the responses from the questionnaire included in the latter part of this study, is one that is somewhere in between the smile and pucker, and is most aptly "11 referred to by Farkas as the "puckered smile. In explain— ing his exercises for the development of this technique he makes the following statements: We are trying, in this exercise, to locate that perfect balance-point between the cheek and lip muscles, where neither the smile nor the pucker wins the tug-of—war. When this is found, the entire range of the instrument can be encompassed with al— most no apparent c e in the distance between the corners of the mouth. 10Reinhardt, _p. cit., p. 9. llFarkas, 92. cit., p. 15. lZIbid. 14 A few sentences later Farkas states: The cheek and lip muscles, and consequently the mouth corners, do not move, even though they might try, because their contractions exactly offset each other. So the muscular feeling while playing through- out the instrument's range is one of varying degrees of tension and relaxation but not one of lip motion-- or commotion. 5 Correcting Faulty Lip Positions If most writers and teachers are in virtual agreement as to the proper position of the lips in the correct embou- chure, then non-conformity to this position must have definite and undesirable symptoms. The novice teacher should be able to detect these and rectify the problems before they become ingrained in the student's playing habits. One of these symptoms is the excessive overlapping of the upper lip over the lower. Weast recognizes that a small amount of overlap may not be detrimental to good play- ing, and indeed does exist in more than fifty per cent of brass players, but that excessive overlap can be a great im- pairment to performance: Excessive extension of the overlap is prone to cause a cramped restricted tone. Persons with this problem find that they can produce the lower register with good alignment and good sound, but as they ascend the upper lip gradually extends over the lower until the lips are forced to a clamp position. Such clamping and binding of the upper lip reduces full vibrations and of course the tone becomes proportionately poor.l4 15rum. luRobert Weast, Brass Performance (New York: McGinnis and Marx, 1962), p. 56. 15 Weast adds that the remedy is to insist on proper vertical alignment of the upper and lower lips regardless of register, a remedy which can be aided by a slight forward thrust of the lower jaw to bring about proper teeth alignment. Faulkner also identifies the same problem in an arti- cle which refers to it as the "rolling lower lip wedge": This is another device that creates a wedging of one lip against the other in order to close up the opening and make the pitches go up. By the wedge- like Opening, the musician can push the breath thru at greater speed.l5 Then a little later in the same paragraph: What happens is that the student rolls his lower lip back over his teeth with so much concentrated pressure against the upper lip that this upper lép becomes tense and tight enough to change pitch. Weast also makes mention of several students having either the rolled under lower lip as a single fault or in combination with others.17 Unfortunately, his case histories are not detailed in a manner to show what type of remedial exercises or studies were used, but perhaps because the so- lution of bringing the lower lip out to proper alignment is such an obvious one, it was felt that a lengthy description was superfluous. However, the following three excerpts from his findings, in this writer's opinion at least, represent 151Maurice Faulkner, "Diagnosing Embouchure Problems," The Instrumentalist, XVI, no. 1 (September, 1961), p. 102. 16Ibid. 17Weast, 2p. cit., pp. 41-47. 16 a misleading over-simplification of the problem: One case comes to mind in which a student had a bad case of overlap and excessive pucker, with the lip corners too far forward. By simply tilting the horn up and moving the corners back to a fixed position his tone immediately enlarged and no longer suffered from the cramped, pinched sound. The second case concerned a trumpet student, aged 24, who had played for twelve years. The student displayed a severely overlapping upper lip which manifested itself in the characteristic limited upper range and small volume of tone. When attempting to make the change gradually on a limited basis failed because of the ease of going back to the original setting, the resulting technique was used: Complete correction was then undertaken. At first there was some difficulty in getting response, but at the end of a three day period the change became fixed enough to use. Caution was exercised so as not to strain the new position. Response was good; the tone was now characteristically brilliant and full, and range was developed up to g} above c} in six months and tgen to the remarkable double high c4 a year later.1 And finally this third excerpt which describes a student who had, in addition to a bad case of overlapping upper lip, the tendency to pull the corners back while ascending and, as a result, no aperture control: The change in this case was done 100 per cent with no attempts to hang on to a portion of the undesirable. This immediately limited the student to staff work and 18Weast, pp. cit., p. 41. 19Ibid., pp. 42—45. 1'? curtailed all outside playing. Severe restrictions to specifically devised exercises were undertaken. Sustained tones were first played the duration that the new foundation could stand without strain. Fatigue and embouchure development procedures were followed diligently, with the object of fixing the positive factors and totally excluding the negative factors in question. For a period of three weeks nothing more than sustaining easily accessible tones were attempted. At this time the embouchure muscles began to set themselves correctly. Additional range was then added weekly. Some weeks there was a gain of three notes and other weeks there were none. The upper notes were always attempted at piano, and in two or three weeks following, the same notes were able to be played forte. In six months time the 20 student could play high 03 forte and high f5 piano. Mention of these three excerpts was not made to serve as a criticism of their over-simplification, but rather to point out the effect that the lip position has in the over- all development of the brass embouchure. There seems little doubt that the alignment of the jaw and the preper setting of the lips is basic for the fullest development of the em- bouchure, and allowing for sligpt deviations due to indivi- dual anatomical differences, the teacher and pupil can safely be guided by adhering carefully to the placements described. Function.p£ Muscles The past few years have seen several scientific ap- proaches relative to the discovery of the exact means by which the embouchure muscles function properly. In one ex- periment, Weast was able to show rather conclusively by use 20Ibid., pp. 44-45. 18 of a transparent mouthpiece and a strobe light, that the 21 Volume upper lip was indeed the primary vibrating lip. of air, tension of lip muscles and size of aperture and their effect on the amount of lip vibration were easily detected and photographed. Another experiment involved an air-membrane apparatus in which air gauge and a spring scale were mounted to secure actual measurements of simulated playing condi- tions.22 The purpose here was to observe the relationship of lip tension and air compression and their resulting tone qualities and pitches. Peyron, in 1956, also experimented with a mechanical embouchure and reached the conclusion that the "pucker" embouchure was more satisfactory than the "stretch" from the point of view of tone control.25 There has also evolved a gradual understanding and agreement among theorists, teachers and performers as to how the muscles function to produce the needed amount of control and tension necessary for the characteristic brass tone. Most refer to a semi-technical drawing of the muscular struc— ture of the embouchure area such as the one reproduced on the following page, figure 1, from.Winter's book, and attempt to explain the action and interaction of the muscles in- volved.24 lebide , pp. 5-60 22Ibid., pp. 7-8. 23Victor Peyron, "Effects of Tension on a Lip Tone" (unpublished Master's thesis, Illinois State Normal Univer- 81W, 1956): P0 280 24Winter, pp. cit., p. 21. 19 G ’ 1 __ Figure l. Embouchure Muscles Al Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi; A2 Levator labii superioris;A3 Levator auguli oris. These muscles serve to raise the upper lip vertically as well as slightly forward. B Zygomaticus minor; B2 Zygomaticus major. Draw the upper lip back and diagonally upward. C Buccinator. Retracts the corners of the mouth, flattens the cheeks, and controls the expulsion of air. D Risorius. Draws the corners of the mouth back laterally, as in a smile. E Orbicularis oris (upper lip portion); E2 Orbicularis oris (lower lip portion). Closes and protrudes the lips, as in a pucker. F Triangularis. Depresses and draws the corners of the lips dom'ard e G Depressor (Labii inferioris). Draws the lower lip downward and a little laterally. H Mentalis. Raises and lowers and protrudes the lower lip. 20 Farkas puts forth the theory that muscles are capable of only one positive action--that of contraction, and its negative counterpart-—relaxation.25 It is the interplay of the various muscle combinations that are at the same time contracting and relaxing that allow changes in tension in the embouchure. For instance, around the entire mouth we have a muscle identified as the "orbicularis oris"--see figure 1. This muscle can be contracted, in which case the entire mouth area is made smaller, as in pursing the lips. To offset this extreme puckering the other muscles, which move in all directions from the mouth much as the spokes of a wheel from the hub, act as restrainers to keep the lips in place. In so doing, tension is set up within the lips which in turn accounts in part for the different vibration speed, hence pitch. To play the higher tones the "orbicu- laris oris" muscles work harder to close, while at the same time the contrasting muscles, such as the "levators," "buc- cinators," "triangularis," "mentalis" and others, work equally as hard to keep the mouth in place. This sets up a high degree of tension and, in combination with air pres- sure, produces a change in vibration speed. Farkas explains as follows: Although these Opposing muscles seem to be working at cross purposes, it is exactly this stress or tug- of-war which is needed to supply the tension so 25Farkas, pp. cit., p. 10. 21 necessary to the creation of lip vibration. This tug-Of-war is not violent, however. The tension is quite noticeable (though not painfully sol) in the highest register and gradually decreases in in- tensity toward the low register, until, for the very lowest notes, it seems almost non-existent. Never- theless, it must still be there.26 It should be mentioned that while this theory of proper lip function seems to have the support of the majority Of performers and teachers, it by no means goes unchallenged. Reynolds, for instance, takes issue with the statement that the high register requires more muscular contraction of the lips.27 He lists these shortcomings of the Opposing muscle contraction and tension theory already discussed: First, contraction wrinkles the embouchure, causing hard, and dif- ficult tone quality; second, it creates rigidity Of embouchure; third, contraction decreases circulation of the blood; fourth, it cannot be regulated or controlled with finesse; and final- ly, it does not allow player to play his full range on one setting. His theory of correct lip function was one of the few that this writer found that still taught that stretching the embouchure was correct and that lip tension should be controlled by the corners. However, the publication data of 1949 leads one to believe that the author's methods of teaching do not reflect the influence of the more recent studies. Liva, while in principle adhering to the muscle con- 26Ibid., p. 13. 27George Reynolds, "Brass Tone and Embouchure," The Instrumentalist, III (March-April, 1949), p. 58. 22 traction theory, believes that in a correct embouchure the lips must roll, very slightly, in and out, to assist in the adjustment of pitch. As the pitch ascends, the lips roll inward towards the teeth but not between the teeth, so that the vi- brating surface moves from the soft inside toward the harder lip line where the red of the lips meets the white. However, he stresses that over-emphasis of the rolling can cause undesirable results. Correcting Faulty Muscle Function Often young players, while believing that they are using the embouchure muscles properly, in actuality are not. McQueen, in a study in 1945, brought some of these problems to light.29 An occasional player in an attempt to avoid the extreme smile position will resort to holding his lips away from the teeth in an exaggerated pucker. His suggestion for proper cure--"let the lips and mouthpiece come back against the teeth"--borders on naivety, however. For the op- posite problem, that of extreme stretching of the lips, he advises the student to "make the mouth smaller." Another fault which he lists as a fairly common misuse of the em- bouchure muscles, is that of pppp use Of the tensioning pro- cess-—evidenced many times by the quivering of the lip cor- ners. McQueen states that just enough contraction should 28Howard Liva, "How to Develo Upper Brass Range," The Instrumentalist, XVII (May, 1965 , p. 60. 29William McQueen, "The Brass Embouchure" (unpublished Master's thesis, Illinois Wesleyan University, 1945), pp. 105-107. 25 be used to hold the position, as any excess tension merely uses up energy. As a remedy for this he suggests slurring from second line G (in treble clef) to middle C by releasing all muscles-~even to the point of letting the cheeks puff out. The value of this type Of corrective technique seems questionable at best, and if not kept under close observa- tion could lead the student to the opposite extreme. Farkas, on the other hand, believes that next to the exaggerated smile type of embouchure the most common play- ing fault is the incorrect use of the chin. This fault usually consists of a pronounced up- ward thrust of the chin, so that a "button" chin is formed. Characteristic of this upward-bunched position is the remarkable similarity in appearance of the chin to a peach-stone. The chin then looks like a large oval—shaped button and has numerous little "dimples" in it, very reminiscent of the pits in a peach-stone. These dimples are the tendon ends of many little muscles which are pulling the chin up, and their presence can be accepted as a sure indica- tion that the chin is being tensed in exactly the wrong direction.50 In contrast to this, he goes on to say, when the chin muscles are all functioning properly, the chin points downward and outward. Actually the large muscles can be readily seen when the chin is thus formed: the mentalis pulls straight down, while the triangularis (one on each side of the chin starting from the corners of the lips and curving downward and in) bring the chin to a point and can be felt and seen in the mirror. In referring to it as the aoFarkas, _p. cit., p. 16. 24 "brass player's face," Farkas describes it as forming a "wide U shaped valley, the base of which is located just above the tip of the chin, and the sides of which run up into the corners of the mouth."51 Two exercises are suggested by Farkas for the develop- ment and proper use of the chin muscles: The first consists of simply "waking up" all the various chin muscles by moving them in every con- ceivable direction. Form the chin upward into a hard knot, then stretch it downward into the longest chin possible. Try to widen it by contracting the muscles on each side. Then try to put the chin over to one side by tightening the muscles on that side while relaxing those on the other. A little prac- tice will "awaken" and strengthen muscles long un- used. Bear in mind that some of these chin forma- tions are undesirable while others are exactly what we have been seeking.32 Then follows a second exercise that is quite familiar to most brass teachers: A second beneficial exercise consists simply of buzzing the lips without applying the mouthpiece or rim. Be careful to keep the lips opposite one another so that one (usually the lower) is not "swallowed" be- hind the other. It is almost impossible to get a good resounding buzz without pulling the chin down firmly in exactly the correct manner. For most brass players a middle "C", concert pitch, is a good, clear and prac— tical note to intone in the first attempts. As will be shown in the summary of the questionnaire sent to brass teachers throughout the country, many did not Ellbid. 52110161. 3511331., p. 19. 25 agree that buzzing the lips was beneficial to all students, however. Lip Aperture Of the many books and articles read while undertaking this study, only two gave much of a description of the func- tion and control of the lip aperture. Therefore, most Of the findings of this portion of the study will represent a summary and critique of these main sources. Weast states that "one of the greatest tone and range controls available to the brass performer is his lip open- ing, the aperture."54 He suggests that the importance can be easily demonstrated by having the player attempt to blow a very low note with a tiny slit for an aperture. The tone is difficult to produce even at a low volume, and next to impossible if attempted loudly. The converse is equally true, although in this case the high tones attempted with a wide open aperture would be more easily attainable at a loud volume than soft. However, neither is satisfactory because of the unnecessary strain put on the embouchure muscles. In discussing the effects of the aperture on the air column Weast states: 3“Weast, pp. cit., p. 28. 26 As with any point of resistance on a pressure area, the size of the aperture is in direct proportion to the air column pressure. The larger the lip opening, the less air pressure and air velocity created. In such a case there is a greater flow Of air, but it is slower in speed. When the aperture is reduced in size the air compression and air velocity passing across the vibrating area are increased. It can be shown that slow air in great volume is a basic factor in producing the lower register. Such slow air tends to keep embouchure muscles in a more relaxed condition, permitting the lip area to vibrate at low frequencies. Conversely, high pressure air in lesser volume, but at a greater speed brings about the upper register. The small aperture aids in creating the high air compression- velocity situation.55 Of basic importance, then, says Weast, is that of con- trolling the lip Opening, with certain ways obviously superi- or tO others. He feels that one of the most common methods of making aperture change is that of applying tension to em— bouchure muscles. The greater the tension the smaller the aperture. This, according to the author, is faulty since it is the result of general muscle tension and the aperture is not in complete control. In its place he would substitute lower lip control; a method justified by the following two paragraphs:56 Evidence indicates that lower lip aperture control is our most efficient way to change the size of the lip opening. By moving the red of the lower lip in- dependently from the upper lip and the jaw, and lips are always in correct position and not distorted. The lowest register will get further aid from the dropping of the jaw as well. 35Ibid., p. 28. 561bid., p. 50. 27 The fact that pitches and volume of tone can be a1- tered by action Of the lower lip simply raising and lowering against the upper lip is evidence enough in its favor. The Old recommendation "tighten the lips" contract the embouchure muscles, etc. are very faulty and should never be used. Only when the upper lip is free enough to vibrate fully can the tones be com- pletely developed. Any tension or muscle contraction above that supported by the air will tend to cut down on the free vibrations. The tone will sound brittle, hard and forced. Upper lip movement and corner move- ment to produce tension and aperture change are need- less and should not be condoned. Weast also believes that the greater muscular strength a player has in his embouchure the less he will be aware of the need for aperture change. It is possible for this type Of an embouchure to "hold its own" in various situations of changing range and volume. In addition it can play high notes with a wider setting--and consequently a bigger tone--than can a weaker embouchure. Farkas' treatise goes into much more detail concerning the shape of the lip aperture, trouble symptoms, and correc- tive measures than any other writing to date. In describing the aperture he compares it to the Open end Of an oboe reed as to size, shape and function.37 If, like the oboe reed, the center is too highly arched, the air merely passes through without causing it to vibrate. This is evident when a tone fails to speak at a pianissimo level or is preceded by airi- ness of increasing volume until the lip finally "catches." However, if the opposite is true, and the shape is too flat, the player will find the sound choked or squeezed, 37Farkas, pp. cit., p. 58. 28 and also failing to respond at the pianissimo level. Farkas points out what is obvious to most brass instrument players -—that the majority of embouchure faults create problems more noticeable at very soft levels of playing. Any shape and size embouchure will speak (even if not very well) if enough air is blasted through it. The problem of determining whether or not the player has the right shaped lip aperture is then discussed. Farkas lists the following symptoms which usually indicate a too 58 flat embouchure aperture: 1. Tight, bright, hard tone. 2. A tendency to play sharp. 5. Pianissimo attacks which fail tO speak. 4. A sizzling sound, like frying bacon, particu- larly apparent in long-sustained, soft high notes. 5. Inability to carry a diminuendo down to nothing. He then follows these symptoms with four corrective measures; any one, or combination of more than one, possibly 59 being the solution to the flat aperture: 1. Make sure that the upper and lower front teeth are sufficiently separated. 2. Arch the chin muscles down with sufficient strength to make the wide "U" shaped indentation clearly evident. 5. Avoid too wide a smile. There is great suspicion, when the lip aperture is too flat, that the cheek muscles are pulling the lips into too tight a smile. 4. Make certain that the corners of the mouth are kept ip so that the width Of the mouth from corner to corner is Shorter than when the mouth is smiling . 381bid., pp. 58-59. 591bid., p. 59. 29 Although Farkas believes that most incorrect lip apertures will err in the direction of being too flat, oc- casionally a player, perhaps because of too much pucker, will attempt to play with too circular or too highly arched an Opening. This condition is usually characterized by a "40 The solution, ob- "hollow, dull, or furry tone quality. viously, is to work towards more of the smile embouchure and clenched jaw, being careful not to carry it to the ex- treme. As the author points out, "perhaps it is more dis— creet to advise less pucker than to suggest more smile, al- though the meanings are synonymous in my mind."41 Having discussed the shape Of the lip aperture at some length, Farkas turns to the question of pipp. He re- fers once again to the analogy of the Oboe reed in that while it must always be kept shaped in a similar manner, its size will vary according to the desired pitch. Being more speci- fic, he claims that one's total range on his instrument will depend on how large and how small that Opening can be made, and that it is the horizontal ppppp of this Opening which 42 determines the pitch Of the'note. For a justification of this statement he makes the following explanation: 4OIbid., p. 40. 41 42 Ibid. H bid. 50 A basic law of acoustics states that if a vibrating Object, such as a violin string, is touched at the half-way point in its length, the resulting half- length should sound an octave higher than the full- length pitch. By careful Observation this same law can be seen and heard to determine our pitch on any brass instrument. Buzz a middle register note on your mouthpiece rim and with the aid of the mirror, calculate the approximate width of the vibrating Open- ing. Then, at the same volume, buzz an exact octave highep The Opening will become exactly half as wide. 3 He adds that in actual performance this is not quite as simple as it may seem. As Weast also pointed out, there is another determining factor which must be considered as affecting aperture size; that of air volume. The louder we play the more Open the lip aperture must be to accommodate the greater volume of air. This also may be Observed in the mirror, says Farkas. Buzz a long-tone, starting pianissimo and make a crescendo to fortissimo, being very careful to keep the pitch steady. The lip opening will become visibly larger as the crescendo takes place.44 These two observable factors which show the effects of pitch and air volume on the size of the lip aperture, then combine to modify each other according to the volume and pitch of any given note. Rather than being extremely complicated, however, Farkas believes that "all brass play- ers use these facts so instinctively and naturally in their 45Ibid. #AIbid., p. 41. 51 everyday playing that they need give it no thought."45 At the same time, for the student having trouble, he believes that a review of some statements which are based on the ori- ginal two premises should be of help:46 1. The highest, softest, note one can play is the result of the smallest lip aperture he can produce. 2. The lowest, loudest note one can play will require the largest lip aperture he can produce. 5. A perfectly calculated crescendo during an ascend- ing scale passage could conceivably be produced with no change in the size of the lip aperture. 4. A diminuendo during a descending passage will re- quire little or no lip aperture change. 5. An ascending passage requiring a diminuendo will necessitate a drastic lip contraction during the ascent. 6. A descending passage requiring a crescendo will necessitate a drastic enlargement of the lip aper- ture during the descent. The methods of changing the size of the lip aperture, while at the same time maintaining the correct shape, are not difficult to master, according to Farkas. The first of these is a simple contraction of the orbicularis oris (see figure 1) in the manner described earlier. The increased tension from the muscles radiated outward from the lips main- tains the shape of the aperture while at the same time allow- ing it to become smaller overall.47 The second method is the adjustment Of the distance between the teeth of the upper and lower jaw. As with the 451pm. 461b1d., pp. 41-42. 471b1d., p. 42. 52 incorrect shape of the aperture most Often being too flat rather than too round, the author feels that in the case of the teeth the more usual fault lies in keeping the teeth too 48 close together. His suggestions for experimentation with this factor are as follows: Lower the jaw from a clenched position (lips together and jaw forward, nevertheless) until the front teeth are separated by a quarter-inch or more. As the jaw is lowered you can actually feel the lips "thin out" slightly and come inward a bit toward the teeth, help- ing achieve that "lips perpendicular to the air-stream" position. Now buzz the rim, and while Observing in the mirror, slowly clench and unclench the teeth while holding the jaw in its correct forward position. Note that as the jaw lowers, the little lip aperture Opens up and becomes less flat. As the usual cause of a small, hard tone is tOO flat an aperture, it can readily be understood how playing with a slightly more lowered jaw will influence this aperture advantageous- 1y. While most Of what Mr. Farkas has described concern- ing the lip aperture is based on seemingly sound logic, there is one discrepancy that stands out. If we are to assume that Weast's experiments with the strobe light and transparent mouthpieces have led to the proper conclusions, then Farkas' analogy of the open end of an Oboe reed and the lip aperture is not completely valid.SO Although it may be true that the size and shape of the aperture resemble the Open end of the oboe reed, the inference that the upper 481pm. 491pm. 50Weast, pp. cit., pp. 5-6. 