STRATEGIES EVOLVED IN A DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM OF PLANNED SOCIAL CHANGE IN RURAL EAST PAKISTAN: A STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF INSTITUTION—BUILDING AND ITS INTEGRATION IN THE POLITICO—ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE By Abdul Muyeed This thesis analyzes a program of planned social change with an inter-disciplinary approach. The program evolved through ten years' intensive experimentation by the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development (PARD) at Comilla in East Pakistan. The PARD evolved a role for itself as an inter- mediary between the government and the people. It developed programs with the people of local communities in the Comilla thana,l a "social laboratory" of 107 square miles with a population of 200,000. The PARD in its "social laboratory" experimented with many "pilot pro— jects" for program-building to maximize development within the area. These experiments provided rich mate- rials for the training of the government officials. As models of administration in actual situations, these experiments also assisted national policy-makers to gain Abdul Muyeed insights for planning. The experience of these pilot projects initiated a process of institution-building in the Comilla thana. These institutions are integrated in the politico-administrative structure when the government accepts the program for large-scale implementation. The jurisdiction of the PARD "social laboratory" is defined as a micro-system for the purpose of analysis. The system beyond that up to the national level is defined as the macro-system. The PARD has put itself into a unique position to link the macro-level planning with the micro-level planning working both ways, up and down. The problems examined in this study are: l. The socio-economic preconditions of the lOcal communities involved in the program. 2. The process of social change as understood from the study of various strategies evolved in the system. 3. The PARD role in the process of building insti- tutions in the micro-system and their integra- tion in the politico-administrative structure involving the macro-system. A. The factors underlying the develOpmental pro- Cesses in the local communities and their implications for strategies. Abdul Muyeed Two types of data were collected. The first in- volved making detailed inventories of the significant events in chronological order of the following: 1. Four village cooperatives 2. Three other organizations playing roles in the development process 3. Six development projects Case studies were also prepared on each item on the above list except two projects. Intensive field inter— views and observations were made in addition to the inventories in connection with the case studies. The second type of data were collected on thirty- five village cooperatives, the main vehicle of change in the villages, selected on a purposive stratified random sampling basis. The data covered more than 500 variables assumed to have some relationship with the evolving de- velopment processes at village level. A factor analysis was conducted. The various strategies evolved are discussed under the headings: (l) Socio-psychological strategy, (2) Socio- political strategy, (3) Socio—economic strategy, (A) Edu- cational strategy, (5) Sociological strategy, and (6) Scientific strategy. The process of institution-building and integration in the system is discussed in two steps. The first step is the development of functions and its consequent impact Abdul Muyeed in developing appropriate structures needed for efficient progression of develOpment within the micro-structure. The second step consists in developing the PARD role in integrating these institutions in the politico- administrative structure projecting itself in the macro- system. Simple schematic presentations of the micro—macro interlocking processes of development planning are pro- vided. Thirteen factors underlying the developmental pro— cesses at village level are identified. In light of these factors, the emerging trends and their implications on the strategies and program-planning are discussed. The PARD'S new functions and roles are also indi- cated. A number of research hypotheses have been generated in this study which need testing. There is a significant implication of these hypotheses on future program-building. 1The smallest administrative unit of the government, similar to a county in the U.S.A. STRATEGIES EVOLVED IN A DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM OF PLANNED SOCIAL CHANGE IN RURAL EAST PAKISTAN: A STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF INSTITUTION-BUILDING AND ITS INTEGRATION IN THE POLITICO-ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE By Abdul Muyeed A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education College of Education 1969 \u! g\ \ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author gratefully acknowledges the invaluable advice, guidance, and constructive criticisms of Dr. Cole S. Brembeck, chairman Of the thesis committee, whose encouragement throughout the course of this study is sincerely appreciated. Further, the author would like to express his high regard and appreciation to the other members of the com- mittee, Dr. Stanley E. Hecker, Dr. Wilbur B. Brookover, Prof. Russell J. Kleis, and Prof. Richard 0. Niehoff, for reviewing the manuscript and Offering very helpful sugges- tions. Dr. Stanley E. Hecker, as the chairman of the guidance committee,helped the author in all possible ways. In particular, the author wishes to express his gratitude to Prof. Richard O. Niehoff and the Ford Founda- tion for the fellowship which covered all expenses both at M.S.U. and Comilla. He also visited Comilla and kindly appraised the field work while the author was doing his field work. The author remains deeply indebted to Dr. Akhter Hameed Khan who as the Director of the PARD was kind enough to extend all facilities to the author for avail— ing this fellowship. The author also remains deeply ii grateful to Mr. Azizul Huq. the present Director of the PARD, who took personal interest in the field research and extended all possible facilities needed for the field work. The authorgs colleagues in the PARD have given more than their valuable time in discussing many of the issues raised during the field work, which is gratefully acknowledged. Mrs. Kathryn R. Schuler has gone through the entire manuscript and made valuable suggestions in edit- ing the text for ease of reading. The author remains indebted to her for her valuable help. Finally, the author expresses his deepest apprecia- tion to his wife, Linu, and Children, Tuheen and Amita, for their continuous encouragement, sacrifice, and good wishes. Any errors or omissions in this study are, of course, the responsibility of the author. 111 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LJST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . x Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study . 1 Statement of the Problem. . . . . 3 Brief Description of the Program . . . A Scope of the Present Study . . . . . 13 II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK. . . . . . . . 16 Review of Current Literature and Research . . . . . . . . . . 16 Economic Models. . . . . . . l9 Interdisciplinary Models. . . . . . 20 W. W. Rostow. . . . . . . . . 20 W. Arthur Lewis. . . . . .. . . 24 Everett E. Hagen . . . . . . . 26 J. A. Ponsioen . . . . . . . 29 Lasswell and Holmberg. . . . . . 3A Planned Strategy . . . 35 Dilemmas of Development Policy. . . 37 Problems of Macro-Micro Effective Interlocking . . . . . . . . 38 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . “3 Definition of Terms. . . . . A3 Designs, Methods and Instruments . . . 47 Details of the Methods Used . . . . U9 Sampling . . . . . . . 55 Organizational Set— Up . . . . . . 60 iv Chapter IV. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE COMILLA COMMUNITIES . . . . . Socio-Economic Preconditions of the Communities Involved in the Comilla Program Village . Economic Conditions Social Conditions Education. Special Barriers to Development Continual Disinvestment . Lack of Incentives and Profitability in Agriculture . . . . . Lack Of Infrastructure Psychological Inhibition. . Lack of Participation with Local Self- -government. . Lack of Effective Administrative System. . . Lack of Women's ParticipatiOn Increase of Population Some of the Social Aspects Shaping an Emergent Change- -Process . V. THE COOPERATIVE PROGRAM Transition from a Somewhat Closed System to an Open System Brief Description of the Cooperative Program COOperatives and Membership Sizes. Capital Formation Loan Program Projects of the Village Cooperatives. The Kotwali Thana Central Cooperative Association (KTCCA) . . Various Projects Reinforcing KTCCA Objectives VI. STRATEGIES OF THE COMILLA PROGRAM. Introduction. . Socio- Psychological Strategy . Group Approach: Village Council vs. SpeCial Interest Groups . Organizer System . Group Meetings Page 6A 9A 95 10A 111 122 134 138 1“? 1A? 1H9 1A9 153 163 Chapter Page Socio- Political Strategy. . . 16A Local Control, Planning and .Leader— ship . . . . 165 Avoidance of Head- On Clashes and Development of Mutual Interest. . 169 Socio- Economic Strategy . . . . . . 172 Educational Strategy . 181 Multiplying the Channels .of Communi— cation. . . 182 Continuity of Efforts and Linkage. . 183 Realistic Curriculum . . . . . 192 Sociological Strategy. . . . . . . 198 Role of the Villagers. . . . . . 199 Role of the Officers . . . . 200 Role of the Experts and Research Technicians . . . 203 Role of the Training Institutes . . 20“ Role of the Government . . . . . 205 Scientific Strategy . . . . . . . 207 VII. INSTITUTION-BUILDING AND ITS INTEGRATION IN THE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . 212 Introduction. . . . 212 Institution-Building in the Micro- System. . . . 213 The PARD- Role in Stabilizing the Institutions Developed in the Micro- System. . . 222 Underlying Principles of the PARD- Role Development . . . 236 Intermediary Between the PeOple and the Government . . . . . . . 236 Program—building Process. . . . . 2A0 Interdepartmental Approach . . . . 2A5 Schematic Presentation of the Program-Building . . . . . . 2A6 Schematic Presentation of Institution-Building . . . . . 2A8 VIII. FACTOR ANALYSIS ON THE COMILLA COOPERATIVE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Introduction. . . . 252 Principal Components Solution and Rotation of Factors by Varimax Criterion. . . . . . . . . . 25“ vi Chapter Page Detailed Procedure of the Factor Analysis on the Comilla Data . . . 256 Identification of the Factors . . . . 262 Findings of the Factor Analysis . . . 287 Summary . . . . . . . . . 295 IX. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION . . . 297 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . 297 Theoretical Background . . . . . . 299 Methodology . . . . 301 Strategies Evolved in the Comilla Program . . . . 303 Socio- psychological Strategy . . . 304 Socio- -political Strategy. . . . . 305 Socio-economic Strategy . . . . . 306 Educational Strategy . . . . . . 307 Sociological Strategy. . . . . . 308 Scientific Strategy . . 309 Institution- -Building and Integration in the System . . . 310 Functions and Structures Developed in the Micro- -system . . 311 Integration of these Institutions in. the Politico- Administrative System . 312 Findings of the Factor Analysis . . . 314 Some Comments on the New Trends of the Cooperative Program . . . . . . 316 PARD's New Function and Role . . . . 319 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 321 Needed Research. . . . . . . . . 322 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Distribution of families (in percentages) over various land categories taking all the sample villages together . . 71 2. Distribution of families (in percentages) over various income categories taking all the sample villages together . . . . . . 74 3. Occupations ranked according to prevalence within the various income categories . . . 77 4. Functional literacy among the villagers . . 83 5. Primary schooling among the villagers . . . 84 6. Number of COOperatives and membership size in various years (figures are all cumulative from year to year) . . . . . . . . . 97 7. Average size of membership per cooperative according to parent and sample data in various years . . . . . . . . . . . 100 8. The average number of members per coopera- tive-—old, intermediate and new . . . . . 103 9. Annual savings, share purchases, and capital formation by all the cooperatives under the program (figures are all cumulative from year to year) . . . . . . . . . . . 105 10. Average per member capital formation in the sample cooperatives in various years . . . 106 11. Position of loan disbursement, loan repay- ment, amount of outstanding loan and total capital accumulated by the cooperatives in various years . . . . . . . . . . . 112 viii Table 12. Page Loan issue, loan repayment, outstanding loan (cumulative) and total capital forma- tion (cumulative) of the sample cooperatives in various years . . . . . . . . . . 115 ix Figure 10. LIST OF FIGURES Ponsioen Model Interview Plan Stratified Random Sample of Village Cooperatives . . . . . . Patterns of Project Planning. Structural and Functional Dimensions of Comilla Cooperative System-1968. Intermediary Role of the PARD Direct-Relationship Pattern between the PeOple and the Government . . Program-building Process at Different Phases of Development Program-building Process with Ever—widening Program Frontier Institution-building Process Page 31 53 60 128 137 238 238 247 248 250 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Study The Comilla program has come to the present stage through ten years' intensive experimentation on a program of planned social Change. The main thrust of the Comilla program is primarily being generated by an institution named The Pakistan Academy for Rural Development (PARD). When first established in 1958, it was one of two institutions set up for each of the wings of Pakistan, in connection with the Village Agricultural and Industrial Development (Village-AID) program of Pakistan. The Village-AID program was the first comprehensive national program of community development undertaken by the government. The PARD continued even after the dissolution of the Village-AID Program in order to train various officials for development work, to conduct action research and pilot Projects with the local government and communities and to present models of development administration to government policy-makers. There have been numerous StUdieS on various aspects of the Comilla program, but imxruum of the studies has major effort been made to 1 look at the whole program as a system. In view of the comprehensive growth of the program and its impact both on the national and regional (macro) structure and socio-economic development of the communities (micro) at local levels, it is time to study the program in its total perspective. The study will help the under— standing of the program as a social process of development. There are many studies on the role of the change agents which focus attention on the relationship between the change agents and the people, or the government and the Change agents, or the government and the people where the government takes somewhat of a role of a Change agent. But the Comilla program is differently geared into the Situation which has given it a unique Significance as an intermediary between the people and the government with its planning mechanism. It works all the way both up and down, developing the micro- setting in relation to the macro and pointing to the deficiencies in the macro-setting in relation to the micro. In most of the studies available on planned social change, there seems to be a polarization of interest, either to the macro or to micro-setting. As a result, there are some brilliant models of planned change drawn from broad generalizations in the macro level. There are also numerous successful projects implemented and studied more or less in an isolated manner, focusing only on the particular project within the total system. This study of the Comilla program intends to analyze the social processes of development in the micro-setting and their consequent impact on the macro-setting. This kind of analysis, supplemented by other case studies, may help towards formulating middle range theories of planned change. Statement of the Problem It is not proposed to test any particular model Of planned change in the Comilla context. Since this is the first work of this type on the Comilla program, as complex as it is, the primary interest will be to understand the Comilla program as far as possible with a historical Perspective, so that one may discern some of its intricate but pervasive underlying principles at work. Since there is a time-depth of about ten years, it may also be possible to observe the developmental progression in this particular context. So in specific terms, the statement of the problem for this thesis is to study: 1) The socio-economic preconditions of the local communities involved in the Comilla program. 11) The process of social change as represented by the various strategies evolved in the particular contertcfi'the socio-economic preconditions of the communi ties . iii) The role of the PARD in the process of building institutions in the micro—system and their integration in the politico-administrative set-up involving the macro-system. iv) The important factors underlying the development process in the local communities involved in the Comilla program and the shaping of the future trends as revealed by the analysis of the data. Brief Description of the Program The Pakistan Academy for Rural Development (PARD) at Comilla in East Pakistan, in close collaboration with the Ford Foundation and the Michigan State University, developed an educational program in one Of the most problem-stricken areas of South-East Asia. The Special feature of the Comilla program is that it isanxexperimental project within a "laboratory area" 0f 107 square miles covering one thana,l named Comilla Egtwali Thana,2 with a population of more than 200,000-- a rare example of experimentation in development planning and administration. The area of jurisdiction of a police headquarters, similar to a county in the USA, which is also the smal- lest administrative unit of the government. There are 413 thanas in East Pakistan. 2The thana located in the sub-divisional head- quarters is called Kotwali Thana. There are 54 Kotwali Thana's in East Pakistan. The PARD, in developing its training, research, and extension programs, consciously tries to focus its attention on understanding the local problems in local perspectives, to develop programs with local initiative, create an environment of education for the people, their leaders, and the officials by bringing them together to discuss and explore, and ultimately to integrate the programs and the educational processes thus developed into higher level departmental programs and national planning. In doing so, the Comilla program has some- times adjusted tO the departmental or national plans. It has also given birth to quite a few new ideas and nwthods through its pilot projects and action research, which in turn have given shape to new policies and plans at national levels. The PARD has the advantage of funds from the government budget, Ford Foundation and other various agenCies, and autonomy to conduct experiments at local levels in administration, management, and resource development. It is placed under a Board of Governors, chaired by the Chief Secretary with members consisting of’the heads of most of the important departments concerned with rural development and some non-official citizens. It is also ideally located away from the humdrum of the official machineries of the provincial capitalixla highly populated semi-rural district town within the Comilla Kotwali thana. In its process of being helpful in rural development efforts, it has developed some new institutions, some new functions in old institutions, a system of coordination and a commitment to development at local levels with great potentials of expansion at higher levels. The PARD, though primarily a training institution, started extension programs and action research in its laboratory area of the Comilla Kotwali thana. The idea in doing so was not to develop into a servicing agency, but to understand rural development problems and their possible solutions and to discover administrative and management patterns for efficient functioning. This program comprising of teaching, extension, and research was designed to enrich its training courses as well as to enable it to help the government in planning for rural development by providing various models at the thana level. The PARD developed a cooperative program in the thana having more than 300 primary village cooperatives with a central association at its apex, named Kotwali Thana Central Cooperative Association (KTCCA). The primary cooperatives are all village-based small homogeneous groups of either farmers or artisans, including wage-earners. The activity base of the primary societies was determined by ten conditions imposed on the members:1 i) To get the society registered and join the Federation. ii) To hold weekly meetings at the village with compulsory attendance of all members. iii) To make a regular weekly thrift deposit in their bank accounts and buy Shares. iv) To keep proper and complete accounts. v) To select a trusted man from the group for weekly training at the Academy. vi) To select an energetic farmer from among themselves for training at the Academy as a model farmer. vii) To prepare joint plans for production and Lme of machines from the central association. viii) To use supervised production credit. ix) To adopt improved practices. x) To hold regular member education discussions. These cooperatives were mostly producers' cooperatives and were used as a vehicle to modernize agriculture and cottage crafts by imparting improved skills, providing credit, encouraging capital formation through savings, and organizing other facilities on a l Akhter Hameed Khan and A. Aziz Khan, Comilla Coo erative, Part II (Comilla, East Pakistan: PARD, 19595.1L 6. (Mimeographed.) cooperative basis. Introduction of high investment programs like power irrigation, third crops, new high- yielding rice varieties, and new varieties of vegetables has been possible only because of these organized groups of interested people. The development of the KTCCA was made possible by government funds (mostly as loans) and a grant from the Ford Foundation under a scheme entitled "Introduction of Mechanized Farming on Cooperative Basis in Comilla," which is providing the following services and supplies to the primary society:1 1. Banking and supervised credit. 2. Agricultural extension and training (with the assistance provided by the thana level government officers and the Academy).2 3. Machine shop services and skill training. 4. Water development, irrigation and electrifi- cation in conjunction with EPWAPDA3 and Thana Council. 5. Processing and marketing to integrate with DPOduction and credit. 6. Home development through a Women's program. \ lIbid., p. 7. 2With the exception of research, the Central AsSociation is now almost wholly independent of the cademy. 3East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority. 7. Adult literacy and children's education through imaml teachers' program and youth clubs. Later, the two groups, agricultural and non- agricultural, were federated separately under the two constituent parts of the KTCCA, named respectively as Agricultural Cooperative Federation (ACE) and Special Cooperative Societies Federation (SCSF). As the program evolved, the KTCCA established cold storage units, a creamery, poultry unit, and a rice mill to help solve some of the urgent storage and marketing problems and further to increase income. These units have recently been organized as a third major federation of the KTCCA under the title of "Comilla Industrial Cooperative FEderation" (CICF) (yet to be officially registered). This Cooperative program, evolved through a pilot Project of the PARD, has now become a model for the Government plan introduced in ten other thanas. Another major pilot project undertaken by PARD was designed to improve the effectiveness of local 3°Vermment on the thana level and the Basic Democracies System, This pilot local government program was designed to complement the socio-economic program of the KTCCA. A major aspect of this program centered on _._____ 1Imam is the religious leader who conducts prayer in the mosque. The particular program involves the imam inteaching children religion and secular subjects in the first and second grade standards. 10 the utilization of available PL—480 funds to finance a public works program which was designed initially to help solve three major problems of rural development: 1. To relieve widespread rural unemployment. 2. To clear channels for the purpose of reducing floods and improving water utilization. 3. To build rural roads to facilitate communication and marketing. The plans for the rural public works program were drawn up by committees of the union councils1 and consolidated by the thana council for administration of the program. PARD takes on the training and research arm of the Impartment of Basic Democracies and Local Government which took over administration of the public works program, after the initial demonstration, on a province- wide basis. The successful patterns of training of key personnel involved in the work of the KTCCA (Manager, mOdel farmers, etc.), and personnel involved in the thanadevelopment program of the Department of Basic DemOcracies and Local Government--especially in the publioworks program (government officers, members of uniOnand thana council committees, etc.)--formed the \ D lTheunion council is the lowest tier of the Basic emocracies system. There are twelve union councils under the jurisdiction of the Comilla Kotwali Thana Council. 11 basis for formalizing the organization of the Thana Training and Development Center (TTDC). The TTDC pattern was adopted by the government of East Pakistan shortly thereafter as the basic organizational pattern for rural development throughout the province. After the thana administration plan had functioned for a couple of years in Comilla and a few other thanas, it was found that some kind of reorganization was necessary in the district level of administration. SO, the PARD, which for a long time had confined itself only to the level of its laboratory jurisdiction, i.e., the nucro-level (as has been defined later), began thinking how to devise a reorganized integrated district rural development plan which would be compatible with the system evolved from the bottom and overall policies of the government. As a result, a plan was made which was later accepted by the government. The Comilla district, one of the seventeen districts in the province, was put under the new experimental plan to be covered in phases in a period of 5 years. The PARD assumed an advisory role with district administration and remained PegDonsible for training all officials at various levels. The evolution and implementation of those programs may sound very simple and easy as they have been described here. But one can easily imagine the complexities in such efforts, where the system is almost frozen by century-old l2 traditions guarded by an army of highly bureaucratic officials. These are some of the major projects by which the PARD has been able to influence administrative policy from a system evolved from below. But there have been many other projects undertaken by the PARD in the Comilla area which have not yet been accepted and integrated in the larger politico-administrative system. Some are still under observation and others have been accepted either partially or in a modified manner. Without going into detail, the names of some other projects of the PARD may be mentioned—-Family Planning Fmogram, Women's Program, School Works Program, Youth Ikbgram, Imam Teachers' Program, Adult Education Program, Thana Irrigation Program, etc. By working through all these projects in collaboration with the people and the government departments, the PARD has developed a role of inter- mediary between the people and the government. The PARD, through the publication of its research findings on the basic problems of rural development, and the evaluation reports of its on801ng projects, has gained a Specialization in rural development which 18 being recognized and appreciated by the government. There was no other institution previously to which government could look for guidance in planning rural development. The PARD is increasingly playing its role in many Of 13 the regional and national coordination meetings and policy level committees. Recent seminars, workshops and conferences held in the PARD on various aspects of rural development show more serious interest on the part of the technical experts working on various levels in the government hierarchy. The blueprint of the Comilla project as it has been indicated above was not drawn at once nor has it yet been completed. In fact, as an institution devoted to experimentation, theoretically it should never be "completed." It develops gradually, bit by bit, as the interacting forces play their roles in the social and human laboratory of the Comilla thana within a given socio-political and administrative environment. So, it has been possible for the program to maintain its unique indigenous Character, which was the essential factor in making it highly pragmatic, workable, efficient, and meaningful. The details of its functioning will be discussed in analyzing its underlying principles and drawing linRages into various activities and functions later in appropriate places. Scope of the Present Study The PARD is a provincial institution with the primary responsibility of training government officials 1nmatters of rural administration. It was not within 14 the jurisdiction of the PARD to decide the general policies of training of government officials as such. It was not even in the picture to guide national planning for development on the macro-level. However, it was given as much freedom as was necessary to evolve a program of rural development through experimentation in a "small thana laboratory." The main purpose was to develop models of administration which could enrich the training courses of the officers. It was also felt that the PARD could take up pilot projects in the small laboratory area and develop proper institutional structures compatible with the already existing infrastructure and study the socio-economic and administrative feasibility of these projects for expansion in other areas. It has already been discussed that some of these pilot projects have been adopted for multiplication. This developed a vital role for the PARD as the "hatching ground" of ideas with detailed documentation and searching questions which prove 1mfaluable to the planners. This process developed the role of the PARD as an} intermediary between the government and the people, and this role has put the PARD into a unique position enabling it to link the macro-level planning with the micro—level planning. But, of course, its direction is mostly from "micro" to "macro." 15 The scope of the present study exactly coincides with the scope of the PARD in its role in development planning. So the concentration will be more on the micro—level which extends up to the limit of a thana to study the development processes and strategies within it. Then a further attempt will be made to explore how these processes in the micro-setting influence the macro—setting, and what the process of linkage is between them. The PARD'S role fortunately coincides with the generally weakest point in the whole development process as has been indicated in the next chapter. It is believed that this particular study which may be identified as a type in a typology, will Shed light on the formulation of middle-range hypotheses and theories. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Review of Current Literature and Research The literature dealing with problems of development in the developing countries of the world has become quite substantial during the last decade. The subject is now being enriched from various research projects undertaken in numerous countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia with varying cultural backgrounds and with varying emphasis on contents and processes. These studies are published under such subject headings as Social Change, Planned Change, Economic Growth, Economic Development, National Planning, Development, Institution Building, or in some combination of these and others. Social Scientists from disciplines such as economics, sociology, anthropology, social psychology, political science, history, education, public administration, etc., are aetively interested in pushing the frontier of knowledge further in this field. But because of the prevailing ethnocentrism within the various disciplines, a gap Still remains in these studies, which prevents inteEration of findings and experiences. The primary l6 l7 responsibility for developing this field remained mostly with the economists and anthropologists even in the recent past. However short this period may be, the trend of research and publications in development planning and social change indicates a clear change of emphasis. Without any doubt, this change represents the maturity of thinking in understanding and dealing with various factors of development. The emphasis moved from pure short-run economic models to interdisciplinary models which includes long-term socio-psychological factors bearing on the personality structure of the individuals of the nation; and then to models of planning strategy which is interdisciplinary and assumes that the processes involved in development efforts may be hastened. Though all of these models help to under— stand the various aspects of the development process, and in that they are very valuable, still the stage is for beyond reach where a comprehensive model could be formulated which can be generally applied to all Situations. The development process is essentially an outcome 0f a complexity of factors. One factor may be highly effective within this complexity, and completely ineffective if it were isolated. Therefore the complexity has to be considered precisely as a whole. 'Mus work is done mainly by the few who are brave 18 enough to present a comprehensive model of the development process. The essence of a development model consists in bringing all really important and determining factors together in a consistent and logical framework, so that their mutual relations and their aggregate impact on development become manifest.1 But formulating a comprehensive development model is further complicated by the fact that the concept "development" may mean different things to different nations. To some it has a "biological" connotation of growth, blossoming of the potentially latent forces, and to others it is "evolutionistic"--favoring inducement by external forces. Then again whether it is "biological" or "evolutionistic", to frame practical strategies of development planning in a particular country, one must also take into consideration the particular political, economic and social orientation of that country. Now, some of the models already available will be briefly discussed. It should be clearly stated here that the purpose of bringing the models for discussion iS not for any evaluative purposes nor for building any ‘ 1J. A. Ponsioen, National Development--A Sociological Contribution (The Hague: Mouton, 1968), p. 109. Publications of the Institute of Social Studies VOI. XVIII. ' The author acknowledges his heavy indebtedness to J-A» Ponsioen, whose references have been extensively Lmed in this chapter. 19 new model which either integrates or contrasts them. The purpose of this discussion is three fold: i) To appreciate the rich diversity of thinking in the field. ii) To understand the need for more penetrating empirical work both in the macro and micro levels analyzing the processes flowing within and between the two levels. iii) To provide a theoretical frame for the present study. Economic Models The most vital and fully articulated bodies of modern economic thought have been developed within Marshallian short—period assumptions; that is, the social and political framework Of the economy, the State of the art, and the levels of fixed capacity are assumed to be given and, usually, fixed. Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations may be regarded as the beginning of a dynamic analysis of the forces determining Change in long-period factors. A strong element of this approach to economic analysis remained Within the tradition down to John Stuart M111. Mill "88 aware that societies existed where potentially productive forms of investment were not exploited for laflccn'will or for lack of an appropriate institutional mwdronment. Even Marshall in his Principles gave an 20 extended discussion of long-period factors and of the role of social forces in determining the level of and changes in the productivity of the labor supply and of capital investment. The long-period analysis troubled him because historical developments were not fully reversible. Equilibrium could not be exhibited, as he noted, in terms of a static analysis. Marshall's awareness of the difficulties of dealing with long- term phenomena by means of the techniques that could be neatly applied in short-period analysis, has no doubt contributed to the tradition among economists of dealing with long-period forces on an ad hoc and descriptive basis; or in certain formal structures, of treating them as exogenous to their system. Economic theory, though powerful over a limited range, is not adequate to cope with the world of "organized complexity," of growth analysis. So, we shall concentrate more on understanding the interdisciplinary models . Interdisciplinary Models E; W. Rostow Rostow has developed a broad theory of economic growth using the historical method of analysis by Stages. According to him: Economic growth is the result of an interacting process involving the economic, social, and 21 political sectors of a society, including the emergency of a corps of entrepreneurs who are psychologically motivated and technically prepared regularly to lead the way in introducing new production functions into the economy. He distinguished the traditional or pre-Newtonian stage of a static economy; the pre-take-off period during which institutional changes in society take place, but not much growth is yet realized; the short take-off period during which a rapid increase in national income is performed; the period of the drive into technological maturity, during which economic growth continues to increase steadily and regularly; and finally the period of high mass consumption in which economic growth is less high, but still steady. For the purpose of this study, his pre-take-off period, the rearrangement of the society conducive to economic growth, is of greater interest. To Rostow, this rearrangement consists mainly in the introduction and acceptance of new institutions, an educational system, expanding markets depending on increasing agricultural production, new forms of commerce, transportation and Communication, all facilitated by new monetary institutions, such as banking, new forms of production Such as extractive mining and some new occasional k 1W. W. Rostow, ed., The Economics of Take-off into Sustained Growth, Proceedings Of a conference lmld by the InternatIonal Economic Association (New York: St. Martin's Press Inc., 1963), p. xxiv. 22 industries. Most important of all is the introduction of an effective government.and administration. The main and direct effect of these new institutions are changes in basic psychological attitudes, which by themselves produce the aptitude to bring about sustained growth. These basic attitudes or propensities, to Rostow, are those concerned with fundamental science development, the application of science to economic ends, the acceptance of innovations and attitudes toward consumption and having children. Rostow states that: the take-off must be defined in two steps: first, it is the period in the life of an economy when for the first time, one or more modern industrial sectors take hold, with high rates of growth, bringing in not merely new production functions but backward and lateral spreading effects on a substantial scale; second, for a take-off to be said to have occurred, the economy must demonstrate the capacity to exploit the forward linkages as well, so that new leading sectors emerge as the older ones decelerate. It is this demonstration of the capacity to shift from one set of leading sectors to another which distinguished abortive industrial surges of the transition period from a true take-off. In the take-off period, the innovational process has ceased to be sporadic and is a more or less regular institutionalized part of the society's life on a scale capable of defeating Ricardian diminishing returns and the Malthusian propensities of the people.2 1Ibid., p. xviii. 2Ibid., p. xxiii. 23 A number of criticisms of Rostow's model have been made. Hagen, supporting the views of Kuznets, criticizes the limited content or tautological nature of most of his distinctions between the stages. His second criticism centers around the validity of one quantifiable criterion to judge the take-off. The supposed upward surge in the rate of investment (and presumably also the rate of growth) during a crucial period of take-off, according to him, turns out to exist only in a few countries and not elsewhere.1 It has become clear, from data accumulated from other countries, that in economic development there is usually no such phenomenon as take-off. Hence the schema of stages must be rejected, though his model presents rich and perceptive suggestions of the changes that must occur, if a country that was traditional is to become technically progressive.2 Rostow's model fails to incorporate trends which counteract economic growth and is based on a purely economic viewpoint in identifying social institutions and psychological attitudes.3 However, the merit of ‘ 1E. E. Hagen, The Economics of Development (Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968), pp. 148—h9. 2Ibid., p. 143. 3Ponsioen, op. cit., pp. 111-12. 24 the model is that it is interdisciplinary. It frames a constellation of dynamic economic factors consistent with sociological institutions and with psychological attitudes as well as Showing consistency between the latter two.1 W. Arthur Lewis Lewis describes a comprehensive set of factors simultaneously and interdependently influencing development in developing countires. These influencing factors are: the will to economize, a value system; the existing economic institutions, such as the division of labor, the patterns of organizing labor, the markets and the system of marketing; the existing social institutions, such as the reward system, the forms of property, social mobility, the religious organization, the family patterns and agriculture as a way of life; the existing cultural system of knowledge, i.e., the growth and spread of knowledge and the institutions of learning; the economic habits of saving, capital transfer and investments, population as economic r'esources; finally, the political framework, such as international relations, the government and management.2 ‘_ 1Ponsioen, op. cit., p. 112. 2W. Arthur Lewis, The Theory of Economic Growth, 8th edition (London: George Allen 8: Urwin, Ltd., 1938). 25 Lewis studies each of these factors in the light Of how they have to change from a past pattern to one that is favorable to development. He emphasizes, however, that they are all interdependent in such a way that advance in one sector, or on every front will bring advance in the others as well. This model may be presented in the following way:1 Attitude: The will to economize Systems : EconomiceasocialeaKnowledgeeSFamilye’Political .. \\. i // Growth Economic Relations The combined and interdependent systems could be Called the institutional part of a given culture, or a given situation of a culture, or of a society. The f‘ir'st factor, then, which makes the whole institutional part of the culture move in the direction of economic growth, is that particular change in the value system which makes the value of economic wealth more central, Or more predominant over other values: the will to ‘eoonomize. If this value is penetrating each of the institutions more effectively, and if these stimulate \ 1Ponsioen, op. cit., p. 115. 26 each other in that direction, the effect will be that they are better oriented to productive economic rela- tions, to work, and to effective labor organization, to Saving, capital transfer and investment. The key to this model is that in between the will to economize--or the rise of expectations for material welfare--and more effective economic relations are placed the interdependent socio—cultural institutions. Lewis recognizes that some systems or sectors may be promoted or hampered by other systems in their contribution to better economic relationships for economic growth. But the model does not show where such counteractions are likely to occur. However, the model can become an excellent instrument for the strategy of development, as well as for planning which envisages complementarities (rather than priorities) So as to reinforce the favorable factors and to keep up With the weaker factors, sectors, or institutions. wtt E. Hagen Hagen, an economist, presents an inter—disciplinary model of social change conducive to economic development in h l is book On the Theopy of Social Change. He took the basic premises in developing the model by asking the iI“_‘_ ( 1Everett E. Hagen, On the Theory of Social Change HOmewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1962) 27 quemtlon, "Why are some countries underdeveloped in the midst of abundant resources of technical knowledge?" His answer is: because the human condition, the required personality structure, is not yet realized. Then he concentrates on the origin of entrepreneurs, because they actually make development. "They are to him not one of the factors, but the proper cause of economic growth. The origin of entrepreneurs, however, is an unintended consequence of a long social process."1 This model uses elements of sociology, social psychology and psychology and does not contain any economic factor, because once the entrepreneurs are explained, the development process is explained.2 The model of Hagen is an evolutionistic one. It shows how, in the sequence of time, societies produce in successive stages the opportunities for the type of cnild rearing which by itself is conducive to entrepre- neurial attitudes. Entrepreneurship is to Hagen, a matter of personality structure. Ponsioen in his book, National Development, criticizes this theory. Misleading in Hagen's theory is his pretension to present an overall model of social change Which produces economic growth whereas he \ 1Ponsioen, op. cit., p. 117. 2Ibid. 28 actually deals only with one of the agents of growth, the economic and technological entre- preneurs (thus excluding the trader). His model could at best be considered as complementary to the others. If, according to Rostow, the pro- pensities of the population have to change by virtue of new institutions, or if, according to Lewis, all systems of life have to undergo changes simultaneously, institution builders and institution leaders are as badly needed in developing countries as technological entre- preneurs . . . . If finally, one agrees that the economies of the developing countries are actually all state-supervised economies, one has also to agree that the proper entrepreneurial capacities are as much needed with the administrators as with private individuals, as much on the macro level of the economy as on the micro level of business. However, in his recent book, The Economics of Development, Hagen has elaborated the role of the government in development planning and execution. The governmental action will ideally include maintaining favorable institutions, providing appropriate education, opening channels of information, countering the biases of the market, and complementing it by government operation of enterprises. All of these types of action will have important purposes other than the promotion of economic development. With respect to economic development, the first three will be aimed mainly though not solely at maximizing the rate of innovation, and the last two at achieving the optimum magnitude and allocation of resource use. The term 'development planning' is usually used to include not only the planning but also the execution of the relevant measures. \ 1Ibid., p. 119. 2Hagen, op. cit., p. 480. 29 However, he maintains, at the end of the same chapter, Effective governmental planning is not a sufficient condition for economic development. Economic development also requires human qualities that we do not know how to affect. We do not know how to establish in Argentina the degree of social trust that exists in Mexico; how to inculcate among the peoples of Burma the degree of desire for social order that exists in India; how to inculcate throughout all segments of the Indian population the degree of inventiveness that exists among all classes of Japan (though Prof. McClelland thinks that he can increase it in some degree by a short adult training course); how to create in Syria the drive to progress that pervades Israel. But we believe that our understanding of the economic factors at work is clearer than it was even ten years ago. J. A. Ponsioen Ponsioen developes a model which he presents in his book, National Development, by making use of the various models. The main problems in building models are in making them comprehensive as well as operational for the great variety of development processes including factors counteracting development. However, a realistic mOdel should be one which makes room for differentiation. The general model should indicate where precisely the possible differentiations lie, and which types of differences exist there. He describes his model as follows: 1D. C. McClelland and David G. Winter, Motivating Emonomic Achievement (New York: The Free Press, 1969). 30 The goals.-—Development should be taken essentially as a policy concept, which in reality is different in different societies according to the orientation held by the particular society, namely political, social, or economic. For theoretical purposes it would be interesting if a law could be set up labelling a particular orientation with particular types of societies or a particular sequence of development orientations with societies of a particular history of transition from time to time. In the absence of such a law to guide us, whether political dominance in development orientation precedes the economic dominance or vice versa, the model should remain open to these three different orientations. The factors.-—He suggests that the factors may be reduced to coherent clusters, and the interrelation Within and between those clusters should be studied. Five such clusters of factors are considered by him to be paramount: the agents of development; the situation favorable to these agents; the institutions, accul— turating and conflicting; the attitudes formed by these institutions; and the social macro-structures in which these attitudes can operate. The model is presented diagramatically on the following page. 31 .pcoEQOHo>oa ho nmooonm Hamno>o map so nopmSHo some ho pomasH on» mo hoopm on» no“ Hooozll.a onsmfim mono 3o: on».wzapmmom mcoapzpfipmcfi Odo mono Odo spas weapoaancoo moosuapp< mGOflpSqumsH 3oz unbecona>co HMHAOpmz / manpossumlonomz mucowm on manmho>mu mCOHpfiocoo fiscawoaonomeIOHoom HmchopsH HMQHOpxm monow< 32 The agents of develqpment.-—The agents of development fall into two categories: external and internal. Inter- national development agencies and foreign assistance agencies, whether public or private, are the external ones. The internal agents are many--entrepreneurs (Hagen), progressive farmers and the middle class (Heinz, in his sociological model of "complex modern society"), government and economic planners, etc. The situations favorable to agents.——By Situations he means those factors which stimulate the agents to act. They may be both the socio-psychological conditions faced by the agents and the existing material environment. One should not deduce from these considerations that the environmental factors are to be ready before the actors can operate. The agents are as much producing their proper situation as they are dependent upon it. The institutionsL acculturating and conflicting.——The institutions are the core of the model. Actually they form two or three Clusters: the old or traditional institutions, the new institutions being themselves part of development, and the interactions between the old and the new institutions. Institutions are the breeding ground of attitudes. In a situation of development, old instiutions persist and new institutions are introduced, their mutual r'elations being at the same time conflicting and acculturating. It can be stated as a general rule that 33 there are at the same time relations of conflict and acculturation between the new "organizational" insti- tutions and the past "cultural" institutions. The positive function of the overt conflict makes it clear in practice that choices have to be made and decisions about the adaptation of new cultural patterns have to be taken by all groups. This clearing-up of the situation may very well speed up the development process. The attitudes.--The social institutions provide first of all regularity in inter-individual behavior. They also gear the minds of people to future behavior. They implant attitudes. On the other hand, the functioning of the new institutions requires the "right" attitudes. Attitudes are a variable on their own in a development model. As such Ponsioen believes With Hagen and McClelland that for development, however defined by the agents and in whatever social system, a Creative attitude, an achievement attitude among the pOpulation, a will to shape their own lives, to take their destiny into their own hands, is essential. It may be called an entrepreneurial attitude, provided this expression is not restricted to the economic Sector and does not suggest conspicuous performances. I“either should entrepreneurship be restricted to a free enterprise type of society. 34 The macro-structures.--Another decisive factor which prevents or allows the circle to be expanded by deliberate policies is the macro-structure. One cannot diminish the importance of the macro-structure on the hypothesis that good people formed by good institutions will operate well in whatever structural setting they happen to be. So the model starts with the agents and moves on a time scale through interactions with the various factors in a chain process. Lasswell and Holmberg There are numerous other models and it is neither possible nor the purpose to discuss them all. However, an attempt by Harold D. Lasswell and Allan R. Holmberg in providing a paradigm designed to be sufficiently general in scope to accomodate any and all human activity for social change and economic development in their paper, "Toward a General Theory of Directed Value Accumulation and Institutional Development,"1 may be mentioned. It is quite stimulating and novel in its approach. The criteria may be summarized as principles of guidance in performing the intellectual 1Harold D. Lasswell and Allan R. Holmberg, Foundation for Research on Human Behavior, Comparative Theories of Social Change, ed. by Hollis W. Peter, 35 tasks of problem solving in reference to directed social change. The intellectual tasks are clarifi— cation of goal, the discovery of salient trends, the progressive analysis of conditioning forces, the projection of futures, and the invention, evaluation and commitment to value-maximizing policies. Social change is a process in which participants seek to maximize net value outcomes (values) by employing practices (institutions) affecting resources. They use value not as a yardstick, but in a special, restricted sense to mean any one of at least eight general categories of social commodities sought after by individuals in any society. The model is a complex multivariate one. Planned Strategy Most of the models discussed above depend on long—term intended or unintended consequences of vari- ous social processes. With the worldwide wave of rising expectations, the newly born developing coun— tries are becoming impatient to break their chains of poverty outright. This desire is both politically and morally justified though not sufficiently backed by scientific methods. The idea of planned strategy for development started from the Russian example. But it has gained new significance in the last two decades. 36 Most of the developing nations are ready to adopt some kind of planned strategy to hasten the development process in order to attain at least the minimum standard of living for all its population and if possible, to bridge the ever-widening gap of per capita national income between them and the advanced countries. Practical strategies and plans have been proposed based on the underlying assumption that societies may be developed at a much faster rate than is generally conceived. The planned strategy asserts that the appropriate attitudes and, more importantly, the appropriate behavior will be forthcoming, once opportunities and incentives are provided. Value changes may follow, not precede behavioral changes, and may therefore not be a pre- requisite for modern economic or political behavior. This notion is now being backed by the proponents of the cognitive dissonance theory,1 which hypothesizes that when there is an inconsistency between the behavior Of men and their values, it is often the values that change. So strategies may be developed to facilitate development, not by a frontal attack upon values, but by a frontal attack upon institutions and structures that reduce incentives and opportunities and by ¥ 1L. Festinger, A Theopy of Cpgnitive Dissonance (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957). 37 supporting those institutions and structures which increase them. Dilemmas of Development Policy In spite of the fact that development processes can be hastened, the level of per capita incomes in the underdeveloped countries can be raised only when some of the painful choices which are involved have been squarely faced: (1) There is the problem of choice between a higher level of consumption now and a higher rate of growth in income in the future. Other things being equal, the higher the target rate set for future growth, the greater the sacrifices in the form of a lower rate of increase in consumption at present and/or the longer the period of waiting before the fruits of economic development are available. (2) There is the problem of choice between economic equality and economic growth. There may be a genuine conflict between economic equality and economic growth, with the exception of the situation where the rich are not using their income in productive purposes. The cause of economic growth may demand the removal of surplus people from land and the consolidation of holdings for the sake of more efficient farming, as well as provision of higher rewards to people with higher ability. (3) There is the problem of Choice 38 for the mass of people in the underdeveloped countries between having higher material incomes and a faster rate of growth and preserving their traditional social, cultural and religious values and ways of life.1 Besides these dilemmas, there are many more' controversial issues at present, which may only be solved by "operational research" in varying conceptual situations. Some of them are: (1) Growth in a leading sector, or balanced approach for a "big push" or complementarities to reinforce favorable factors; (2) a large social overhead capital or infrastructure for greater efficiency and promotion of various industrial sectors or a gradually increasing infra- structure even if less efficient; (3) shift of interest from investment in material "infrastructure" to "investment in human capital"--how much and in what stage? (4) Use of market forces to stimulate rapid economic development or state control of market mechanism with a long-run view. Problems of Macro-Micro EfPective Ifiterlooking So far, we have been discussing the national macro-level models for planned change, with the one lHla Myint, The Economics of the Developing quntries (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1965). 