55 and lower portion of the arc vibrate in a similar manner does not necessarily follow. In Weast's experiments, it was shown that the upper lip was the main vibrator. The lower lip in all cases tested was highly erratic, and ranged from complete immobility to quite free activity, but rarely equalling the amplitude of the upper.51 Also, when a hole was drilled into each mouthpiece to allow a special probe to be inserted and alternately placed against the upper and lower lip, the following was observed: When placed on the lower lip the upper lip con- tinued to vibrate against the cardboard plate. When the plate of this probe was placed against the upper lip, lower lip activity ceased immediately. Clearly now, a cause of the lower reacting to the upper.52 Other findings which the strobe light made possible concerned the extent of the upper lip's vibrating amplitude. The air column causes the lips, especially the upper, to blow outward. The resiliency of the mem- brane springs the lip back causing the upper to contact the lower, thereby completely closing the aperture for a split instant. Without this contact there is no vibration. The upper lip must str§ke something, as it will not vibrate in Open air. 5 One of the conclusions reached by Weast from these experiments was that the rising and falling lower lip is an excellent means to change aperture size. This is not to say that Farkas' theory of contraction and proper tension 511bid., p. 5. 521b1d., p. 6. 531bid. 54 balance between all the muscles of the embouchure does not also offer a satisfactory way for some people to change lip aperture size. It does point out, though, the importance of the lower jaw as a means of effectively changing the aperture, since this directly contacts the lower lip only. To this both Farkas and Weast seem in accord. Both studies, at any rate, appear to be in complete agreement both as to the proper shape of the aperture and to the effect Of tension and air volume on the size. Both would seem to refute the conclusions drawn from an earlier experiment by Long at the Rosenwald Museum of Art and Indus- try in Chicago.54 The equipment used here was a tube, the mouth of which could be altered by a tapered blade which the observer adjusted with a lever. Air was supplied by a foot- operated bellows, and as the blade was moved to reduce the size of the opening, successively higher harmonics were ob- tained above the tube's fundamental tone. By some method Of reasoning, which is not clear in his article, this led to the following conclusion: The lip opening should be rounded, regardless of size, for maximum tone quality. We find only round openings on nearly all musical instruments. Failure to round out this lip aperture is a frequent cause of harshness.55 54Newell Long, "The Development Of Embouchure," Music Educators Journal, XXVII (December, 1940), p. 25. 55Ibid. 55 Unfortunately, the author did not clarify the degree of "roundness," but he implied a circular shape which Mssr. Farkas and Weast apparently have ruled out. Mouthpiece Placement Without doubt, the initial placement Of the mouth- piece On the lips of thousands of cornet—trumpet players in the past several decades owed its basis of fact to the following statements: The mouthpiece should be placed in the middle of the lips, two-thirds on the lower lip, and one-third on the upper lip. At any rate, this is the position which I myseIg have adopted, and which I believe to be the best. This statement, which is still found in the Fischer edition of the Arban book as revised by Goldman, has only comparatively recently been seriously challenged. That Arban's belief has been widely influential is evidenced by the fact that despite the growing numbers of method books available on the market today, surveys still show the Arban method is most widely used by leading brass players and 57 teachers. Even today some teachers remain adamant that Arban's placement of the mouthpiece for cornet-trumpet players is 56Joseph B. Arban, Arban's Complete Conservatory Method for Trum et, ed. E. F. Goldman (New York: Carl Fischer, I95 , p. 6. 57Joseph L. Bellamah, Brass Facts (San Antonio: Southern Music Co., 1960), p. 41. 56 the only correct one. Zottola, who is a present day advo- cate of the two-thirds lower, one-third upper, placement states that "this arrangement will favor the high register."58 However, more and more players and teachers are dis- covering that this is not necessarily correct. In their dissent, moreover, some have insisted that perhaps the op- posite should be stressed. Tetzlaff, for instance, recom— mends a higher setting on the upper lip than lower because of its strength. In recommending setting the inner edge of the mouthpiece rim on the white portion Of the upper lip he makes these two generalizations:59 l. The white skin can stand more abuse than the red flesh. It can better resist excess pressure and/ or a mouthpiece with a high sharp inner rim, such as is very pOpular with those who want to feel "a good grip." 2. The majority Of players have a slight "overbite." That is their upper jaw juts slightly forward above the lower jaw. For this reason, the mouth- piece rests harder on the upper lip than the lower, and thus the upper takes more of a beating. And while the controversy rages primarily around the cornet-trumpet mouthpiece placement, teachers and performers of the other brass instruments are equally emphatic about this phase of instrumental instruction. French horn players and teachers have traditionally favored the high setting of 58F. Zottola, "How to Improve Your Brass Technique," International Musician, LVI (January, 1958), p. 54. 59Dan Tetzlaff, "Should I Change Embouchure?" Inter- national Musician, LVI (June, 1958), p. 28. 57 the mouthpiece. Farkas, for instance, states that he has seen these instructions in perhaps two dozen horn methods written over a period of time from the late 1700's to the present.60 Curious as to the reasons behind such unanimity, he made an investigation which included photographing several dozen of the highest quality professional horn players. "Without exception these photographs showed the approximate proportion of two-thirds upper lip and one-third lower lip."61 He then proceeds to summarize the "evidence" which leads him to believe that this is the correct placement. First, for the past two hundred years most of the really good French horn teachers have advocated this position; second, all of the fine horn players known to him personally use this high setting; third, that as a result of his teaching this method for years a number of his students have become pro- fessional performers in the country's best symphony orches- tras. Finally he offers, as the underlying reasoning for the high mouthpiece setting, the following: Of all the brass instrument embouchures, the horn player's is probably the softest, most relaxed and most puckered. This tends to emphasize the heavy, fleshy mound in the center of the upper lip. With this mound as pronounced as it is, it is logical for the French horn player to place the mouthpiece above it rather than try to perch the rim precari— oust upon it. The thicker condition of the upper 6OFarkas, pp. cit., p. 52. 6lipid. 58 lip, when it is the dominating lip in the mouth- piece, seems tO give the tone a more mellow, less strident quality. .And, of course, this velvety qualit is much to be desired in the French horn tone.6§ Among low brass players there seems to be much less emphasis placed on the mouthpiece placement, which leads to the generality that the larger cup mouthpieces are not only more tolerant to embouchure faults, but mouthpiece place- ments as well. Some method books do, however, give explicit directions for placement of the mouthpiece, such as this ex- cerpt taken from a recent trombone method book: "The mouth— piece should be placed so that approximately half is on the upper lip and the other half on the lower, and so that it is centered from left to right."65 It should be noted, though, that the author does go on to say that some slight changes may have to be made due to individual differences of lip, teeth, and jaw formations. It should be brought out that some of the faulty reasoning which led many teachers to stress the half and half position Of the mouthpiece on the lips is still present in some method books today. This does not mean that this particular placement, per se, is wrong, but as Noble points out, men such as Bach, Clarke, and Williams who were 62Ibid., p. 35. 65Donald Knaub, Trombone Teaching Techniques (New York: Rochester Music Publishers, 1964), p. 4. 59 advocates of the half and half position had based their ideas on the now disputed belief that pppp lips vibrate equally.64 And in Hunt's brass method dated in 1965 we find the same assumption: Placement of the mouthpiece will vary somewhat with the individual but it should be approximately centered on the mouth, thus allowing both the ppppp and lpppp lip to vibrate freely.65 In once again referring to the study made by Weast with the strobe light and transparent mouthpieces, we know now that both lips do ppp vibrate equally, but that the up- per is the primary vibrating lip, and the bottom, while vi- brating in differing degrees, is more functional as the 66 Thus, while it may be the regulator Of the lip aperture. case that a half and half setting is the most satisfactory for some players, it cannot be based on the faulty equal vibration theory. The theory that is most acceptable to the majority of teachers now is that there is not ppp ideal setting that is best for all players but that many factors combine to make each player's placement an individual matter. Not the least of these are the person's own physical make-up such as jaw formation, and the size and shapes Of the lips and teeth. 64Clyde E. Noble, The Ps cholo of Cornet and Tm mpet Plpying (Missoula: Clyde —Noble, 1 64), p. 5 . 65Norman J. Hunt, Brass Ensemble Method (Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown 00., 1965), p. 16. 66Weast, pp. cit., pp. 5-6. 40 Autrey, for instance, feels that the vertical place- ment depends largely on the length of the player's teeth. If the upper teeth and lip are longer than the lower teeth and lip, a little more mouthpiece may be placed on the upper lip than on the lower. If the upper and lower teeth and lips are about equal in length, the mouthpiece will probably be set about half on the upper lip and half on the lower lip. If the lower teeth and lips are longer than the upper then slightly more Of the mouthpiece may be placed on the lower lip than on the upper. Mendez suggests starting by placing the mouthpiece about half on each lip and then moving it up or down until it seems to "fit."68 His only inflexible rule regarding the vertical placement of the mouthpiece is that the outer rim must be on the white of both lips. Winter also feels that the mouthpiece be allowed to move vertically until the most comfortable placement is found. With other writers he, too, is of the Opinion that a little of the "white" of the upper lip should lie within the rim, but then modifies this by saying that "even this is not an unalterable rule."69 As this discussion of the mouthpiece seems to indi- cate, most writers tend to think only in terms of vertical placement or limit themselves to merely pointing out that laterally the mouthpiece should be as nearly centered as 6'7Autrey, pp. cit., p. 9. 68Rafael Mendez, Prelude pp Brass Playing (New York: Carl Fischer, 1961), p. 55. 69Winter, pp. cit., p. 22. 41 possible. This is not unusual-since while the center is the most logical place to seat the mouthpiece, in actual practice any irregularities in the teeth will cause a slight shift to the right or left. Mendez, however, is insistent that the mouthpiece must be placed over the vibrating center Of the lips. While in the great majority Of cases this will coincide with the exact center from corner to corner, there is the occasional player who may find his slightly Off to one side. This is not difficult tO find according to Mendez. "A glance in the mirror as you buzz the lips will show the natural vibrating center. Wherever that happens tO be, there is the place for your mouthpiece."7O Unfortunately, in this writer's Opinion at least, unless that vibrating center happens to coincide with the most comfortable location according to the teeth and jaw formation, it is more than likely that the latter will win out as to the ultimate setting. Mouthpiece Pressure If there is one aspect of the brass instrument em- bouchure about which there is seemingly complete accord, it is that concerning the amount Of pressure a player should or should not use against the lips. Writers, 7OMendez, pp. cit., pp. 54-55. 42 performers, and teachers are unanimous in their statements that excessive pressure should not be used. However, the difficulty is readily noted as to the correct interpreta- tion of the term "excessive." There are some advocates of a "no-pressure" system who demonstrate their theory by tricks such as suspending a trumpet on a string tied to its second valve, and then without touching it except with the lips, produce a high C. Nevertheless, as Farkas states, "Even though it displays a remarkable develOpment and sense of control, I have never heard a big beautiful, ringing "71 He goes on tone produced with this nO-pressure system. to say that when such players are asked to play with a big sound, they inevitably resort to the same moderate amount of pressure that everyone needs if he is to seal the lips hermetically to the mouthpiece. There are as in all embouchure faults, fortunately, symptoms to look for that indicate an excessive or undue amount of pressure being used by the player. Winter lists four signs for which a teacher or player must be alert:72 1. Lack of normal endurance, coupled with a coarse, breathy tone. 2. Excessive marking Of the lip when the mouthpiece is removed--in extreme cases, the lip will show white for an instant. 5. Poor high register and poor control in pian . 71Farkas, pp. cit., p. 55. 72Winter, pp. cit., p. 25. 45 4. A "buried" look about the mouthpiece--in the case of the student with thin lips, this latter will not be noticeable. As to the last "symptom" offered by Winter, however, this writer can attest to the fact that he has seen remark- able examples of endurance and high register playing by performers using an extremely "buried" position of the mouth- piece. It is obvious, then, that all symptoms do not hold true for all players. It is because of this last bit Of hypothesizing that an experiment was recently undertaken by Weast and Hake to find out if varying degrees Of pressure could be considered excessive for some brass players while being "normal" for others.75 By an ingenious method of supporting a trumpet so that any forward thrust against the mouthpiece would re- sult in the bell pushing into a measuring device, it was possible to record the "pounds" of pressure used for any given note. The findings of this experiment did indeed bear out the theory that the tolerance level--the amount of pressure that one could use and not noticeably destroy the quality of tone and range--did indeed vary considerably with individuals. Why then do nearly all method books, artists and teachers make such a point of warning about the dangers of 75Robert Weast and Ardell Hake, "A Definitive Analy- sis of Mouthpiece Pressure," The Brass World, I, no. 2 (Spring. 1965). pp. 58-45. 44 excessive pressure in the develOpment of embouchure? The writings seem to indicate two major factors responsible. First of all, the use of pressure does, unfortunate- ly, allow the players to Obtain higher notes, and since this means requires no special training or knowledge, it is Often eagerly seized upon by aspiring performers. The term "unfortunately" is applied since the very use of ex- cessive pressure, while temporarily allowing for a little higher range, does so at the expense of tone Quality, con- trol and endurance--three exceedingly important requirements for successful playing. It is this "easy" route, so mis- leading to young students that they are unable or unwilling to develop consciously the correct physical habits through hours of tedious practice, that is behind the "caution signs" raised by all responsible teachers. The second factor negating the value of excessive pressure is that of the actual physical damage done to the lips themselves. While agreeing that pressure is effective in forming the tiny aperture in an embouchure that does not have the resiliency or strength in the muscles, Farkas gives this forceful account of what takes place: We can visualize how heavy pressure achieves both the small aperture and the firm flesh. Imagine a nice, fresh, spongy doughnut, sandwiched between two pieces of plate—glass. If these pieces of glass are slowly pressed together, the hole in the dough- nut can be Observed to gradually get smaller as the doughnut itself is flattened. But, at the same time, this pressure also compresses the "flesh" of the doughnut into something much firmer than its 45 original spongy consistency. In just this same way, mouthpiece pressure diminishes the size of the Open- ing in the lips, while simultaneously compressing the soft flesh into something resembling strong, firm muscle. Unfortunately, the poor lips suffer the same abuse as did the crushed doughnut, and, of course, human lips cannot take this punishment indefinitely. Winter compares excessive pressure to a "tourniquet," in which the mouthpiece rim cuts off the blood supply neces- sary to replenish the delicate muscles of the embouchure and allows fatigue to set in very quickly. As the author points out: "This, of course, leads to failure to produce the de- sired higher tone, which in turn brings on still more pres- "75 sure, and the vicious cycle is in motion. Perhaps an explanation couched in more scientific language by Weast and Hake gives us a greater technical in- Sight as to what takes place when excessive pressure is applied to the lips: The deleterious effect of pressure can be traced to edema, i.e., the swelling of the lips with an ab- normal amount of tissue fluid. The normal exchange of fluid between tissues and vascular structures is impeded by external pressures resulting in an accu- mulation of fluid with the consequential swelling of the focal area. Short duration swellings, such as those under consideration are termed fugitive. A lip saturated with an abnormal amount of tissue fluid loses its resiliency and fails to respond to air and muscular control. The tone quality becomes airy, lacks a clear center, and range and endurance are reduced. Players gradually apply more pressure to 74Farkas, pp. pip., p. 55. 75Winter, pp. cit., p. 24. 46 maintain a controllable "feel" and the swelling be- comes igtensified leading to a further loss of sound. A related but not often mentioned type of imprOper use of pressure is brought out in Farkas' book, in which he labels it "lateral pressured”,7 This type of pressure re- fers to a pushing of the mouthpiece to either side, up, or down, as opposed to straight in. As it usually occurs as an upward push it can be detected by the lessening distance between the rim of the mouthpiece and the nose, while at the same time causing a pronounced bulge in this same area. Farkas claims this is most common with an embouchure formed on a receded jaw, which results in the instrument being held at an extreme downward slant. It also appears more fre- quently in the case of French horn or tuba players, pre— sumably because most of these players rest their instruments either on the leg, or on the chair. According to Farkas the resulting effects are common: Many players form a habit of tensing the neck and shoulder muscles as they go into the high register. This, plus the increase of "regular pressure," causes a player to "duck his head" slightly. Since the horn or tuba cannot give way to this force, because it is already resting on a foundation, the mouthpiece is pushed toward the nose--or more accurately, the nose is pushed toward the mouthpiece.78 76Weast and Hake, pp. cit., p. 58. 77Farkas, pp. cit., p. 55. 781bid., p. 56. 4'7 In the case of the receding jaw causing the lateral pressure, the obvious remedy is to bring about a prOper alignment of the teeth. However, in the case of the horn and tuba player who, perhaps unconsciously, uses this type of pressure, the cure calls first of all for recognition of the problem and then, as with all habits, the conscious effort to avoid it until the habit is broken. In summary we would have to conclude that regardless of how much excessive pressure is used, or in what manner it is applied, it is a practice that is condemned by all conscientious teachers and performers. Its effects on the lips and embouchure development are perhaps best summed up by these findings obtained by the experiment of Weast and Hake: l. The turgid lip condition is due to the accumulation of tissue fluid. Mouthpiece pressure is the main precipitator, increased capillary pressure is a second cause and the vibrating lip activity itself is a probable third cause. 2. A swollen lip produces an inferior tone, response is wanting, and range and endurance become im- paired. Additional pressure applied to a swollen lip further compounds the difficulty. 5. Players can, at will, use varying amounts Of pres- sure on any note. In some cases this may vary by as much as 18 pounds. An ideal pressure for each note of the instrument does not exist. Each note is not associated with a minimum premaximum pres- sure. 4. Pressure is gradually applied while ascending, or crescendoing. 5. Pressure increases as fatigue sets in. 6. Players vary greatly in their ability to withstand pressure. 7. Players vary greatly in their susceptibility to swelling. 8. Players accustomed to small mouthpieces tend to use more pressure on a large mouthpiece. 48 9. A large cup diameter will better accommodate a swollen lip than will a small. 10. Trumpet players, because of their high range, high air compression, and relatively small mouth- pieces are the first to suffer from pressure. Hornists are a close second. 11. Large mouthpieces, viz., trombone, baritone, tuba, distribute the pressure over a greater area. Al- though players of these instruments can use a great amount of pressure, they generally do not do so, nor is this pressure felt so acutely. l2. Rigorous playing, without an adequate warm-up is likely to cause an abnormal degree of swelling.79 Lip Lubrication , One would expect, when reading a description of the correct method Of forming the brass embouchure, that a defi- nite action such as wetting the lips would at least be men- tioned either as a habit to cultivate or to avoid. Such is not the case in the majority of instances. It appears from this survey of the literature that many writers either do not consider it worthy of mention, or, being unsure as to which is best, leave it up to the beginner to discover for himself. Yet, when surveys are taken of leading performers as to whether they use a "wet" or "dry" embouchure, the re- sults indicate a high percentage favoring the "wet" method. Farkas, for instance, concludes that on the basis of "many years Observation" approximately seventy-five per cent 79Weast and Hake, pp. cit., p. 40. 49 80 prefer the moist embouchure. And Malek, in a study of fifty-two professional trumpet-cornet players found that thirty-nine, or seventy-five per cent used this method in preference to the dry, while three, or about six per cent of the total said that they used either on occasions.81 If these figures can be assumed to have a meaning, it must be that there is some advantage for the majority of players to use the wet embouchure while playing brass instruments. Farkas, who is a strong advocate of the moist embouchure, devotes a whole chapter in his book to the advantages and disadvantages of the dry and wet methods. While admittedly using a negative approach he lists the fol- lowing Objections to the dry-lip embouchure: 1. When the mouthpiece is touched to the dry lips, it tends to stick at the exact spot it first touches, making any maneuvering to that so-called "ideal spot" quite difficult. 2. The very act of bracing the dry lips against the mouthpiece for aid in obtaining high notes acts as a crutch in preventing the most complete de- velOpment of the lips. 5. There are times when the lips are going to become moist, whether this condition is wanted or not. A hot summer day or intense stage lighting can bring out enough perspiration on the face to make the mouthpiece slippery against the lips. 4. Occasionally some brass player develops an ugly sore or raw spot on his lips at the point where the mouthpiece makes contact....The constant ap- plying and removing of the mouthpiece from dry lips, with its attendant tiny, but apparent pulling sensation as the mouthpiece parts from the lips, can finally cause an abrasion to the 80Farkas, pp. cit., p. 55. 81Vincent Malek, "Embouchures of Professional Trum et— Cornet Players," The Instrumentalist, IX (September, 1954 , p. 48. 5O skin, which once started gets increasingly worse. Opposed to these objectionable qualities, and at the same time acknowledging the fact that there are fine players in both categories, he offers these positive reasons support- ing his I. 5. stand on the moist-lip method: With the ability of the mouthpiece to slide on the lips, a very accurate positioning of the lips can be achieved....When the lips are highly trained, they build and develop muscle around the mouthpiece rim, giving the player the feeling of a definite groove into which the mouthpiece rim will fit. The slippery condition of the lips enables the player to make minute adjustment in this placement, dic- tated by comfort, intuition, and carefully developed knowledge of the best placement. The wet-lip system requires one to develOp the lip muscles. When the dry-lip player "tucks" a lot of lip into the mouthpiece, it sticks in place and thus creates the tight, small lip opening need- ed for high notes, but in an artificial manner. Dry lips used for high notes are just a crutch, em- ployed instead of completely developing the muscles ....If the player would slowly and carefully develop his playing ability on moist lips, first in the low and middle registers, and then, little by little, work into the higher registers, he would develop strength in muscles heretofore unused. He would gain a completely developed embouchure--one which could attain high notes with a minimum of pressure and with the embouchure's own inherent strength to "focus down" on a small, strong, high-pitched vi- bration stream, with no external aid. I have never found, in a player who keeps his lips lubricated, a lip sore caused by the mouthpiece. But all of us are concerned occasionally by chapped lips, and here again I feel that the wet—lip player has the advantage....The wet-lip advocate, constant- ly moistening his lips, as he must, finally, even though it may take many minutes, succeeds in soak- ing this heavy, dead membrane. If this moistening does not quite bring the lips up to their usual flexible condition, it at least makes them far more flexible than the completely dry, parchment-like 8 2 Farkas, pp. cit., pp. 55-56. 51 skin which the dry-lip player will have to endure for several days. 5 Weast agrees that the moist lip method of playing is superior and goes on to condemn the dry lip technique com- pletely. He.reasons that the dry lip method is often respon- sible for the slow distortion of the embouchure and explains that "this occurs as the result of the mouthpiece rim grip- ping the lips and pulling them in various contortions accor- ding to the need of the performer. 0n the other hand, when the lips and mouthpiece rim are moist, any attempt to twist the lips or mouthpiece will merely result in the mouthpiece revolving on the lips or sliding off the normal position. This, Weast states, should be fair warning that the player is attempting an abnormal amount of pressure or pinching of the lips. In summarizing his objections to the dry lip method he lists the following faults:85 1. Only temporary support is offered weak lips by the dry contact. 2. Aperture control is greatly impaired, sometimes by one hundred per cent. 5. The mouthpiece cannot be seated to a fixed location, for where the dry mouthpiece rim contacts the lip, there it must sit, unable to "snuggle in" to a se- cure position. 4. Flexibility is greatly reduced since the lip is "frozen to the rim." 5. Subtle changes cannot be made. 85Farkas, pp. cit., pp. 56-57. 8“Weast, pp. cit., p. 60. 85Ibid., p. 61. 52 Other teachers and writers do not go into the detri- mental effects of playing with a dry lip, but merely point out, as Mendez does when advising a student to set the lips in playing position: "Wet them--they will vibrate more easily...."86 In summary it must be said that not one writer was encountered that advised the brass player to use the "dry" embouchure. That the dry lip method has and is being used by skilled players is not denied, but the fact that they are in the great minority leads one to the conclusion that this technique may have more negative virtues than positive for the average player. For the well developed embouchure, dry lips may not have a detrimental effect on producing a good sound with good control. There is even something to be said for it inasmuch as we all occasionally find our- selves playing on dry lips through necessity-~nervousness sometimes produces this condition. However, moistening the lips certainly does help the young and advanced player alike find that ideal spot each time the mouthpiece is brought to the lips. And, far from being the least Of importance, it discourages the use of excessive pressure, and makes it man- datory that the player control the degree of tension in the lips internally, not by using the mouthpiece as a vise. 86Mendez, pp. cit., p. 27. 