39 exception of the Ponsioenian model which includes both macro and micro levels simultaneously. These macro- level plans provide strategies with basic outlines of guides for activities in the micro—level--the regions and the local communities. The success of these macro-plans largely depends on the efficiency and strength of their inner mechanism to shape the economic activity from the micro-level up, in a predictable pattern. For optimum speed and growth this process Of shaping should be both ways--up and down. The plans will hang in emptiness unless they have a firm grip on the soil. There have been many published works by specialists based on practical programs carried out in the micro level, i.e., community level, where the techniques and methods of getting the people involved have been analyzed and strategies prescribed. Many such prescriptions may be found in the publications of the United Nations, other international development agencies, the social scientists working in the field, and the community development and extension journals all over the world. Mention of only a few will be sufficient to make our point. The phases of planned change at a small community level, elaborated by Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and 40 Bruce Westley from the original conception of Kurt Lewin, are as follows:1 1. Development of a need for change. 2. Establishment of a Change relationship. 3. Clarification of diagnosis of the client system's problem. 4. Examination of alternative routes and goals; establishing goals and intentions of action. 5. Transformation of intentions into actual change efforts. 6. Generalization and stabilization of Change. 7. Achieving a terminal relationship. As to the strategies suggested in the micro-level of a community, we may briefly quote the composite list by Joseph Di Franco on rural adult education.2 Rural Adult Education (with emphasis on the extension process) should: 1. be based on conditions that exist (local, regional, and national); 2. involve people in actions that promote their welfare; lRonald Lippitt, et al., The Dynamics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1958), pp. 129-43. 2Joseph Di Franco, A Collection of Principles and Guides, Comparative Expansion Publication, ed. by John M. Fenley, No. 4 (Ithaca: New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 1959), p. 9. .2: o \O G) \1 Ch U1 0 O O O 10. ll. 12. people; 13. 14. 15. l6. 17. 41 develop programs gradually; aim basically at people's interests and needs; use democratic methods; keep programs flexible; work through understanding of the culture; use local leaders; use existing agencies; utilize trained specialists; work with all members of the family; make programs as broad as needs of rural evaluate continuously; work with all classes of the society; keep in line with national policy; use the community approach; help people recognize their needs. These are some specific examples which aim to study the inner mechanism of the process and also provide some guideline strategies for the practitioners to follow. Here again one can see that there is a tendency to over- generalize through over-simplification Of the situations. The only way to avoid the danger of superficial gener- alization and get closer to the real issue is to build up a typology which acknowledges certain significant differences of the nations, their social systems, their particular orientation to development and other such relevant factors. 42 Social processes aimed at inducing people to change in the community level have probably met success more often than have occurred on the national level. But the continuity of the successful process in the micro-levels is also largely dependent on the structure and function of the macro-level and its plans. The basic weakness in this regard probably arises between the micro- and macro-levels--the process by which the "micro" projects itself in the "macro" and how the "macro" supports the "micro"; how the national goals and objectives are transmitted to the people and how the people's beliefs, needs, and local efforts are integrated not only in the plan but also in the politico-administrative set—up for stabilization into institutional forms for free-rolling of development process. The linking process of the micro- and macro-levels can be studied only if we take the whole as a system. Isolated studies of either "micro" or "macro" with prescriptions of techniques cannot adequately help us. For techniques without under- standing the processes in question are like dead-end roads. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Definition of Terms The terms and concepts used in developing the theme of the study may be defined to make the purpose clear. Development is conceived here as a concept of progress characterized by the society's own image of its planned future. SO, development is culture-bound and carries an 'evolutionistic' meaning rather than 'biological.' Development is not only the blossoming of the latent potential but it is also an inducement of new potentials by external pressure or influence. Development for one country may be politically oriented, for another socailly or economically. It may be a combination of any of these emphases--political, social, or economic, or it may be shifting from one to the other. Planned social change is any overall change in a social system which has been purposefully brought about, implying specificity and direction having social, political, and economic implications. It is also implied that in a planned change help is sought from cnmSide. A change egent is the professional outside agent who renders help in a program of planned change. 43 44 The client system is that specific system--person, group or community--that is being helped by the change agent. Education is conceived here as a power derived from the process of self-involvement which is capable of changing human behavior. Education thus defined involves both knowledge and the application of knowledge to the solution of human problems. Besides this general term, three other terms have been used: (1) formal education, (2) functional literacy, and (3) extension education. Formal education indicates that education which is generally received by attending regular schools (elementary and secondary). Functional literacy is defined as the amount of education which is required for reading simple passages with comprehension and writing simple ideas and messages. School attendance is not necessarily required to attain functional literacy. Extension education refers to that education which is generally imparted by the PARD and the KTCCA to the people involved in various programs. This education includes informal member education for COOperatives, knowledge of agricultural sciences and other relevant subject matter according to the interest of the groups for immediate practical purposes, and training of skills in various fields for their day-to-day activities. The extension education does not necessarily require a certain amount of formal education or functional 45 literacy as prerequisites, though their presence may greatly help. It is supposed to serve the lay people in a way to make scientific information easy enough for their comprehension and use. Training is conceived as a process of education directed to change behavior but with an emphasis on uniform terminal behavior. This implies learning of certain skills, control over specific situa- tions, predictability of terminal behavior, and is gen- erally unidimensional with occasional transfer in simi- lar situations. Process is meant to indicate the action of passing through continuing development from a beginning to a contemplated end. This implies growth, continuous change, and direction. Educational process is that process which deliberately seeks to change human be- havior by means of prescribed educational plans, strate— gies, and programs. It follows from this definition that a 'planned social change' is brought about by deliberate educational processes. DevelOpmental progression is defined as a con- tinuous movement towards the intended goals of develop- ment from a comparatively simple phase to a complicated phase of social and intellectual interactions. Balanced program means a program of group activities involving a set of complementarities which are mutually reinforcing and which maximize the total contribution of the set toward development goals. Instead of priorities, it 46 deals with complementarities, meaning the priority of a set. It is a multi-dimensional concept instead of uni- dimensional. Structurel refers to those regularities of human behavior within a specified social system which are so fully institutionalized that they persist within a limited range of tolerance, in spite of the changes in membership of the system. Structure thus defined implies independent elements or parts having a definite and fixed pattern of organization. Institutions are patterned ways of behavior in a social system, performing functions and services which are valued by it. The function of institutions is to stabilize behavior, to offer patterns to individuals, to provide a meeting place for expectations and to protect normative relationships, so as to provide security in society. We will distinguish institutions as organizational and cultural, though some institutions do not easily lend themselves to such labeling. The organizational institutions will refer to the patterned ways of interrelations between individuals as in a family, a church, a school, a factory, a tribe, a village, a feudal hierarchy, etc. The cultural institu- tions will refer to patterned ways of common thinking, feeling, believing, judging, celebrating, as in religion, lSloan R. Wayland, "Structural Features of American Education as Basic Factors in Innovation," in Innovation in Education, ed. by Matthew B. Miles (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964), p. 589. 47 science, law, moral codes, languages, available technology, beliefs in authority, etc.l Strategy is defined as a means (usually involving a sequence of specified activities) for causing an advocated plan to be successfully (i.e. durably) installed in an on— going system. Issues have also been raised about the interactive linkages between micro and macro systems. In discussing planned change, the individual and the small groups of which he is inevitably a part comprise the micro— systems, whereas larger groups, big organizations, regions and the nation approach the macro-system. The jurisdiction Of the micro-system has been defined operationally for the purpose of the study to extend up to the thana level and beyond that will comprise the macro-system. System is conceived as a bounded collection of interdependent parts, devoted to the accomplishment of some goal or goals with the parts maintained in a steady state in relation to each other and the environment by means of (1) standard modes of operation, and (ii) feedback from the environ-2 ment about the consequences of system actions. DesignsJ Methods and Instruments For the purpose of studying the social processes €Welved in the Comilla program in its micro-setting _‘ 1Ponsioen, Op. cit., p. 133. 2Matthew 3. Miles, "Educational Innovation: The Iiature of the Problem," in Innovation in Education, ed. kw Matthew B. Miles (New York: Bureau of Publications, Thachers College, Columbia University, 1964), p- 13. 48 it was decided to study the village cooperatives rather thoroughly and other organizations such as the KTCCA, Thana council, and PARD as extensively as possible. It was also planned to see the whole system for its social processes in more than one cross-section. The study of village groups, and other organizations and institutions within the thana level would give one of the cross-sections of the system, where the organiza- tion would be taken as a unit. Another cross—section would be the study of the PARD projects (e.g., improved agricultural practices, thana development plan, family planning program, the education program, women's program, etc.) which runs across the organization, where the projects would be the units. So it was decided to select some of these projects in order to study the social and institution-building processes within the system. In accordance with the plan it was decided to select 35 village cooperatives from a total of 406 (including disbanded ones) for investigation; four of these 35 COOperatives were selected for case study purposes and inventories of their detailed activities in chronological order were prepared. The PARD, KTCCA and Thana Council were also selected for case study purposes and inventories in chronological order of the significant events of these organizations from their beginning were prepared. Then the following six 49 projects1 were selected: (i) Agriculture extension, (ii) Mechanization of agriculture, (iii) Storage, processing and marketing, (iv) Education, (v) Family planning, and (vi) Home development and Women's education and detailed inventories were prepared of their significant events in a chronological order. Case studies were conducted on three of them, namely, (1) Agriculture extension, (ii) Home development and Women's education (Women's program), and (iii) Education. Details of the Methods Used Inventory of events.--The inventory of a project or an organization lists in chronological order signifi- cant events, actions, and decisions having relevance to the educational processes of the project or organiza- tion in the broadest possible sense of the term. The first draft of the inventories was prepared from the content analysis of the published monthly and annual reports, research monographs and special documents. Interviews were conducted with the officer-in-charge of particular programs if some clarification was needed. The first draft was then subjected to scrutiny by a few 1The names of the projects are given according to the widely used expressions found in the PARD publica- tions. The education project does not include an identical concept according to the definition of the word 'education'given in the first section of this chapter. 50 experienced persons involved with the program. The next steps were: (i) to incorporate their suggestions if documentary support was available and (ii) to reduce the size of the inventory by eliminating those events which had minimum or no effect upon the educational processes involved. Though the reduction of the inventory list by elimination may have had some elements of subjectivity in spite of checking by a group, it was acceptable for the purpose of the study. Case studies.--The preparation of inventory greatly facilitated the organization of materials in a chronological order. But in addition to these, back- ground information on the socio-psychological settings of the projects and reactions of people directly or indirectly involved in the programs were collected through field interviews and observations. The focus was on studying the particular project (or organization) with its evolving pattern to see how it fitted in with the existing social and administrative structure and what adjustments and adaptations led it to success, if it succeeded, or what unwitting omissions, what careless oversights brought on failure, if it failed. The measure of success was the extent to which the program became integrated in a total system of development process. The guideline used for the case studies is given in the appendix. 51 Statistical investigption.--In view of the limited time, it was decided to make a statistical investigation covering a larger field for a wider per- spective, and broad generalizations and trends. The statistical investigation in itself is sometimes- inadequate to explain the various social and psycho- logical factors and their intricate and subtle influ- ences on educational and economic decisions. But it can definitely add perspective, and discover various symptoms in measurable terms which are also no less important for research purposes. It was expected that the statistical investigation would help in this discovery of symptoms, while the case studies would furnish knowledge for further diagnosis. The main questionnaire had eight sections. The first section referred to data of a general nature about the cooperative which were collected from the office records only. The second section referred to the general socio-economic background of the village and the third to the organization of the cooperative. The fourth section probed the member characteristics of the cooperative while the fifth explored leadership roles in the past, leadership in the new cooperative and accommodation of the old and new leaders in the present power structure. Project work and the educa- tional preparations for it concerned the sixth section. 52 The seventh section dealt with the problems of the cooperative and the eighth with general reactions of the members to the cooperative, its projects and some controversial social issues. In addition to this main questionnaire, two other questionnaires were used-~one for the cooperative manager and the other for the member. The questionnaires were filled in through face- to-face interviews by investigators. The plan used in interviewing has been given on the next page. So two types of data were collected, one type through the inventories of events and case studies and the other type through the statistical investigation. Factor analysis.--The nature and scope of the study requires a data base as wide as possible which also makes a factor analysis on the data possible. Out of a total of almost 500 variables used for statistical investigation, there are 183 variables which are quantitative or ordinal with only a few dichotomous (with underlying assumption of normality). This provides an ideal opportunity to conduct a factor analysis to discover if there are any underlying con- sistencies in the whole mass of data. These con— sistencies, made up of variables, behave like constella- tions with respect to other variables. If there are any underlying consistencies inherent in the data, they are known as factors, which may be logically interpreted 3 5 cmHm BOH>nousH|I.m opsmHm .w.H . . . .m.H .H.H mm swoopssc coon o>mn opHmCQOHmeSv :Hms on» no mQOHpoom panm* .oonosoa>sH so ooHooo omen m .0: Loose: AHHV one CH mmmHHH> one 80pm moss coxmp H .oc noose: AHV mHOpmnmaom m3OH>soucH HmsoH>HocH .m .GOHumpH>cH so ooaooo dead men eH omsHHH> powwow: one Eosm zmzm 3OH>LOch Hmon>HocH .m m .o: noose: AHHHV .COHpmuH>sH an OOHmmo om on» Eonm mass coxmp nomads: AHV mHoumLMQom mSOH>poucH HmsoH>HUCH w.H = 2 Nofl .nsonsoe nocuo m umHOH up was .m .0: embeds .H .oc Lenses .m3ncoocoo .sommcme "do mpmanoo dsonm one s pom omeHH> on» CH SOH>poch adopo m.H m .oc noose: AHHHV .sonosoH>eH an H .0: posse: AHHV oOHmmo Qm on» Eogm zmzm nomads: AHV crxm» zHODmnmdom n30H>nOch HmsoH>HocH m.H = : :oH : = mofl .ACOHnmsOmHo can COHpHOHMHpo> .nnonsos socoo omens pmeH on adopw an OHonmoa no; noncoocoo new .m .0: senses .H .o: senses 20Hn3 co mOSmmH one: omonpv mamcoocoo .nmwmcms "mo munHmcoo.d30hw one s pom omeHH> on» CH 30H>n0ch ozone m.H noncomn zuOHoom o>HpMLOQooo odd «coax msHuHoncoo so some no soHoooHHoo H.H 3.02 Um3®fi>hvaH mCOmhmm UOEme ohHmccowumoso 54 to be the various dimensions influencing the data. Since it is assumed that the development process is a complex phenomenon and is likely to be influenced by various factors, it is likely that the results of the factor analysis will shed more light on the various dimensions of the develOpment process. To use a particular computer program for factor analysis, the number of variables is further reduced to 90—-from a careful study of a 183 x 183 correlation matrix. Since there are only 26 cooperatives which are really village—based and have supplied information on all the variables without any missing data, the number of observations available for the purpose is only 26. This is a very small number and theoretically can provide 25 factors at its maximum. However since one would feel content to get even half a dozen stable factors, it was decided to run a factor analysis on the data. From an a priori cOnsideration it was felt that there was a better possibility of revealing most of the important factors because of the greater number of variables which though might not prove to be very stable in successive rotations due to the smaller number of observations. However, the factors have been later found to be very stable. A full chapter is devoted later to discussion of the rationale of using the factor analysis, the results 55 obtained and how the results are related with other findings of the study. Sampling For statistical investigation.--A complete list of cooperatives, whether active or disbanded, was made from the yearly ledger books in order to prepare the total sampling universe. The list contained two parts, one listing the cooperatives belonging to the Agricultural Cooperative Federation (ACF) and the other those belonging to the Special COOperative Societies Federation (SCSF). The period was fixed from 1959-60, the beginning of the program to October 1968. Some 301 agricultural cooperatives under the ACF formally decided at one time or other to join the program and organized, though some of them dissolved before they could register with the ACE, and others were disbanded after they had registered and con— tinued in the program for some time. In the same way 105 cooperatives were formally organized with the SCSF whether registered or not, continued or discon- tinued after some time. This made the total list of 406 cooperatives from which to draw the sample. Since these COOperatives varied among themselves in signifi- cantly different ways, it was decided to stratify them to take into consideration the following criteria for the purpose of sampling: O\U'1 N 56 Age of the cooperative (from their starting dates) Membership size of the cooperative Total savings of the cooperative Total share-purchase by the cOOperative Total loan received by the cooperative Total loan repaid by the cooperative Loan outstanding in the name of the cooperative Grading of the cooperative by their inspectors. Accordingly, for each cooperative the following information as of October, 1968 was collected as a basis for sampling: 1. Block numbers (there are separate inspectors for different blocks of the ACF and the different groups meet on the basis of blocks with the respective inspectors. So the block numbers were expected to be helpful in contacting the groups) Date of starting of the cooperative Date of registration (with the central association) Number of members at present Total amount saved Total amount of share-purchase 57 7. Total amount of loan received 8. Total amount of loan repaid 9. Loan outstanding 10. Grading by the KTCCA inspectors. These figures were not readily available in compiled form. Most of these figures especially savings, share and loan amounts, had to be calculated by adding each and every transaction from various ledgers for all the years of existence of the particular cooperative. Special difficulties were faced in finding out the particulars of the disbanded societies. Out of these 301 agricultural and 105 special societies (non-agricultural), it was decided to select 25 agricultural and 10 special societies. There was very little choice in selecting the ten special societies, because some of them were unique and had to be selected without any other choice. For example, there was only one motor drivers' society, only one butchers' society, only one carpenters' society, only one goldsmiths' society, and only one industrial laborers' society. Each of the eight criteria mentioned above was divided into three reasonable categories by checking the range and distribution of that criterion over the whole universe. For example, for age of the cooperative-—three categories of starting dates, (1) 1959-1962, (ii) 1963-66, and (iii) 1967-68, were selected. These categories were selected by making a 58 subjective compromise among various criteria like: the natural distribution of the number of cooperatives over the years, a possible indication of the stages of growth in the number of cooperatives, and inclusion of certain numbers of cooperatives for each of these stages (categories) to make them fairly comparable. For membership size, in a similar manner, studying the trend from the parent data, three categories of member- ship sizes were chosen, (1) 10-30, (ii) 31-50, and (iii) 51-370, which were subjectively decided in consideration with the inherent trend in the data for a balanced comparison. The process continued for other criteria with the same principle in mind. The rationale for choosing such a sampling method was the following: (1) The nature of the data was not so homogeneous and was highly influenced by various underlying (not sufficiently known) factors. This warranted a stratification of the universe for maximum efficiency. (2) This survey was exploratory and so it was not justified to limit the number of factors 1 priori without having a chance to see how the data were being shaped by the factors. This is why, to bring the maximum number of factors into fair play, unrepresenta- tive coverage had to be given to some of the dimensions which either did not have enough cases in the universe or were too numerous. This is felt by the author to be a justified procedure when the purpose is not to 59 evaluate the program on the face value of the most representative data, but to disentangle some of the important processes which are distinct and may prove to be more significant in explaining the inner mechanism of the data. So, the sample of 35 societies was drawn out of those 406 societies, providing that for each criterion the sample drawn provides a balanced proportion for meaningful comparison within its categories. It was a difficult problem of stratification to have all the eight criteria represented over their three categories in a balanced proportion from a sample of 35 only. In some places, we had to substitute one cooperative by the other to make the sample balanced successively, though we took one precaution at least by using numbers without knowing the names of the cooperatives. Thus the sample may be described as a purposive stratified sample, with random sampling wherever it was possible. The list of cooperatives selected in the sample is given on page 60. For case studies.--Out of these 35 societies, four were selected for case study purposes as has been indicated in the list of sampled cooperatives. Three of them were from the ACF and one from the SCSF. The main criterion of selection of these societies was that they be as widely different as possible from one another. 60 Agricultural COOperative Federation (ACF) Blocks *1. South Rampur K.S.S.l I 2. Sree Kamta " I 3. Monagram " I *4. South Kalikapur" I 5. Bhubanghar " I 6. Chowara " I *7. Sree Nibash " I 8. Katanishar " I 9. Abdullahpur " I 10. West Rasulpur " I ll. Monshashon " II 12. Syedpur II " II 13. Rajar Khola " II 14. Lalbag " III 15. Panchthube " III 16. Bowband " III 17. Danishwar " III 18. Niz Banasua " III 19. Feringirhat " III 20. Jangalpur II " IV 21. Anandaour II " IV 22. Bhatkeswar " IV 23. Pepulia " IV 24. Pathuriapara- " Durgapur 25. Pratappur " IV Special Cooperative Societies Federation (SCSF) *1. Kashinathpur-Deedar 8.8.8.2 2. Bejoypur Pottery 3. Motpushkarni-Dhanpur Shuktara 8.8.8. 4. Comilla Carpenters Cooperative 5. Comilla Motor Drivers 6. Comilla Butchers 7. Comilla Trunk Manufacturing Workers 8. Thomson-bridge Small Traders 9. Halima Textiles' Laborers 10. Goldsmith S.S.S. Fig. 3.--Stratified random sample of village cooperatives. 9 These cooperatives are also selected for case studies. 1K.S.S.: Krishak Samabaya Samity (Farmers cooperative society. 