55 While not mentioning it specifically, both Weast and Farkas, as well as other writers discussing the use of a wet embouchure, have implied its application to the prevention of embouchure ailments such as excessive pressure, pinching, poor flexibility, lack of aperture control and limited en- durance. Its value as an effective remedial technique for those players already suffering from these faults would un- questionably be approved by these same writers and teachers. CHAPTER III PRESENTATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA The validity of information gathered through means of a questionnaire has on numerous occasions been chal- lenged. The critics' main Objection is that opinions, rather than facts based on scientific reasoning or processes, are not conclusive and therefore have no place in research. While in certain types of investigations this is undoubtedly true, there are other fields where reliance on expert Opin- ions is highly valuable. Diagnosing the brass embouchure ailments defies mathematical formulae and often must rely on trial and error techniques. Much as the physician must judge the correctness of his diagnosis and operative tech- nique by the recovery of his patients, so must the brass teacher ascertain the effectiveness of his remedial treat- ment by the successful progress Of his students. The analo- gy is important in that both professions depend upon recog- nition of symptoms for successful treatment. The physician knows that a certain symptom is indicative of a specific disease because of the vast number of recorded like occur- rences by other doctors. Early diagnosis is vital no matter how conclusively a laboratory test may later identify the microorganism. So it must be with the brass teacher. But, 54. 55 unfortunately for the student and teacher alike, no such amount Of recorded information is available. Teachers Often work in isolation from colleagues with their effectiveness, all too frequently, far below that of their professional counterparts in the field of medicine. Source pg Data The use of the questionnaire technique in this study, therefore, is an attempt to bring together a sufficiently large amount of information by successful teachers. It is the hope that future identification of like "symptoms" and ailments by those less knowledgable might lead to more suc- cessful corrective measures. To this end one hundred and eighteen professional brass performers and teachers at the university level were selected to take part in the survey. Many were chosen because of their distinguished playing and teaching careers; others because of their dedication to writing and research in the field; and still others because of the reputation given them by their associates and insti- tutions.1 The high percentage of returns--fifty-six per cent--is considered above average for questionnaires, and, while infallible conclusions cannot be made in all instances, the information is judged sufficient to give trends and 1A listing of the contributing performers and teachers may be found on page 182 of the appendix. 56 indicate basic agreements. That many of the returns also contained copious comments beyond those called for is an indication of the felt need for such a study. Description p; Sample The questionnaire was designed to Obtain four types of information concerning the embouchure: first, a descrip- tion Of the factors which the respondents felt made up the "normal" embouchure; second, the frequency and types Of em— bouchure abnormalcies according to the respondents' experi- ence; third, factors which, in the opinion of the respondents, were the underlying causes of embouchure abnormalcies; and fourth, methods which had been successful in their treat- ment.2 In the identification of the "normal" embouchure, statements were given (to which they could agree or disagree) as to the proper position of the jaw, corners of the mouth, lips and mouthpiece. In addition, space was available for comments or other statements that were applicable. To arrive at the respondents' interpretations of correct embouchure manipulation, another category was added in which they were asked to check embouchure changes recommended for ascending tones. The answers here indicated their teaching techniques regarding the correct use of the embouchure muscles. 2A sample questionnaire may be found on P3893 174' 181 in the appendix. 57 The second part of the questionnaire consisted of fifteen descriptions of embouchure abnormalcies which the respondents were to check for frequency according to their experiences. Those abnormalcies listed represented the most common ailments according to the writer's experience and readings. However, under the "other" category, nineteen ad- ditional abnormalcies were listed by the respondents that, given strict interpretation, merited separate attention. In attempting to Obtain the reasons for the encoun- tered abnormalcies, the third section of the questionnaire was, itself, divided into three parts. The first of these was to ascertain whether or not the abnormalcy was the fault of a certain physical condition, improper methods, or a com- bination of both factors. Next, a list of common physical characteristics that have been identified in the past as causing difficulties for brass players was suggested. Re- spondents were asked to check the extent or degree to which they felt each characteristic responsible in view of their past experiences. Then, as the third part of this section, a similar list Of "external" factors was to be checked for their contributory effects on embouchure abnormalcies. These external factors ranged from improper equipment to "trying to emulate professionals." The final portion of the questionnaire dealt with techniques which the respondents had used successfully in their contacts with students having embouchure problems. 58 To clarify the type answers desired, one abnormalcy——that of quivering corner muscles in the lips—~was presented a- long with ten statements of different avenues of approach. The respondents were asked to check those they felt would be most pertinent. As with the other parts of the ques- tionnaire, space was left for additional comments or methods not listed. Following this, and making up the remainder Of the survey, were pages asking for specific methods Of hand- ling the abnormalcies listed earlier in the form. This was, admittedly, a "blanket" approach, but it was felt that having a separate page to fill out on each individual type of em- bouchure ailment would result in an extremely unwieldy, and undoubtedly unreturned, questionnaire. Analysis pg the Questionnaire As was stated in the opening chapter of this study, it is extremely difficult to discuss embouchure abnormal- cies unless there is agreement as to what constitutes nor- malcy. Therefore, as an aid to correct interpretation of the survey's results, it was deemed necessary to have the respondents identify factors which they believe were present in the normal embouchure. As a result, an interesting by- product Of this study on abnormalcies is the extent to which there was agreement in some areas and wide disagreement in others as to normalcy. 59 The Normal Embouchure Jaw position. The position of the lower jaw produced one of the most evenly divided number of answers. Statements as to whether it was better to keep the jaw in its normal position (assuming the most common occlusion where the lower teeth are slightly behind the upper) or to move the jaw (so that both upper and lower front teeth were aligned) resulted in forty-one per cent being in favor of keeping the normal position and fifty-three per cent advocating proper align- ment (see Table I). Since several reSpondents wanted to amend the questionnaire statement from "perfect alignment" to "as nearly perfect as possible," the more liberal and realistic interpretation was given the statement and all answers favoring partial or full alignment were listed under this category. Interestingly, those reSpondents who indi- cated trumpet as their major instrument were quite evenly divided with sixteen for normal position and fifteen for aligning teeth. Two others gave qualified answers such as "the jaw should be in a position favoring equal pressure on both lips," and "it all depends on the individual." This even division was surprising in view of the studies that have shown the small mouthpiece instruments to be those involving the most pressure on the lips. This would lead one to believe that equal distribution Of pressure on both lips was a most desirable factor for all trumpet play- ers--a fact actually borne out by the responses to the 60 Table 1. Factors indicative of normal embouchure according to survey of college brass instrument teachers Jaw Position . . Number . Description Agreeiqg: Per cent Kept in normal position when 27 41 forming embouchure Upper and lower front teeth brought 85 53 to near perfect alignment when forming embouchure through lower jaw movement Others 4 6 Corners of Mouth Stretch, in smiling position 1 1.5 "Puckered" position, lips pursed, 10 15 with all muscles contracting towards center Semi-puckered, corners gripping 52 77.5 Others 4 6 Position of Lips Flat against teeth, edges meeting 32 47 in perfect alignment Lower lip rolled slightly under 15 22 upper Both lips rolled under slightly but 14 21 not over teeth Others 7 10 61 abnormalcies later in the survey. However, the disagreement here was the manner in which this equal pressure was Ob- tained. Several stated that if much recession or protrusion of the jaw occurred it Should be countered by a slight tilt- ing of the head, or bending of the mouthpiece. Another fur- ther advised that if the occlusion was more than could be compensated for by these methods the student would be better advised to seek an instrument other than the brasses. There- fore, the only really important conclusion that could be drawn from this part of the questionnaire was that the jaw position should be such that equal pressure on both lips was possible. Except for a few ardent supporters from the ex- tremes of both sides, the exact method did not seem to be the important factor. Corners pg ppppp. In contrast to the views on jaw po- sition, the respondents were much more in agreement as to the proper position of the corners of the lips or mouth. That the "Old" method of teaching the student to pull the corners back in the position of a smile was no longer gener— ally accepted was evidenced by the fact that only one re- spondent checked this statement as being proper. The advo— cates of the "pucker" system also were in a definite minori- ty with only ten teaching this technique. The fifty-two (over seventy-seven per cent) who favored the semi-puckered, or the "puckered smile" as some wished to call it, clearly indicated that this method was most advantageous to the great 62 majority of players. In addition, the four whose answers were classified under the "others" also indicated that the corners should be "firm," which seems to preclude both the stretched and puckered extremes. 0n the basis of these an- swers, then, it seems reasonable to assume that the "semi- puckered" position is the normal one, and that a student not obtaining good results with another method would quite possibly benefit by making this adjustment. Position pg lipp. While this section of the survey was designed to ascertain whether the respondents favored holding the lips so that the edges met in perfect align- ment, or preferred a slight amount of rolling in by either or both lips, the possible correlation between lip and jaw position was Of secondary interest. By a decided majority the respondents favored the embouchure where the lips met edge to edge in perfect alignment with each other, as against rolling the lower lip in slightly or rolling both in but not over the teeth. And, although it was not pos- sible to indicate this in the tables, there was a high cor— relation between lip and jaw position. For example, all but one of the fifteen trumpet players who believed in aligning the upper and lower teeth also favored lips meet- ing in a like manner. Conversely, fourteen Of the sixteen favoring normal jaw position also favored rolling one or both lips inward, while two felt the lips should be perfectly 65 aligned. Some were careful to point out, however, that while rolling the lip in slightly was acceptable, overlap- ping them was not. Incidentally, this same correlation of lip and jaw position was also present among the French horn and low brass instrument players as well. From this, then, one could assume that players using a "normal" jaw position where the front teeth are not necessarily aligned also tend to play with either the lower lip slightly rolled under the upper, or both lips rolled slightly inward, though not over the teeth. As long as the lips did not overlap in such a manner as to cause the aperture to be squeezed shut, this type Of lip placement could be considered "normal" for that player using that particular jaw position. Likewise it could be assumed that those who moved the lower jaw in such a manner as to cause alignment or near alignment of the up- per and lower front teeth also positioned their lips in a similar way--"flat against the teeth and meeting in perfect alignment." This, too, would be considered normal for that jaw position. The above conclusions would seem to imply that the player using the aligned jaw and lip technique would be less apt to play with excessive overlapping of the lips and encounter the resultant squeezing shut or pinching of the aperture than the player using the normal jaw posi- tion. As many Of the respondents pointed out, it becomes increasingly more difficult to play satisfactorily as the malocclusion of the front teeth increases. And, as the 64 teeth act as the foundation for the lips, this same maloc- clusion makes overlapping more likely to occur. It would appear, then, that students using the normal jaw position, while equalizing the pressure on both lips by tilting the head or bending the shank of the mouthpiece, would still have to be cautioned against excessive lip overlap. If such did occur, as evidenced by pinched tones and loss of upper register, the greatest aid in bringing the lips into proper position would be to first properly align the upper and lower front teeth (as closely as is comfortable) through lower jaw movement. Vertical mouthpiece placement. Because of the possible influence that the instrument would have on the mouthpiece placement, the tabulated results of the five statements per- taining to placement were divided into categories of cornet- trumpet, French horn, and lower brasses. Since many of the teachers were proficient in, and actually taught more than one instrument, they checked several statements in each category. This accounts for the somewhat higher number of total answers than respondents. In the case of the cornet- trumpet players the results, as shown in Table II, indicate that only twenty-two would specify an exact amount Of mouthpiece on either lip, and of these, eighteen felt that the ratio of half and half was most satisfactory. However, forty Of the sixty-three marking this category felt that mouthpiece placement was more dependent upon individual 65 Table II. Opinions of college brass teachers concerning vertical placement of mouthpiece on lips Trumpet 1 * Description Number LNumber Per Cent Responding, Agreeing» 2/3's on upper lip 63 3 5 2/3's on lower lip 63 1 1.5 1/2 on each lip 63 18 28.5 Depends on thickness of lips and length of teeth and will vary with persons 63 17 27 It is important in the case of trumpet that inner edge of rim rests on white portion of upper lip 63 23 36.5 Other 63 1 1.5 French Horn 2/3's on upper lip 19 18 95 2/3's on lower lip 19 0 1/2 on each lip 19 o o Depends on thickness of lips and length of teeth and will vary with persons 19 O 0 Other 19 l 5 Lower Brasses 2/3's on upper lip 24 8 33 2/3‘8 on lower lip 24 2 8.5 1/2 on each lip 24 7 29 Depends on thickness of lips and length of teeth and will vary with persons 24 2 8.5 Other 24 5 21 *Some teachers taught more than one instrument and gave answers for bOthe 66 factors. Seventeen checked the statement that the deter- mining factor was the "thickness of lips and length of teeth and will vary with each person," while twenty-three felt that it was most important in the case of cornet and trumpet that the "upper inner edge of the rim rests on the yhipg portion of the upper lip." The French horn players on the other hand were nearly unanimous in their advising the mouthpiece to be placed two- thirds on the upper lip, with eighteen of the nineteen horn players checking this statement. The one who found it im- possible to agree with any of the choices simply stated that it varied with each person and each instrument and that there was no “formula." Of the twenty-four answering for the lower brass in— struments, eight favored the mouthpiece position of two- thirds on the upper lip, and seven favored the half and half placement. Five trombonists made use of the "other" catego- ry for statements such as: "use as much upper lip as possi- ble"; "three-fourths on the upper lip for trombone and bari— tone"; or "slightly more than one—half on the upper lip"; and the "mouthpiece should be placed where it is comfortable and the sound is good." The results of this section of the questionnaire appear to bear out two theories by Weast and Farkas that were explored in the second chapter. First, that the upper lip is the primary vibrating lip; and second, those players 6‘7 concerned with getting the maximum richness and body in their tone tend to place a greater amount of upper lip into the mouthpiece when the size of the mouthpiece and lips permit. As Farkas pointed out when discussing the French horn mouth- piece placement, if the upper lip is dominant in the mouth- piece it tends to give the tone a mellower and less strident quality--a sound towards which all horn players strive.5 The fact that in this survey nearly all of the horn players, and half of the lower brass players preferred more upper lip than lower in the mouthpiece seemed to give validity to Farkas' statement. In the case of the cornet-trumpet play- ers, however, the desire for brilliancy and upper register perhaps is the reason for less of the upper lip in the mouth- piece. That eighteen respondents specified the half and half position as correct and only three favored two-thirds of the mouthpiece on the upper lip, would lend credence to this theory. However, more important is the fact that these re- spondents, by a large majority, tended to make individual differences the chief concern. It appeared that the physical factors of comfort, lip and teeth shape and size were con- sidered of much greater importance in the placement of the mouthpiece due to the more strenuous demands on the trumpet embouchure. The inference for the teacher then, at least in the case of cornet—trumpet players, is that the arbitrary changing of the mouthpiece to a standardized position cannot 5Farkas, pp. cit., p. 35. 68 be considered a satisfactory remedial technique since no standard placement exists. The trumpet mouthpiece vertical placement, in the minds of the respondents to this survey, appears to be a highly individual matter, and is most apt to be successful where it offers the greatest physical com- fort. While the same might be considered true for all in- struments, the physical factors are of lesser importance in the case of the lower brasses and French horn, due to the lower register and size of mouthpiece and, therefore, a somewhat wider choice of placement is possible. Horizontal mouthpiece placement. There appeared to be little contention among the respondents as to the proper horizontal setting of the mouthpiece. Fortyrfive checked the statement indicating that this placement "will depend in part on the alignment and spacing of the teeth, but should be as near a mid-point as possible." Opposed to this, only ten respondents felt that it was most important that the mouthpiece "is centered over the natural Opening of the lips when they are in buzzing position." However, the fact that an additional ten checked both statements suggests a partial dilemma on their part. There seems to be some thought that the vibration of the lips will be greater, thus the tone richer, if the focal point of that vibration is exactly cen- tered under the mouthpiece. It will be remembered that Mendez in his book on trumpet playing made an issue of this 69 point.4 Unfortunately, since this natural opening may not always coincide with the most comfortable position of the mouthpiece, as dictated by the shape of the jaw and teeth, some compromise obviously has to be made. Again, as with vertical placement, it was the players of the French horn and lower brasses (eight as contrasted to two cornet-trumpet) who chose that position more conducive to richness and quali- ty of tone. That seven of the ten respondents checking both statements were cornet-trumpet players could be indicative of the desire for maximum quality of sound tempered by the practical demands of range and endurance necessary for those instruments. The conclusions drawn from these answers, therefore, seem to be that, in the opinion of these respondents, the shape of the jaw and teeth is most important in regulating the horizontal position of the mouthpiece. While recog- nizing the desirability of the mouthpiece being located di- rectly over the lips' natural aperture, the most comfortable placement due to other physical factors does not always al- low this. When such a situation occurs, the shape of the jaw and teeth, and their resulting influence on the mouth- piece placement, must be given precedence. 4Mendez, 2p. cit., pp. 54—55. 7O Embouchure changes for ascending tones. In an effort to arrive at some consensus concerning the proper use of the embouchure muscles while changing pitch (upward in this case), nine statements were selected that represented common techniques in use. Respondents were asked to check those which most closely described their beliefs. As with all sections, space was left for additional comments as well. Since most respondents checked at least two statements and others three or four, the total results are of interest and are listed in Table III. Based on the total number of sixty—six respondents, several statements stand out as relatively significant. The consensus was strong enough in the belief that the cor- ners of the embouchure do tighten as the aperture becomes smaller, to conclude that such muscular action would be de- sirable for most students. An even greater percentage of agreement--seventy per cent--occurred in respect to the arching of the tongue, with a similar conclusion thus pos- sible. Conversely, three statements had such few suppor- ters that it is felt these tendencies among students should be discouraged. They were: "the jaw does not change as the lips tighten and aperture becomes smaller"; "the lips flatten out and the corners pull back"; and "the airstream is consciously aimed downward." The remaining four state— ments, however, seemingly would be correct if they corre- sponded to the appropriate jaw and lip position. For 71 Table III. Embouchure changes recommended for ascending tones ’ * Description R Numbe? Per cent esponding Lower jaw moves inward and upward 17 26 Lower lip rolls slightly under upper 21 32 Corners of lips tighten with lip 42 64 aperture becoming smaller Jaw does not change, but lips move 9 15 as in above All muscles tighten toward center 26 39 of mouth-~corners move inward Corner muscles tighten downward-- 23 35 corners stay in place Lips flatten out-corners pull back 1 1.5 Airstream consciously aimed downward 7 ll Tongue arches as in syllable "ee" 46 70 0thers** 15 23 *Respondents were asked to check as many statements as were applicable. **See page 72 for an explanation of "Others." 72 instance, those who held their jaw in the normal manner, and aligned their lips so that the lower was slightly behind the upper, would also tend to "roll the lower lip slightly under the upper" even more when ascending. By checking the replies from the first page of the questionnaire it was found that there was, indeed, a high degree of correlation between those favoring normal jaw position and lower lip rolled slightly under upper, with the first two statements from this section. Similarly, whether a player caused "all muscles to tighten toward the center of the mouth with the corners moving in- ward," or the "corner muscles to tighten downward with the corners staying in place," it is possible that either could be correct depending upon the amount of "pucker" that was normally used. From the additional comments that were made, one further refinement of the questionnaire statements con- cerning embouchure manipulation should be brought out. While agreeing with the premise that "the corners of the lips tighten with the lip aperture becoming smaller," several respondents added that the entire embouchure should contract by utilizing both the stretch and pucker muscles. Although this was implied in the questionnaire statement and was in the mind of the writer as it was prepared, it is acknowledged that some misinterpretation might have resulted. However, these additional thoughts from the respondents fur- ther serve to strengthen the validity of the questionnaire statement and emphasize the importance of this muscular 75 action among all brass players. This first section of the survey has pointed out many areas of agreement among the respondents concerning the "nor- mal" embouchure. While acknowledging the tendency of surveys to negate the opinions of minority groups, it is felt that where there was significant agreement (representative of more than seventy per cent) reasonably correct assumptions could be made. That they would be perfectly applicable to all players is, of course, not claimed. That they would be correct in the majority of cases and, thereby, valid as an aid to the recognition of faulty embouchures is accepted, and has been used as a basis for defining the abnormalcies of the remaining portion of the questionnaire. The Abnormal Embouchure Frequency 3; embouchure abnormalcies. When setting up the statements concerning abnormalcies it was hoped that three conclusions would become evident: first, that most students having embouchure problems would also possess clearly identifiable symptoms--a factor which would be in- dicated by the high degree of frequency response; second, that some abnormalcies were considerably more prevalent than others; and third, that the invitation to respondents for additional comments and suggestions would solicit ab- normalcies that were lesser known or previously unidenti- fied. 74 As Table IV on pages 75 and 76 indicates, most of the abnormalcies were easily identified by the respondents. Nine of the fifteen statements were checked by the majority as occurring frequently or occasionally, while six were checked under seldom. One could also assume that some of the abnormalcies listed as occurring very infrequently are, nevertheless, identifiable but actually were not common among brass students. Therefore, the assumption can be made that most embouchure abnormalcies do have recognizable characteristics for the experienced teacher. The survey also indicated that at least six abnor- malcies were considerably more prevalent than others. One of these, the use of extreme pressure on the lips, was listed as occurring frequently by forty—one respondents, and by twenty-three as occasionally. This comes as no surprise considering the unanimity among all teachers and performers as to the detrimental effects of pressure. That excessive pressure is also easily identified, also accounts for the high percentage listed in the questionnaire. While not approaching the use of pressure in frequency, the faulty technique of pulling back or stretching the corners of the lips to an extreme ranked a high second in frequency. Al- though this practice is condemned by nearly all teachers today, it is, unfortunately, still advised in some method books widely used. The abnormalcy, which is also easily recognized, appears to owe its prevalency to self-teaching 75 psoadapmafi we pawns spasm: oaoava ha notoa mm HM mm om N so used afia Loam: wnfioaom hogan pmafldwd a«~ notoa was as m om mm as :mmcaa .eccsas anaconda case owadd oov wsfidmao we as on ma a has: sacce cc pswap mass hagawwa ooa hoasoo me a as we as ea panache» mass maacccua oaoaaHo an op Home wdwsoamaam as 0 ma on ma ens cacqscc scan maaaasm mamapwo as o» no w an mm 0 mafia mnwaoxoda no wsfimasm mafia so no 0 H mm av madmmmaa moofimnpSOE osma¢xm mm a em as n sac ecaaca asccso wqfissomwmm h h w h nonadz no>oz Bataan Hasqofimsooc Hana: mam cadaao:94_oadnosonsfl magnosow :w Umaoondoodo mofloadahonnd mo moonoswohh .