2S.S.S.: Sramik Samabaya Samity (Wage-earners cooperative society) 61 Of the three societies from the ACF, two were old and had supposedly been good in the beginning, but one of them is believed to be continuously improving and the other one is gradually going down. The thrid one is a comparatively new society and is considered to be improving. The fourth one which is from the SCSF is considered to be one of the best, which is old and believed to be continuously progressing. It is expected that these four cooperatives will give a range of variety, though the criteria on which they were selected are subjective. Organizational Set-Up The author returned to Comilla for collection of field data in August, 1968. The Ford Foundation Pakistan Project provided a grant to support the field research. Four research assistants were employed for six months for assisting the author in collecting the data. Three of these assistants had M.A. degrees in Sociology and the other had an M.A. in Social Welfare. They were trained constantly by the author as they proceeded with the work. They started making the inventories first, going through hundreds of publica- tions of various types. In this process they specialized in certain organizations and projects and were later given responsibility to conduct the case studies in those respective fields of their Specializa- tion. 62 In addition to these research assistants, five (5) more enumerators were appointed first to collect data from official records, and later, to help the research assistants in group interviewing. Along with the research assistants and the author, they were also utilized to interview individual villagers (managers, members, drOp-Out members, non-menbers) who were invited to come to the PARD office for the interview. Holding the individual face-to—face inter— views in the PARD office was planned with the consent of the interviewee to make the interview situation uninterrupted by presence of other members or villagers. From past experience, it was felt that interviewing an individual in the village even in his private house was bound to be disturbed by others' presence, where the managers or the members would not be able to speak frankly what they would like to say. SO it was decided that we would pay them a flat travelling allowance of Rs. 5.00 (US $1.05) for their visits to the PARD office. The method worked with 100% turning up for the interviews. At a still later stage two (2) more assistants were appointed to help in coding. A spacious office was given to the research team in the PARD library building. Later a Land Rover was given to the team by the Director of the PARD exclusively for visits to 63 villages. The Director and other colleagues of the author were very helpful in this regard. The field work was completed by March 20, 1969 and the author returned to MSU on March 29, 1969. CHAPTER IV SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE COMILLA COMMUNITIES Socio-economic Pre-conditions of the Communities Involved in the Comilla Program The process of development is a complex one. It has many dimensions which are inter—related in various ways depending on various situational contexts. It has been previously stressed that to understand the process of development one has to understand the socio-economic pre-conditions of those social units which are to be analyzed. In this chapter, the socio-economic con- ditions of the villager and briefly the special barriers to development of the cooperative villages, will be discussed. The various other institutions within the sphere of the micro-structure, namely, the cooperative, KTCCA, Thana Council, and PARD (which extends beyond the sphere of the micro-structure) Shall be taken up in later chapters. Village The importance of the village in traditional societies is great. East Pakistan villages having a 64 65 dominant background of traditional society are now in transition. It is impossible to understand the forces of transition without understanding the village, its hold on the traditional values, and its conflict with them. Although Gandhi's words, "Each village its own republic," certainly had a political bearing during the resistance against the colonial power, his conception was also a more or less accurate description of the actual situation. The great traditional societies of the past retreated to the rural villages with their social and cultural life in conflict with the colonial powers and successfully kept the village completely insulated from the outside world as self- sufficient societies, each for itself. It is only recently that those centuries-old social units, the villages, are opening up to the forces of the greater society and the larger world. The PARD, recognizing the critical importance of the village in East Pakistan as an economic and social entity, started its planning and work in the villages. Village-based cooperatives were formed which helped all other modernizing processes to take root in the long—neglected, poor, and fatalistic rural East Pakistan. Most of these villages consist of several extended kinship clusterings which are known as pppgp having independent territorial boundaries. Geographically, 66 the para may be considered somewhat equivalent to the American "neighborhood" with the understanding that in a para there are closely-knit contiguous homesteads on a tract of high land (to avoid the problems of flooding during rainy seasons). The constellation within the para consists of mostly kinship groups with certain lineages preponderant in wealth and social influence. The number of paras generally extends from 2 to 5 in a village. Sometimes age-old factions and cliques continue to divide the village for gen- erations into two or more groups constantly engaged in "cold-war tactics." These factions are called reyais, consisting of one or more congruent paras. The reyai is the smallest social entity with formal structure. Every village falls within the jurisdiction of a peppy, big or small, with distinct roles and great powers to execute its sanctions and rewards. Samaj is "an institution evolved by local villagers as a means of collectively handling matters of importance to residents of a multi-village area, under historical conditions in which little external authority was present to perform such functions."1 A samaj is 1Peter J. Bertocci, Pattern of Social Organization in Rural East Bengal, to be published by the Asian Studies Center of MSU, as part of the proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference on Bengal, p. 14. 67 considered big or small according to the territorial jurisdiction under its influence and assumes power and prestige accordingly. When a samaj is found to include a few villages, the history of the samaj will most likely reveal that these villages are really off-shoots of an old village which used to be the center of the samaj. Generally, a village with all its reyais is identical with a samaj. But if the reyais are big enough, or want to remain independent of one another they may form separate samaj. The smaller samaj then become parts of a bigger samaj accepting the authority of the bigger samaj in matters of dispute. If the bigger samaj fails to control a smaller samaj by exercising all its vested power, it takes recourse to the pressure of a still bigger samaj with a larger jurisdiction and the equilibrium is restored again. This means that there is always a whole world of activities going on in the background with respect to samaj to maintain the balance of power. Each village, unless it is too small, is divided into a few paras. Generally each para will belong to one or a limited number of extended kinship clusters. A reyai at the lowest may coincide with the para, or it may include two or three paras. A samaj at the lowest may coincide with a reyai, or it 68 may extend to include up to three or more reyais. The village and para are the geographical units, whereas the samaj and reyai are the social units. The para is truly a neighborhood Cluster having a predominant kinship settlement in an age-old background. The following roles of the samaj have been compiled according to their decreasing order of frequencies from the group responses (in consensus) given by the members of each village cooperative: 1. Settles all kinds of individual and collective disputes among the villagers by sitting together in a gel (formal meeting of the village leaders and the parties involved). 2. Preserves discipline in the village by enforcing the system of sardari (formal structure recognized by the villagers for social administration of the village with implicit authority over the members of the village, also known as panchayet). 3. Offers informal advice on the settlement of marriage proposals. But when taken to a formal level, passes decisions of support and cooperation or otherwise according to the social code on marriage. 4. Guides and controls village feasts according to social rites and tradition. 5. Encourages observance of religious rites and duties. 69 6. Preserves social peace in the village by inducing the people to follow prescribed behavior patterns. 7. Constructs mosques, bridges, etc. from public funds through community efforts. With these social customs in mind, the villagers were encouraged to form their cooperative within their village. Any cooperative may split into two or more groups if they wish to, according to rules laid down by the cooperative. Only rarely were cooperatives organized having jurisdiction over two villages. In the beginning of the program in 1960-61, the average size of the membership of these cooperatives was 36, which gradually extended to 60 by 1967-68. In most cases one kitchen-unit (i.e., family) is represented by one member but there are also cases where more than one member come from the same kitchen- unit. Though there is a general tendency for the membership to increase, there is considerable variation in the coverage ratio of the village by the cooperative. The coverage ratio is defined by the proportion of the total number of households belonging to the members of the cooperative as related to the total number of households in the entire village in 1967-68. The coverage ratio in the sample ranges from .04 to 1.00 (Bejoypur and Katanishar for the lowest and highest 70 respectively), with a mean value of .48. This means that almost half of all the kitchen—units of the villages have been covered by the cooperatives in 1967-68. The average number of households in our sampled villages is 138 (approximately) with approximately 5 members per household. The average population of the village is 714. The average number of households and average pOpulation of the village probably have an upward bias because of the fact that some of the largest cooperatives were included in the sample, and this may not be fully compensated by the inclusion of smaller cooperative villages. Economic Conditions pppg.--The quantity of land per household is a good indicatiOn of the economic condition of the family in general. Table 1 gives the number of villages hav- ing various percentages of families within different land categories taking all the sampled villages together. In column 2, twelve villages have 10% or less of their families with no cultivable land; 10 villages have 11-20% of families with no cultivable land; 3 villages have 21-30% of families with no cultivable land; and so on. From this table a typical village 71 mm mm mm mm mm mm nomoHHHs no .0: Hmuoa o o o o o H wow I RHN o o o o H H Row I “Hm o o o o H 0 now I «Hm o o m m m o mom I NH: o m a HH 2 H no: I “Hm o o m w HH m «cm I “Hm m m MH m N OH mom I RHH mm mm N z m NH ROH I mo oeoE so mopoMpoo.m monoMpoo.: monowpoo.m mmOH so OHQWMMMHSQ mOHHHEmm mo whom om. noses Ho.m women 00.: moses Ho.m whom Hm. oz mowmpcoopom mOHpowOpmo coma econommHQ goons HnOHosOSUOAH wmv nomeHH> .sonpowOp momeHH> OHQEmn one HHm wstMu mOHsomOpmo ocmH m30Hnm> nm>o HmOmMpcoosoq ch mOHHHEmm mo COHusoHnumHnlI.H mammmcs zHososuxo CH co>o oocmpmeQSm usonm mOHssoz o: o>m£ oHsos 0:3 wOHHHEwm omoep moosHocH oEoosH no HHOMOpwo mH£B* mm mm mm mm nomoHHH> .HO .OC HMuOE o o o m ROOHI «HH 0 o o H mom I «HH 0 m o H mom I HHH o o o H nos I “Ho 0 o m m «on I “Hm o H m m mom I “HH 0 H m m “OH I «Hm H H HH m mom I RHN m m H H mom I uHH Hm m m m “OH I no H®>MH H®>mH Hm>mH H0>®H smann monoumHmnsm oodmpmHmQSm oocoumHmQSm o MMWMHMMWLO pm oEoocH O>onm oEoocH um oEoosH ZOHOQ onocH m u m a. mOHsowOpmo osoocH econommHo soon: HmOHocosvmpm may mommHHH> .sonpowOp nomeHH> OHdssn on» HHm mstmp mOHnowouwo mEoocH mSOHnm> nm>o Amowmpcoonoq CHV wOHHHEmm mo cOHuannumHQII.m mqm<9 75 Income levels Income below subsistence level: Income at subsistence level: Income above subsistence level: Income at higher level: Percentage of families 44% 27% 22% __ZZ 100% Occupations.—-The dominant occupation of vil— lagers is agriculture. However, the following list gives the various types of occupations in a decreasing order in the most numerous income group of the village: Occupations 1. Agriculture 2. Agriculture labor 3. Trade .1: ONU'I Services Medical practice Industrial labor "Agriculture labor" means working on others' farm or land as a wage-earner while "Agriculture" means farming one's own land. "Trade" includes shop- keeping, trading, and all kinds of business. 76 When the various income groups in terms of subsistence are considered, the pattern of occupation changes, with the exception of agriculture. (Ref. Table 3.) A typical village will have the following (hypothetical) percentages of families within each group of occupations (derived from the sample data): Percentage of Occupations families 1. Agriculture 80% 2. Agriculture labor 15% 3. Trade and services 5% 4. Industrial labor and almost Medical practice negligible Though the percentages of industrial labor and medical practice are almost negligible on the whole, there are three villages with a high concentration of industrial labor. The farmers raise two crops on 50% of the total land and the rest of the land is almost equally divided into one-crop and three-crop land. The percentage of three-crop land shows an increasing trend. The average income per acre of land taking all types of land and all kinds of crops together is Rs. 1099, which is a very rough blanket estimate. But per acre income varies over 77 m®UH>h0m .0 soan noan HmHspmsocH .m HMHsumsosH .m moHpomsd noan OOHpoan HmOHooz .H OLSpHSOst< .H HooHooz .H Tempe .m mOOH>smm .m mooH>gom .m momma .m soan nOOH>som .m momma .m moose .m OSSHHSopr< .m endeSOHnm< .H onspHSOst< .H osspH30st< .H moduHsOHow< .H Ho>mH nocme Ho>oH mucoumHmnsm Ho>oq monoumHmnsm Ho>oq ooCOpmHmnsm p< oEoocH o>on< oEOOCH p¢ oEoocH onom oEoocH .wOHsowOpmo oEoocH mSOHpm> on» CanHz OOCOHm>oed ou wcHoooOom ooxsms msOHumo3000II.m mam ohm mosstm ommpcoosoo map omsmoon czonm mH mCOmLOQ mumHOpHH mo nonssz * mm mm .omeHH> one :H snowmen mumsouHH HHHmCOHuoCSM mo .0: ommno>< mm mm mmmeHH> mo .0: Hmpos H H o>onm I HOH m m 00H I on H m mu I Hm m HH om I mm m OH mm I onom mmlsmmH m>HpmSOQooo no AwwwmwwowmmmmwMfiw no one on» u< cOHpMNHcmmso onomom * mowwHHH> mo nonssz zHHmsOHpocsm mo .02 Hopoe .moomeHH> one wsoEm HonnooHH anoHoocsmII.H mHmHB 84 TABLE 5.--Primary schooling among the villagers. Total no. persons schooled of Number of Villages Before Organization At the end of (Up to Primary level) of Cooperative 1967-68 0 - 10 6 O 11 - 2O 5 21-30 3 2 31 - 4O 5 3 41 - 50 0 3 51 - 6O 2 3 61 - 7O 2 2 71 - 80 O 3 81 - 90 3 3 91 - above 2 6 Total no. of Villages 28 28 Average no. of persons with schooling (up to Primary level) in the village 38 61 85 rest half 61 or more. At the end of 1967—68 there was no village with number of persons schooled up to primary level less than 11 and six of the villages had 91 or more persons schooled up to primary level. The average numbers of persons with primary school education in the village at the end of these two periods were 38 and 61 respectively. The mean values of functional literacy and primary schooling as shown in Table nos. 4 and 5, are in Close agreement. The percentage figures for high- school graduation and higher education are much lower. But considering that they might play significant roles in the development process of the village, they were collected for use in the factor analysis which will be discussed later. The Pakistan census report gives the literacy rate of the Comilla Thana as 39%. §pecia1 Barriers to Development This section has been developed from the author's previous unpublished materials and his interviews with his colleagues working with the cooperative program in the villages in connection with the present research. The inventories and case studies of the village cooperatives and the responses of managers and members of the cooperatives on the basis of the questionnaire- interviews also provided valuable materials. 86 Continual Disinvestment There is a tremendous draining off of resources from the agricultural sector. This problem of continual disinvestment needs a full-fledged study for its own sake. However, only a few dominant trends may be mentioned here. Absentee-landlords.-—There is a considerable percentage of absentee-landlords in the rural villages. The major share of income that they get out of their agricultural lands goes out of the village and is spent elsewhere. Little benefit from those earnings returns to the rural sector either in visible or invisible shape. These absentee landlords invest almost nothing in their land; rather they have a unique advantage for exploiting the poor share-croppers since there is a great demand for land among the share-croppers, the supply being minimal. Money-1eaders.--There is a money-lender class in the village since the modern institutional credit facilities for farmers are so insignificant. In most cases, these institutions cannot help the farmers directly because of lack of Clear title of land (due to a complicated inheritance system) or collateral. Instead, for their own business, they help the money- lenders by providing capital for investment with the farmers. These money-lenders take away all the 87 surplus that a producer could use to improve his agricultural techniques for better production by demanding a usurious interest rate on the loan money. Price system.--The farmers suffer great losses from the seasonal fluctuation of prices in the market. Being under constant pressure of creditors and lacking storage facilities and capital, the farmer sells his produce in the market just at the peak of the harvesting season and gets the lowest price of the year for his produce. After paying Off all his debts, and half of the crop in share-cropping to his landlord, he is left with very little cash and stock of grains for the rest of the year. This compels him later to buy his staple food from the market at the highest prices of the season. This cycle goes on year after year keeping him in perpetual want and a good "prey" for the money lenders and other "parasites." Education.--The educational system is wrongly geared and continues to produce either high-level academicians or low-level clerks--a distinct dualism in education, without regard to other educational functions between the two extremes. So it prepares the villagers only to leave the village. The investment in education both in maintaining the schools and educating the children, bears fruit in other sectors, not in agriculture. Rural education exists only 88 nominally and there is no means to educate the farmers. As a result, about 80% of the population is totally illiterate. Lack of Incentives and Profitability in Agriculture Agriculture is primitive and production is very low. Agricultural land is highly fragmented and per- capita holding is uneconomic. The transformation of this niggardly traditional agriculture depends on investment, which is not primarily a problem of the supply of capital, but of determining the forms this investment must take, forms that will make it profitable to invest in agriculture. But for ages the agriculture of East Pakistan was left to the vagaries of nature, and it has been the most unprofitable occupation, though practiced by 80% of the people. Incentive to work harder is weak because the marginal productivity of labor is very low; and incentives to save more are weak because the marginal productivity 01‘ capital is also very low. Because of this Sitniation a vicious circle is created and the state of agriculture has remained low.1 ‘k 1Theodore W. Schultz, Transforming Traditional Agriculture,Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, 1964. 89 Lack of Infra-structure Through ages of neglect by the government and lack of initiative on the part of the farmers, the rural infra-structure has been gradually deteriorating. With the onslaught of every flood, the road system would be largely washed out and bridges demolished, creating problems of movement and marketing of produce. Instead of gradual improvement of the rural infra-structure over time to check floods, to facilitate drainage, to improve the transport system and to help ideas move and education expand, these have all been allowed to deteriorate to the extreme. The rationale behind this neglect for the government was that there were other important priorities and for the village people, it would be unprofitable to invest or too huge for them to tackle. Apart from this physical infra-structure, there was also no organizational infra-structure for extending credit facilities, providing supplies of seeds, ferdiilizers, etc., as well as technical assistance and Sez"vices to the farmers, nor for maintaining educational effxxrts, supervision, or any kind of effective liason witii the rural people. Lchhologi cal Inhibition The people are fatalistic and devoid of initiative-— a chronic sympton from an age-long helplessness and lack 90 of confidence. The grip of fear has been intensified by all kinds of "regular" exploitation prevailing in the society. Individually, they have a feeling of being too insignificant to fight for self-development within the social, political and economic milieu. Collectively, they have a serious lack of confidence in their own village groups--in their solidarity, sincerity, and intelligence. Over and above all, the village is faction-torn by strong vested interest groups. In this extremely frustrated, desperate and Chaotic situation, leadership is assumed by the privileged classes without being truly faithful to those they lead. Lack of Participation With ppcal Self-government The local self-government units were mainly tax-raising institutions and agencies of law and order. They could do very little for the benefit of the rural .peOple and so the rural people developed a feeling of (iistance from the decision-making centers and ruilplessness in controlling their own destiny. Lick of Effective Administrative System The society inherited an old pretigious admin- istrative system lacking a welfare bias in general and having a low standard of efficiency in rendering 91 services through its existing machinery. AS a consequence, the people's conception about the government as a whole is that it exists to raise taxes and maintain law and order. . Lack of Women's Participation There is no effective program for the emancipation and welfare of women. They are often a burden to the family and are believed not to contribute their pro- portional share in raising the family income. Increase of Population To add further to the problem, the population is growing very rapidly. Besides these general problems, the following responses by the villagers "on special local barriers (pHYSical, social and psychological) to the development Of tkueir village" as conceived by themselves will further add a perspective on this point. The responses are arranged according to their f'I‘e‘qlalency of occurrence: 1. Destruction of crops by excessive rain, drought, and floods in the Gumti area almost regularly. 2. Demolishing of homesteads and standing crops by St'IOI‘rns and cyclones. 3- Lack of unity because of jealousy and factions. 92 4. Lack of roads and communication facilities creating problems of movement and marketing of produce. 5. Lack of general education and knowledge of improved methods in agriculture. 6. Lack of water for agriculture. 7. Human epidemics and cattle epidemics. 8. Lack of facilities for cultivating the unfertile land of the hilly region. Some of the Social Aspects Shgping an Emergent Change-Process In spite of such a dismal picture, the situation is not entirely without hope. The people's dreams of a prosperous future during the independence struggle have not yet disappeared altogether. A bit of success here and there, though too isolated to make any permanent impact, is instrumental in raising aspirations. Some positive factors and realization among the people (and the society) seem to be prevailing which could be tapped for initiating a change process. Some of them may be described as follows: 1. Having no problem of disproportionate land- lordism in East Pakistan, the influence of the so-called elites (aristocracy) has been slackening in the rural society. 2. The farmers are gradually being convinced that something must be done to increase their farm 93 productivity, though they are largely ignorant about the means which are appropriate to them. 3. The government is getting disturbed more than ever about the increasing food deficit year after year and the heavy drainage of already scarce foreign exchange for buying food. As a consequence, the Five Year Plans have their priorities shifted more and more towards agricultural development. 4. It is becoming more fashionable or progressive for the political parties to talk about agrarian reforms and rural development. 5. Many of the old values are breaking down because of the hardening conditions arising out of the population growth and consequent decline in the per capita holding, rise of prices and general pro- portional decline of the per capita income of the rural people, and increasing impact of urbanization and mobility and a consequent opening up of the relatively closed communities. 6. People are becoming more conscious of their rights and privileges, due to the rising aspirations of the present generation. An urge seems to be growing among the rural people for modern education and skilled training. 7. .People seem to be ready for change, but totally confused about the nature and direction of change. CHAPTER V THE COOPERATIVE PROGRAM Transition from a Somewhat Closed §ystem to an Qpen System Ghandi's "village republic" was almost a closed system. It was self-sufficient and always wanted to remain self-sufficient. It was a society in miniature that wanted to remain insulated from outside influence. The villages in different regions of British India varied only in degree from this ideal case. Even in the present decade, the villages have not changed much, except where urbanization or industrialization have had their sway around their peripheries. The hard core of villages has remained almost untouched or uncon- cerned by the changes brought about by twentieth century modernization. The Comilla villages experienced the war-time movement during the Second World War, the Comilla cantonment being the military headquarters of the entire~ East India region under the British government. It was also a center of the terrorist movement in the pre- independence period. After independence, higher English education started getting into those hard core 94 95 villages and peOple from those villages, at least a fraction of them, started joining the government offices. All these influences had certainly an almost imperceptible impact on the hard core of the villages which could, however, be observed over time by a sociologist or an anthropologist. But compared to the changes brought by these mighty impacts, the consistent and intensive impact of the village coopera- tives introduced by the PARD in the Comilla thana is tremendous. A force strong enough to open up the system is being generated from within. The village people have organized a new institution, the village cooperative, at the village level, and a much larger organization, the KTCCA, at the thana level. They are constantly engaged in opening up channels of communication, new monetary transactions, the flow of improved knowledge and Skills, and partnership activities with external agencies, organizations and institutions. This is considered a dominant characteristic of an open system, that it allows itself to explore outside the closed system and interact in a meaningful way with a wider world. Brief Description of the Cooperative Program The PARD as a new institution developed a new image of governmental collaboration with the people. It developed new rural institutions to provide the people with services and assistance in carrying out their programs. To do this effectively, the PARD leaned 96 largely on some basic principles in develOping its strategies and gradually extending them on the basis of the situational factors. These strategies will be discussed in a later chapter. In this chapter some of the dimensions of the Comilla program will be described very briefly in physical terms. The data compiled in the Rural Cooperative Pilot Experiment, Eighth Annual Report1 on membership sizes, capital formation and loan program Of the village cooperatives, have been extensively used in addition to the sample data. Cooperatives and Membership Sizes The following table (Table 6) gives the number of village cooperatives of the Comilla Kotwali thana on a yearly basis from 1961-62 to 1967-68 gives the size of membership per cOOperative. The figures have been shown under separate columns for the ACF and SCSF, the two cOOperative federations Of the central association (KTCCA). All quoted figures and the sample data cover up to the year 1967-68. As reference data the area and population of the Comilla thana may also be given. It is 107 square miles in area with over 200,000 population, of which over 50,000 population belongs to the district town, Comilla, covering approximately 7 square miles in 1Badar Uddin Ahmed and Rezaul Karim, "A New Rural Cooperative System for Comilla Thana," Rural Cooperative Pilot Experimenp, Eighth Annual Repert, PARD, Comilla, Eést Pakistan, April, 1969. 97 \ .Hm one OH .oa .OOOH Hanna .osonHHOi omen .OHHHeoO .omai .ocoEHsoowm ooHHd o>HosnooooO Hsasm one so OOOH .oeoaom Hescsa eoemnm one no OH oHHHH OOH HH OHnHO msHsHHEOO Ho abandons nH oHoso one "oonoom OH HO HH HmH.mH Om».m mHm.HH Omm OH HON OOIHOOH OH OH Om mmm.HH OOO.m HOH.O mam HO mmm HOIOOOH OM mH mm HHH.H OHO.H HOH.m OHm Om OmH OOImOOH Om OH mm smm.s HOH.O OHO.H mom om mmH mOIHOOH Hm mm Hm OHO.O mmH.m mmn.m mOH OH mmH HoIMOOH Hm mm mm OON.H HOH.H OOH.m smH NH OHH mmImOOH mm mm mm HHH.m HHO OOO.H OH HH mm NOIHOOH HOV MOO HHV OMOVEOJ .ndoowmwmon .naommvnoa Hmv snowmeHz EOMHWon enema: ens” an: Inn: amen .fimnm wwwsm>< \aHnmLOQEOE \dHcmLooEoE Hmpoe .Hmuoe HMBOH .Qooo .qooo o>HmeOQooo son dHcmLonEmz chnsonEmE Hmpoe mo>HuHLOQooo mo sonssz .Hsmwm Op one» Eoem o>HpmHBEsO HHm mew mmsijmv memo» msoHLm> CH mNHm QHcmgooEoE pew mo>Humsmqooo mo LmDESZII.© m4m<9 98 the center of the thana. There are approximately 250 census villages, but the number of local villages may extend up to 460. The table shows that there are 339 cooperatives (Column 3) at the end of the year 1967-68 of which 261 belong to the Agricultural Cooperative Federation (ACF) and 78 belong to the Special COOperative Societies Federation (SCSF). These cooperatives have 15,454 members in total, most of them representing one member per family (i.e., kitchen-unit.) In columns (7), (8) and (9) the average number of members per cooperative has been given. The agricultural COOperatives have on the average a smaller size than the special COOpera- tives. The average size of all the cooperatives taken together has increased from 35 in the year 1961- 62 to 46 in the year 1967-68. The sample figures may be compared with the figures of the average number of members per coopera- tive in the parent data presented in Table 6. Though the sampling proportion is more than 10%, it is not expected that the figures will tally except for Significant trends. The reason for this is that a purposive stratified random sampling was chosen instead of a pure random sampling, the rationale for which has been given in the chapter on methodology. 