>H wands 76 =.cscsso= ac acapmaa nca > canes com: ma *maonpo ouwm oso op as m em on m sea cop ecccaa occaaswscs as o as as as sca cop ecccaa cocaaspncs me a mm mm a swan cop scccaa cocaaspsca maow as madam msfimsso mm n ma mm m .moHomua sonaoo mafiao>w=m saw was afia aosoa so swam: so 3 am mm Ha acsaac accsaon acscca use osoaaso as a as as a as co mass meaaacaacso o>ono me eooamo seem as a as am 9 can mcwmccc .eccs maacaae {fl 1% cqwmmmwwom ao>oz aooaom haaenowmsooo hasnoowoah hoasaaosgs oasmodonam Aecscapcccv >H .canse 77 on the part of the student, or inexperience and unfamili- arity with brass pedagogy on the part of the teacher. Of the other four abnormalcies occurring more frequently, three are similarly easily identified by the experienced teacher. The upward bunching chin; air pocket between lip and gum; and too low a mouthpiece placement; all can be viewed while the student is playing even if the teacher is not familiar with the type of tone associated with them. The request for additional embouchure abnormalcies observed by the recipients of the questionnaire resulted in eighteen others which were considered enough different to be included in a separate listing (see Table V). Several of these appeared to be variations of the previously listed abnormalcies and yet, technically, are not the same. For instance, "lips tight on teeth with opening too gggii," which was added, is obviously related to "lips tight on teeth with opening too large ." However, the results for the students will be considerably different. Whereas the gggll opening will result in playing sharp, a pinched tone and a general lack of volume, the lgggg opening will cause flatness in the upper register, a big but uncontrolled tone, and the inability to play softly. In the same sense, un- equal lateral mouthpiece pressure, unequal vertical pres- sure, and excessive pressure on one lip, are but more dis- criminatory degrees of "excessive pressure on the lips"--a statement which was contained in the survey. However, one 78 Table V. Frequency of other abnormalcies not listed in questionnaire, but given by respondents Embouchure.Abnormalcy rre- Occa— Seldom quently Sionally Upper lip very tight 1 Lateral shifting of jaw l Unequal lateral mouthpiece pressure 1 Unequal vertical mouthpiece pressure 1 Lips tight on teeth with opening 1 too small Quivering center muscles 1 One side of embouchure weaker than 1 other Too weak or too strong in the 1 middle or corners Producing tone without corner 1 l tension Teeth too close together 2 l Lips rolled in too far 1 Tongue used for lower lip 1 Excessive pressure on one lip l Pushing jaw forward to increase 1 tension Lip aperture remaining too open 1 1 after breath is taken Corners not pulling or moving 1 together Attempting high tones by moving 1 upper lip down in center Extra tension of lip muscles 1 79 abnormalcy was mentioned by several respondents that, had it been listed originally, undoubtedly would have been checked by many others. This was the attempt of the student to play with the upper and lower front teeth too close to- gether-~a condition which often results in the lip aperture being too flat and the tone squeezed. Based on two respon- dents adding it as occurring frequently and one as occasion- ally, it could safely be assumed that this abnormalcy is not uncommon. The remainder of the "other" abnormalcies included in Table V were mentioned only by one respondent and could, therefore, be judged as comparatively rare occurrences. One of these, the "tongue being used for lower lip," would cer- tainly have to be classified as a rarity. The respondent did not specify the circumstances surrounding this oddity, but it is difficult to imagine this type of brass embouchure being formed unconsciously unless some deformity of the lower lip existed. Obviously if such a deformity was present, and serious enough to cause the tongue to be used in its place, remedial measures in the sense that they are discussed in this study would be useless. The embouchure would have to be accepted or, preferably, the student advised to make a change in his choice of instrument. Causes pf abnormalcies. In an attempt to judge the underlying cause of embouchure abnormalcies, three state- ments were given to serve as an introduction to this portion 80 of the questionnaire. ReSpondents were asked whether, in their opinion, those abnormalcies previously listed were (I) mostly related to physical conditions of the player, (2) mostly related to the use of improper methods by the student or teachers, or (5) a relatively equal combination of physical conditions and improper methods. It was the hypothesis of this study that the majority of brass embou- chure abnormalcies were not purely the result of physical features beyond the control of the student and teachers. If such were the case, then only a relatively few players would have any degree of success, and the only hope for the remainder would be the suggestion to consider another field of endeavor. It remained, however, for the respondents to support this hypothesis if the study was to have any vali- dity. That only two out of the sixty-five replying to this question felt that embouchure abnormalcies were mostly re- lated to physical conditions was deemed significant evidence to this fact. Moreover, thirty-nine of the performers and teachers, or sixty per cent, felt that the abnormalcies were due mainly to the use of improper methods. The remaining twenty-four respondents, or thirty-seven per cent, felt that there was an even division between the two factors. Thus it would seem fair to rule out physical characteristics of the student as the primary cause of brass embouchure abnor— malcies. It further seems apparent that a person with an obvious malformation such as a harelip, would not have been 81 encouraged nor inclined to undertake the study of any of the brass instruments. The problem lies, then, in helping the student who is using non—acceptable techniques, unrelated to the fact that he may or may not have physical features less conducive to brass playing than another. Effect 2; physical conditions 9p abnormalcies. Since twenty-four respondents did feel that physical characteris- tics had at least a partial bearing on the development of embouchure abnormalcies, the survey next delved into this aspect. Bight physical traits or weaknesses (shown in Table VI) which have been discussed in brass pedagogical literature, were listed with instructions to be marked as to the extent they might influence the develOpment of abnormalcies. Of these the one characteristic that was most evident was the degree of malocclusion between the upper and lower teeth. Fifty-four of sixty-three respondents, or eighty-six per cent, felt that an overbite of more than one—quarter inch would be detrimental to a moderate or large degree. Simi- larly, fifty-two of sixty—three respondents, or eighty per cent, also felt that a protruding lower jaw was conducive to embouchure abnormalcies. Also rating high among the re- spondents were uneven front teeth, weak facial muscles, and immature physical development. Two facial features, which have often been mentioned as affecting the brass embouchure to a large extent, were actually deemed the least troublesome 82 Table VI. Degree to which physical weaknesses or conditions are apt to cause embouchure abnormalcies Large Mod. Small Condition Degree Degree Degree None Total Extreme overbite (more 27 27 8 1 63 than 1/4") Protruding lower jaw 16 36 ll 2 65 Very thick lips 9 25 23 4 61 Very thin lips 1 15 26 19 61 Uneven front teeth 12 31 18 l 62 Weak facial muscles 26 23 9 3 61 Pronounced peak in upper 16 21 16 7 60 lip (that portion hanging down in center) Immature physical 13 28 17 4 62 development Others* 5 *See accompanying text for an explanation of "Others." 83 by the respondents. Very thick lips was checked as a major factor in embouchure abnormalcies by only nine respondents and as a moderate one by twenty-five. Twenty-seven felt they had little or no effect. Very thin lips had even less effect in the minds of the respondents with only one checking the statement under "large degree." Forty—five, furthermore, felt that they had little or no effect on the development of embouchure. One other interesting fact was brought out by this part of the survey; that of the effect of immature physical development on the probability of embouchure abnormalcy. Very few articles or books have mentioned this as being im- portant; yet, forty-one, or sixty-six per cent of the re- spondents, felt that it contributed in either a large or moderate degree. Jhile no explanations were given in the questionnaire concerning the manner in which this factor affected embouchures, it is not difficult to theorize. Since a great number of young instrumentalists are taught in the public schools today through.gl§§§ techniques, it becomes a matter of pride among those participating to "keep up" with their peers. Indeed, competition is encour- aged by the teachers in order to stimulate the students to work harder. However, while the successful playing of a brass instrument is contingent upon the steady development of many facial muscles, studies have shown that there is a vast difference in the physical maturity of children within 84 the same age bracket. It is this lack of physical equality that tempts some young players to resort to any possible means that will enable them to "succeed" in the eyes of their fellow students, if not the teacher. The most obvious of these faulty techniques is, of course, excessive pressure-- the prevalence of which has already been shown. It is felt by this writer that the authors of most ensemble method books have not fully taken into consideration the excessive muscu— lar demands some brass instruments--notably the cornet- trumpet--place on the students. It is further felt that this is an area that needs to be explored in much greater depth than has been done in the past. Of the five "other" physical factors mentioned by the respondents, three of them concerned the relationship of the length of the upper lip and upper teeth. The feeling is that it is extremely difficult to play correctly when the upper lip is shorter than the upper front teeth. The "tex- ture" of the lips was mentioned by another respondent as being more important than the size. However, this appears to be a factor that is difficult to judge, and on the basis of the other returns is not one that many would feel able to discern. The remaining physical characteristic reported was described as an upper lip which "is wide and turns up" --a trait, fortunately, that also does not seem to be too common. In summary it must be said that some physical 85 characteristics do leave the player little recourse but to accept the limitations placed upon his performance by nature. That nature can be improved upon is not within the sc0pe of this paper, although it has been the subject of other studies.5 However, other physical conditions are judged to be temporary or of such a nature that adjustments can be made to aid the normal development of the embouchure. For instance, the malocclusions of the teeth, if not too severe, can be somewhat alleviated by the movement of the lower jaw. This was implied by the large number of respondents referred to earlier who felt this was a desirable technique for El; brass players. Also, immature physical development, if recognized and compensated for by the instructor, need not be the cause of abnormal development. Brass teachers must understand, as the classroom teacher must, that each child should be judged and taught according to his individual capacity to learn-~both mentally and physically. If impos- sible physical demands are made on the young brass player he has no recourse but to resort to abnormal techniques. And finally, it has been the author's experience that a general weakness of the facial muscles can be improved with special exercises--to be discussed in the following chapter --or merely by the elimination of poor eating and sleeping habits. A general sense of well-being is as vital to the 5Reference is made to several studies by Edward Cheney, and Lamp and Epley, which delved into techniques of dental- surgery and adaptations of special mouthpieces to fit ir— regular teeth and jaw formations. These studies are listed in the bibliography. 86 brass player as to the athlete. Without it many abnormal- cies are quickly and insidiously developed. Effect 3; external factors 9p abnormalcies. This sec- tion was added to parts D and E of the questionnaire since it was felt that these, taken alone, did not cover all the possible outside agencies which influenced the develOpment of the emboucnure. Two of the "external" factors—-inadequate breath control and lack of proper warm—up procedures—-might possibly not be considered as external, yet seemed to fit in this category better than in others. In the sense that they are apart from the embouchure itself and not a physical trait, they apparently are best identified as outside agents. A re- ferral to Table VII will show that regardless of how they are categorized, the respondents were quick to recognize them as responsible to a large degree for the many embouchure ailments that can beset young players. Inadequate breath control was listed as adversely affecting the embouchure to a large degree by fifty-four, or eighty-four per cent of the respondents. An additional eleven per cent felt it was re- sponsible to a moderate degree. In contrast to these fig- ures, only three felt that its effect on the development of embouchure abnormalcies was negligible. In a similar manner, only six respondents felt little concern for the lack of prOper warm—up procedures, while sixty, or ninety-one per cent, stated that they were important to a large or moderate degree. 87 Table VII. Degree to which external factors lead to embouchure abnormalcies External Factor Large MOd' small None Total Degree Dggree Degree Inferior equipment 6 29 25 3 63 Improper equipment (too 13 31 18 2 64 large a mouthpiece, etc.) Inadequate breath control 54 7 l 2 64 Lack of proper warmup 42 18 5 l 66 procedures Demands of beginning 20 18 2O 3 61 methods Keeping up with advanced 17 26 18 3 64 players in an organization Trying to emulate profes— 28 21 12 2 63 sionals (high note artists, etc.) Others* 11 *See accompanying text for an explanation of "Others." 88 Three other external factors were rated by the respon— dents as relatively important in their effect on embouchure abnormalcies; the use of improper equipment--such as too large a bore instrument or a mouthpiece of improper size-- was indicated as having a large or moderate effect by forty- four, or sixty-nine per cent, of the respondents; trying to keep up with advanced players in an organization by forty- three, or sixty—eight per cent; and attempting to emulate professionals by forty-nine, or seventy-eight per cent. The remaining two external factors, the use of inferior equipment and.the demands of beginning methods, were also ranked by nearly sixty per cent as being important in their effect on brass embouchure abnormalcies. It would appear from the response of the professional players and teachers that many non-physical factors, as well as physical, are at work in shaping the young brass embou- chure. The almost unanimous response indicated, however, that proper breath support and control is perhaps the most important single element. Without this, all other aspects of the embouchure are as meaningless as a finely tuned en- gine without the fuel to run it. Based on the evidence at hand it would follow that few, if any, remedial attempts at correcting a faulty embouchure would be entirely successful unless the student first had the prOper concept of breath control. 89 The need for proper warmup techniques is a subject that has been belabored many times, both in writing and by teachers in their studios. That correct maximum usage of muscles must be preceded by a slow and gradual flexing and limbering process is attested to daily by professional athletes. The application to brass players is that muscles which are rigid and not limber also tend to be less effi- cient. This, in turn, often causes the player to resort to abnormal means of performance with the result that excessive pressure is often applied and endurance greatly curtailed. While a few professionals claim not to need this warmup period, all stress its importance to the student. In this writer's opinion, those performers Who need little or no warmup also possess an exceptionally strong or well-adapted embouchure with excellent control of the breath. In actu- ality these players warm up while they are playing, and do not find it necessary to strain the limits of their strength and control in the process. At least one performer has con- fessed, however, that the need for warming up increases in later years. Three of the external factors appear similar in their effect on the student. Whether because of excessive demands of a method book, trying to keep up with others in an orga- nization, or attempting to copy the style and range of some of the more popular television stars, the student is straining to reach a level too far beyond his present 9O ability. This abnormal strain almost always manifests it— self in the guise of excessive pressure as well as overlap- ping and tightly compressed lips. Some young trumpet play- ers have been known to puff out their cheeks in an effort to duplicate the assorted sounds and pyrotechnics of jazz artists. Without being facetious, it is quite possible that all the violence that is viewed on television is not exclu- sively in the domain of morality. Of the outside agents concerning the instrument it- self, the respondents were stronger in their opposition to improper rather than inferior equipment. The types of im— proper equipment most often mentioned were too large a mouth- piece or a bore size beyond the ability of the student to "fill." These both require greater strength from the embou- chure and better control of the breath-~two elements that are likely to be undeveloped among student players. While inferior instruments are more apt to have intonation faults this does not necessarily lead to embouchure abnormalcies. Mouthpieces and bores are seldom beyond medium size, and place less strain on the embouchure. It is recognized, however, that "stuffiness" and poor tone quality could re- sult in the embouchure being asked to produce more than the instrument was capable of giving. Of the eleven comments added to this list of exter- nal factors by the respondents, seven concerned the same topic--the teacher. While section B of the survey mentioned 91 improper methods, the reference was mainly to those used by the student, notwithstanding that these could have been his own or those given him by his teacher. Several of the re- spondents felt that the instructor was a most vital external factor in the normal or abnormal development of the embou- chure. Terms that were used were "unclear goals," "poor concept," "improper presentation of embouchure," "insuffi- cient guidance during the first ten hours," or just "improper teaching." However it was stated, the consensus was that many abnormalcies could have been avoided had the student received the proper instruction from the beginning. It is because of this very point that this study was undertaken. The great majority of brass students g9 begin under the guidance of a teacher--even though it may not be on a one to one, teacher to pupil, basis. If it is the opinion of many outstanding performers and teachers that this initial instruction is poor, then better ways must be found to in- crease the understanding of the brass embouchure. However, as the first part of this survey has shown, those most qualified to perform and teach do not always agree as to the proper functions of the embouchure. Because of this there is little likelihood that the beginning, relatively inexperienced teacher will have a better concept. In conclusion it can be stated that the great majority of the respondents did consider external factors to have an important effect on embouchure abnormalcies. That the 92 teacher himself is considered a vital part of these external factors is acknowledged. For practical application it would appear that in the training of future brass teachers, the emphasis, in addition to fundamentals of embouchure forma- tion and breath control, should also include the analysis of method books and the discussion of proper equipment. It is unlikely that the course can be devised to help in negat- ing the influence of TV. Quivering corner muscles. Among the embouchure ab- normalcies viewed by the writer, one has proved to be ex- ceedingly frustrating and, on occasions, embarrassing to the player. While not occurring as frequently as some others, the quivering of the muscles at the corners of the lips produces an audible shake in the tone of the player. This phenomenon, when coupled with an occasion such as a public performance, can be aggravated to the extent that the tone is distorted far beyond the limits of acceptable quality. Having met with only limited success in the past in correcting this abnormalcy, the questionnaire was de- signed to focus attention on this problem. In addition it was to serve as a guide to aid the respondents in commenting on other abnormalcies. Twelve statements were devised, therefore, to represent different methods of treatment. These were based on the author's own experiences as well as those suggestions given by other teachers and performers. 95 Inasmuch as the respondents were asked to check as many of the techniques with which they had had success, a glance at Table VIII will show that there apparently is no one solution that meets with an overwhelming approval. The only statement that obviously did express a commonly felt view was that it was important for the teacher to first establish whether or not he was dealing primarily with a nervous reaction. Fifty, or seventy-seven per cent, of the respondents felt this was an important step. Only four other statements were checked by more than fifty per cent. Three of these had one factor in common: they all included the element of rest. Fifty— seven per cent prescribed practicing long tones which were to be followed by an equal amount of rest between. Shorter practice periods, which were to be repeated several times a day, were also advocated by fifty-seven per cent. And, in emphasizing this aspect, fifty—five per cent believed simply in resting frequently during all practice. The implication of the above figures is that the muscles are insufficiently developed to meet the requirements of sustained playing and that this ability is best built up through the "play a little-—rest a little" technique. Most of us are familiar with an arm or leg trembling when the muscles have been overtensed in relation to their normal use. We can deduce that in the same way muscles of the embouchure, if held firm for too long a time, will react accordingly. The respondents seem to support this line of reasoning. 94- Table VIII. Frequency of responses concerning methodology of correcting quivering corner muscles Statement of Method f‘e8909dem’s Per cent Agreeing» Determine first whether abnormalcy 50 77 is a nervous reaction mainly con- nected with student's personality If not nervousness, agree that cause 30 46 is general weak condition of the facial muscles Prescribe concentrated work on lip 38 58 slurs Prescribe long tones followed by an 37 57 equal amount of rest between Advocate resting frequently during 36 55 all practice Suggest holding instrument in loose 20 31 manner while warming up to insure proper use of breath and minimum pressure Hold corners of lips still by placing 13 20 your fingers forcibly over quivering area while student plays to give him correct feel Suggest longer practice periods to extend endurance of muscles 8 12 Suggest shorter practice periods 37 57 several times a day Have student practice facial exercises 14 22 several times a day Others* 14 22 *See page 95 in text for discussion of "others." 95 However, the low percentage of response to other statements dealing with types of exercises to strengthen the muscles indicated that the majority felt these were not the major factors. Only forty-six per cent agreed that the quivering was caused by a general weak condition of the facial muscles. Facial exercises--with which the author has had some success —-was checked by only twenty-two per cent, and the extension of the length of the practice period by only twelve per cent. Other methods listed were likewise checked only by a small percentage. Because of this seeming lack of unanimity by the re- spondents, their additional comments were viewed with con- siderable interest. Since there were fourteen different ca- tegories of suggestions, it was decided to list them separ- ately. Consequently, they will be found in Table IX along with the number of respondents making the same comment. The greatest number of like suggestions fell under the gener- al heading of breath support. The consensus among the six reporting this view was that the embouchure muscles were be- ing overworked due to a lack of breath. Some respondents were quite specific in their remedial techniques: The quivers I have in mind are audible, and are caused by the muscles of the embouchure being overly Egpgg. To "cure" the quiver, I work with the first exercise of Remington's Lip Trainers (middle and low range long tones--held only four counts each) and get the student to relax, let go, let the tone sag 96 Table IX. Methods for curing quivering corners muscles not listed in questionnaire but given by respondents Statement of Method Frequency Concentration on greater breath support-— 6 embouchure muscles probably are being overworked Practice buzzing with lips alone 5 Exercises to relieve tension in corners-—lip 4 slurs, scales, low register study, etc. Buzzing on mouthpiece alone or on a rim 3 Use of mirror 3 Development of the conception of blowing air 3 stream through the instrument Relaxation of the quivering muscle 2 Interval study within easy rang 2 ' Pencil exercise 1 Repeated short tones 1 Long loud tones in middle register using lip or 1 chin vibrato Wait for student to mature 1 Help student to "feel" the corners against the l teeth Switch student to clarinet for one or two months 1 97 and compensate with deep Ereathing and then exhaling "as if fogging a window." It has been my experience that quivering corners are most usually caused by muscles which are func— tioning improperly in relation to the air pressure pushing against them. In some instances I have found students who have worked very hard at develop- ing firm corners and have seemingly missed the whole point of embouchure function; which is to contract or relax just enough to help the lips to produce the frequency necessary to resonate the desired pitch. I have had a good bit of success in correcting quivering corners by asking the student to relax the tongue, throat and entire embouchure and perhaps play exercises and eludes in the lower dynamic levels until the air motion and embouchure action are in proper focus with each other.7 It was generally agreed among the six respondents that whereas some students tend to use excessive pressure when there is inadequate breath support, others, conscientiously trying to avoid the use of pressure, put extra demand on the embouchure. Excessive contraction of the muscles, in an effort to reduce the lip aperture to a point compatible with the inadequate column of air, then becomes responsible for the quivering. The obvious remedy according to these respondents is to help the student use the breath more ef- fectively. Other suggestions dealt with strengthening the em- couchure muscles, and included buzzing the lips alone, 6Reginald H. Fink, trombone instructor, West Virginia University. 7Norman C. Dietz, Director of Bands and Brass instruc- tor, Central Nichigan University. 98 buzzing with the mouthpiece, or the combination of the two as in this suggestion: 1. Practice buzzing lips without the mouthpiece-- use the syllable "dim" (teeth even) followed by a clear steady buzz. 2. Bring the mouthpiece to the lips--not stopping the buzz. Repeat the off and on process. This is to be done daily. 5. Later, hold the mouthpiece with left hand finger tips on shank and practice playing on mouthpiece alone--simple tunes and scales. 4. Buzz lips alone before practicing daily. Later play like a siren up and down-~lips alone and with the mouthpiece.8 Those respondents suggesting similar ways of strengthening the muscles, seemingly felt that the quiver was basically due to a weakness, and that this was the area on which to concentrate. Among other comments listed was that the quiver could be due to an improper balance between the smile and pucker muscles, with the relaxing of the over-tense muscles being the proper approach. Several stressed that any studies un- dertaken should be in the middle or low register. One re- spondent felt that in addition to the medium register, prac- ticing at a loud volume was desirable. He also recommended the use of a lip or chin vibrato: First, have students warm—up daily playing long, chromatic tones in middle register as loudly as pos- sible. Loudness helps overdevelop breath support for use when nervousness occurs. Second, play all above long, loud tones with an even lip or chin 8Vernon Leidig, brass instructor, California State College, Los Angeles. 99 vibrato rather than straight tones. This is so that when, in actual performance, a quiver in the lips de- velops when blowing a straight tone, the player may comfortgbly shift to a vibrato tone to calm the lip quiver. The remaining techniques for correcting the quivering lip corners ranged from manipulating a pencil between the lips as a means of strengthening the muscles, to the long range approach of waiting for the student to "mature." The latter respondent stated that he found this condition com- mon to adolescence and that it usually cleared up in one or two years. The most challenging approach, from the student's standpoint, was the comment from one respondent that they found it helpful to put the student on clarinet for one or two months. It was not explained in what way this was found to alleviate the condition. It can be said in summary that two factors are the chief causes underlying quivering corner muscles: (1) a general lack of strength in the embouchure, and (2) over tensing of the muscles due to a lack of proper breath sup- port. As to which is the most important factor is un- doubtedly dependent largely on the individual student. The evidence is, however, that pgph.elements are present to varying degrees in each student experiencing this abnormal- cy. Having the player concentrate his practicing to the improvement of both of these areas should be of help. It 9Robert Stephenson, lower brass instructor, Northern iichigan University, Marquette, Michigan. 100 is further recognized that the personality of the student is a factor which must be taken into consideration. It has been the author's experience that many of these students ap- pear to have a personality that is less able to cOpe with the tension of playing under pressure. The abnormalcy is always more evident when the player is under the tension of public performance. However, this appears to be only a secondary cause in that it tends to emphasize the deficien- cies of breath support and embouchure strength, thus aggra- vating the condition. Suggested Remedial Techniques Of the sixty-six responding to the questionnaire, forty-two wrote lengthy comments in the section dealing with methods and materials used in correcting embouchure abnormalcies. While many gave suggestions and related ex- periences which were in the form of general techniques, others were specific in their means of dealing with the abnormalcies listed earlier in the survey. Therefore, as a way of organization, the abnormalcies will be dealt with here in the order in which they appeared in page three of the questionnaire. Since many of the comments were long or overlapped those of other respondents, a synopsis or summary technique will be used in presenting the material. lOl Cheeks puffed out. Several respondents mentioned that to correct this abnormalcy the teacher should stress corner muscle development and the flat firm chin. Another stated that the student should be told to pull in the areas that are puffed as the muscles are too lax and the skin, consequently, too slack. The mirror was also suggested as an aid. One respondent suggested that the student watch himself in the mirror and, as he held a tone in the middle register, try to pull the cheeks. While it is conceded that these methods could produce results with a few students, they are predicated on the ability of the player to manipu- late the correct muscles at will. This, unfortunately, is not often the case. More effective are those techniques that utilize familiar sensations to produce the desired re- sults. One respondent recommended playing a middle regis- ter tone while mentally "squirting water" through closed lips as far as possible. Also to strengthen the corner muscles, thus holding the cheeks in, a pencil exercise was mentioned several times. One described it as having the student bite as if holding a pencil in the corners of the mouth. Still another substituted toothpicks for the pencil with these instructions: For loose corners and puffing cheeks, I recommend that the student place a toothpick inside the mouth at the extreme corners (one on each side) facing straight out. Then I have the student hold the toothpicks firmly (but not gripping) so as to build up the corner muscles. I encourage the use of long- tone practice while keeping the toothpicks held in 102 the corners. Gradually, as the muscular control de- velops, the student begins to realize a more "firm foundation" for his embouchure. This same idea has been practiced for many years by many good teachers. However, most of the time the students carry it to extremes by gripping the corners too tightly, there- by hampering flexibility and control. Caution must be used in this method not to overdo.10 One of the simplest methods described for correcting puffed cheeks was that of playing simple tunes by buzzing the lips without the mouthpiece. This may be difficult at first since the player has been substituting mouthpiece pres- sure for correct use of the muscles. However, since it is practically impossible to buzz without corner tension--the same tension that serves to hold the cheeks in--the student is forced to experiment until he can control these muscles. With continued practice using lips alone he is able to make minute adjustments in the tension so that varying pitches-- and tunes--may be produced. Once this ability has been at- tained the player rarely will revert to his old methods when the mouthpiece is reintroduced. The one danger present in this technique is that of develOping a tight or pinched lip aperture. This results in a strained tone quality when the player uses the mouthpiece and instrument. Therefore, when buzzing the lips alone the student should be cautioned against over tension, especially in the center area. DrOp- ping the lower jaw slightly and keeping the chin flat also 10Thomas L. Giles, brass instructor, Nankato State College, Hankato, hinnesota. 105 help to avert this squeezing of the lip aperture when buzz- ing. Extreme mouthpiece pressure. Most of the respondents commenting on this abnormalcy emphasized the importance of breath support as a necessary adjunct to its correction. Two related methods were suggested, however, as means of im- mediately reducing the unwanted pressure. The first of these concerned the grip on the instrument by the student. Several felt that if this could be eased there would be much less transference of the pressure to the lips. Relax- ing the grip, removing the finger from the finger ring, balancing the instrument on the thumbs, blowing it while it rests on a shelf, having someone pull the instrument away while blowing, were among the techniques described as effec- tive. A closely related method was to have the student him— self attempt to pull away from the instrument. A more de- tailed accounting of the manner is indicated in these ex- cerpts: While holding tones in middle, then higher re- gister, and at varying medium and loud volumes, mentally pull the mouthpiece away from the lips without stopping the sounding of the tone.11 Have student consciously try to "back away" from the mouthpiece instead of leaning into it. In order to do this properly the student must hold instrument (in the case of trumpet or trombone) straight out as 11W. EugeneLeetch, brass instructor, Augustana Col- lege, Rock Island, Illinois. 104 comfortably as possible. Trombone may have to play down slightly because oflgwkwardness in maintaining the horizontal pOSition. Other remedies for reducing excessive pressure on the lips included buzzing on the mouthpiece, with the admonition that it should be held lightly; feeling of "whistling" the high notes; greater use of tongue arch and syllables; and breaking up practice into small periods. Mentioned by several respondents was that excessive pressure was usually a by-product of some other problem: poor breath support; weak facial muscles; or lack of proper concept of tone. These deficiencies must be corrected before it is possible to permanently reduce pressure by other means. The author also has found that in the case of a "dry lip" player, mere- ly moistening the lips will remove the mouthpiece crutch which acts as a vise in holding the lips in place. The player is then forced to concentrate on developing the em- bouchure muscles instead of depending on the unwanted pres— sure 0 Excessive pucker pg extreme ppglg. These two op- posing positions of the lip corners brought little in the way of specific remedial techniques from the respondents. For example, those who believed in the lip buzz as an ef- fective means of overcoming other deficiencies, likewise 12Richard F. Burkhart, brass instructor, Lamar State College, Beaumont, Texas. 105 suggested it for both of these abnormalcies. In the case of the pucker the student was advised to buzz the lips in front of a mirror and observe the shape of the lip aperture. If it appeared too round, and the tone of a low, dark quali- ty, an attempt should be made to stretch the corners more towards the smile position, pulling the lips somewhat tighter over the teeth. When in the correct position the aperture should appear more oval, slightly wider and with less space between the upper and lower lips. As one re- spondent pointed out, the use of a mirror is vital to avoid stretching the lips excessively or bunching the chin. In the same manner the excessive smile condition could be ob- served and corrected. If the lip aperture appeared too wide and flat, and the tone of a tight or high pitched character, an attempt should be made to bring the corners in towards more of a pucker with the aperture more rounded. Another respondent in commenting on the overuse of the smile offered this suggestion: Use a mirror. Slur from low Bb (trombone) to Bb above, moving corners in (or down) while ascending, and out while descending. This will feel very weak and very uncontrolled for a long time. When octaves will work, do fifths and octaves. Extend range. Do igrggein2§gvgiitfigst for positive muscle action to While those teachers who do not advocate moving the lip corners in or out but rather keeping them stationary may 15W. Eugene Leetch, pp. cit. 106 not agree with this technique, it does appear that this method would effectively counteract the tendency to stretch the lips when ascending. This writer can attest to its ef- fectiveness, having undergone a similar change many years ago. As always, though, the tendency to move to the opposite extreme must be guarded against. Along with the feeling of weakness already pointed out, the player will experience a considerable temporary loss of upper register. If this corrective treatment is undertaken during the school year, a change from high parts to lower ones in an organization is strongly recommended, particularly in the case of trumpet. It was emphasized by several respondents that before advising the student to use any of these techniques he should first have a clear concept of the proper function of the embouchure. A description of Farkas' "tug-of—war" be- tween the muscles as well as specific identification of their individual duties, should help impress on the student the need for a careful and analytical approach to the prob- lem. Too often a player, when counseled on his embouchure deficiencies, will take the negative attitude that he is being put into a common mold. His "resistance" to change can largely be dispelled if it is pointed out to him that while the application differs slightly with individuals, the correct basic function of the embouchure muscles has an extremely high degree of unanimity among all brass players. lO7 Pressing lips together tightly lg center. The cause of this particular fault, as discussed earlier in the study, is the improper balance between the orbicularis muscles (see Figure 1, page 19) and those muscles moving away from the center or near center of the lips—-primarily the levators, depressors and mentalis. Without sufficient tension from these muscles to keep the center of the lips more open, the compression of the orbicularis necessary to create the needed tension for vibration, presses the lips tightly together throughout the entire width. The result is a wide, flat aperture instead of the narrower, more oval shaped opening. Helping the student obtain the "feel" of the proper balance of these muscles is the key to over- coming this abnormalcy. Here again most of the respondents replying to this portion of the survey reiterated their re— liance upon lip and rim buzzing to correct this faulty lip action. Two methods of utilizing the buzz were evident: by sight, and by sound. One respondent suggested that the student stand in front of the mirror and mentally "whistle" a larger opening. Care must again be taken here to avoid going to the opposite extreme of puckering. The next step after the mental "whistle" would be to practice actual pitches while buzzing on the mouthpiece. The student would have to check with the instrument or piano for this. Then, while holding the tone, the player should attempt to open up the center of the aperture without stopping the sound. 108 As with earlier techniques, the success of this method rests on the student being able to control the proper muscles so that he is capable of Opening up the center at will. The "sound" approach in using the buzz either with lips alone or with the mouthpiece rim is based on the student striving to produce an "open, dark sound." As this type of a tone is indicative of the more rounded shape of aperture, the student would be able to "hear a proper embouchure." Again, unfortunately, this presumes that the student is capable of making the minute adjustments of the muscle balance necessary to alter the aperture shape. After play— ing for years--in the case of many college freshmen--with one type of muscular balance, it is often difficult to ex- ercise enough control over individual muscles to make the required adjustments. Two respondents seemed to offer suggestions that would help a player locate this "feel." One has already been mentioned as a mental "whistle." This was carried a step further by another by saying that the student should attempt to whistle a very high note. This tends to keep a certain amount of pucker while at the same time focusing down to a much smaller aperture. The other technique was to have the player place a thin soda straw in the center of the lips (pointing straight out). The student is then asked to hold the straw as firmly as possible without having the lips collapse the fragile tube. While these two 109 methods may not work for everyone they at least have merit in the fact that they are removed from all preconceived habits of the student's faulty embouchure. Lips tight 9n teeth with aperture too large. While this abnormalcy was less frequently encountered by the re- spondents, it nevertheless poses a frustrating problem for 'the player. Symptoms include the inability to play at a soft dynamic level, a tendency to flat the pitch or have the tone break off when attempting a diminuendo, a loud but sometimes breathy tone in the upper register with the tOp- most notes undependable, and a general lack of flexibility throughout the entire range. The respondents' list of causes is varied: excessive pressure, dry lips, jaws spread too far apart, too much tension in all the opposing muscles, and the habit of opening the aperture too wide when taking a breath and not allowing the lips to reset before reseat- ing the mouthpiece. Any one or several of these combined could be the underlying cause of this embouchure abnormalcy. Several quite often go together, such as excessive pressure and dry lips. When these are present along with the ten- dency to open the lips wide when breathing and not properly resetting the corners, the aperture is "locked" in its Open position by the pressure of the mouthpiece. Since the lips are dry they adhere tightly to the rim and, therefore, allow for no minute adjustments. 110 The obvious solution to our problem is the elimina- tion of the above factors. Wetting the lips aids not only the removal of excessive pressure but makes it possible to adjust the aperture after the mouthpiece has been seated. Closing the jaw slightly also tends to reduce both the width and height of the aperture. Once these procedures have been followed, two courses of study are recommended by the respondents: First, buzzing the lips without the aid of either the mouthpiece or a mouthpiece rim is recom- mended. This allows the student to get the "feel" of the muscles holding the embouchure in position without the aid of the mouthpiece pressure. Since some teachers avoid the use of lip buzzing precisely because they believe it might result in too closed an aperture, its use here should be deemed desirable--provided, of course, that the student is cautioned against going to the other extreme. The second method of approach offered is the use of long tones which employ both crescendos and decrescendos. These can be done with lips alone, with the mouthpiece, and with the instru- ment—~the ultimate objective being learning to control the size of the lip aperture through embouchure manipulation. As one respondent stated it: The practice of long tones crescendoing and diminishing can teach the pupil by his own sen- sations what is the correct amount of tension necessary to form the correct embouchure. The vibration of the lips produces the tone and a soft attack can be obtained if the preceding note has been diminished to a fine point and the player 111 carries over to the next attack the same tension and sensation which produced the scarcely heard release. The concentration on the action of the lips must be held while taking breath-~there must be no mental stop or relaxation between notes. 4 Chin bunching upward. Based on the response to the part of the survey dealing with frequency of abnormalcies, this particular one is quite common among immature players. It is caused by the improper use of the muscles in making the lip aperture smaller, since the student seldom resorts to this fault unless straining to reach notes in the middle or upper register. Realizing the need for the smaller open- ing when playing higher tones, the student incorrectly at- tempts to accomplish this by allowing the middle part of the lower lip to press upwards against the upper. Sometimes a rolling in of the lower lip accompanies this action. The abnormalcy can be detected visually by noting the bunched up portion of the lower lip against the mouthpiece. Also the front part of the chin, which should be flat or even slightly concave when normal, will be rounded outward with irregularities in the form of tiny dimples evident. The tone will be thin and lacking in richness due partly to the flattened aperture and also to the fact that by rolling the lip in slightly the firmer portion, closer to the white, becomes the vibrating area instead of the softer texture of the red. Photographs of this particular abnormalcy can be l4Osbourne w. McConathy, French horn instructor, Boston Conservatory, Boston, Massachusetts. 112 observed on page 145 in the following chapter. The remedies offered by the respondents again stress the value of buzzing without the mouthpiece. While the em- bouchure is more easily observed by the student in this manner, there is also an additional psychological advantage. Without the familiar feel of the mouthpiece to press against and the lack of any definite pitch, it is much easier for the player to concentrate on correct lip action. One re- spondent reported success with the student buzzing a "fire siren" effect, first with the lips alone and then adding the mouthpiece as the ability to keep the lips in place developed. Later, the instrument was added and slurred ar- peggios in the low and medium register substituted for the "fire siren." Another respondent pointed out the muscle flexing exercises advocated by Farkas in his treatise on brass instruments which were quoted at length on page 24 of this study. And for male students of college age the following suggestion might be meaningful: Set your chin to shave it. Then place lower lip between teeth. Now pull it out with chin muscles with as little opening of teeth as possible.1 It might also be helpful with students of this age to re- fer them to the sketch of the embouchure muscles on page 19 and make the observation that the mentalis is the muscle responsible for this "pulling down" action referred to on 15W. Eugene Leetch, op. cit. A 115 the previous page. A mental picture of the muscle sometimes makes it easier for the student to make proper use of it. Finally, regardless of the methods used in the correc- tion of this abnormalcy, the respondents appear in agreement on the necessity for setting up exercises so that the student is removed, psychologically or physically from his previous method of playing. This almost makes it mandatory that the instrument be temporarily placed aside so that the estab- lished habit patterns can be more easily broken. Forcing upper lip down pp lgwgg. As the question- naire indicated, this can be done in two different ways: first, the student may point the instrument upwards so that it is no longer perpendicular to the teeth. When pressure is applied to the lips with the instrument in this position it jams the upper lip down on the lower, thereby creating a smaller but faulty aperture. Second, the player may tilt the head downward while keeping the instrument in the same position. This in effect duplicates the same lip— instrument relationship as the first method, with the same detrimental results. Recognizing that some teachers advo- cate a slight tilting of the instrument for register change—-a method known as the pivot system--it is empha— sized that the abnormalcy being discussed here is an exag- gerated notion which usually is accompanied by the applica- tion of excessive pressure to dry lips. This differs from the pivot system in that the instrument is being used to 114 forcibly close the embouchure. In addition it presents a much greater problem and danger to the embouchure than ex- cessive pressure alone. The angle of the mouthpiece directs the major portion of this pressure to the upper lip--the lip that has been shown to be the primary area of vibration. This faulty position not only cuts down the vibrating quali- ties of the embouchure but also poses a serious threat of permanent damage to the muscle fibers if pursued vigorously over a period of time. The usual result of this type of embouchure abnormalcy is a squeezed upper register, sharp with the lower octave, and with a very noticeable flexi- bility loss. In addition, lack of volume in the upper range is evident with the eventual closing off of the tone alto— gether. Often, after a particularly long and fatiguing period of playing, the student experiences tenderness and swelling of the upper lip. While this usually occurs the following day, it is sometimes present the second day as well. In correcting this abnormalcy several respondents stress the importance of the student observing himself in the mirror as a prelude to remedial work. Seldom does the player realize that he is guilty of a faulty embouchure. The student is then challenged to play an ascending scale—- still observing himself--being careful to keep the position of the head and instrument motionless. At this point there remains little doubt in his mind as to the nature of the 115 problem. If the player has been using a "dry lip" embou- chure--according to the respondents this is almost always the case--the next logical step is the conversion to the "wet lip" method. This serves as an immediate deterrent to a continuance of the habit since the mouthpiece will merely slide on the moistened lip. The student can then benefit by lip buzzing exercises such as the "fire siren" drill and simple tunes. When the player has gained a sufficient "feel" for the correct use of the muscles, the mouthpiece can be added to the buzz. It is suggested that the student practice placing the mouthpiece on the lips Ehglg buzzing, being careful not to change the position of the lips and the angle of the mouthpiece. This should be repeated at different pitches——a1ways starting with the lips alone-- until the student is convinced that he can produce these pitches with the correct muscular action. It may also be helpful when placing the mouthpiece on the lips to have the student use a slightly higher position, as well as pulling the head back slightly. One respondent reported occasional success with this technique. As with the correction of most abnormalcies, the student will experience a temporary loss of his high regis- ter. It is imperative, therefore, that the player disci— pline himself to the proper embouchure technique to avoid the temptation to return to the old habits. This implies daily practice periods in front of a mirror with a 116 convenient check list of the teacher's suggestions before him. Since many of the respondents felt that this was one of the most difficult embouchure abnormalcies to correct, it is strongly advised that the student begin his change at the glggg of the school year, so that the summer months, with their minimum playing demands, may be used to best ad- vantage. Overlapping lips. The normal occlusion of the teeth places the upper front teeth slightly ahead of the lower in a manner which causes a slight overlapping when the jaws are closed. Because of this, the usual cases of extreme overlapping lips in the brass embouchure involve the upper over the bottom. It is usually brought about by a faulty attempt of the player to make the lip aperture smaller, thereby attaining a higher range. As the pitch ascends, the lower lip gradually rolls over the lower teeth and be- hind the upper lip. Then, as additional pressure is applied, the mouthpiece clamps the two lips together to close the aperture. This method of controlling the size of the aper- ture affects the sound and flexibility in much the same manner as using the angle of the mouthpiece to force the upper lip down. The harder the student presses the mouth- piece against the lips to produce higher tones the more the lips are clamped shut. The result is the same squeezed tone quality common to all embouchures that rely on external 117 pressure to regulate the lip Opening. Since the incorrect use of the embouchure muscles is a basic flaw in all of these related abnormalcies, the remedial treatment most often suggested by the respondents included all of the types of lip buzzing exercises discussed earlier. The one additional suggestion that seems especially pertinent to the student using this overlapping style of playing, con- cerns the alignment of the upper and lower teeth. From the conclusions drawn on page 65 of this study there is a strong implication that this overlapping of the lips becomes a problem in direct proportion to the amount of malocclusion present. Therefore, it is advised that the player begin his remedial treatment with a more even alignment of the front teeth. As has been pointed out, a slight thrust forward of the lower jaw is not difficult to achieve and, in this case, helps to prevent the lower lip from rolling behind the upper. As the student attempts to buzz the lips with the correct alignment, he can easily check their position by the direc- tion of the air stream. One respondent described the tech- nique in this manner: My first step is to work the "buzz," getting the lips in a rather even position and emphasizing the importance of a correct position for the upper lip. The student should direct the air stream straight. 233. Em ha51s is placed upon developing the abi ity to play buzz) simple intervals and melodies. When the mouthpiece is added, the student should try to maintain a degree of independence from same. The 118 mouthpiece should be placed upon the embouchure rather than being used to set the embouchure. Air pockets. This abnormalcy is similar to puffed cheeks in that mouthpiece pressure is partially substituted for muscle firmness in holding the embouchure in place. When the air pockets are present between either the upper or lower lip and the gum, the teacher may be certain that too much reliance is being placed upon external pressure. Fortunately, this abnormalcy is quite Visible to even the most inexperienced brass teacher and usually not too dif- ficult to correct. The depressor and mentalis muscles are responsible for holding the lower lip firm against the teeth and jaw, while the levators serve the same function for the upper lip. When the student allows the mouthpiece rim to take over this function, the muscle tension lacking outside of the rim allows air to enter. To eliminate this the player must experience the feel of proper muscle ten- sion. The same exercises used to reduce excessive pressure described on pages 105 to 104, along with those advocated for puffed cheeks on pages 101 to 105, will serve in lo- cating the proper "feel." Normally the air pocket will disappear when the lips are buzzed without the "help" from the mouthpiece. It is usually not necessary to go into the 15William Hipp, brass instructor, Delmar College, Corpus Christi, Texas. 