99 Table 7 gives the sample figures as against the population figures. They may not be strictly comparable for another reason. The membership of the cooperatives in the parent data was compiled after the cooperatives had been registered with the central association, but in the case of the sample the membership was compiled from the date of the starting of the cooperatives in the villages, which includes a sort of 'probationary' or 'pre-natal' period. In some cases, the registration is done even after two years, if it survives that long. The year 1959-60 has been left out from the table, which had only one cooperative with 46 members during the year. The figures of the parent data start from the year of registration (January, 1962) of the central association, though there were cooperatives before that period. This table shows that generally the special COOperatives are always bigger in size than the agricultural cooperatives. There are some reasons which explain the larger size of the special coopera- tives. The special cooperatives in most cases were not bound within the limits of the cohesive 'para' or the village. The greater the size of the group, provided the initial trust is established, the greater is the work efficiency for the total group. The issue of lOO om >0 mm OH Hm HH mmIHmmH Hm mm HO OH OH Om HOIOOOH mH mm mm mm mH mm mmImmmH OH mm mm mm mH mm mmIHmmH HH ms Hm Hm mm Hm HmImmmH mH mm mm Hm mm mm moImmmH HH mm mm mm mm mm mmIHmmH mm mm mm II II II HonmmH .mdooo .mdooo .mdooo .waooo .Qooo poo mmom pom mo< sod .Qooo pom mmom Hog mo< Hog msonEoE mo meonEoE mo msonEoE mo msonEoE mo moonsos mo mnooEoE mo .oc owmso>< .oc ommso>< .oc owmno>< .os owmso>< .oc owwno>< .oc owmso>¢ nsmom Hwo>Hpmsomooo UOHOpmeoscs 6cm oooosomHO soon oosHoeHv sumo OHossm AHHQO mo>HHHHOQooo conspmHmop CUSHoch some pcmnmm o>HpmHOQooo poo mHnmemnEoz mo ONHm owmno>< .msmoz mSOHnm> CH sumo OHQEmm one passed Op mchsooom m>HpBHOQooo goo dHnmsooEoE mo ONHm omwsm>Hpmsmdooo ngsm one mo mmmH .HLOQOm Hmscc< 105 npanm one mo om new mH .mH .HH mOHpme wchHnEoo an consumed mH OHQMH one "Condom Osm.mmH.H OO0.000 OOO.OOm OOH.OHO OOO.mOm HOO.OH OHO.mmm OOIHOOH OmH.mHO HHH.HOH mom.Omm Omm.HON HHH.HHm MOO.Om HHO.OON HOIOOOH Oms.smo HON.OOH OmO.mOH HHO.mHm HOH.Omm HHH.ON OOm.mON OOImOOH OMO.NOH ONH.HHm HOH.OH Omm.HmH OHm.HOH OOH.Hm ONO.OHH mOIHOOH OOm.Omm OOO.OO HmH.OH OHO.OO HOH.NHH NHO.HN mm0.0mH HOImmOH HHN.OmH msm.OH Hms.m HOH.OH NHO.OO mmm.s OOH.NO mOImOOH mmO.OH OOm.HH OOH MOO.OH mmH.Om mmm.H HOO.HN moIHOOH Howmwm .mmwwo .meoo .mmwwo .mmwwo Hmv Amv HHV + mmsH>snO HHs an anon Hm Hoe Hm HHs Hm .maooo anon .naooo mos too» H.mmv COHmenom HsoHosO Harms A.wm CHV ommcopsm oswnm H.nm ch nwsH>mm poz .prom Op new» Bonn O>HpmH5530 HHm mom monstmV sapwood on» goods wo>HmeOQooo on» HHm mo coHmesow HapHQmO one .mmmm2093d semen .mw:H>Mn HmsccHpmHCEsoV COHmeCom sense: Coo .dOOo Coo .Qooo Comm HO Hm>HpmH3E30V Ho>prH3ECOv new HCHHQCQ CoHmeCom mCmCEoE COHCCECOL .ndooo an .mdooo mo .mdooo w ACOCEoE Coqv HmpHQmo mo .02 HmpHdmo mmmzoszi mpHOOCOQ no .02 ommpo>< owweo>< owmso>< anCm Hmpoe Hmpoe .mpmom msoHCm> CH wo>HmeOCooO oHdEmm me CH COHCOECOH HCCHQOO COCEOE Loo owmso>¢II.0H mqmge 107 savings and share purchases of these 33 cooperativesl by 1967-68 were Rs. 113,157.94 and Rs. 316,581.25 respectively, the total capital formation being Rs. 429,739.19. This is 30% of the total capital formed by all the cooperatives, which is again highly dispro- portionate (the sample size being approximately 10%). The reason for such a disproportionate figure lies with two special cooperatives who are far above the other COOperatives in terms of capital formation. These two cooperatives together (Deedar Sramik Coopera- tive and Motor Drivers' Cooperative) amassed RS. 228,440 as their total capital which is 53% of the total capital accumulated by all the cooperatives (33) in the sample. Without any doubt, they have distorted the representative character of the sample. But for the purpose of the study, they may represent, together with a few other cooperatives, some very sig- nificant factors of development, which need analysis. The table reveals some very interesting phases of capital formation during the period under study. The year 1962-63 has come out as a critical year reversing the trend of capital formation from 'more-savings-and— less-share' to 'less-savings-and-more-share.' This lThe yearly total cumulative figures and averages are calculated from the exact number of cooperatives existing during the period. The figures of the 2 disbanded cooperatives were not included in the cumulative figures or the averages after their withdrawal, which makes the total number of cooperatives 33 in 1967-68. 108 change needs some elaboration. The 'less-savings-and- more-share' from the year of 1963-64 heralds a new stage in organizational development of the KTCCA. It symbolizes the member-society's trust both in their own cooperative and in the central association, the stability of the central association in the judgment of the member-societies, the profitability of invest- ment with the central association, and the thrust of the central association toward building more capital. In the beginning neither the PARD nor the KTCCA expected the 'lesS-savings-and-more-share' stage to come immediately. The PARD insisted only that there be 'small savings' (with no lower limit), while the villagers thought the most meaningful thing for the PARD would be to give "relief," or subsidy, or doles. Most of the villagers, under the effect of group influence, started depositing "small savings" but in the name of "subscriptions." The concept of saving was relevant only to private, personal and secret situations, not with public, group, and open sitautions. The only thing they knew of a similar situation was subscription or donation. It took quite an effort to make them understand that it is their own savings and the record is kept in their own pass books; and they are not giving it away as a subscription, fee, or donation. The emphasis was that if the cooperative 109 fizzled out, the members would get back their deposits intact. This was why the deposits were not subscrip- tions, fees, donations, or even collateral. The PARD was attempting to drive home only one simple concept of savings at that time. Gradually other ideas began to be emphasized: that services of all types cannot always be given free, that the central association also needs capital of its own, that the central association is their own association and not an outside agency, and that it will distribute dividends to the primary societies on the basis of the total amount of shares purchased. The year 1963-64 may be marked as the dawning of the concept that the central association is their own association and they have entered into a business situation where trust and capital play dominant roles. Another aspect of capital formation can be observed by analyzing the trends of the average capital formation per member which is concealed in the average capital formation per cooperative. The average capital forma- tion per COOperative has a distinctly increasing trend, starting at Rs. 590.00 in the year 1959-60, reaching Rs. 13,022,40 in the year 1967-68 on a cumulative basis. But if the average capital formation per member is worked out for each year, as has been done in the last column of the table, we see some interesting phenomena. The average per-member capital formation starts at 110 Rs. 12.83 in the year 1959-60, increases next year to Rs. 23.74, then suddenly decreases and goes to -Rs. 0.22 in the year 1961—62. An increasing trend can be seen from Rs. 12.69 in the year 1962-63 to Rs. 47.88 in the year 1965-66, then again quite abruptly the average per-member capital formation goes down to -Rs. 13.46 in 1966-67. The year 1967-68 shows a tremendous increase of average per-member capital formation to Rs. 65.77. Now those two years, 1961-62 and 1966-67, with negative figures mean that a depletion of capital occurred over the previous years' capital. They are character- ized by sharp decline. They also evidently coincide with the years of sharp rise of membership size per COOperative (ref. page 102). There may be many factors responsible for such behavior in per-member capital formation. Testing a number of hypotheses to explain this phenomenon with some reliability may be required. A few comments may be made in this regard. The years of rapidly increasing Size of cooperatives may quite likely deplete the capital during the year because of the fact that their savings component might be very low, assuming that share purchase remains constant with both old and new members. The present requirement of the village cooperatives is that each member must buy a share of Rs. 10/- each year in addition to regular savings to remain a member of the village cOOperative. 111 However, how strictly this requirement is enforced cannot be guessed without studying real situations. Another explanation may be that some of the regular savers may save anywhere between Rs. 25 to Rs. 50 or more per year, which becomes a sizable amount after 4 or 5 years for its withdrawal for better investment elsewhere. This phenomenon is likely to happen to some extent on the average each year. Why there should be concentration of capital depeltion in those particular years may not be fully explained by this. It may be possible to shed more light on those two years' capital depletion after the loan issue and repayment figures are analyzed. Loan Program The figures on loan issue and loan repayment are also impressive. Table 11 has been compiled from the parent data to show the amount of loan issued annually to all the eligible COOperatives and their repayment. In the year 1961-62 a total of Rs. 238,664 was issued as loan with a gradual increment each year thereafter. The loan issued in 1967-68 alone was Rs. 5,274,110. During all these years from 1961-62, these cOOperatives repaid an amount of RS. 6,011,302 out of RS. 11, 384,425, making the balance Rs. 5,373,123 outstanding, which is almost equal to the loan issued on the last year (1967- 68). We may think of three stages in connection with the 1Q12 .OHnmu m>onm OCH CH mnstu OCo mo moCmCOConHo quHHn OCH mCHdexo mHCB CH mso.mmo.H on Co>o COHCCmo Coop mm: COHC3 AmOImOmHV CssHoo CH COOH do ooCOHmo O>HpmHssso on» CH UCCOH .HOOIHOOHO sssHoo onsH one on has oxmpmHE Hooves one .mm owma .Hm oHpme CH mHH.mmo.H Op UOCOOCCOO Como no: mso.mmo.z ogsmHm OCB ”ouoz .OmIOm .do .OOOH HHCOH .csoonsd ones .OHHHsoO .Omai .oeoeHnoaxm ooHHa o>Hosnooooo Hmesm OCC Co momH .oCOCOm HCCCC< Cocme one go ON UCO Hm mlose mCHCHoEoo an COCCCOCQ mH mHnmp OCH "Condom .zHo>HpoQOon mo>Hmeoqooo mmom UCC mo< Op mumHos H UCO m OCECHoo CH Cmma Comm COUCC mOCCme 03p OCR: Osm.mOH.H mmH.msm.m OOM.HHO.O OOH.HOm.HH HHHOH . a a a . a a MwOammm a J. mmmnGNOnH mmm mmH H mmH mmm m mm» mmm m paH.Hom.H QHH Hen m tIH.HHN.H moIHOmH . . . a ,. I. onO.Omm .f . . MHO.OHN mmH mHm Oom NMH m LOO Owe H osm.HHm HOH 0mm H HmO.osO.H HOIOOmH . a a a , Hmwaoom I\ a a mfimaHom OJ C \ rm 5L. 0 . H. . .HI. mHg.mem H .I . mOH.HOO n a .. .0 mHmamn \I .3 mmmammm I a a. J, a DJ JOmaqq D .. OOOaN: HHO OHH HsO OHM cmm Hun HHO.OHO Hus HOH HOH.OOm MOINOOH II . I OOO.m NMO.OH mO0.0HH OOH.OO OOH..O HOO Ome HOO.Omm NOIHOOH CV HOV HOV 2: AC Hmv HHV Ao>HumHCEsnv H.mmv Ho>HomHCEsov .naooo one :o H.nmv . .. . I. . has» CmpmHCEsoo< mCOOH mo pczoE< A mmv UHmdmm / mmv Imv omsmnH , H mmv HCpHamo wCHUCmpmpso ncmoq Hmooe ondom mCOOH mCmoq Hmpoe nomzan mcmoq .mswmz wsoHCm> CH mo>Hmemdooo OCC HQ ooumHsesoom HmpHCmo Hmpou on CCOH wCHocmumuso do CCsoEs .ucoesmdos COOH .pCOeOnssomHo CCOH do COHuHmomII.HH mqmHHOHCECQV HO>HHOHCECQV A.mmv A.Omv HOCOCm + mmCH>Omv H.mmv ondOm OCOOH COCOOH nCOOH HOOw A.mmv wCHUCOHano HOHHCOQ HOHOB OCOOH .OCOOH OCOHCO> CH mO>HHOCOQooo OHQEOO OCH no HO>HHOHCECOV COHHOEHOM HOHHCOO HOHOH CCO AO>HHOHCECOV COOH MCHCCOHOHCO .HCOEAOCOC COOH .OCOOH COOHII.mH mqm OCO>HCQ COHoz _ _ _ _ wOHHOHoom .QOIoo .HhmHHOCanoo OHHHEoo mo mCOHmCOEHo HOCOHHocsm OCO HmnaHoanmII.m OpsmHm OOHHOHoom mOHHOHoom OOHHOHOow OOHHOHoom QoIoo aoIoo aoIoo deloo .st< .st< .Hnw< .Hawe OmsHHH> OmsHHH> owsHHH>. ommHHH> HIHoon Mbeon meoon; HIxoon _ _ H H _ _ OOHHOHoow .QOIoo .th< hemEHCm_ ”.mCOIoo zsmEHEm COCHOI; IL mHHCD HOHCOEHCOme H COHHOCchoEOQ wCHCHmCB H OOHHOHoow znmEHCm on H h0 _ OCHCOOx wHCsooo< H nHCBooo< Ho OoCOCOHCHmz COHHOMHCCH a HCOEnoHO>OQ HOHO3 mmmmzmz .¢.o.o.B.K fmnoits original training responsibility. The PARD has :1 faculty of social scientists who started exploring why time findings of technical departments were not applied in tYKE‘VillageS. The PARD depended on the technical depaxflnnents for the technical knowledge but started 209 independent research to find out the effective methods of diffusion, factors influencing adOption of improved practices, need for institution building, efficient methods for coordination at various levels of its organizational work, and so on. It emphasized attention in the field of social sciences-~administration and management, social engineering, group dynamics, and human relations. This particular role of the PARD was also welcomed by the technical departments and a mutual dependence grew between the PARD and departmental programs. Such matters as improved seeds, fertilizers, pest control, cold storage, family planning devices, engineering plans, disease control, power generation, artifical insemination, etc. were subJects to be handled by the technical depart- ments. The departments realized that the PARD's extension programs and its research findings in the field of social sciences would strengthen their proJects too, which built a healthy promise of cooperation. The PARD's entire outlook was characterized by a pragmatic consideration. It knew that the forces of develxnmnent could not be generated overnight nor a perfect solutixnu suggested for implementation for each problem. A perfectionist and meticulous approach would be an un- .necessary'refinement and might lead to a kind of dogmatism agaJJi. In most of the cases, it is erroneous to think 210 that there exists only one best solution. The character— istic way of the PARD is to approach a more satisfactory solution gradually through experimentation and evaluation along with the client system. This process carries the client system with it and prepares the client System for greater socio—psychological maturity. A group which acquires an insight into the various forces influencing its behavior is probably better able to handle these forces. A system of conflicting sub-parts will benefit if the conflict can be reduced. Perhaps the most commonly mentioned qualitative change is an increase in capacity for effective problem- solving behavior. It is generally assumed that a system can make progress by working on small and immediate prob- lems first, thus gradually developing a capacity for dealing with the larger problems. Once this capacity exists, the system is able to face its larger problems. 'Phe PARD has always considered this as an invaluable effect which makes higher level linkage, transfer of skill and integration of knowledge possible. The PARD in its functioning with the client system fosters an environment of education and encourages every opportunity for learning, both for itself and the client system. Though for an early period it may establish an expectation which makes the client system heavily dependent, it gradually changes the expectation of the 211 client system to a relatively autonomous status with occasional assistance from the PARD. The most important single step towards development planning was taken by the government when it decided that a high level institution (PARD) under an autonomous body should be set up to train the Village-AID officials, to conduct research in the field of rural development, and to evaluate the Village-AID programs for its continuous improvement. Even after the abolition of the Village-AID program, the government decided to keep the PARD to con- duct research in development planning and administration, to set up models of administration which might be studied and evaluated to provide valuable insights to the plan- ners of rural development and to train civil officials for development programs. The Ford Foundation, with its technical assistance and funds, was largely responsible for persuading the Pakistan Government to accept such an innovation in the field of development planning. It has proved itself of immeasurable usefulness. Because of the overriding importance of "Government strategy," it will be dealt with in the next chapter under "Institution-Building." CHAPTER VII INSTITUTION-BUILDING AND ITS INTEGRATION IN THE SYSTEM Introduction The PARD, from the beginning was open to learning from some of the past failures. The 1928 report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture brought out some of the basic problems of agriculture in India though their recommendations were never seriously implemented and were far from bringing any impact on agriculture. The 190“ Cooperative Act of India was a brilliant enactment which was implemented, especially in Bengal, with great official fervor. But it lost most of its effectiveness due to the lack of educational efforts that were supposed to go with it. Then came the wave of rural reconstruction movements during the period of 1920-19US in different provinces of India. The ones specially studied in the PARD are those in the PunJab and Bengal. But these were characteristically of one man's dream backed by either a limited fund of government money or a philanthropic fund. The money, effort and research which were necessary to make them self-perpetuating 212 213 through an integration with the politico-administrative system, were lacking. The moment the supports were withdrawn, these proJects collapsed like a house of cards. The Village-AID program, so sophisticated in its theoretical base was also facing trouble, and was ultimately abolished because it, too, ignored some of the basic facts of the society and the official bureaucratic structure. The abolition of the Village-AID program in 1961 precipitated a momentary crisis for the PARD since this was the highest level training institution set up for the Village-AID in 1958. Fortunately the service of the PARD already demonstrated a need for such an institution. After the abolition of the Village—AID, an urgent need was felt to develop further institutions at the lower level to work conJointly with the newly set-up local self—government system of the Basic Democracies. The various pilot proJects undertaken for village modernization took new significance in the changed circumstances. This chapter has been developed mainly from the inventories and case studies conducted on PARD, KTCCA, Thana Council and various PARD proJects. Institution-Building in the Micro-System The cooperative program which has developed as a private sector enterprise with its thana level central 21A association (KTCCA) as an autonomous body has already been discussed. The PARD's approach in this program- building was very pragmatic. It had some notions about the serious problems of agriculture and rural peOple. But it did not have any ready—made answers or solutions for them. Of course, it had also some information on how similar problems in a different setting of a foreign culture had been approached. As, for example, there are numerous mentions and appreciative references in various early publications of the PARD about the Land Grant Colleges of the USA, the Danish Folk Schools,1 the Raiffeisen Approach to Cooperatives in Germany,2 the 3 Antigonish movement of Canada and the farmers school in China. The land grant colleges have given an idea as to how to develop an agricultural extension program by working with the farmers and understanding their problems and utilizing the research findings for the benefit of the farmers. The Danish folk school has given the idea of how a group of people in despair and lOlive Arnold Campbell, The Danish Folk School; Its Influence in the Life of Denmark and the North (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928)? 2Maurice Colombain, Cooperatives and Fundamental Education, Publication No. 632, second of a series of booklets, Monographs on Fundamental Education (Paris: UNESCO, 1950), pp. 18-21. From the extensive literature on Raiffeisen credit cooperatives one work may be cited: Dr. F. J. Stwdelmann, Frederich William Raiffeisen: His Life and Work (St. Call: 19307} 3M. M. Cohdy, Masters of Their Own Destiny (New York, London: Harper, 1939)? 215 frustration can meet together over and over again to build up a psychological bond and cohesion, and arouse the "inner-self" through a moral movement. The Raiffeisen approach has shown how small farmers must Join together and build up their own capital to fight against money— lenders and middle—level exploitation. The Antigonish movement has shown the way to an effective program of training and communication that can lead communities to development through cooperative enterprises. The farmers school of China has given an idea how the farmers can be trained in agriculture within a commune in a massive way. This knowledge greatly helped in arriving at a workable solution on a pragmatic basis on many of the problems. When the village council approach failed, the village cooperative of special interest groups was tried. The group was found to be cohesive, but it was realized that to support these cohesive groups some services have to be provided which should be organized in an economic unit. This gave rise to a two-tier cooperative system of the Comilla program having the apex organization taking care of the various services. From this premise, with a social laboratory of the Comilla thana for experimentation, the PARD started its various proJects which created the need for both services and institutions. The Comilla program initially seemed to have more bearing on the agriculture and cooperative 216 departments. Lacking technicians in these fields and resources to help the cooperative groups solve their problems and also for developing action programs of the existing departments, the PARD developed a collaborative program with these government departments. It was realized that among the vital concerns of farmers were the problems of credit and knowledge of improved cultivation. Neither the existing credit institu— tions nor the educational institutions were suitable for farmers. A new rural banking system had to be evolved. In the absence of acceptable individual security or collateral, the system shifted to a group collateral plan. Credit facilities were offered to the cooperative as a whole instead of to individual members and the COOperative as a whole became responsible for paying back the entire amount. This system reinforced the group system. The group became more functional, more a decision-making organ and more powerful. By making the group responsible for the repayment of the entire loan amount, the group was also made responsible for the supervision of proper use of loan money. This was the first maJor step towards building a self-supervised credit system. The source of group pressure created by this system was found to be very useful in developing further programs, initiative and responsibility. So, the credit was put under 'group 217 supervision' and gradually it was linked with a new proJect, 'storage and marketing.‘ In these changed circumstances, the PARD and the KTCCA further developed a role of helping cooperative groups with technical assistance for making the best use of their loan money and by establishing storage and marketing facilities for protecting the profits of these groups. The agriculture extension programs were strengthened and regular assistance was planned to have expert agronomists to scrutinize the production plans made by the cooperative groups. The sanction of credit was made dependent on the soundness of the production plan. The habit of thrift, through small savings, was made another condition for credit, though it was one of the compulsory conditions of the affiliation or survival of the cooperative, which made the banking a truly two-way transaction. The KTCCA set up cold storage plants and a transport system to help the individual COOperatives in storage and marketing problems, so that repayment of loans became easier. The special merit of any of the proJects in the Comilla program is, that it identifies the problems in real situations and prescribes some solution on an ad hoc basis depending on the existing resources and tries to reinforce it from all possible directions.. If it is found not to work even then, a new ad hoc solution is 218 tried again with all other forces gradually shaped to reinforce it. The most effective solutions were discovered in this manner. But if some processes are found not to reinforce the potential successful solution, a 'survival approach' is taken for the time being. The friction and anomalies are made known with scientific obJectivity through research monographs, reports, and conferences without directly attacking those forces. It has been possible with some tact to induce the proponent of the particular force to take a rational view and change it so as to reinforce the right situation and become a participant in the development process. But, of course, in practice, it is not always so easy. There are many places where some forces are still resisting certain development pro- cesses either because of vested interests or a genuine lack of knowledge. In such cases, the PARD without bringing the particular force into an open challenge, developed necessary services within its own laboratory area from its own or outside funds and made all its reports, research, and evaluation available to the departmental people and policy—makers. Some of the resisting forces have been changed through such methods. Though the Comilla program developed its many proJects at various times, they were not isolated efforts for solving problems. They really belong to a continuous 219 development of one underlying force, namely, the improvement of the condition in the rural sector. A proJect or a set of proJects was formulated on a time scale, when the conditions in the environmental structure yielded to make place for it. This makes another con- dition incumbent on the proJect or the set of proJects that it must have acquired by that time the optimum functionality in the existing system. So, while the Comilla program was developing the village cooperatives, a new specific action-oriented, cohesive institution in place of the old institution, the village panchayet (identical with samaJ), it was replacing the old usurious money-lending institution by a modern pragmatic rural banking system, and was also introducing storage and marketing facilities which had the potentiality of transforming subsistence agriculture into commercial agriculture. It was also strongly and consistently felt that the means of production should be improved, there should be greater protection of the crops from natural calamities like floods, droughts, cyclones, and pests, and lastly there should be better road and transport systems between smaller and bigger markets. The first felt need generated innumerable proJects such as preparation of compost heaps, fertilizer use, line sowing, better local seeds, new vegetables, 220 small scale mechanization, irrigation, etc.1 The second and third felt needs opened the possibility of bringing in the public sector in the process of develop- ment, including some government departments and the local self-government units at the union and thana levels. (There are twelve unions in the Comilla thana and the Union Council is the lowest tier in the Basic Democracies System). This led the PARD to play a significant role in experimentation on the effective roles of the Thana Council, referred to in Chapter I. The rural works program, an infrastructure for agricultural develOpment, came into being to deVelop a road system, check local floods of smaller dimenisons, facilitate drainage system, control soil-erosion, etc. It also provided employment in the rural sector during slack seasons. The intensification of the programs of agricultural education and demonstrations of improved methods, and the introduction of local planning, coordination of plans among the various unions, and execution of the plans, gave birth to a new thana administration plan with three component parts: (i) the Thana Council, (ii) the Thana Training Center, and (iii) the KTCCA. While the imple- mentation of this plan became an invigorating experience for all the parties concerned——government, PARD and the rural pe0ple--some new problems cropped up. 1See list of KTCCA proJects in Chapter V. 221 The improved methods of cultivation almost reached a ceiling and would produce no more profit regardless of any more increase in investment. The production of new vegetables in commercial scale is not possible unless the storage and marketing system is further developed. So this led the PARD to look for more high-yielding varieties of paddy and to undertake a seed-trial experiment with various imported seeds. The World Bank also came in the picture in connection with the setting up of a small rice-research experiment in collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). A seed testing laboratory was also set up. As a result a number of very high—yielding rice varieties were found to be adaptable to East Pakistan conditions. In the same way the KTCCA enlarged its storage capacity and started new processing units, which resulted in a possible breakthrough of the stagnating situation. While this was being done on one side, there was also a problem on the other side. Funds were falling short for the rural works program due to the difficulty of using PL-480 funds for the purpose. However after a period of frustration due to lack of government funds a new and more potentially significant proJect came into being, named the Thana Irrigation Program (TIP), which is an extended form of the rural works program. Under this program the villages are being 222 electrified for the installation of deep 6" diameter tube-wells. While the main activities were surging in this direction there were also other collateral comple- mentarities, in the field of education, women's partici- pation, health, family planning, etc. It is hardly possible in this limited space to elaborate these pro- grams. However, the main principles of structural- functional balance were maintained throughout the program. The develOpment of functions and its impact in developing appropriate structures for perpetuating the routinized activities needed for efficient progression of development within the micro-structure have been discussed. In the following section the PARD's role in integrating these institutions in the politico- administrative system will be briefly discussed. This process of integration extends the scope of analysis beyond the micro-system. The PARD-Role in Stabilizing the Institutions Developed in the Micro-System It has been mentioned previously that the establishment of the PARD, with its anticipated role in the field of rural development administration, was itself a big step taken by the government towards modernizing public administration. It was rightly set-up under an 223 autonomous central board of governors, with high powers from the very beginning. But later because of the diverging interests and problems peculiar to the two wings and also for convenience of administration, the Comilla PARD, was placed under an autonomous provincial board of governors, which further increased its effectiveness. The chief secretary, government of East Pakistan, is the chairman of the board and the secre— taries of the various departments relevant to rural development, the director of the PARD and some others, including a few non—official members, are the members of the board. The very composition of the board symbolized the inter-departmental approach to problems of rural development and the urgency of their solution. In the third meeting of the board of governors, in 1959, it was suggested, The Academy should teach civil servants of government new concepts of public administration. So that they may change their outlook and become properly equipped to work effectively for the welfare of the people. In the year 1961, the Governors' conference emphasized the important role of the Academies (including PARD, Peshawar) by the following statement: All officers of general administration should attend courses at the Village Development Academies. The PARD took its role as a stimulating challenge from the beginning. On the request of the PARD, the 224 chief administrator and the provincial administrator of the Village-AID program agreed to put the Comilla development area with the PARD for experimental planning in January, 1960. The department of planning and develop- ment, Government of East Pakistan, decided (Vide Memo. No. 606—V-AID/SE-5/60 dated 3.2.60) that the results of this experiment, if found useful, might subsequently be introduced in all development areas (under the Village- AID program). This is how the PARD assumed its role of teaching civil servants a new concept of public adminis- tration and conducting experiments to discover effective models of rural administration which could be of use for future planning. The previous section of this chapter dealt with the functional aspects of the development efforts where the PARD was mostly engaged with the people and the local departments of the government to bring about experi- mentally the most effective structural frame to inte- grate the various processes into a system. In the present section, the PARD role in stabilizing the structural patterns thus evolved into the larger politico-administrative set up will be discussed. In this role the PARD is engaged with the provincial departments, the planning bodies and the highest administrative leaders of the government to formulate long range policies and administrative plans which will 225 sustain and reinforce the system developed in the micro setting. The simultaneous approach with the set of com- plementarities has been shown, though in a much simpli- fied manner in developing the section, which is then followed by a general abstraction of some underlying principles. The PARD started its cooperative program in 1959 on an experimental basis in the Comilla thana. In December, 1960, the director of the PARD approached the chief secretary and explained to him the importance of running the thana council at Comilla as a demonstration model. In the middle of 1961 the PARD director and various parties in the provincial and central govern- ments worked on a five-year scheme for continuing the Comilla proJect over the entire thana, later approved in January, 1962, and named Introduction of Mechanized Farming on Cooperative Basis in Comilla. In August, 1961, the department of Basic Democracies and Local Government, Government of East Pakistan, approved the PARD director's proposal for continuation of work with the Comilla Thana Council (Vide No. 5-XIII/15-6-51/535, dated 30.8.61). The annual expenditure of Rs. 27,600 was to be borne by the Basic Democracy Department for the sake of (1) providing a good working model for the training of officers, and (ii) for providing valuable experience in the methods of organization and training, and (iii) for 226 collecting materials for research about possibilities of further improvement in rural administration. The rural works program was started in October, 1961. All the union plans were consolidated into a thana plan after a thorough revision Jointly by the officers of the Thana Council, and the PARD personnel with the technical advice of the WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority) engineers. The department of agriculture agreed to finance the experiment and supplied Rs. 260,000 from the minor irrigation schemes allocation. The program of adult education was organized by the Village—AID and then by the National Development Organization (NDO). After the abolition of the NDO, the PARD took charge of the program and in November 1961 prepared a 5-year scheme. The Bureau of National Recon- struction (BNR) agreed to finance the scheme. But the plan came to an end in September, 1962 due to lack of financial support from the BNR. This led the PARD to begin promoting adult literacy through the use of imams by cooperative societies. A scheme was prepared for the rural pilot family planning program to evolve an appropriate pattern for propagation of family planning ideas and adoption of various practices. The scheme was implemented officially in July, 1962 and was financed by the family planning department as a pilot proJect till 1965. 