119 details of "firming the upper and lower lips against the teeth," and "positioning the chin as for shaving" which are often suggested. Merely removing the mouthpiece when buzz- ing forces the student to employ the neglected muscles. One respondent stated that when the air pockets oc- curred with a student on a small mouthpiece instrument, it was helpful to switch him to an instrument utilizing a larger mouthpiece--g.g. from cornet to baritone. This helps in two ways: first, less pressure is usually needed to pro- duce the entire range; second, the different "feel" as the mouthpiece is placed against the lips makes it easier to break away from old habits. This is not a cure in itself, however. The student must still work on proper lip buzz— ing to gain complete control of the muscles. The change of instruments merely makes the transition less difficult. In most cases the student may return to his original instru- ment in a few months and experience none of his former prob- lems. Imprqper mouthpiece placement. Whether the mouth- piece is considered too high, too low, or too far to one side, the consensus of the respondents is that a change should be advised only if the teacher is convinced that the present results are unacceptable and that further progress is doubtful. Even then, before any change is undertaken, the student must also be convinced of its necessity and be 120 willing to undergo the inconvenience it will inevitably cause. Unless both student and teacher are thoroughly dedi- cated to the task ahead, the results are usually disappoint— ing. As was noted earlier, the French horn players were quicker to suggest changes--particular1y towards a higher setting of the mouthpiece. It was also significant to note that there was one very definite area of agreement among the respondents suggesting a change of placement. All em- phasized the fact that the change should be done ver gradually over a period of several weeks, even months. The following statements are representative of most of the respondents' cor.ents: If I want the mouthpiece moved I first attempt to move it very slowly, by having the student reset the mouthpiece "one half of a hair's breadth" higher, to the right, or to the left. By this method I never place the student at a serious disadvantage-—he either plays nearly the same or even a bit better after the small mpve. The operation is repeated over several weeks. 0 If the change of placement is a "radical" one, the same respondent suggests preparing for it physically by several weeks of buzzing without the mouthpiece. This tends to strengthen and balance the muscles and need not take more than five minutes a day. Meanwhile, the student's playing continues as normal. f‘ loReginald H. Fink, lower brass instructor, West Virginia University, Norgantown, West Virginia. lull! lililllll 121 Another respondent noted that not only must this change be done very gradually but that this deliberate placement must take place the fipgp practice period of the day. It was felt that after the student had played for a period of time during the day it would be useless to experi- ment with a resetting of the mouthpiece. All agreed that a mouthpiece position change was dif- ficult for most students to achieve despite the fact that some professionals claim to be able to use several different placements. (One respondent professed to use a high setting for the D and Eb trumpet, about half and half for Bb and C trumpet, and an even lower placement if playing dance work in order to protect the upper lip.) In order that the change may be more easily accomplished for the average student, several respondents again advocated waiting until the summer months so that undue demands would not be put upon the em- bouchure during the period of transition. Summapy. It must be said that despite the fact some excellent brass performers and teachers do not agree that buzzing the lips alone is a good practice, an overwhelming majority of the respondents to this questionnaire found it a most useful remedial aid. If any one technique can be classified as "standard" in the treatment of abnormalcies, lip buzzing must be so classified. With the exception of excessive pressure, the practice of buzzing the lips without 122 the mouthpiece was recommended for every abnormalcy listed in the questionnaire or added by the respondents. Never- theless, it should be pointed out that it is possible to "buzz" with an incorrect embouchure. For this reason it is imperative that it is done under close supervision until the instructor is assured that the student thoroughly under- stands the correct method. In addition it must be strongly impressed upon the player that no amount of lip buzzing will take the place of proper breath support. As the tabulated results of the survey indicated, the respondents were al- most unanimous in their belief that poor breath support or control was a vital factor underlying the faulty develop- ment of embouchure. As one teacher put it when discussing the failure of a certain student to develop satisfactorily, there was nothing really wrong with his embouchure--he just "didn't blow!" _ Recommended Materials and Exercises On the final page of the questionnaire a request was made for the respondents to list specific materials to be used in helping the student overcome his embouchure abnor- malcies. It was felt that this might reveal some published methods that lend themselves to remedial exercises better than others. In addition, if some teachers used original etudes and other playing techniques designed specifically for remedial practice, it was hoped that these would also 125 be available for this study. Several of the artists and teachers taking part in this survey did comment that they wrote special exercises for each individual case that they handled. Each student was required to have a spiral manu- script book in which additional playing material and in- structions were added each week commensurate with the stu- dent's progress. These teachers were the exceptions, how- ever, with the great majority using materia1--edited to fit the student's needs-—taken from standard method books and texts. A tabulation of this material was made and appears in Table X. Since most are well known books avail- able through any music supply house, the publishing data has not been included in the table. By far the most pOpu- lar of these is the Daily Drills and Technical Studies by Max Schlossberg, which was mentioned by thirteen respondents as providing at least part of the study material. A sample of one respondent's warm—up routine for trumpet which uti— 1izes the Schlossberg method may be found in the Appendix on page 186. Since the method is published in bass clef as well as treble, a similar series of exercises may be devised for the lower brasses. Of the material used by the respondents which was not taken necessarily from published literature, "all types of scale patterns" was most frequently listed. Other exer— cises mentioned were slurred arpeggios and lip trills, with the consensus being that these should be done in the low 124 Table X. Published materials used by questionnaire respondents for assigning remedial exercises Title of Text or Method Book* R?SP°?dent? U81nggMater1a1 Daily Drills and Technical Studies - 13 Schlossberg Arban's Complete Conservatory Method Technical Studies - Clarke Art 2£_French Horn P1aying_- Farkas warm-Ep_Drills - Remington .Art 2£_Brass P1aying_- Farkas Basic Guide §2_Trumpet Playing_- Autrey Embouchure Builder - Lowell Little Graded Lip and Tongue Trainers - Shuebruk LE_Semaine dg_Virtuose - Petit Lip_Flexibilities - Colin Pivot System - Reinhardt Artistic Trumpet - Bush The Brass Instruments - Winters Breeze—Easy_Method Celebrated Duets - Amsden Collggjate Trombonist - Long Embouchure and Mouthpiece Guide - Bach Lip Science for Brass - DeLamater Rubank Intermediate Method - Skornicka Rubank Advanced Method, Vol. I — Voxman Rubank Selected Duets, Vol. I Textbook for Trumpet - Gibson §g_Etudes - Hering Ernest Williams Method - Williams HHHHHHHHHHHHHNNmmmmmwmmm *See Bibliography for publication data. 125 and middle registers. Only when the correct embouchure could be maintained were the upper notes gradually to be added. It was felt that by the use of simple patterns and scales the student would be able to concentrate-~both by feel and by watching in a mirror--on the correct embou- chure section. Regardless of the material used, as one respondent astutely pointed out, the main stress should be the con- scientious approach by the player himself. No exercise has ever been devised that will take the place of an intelli- gent approach to the problem. here repetition of notes, no matter how wisely constructed, has no intrinsic value. Another writer expressed the similar thought that exercises for the correction of the abnormal embouchure need be no different than those for the normal one--the only difference being in their application. To quote this respondent's re- ply is, perhaps, the best method of summing up the feelings of many of those answering in a like manner: Abnormalcies can be corrected with the same exer- cises as those which are used for normal development. Long tones, warming up exercises (done both legato and staccato mostl' in the diatonic scales to develop correct intonation , scales, broken chords, and in- tervals are the basis of technique, and if practiced progressively can develop a normal embouchure. Ab- normalcies arise when the player has not acquired a good foundation for his technique and can only be eliminated when this is done--namely to produce the correct tone in the middle register. This may take a long time and much patience if the abnormalcies are deeply ingrained or the lips have been injured, but I have not seen any instances where it is 126 impossible. In addition, the importance of good physical condition has not been sufficiently recog- nized. It is a prerequisite and often is the rea- son why some do better than others.l7 l7IicConathy, pp. cit. CHAPTER IV SELECTED CASE STUDIES This portion of the study is devoted to the presen- tation of several examples of students who have undergone extensive embouchure retraining while pursuing a course in music education at Northern Michigan University. It is in- tended that the methods used will provide a basis of better understanding of remedial techniques, and indicate avenues of improvement still needed. The author's methods were de- vised, for the most part, to bring about a readjustment of the embouchure to conform to his conception of normalcy—- a conception based on the descriptions in the many brass method and text books. Some of the techniques used were versions of exercises used in the past to correct defi- ciencies in the writer's embouchure, while others were mainly speculative and used on a trial and error basis. It is not intended to imply that these techniques are ap- plicable to Ell students, since physical conditions have been shown to have a bearing on the degree of abnormalcy. They do, however, reveal methods which, with modifications, can be applied to other students with like abnormalcies, and will offer the teacher and student a point of departure. 127 128 The students involved in this study had no unusual physical conditions that warranted special consideration or that would have indicated a change of instruments to be more advisable. Most had little, if any, previous private instruction, having begun their playing career in a class situation. All had since reached a plateau in their play- ing ability above which they could not rise. Upon enter- ing college and competing with more mature players they be- came aware of their deficiencies and were desirous of a change. So that comparisons of the students discussed here may be more easily made, each case will be reviewed accord- ing to background, problem identification, embouchure analy- sis and diagnosis, remedial measures taken, and progress made since inception of corrective training. Case Study I Background. This student, prior to entering college, had played trumpet for eight years. His beginning instruc- tion was given in a class of other fifth graders under the guidance of the high school band director. Upon entering the band all group lessons were discontinued and from this point the student was largely self-taught. In comparison to his peers he progressed well and his last three years in high school sat first chair in the band's cornet-trumpet section. 129 Identification 2; problems. When the student entered the University he displayed a tonguing and fingering tech- nique far superior to other aspects of his playing. Unfor- tunately, flexibility was lacking throughout the entire register and he was able to produce the high register only when playing double forte. This resulted in a "dry" tone and also left him helpless to drop immediately to a low pitch. Embouchure analysis and diagnosis. Several factors were apparent when the student played: first, he always wiped his lips off carefully before seating the mouthpiece; second, he utilized extreme pressure in the upper register —-evidenced by the strain in his arms, hands and marks on his lips--; third, he tilted the instrument upwards as he played in this register (see Figures 4 and 5'on page 151). An examination of his jaw and teeth revealed the normal oc- clusion and offered no valid reason why the instrument should be tilted in this manner. The conclusion drawn was that the student was using the angle of the instrument to apply pressure to the upper lip. This had the effect of closing the aperture between the lips by pressing the upper down on top of the lower. The student's practice of keeping the lips dry prevented the mouthpiece from sliding out of place as pressure was applied. This faulty method of pro- ducing a smaller lip aperture for the high register prevented Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 5. 6. Recessed Jaw with Overlapping_Lips--Front View. Only a very small portion of the lower lip is visible inside the mouthpiece rim. Angle of rim has tendency to spread upper lip when pressure is applied. Recessed Jaw with Overlapping_Lips-—Side View. The tilting of the head and downward angle of the mouthpiece is quite evident. Also note how little of lower lip is visible. This type of embouchure tends to pinch off the upper register and limits endurance. Upward Angle g£_Mouthpiece-—Front View. Rim of mouthpiece is noticeably pressing down hard on upper lip. When pressure is exerted in this direction lip is forced down on lower thus creating a smaller aperture. Flexibility, tone and endurance are greatly affected, parti- cularly in the upper register. Upward Angle 2£_Mouthpiece--Side View. Angle of mouthpiece is decidedly above the normal line perpendicular to the upper and lower jaw. Occlusion of teeth in this student was normal. Migplaced Mouthpiece-Front View. Mouthpiece is not centered over lip aperture and is placed unusually high. This makes equal control of the lip corners difficult and contributes to quivering. Misplaced Mouthpiece——Side View. The small amount of lower lip in mouthpiece affects flexibility and, in this student, severely reduced endurance. 131 PLATE II Figure 2. Figure 3. . . T Figure 6. ligure 7. 152 the normal development of the embouchure muscles which, in turn, had a deteriorating effect on the endurance. Further- more, when under public performance conditions, nervousness caused the student to lose much of his breath support. This resulted in the exaggeration of the student's abnormal embouchure to the point where the tone was squeezed off en- tirely. The desire to play better and more difficult liter- ature increased his frustrations until it was finally agreed that only a revision of his present method of playing offered a solution to his problem. Remedial treatment. The first step taken was to have the student change immediately to a wet lip embouchure. This allowed the mouthpiece to slide freely on the upper lip making it impossible to force it upon the lower by his former means. In addition, the angle of the instrument was lowered until it was perpendicular to the normal line of the upper and lower front teeth. This had to be done in front of a mirror until the student was able to find the proper position by feel. The result of these two changes was an immediate loss of approximately one octave from the upper range. However, at the same time the student was encouraged by the increased size and quality of the tone in the low and middle register. To avoid situations where the embouchure might be taxed by attempting high tones the stu- dent was placed on third parts in the concert band and 155 assigned study material and solo literature within his lim- ited range. A program of lip slurs from the book Embouchure Builder by Little was begun to build up the muscle strength and develop flexibility. At the same time a study of vibrato was initiated that had a two—fold purpose. Since the student had not made use of this technique in his plai- ing, it was decided to work towards the development of a lip-jaw vibrato. The author has used this many times as a means of developing strength and flexibility in an embou- chure as well as producing a pleasing vibrato.l Since this type of vibrato is also dependent to a great extent upon prOper breath control and support, it had this additional benefit as well. Finally, to discourage the use of exces- sive pressure the student was advised to spend a "few min— utes" each day practicing his various exercises with the trumpet balanced lightly on his thumbs. This forced con— centration on the embouchure muscles and breath support. , Despite the student's conscientious adherence to the devised program, progress was slow. Cne factor that had compounded the problem at the start and was hindering its correction was the large bore instrument that the parents had purchased prior to his coming to the university. As a change was not possible and the larger bore places a greater demand on even the well-develOped embouchure, both 1See the author's article entitled "Teaching Lip Vibrato," The Instrumentalist, XV, No. 5 (January, 1961), p. 62. 134 student and teacher could only resign themselves to a longer period of remedial treatment. To provide additional playing material in the student's limited range, extensive use was made of the selections from the "Art of Phrasing" contained in Arban's Complete Conservatory hethod. The short pieces were transposed into several keys to serve as an aid to his musicianship as well as placing the music in a suitable range. Other solo literature and technique studies were also edited to avoid straining the embouchure unduly. At the end of the second semester of school, the period in which the program was initiated, the student's upper range had only reached g2. However, it was felt that good progress had been made in several areas: the tone quality had greatly improved and was now full and vibrant; correct lip action and flexibility was evident in the stu- dent's limited range; mouthpiece pressure was noticeably lessened in the middle register; and satisfactory progress was being made towards the development of a lip-jaw vibrato. A brief cessation of practice during the summer months had the effect of resolving the remainder of any conflict between the old and new methods of playing, with the student stating that he could no longer play the old way. However, during the first few weeks of the semester it became evident that two secondary problems had arisen. The student now had a tendency to keep the lip aperture too Open when ascending to his upper range. While his tone 155 quality was excellent up to e2, from there on it required abnormal amounts of breath to support it. The result was that he could not play softly in this register and it greatly taxed his endurance. This fault was attributed to the length of time spent in the lower register and the overzealous efforts to maintain the same fullness in the newly developed upper range. To counteract this tendency the student was advised to spend the first portion of his daily practice period doing lip buzzing exercises. These consisted mostly of ascending and descending slurs from his lowest to highest pitch (fire siren effect) and the playing of simple tunes. Additional exercises with the instrument included crescendos and decrescendos on long tones. Both the lip buzzing and the latter exercises helped the student to adjust the size of the aperture more fluently. The second problem concerned his inability to tongue rapidly with his new embouchure. This was attributed to the muscles being overtensed in holding the large aperture which the student was attempting to use in the higher regis— ter. It was felt, and later proved correct, that when the embouchure became stronger and was able to focus correctly on the proper sized opening for each level of pitch the tenseness would disappear and normal tonguing action would again be possible. Resolution 2; problem . The remedial exercises prescribed for this student were continued throughout his 156 second year of study. With only occasional set-backs, due to vacation periods, he showed continued progress in regain- ing his former range. By the end of his SOphomore year his 5 which he was able to play with upper register included 0 a full, brilliant tone quality using normal pressure. More important, the student displayed good flexibility through- out this entire range. The tendency to play the upper notes with a slightly too open aperture still existed but had im- proved considerably. The lip buzzing remained a part of the student's daily warm-up period and eventually corrected the problem of the aperture. In addition the difficulty ex— perienced in tonguing had been resolved and normal progress in all phases of study was now possible. Upon reflection there appeared two parts of the remedial treatments that could have been altered to the stu- dent's advantage. First, while the 1ow register practice allowed the student to become accustomed to his new embou— chure without placing any strain on it, there was too great a concentration on this aspect. This appeared to be in part responsible for the embouchure becoming too open. Second, it was felt that if the lip buzzing exercises had been started earlier it might have prevented the tendency to play the upper register with the same open aperture. The two exercises, in this case, appeared to balance each other and prevented the player from going to extremes when they were both employed. 137 Case Study I; Background. This student first began playing the cornet in the seventh grade, largely because older brothers had once played and the instrument was available. Although partially tutored by members of the family she was primari- ly self-taught until the eleventh grade, during which time she received "a few" private lessons. She was invited to join the high school band after only a few months of prac- tice and by her senior year was sitting first chair. A partial defect in her eyesight made it necessary to tilt her head slightly to read music on a stand——a position that was later to cause embouchure problems. Identification pf problems. Although this student diSplayed above average ability to sight read both rhyth- mically and pitchwise, the necessary ingredients for tone production were extremely weak. She possessed a limited upper range (with the notes between g2 and 05 being quite pinched and weak) and was below average in endurance. Her single tonguing was slow and labored and the double and triple tonguing uneven and indistinct. By far her most disconcerting fault, though, was the quiver in the lip muscles that caused an audible shake in her tone. This shake became more pronounced as she tired or became ner- VOUS o 158 Embouchure analysis and diggnosis. Use of the mouth- piece visualizer revealed an unusual mouthpiece placement --both high and off center (see Figures 6 and 7 on page 151). Upon questioning it was learned that the eye defect mentioned previously was responsible for this position since it was necessary that she tilt her head to read the music. While this mouthpiece placement did not present problems during the early months of playing due to limited demands on the embouchure, it placed one side of the mouth in an untenable position by the time the student was ready for more diffi- cult literature. By then, however, the student felt she was unable to make a change even though the shape of her lips, teeth and jaw would have accepted a more centered mouthpiece placement. The student admitted having tried to move the mouthpiece at one time, but playing commitments discouraged her and she expressed no desire to undergo another attempt. Since she had transferred to the writer's school and had fewer hours of applied credit left than other students it was decided to concentrate on develOping other aspects of her embouchure rather than move the mouth— piece against her will. The student appeared to use an abnormal amount of pressure when playing in the upper register and would have a definite "ring" mark on her upper lip long after she ceased playing. This was partly attributed to the unusual high setting of the mouthpiece which seemed to focus the 159 pressure on the upper lip and placed the lower outside edge of the mouthpiece rim on the red portion of the lower lip. While the player used a moist embouchure she found it diffi- cult to make sudden changes in the aperture size, such as would be required in a large downward leap from the upper register. This was also attributed largely to excessive pressure and the small amount of lower lip on the rim. The quivering of the lip muscles appeared at the corners and increased as the pitch became progressively lower and the pressure against the lips was eased. Since the quivering was more evident on the left corner (farthest from the mouthpiece rim), two conclusions were possible: first, that both corners were actually quivering equally but that the one nearest the mouthpiece rim was held firmer by pressure, in which case overall weak muscles were the primary reason for the quivering; and second, that unequal tension and the added strain placed on the embouchure cor- ner farthest from the mouthpiece were causing premature tiring of these muscles in their attempt to control the lip aperture within the mouthpiece cup. It appeared that the latter was the most probable. Nervousness was also considered an influencing fac- tor, but only as it affected the other aspects of tone pro- duction. For instance, under pressure the student's breath support was impaired, and the increased amount of mouthpiece pressure and the additional strain put upon the embouchure 140 muscles greatly increased the shake in the tone. However, it was noted that the quiver was always present--even in the practice room when the student was alone and at ease. Remedial treatment. Because of the student's nega- tive attitude towards a mouthpiece placement change and of the uncertainty as to whether or not this would in actuali- ty be of benefit, it was decided to concentrate instead on two other areas: breath support and embouchure muscle strength. It was apparent early in the student's study that the quiver in the embouchure corners was directly re- lated to the amount of conscientious practicing done. As semester juries (playing examinations) approached, her practicing became more regular and intensified and the quiver consequently became much less noticeable. A great amount of stress was placed upon develOping regular prac- ticing habits (only slightly successful) and using a con- centrated diet of exercises to improve breath and embouchure control. These included long tones (both with and without crescendos and decrescendos), lip slurs (with and without the mouthpiece), scale studies, lip-jaw vibrato study, and isometric exercises utilizing the facial muscles. By this time it was firmly believed that the quiver was basically caused by the off-center placement of the mouthpiece. This forced the embouchure muscles farthest away to work harder to control the aperture within the cup of the mouthpiece 141 and as a result fatigue quickly set in and the quivering began. Although with constant and diligent work the stu- dent was able to eliminate much of the disconcerting shake in her tone during regular practice and lesson times, it usually reappeared under the stress of public performances. As stated earlier this was attributed to the less effec— tive use of the breath and the corresponding extra strain which was placed upon the lip muscles. Resolution 2; problem . Although all the exercises were continued throughout the student's four remaining semesters of study, the quiver was not completely eliminated, and only at times of peak concentration of practice did it become tolerable. To the frustration of both the pupil and teacher, vacation periods were always followed by the re- appearance of the problem, and the rededication of the mode of attack. While the student's other problems of range, and tonguing were much improved, and she was able to play with less pressure and more flexibility than be- fore, it was felt that only a change of mouthpiece place- ment would allow full use and control of the corner muscles without undue strain, thus eliminating the quiver. It was believed that this student did not possess the proper mus- cular texture and potential to c0pe with the abnormal stress placed upon the embouchure. Because of this, at the termination of her study at the University the student 142 was advised that a mouthpiece placement change should be considered essential if she wished to pursue the complete elimination of the problem. Case Study III Background. Following a semester of tonette, this student began his training on the trumpet in the fourth grade. Although for one week he was given individual at- tention, the rest of his instruction up to the seventh grade was in large heterogeneous classes. During the seventh and eighth grade this was supplemented by weekly individual instruction. To the best of the student's memory, however, little if any attention was focused on the embouchure. From the ninth grade on no lessons were given and embouchure development was largely dictated by the degree of difficulty encountered in the band music. By the student's senior year he had achieved a sufficient amount of facility to play in the first chair of his sec- tion. Identification 9; problems. Like many beginning university trumpet students he possessed a more than ade- quate amount of finger dexterity and was able to double and triple tongue rapidly (if not smoothly) in the middle register. Conversely, his tone quality, although being full and resonant in this same register, rapidly thinned 143 3 2 . . , out from g upwards, with the 0 being extremely squeezed. His facile tonguing of the middle register became labored at both he upper and lower portions of his playing range and flexibility in these same areas was severely curtailed. Embouchure analysis and diagnosis. The familiar symptoms of excessive mouthpiece pressure were readily noted in the student's playing. Both the mouthpiece and lips were carefully wiped dry and the lips were just as carefully tucked inside the mouthpiece rim before playing. is he attempted to produce tones in the upper register a pronounced upward bunching of the chin was visible (see Figure 11 on page 145). This appeared to be the result of a futile attempt to close the aperture in the embouchure by pressing the lower lip against the upper. In this stu— dent's case the pressure of the mouthpiece on his dry lips made any adjustment of the aperture inside the cup extreme- ly difficult. As a result, when playing demands increased more pressure was applied, causing detrimental effects to endurance, tone quality and flexibility. It was noted that when the student was asked to buzz a medium pitched tone on a mouthpiece visualizer (Figure 10, page 145) he displayed a very normal looking embouchure with good mouthpiece placement. This seemed to indicate that the basic formation of the embouchure was correct although the necessary strength and control of the muscles needed to Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 10. ll. 12. 