227 A preliminary report on the rural works program (1961-62) was submitted to the planning department and the provincial government in June, 1962, according to an earlier agreement by the PARD director. The proJect accomplished the moving of 8,000,000 cu. ft. of earth, and providing employment for about “6,000 man-days of work, at a total cost of Rs. 1,500,000 which was Rs. 1,100,000 less than the amount available. The provincial and central government became impressed by this accomplish— ment and decided that the department of Basic Democracies and Local Government of East Pakistan should further 'test the process used in Comilla thana by applying it in all 5“ sub-divisional thanas in 1962-63, by sanctioning Rs. 1,150,000 for each thana for work proJects including establishment. The total grant from the central government was raised to Rs. 100,000,000, which was put at the disposal of the department of Basic Democracies. It was further decided that the remaining 359 thanas1 should also be included with less intensive programs. But because of the belated sanction, the non-sub-divisional thanas received smaller grants, since by then there was less time to plan and to train people for the work. The PARD director in June 1962 prepared a working paper for the additional chief secretary (Planning, 1There are 413 thanas in East Pakistan. 228 Government of East Pakistan) on the proposal for the creation of three additional experimental demonstrations in rural development based on the Comilla eXperience. The provincial government accepted the prOposal and appointed an officer to special duty at the PARD. He prepared a 5-year plan in October 1962. The cost of operation for each new area was Rs. 3,500,000 of which Rs. 1,000,000 was a grant and Rs. 2,500,000 was a loan repayable in 20 years. The scheme was approved by the Development Working Party in October, 1962. The three new proJect centers began functioning in July, 1963. The proJect directors of the three new areas visited Comilla once a month to review the activities in their respective areas and to remain in close touch with the continuing development of the parent proJect. An evaluation of the province-wide rural works program was undertaken by the PARD at the request of the department of Basic Democracies, and the department provided a budget of Rs. 11,750 for the evaluation. The - PARD evaluation team was formed in December 1962. The formal organization of the Thana Training and Development Center (TTDC) was announced in February, 1963. The president of Pakistan visited the PARD in March 1963 and wrote a letter of appreciation to the PARD director, 229 . . . It is the first time that I found the ideas that were only vaguely present in my mind put into practical shape in a realistic and pragmatic manner to help people stand on their own feet and better their lot. I was deeply moved by all that and congratulate you on your magnificent efforts. I hope your experiences are put into practice throughout the country. In that lies our real salvation and you can rest assured that I, on my part, will do all that is possible to support this noble cause. By the middle of 1963, the rural public works program became a national program. The president of Pakistan declared that Rs. 200,000,000 would be given to East Pakistan and Rs. 100,000,000 to West Pakistan. The Comilla thana received Rs. 2,000,000 for rural works program of 1963-6“, of which Rs. 300,000 were for rural electrification, Rs. 900,000 for irrigation and Rs.‘ 200,000 for Sonaichari lift irrigation proJect and the rest for roads, bridges, culverts, regulators, excava- tions of canals and for maintenance of old proJects. In July 1963, the Thana Training and Development Center (TTDC) became a provincial program. The plan for rural electrification and irrigation was undertaken which was intended to be completed within 3 years. The plan included (i) Sonaichari lift irrigation proJect, (ii) sinking of 200 6"-diameter tube-wells, and (iii) electrification, to be financed by Rs. 1,200,000 out of the Rs. 2,000,000 allocation previously mentioned. This is to be considered as a pilot proJect to test the absorption capacity of one thana, the reactions of farmers 230 to the availability of power, the administrative input needed, and the types and amounts of training required. In October, 1963, a scheme for a school works program for the Comilla thana was prepared by the PARD and was accepted by the Basic Democracies Department and an amount of Rs. 266,000 was sanctioned for 1963-6“. The program was continued the following year from a sanctioned fund of Rs. 110,000 from the same source and came to an end thereafter for lack of financing. The Education department, government of East Pakistan, prepared a 6-year plan for the establishment of an Adult Education Institute, attached to the PARD in October 1963, and one of the PARD personnel was made the head of the institution. The finance minister of Pakistan while visiting the Academy in December, 1963 suggested to the PARD director that he write a memorandum for the expansion of the Comilla-type program all over the province. The director prepared the memorandum which gave the background of the proposal for a District Pilot ProJect. The proposal was approved by the Central Development Working Party by March, 196“ and was presented to the National Economic Council in May, 196“. In January, 1965 the District Pilot ProJect was finally approved as the district integrated rural development program. This program extends beyond the micro-system. One of the maJor pur- poses of this experiment was to involve district 231 administration and departmental district officers in order to ascertain how the thana institutions can best be supported from the district headquarters. The scheme envisaged administrative, technical, and supply and servicing support from the district level, the organizational complex at the thana level remaining the same as that of Comilla thana. The scheme proposed a total cost involvement of Rs. 50,000,000 spread over a period of 5 years of experiment. By April, 1965, seven thanas of the Comilla district1 (in addition to the Kotwali thana) were selected for the first phase under the integrated district program. The proposal for a "Provincial Training and Research Center in Deep Tube-well Installation, at Comilla," developed in January, 1963 and submitted to the provincial department of Agriculture for financial approval, ultimately was sanctioned in September, 1969 by the persistent efforts of the PARD director. The Director of Public Instruction agreed to accept some of the feeder schools with F.M. (Final Madrasa) or matriculate imam teachers in December, 196A. These feeder schools would be called extension primary schools which would be attached to neighboring primary schools. .Later in March 1965, an evaluation team was set up by the 1There are 21 thanas in the Comilla district, ixusluding the Comilla Kotwali thana. 232 department of Education, Government of East Pakistan, headed by Mr. Ferdouse Khan with two other members (Dr. F. Davis and Lt. Col. T.B.N. Ibn-Yacob) helping him to study the education program of the PARD. During 1965-66, the department of Education accepted 25 Feeder Schools run by imams as primary extension schools with a salary of Rs. 50 per month. The family planning action program of the PARD encouraged a mass distribution approach, mentioned also as a commercial proJect, which was accepted as a model for the organization and field work in the thanas of East Pakistan under the third five year plan (1965- 70). The Health directorate sanctioned ten scholarships for one year each for the training of the midwives under the PARD pilot family planning program during 1968-65. An experiment by the stock officer of the KTCCA for the spawning of carp resulted in 1965-66 in the hatching and nurturing of about 500,000 fish fries. Later a province-wide fishery development program was visualized in the light of the experience gained from the fishery extension program conducted in the Comilla thana during the year 1965-66. Intensive training of Thana fishery officers of East Pakistan was planned. A manual was also prepared to guide the provincial program in the development of fisheries. 233 A research program on IRRI varieties (paddy) was planned to be conducted in the PARD (Abhoy Asram) farm under the supervision of the PARD in consultation with Dr. L. P. V. Johnson, Resident Rice Research Adviser, Government of East Pakistan. As a result, two types of rice research were undertaken, the varietal trail with 302 IRRI collections and the fertilizer experiment with two varieties-~IR 8-288-3 and IR 9-60 in 1965-66. The director of IRRI (Manila) visited the PARD in connection with the rice research in late 1966. The new variety IR-8 was introduced for the first time during the year 1966—67. In the first meeting of the provincial coordination committee in July 1966, presided over by the chief secretary, Government of East Pakistan, it was decided that the ten proJects (7 in the district and 3 out- lying) based on Comilla experience should be evaluated by a committee of experts before any more expansion was planned. The committee set up for the purpose published the report, "An evaluation report on the rural development proJects based on Comilla experience," by the end of December, 1966. The PARD director prepared a note on its agricultural program for the chief secre- tary in December 1966 and empahsized that the Comilla program should move 3 to A years ahead of the province so that it can lead the province in the field of rural development. 234 Another evaluation committee was formed in August, 1967 to evaluate the work of 7 thanas of the Comilla district in order to make recommendations whether the experiment should be extended to the remaining 13 thanas of the district. On the basis of the recommendations of the evaluation committee, the government decided to extend the program to the remaining 13 thanas of the district in September, 1967. But it also decided to transfer the Comilla district integrated rural develOpment program to EPADC (East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corpora- tion). As a first step, the proJect directors of all the 7 thanas who were EPCS (East Pakistan Civil Service) officers, were replaced by EPADC officials on March 1, 1968. The thana irrigation program (TIP) which was an extended works program was accepted on principle in October, 1967 and was given indication that it might be implemented fully the next year. The entire allotted money of Rs. 73,000 under TIP was utilized for irriga- tion proJects. Later in the year 1968, the TIP plan for the year (1968-69) was prepared and submitted to the government for sanction. In December, 1968, a sanction of Rs. 90,000 was received for the TIP schemes of the thana. Another amount of Rs. 100,000 against the Sonaichari lift irrigation proJect was also received. 235 Besides these activities, the PARD was constantly engaged in organizing conferences of high-level officials, workshops and seminars on controversial scientific issues, where research scholars and experts in the field were invited, and also in formulating training programs to suit various purposes. Sometimes the departments took an interest in holding their annual or periodic conferences in the PARD campus and utilized the PARD demonstration models for an exposure to the PARD approaches. The PARD also serves as a venue of many national and international conferences. This is almost a chronological but very brief description of the multifarious activities of the PARD. It will show how the functiOnal and structural growth of the development process is intricately related with many other factors beyond the particular micro—system. The developmental progression of a successful program depends also largely on the scope of the change agent, in this case, the PARD, which is an intermediary between the people and the government, to fill up the gaps of effective communication between the micro and macro-systems and also within them. However, the scope of the PARD has also been gradually shaped, besides its programs and usefulness, by the charisma of its first director, Dr. Akhter Hameed Khan. His dynamic role stands distinctly in the process 236 of interlocking the two systems, micro and macro, as revealed in the foregoing section. It is to his great success that the evolving role of the director has largely been institutionalized and is expected to carry charisma in the position for some time. The author con— sciously kept the aspect of charisma out of the theme of the dissertation and concentrated more on the methodology evolved in the institutionalization of the roles. For the purpose of the present thesis, the process of insti- tutionalization of the various roles and functions are more central once they have been developed than the analy- ses of charisma at various levels and its impact on program building and compliance pattern within the organization. Underlying Principles of the PARD-Role Development Intermediary Between the People and the Government It has already been mentioned that the establishment of the PARD was the most significant step towards moderniz- ing rural public administration in East Pakistan. The government realized that to bring out the genius of the people, they should be taken into confidence. It may not be possible for the old departments to establish a new relationship with the people, when they are already plagued by inter-departmental Jealousies leading to a lack of cooperation. The PARD played a very important 237 role in bringing the government departments and the people in a close range of working relationships to be reinforced gradually through sharing of responsibilities and obligations. The PARD is assuming more and more a role which makes both the government departments and the pe0ple consider the PARD as their own spokesman. Though it is a very tricky and dangerous role, it is very effective as long as the PARD can maintain a climate of learning and cooperation and influence both the parties through its training, seminars, workshops and conferences. The government's plan to establish the PARD as a genuine and powerful intermediary between the people and the government has done a very important dual Job of enhancing the change potentials of both the government departments and the people and leading them to the same sets of change objectives. This intermediary role of the PARD may be schematically drawn as shown in the next page in Figure 6. But this does not exclude any direct relationship without the PARD as the intermediary. As a matter of fact, both the above pattern through intermediary and the direct- relationships pattern exist simultaneously. The direct-relationship pattern may be shown as in Figure 7. 238 9 People Public Leaders Government Officials 0 Government Figure 6.--Intermediary Role of the PARD. . PeOple Government Officials Public Leaders 0 Government Figure 7._;Direct-relationship Pattern between the PeOple and the Government. 239 The direct relationships pattern existed both before the PARD had exerted any change force and also after it became instrumental in stabilizing institutional patterns. But this must not be construed to mean that the PARD is not concerned about the future growth of a "stabilized pattern." The word 'stabilization' is not meant to give an idea of rigidity or freezing of situations, but rather a conscious acceptance of an institutional pattern which is capable of its own future adJustment. This implies growth which makes the PARD free for an intermediary role at a higher plane. Ideally, the PARD concentrates its efforts in the higher plane looking for the most pragmatic track from among the various possible alternatives for reaching the new change obJective and allowing the other institutional patterns to adJust themselves on their own. If everything is normal and healthy in the system, it is assumed that the thrust for change in the higher plane for a new change obJective consistent with the goal, is expected to bring in the necessary adJustments in the so- called lower plane patterns. The development being a con- tinuous educational process, this is quite natural. In other words, this implies the characteristics of an open system. An analogy may be drawn to describe the PARD role in this respect. Like the most trained and invincible army, the PARD battles in every sector of the war-front, leaving the conquered land for others to consolidate. 240 Program-building Process The PARD in its efforts to enrich its extension programs with the village communities identifies certain problems which need immediate tackling. As an intermedi— ary the PARD knows what resources or services are avail- able with the government departments for the purpose. It can therefore help plan whether a proJect should be taken up with the assistance of nation-building departments. If it is possible, generally the proJect starts as a col- laborative pilot proJect, where the PARD takes the advis- ory role and leaves the execution to the government de- partments and the people involved. In most cases this approach seems to be most satisfactory for three reasons. First, the credit of the work goes to the department. The department does not feel that some other agency is going to snatch away the credit which they have built by spending their departmental budget and putting forth the efforts of their technicians. The PARD does not claim any credit for technical work, since it does not have for most of the purposes techni- cians or adequate budget of its own for such work. The PARD does not feel insecure without such credits because of the nature of its work. It does not intend to be a servicing agency, when a servicing agency already exists. Although the PARD in the long run gets credit for mobilizing the human and social forces in the villages, 2A1 the departments do not mind in sharing credits in such a manner with a non-technical rival. Second, most of the departments do not have extension wings to work right in the villages. Even though some have, they are not properly equipped with appropriate knowledge and techniques to render their services efficiently. So any help in this direction is generally welcomed by them. It has been their experience, too, that when a proJect is undertaken with an organized group in the village, there is always a greater chance of success. The organized cooperative groups in the villages con- stitute a very strong base for taking up variouS- developmental proJects. Third, to carry out most of the proJects effectively in rural areas, there is a need for an interdepartmental approach which will be further discussed in the next section. In spite of the fact that they are mutually handicapped because of a lack of inter-departmental approach, it is rarely possible for them to achieve inter- departmental cooperation persistently for a long period. In such a situation the participating departments like to have some mediator agency like the PARD in the corporate body. While the presence of the PARD is the first step in getting the departments involved, it need not be nor is it desirable for it to be a permanent feature. In the absence of the institutional means for coordination and 292 cooperation, the PARD may play the missing role, but for stabilizing the process and integrating it in the system, some other built-in coordination system has to be evolved. The success of the PARD and the collaborative proJect largely depends on the extent to which the system has built up a sound mechanism of coordination and coopera- tion. If collaborative pilot proJects are not possible, then the PARD takes the initiative by taking up the pilot proJect on its own. Generally in such cases, the PARD takes as much help as is possible from the existing agencies and builds up the rest by, for example, organiz- ing training courses, setting up demonstration units, and establishing an ad hoc agency to take care of the day-to- day administration. In such situations, the PARD sometimes tries to borrow a technician temporarily from the govern- ment or if the work is so different that it requires special types of persons, where the departmental people would be quite unsuitable, the PARD either recruits its own people and trains them, or puts the proJect under one of its own social scientists backed by a committee of other faculty members belonging to allied disciplines. If no funds are available from any source, the PARD uses its own funds. The pilot proJect is then treated as an exercise in action research. The purpose is to evolve a system by 293 which the problem can be tackled most effectively, while also documenting and evaluating results. One of the most significant purposes of the pilot proJect, besides helping the villages in their development programs, is to evolve an organizational model with its working procedures, and training methods. The PARD's purpose in such cases was always to evolve a system which might be acceptable to the relevant government department so that the pilot proJect could ultimately be handed over to the department, where it really belongs. But in making it possible, the PARD takes the responsibility of documenting every decision and action with cost and return analysis in a scientific manner for government appraisal. The PARD sometimes has to continue a pilot proJect for several years backed by several annual evaluation reports, until finally the government becomes interested in taking up the proJect. If the government wants to take up the proJect, the PARD action program still continues to remain a model and is in that case 3 or A years ahead of other similar proJects. During this period the PARD generally expects that even the Comilla proJect should be financed by the department and staffed by the departmental people as in other cases, with a nominal additional budget for further experimentation and evaluation. With the acceptance of the pilot proJect by the government, the PARD also takes the responsibility of preparing manuals 21:14 for training which are updated or revised year to year on the basis of further knowledge gained. It takes the responsibility of training either the new personnel to be recruited for the Job or the trainers of the program as the case may be, utilizing the Comilla proJect as a model demonstration, and lastly, continues to take interest by remaining in the evaluation team for the annual evaluation of the program. Many of the Comilla proJects have been accepted by the government for further trial in other areas, or on regional or national basis, some others are still under consideration, and Some few will take quite a long time to find a place in the existing politico-administrative structure. The PARD has received very generous assistance from the government to test its ideas in the form of pilot proJects, from which the government could also be benefitted for further development planning. The PARD has also received financial and technical assistance from many private and international agencies besides the Ford Foundation. This program of action research undertaken by the PARD also serves to achieve its obJectives as follows: (i) It helps in understanding and identifying problems of rural development and sharpens the insight of the faculty members. (ii) It helps in providing valuable contents for the PARD training courses. 245 (iii) The management of these pilot proJects is shown to the officer- trainees as models of administration. (iv) The proJects with their annual evaluation reports supply valuable field data for the policy planners. They provide a cheap and convenient way of experimentation on various ideas before implementing them on a large scale. (v) All this helps in developing the Comilla program itself. Interdepartmental Approach The PARD has played a very important role in de— veloping an interdepartmental approach for development planning and administration. The PARD's experience in dealing with rural problems has also strengthened some of the departmental programs. Though it has brought some of the departments into prominence, it has also empha— sized the fact that some of the other departments which were not considered to be very important cannot be ex- cluded from the main-stream of development efforts. This kind of an integrative role is only possible by an organi- zation like the PARD, which is prestigious but yet has no administrative control over anybody. For its own routine work even in the lowest level, it has to seek cooperation from the various departments. This unique position helps the PARD to maintain a spirit of coopera- tion with the existing government machinery for its own survival, yet on the other hand, the existing departments 2A6 feel encouraged to seek advice and help from the PARD in matters of rural development where the interdepartmental approach is necessary or where better techniques to reach the masses are sought, without any feeling of in- security. The PARD, in its position of rising status due to its specialty in rural development, is now play- ing a very significant role in many of the Provincial Committees. Schematic Presentation of the Program-Building The educative process at work among the various parties involved in the program-building helps in con- structing further action programs which are gradually reinforced through an integrating process of socio- psychological maturity of the groups and the evolution of the politico-administrative structure. The following schematic presentation will show the process (Figure 8). The PARD as intermediary between the parties also works as an intermediary between the two systems--micro and macro. The process is assumed to start from somewhere at 0, since the micro system cannot afford to miss the resources and services of the macro system already established and also of the PARD. The PARD wants to reinforce both and bring them closer together. But once the process of mutual reinforcement starts, the two programs become increasingly integrated. These phases 2A7 Program with people .-‘——_“““-—~a (in micro-system) A People Public leaderseig\\\\\$ PARD - Government officials Government V Program with Government (in macro-system) Note: Program building frontier starts around 0 and gradually extends with radii 0A , OA , 0A , and 0A integrating the two systems macro and micfio more and more in each successive stage. Figure 8.