13. 144+ PLaTE III Off—Center Placement——Fr0nt View. This slight off-center placement is not considered abnormal although player has some difficulty controllino one side of lip (note turning out of lower lip . him is centered quite well over normal aperture of lips. Player's teeth formation made this placement of mouthpiece correct. Off—Center Placement-—Side View. Placement appears normal from side, and is well seated on upper lip. Shape of chin shows correct use of lower lip. Normal Trumpet Embouchure—~Front View. Student shown was undergoing treatment for bunched chin --see Fig. 11. When buzzing on mouthpiece rim in medium register, muscles were used correctly. Their correct use was aided by there being no identification with specific pitches in the student's mind. Bunched Chin-~Side View. Player was attempting a2, with the result that the chin bunched upwards in an effort to help close the aperture. Exces- sive pressure was applied at the same time. .Al- though pitch was not considered high, the player felt the "need" to squeeze the lips. Result was poor tone quality and lack of endurance. Corrected Embouchure—-Side View. Same player as in Fig. 11, six months later, same pitch being sounded. Remedial techniques included concen- tration of proper breath support, reduced mouth— piece pressure, along with lip slurs and the study of lip—jaw vibrato. Overlapping_Lips with Bunched Chin-Side View. Student is resorting to rolling under lower lip, and applying mouthpiece pressure to aid in pro- ducing upper tones. Bunched chin often accom— panies this action. Result is a weak, thin tone, lacking in flexibility. Player has to reset em- bouchure to produce tones in high register. 145 PLATE III Figure 8. ‘ Figure 9- Figure 10. v Fi‘rure 1;. Figure 13- C) 146 produce a smaller aperture was lacking. In their place mouthpiece pressure was being substituted, which in turn prevented any development of the muscles, and the vicious cycle was completed. Eemedial treatment. Several techniques similar to those used in Case Study I were immediately introduced. The student was first advised to use a wet lip embouchure during his practicing to lessen the gripping effect of his mouthpiece. When a relaxed grip on the instrument was sub— sequently employed the student was unable to produce any tones above the treble clef staff—-at which point he was convinced of his heretofore complete reliance on mouthpiece pressure. A carefully constructed practice plan was then formulated to strengthen the embouchure muscles. Included were exercises such as lip buzzing, mouthpiece practice, and a program of lip slurs from the book Embouchure Builder by Little. For all the exercises using the instru- ment, particular care was taken to hold it in such a manner that very little pressure could be brought to bear on the embouchure, thereby focusing greater attention on the im— portance of the breath and embouchure muscles. Several ‘ weeks later when the student was able to produce a full, resonant tone in the middle register in this manner, the study of the lip—jaw vibrato was introduced. As with the student in Case Study I, the primary purpose of the vibrato 147 study was to keep the embouchure flexible as the muscles gradually strengthened. Two new exercises were experimented with during the student's second semester of study with the hOpes of speed- ing up the overall strengthening process of the embouchure muscles. One of these consisted merely of manipulating a long pencil up and down with the eraser end being held firmly between the lips. The second was an application of the isometric principle of muscle building originally used so successfully by the navy in its body conditioning pro- gram. For this the player formed the embouchure with the aperture slightly Open and setting up as much tension as possible between the muscles encircling the lips (orbicu- laris oris) and those leading away (levators, zygomaticus, buccinator, risorius and mentalis). For the first few at— tempts a mirror was essential to gain a visual impression as well as the corresponding muscular feel. The student was asked to hold this position, under maximum tension, for twelve seconds, and to repeat the process eight or ten times at various intervals during the day. Both this stu— dent and others who later tried the exercise reported a noticeable strengthening of the embouchure muscles within a few days. Unfortunately, it was impossible to control the strict adherence to this type of exercise with the re- sult that it was termed only moderately effective. It should be noted, however, that even with regular and 148 continued use of isometric techniques only muscular strength can be develOped. It was deemed extremely important, there— fore, that exercises involving lip slurs, crescendo and de- crescendo, lip—vibrato and buzzing with the lips alone were done regularly to more fully develop the control of the em- bouchure muscles. Resolution pf problems. With the prescribed program of exercises continued throughout the student's sophomore and junior years he was able to produce a full sounding 03 without the upward bunching of the chin and lower lip (Figure 12, page 145). During this time of transition the student was placed on the lower parts in the university band and given study and solo literature in keeping with his cur- rent progress of embouchure development. However, by the beginning of his senior year the embouchure had develOped in strength and flexibility to make possible the study of all representative trumpet literature. In addition the stu— dent had developed the necessary endurance and control to play first trumpet in both the university wind ensemble and stage band without resorting to his former abnormal tech— niques. Other Experiments Utilizing Remedial Technigues The function of the general brass class, offered by most music departments to their music majors, is to teach 149 the fundamentals of brass playing. It is interesting to note that, in addition, these university students can find in themselves the same problems, frustrations, and frailties that will be encountered in their own students a few years hence. For instance, this author has experienced in these brass classes the same embouchure abnormalcies that might occur in classes of young instrumentalists in the public schools-—and the former under more closely guided supervision and (hopefully) on a higher intellectual plane. In the col- lege classes, as with the younger beginning students, the same types of heterogeneous class method books, complete with poor pacing for some instruments, are present. This, coupled with a certain percentage of low achievers, consis- tently produces a number of poor embouchures (see Figures 16 to 19 on page 151). Since the pressures created by try— ing to "keep up" and by the lack of sufficient or intelli— gent practice can never be entirely eliminated, it was de— cided to experiment with remedial techniques as "learning" techniques in beginning classes. Consequently, a recent semester's beginning brass class in the music department was given a heavily weighted program of "remedial" techniques during their semester of study with the interesting result that not one student out of twenty-two developed any of the abnormalcies previously Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18. Figure 19. 150 PLATE Iv Extreme Smiling Position—eFront View. Pulling the lip corners bacx when attempting to ascend flattens the embouchure and thins the tone. Extreme Smiling_Position--Side View. Although appearing normal in low and middle register, the corners are easily detected moving back away from the mouthpiece as player reaches for high tones. This incorrect use of embouchure muscles makes the upper register difficult to obtain. Endurance is also affected as lips become thinned out and less resistant to mouthpiece pressure. Air Pocket and Bunched Chin—~Front View. Mouth— piece pressure is substituted for muscle firm- ness, which in turn allows air to enter between lower lip and gum. Corner muscles have little or no control over aperture. Air Pocket and Bunched Chin-~Side View. This abnormalcy is readily detected by noting the bunched up portion of the lower lip against the mouthpiece. .Also, the front part of the chin is rounded outward with irregularities in the form of tiny dimples evident. The tone is very weak due in part to the flattened aperture. flexibility also is greatly affected. Extreme Air Pockets-—Front View. Almost complete lack of muscle tension is exhibited here with the aperture being held in place almost entirely by rim pressure. Note the center of the lips pro- truding through the rim as well as the air pockets beneath. Extreme.Air Pockets-—Side View. Student is not bunching chin upwards as much as player in Fig. 17. However, more pressure is being used to compensate for extreme lack of embouchure muscle strength. Player has poor breath control and a very limited range. 151 PLATE IV Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18. Figure 19. 152 discussed.2 No instruments were used for the first three weeks, with the major portion of the class time and outside assignments being devoted to lip buzzing. After the initial instruction on forming the embouchure and producing the lip buzz, students were helped to produce a buzz between Eb and Bb (under middle C on the piano). Since this range and register seemed most conducive to a relaxed vibration of the lips many slurring exercises and songs were utilized be- tween this interval of a fifth. Regular assignments and "playing" examinations were given to insure the students' development of the technique. After the second week the mouthpieces of their instruments were introduced and the same exercises and tunes were played in corresponding registers. Players were instructed to hold the mouthpiece between the first two fingers of the hand, palm outwards so that minimum pressure would be exerted against the em— bouchure. In addition, all were constantly reminded to wet their lips and mouthpiece rim liberally before the be- ginning of each exercise or piece. Not until another week of assignments and playing examinations of this nature was completed were the instruments played by the students. Although the instrument produced a difference in resistance to the air column, the students adjusted easily and 2Each semester's class was composed of essentially the same percentage of voice, piano, woodwind, percuss10n, and brass music majors. 155 produced satisfactory tones. Throughout the remainder of the semester all playing in class was preceded by a warm— up period utilizing first the lips alone, then slurring on the mouthpieces in the manner of a fire siren. In addition, each exerCise or song was first performed on the mouthpiece alone before adding the instrument. Not only did the lip and mouthpiece exercises greatly aid the development and control of the embouchure muscles, but the challenge to the ear in producing the proper interval and "staying on pitch" had a stimulating effect on the class. Later in the semester other remedial techniques were added to the lip and mouthpiece buzzing. These included isometric exercises (discussed in Case Study III), playing with the instrument balanced lightly on the hands, and buzz- ing with a mouthpiece visualizer in front of a mirror. At the end of the semester several interesting.re- sults were visible: first, there were no cases of abnormal embouchures; second, all students achieved satisfactory range and tone results; third, despite the added class time devoted to these remedial techniques, essentially the same amount of literature was covered in the semester; and fourth, all had a working knowledge of remedial techniques for future use. While it is not suggested that all beginning classes of young brass players can be taught in the manner just described (the implications for increased use of the 154 techniques are noteworthy, however), it does seem to indi- cate that the techniques used successfully to prevent em- bouchure abnormalcies from developing can also be used to correct these same abnormalcies. It becomes a matter of retraining rather than training. Thus it would appear that in the instances of the case studies discussed and the ap- plications to this particular brass class, the remedial techniques used do have undeniable validity. CHAPTER v CONCLUSIONS AND moor-21313111110113 Through the course of the research done on this study several facts have become increasingly apparent. First, that in spite of the abundance of articles in trade magazines, texts, and other published pedagogical material which dealt wholly, or in part, with the brass embouchure, only a very small percentage discuss the abnormal embou- chure. While it is true that most method books are de- signed with the beginning student in mind and not as reme- dial help for more advanced players, it must be recognized that abnormalcies can develop within a few days. It is al- so true that the student should not be confused by a nega- tive approach in his beginning method book. The teacher, on the other hand, should have the necessary information available to guide him in the recognition of abnormalcies so that they may be corrected as they appear. Based on the author's search among the published literature this information is covered in some depth in only two books: 2p; £23 9: figggg Playing, by Philip Farkas; and Brass Per- formance by Robert Weast.l Since both texts necessarily 1Please see the bibliography for publishing data. 155 156 deal with many aspects of brass playing, the sections re- lating to the abnormal embouchure are, unfortunately, quite short. There needs to be more material of this type easily available to the teacher of beginning students. A strong justification, therefore, seems evident for its inclusion in the instructor's manuals of the many class methods. Significantly there emerges from the comparison of the brass methods, more of a consensus as to what consti- tutes the normal embouchure than most brass players and teachers believe exists. Admittedly there is more agree- ment as to what is abnormal. However, most of the differ- ences of opinion among both the texts and the respondents to the questionnaire are more aptly classified under "ad- justments to the individual." For example, among those who advocate keeping the jaw in its normal position when forming the embouchure, there is a willingness to align the jaw if it presents less problems to the student. The same is true for the position of the mouthpiece on the lips. While all teachers have an Opinion as to which placement is ideal, most agree that within reasonable limits the shape and size of the player's lips, teeth and jaw will ulti- mately be the deciding factor. So it is with most descrip- tions of the normal embouchure, with one important excep- tion. It was virtually unanimous, both in the published literature and among the respondents to the questionnaire, that the correct position of the corners of the lips 157 allowed for no deviations. Although this position was described in various terms, its identification as the "puckered smile" is perhaps the most descriptive. It is clear that brass pedagogy has run the gamut from the stretched smiling position of the corners, which was ad- vocated in the early days of Arban, to the extreme pucker in which the lips were pursed away from the teeth. The sensible solution seems to have been reached at the mid- way point. While it is to be understood that the findings taken from the questionnaire do not necessarily represent all brass teachers and players, there were other areas of agreement which were deemed highly significant. The writers, players and teachers taking part in the questionnaire re— vealed that the incident of abnormal embouchures among brass students of college age was quite high. It was also indicated that while there were many types and variations of abnormalcies among these students, two particular ones were rated much more frequent than any others: excessive mouthpiece pressure, for example, was listed as occurring either frequently or occasionally among brass students by ninety-eight per cent of the respondents; and stretching the lips back in an extreme smiling position was listed in the same categories by seventy-seven per cent. The high incidence of these two abnormalcies, viewed concurrently with the Opinion of the respondents that abnormalcies on 158 the whole were caused by improper methods, not physical malformations, led this author to several conclusions re- garding the effect of teaching techniques on embouchure abnormalcies. First, faulty teaching techniques are pri- marily to blame for the great majority of incorrectly de- veloped embouchures. This includes not only initial in- struction but the selection and use of good study material. For instance, the majority of the respondents felt that brass method books contributed to the development of ab- normalcies. Recognition must be taken, when selecting a beginning text, of the different rates of progress which are dictated by the particular instrument chosen. With so many young players being taught in class lessons, a way of equating the slower develOpment of the trumpet player with that of the baritone or tuba must be found. Supplementary material, which provides interest and technique develop- ment while at the same time keeping the range practical, is one of these means. Another indication of poor instruction is the lack of a meaningful warm—up procedure displayed by the large majority of students with faulty embouchures. The con- scientious teacher will impress upon his young students the need for such procedures and will consequently devise appro— priate methods. That sixty-four per cent of the respondents rated the lack of proper warm-up as instrumental to a large degree in the development of embouchure abnormalcies, seems 159 to substantiate this view. In the same sense more stress on the proper use of breath must accompany all levels of instruction. Eighty-four per cent of the respondents in- dicated that inadequate breath support and control was a large factor underlying poorly developed embouchures. Yet, many method books ignore this instruction completely or treat it in only a cursory manner, with the result that the inadequately trained or motivated teacher does likewise. Finally, the questionnaire results indicate that im- proper motivation of the student towards the correct study of the brass instruments also is largely responsible for the development of embouchure abnormalcies. Urging the young player to perform beyond his present physical develop- ment either through the selection of music to be played in the school organization or by that assigned to outside prac- tice can only result in the student resorting to abnormal techniques. The teacher also has an obligation to dis— courage the emulation of television and recording stars. While many of these artists are excellent legitimate play- ers as well as showmen, the young students tend to imitate only the superficial mannerisms and extreme feats of range present in their performance. The emphasis necessarily must be placed by the teacher on those aspects of training that enabled these performers to reach their unusual degree of proficiency. l‘kl‘li 160 The survey of the published literature and of the respondents taking part in the questionnaire also made possible several conclusions concerning the methods used in the remedial treatment of embouchure abnormalcies. The experiments with the brass students at Northern hichigan University substantiated these. First, it was acknowledged that no remedial training, if it was to be even moderately successful, could be undertaken unless the student truly desired it. It is very difficult to break old habits, and the self discipline needed to accomplish it requires dedi- cation and a firm belief in the necessity for a change. Many students, unfortunately, either through a lack of musical perception or because of a philosophy of unconcern, do not care to subjugate themselves to the firm adherence to a remedial program. Teacher training institutions would be well advised to consider this attitude in evaluating the student's overall qualifications as a future candidate in the teaching profession. A second conclusion is that in many instances, par— ticularly where the abnormalcy seems deeply ingrained—— usually determined by the length of time the student has played in his present manner-—its correction may be more successfully approached during the summer time than the regular school year. Hany forces are at work to hinder remedial attempts during this latter period: the desire to participate in the performing organizations——all of 161 which may place severe demands on the embouchure; the need for outside professional work such as dance bands provide; the desire to study more advanced and more interesting literature; and the need to somehow meet the jury require— ments demanded each semester by many schools. During the summer months most of these demands are negligible and con- centration can be put entirely on the embouchure problems. Most of the r spondents agreed that eight to ten weeks is sufficient time to establish the "feel" of a new embouchure. This would allow the student to begin the next school year advanced to the point where a relapse would be unlikely and normal progress quite possible. While this precludes close association with the teacher during the summer, much of the training schedule can'be formulated during the closing days or weeks of the school year when most other activities are drawing to a close. In addition some students do find it possible to continue their study with the teacher during the summer months. And finally, the author must point out the fact that despite the separate indication by some writers and teachers that each student must be treated as an individual case un- like any other, the questionnaire returns showed a surprising similarity of methods used. An excellent example of this is the fact that a very large majority of the respondents con- tributing remedial techniques in the survey listed the practice of buzzing the lips alone as effective for nearly 162 every type of abnormalcy. While it is true that this can- not be construed as a blanket recommendation by the respon- dents who did not list remedial methods, it nevertheless in- dicates a measure of success by many teachers working with many students and using the same techniques. By virtue of this and other similarities of remedial methods reported by the respondents to the questionnaire, this writer must take issue with those who claim there are no standardized treat- ments of embouchure abnormalcies and that each is a "case like no other." The findings of this study have indicated that not only are most embouchure abnormalcies similar in character but such techniques as lip buzzing, use of visualizer rings, lip slurs, crescendos and decrescendos on long tones, use of a moderate register and volume as well as minimizing excessive pressure are used widely enough to be classified as "standard." It is recognized that the terminology and approach may vary in the relationship of teacher and pupil, and that some highly individualistic methods may exist which are effective. Nevertheless, the successful use of the "standard" techniques by the respon- dents of the questionnaire and in the experiments undertaken by the author seem to indicate their validity. Furthermore, it is asserted that knowledge of these techniques could be of immeasurable assistance to the experienced as well as the inexperienced brass teacher. 163 The gathering of the data that led to the preceding conclusions has exposed several areas that require further study in depth. For example, there is still some disagree- ment among professional teachers and performers as to what constitutes a "normal embouchure," and the methods by which it may best be obtained. More research is needed relative to the proper function of the embouchure muscles to sub- stantiate the findings of Farkas and Weast. Further studies should be made to determine the difference in the normal rate of progress between beginning players of the various brass instruments so that better method books could be de- vised to meet the needs of the class approach. A carefully controlled study of a large number of brass players with embouchure abnormalcies is needed to test the degree of effectiveness of specific remedial techniques such as those presented in this paper. And finally, there is a great need for the dissemi- nation of the remedial techniques discussed. It is felt that this is an area that should receive considerable atten- tion in the many brass technique classes offered to future teachers in our colleges and universities. It has been the author's experience that far too much time is given to "learning the fingerings" and mastering a number of required scales and exercises. While these are important, too often they are soon forgotten. Instead, a greater portion of time should be devoted to the analysis of good method books for 164 beginners, the selection of proper equipment, the physio- logical prerequisites for successful tone production, 22$ discussions and demonstrations of abnormal embouchures as well as their "standard" treatments. In brass playing, as in the field of medicine, the prevention of disease is more to be desired than its cure. But until improved teaching techniques are utilized at all levels to aid in the preven- tion of embouchure abnormalcies, a "cure" should be avail- able to all who practice the profession. BIBLIOGPML‘E’HY BIBLIOGRATE Texts and Kethod Books Arban, J. B. Complete Conservatory Pethod for Trumpet. New York: Carl his cher Co., 195 ornet and 01%)) Autrey, Byron. Ba asic Guide to Trumpet Playing. Chicago: h. K. Cole llu lishing Co., 1965. Bach, Vincent. Embouchure and Mouthpiece Lanual. New York: Vincent Bach Corp., 1954. Bellamah, Joseph L. Brass Facts. San Antonio: Southern Music Company, 1C 60. Bush, Irving R. Artistic Trumpet Technique and Study. Hollywood: highland Lusic, 1962. Clarke, Herbert. Characteristic Studies for the Cornet. New York: Carl lischer Co., 19 09. Colin, Charles. Trumpe , Vital Brass Notes. New York: Charles Colin, 1948. Colin, Charles. Lip Flexibilities for th Trumpet. New York: Chas. Colin‘ 5 xuolisninO Co., 619 +1. D'ath, N. w. Cornet Playing. London: Hawkes, 1960. Be Lax ater, h. lip Science for Brass Tlaye rs Chicago: Rubank, 10/25. Farkas, Philip. Th hr 9; Fr he h Hornl -al ing. Chicago: Summy—Birchar rd Com mp wy, 1 of 1c 96. \O :‘D d‘ Farkas, Fhilip. The Ar Brass Iuolications, 196 Brass Ilaying. Bloomington: 2 Gibson, Daryl J. A Te} :tbook for Truzgoet. Eew Brighton: Daryl Gibson, 1962. Gregory, Robin. TheI or : A Gride to the Eodern Instru— ment. London: Taber &li Taber, 1961. 165 Bering, Sigmund. 53 Itudes. New York: Carl Fischer Co., 1945. Hitchcock, Willis E. Lip Science for Bras 0 IlayeI rs. Chicago: Willis Iitchcock, 1922. Runt, Norman J. Brass Inser ble Lethod. Dubuque: um. C. Brown Iublishers, 1965. Iileinhammer, Idward. T110 Art of Trombone Ila;1 11g. Ivanston: Suth—B1rcnard 1965. Inaub, Donald.‘ Trombone Teachinr Tec1._nigues. New York: Rochester Lusic Iublishers, 1964. Leidig, V. F. Contemporary Brass Technigue. Kollywood: hiahland Lusic, 1960. Little, Lowell. Embouchure Builder. New York: Pro Art Publications, 1994. Lendez, Rafael. Prelude pp Brass Playing. New York: Carl Fischer, 1961. Norley-Pegge, R. The French Horn. London: F. Benn, 1960. Noble, Clyde B. The Psychology of Cornet and Trumpet Play- ing. Lissoula: Clyde Noole, 1C 164. Petit, Alex. La Semaine g3 Virtuose. Paris: Alphonse Leduc , 1972?. Reinhardt, Donald S. Pivot System for Trumpet. Philadelphia: Blkan-Vogel, 1942. Remington, Emory. Warm-Ep Drills. New York: Eastman Publications (n. d.). Schlossberg, Max. Daily Drills and Technical Studies for Trumpet. New York: ‘L. Baron Co., 1948. Schuller, Gunther. Horn Technique. London: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1962. Skornicka, J. E. Rubank Intermediate Lethod. Chicago: Rubank, Inc., 1957. Sweeney, L. Teaching Techniques for the Brasses. New York: Belwin, 1955. 167 Voxman, Hymie. Rubank Advanced hethod. Chicago: Rubank, Inc., 1951. Weast, Robert D. Brass Performance. New York: McGinnis and harx, 1962. Williams, Ernest. Complete hodern Lethod. Chicago: William horris Co., 1956. Winslow, R. W. and Green, J. E. Playing and Teaching Brass Instruments. New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, 1962. Winter, James H. The Brass Instruments: Performance and Instructional Techniques. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1964. Periodicals and Articles Babcock, L. "What Are the Problems in Teaching the Trumpet," School Musician, XX (June, 1949), p. 5; XXI (September, 1949), p. 22. Bach, Vincent. "Selection and Use of Brass houthpieces," The Instrumentalist, VII, No. 5 (November-December, ig52): P0 40' Braff R. "The Rubber Embouchure," Melody taker, XIII (October, 1962). Cheney, Edward A., and Hughes, Byron. "Dento-Facial Irregu- larity and How It Influences Wind Instrument Embouchure," The Etude, LXIV (July—August-September, 1946), p. 579. Cheney, Edward A. "Adaptation to Embouchure as a Function of Dentofacial Complex," American Journal 2: Orthodon- tics, XXXV, No. 6 (June, 1949), p. 440. ' Costells, William N. "DevelOping Correct Embouchure," Metronome, LI (June, 1955), p. 45. Costells, William N. "An Embouchure for Any Style of Play- ing," Metronome (April, 1956). Cramer, W. F. "Embouchure Control and Development," The Instrumentalist, XII (April, 1958), p. 46. Deming, H. 0. "Why So Many Cornet-Trumpet Misfits?" The Instrumentalist, XI (February, 1957), p. 48. 168 Farkas, Philip. "The Use of the Lower Lip in Horn Playing," International Musician, LVIII (November, 1959), p. 22. Faulkner, Maurice. "Diagnosing Embouchure Problems," The Instrumentalist, XVI, ho. 1 (September, 1961), p. 00. H a j '1 J: (D Fitzgerald, Bernard. "Teaching Problems, Techniques," Instrumentalist, V, Bo. 5 (March-April, 1951), p. F p ’51 Fitzgerald, Bernard. "Tone Production," The Instrumentalist, III2éJanuary-February, 1949), p. 15; (Larch-April, 1949), p. . Fox, F. "Developing the Horn Embouchure," Woodwind Magazine, VII (January, 1955), p. 5. Friestadt, 1. "Notes on the Schlossberg hethod," 3*mnhon , VIII (Kay, 1954), p. 11. Goldman, Edwin F. "Embouchure and Its Meaning to Wind Instrument Players," Metronome, XXXIX (November, 1925), p. 78. Hoffren, James. "Daily Practice Routine," The Instrumen- talist, XIII (March, 1959), p. 72. Hunt, N. J. "The Cup Mouthpiece with Special Reference to Lento-facial Irregularities," School Musician, XXI (January, 1950), p. 18; (February, 1950), p. 25; (March, 1950), p. 10. Jacobs, Marion L. "Sick Embouchures and Their Cure," Jacobs' Band Honthly, XXVI (April, 1941), p. 5. Jenkins, Harry. "Practicing with the houth iece," The Instrumentalist, XVIII (December, 1965 , p. 71. Kessler, H. E. "Dental Factors Concerned with Instrument Playing," The Instrumentalist, XI (June, 1957), p. 55. Krauss, S. "0n Trumpet Embouchure," Svmnhon , II (March, Kwalwasser, Jacob. "Lips of Professional Wind-Instrument Players--A Photographic Study," Eusic Publishers Journal, I, No. 5 (hay—June, 1945), p. 14. 169 Lamp, Charles ., and Epley, Francis W. "Relation of Tooth Evenness to Performance of the Brass and Wood- wind Kusical Instruments," Journal 9: the American Dental Association (July, 19555, pp. 1252—1256. Little, L. P. "Some Pitfalls Facing the Young Bras dent," School Husician, XXIII (October, 1951), p U) 0 (I) Liva, Howard R. "How to Develop Upper Brass Range," The Instrumentalist, AVII (Lay, 1965), p. 60. Long, Newell H. "The DevelOpment of Embouchure," Husio Educators Journal, XXVII (December, 1940), p. 25 Halek, Vincent F. "Embouchures of Trofessional Trumpet- Cornet Ilayers," The Instrumentalist, IX (September, 1954) , p. 48. Malek, Vincent F. "What About Brass Embouchure?" The Instrumentalist, X (January, 1956), p. 28. Heek, H. "micro—photographic Studies of Brass," Svmohon , 11 (September, 1949), p. 4. Mellon, E. i. "The Diaphragm and Its Auxiliaries as He- lated to the Embouchure," The Instrumentalist, V (September, 1950), p. 22. Miller, Thomas W. "DevelOping the Trumpet Embouchure," The Instrumentalist, XVIII (hay, 1964), p. 72; (June, 1964). Morgan, T. "Paralyzed Embouchure Can Happen to Anyone," Down Beat, XVII (November 17, 1950); (December 1, 1950). Neilson, James. "Teaching the Cornet in Beginning Classes," The Instrumentalist, VI (January—February, 1952), p. 21. Neilson, James. "Techniques for the Brass Section," The Instrumentalist, IV, No. 2 (November-December, 1949), p. 14. Noakes, A. "The Right Way Is the Only Way to Start," melody Maker, XXVII (April 7, 1951), p. 8. "The Pupil's the Thing. Brass Embouchure," The Instrumen- talist, III (March—April, 1949), p. 58. llilll' 170 Reynolds, George E. "Brass Tone and Embouchure," The In- strumentalist, III (DIarch-April,1949), p. 58. Reynolds, George E. "Setting the Cup Brass Embouchure," School Lusician, XXXIII (April, 10 61), p. 16. Schmidt, H. "Concepts of Lip Control," School Lusician, XXXVI (Larch, 965), p. 26. Schulze, Robert H. "Playing the French Horn," The Instru— mentalist, IV, No. 4 (Larch-April, 1950), p. 50. Shepard, Hayden. "Forming a Good Trumpet Embouchure," Metronome, L (October, 1954), p. 19; (September, 1954), p. 56. Shoults, Charles R. "Analyzing the Embouchure," Egjgg Journal, XIX (Lay, 1961), p. 42. Smith, Leonard B. "Advice to the Cornetist, " The School Lusician (June, 1941). Smith, Leonard B. "Developing High Register," International Lusician, LIX (December, 01960), p. 20. Smith, L. M. "Instructing the Novice Trumpeter," Crescendo, II (January~Larch, 1952), p. 7. Tetzlaff, Dan. "Brass Instrument Beginners," Tl e Instru- mentalist, XVI (Larch, 1962), p. 61. Tetzlaff, Dan. "Enemies of Endurance," International Musician, LIV (December, 10 55), p. 24. Tetzlaff, Dan. "Should I Change Embouchure," International Lusician, LVI (June, 1958 , p. 28. Tetzlaff, Dan. "Trumpet Talk," International Lusician, LVI (July: 1957): P0 280 Tetzlaff, Dan. "Trumpet Talk," International Lusician, LIX (April, 10 61), p. 54. Tull, M. "The Controversial Trumpet Embouchure," South- western Brass Journal, I (Fall, 1957), p. 11. Weast, Robert D. "Breath Support and Lip Tension," The Instrumentalist, XIII (L ecember, 1958), p. 52. Weast, Robert D. "The Development of Range," The Instru- mentalist, XVI, No. 5 (November, 1961), p. 67. 171 Weast, Robert D. "A Strobos00pic Analysis of Lip Function," The Instrumentalist, XVII (June, 1965), p. 44. Weast, Robert D., and Hake, Ardell. "A Definitive Analysis of Louthpiece Pressure," The Brass world, I, No. 2 (Spring. 1965). pp- 58-45. Winter, James H. "The Horn Embouchure in the High Register," Woodwind World, IV, No. 6 (1962), p. 14. Worrel, J. w. "Quality First," School Lusician, XXXII (October, 1960), p. 12. Zottola, F. "How to Improve Your Brass Technique," Inter- national Lusician, LVI (January, 1958), p. 54. Unpublished Material Bell, Clarence W. "Fundamental Problems of Teaching Brass Instruments." Unpublished Master's thesis, Eastman School of Lusic, Rochester, New York, 1945. Hall, Jody C. "A Radiographic, Spectrographic, and Photo- graphic Study of the Non—labial Physical Changes which Occur in the Transition from Liddle to Low and Liddle to High Registers during Trumpet Performance." Unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1954. Hammer, James W. "The Use of Lethod Books and Photographs to Determine Good Embouchure Formation." Unpublished Laster's thesis, School of Lusic, University of Kansas, 1951. Joachim, Nile. "Tone Production on Brass Wind Instruments." Unpublished Laster's thesis, School of Lusic, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. Knoll, Allan Clement. "Studies in Cornet and Trumpet Peda- gogy." Unpublished Master's thesis, Lichigan State University, East Lansing, Lichigan, 1959. Leidig, Vernon F. "A Compendium of the Technical and Tone Production Factors in Wind Instruments." Unpublished Laster's thesis, University of Southern California, 1957- Lalek, Vincent F. "A Study of Embouchure and Trumpet— Cornet Louthpiece Leasurements." Unpublished Eh.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1955. 172 chueen, William L. "The Brass Embouchure," Unpublished Laster's thesis, Illinois Wesleyan University, 1945. Peyron, Victor E. "Effects of Tension on a Lip Tone." Un— published Laster's thesis, Illinois State Normal Uni— versity, 1956. Tunison, Earl E. "The Embouchure and its Effect Upon the Tone and Technique of the Brass F mily." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Loscow, Idaho, 1942. APPENDICES A hhfiff‘r TIE QUIZ ST ICIECAIEE 1'75 17M¥ NORTHERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY MARQUETTE,.MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT or MUSIC Dear Colleague: As a brass instructor in a school where many students enter with_inadequate backgrounds, (don't they all!) I have found an increasing need for more specific knowledge in handling the variety of brass embouchure problems. Whether these problems stem from the usual “self taught" approaches to being able to play like Rafael Mendez, or are induced by physical characteristics, is not always clear. However, I find many students desperately in need of special help, and unfortunately for them, the guide lines are vague, and in many instances, contradicting. An exhaustive survey of the brass literature published has revealed little of a specific nature in remedial work. And yet, there must be standardised methods which have been, and are, used by many of you with high degrees of.sncceea. The purpose of this letter is to persuade you.to take part in.a survey of a selected number of brass teachers throughout the country, in the hopes that some common problems and their solutions may be revealed. This survey is being undertaken with the approval and guidance of Mr. Leonard Fhlcone, well-known director of bands,; baritone virtuoso, and teacher of brass instruments at Michigan State University, Its findings will be incorporated in a research project entitled, WRemedial Needs and Techniques for Correcting Brass Embouchure Abnormalcies", which is in preparation at the present time. You will find that this survey can be completed, for the most part, by merely checking the appropriate answer. However, in the last two questions you are given an opportunity to express yourself more completely. .Hhen the findings have been tabulated, a copy will be mailed to you in appreciation of’your time given this project. I fully realize how busy you are, but if you could give this your earliest attention it would be greatly appreciated. A self addressed envelope is enclosed for your convenience. fours for fewer, smaller, and better understood embouchure problems! Sincerely, $447 ' Lorin C. Riohtmeyer Professor of Brass NAME SCHOOL OR STUDIO BRASS INSTRUMENTS TAUGHT YOUR OWN SPEIALITY 175 SURVEY OF REMEDIAL NEEDS AND TECHNIQUES FOR CORRETING BRASS REBOUCHURE ABNORHAISIES . A. Which of the following statements best describes the normal embou- chure for the brass instrument in which 193 specialize? Assume an embouchure formed for a tone in the middle register. (check one) 1. 2. 3. :13! Position D Kept in normal position when forming embouchure D Upper and lower front teeth brought in perfect alignment when forming embouchure through lower jaw movement D Other (describe) 7 Corners g_f_ Mouth D Stretched, in smiling position D "Puckered" position, lips pureed, with all muscles contract- ing towards center D Semi-puckered, corners gripping D Other (describe) Lips D Flat against teeth, edges meeting in perfect alignment q E] Lower lip rolled slightly under upper D Both lips rolled under slightly, but not over teeth D Other (describe) B.‘ 4. (a) 1+. (b) 176 Mouthpiece Placement---Vertical [:1 Mouthpiece 2/3'3 on upper lip U Mouthpiece 2/3'3 on lower lip D Mouthpiece 1/ 2 on each lip U Depends on thickness of lips and length of teeth and will vary with each person. Mouthpiece is usually placed more on lip that is thickest and is supported by longest teeth. [:1 In the case of cornet or trumpet it is important that the upper inner edge of the rim rests on the Lhite portion of the upper lip and not on the ;e_d_. D Other Mouthpiece Plac ement---Horizontal [j The horizontal placement of the mouthpiece will depend in part on the alignment and spacing of the teeth, but should be as near a mid point as possible. D It is most important that the mouthpiece be placed hor- izontally so that it is centered over the natural open- ing of the lips when they are in buzzing position. D Other What embouchure changes do you recommend for ascending tones? (more than one may be checked) D Lower Jaw moves inward and upward D Lower lip rolls slightly under upper U Corners of lips tighten with lip aperture becoming smaller D Jaw does not change, but lips move as in above D All muscles tighten towards center of mouthn-corners move inward D Corner muscles tighten downward---corners stay in place D Lips flatten out-«corners pull back [:I Airstream consciously aimed downward D Tongue arches as in syllable "ee" [:1 Others (describe) 177 C. How often have you encountered the following abnormalcies? (please add others not listed at the bottom and check them as well) _E_h1bouchure Abnormalcy Frog uentlz Occasionagz Seldom Never Cheeks puffed out C] Extreme mouthpiece pressure D on lips Pursing or puckering lips to D an extreme Pulling back corners of lips and D stretching them to an extreme Pressing lips together in center D 9 too tightly Lips tight on teeth with open- [3 ing too large Chin bunching upward, pressing D lower lip against upper Forcing upper lip down on lower D by extreme upward angle of instrument Tilting head, causing the same E] effect as above Overlapping lips to an extreme E] ‘ Air pocket between either upper D or lower lip and gum Quivering corner muscles, a causing shake in tone Mouthpiece placed too high U Mouthpiece placed too low [:1 Mouthpiece placed too far to E] one side Others D *' DDDDDDDDDDDDDUDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDUDDD UUUUUUUDUUDDUUUDD El IP78 D. Are these abnormalcies (those listed under letter C) mostly related to a specific physical condition or to the use of improper methods? .(external factors such as poor equipment are not to be considered-- see letter F) [:lestly related to physical condition (extreme overbite, uneven teeth, etc.) D Mostly related to use of improper methods [:1 About equally divided between the two Eo To what degree are the following physical weaknesses or conditions apt to cause embouchure abnormalcies? Condition Large Deg Med. Deg Small Deg None Extreme overbite (more than 1/4') Protruding lower jaw Very thick lips Very thin lips Uneven front teeth weak facial muscles Pronounced peak in upper lip (that portion hanging down in center) Immature physical develOpment Others EIEI DDCICIEIDD DD CIDEJEIUCIEI DC} DUUDDUD CID DDCIEIEIDD F. In addition to letters D and E, to what degree do you feel external factors (such as improper equipment) lead to embouchure abnormalcies? External Factor Large Deg Mod. Deg Small Deg None Inferior equipment Improper equipment (too large a mouthpiece, etc.) Inadequate breath control Lack of proper warm-up procedures Demands of beginning methods Keeping up with advanced players in an organization Trying to emulate professionals, (high note artists, etc.) Others [:1 El DUDE] DD U C] DUDE] DC] Cl C} DUDE} DE} E] D DUDE! DD G. 3U79 As an admitted embouchure abnormalcy usually difficult to cure, how would you go about helping a student with quivering corner muscles? (check those with which you agree or have had success) [j Determine first of all whether or not it is a purely "nervous" type of reaction mainly connected with the student's personality. D If it is not thought to be a nervous affliction, agree that it is caused by a general weak condition of the facial muscle. [J Prescribe concentrated work on lip slurs. D Prescribe long tones followed by an equal amount of rest between. E] Advocate resting frequently during all practice so as not to put too strong a burden on corner muscles and allow them to strengthen gradually. D Suggest holding the instrument in a loose manner (such as bal- ancing the trumpet on the thumbs of each hand) while doing lip slurs, long tones, and scale passages to insure proper use of breath and minimum pressure. D Hold the corners still by placing your fingers or hand forcibly over the quivering area while student plays to give him the correct feel of which muscles to hold still. D Suggest longer practice periods to extend the endurance of the muscles. D Suggest shorter practice periods several times a day. D Have the student practice facial exercises several times a day. (distorting the mouth in various directions, or tensing and hold- ing the embouchure in firm playing position for several seconds as in isometric exercises D Othgrs (please explain any other techniques you have found help- ful 18C> B. What other techniques have you found to be usually helpful in correcting the various abnormalcies listed on the preceding pages? (This is admittedly asking for a great deal, but it is hoped that you might list several techniques which you apply fre- quently enough to be classified under your standard treat- ments 0 181 I. Do you have any standard 3.3% exercises or materials which you recommend for specific abnormalcies listed on the preceding pages? If so, would you please give a brief description, or list where they may be found. D Please check here if you will permit the use of your name as one having contributed to this survey. JEI‘FJDIX B RESPONDENTS TAKING PART IN SURVBY Autrey, Byron., trumpet instructor, Michigan State Univer— sity, East Lansing, Richigan. Baker, Edwin D., lower brass instructor, Colorado State College, Greeley, Colorado. Ball, Jerry W., French horn instructor, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky. Beeler, Joan., trumpet instructor, Ithaca College, Ithaca, Mew York. Brophy, William R., trumpet and French horn instructor, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Brown, Leon F., lower brass instructor, North Texas State College, Denton, Texas. Burkhard, Richard E., brass instructor, Lamar State College, Beaumont, Texas. Campbell, Douglas., French horn instructor, hichigan State University, East Lansing, hichigan. Cole, William D., trumpet instructor and director of bands, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Corder, David L., trumpet instructor, San Jacinto Jr. College, Houston, Texas. Cramer, William F., lower brass instructor, Florida State University, Tallahasse, Florida. DeJong, Conrad., trumpet and French horn instructor, Wisconsin State College, River Falls, Wisconsin. Deming, Howard 0., brass instructor, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington. Dietz, Norman C., brass instructor and Director of Bands, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, hichigan. 182 185 Elsass, J. Frank., brass instructor and Director of Bands, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. Exline, Wendell., brass instructor, Eastern Washington State College, Cheney, Washington. Falcone, Leonard., Director of Bands and low brass in- structor, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. Farkas, Philip., French horn instructor, Indiana Univer- sity, Bloomington, Indiana. Farrar, Lloyd P., lower brass instructor, Music Director of Prince Georges Symphonic Assoc., Adelphi, Maryland. Fink, Reginald H., lower brass instructor, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia. Fink, Robert R., French horn instructor, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan. Ghitalla, Armando A., trumpet instructor, Boston University and first trumpet with Boston Symphony, Boston, Mass. Giles, Thomas L., brass instructor, Mankato State College, Mankato, Minnesota. Gray, Robert E., lower brass instructor, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. Hanson, Fay S., brass instructor, Weber State College, Ogden, Utah. Haynie, John J., trumpet instructor, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas. Head, Emerson, trumpet instructor, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Hipp, William, brass instructor, Delmar College, Corpus Christi, Texas. Hoepfinger, Larry., brass instructor, Hardin—Simmons University, Abilene, Texas. Kennedy, David., brass instructor, State College of Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa. 184 Kneeburg, Donald., lower brass instructor, Indiana Univer- sity, Bloomington, Indiana. Kniaz, Abe., French horn instructor, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Leetch, W. Eugene., brass instructor, Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois. Leidig, Vernon F., brass instructor, Los Angeles State College, Los Angeles, California. Long, Newell H., brass instructor, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. McConathy, Osbourne, French horn instructor, Boston Con— servatory, Boston, Mass. Manous, Carlyle., brass instructor, Pacific Union College, Angwin, California. Mathie, Gordon., brass instructor, State University College, Potsdam, New York. Mear, Sidney., trumpet instructor, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, New York. Meretta, Leonard., brass instructor, Western Michigan Uni— versity, Kalamazoo, Michigan. Mueller, Ierbert., trumpet instructor, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Noble, Clyde F., trumpet instructor, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia. Osadchuk, Mitchell M., trumpet instructor, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan. Ostling, Acton E. Jr., lower brass instructor, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Remsen, Lester., trumpet instructor and performer, private studio, Iollywood, California. Reynolds, Verne., French horn instructor, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, New York. Schultz, Herbert., brass instructor, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont. 185 Sexton, Haskell 0., trumpet instructor, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. Sherburn, Merrell, trombone instructor, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. Smith, Glenn P., lower brass instructor, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Smith, Robert D., lower brass instructor, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Stephenson, Robert A., lower brass instructor, Northern Michigan University, Marquette, Michigan. Stout, Louis J., French horn instructor, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Suddendorf, Richard J., trumpet instructor, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Swanzy, David., brass instructor, Edinboro State College, Bdinboro, Pennsylvania. Tetzlaff, Daniel B., trumpet instructor, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Tolley, Richard., brass instructor, Texas Technological College, Lubbock, Texas. Van Nuys, Robert., brass instructor, Wisconsin State University, Stevens Point, Wisconsin. Wakefield, John., lower brass instructor, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Wallace, Paul J., lower brass instructor, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. Weast, Robert., trumpet and French horn instructor, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. Weed, Maurice., trumpet instructor, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois. Welke, Walter C., brass instructor, University of Washington, Seattle, Mashington. Whittaker, Donald., trumpet instructor, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Winter, James R., brass instructor, Fresno State College, Fresno, California. APPENDIX C TRUMPET WARM—UP UTILIZING SCHLOSSBERG METHOD (as developed by Maurice Weed) l. Buzzing lips on mouthpiece A. B. C. D. E. P-mp dynamic range. Start in middle, then go down and up. Begin with narrow pitch range and gradually widen the interval down and up. Only for a few seconds at one time, removing mouthpiece from lips between each successive buzzing. 30-60 seconds (or more) for this exercise, de- pending on whether the response is easy or difficult. 2. Schlossberg - Introductory notes, bottom of page A. B. C. D. Do these tonguings (with a Tab) and slurring exercises in lower middle register, but on pg definite pitch. Remove mouthpiece from lips after each measure. P-mp dynamic range. Slowly, but in absolute, strict time. 5. Pedal tones - May be played with no valves, instead of fingered as suggested A. B. C. Good, solid sound, mf-f. Q Low Bb, then an octave lower but fingered as C low A", then an octave lower, but fingered as B4, etc. Play each note as a half note, at the tempo of a = 60, with distinct break between octaves. *4. Schlossberg page 1 - dynamic level, mp-mf A. B. C. D. Exercise 1, line 2. Exercise 1, line 1. Exercise 4, line 2. Exercise 4, line 1. ‘Nos. 4-7 may also be practiced beginning on the middle measure of each line, and moving, alternately, in opposite directions. 186 #5. *6. *7. 10. 187 Schlossberg page 2 A. Exercise 5, line 1 - dynamic level, mp-mf B. Exercise 5, line 2 - dynamic level, f-ff page 5 C. Exercise 9, line 1 Alternate measures, page 2 starting down (with No.9) D. Exercise 8, line 1 Schlossberg page 5 - dynamic level, f—ff A. Exercise 11 and 11a, sections 1 and 2 - alternate measures starting with section 1, lla; then the 2nd section the same way, in reverse 0 Schlossberg page 4 A. Exercise 13, line 1 Alternate measures, page 3 starting with No. 13 B. Exercise 12, line 1 page 4 C. Exercise 14, line 1 - also invert every other measure. D. Exercise 15, line 1 - also invert every other measure. E. Exercise 15, line 2 - in reverse, starting at end and working toward front. Short arpeggio (see music paper) A. Just down by half steps, not up. Lip loosener (see music paper) A. Down and up by half steps. B. As fast as can be performed accurately. C. Only tongue first note. D. All in one breath. Lip slurs (see music paper) P 4ths, down and up by half steps, in groups of 2'3, 5'3 or 4's, Tongue only first note. All in one breath. Watch for: A. Tone quality B. Intonation C. Evenness D. Smoothness 11. 12. 15. 14. 15. 16. 188 Lip slurs (see music paper) P 5ths - same treatment as 4ths except: A. Slightly slower B. Two breaths (if needed) Long arpeggio (see manuscript paper) A. Just down by half steps B. Moderate tempo, not too fast Arpeggiated triads and 7th chords A. All legato tongued; crescendo gradually towards tOp B. Augmented triads, CEG#, Db, FA 0.. Minor triad, Eb Gb Bb D. Major triad, E G# B E. Diminished 7th, F#LA C Eb F# A C F. Continue up by half steps Triads on top (see music paper) A. Major or minor, depending on student B. Go as high as is comfortable and free; top tones should "Sing" easily Scales - tongued, f A. Majors and some minors (all 5 forms), depending on student B. A few one octave, easier ones C. Two octave, harder ones Schlossberg page 8, no. 51, sections of first 2 lines 8, no. 52, last 2 or 5 lines 12, no. 45, lines 1 and 2 or 5 and 4 14, no. 49, last 2 or 5 lines 15, no. 52, lines 7 and 8 16, no. 56, last 2 lines 20, no. 65, last 2 or 5 lines 25, no. 70, all stacatto tongued 25, no. 71, 2 slurred, 2 tongued 25, no. 72, slur in groups of 4 notes 24, no. 75, lst 2 lines - advanced students 25, no. 80, advanced students 28, no. 90, lines 1, or 1 and 2 28, no. 91, lst section 55, no. 99, a few of these in the order indicated in student's book 44, no. 116, 117, 118, all tongued lst, then slurred 56, no. 148, lst and 4th measures 189 17. Hering or other study books 18. Solos