--Program-building Process at Different Phases of Development. are represented by the circles of program frontiersl with radii, 0A1, 0A2, 0A3 and 0A4. On the program frontier, the different phases of program-building have been shown as discrete circles for ease of explanation. But in actuality the program frontier expands as follows with effective time spent in interaction (Figure 9): lShortened term meaning "program-building frontier." 2188 Program at micro leve "1717151, Program at macro level Figure 9.--Program-building Program with Ever- widening Program Frontier. The program frontier is built around 0 with some of the proJects in the micro level which can benefit most by the programs of the macro—level and builds up an integrative and reinforcing program with a set of com- plementarities in that phase. Since this is a dynamic process, one phase merges with the other phase and the discrete circular program frontiers at various phases merge into an ever-widening program frontier related to the amount of effective time of interaction. Schematic Presentation of IfigtItfition-Building The process of program—building forces another vital process of institution—building. It may be assumed for the convenience of schematic presentation separate 2H9 phases of institution-building around a given basic struc- ture. These separate phases of institution-building are initiated by each and every proJect of the set of comple- mentarities within the given phase. The net institution- building is a more stable process and is effected by the total pull of the forces of the complementarities. In Figure 10, the white circle in the middle repre- sents the basic institutional structure, the starting stage of the institution—building process. The ProJects A, B and Cl represent the complementarities of the first 1 phase indicated by the circle. The institutional changes in the basic core are represented by the black areas in the diagram which are proportional to their importance. The complementarities in the next phase are the proJects D, E, F, and C , where D, E, and F are new proJects, 2 while C is either an expansion or modification of C1 of 2 the earlier phase. They also have their respective pulls represented by shaded areas with straight lines on the resultant structure after the first phase. Then comes the third phase with complementarities G, B2, H, and I where G, H, and I are new proJects, while B2 is either the expanded or modified form of B1 of the first phase. The impact of those proJects on institution-building has been shown by the areas with dots. This is a very simple presentation of a very complex phenomenon. The variety and rate of proJect formulation, the rate of growth of changing phases and the growth of 250 I / \ \ ProJect’I \‘\\ \ I . ProJect D \\ I, I .— " .- -. a \. \ \\\ / / I \ \ \ / / \ \ \ / / QProJect E \ / / \ \ / , _ \ \ I ’ ’ ‘- ~ ‘\ \ \ I / "' ‘.\ \ \ / I, I \ \ \ / ProJe t 02 I’ \ \ ‘ I 0 d/ \ \ \ I Pro ct C Nair) ‘P o e t A \ l I 0 l x h, ....III.II/,,;,;_, ,/ 0 r J c \ ‘ I / ‘ | l l l i Q ‘ l . l 1 ' 1E;' . l ' l i ‘ ‘\ A \\\\\b I I I \ \ \W /' I I , \ \ ’ I \ \ \ \ I x I I \ \ Pro ect B Pro e t H Q \ J l " J \ I ProJect G \\ P}:c’Ject F / \‘ \ \ I I I s ‘ ,,," l \\ “ - -" " I \\ / / \ \ / \ / x \ / ’ K ‘ t ’ ‘ u. . l— a, “ ProJect B2 Figure 10.--Institution-building Process. 251 institutions are all bound up with one another and also with other innumerable factors some of which have been discussed. But it is far from measuring the intricate myriad forces that shape the institution-building in a particular case. However, one is Justified in being more than satisfied if at this stage, it is possible to discern some of the relevant forces and their direction of influence. Taking into consideration the dynamic aspect of the institution-building process, the discrete stages shown by the set of complementarities may be considered in actuality as merging into an ever-widening program frontier forcing a net amount of institution building on the basic institutional structure. The institution building process being a stabler process may lag behind the program-building process. The net amount of insti— tution building may also be taken to mean that both positive and negative amounts are added giving a re- sultant amount at every point of time. CHAPTER VIII FACTOR ANALYSIS ON THE COMILLA COOPERATIVES DATA Introduction The present study on the Comilla program is the first venture of its kind which analyzes the develOp- mental process concerned in the perspective of the whole program. Information was gathered on more than 500 variables on the village cooperatives, assumed to have some relationship with the evolving development pro- cesses. All types of data--nominal, ordinal, and quantitative--were collected under these variables to cover the various aspects of the program. It was also planned to conduct a factor analysis on the data. Factor analysis has its most obvious role where controlled experiment is difficult or impossible, and the variables have to be examined in their natural situ- ations. The factor-analytic procedure is indispensable and without substitute in those early stages of a science where the natural functional wholes remain to be dis- covered in the chaos of multitudinous variables. This technique discovers, from the array of thousands of 252 253 correlation coefficients (r), those variables which be- have in a consistent pattern in relation to other vari- ables. Underlying consistencies manifested by the vari- ables are known as factors and are the real functional unities influencing the whole. The entities which the investigator with a broad approach most frequently wishes to relate as dependent and independent variables are themselves generally abstrac- tions from a considerable set of operational variables. Attempts to claim that if a single "symptom" of the abstract concept appears as predicted, the hypothesis about the concept is correct, may be highly misleading. The variance in any single, operationally defined symptom (dependent variable) is usually determined by many in- fluences. The part due to the concept in question can only be determined from the identification of the latter as a factor, by other variables through which it is expressed. A rich well-thought-out concept, founded on patient observation, will generally be rooted in several variables and will generally permit inferences as to combinations of relationships among them. Factor analysis is ideally adapted to testing theories extending to simul- taneous relationships (patterns) among several variables.1 1Raymond B. Cattell, Factor Analysis: An Introduce tion and Manual for the Psychologist and Socigl Sgientist (New York: Harper and Brothers,.l952), pp. 358:359. 25A However, it has been pointed out that in the ex- ploratory phase it is at first unimportant whether a specific hypothesis as to the number or nature of the factors that exist has been chosen or not. It is best to use one factorization for hypothesis production and a second distinct factorization for hypothesis testing. The "empirical" constructs put forward through examining the influences (performances) loaded in those respective factors, are tentative in nature; but they greatly help in formulating well-developed meaningful hypotheses and apprOpriate experimental designs in later efforts. This is one of the main reasons why the author did not start with definite hypotheses but concentrated more in analyzing the existent socio-economic pre-conditions, various strategies evolved, and institutions develOped as a process of development within the Comilla program. The results of the factor analysis may reveal the under- lying trends and forces which may be helpful in intro- ducing new strategies and modifying some of the old strategies. Principal Components Solution and Rotation of Factors by Varimax Criterion The process of factor extraction can be extended to identify constellations of variables constituting separate and unidimensional factors by a method known as 255 the principal components solution.1 This solution in- volves an n-dimensional space with all the variables as vectors of the space. They are proJected on the princi- pal axes to account for the variances due to those factors represented by the axes. We have used this solution as the first step of our factor analysis. But the principal components have no fixed psychological meaning and are at the mercy of the particular choice of variables in the questionnaire (or tests in the battery). To arrive at any unique psychological or scientific mean— ing, they need to be rotated later to meet Thurstone's original concept of simple structure. For factor rota- tion Kaiser's varimax criterion2 has been used. Kaiser proposed this modification over "quartimax 3 Instead of criterion" suggested by Neuhaus and Wrigley. simplifying the rows of the factor matrix--the variables, which often produces a general factor, he formulated "varimax criterion" to simply the columns of the factor 1The method was invented early in this century by Pearson and later rediscovered by Hotelling (1933) with successive extraction of factors and by Kelley (1935) with simultaneous extraction by electronic computers. 2Henry E. Kaiser, "The Varimax Criterion for Analytic Rotation in Factor Analysis," Psychometrika, Vol. 23, No. 3 (September, 1958), 187-200. 3J. O. Neuhaus and Charles Wrigley, "The Quartimax Method--An Analytic Approach to Orthogonal Simple Struc- ture," British Journal of Statistical Psychology, Vol. VII, Part II—(November, 195UY, 81-91. 256 matrix—-the factors themselves, which with further modi- fication gives a solution that tends to be invariant under changes in the composition of the set of variables (or test battery), thus fulfilling the concept of simple structure. Detailed Procedure of the Factor Analysis on the Comilla Data In this case 183 variables were available which were all quantitative or ordinal with only a few dichotomous. Some of these variables were deduced by linear transformations of some other variables, such as "rate of increase of coverage ratio," which was found from the following variables: 1) number of households covered by the cooperative membership until the end of 1967-68, ii) number of total households in the village at the end of 1967-68, and iii) number of years of the existence of the cooperative. Some other variables were operationalized into a single score by an assigned weightage system, such as "educational points obtained by the village for its total education (primary, second- ary and higher)." For the purpose of factor analysis by the CDC 3600 computer program which can take a maximum of 90 variables, it was decided to select 90 out of those 183 variables. To facilitate selection of these 90 a correlation matrix (183 x 183) was obtained by putting 257 the 183 variables in a computer program. The new vari- ables were selected according to the following criteria: i) The variables should have considerable vari- ance among the village COOperatives. The analysis cannot reveal any factor, unless variables have considerable variance around those factors. ii) The variables should ensure prOper density manifesting the particular phenomenon considered to be relevant. iii) Variables of the same kind having a proper density should also balance in representation with variables from other areas. The total population of phenomena should be covered by even density of repre- sentation to avoid mixing of first- and second-order factors. iv) A large matrix of variables is vastly prefer- able to a small one, to get clear distinctions when factors multiply in a certain field. v) Variables should be selected that show rela- tively little correlation with other variables in the same area, but (if possible) show high correlation with variables in other areas. This procedure tends to generate factors that cut across anticipated areas (or testing instruments) and are therefore more likely to 258 aid, for example, in the development of sociological con— structs rather than mere "mathematical artifacts."l In addition to the above processes of selection, the variables having very low inter-correlations with all other variables should be eliminated because they will contribute little to definition of factors. Since there are only 26 observations for each variable, the correlation coefficients will be less reliable. One may raise a question that the errors inherent in these coefficients may counteract to conceal the underlying consistencies. Of course, had_there been a larger sample, there would have been more reli- ability in the prediction of the factors. There also could have been more factors with the increase in the rank of the correlation matrix based on a larger number of observations. Conceding this weakness in the analysis, it may also be asserted that these 26 observations were selected to be strategically critical in throwing light on various factors of the development process. To the extent the variables are close to identifying those underlying factors, or covering the whole field of con- tents (as to allow the technique to bring forth a new order of variables to form rewarding socio-psychological concepts), the efficiency of the data would be increased. 1Andrew R. Baggaley, Intermediate Cgrrelational Methods (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 196“), p. 165. 259 There is an advantage in having 90 variables to work with. Once the presence of the factor is discovered, it has been comparatively easier to identify and name it. Another question may be raised with regard to the small prOportional accountability of variances by the individual factors. The highest variance for these factors is only 12%, though 8 of them together account for 61%, 10 of then 71% and 12 of them 79% of the total variance. No one factor can really explain much of the variability in the global "development process." A good number of factor analyses in various psychological fields yield five or six maJor factors with two or three very dominant, explaining a considerable variability in the data. The present case is not so simple. The develop- ment process in a new country with a traditional base is a complex process. In such a situation quite a few factors may be anticipated to be equally important and consequently the variances proportionately shared to be small, though the total variance explained by them is quite satisfactory.1 However, the purpose of using the result of the factor analysis is to have more insights in explaining lThe x2-test developed by D. R. Saunders is avail— able for a test of significance for any single factor (rotated or unrotated) which has become very small in its variance and questionable in the course of rotation. The test has been given in Cattell, op. cit., p. 30A. 260 some of the facts already observed. The knowledge of these various factors will also help to include more relevant dimensions in future research. A step further could be taken to formulate prediction formulas from the knowledge of these factors. But for the time being, it is left as a future exercise. A factor was accepted as a genuine factor when (1) it explained a sizeable portion of the total variance, (2) it contained variables with both high and clean loadings (which means that the variables had high load- ings with the particular factor and low loadings with all other factors), and (3) it was logical to treat the factor as one dimension related to the development pro- cess of the village cooperatives. In selecting the best variables for a particular factor, the following criteria were used: (1) the variable explains a high prOportion of the common factor variance or high communality (.A0 or above); (2) the variable has a high factor loading (.50 or above); (3) the variable is clean; (A) the variable appears consistently in the same factor as the rank of the factor solution is increased; and (5) the selection of the variable as a measure of the underlying factor is logically sound. In view of the smaller number of cases and larger number of variables, a device by Burt and Stephenson could also be used, know as the Q-technique, which is 261 really a transposed factor technique. This would probably arrange different types of cooperatives from the constancy of pattern over the variables. This technique consists in correlating persons (here in this case, cooperative groups) over the variables, instead of variables over the persons (cooperative groups). Usually, in order to get r's of ample statistical significance a large pOpu- lation of cases and a reasonably small group of vari- ables are taken. For Q-technique the converse holds; it is not particularly needed to insure many cases, but there must be many variables if the r between any two cases is to be reliable. In the present investigation it was difficult to increase the sample size of coopera- tives and so the number of variables observed for each cooperative was increased with much economy of time. The group was treated as a unit like a person and responses were collected on various items from a group concensus. The group concensus or group indices were used as the variables. Even when we dealt with individual traits like the various characteristics of the cooperative manager, it was considered as a special trait of the group, labelling his set of traits as a necessary and distinct dimension of the cooperative group. Actually ‘what was really being measured was the "syntality" (syntality is to the group what personality is to the 262 person) of the cooperative group as indicated by Cattell. The Q-technique along with the traditional procedure (R-technique), would probably throw interesting insights on various underlying factors of contents and groupings in the entire develOpmental processes of the Comilla coOperatives. This is also, for the time being, left for the future. Identification of the Factors Twelve theoretical factors have been found, which will be mentioned as F F , and F until they 1’ 2’ 12 are named from an examination of the variables with high and clean loadings with the factor. The factor loadings of the variables are given with positive and negative signs before the number of the variables. The labelling number of the variables are obtained from the original list of ninety variables which were used for factor analysis. The direction of positive and negative factor loadings may be understood from the scale of measurement of the variable. What the increasing score of the vari- able indicates with respect to the actual meaning of the variable will be explained by words like "less" or "more," "positive" or "negative," "newer" or "older" etc. For example, variable no. l--the date of starting of 1Raymond B. Cattell, "Concepts and Methods in the Measurement of Group Syntality," Psychological Review, 55 (1998), 98-63. 1 263 the cooperative--has a negative scale indicating that the higher the score, the newer is the cooperative. The coding starts as 1959—60 = 0, ... , and 1967-68 = 8. Factor F includes the following variables: 1 Factor Number Description of the Higher Loadings of the variable scores variable indicate +.9lU3 1 Date of starting of the newer cooperative (old to new) +.9228 2 Date of registration of the newer cooperative with the central association (old to new) —.790A . 5 Number of pioneer members higher dropped out from the coopera- tive till 1967-68 +.8853 12 Load absorption in terms of less no. of loan receiving years arranged according to the period of existence of the cooperative -.8512 13 A Total amount of loans re- more ceived by the cooperative till 1967-68 -.8A8A 16 Total loans repaid by the more coOperative till 1967-68 -.8u09 8 Cumulative share purchased more by the cooperative till 1967-68 u -.565A A Number of members drOpped higher out from the beginning “This mark indicates that this variable is on the border line with respect to "cleanliness." 264 In other words the underlying factor, F1, embracing the above variables, indicates the direction as could be understood from: newly established COOperatives, newly registered cooperatives, fewer number of pioneer members drOpped out, less loan absorption in terms of loan re— ceiving years, less total amount of loan received, less total amount of loan repaid, less cumulative share pur- chased, and fewer number members dropped out from the beginning. This obviously indicates the state of new entrance of the cooperative in the system, a stage of probation, characterized by young groups. The dominant characteristics of this stage are: (1) recent entry into the system, (ii) no dropping out of members or a solid membership state, and (iii) very little transaction on loan and share. This factor can easily be explained from the policies of the central association. It is required for each cooperative to stay under a probationary stage which is used both for the education and prepara- tion of the group and also for evaluation of the group by the central association. The cohesiveness in the group, the size of which is still small, is expected to A be high during this period and there is very little dropping out. The new groups have to wait to get loans and so, naturally, to repay loans up to a stage of demonstrated solidarity. This is a pain-perspective for new groups imposed by the central association. 'The amount 265 of share purchased is small because of fewer members and the short existence of the cooperative. This factor may be called the probation factor. Factor F includes the following variables: 2 Factor Number Description of the Higher Loadings of the variable scores variable indicate -.5836 21 Percentage of families hav- higher ing 2.01 to A.00 acres of land in the village +.8721 2A Percentage of families below higher subsistence level in the village -.7006 25 Percentage of families at higher subsistence level in the village -.6053 26 Percentage of families above higher subsistence level in the village +.6000 39 Experience of organizational less work in the village (success or failure) -.5863 Al Modal size of land-building larger of the cooperative members +.8860 A2 Percentage of families hav— higher ing income below subsistence level among the COOperative members —.6837 83 Experience of successful more events in the village through organizational procedures (response by the manager) —.6l23 A3 Percentage of families having higher income above subsistence level among the cooperative members 266 Factor ”Number Description of the Higher Loadings of the variable scores variable indicate * +.6377 19 Percentage of families with higher no cultivable land in the village * -.7090 23 Modal size of land-holdings higher per household in the village *The variables are on the border line with respect to cleanliness but have high factor loadings. The factor F2, through these variables, indicates its direction as: lower percentage of families having land in the range 2.01-A.00 acres, higher percentage of families with no cultivable land, and smaller modal size of land-holdings in the village; lower percentage of families at or above subsistence level and higher per- centage below subsistence level in the village; higher percentage of families having income below subsistence level, lower percentage having income above subsistence level and smaller modal size of land-holding among the COOperative members; lastly, less experience of organi- zational work and less experience of successful events in the village. This factor represents the underlying char— acteristic of poor villages with poor cOOperative members (both in land and income), having no organizational experiences in the village. This factor may be called desperate myopia. The people are desperate with indi- vidual poverty and suffer from a kind of myOpia which 267 makes them atomistic preventing them from doing anything in an organized manner. Factor F3 has the following variables with high and clean loadings: Factor Number Description of the Higher Loadings of the variable scores variable indicate +.6713 30 Number of functionally higher , literate persons (male and female) in 1967-68 +.93ll 32 Total persons (male and higher female) formally schooled (primary level) before the cooperative came into being +.9312 3A Educational points obtained more by the village for its primary education before the cooperative was started +.91A2 36 Educational points obtained more by the village for its total formal education (primary + secondary + higher) before the coopera— tive was established +.92A7 37 Educational points obtained more by the village for its total formal education (primary + secondary + higher) in 1967-68 +.775A 80 Gain in educational points more for total formal education during the period of the cooperative +.6339 29 Number of functionally higher literate persons (male and female) before the coopera- tive came into being 268 The factor F3 includes most of the variables in relation to functional literacy or primary education of the total village, formal attendance of schools, the edu- cational points obtained by the total villagers both before and after the establishment of the cooperative, and the increase of educational points during the period of the cooperative. Some of these variables also include higher education both before and during the period of the cooperative, and also at present. But higher education, or even education beyond primary level, have not come in this factor as separate variables, as such. This may prompt one to explain their appearance as a partial ele— ment in this factor due to the lumping effect of these variables with the variable on the primary education, which is by far the most dominant variable. However, it is not possible to infer from this whether higher and secondary education work counter to primary and func- tional education so far as the developmental process is concerned. Some other variables may be brought in from the border line by stretching the limits beyond permissible range. These variables which do not fall in the category of formal education may throw more light on the nature of the factor. The variables are: 269 Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate +.AA31 A Number of members dropped more out from the beginning +.AAA6 55 Members' efforts to repay less loans in time —.A701 79 Villagers' past remembrance prouder about their achievement (shameful—proud) +.5158 60 The educational process less evolved through the c00p- erative inculcating an interest at individual level for savings and share pur- chases of the cooperative Variable 60 has the acceptable highest loading (.52) with the factor and variable 79 has the highest loading with the factor but less than .50 (i.e., .A7), but none of them are very clean. The other two variables, A and 55, have the second highest loadings with the factor (both .AA), having the highest loading with other factors, which means these are also not clean. These variables indicate that more members dropped from the beginning, less effort among the members to repay loans in time, past remembrance of the villagers about more shameful events and less interest manifested at individual levels for having more savings and share purchases--all these go together with the factor with its dominant variables indicating more functional and general education in the Village. 270 However, so far as this analysis is concerned the formal education will be considered as an independent dimension in the development process. But it may have a negative influence on the process if the interpretation of the second set of variables is Justified which seem clearly to indicate a direction of the influence. The factor may be named tentatively as "Formal education factor," which is also associated with some kind of instability and anti-thrift tendencies. Factor FA includes the following variables: Factor Number Description of the loadings of the variable variable —.6339 A8 Identification of the member with the cooperative group +.6825 67 Economic position of the manager * +.56A6 35 Total increase of educated persons in the village in the matriculation level (secondary Final) during the period of the COOpera— tive in -.A6A0 58 Reasonable sharing of risks by the members (adventurous but rational) ** +.AA09 81 Gain in educational points for total female primary education during the period of the COOperative Higher scores indicate less better greater less more *The variable has the desired highest loading, but on the border line with respect to cleanliness **Variables have the highest loading but less than .50 271 If only the variables A8, 67, and 35 are considered to describe the factor, it may be characterized by more identification of the members with the cooperative group, better economic position of the manager and greater in- crease of educated persons in the village in the matricu- lation level (secondary Final) during the period of the cooperative. The other two variables, 58 and 81, having highest loading with the factor (but less than .50) indicate more reasonable sharing of risks by the members and more gain in educational points for total female primary education during the period of the cooperative. This means that those villages where higher education (at secondary Final level) and female primary education are increasing during the period of the COOperative, where the manager is in good economic position, the identification of the members with the cooperative is high, and where members are willing to share reasonable risks--such villages form a constellation. This may mean cohesiveness of an enlightened group. All these characteristics may seem desirable for the development process. Guessing the influence of the factor on the overall develOpment process from the first attempt of factorization is somewhat hazardous. From the fact that increases in education in the second- ary final level and female primary education constitute a very small proportion of the total education of the 272 village, it may be concluded that they together bring those villages where only a few families are advancing educationally. So these are the villages with a top- 1evel minority of an educated elite. The manager also belongs to the economically solvent class. The com- position of FA when only 9 factors were rotated is pre- sented below which may give interesting insight into the meaning of the factor: Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate +.5927 35 Total increase of educated greater persons in the village in the matriculation level (secondary Final) during the period of the coopera— tive +.5120 67 Economic position of the better manager +.5Al7 6A Age of the manager higher -.53AA 72 Annual growth rate of higher membership -.6983 7A Rate of increase in the ' higher coverage ratio (per year) This gives the direction of the constellation as greater increase in matriculation level education during the cooperative period, better economic position of the manager, higher age of the manager, lower annual growth rate of membership, and lower rate of increase in the coverage ratio. These variables indicate that this 273 factor represents a kind of corporate monOpoly by a solvent and educated elite which is closed to other villagers. This may mean, in other words, that this cohesive and closed corporation tends to monopolize in receiving all facilities through the cooperative and is not interested in widening the membership base. The manager being solvent, he sacrifices the small remunera- tion which comes from the central association based on the membership size. But instead, with high collateral, he and his group expect to get a greater amount of loan each year for their use, which may be more attractive on the whole for the members of the corporate monopoly. It may give them power of capital to buy others' land and monopoly of agricultural services to rent at a higher rate to non—members (a new form of money-lending). The higher age of the manager with his economic position indicates that he has already an established status in the village and is free from any threatening insecurity from the non—members who are left outside. This cohesive enlightened group, or the closed corporate body, may be good for the program or not according to the purpose of the developmental program. They may turn out to be the future entrepreneurs who would develop agriculture rapidly, or may turn out to be a new privileged class of money-lenders. Here again it is felt that a second analysis on fresh data 27A with new variables introduced to shed more light on this factor would be very useful. Factor F5 Factor Number loadings of the variable - 9350 7 -.9017 9 -.7657 1A -.918A 75 -.9387 76 -.6875 3* +.5083 85** +.5198 63** includes the following variables: Description of the variable Average annual savings by the cooperative Average annual share pur- chase by the cooperative Average annual loan received by the cooperative Rate of increase of share purchase by the cooperative Rate of increase of capital (annual rate) in the cooperative Membership size in the year 1967-68 Presence of women members in the cooperative (enrollment) in 1967-68 The desire established by the educational process in c00p- erative work in individual members for increasing new knowledge and training, in- cluding efforts to read and write. Higher scores indicate higher higher more higher higher larger fewer negative *The variable has the desired highest loading but on the border line with respect to cleanliness. **The variables have second highest loadings with the factor with loadings greater than .50 275 This factor F5 includes the variables which show an inability to accumulate savings, buy shares and in general to build up capital and also to absorb loans. These variables are somewhat free from the influences of longer or shorter existence, since they are all average annual rates, and indicate an inherent lack of capacity to build up capital. They are also associated with the smaller size of membership of the cooperative in 1967-68. The smaller size of the membership is generally associated with smaller capital formation. The smaller capital formation is again associated with a smaller amount of loan disbursed, which may again limit the number of members. If the other sociological variables are considered, namely 85 and 63 for an insight, it can be seen that villages which have fewer women members enrolled till 1967-68 and less eagerness developed at individual level from the cooperative work to absorb new knowledge and training go together in this consistency. The presence of women members in the cooperative is associated with a desire for savings, thrift and economic gains. So this factor indicates either an intrinsic lack of capacity for capital accumulation which keeps them ineligible for loans thereby stunting their growth, or lack of desire or initiative to form capital. The factor may be con- sidered to represent "weakness in capital formation." Factor F6 includes the following variables: Factor loadings +.7713 .7651 -.5805 + .6931 --5527 -.6570 +.A192 Number of the variable 28 31 78 82 77 38 9” 70 276 Description of the variable Occurrence of social con- flicts in the village before the establishment of the cooperative Percentage increase of functional literacy during the period of the coopera- tive Events remembered as shame- ful moments of degradation Outlook toward women's edu- cation Proud moments of past achievement remembered by the villagers Whether women encouraged for higher education Impact of various training courses and conferences on the skill of the manager Higher scores indicate less higher more favor— able more no less effec- tive *The variable has the desired highest loading but on the border line with respect to cleanliness. **The variable has the highest loading but less than .50. These variables, excluding the last two, indicate trult less frequent occurrence of social conflicts in the Villlage before the cooperative, lower percentage increase Offunctional literacy during the period of the coopera- tiVTE, fewer events remembered as shameful moments of 277 degradation for the village, favorable outlook toward women's education and fewer proud moments of past achieve- ment remembered by the villagers—-all go together to form a consistency. If the other two variables excluded above-- encouragement of women for higher education, and training courses and conferences less effective in improving the skill of the manager--are considered to go inthe con- sistency, the interpretation of the factor gets compli- cated. The villages with fewer social conflicts before the COOperative, fewer events remembered either as proud achievement or shameful degradation, lower percentage increase of functional literacy during the period of the cooperative, but a favorable outlook on women's education and even encouragement in the village for women's higher education, and lastly the villages which are less impressed by the training courses and con- ferences to improve the skill of the manager form this consistency. This may mean that these villages are urbanized and liberal to women for economic reasons and disinterested in village affairs and culture which in- culcated in them an aloofness from the community. Also they are not so much interested in agriculture. The above description of the factor seems to be too imagina- tive, and may be far from the implication of the genuine factor. However, it seems to be certainly possible to 278 have a group with the above attributes, i.e., having a community feeling somewhat loose and so having no serious social conflict, a favorable outlook toward women's edu- cation and so an aspiration for it, and having an un- favorable attitude toward the KTCCA training courses and conferences, if the community is somewhat urbanized and less interested in agriculture and cooperative industry. The factor may be considered to represent "urbanization." Factor F7 has the following variables included in its constellation: Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate +.7l77 66 Whether land was brought No under cultivation by the manager by any (one, two, or all) of the three means--share-cropping, renting by cash, or mortgage deeds till 1967-68 —.56AA 55 Members' efforts to pay lower cooperative loans on time +.5u79 69 Feeling of the manager about less working with this group pleas- ant «s +.A8A8 A9 Whether the traditional No leaders are still active according to the manager 279 Factor Number DescriptiOn of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate * —.6A00 63 Increased efforts have No develOped among the members a desire to break with illiteracy and they are more eager to absorb new knowledge and training. *The variable has the highest loading but it has also an acceptable high loading with another factor. **The variable has the highest loading but less than .50. These variables together indicate that the manager has taken no advantage of opportunities available to him to make his own fortune and is dutiful and hard at work (the manager in collusion with other influential members could get a disproportionately larger share of loans to invest in procuring more land for his own benefit). Members' efforts to repay cooperative loans are higher and they have developed a genuine eagerness to absorb new knowledge and training through the cooperative work and are interested in learning reading and writing. The traditional leaders also seem to be less dominant. This indicates that the cooperative leadership is strict and free from selfish motives, generating an atmosphere of commitment among the members. This committ- ment induces repayment of loans on time. Learning of new knowledge and skills through training indicates 280 effectiveness of the program. The traditional leaders are not so active. This factor may be considered to represent"organizational health." Factor F8 has the following variables which are very strongly grouped together: Factor Number Description of the loadings of the variable variables +.8A05 53 Members' attendance in weekly meetings +.5A87 5A Members' interest in learn- ing improved skills +.6902 57 Members' loyalty to the cooperative as a whole * +.A29l 18 Number of households in the cooperative village «r +.3965 A3 Percentage of families hav— ing income above sub- sistence level ** -.A069 A7 Percentage of cooperative members with education in the range "class IV to class V" ** +.A280 15 Number of years loan- offering was withheld Higher scores indicate less less less higher higher higher greater *The variable has the highest loading but less than .50. **The variables have the second highest loading (which is less than .50) and also not clean. These variables indicate the direction of the factor as lower attendance in weekly meetings by the cooperative members, less interest of the members to 281 learn improved skills and less loyalty of the members to the cooperative as a whole. The other variables indicate that higher number of families in the village, higher percentage of families with income above subsistence level, lower percentage of cooperative members with education in the range "class IV to class V" and greater number of years loan-offering was withheld from a cooperative go together in this consistency. The factor may be named "Lack of patience for delayed gratification" (also with implication "irrelevancy of purpose"). Factor F9 is explained by the following variables: Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate -.5228 27 Percentage of families at higher higher levels of income (rich) -.7l30 88 Opinion about the family unfavor- planning program of the able PARD (held by the manager) These two variables are very clean with respect to this factor. The villages with lower percentage of families at higher levels of income (rich) go with the manager's favorable opinion about the PARD's family planning program. This factor represents the "urgency of birth control." It is interesting to note that the villages with lower percentage of rich families (and 282 not higher percentage of poor families) having managers with favorable opinion on family planning reflect the concept of the factor. Factor F has the following variables showing 10 great stability till the last rotation: Factor Number Description of the loadings of the variable variable —.6689 72 Annual growth rate of membership -.6530 73 Coverage ratio of the village by membership in 1967-68 -.896A 7A Rate of increase in the coverage ratio (annual) +.5012 8A Experience of unsuccessful events in the village +.A377 62* Members perceive the weekly cooperative meeting as the forum for discussing im- proved methods of agri- culture and other issues of mutual interest 2 +.39A2 6A Age of the manager rs +.A906 23 Modal size of landholdings per household in the village ** +.Alll 60 Interest developed among the members to build capi- tal through small savings and buying of shares of the cooperative Higher scores indicate higher higher higher less no higher larger no *These variables have the highest loadings, but less than .50. **These variables have the second highest load- ings, having the highest with some other factor. The loadings are also less than .50. 283 These variables describe the direction of the factor as lower annual growth rate of membership, lower coverage ratio of the village by cooperative membership in 1967- 68, lower annual rate of increase in the coverage ratio, less experience of unsuccessful events in the village, less recognition by the members that weekly meeting is an effective forum to discuss improved methods of agri- culture and other issues of mutual interest, and higher age of the manager. The last two variables, which have the second highest loadings with the factor (less than .50) add to the direction of the factor--larger modal size of land-holdings in the village, and less interest among the members in building capital through savings and buying of shares of the cooperative. This factor repre- sents the stunted growth of the COOperative due to a lack of initiative and vigor. It is interesting to note that older managers, larger modal size of land-holdings, lack of appreciation of the members to understand the significance of weekly meetings and building capital through small savings and buying of shares contribute to the stunted growth of the COOperatives. Factor F is approximated by the following 11 variables: Factor loadings +.6328 -.616A .59AA .6989 +.5080 -.A7A2 ... .Al78 Number of the variable AA A6 65 87 22 s 52 ** 38 28A Description of the variable Percentage of cooperative members with no schooling Percentage of members with education in the range class I — class III Education of the manager Opinion about the women's program of the PARD (by manager) Percentage of families having more than 6-acre of land Total number of trainees attending various courses Whether women in the village encouraged for higher education Higher scores indicate higher higher more unfavor- able higher higher no *This variable has the highest loading with the factor, but less than .50. **This variable has the second highest loading, having the highest loading with another factor. The loading is also less than .50. These variables indicate that the following vari- ables--higher percentage of cOOperative members with no schooling, lower percentage of members with education in the range "class I - class III," less education of the manager, favorable opinion about the women's program by the manager (which may not be the same held by the villagers but the assumption is that it may reflect the group opinion), higher percentage of families having more 285 than 6-acre of 1and--all go together. This factor indi- cates freedom from cultural restraints or inhibition among the uneducated class in a village with high per— centage of rich families. This means an unsophisticated and uneducated pe0ple (even a slight education in the range of "class I to class III" changes them) in the presence of a sizeable proportion of rich families in the village form a group with a less educated manager who has a favorable opinion about the women's program. Assuming that the manager's opinion may be influenced by the group Opinion it may be inferred that this group is also less restrained culturally and accepts women's program favorably, though others in the village might have cultural inhibitions against accepting it. Factor F may be explained by the following 12 variables: Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate -.73A9 50 Whether the cooperative has no given rise to a new power- structure * +.3925 73 Coverage ratio of the village higher by membership (in 1967-68) *It has the second highest loading with the factor (less than .50), having the highest loading for another factor. The variable 50 is the only clean variable having the acceptable highest loading with the factor. But 286 this is definitely a new dimension related to the power- structure in the village. In future factor analysis, more densities of variables are needed in this dimension. However if the variable 73 which has the second highest loading with the factor is added, a better meaning of this factor emerges. This factor may be interpreted by the constellation as meaning that the cooperative has given rise to a new power-structure and the coverage ratio of the village by membership in 1967-68 is larger. This means that the new power-structure to be effective should have a larger coverage ratio of the village. The power-structure is concerned as an all-village affair. However, it is admitted that the description of the factor to be more reliable needs at least more than one variable. Factor Fl3 includes the following variables: Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate +.5Al7 56 Members' efforts to save less money +.6318 61 Interest developed in the less individual members through the COOperative work to learn and practice improved methods of agriculture * -.A555 90 Length of the membership less period of the present manager in the cooperative 287 Factor Number Description of the Higher loadings of the variable scores variable indicate ** -.AA15 86 Number of various training greater courses attended in total by the members of the cooperative‘ *This variable has the highest loading with this factor and is also comparatively clean. But the loading is less than .50. **It has also the highest loading for the factor, but it is not so clean, and the loading is also less than .50. These variables indicate the direction of the factor as less effort of members to save money, less interest developed in the individual members through the cooperative work to learn and practice improved methods of agriculture, greater length of membership period of the present manager and fewer training courses attended in total by the members of the cooperative. So this factor represents continued inefficiency and lack of capacity to benefit from the system. The manager con- tinues in spite of inefficiency, indicating a sort of traditional attachment. Findings of the Factor Analysis The main purpose of the factor analysis in this particular case was to gain insight about the functional entities which might be influencing the develOpment pro- cess of the village cooperatives. The "empirical" 288 constructs, thus discovered though tentative in nature, will greatly help in formulating well—developed meaning- ful hypotheses and appropriate experimental designs in later efforts. Thirteen factors have been discovered and named tentatively as a first approximation. F 12 Probation: Desperate Myopia: State of Formal Education: Cohesion in Enlightened groups: (corporate monopoly) Basic Weakness in Capital Formation: Urbanization: Organizational Health: They are as follows: Socio-psychological prepara— tion for the entry in the program. Desperate with individual poverty resulting in atomistic behavior and lack of group action. Extent of functional and primary education of the group. A tOp elite (minority) financially solvent and educationally advanced taking interest in COOperative pro- grams and forming a closed cohesive group. Lack of capacity or lack of desire to build capital Loose community, liberal education for women and lack of interest in agriculture and COOperative industries. Discipline and strictness in the leadership, high commit- ment in the group, a strong desire to learn new knowledge, and effective organization. 10‘ ll‘ 12‘ 13‘ Lack of Patience for Delayed Gratification (irrelevancy of purpose): Urgency of Birth-control: Lack of Initiative: Freedom from Cultural Restraints: New Power- structure (Institution building): Inefficiency and Tradi— tional Attach— ment (tradi- tionalism): 289 Lack of discipline, lack of patience to wait for a future gain and less drive. Lower percentage of rich families in the village, and more favorable the manager's opinion toward family planning. Lack of appreciation of the cooperative meeting as a forum to discuss problems of mutual interest, and lack of appreciation for savings and share purchase by the members having higher modal size of landholding in the village and consequent stagnation in the size of the membership. Fewer inhibitions from cultural bonds, and liberal to women's participation in economic pursuits. Greater acceptance of the cooperative as indicated by the coverage ratio and rise of effective power- structure. Inefficiency by the manager and reluctance to change the manager. They are, by no means, considered as accurate des- criptions of the genuine underlying factors. It is neither possible in the first attempt to identify all the factors even when there are hundreds of cases. (The present analysis is based on 26 cases only.) The author admits difficulty in interpreting at least three of the 290 factors--F6, F8, and F13. It was also mentioned that the densities of variables in these and other areas should be increased in future analysis to reveal the factors in- volved more in those fields. The factor analysis, however, reveals some very interesting phenomena which call for further exploration. Understanding these phenomena with their far-reaching implications may lead to modification of old and intro- duction of new strategies. The factor F3 refers to the state of formal educa— tion in the village cooperatives. This seems to form a constellation which does not include the type of educa- tion pervasive in the whole Comilla program. The PARD publications refer to this type of education as "exten— sion education," which includes member-education, techni- cal knowledge and skills relevant to day-to—day activities of the members, general awareness of group approach, and skills for problem-solving and decision-making. The purpose and functions of these two types of education should be fully explored. This may provide rich dividends in the field of educational planning for social change. Generally both these types of education are referred to in the current literature as investment in human resources, or as building of human infra- structure. The current analysis indicates that though both the types of education are investment in human 291 resources, they are likely to produce different effects at different stages of maturity. The contents of educa- tion determined by the cultural environments may also have varying implications on the development process. Schultz has also mentioned that though some growth is not dependent on additional schooling, some others do depend on it.1 The three factors F”, F8, and F12 when considered side by side give very interesting insights on certain aspects. With the smaller size of the cooperative, the cohesiveness and sense of identification of the group is greater. This may ultimately lead to a corporate monopoly with a higher number of matriculates (secondary final) in the village (Ref. F“). With the larger size of the cooperative, a new power-structure emerges in the village with a dynamic political force (Ref. F But with 12)' the larger size of the village (in terms of households), and less interest of the cooperative members in the PARD's "extension education," there is less discipline and loyalty among them (Ref. F8). These factors bring out the various implications of the size of the coopera- tive and the village with respect to discipline, cohesion and identification, unity of purpose, and power. Large 1Theodore W. Schultz, Transforming Traditional Agriculture (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 196A), pp. 187-190. 292 size cooperatives may give rise to new power-structures and enhance the process of development. They may as well indicate a lack of relevancy of purpose and so lack of discipline and loyalty depending on some other char- acteristics being present or absent. In the same way the cohesive enlightened group may form the new entre- preneur class for developing agriculture with economic force and education as their backing. They may also become a new class of "money—lenders," consolidating their position at a higher level for greater exploitation of their neighbors. For their own benefit, they may prefer that the on-going process come to a stop and force it to a static position. These observations in the context of the comments made on the KTCCA program on its business emphasis (page 180) assume special signifi- cance. The business emphasis may lead to a situation of oligarchy and profit-making by a few, unless the educa— tional process reaches the masses as before and keeps their knowledge up to date and commitment high. There always remains a danger for the modernizing forces to regress and exploit the weaker neighbors, instead of exploiting the natural and technological resources, if the horizon of education is not kept apace with the technological advancement. This again raises some questions which should be answered before any strategies may be formulated. Should 293 the system encourage the so-called entrepreneur class to develop agriculture rapidly and on a large scale, making them an irresistible economic force and withdraw the surplus people from agriculture in a planned manner for employment in newly set-up agro-industries? Or, should the system encourage all people with no preference to anybody and educate them to arouse the "inner self" of the people leading to a moral movement? Then again, if the so-called entrepreneur class turns out to be a new privileged class but not interested in developing agriculture, what strategies might prevent them from becoming such? The factors F6 and F l Jointly throw light on some 1 aspects of the women's program and their education. Factor F6 has been identified as urbanization factor with characteristics, loose community, liberal attitude toward education of women, and lack of interest in agriculture (and cooperative industries). Factor Fll identified as "freedom from cultural restraints" factor represents less inhibition from cultural bonds, liberal to women's participation in economic pursuits, higher percentage of cooperative members with no schooling, less education of manager and higher percentage of rich families in the village. Here again women's education and women's par- ticipation in economic pursuits are widely separated, and fall in two different constellations. Liberal 29A attitudes toward women's education constitute an important part of the urbanization factor which is characterized by its lack of interest in agriculture. Whereas opinion about the women's program by the manager (if assumed to be reflective of the group opinion and relevant to the cultural situation) is positive, when the manager him— self is less educated and belongs to a cooperative having higher percentage of members with no schooling and higher percentage of rich families in the village. The women's program which is characterized by its economic emphasis is preferred by the uneducated class which might be con- sidered as less inhibited by cultural bonds. The presence of higher percentage of rich families within those vil- lages may mean that the uneducated class became free from prevailing cultural values on women's emancipation by their women's existing employment opportunities within the rich families of the village. This may also mean that the uneducated class might have accepted the values of the richer class, if it is in favor of women's emanci- pation, living in close contact of dependency. This strongly suggests that the women's program has got a stigma attached to it which keeps the middle class of the village away from it. If it is found to be true, then strategies may be developed in the women's program for the middle class women to Join the program. It is also interesting to observe that the larger number of 295 women members in the cooperative is indicative of the group's seriousness in increasing its capital. All these hypotheses may be separately tested. Manager's opinion about the family planning program (if assumed to be reflective of the group opinion and relevant to the cultural situation) is positive when the particular village has lower percentage of families with high—level income. It might be also very rewarding to investigate why the positive opinion of the manager on the family planning program did not form a constellation with larger percentages of poor families in the village. This may lead to the discovery of other constraints with regard to family planning on the opinion of the members of the villages with higher percentages of poor families. Summary The factor analysis is a great help in the stage of exploration. It helps enormously in reducing the size of data revealing the underlying consistencies in the mass of data. These underlying consistencies based on a huge correlation matrix are called factors, which are the real entities in the background of the variables influenc- ing the situation from which the data have been collected. The method, the rationale of its use in this research and its limitations in this particular context have been discussed in the first section of this chapter. 296 Thirteen factors have been identified which are relevant to the development of the Comilla Cooperative Program so far as the data can reveal. All the factors have been described from a careful look at the different variables forming the particular consistency. Basing on one analysis, the factors cannot be labelled accurately. This analysis will greatly help to identify some relevant dimensions for greater attention in future research. Some of the variables may be excluded which are Just mathematical artifacts of some other variables and the densities of variables in certain other dimensions may be increased. A few new variables may also be added. This will bring the factors in better focus, and may help to discover new variables which are fully saturated with the elements of the factors. The factor analysis, however, reveals some very interesting phenomena which call for further exploration. Understanding these phenomena with their far-reaching implications may lead to modification of old and intro- duction of new strategies. CHAPTER IX SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Purpose of the Study In most of the studies available on planned social change, there seems to be a polarization of interest, either to macro or to micro-setting. Some brilliant models of planned social change drawn from broad gen— eralizations in the macro level are available. There are also numerous successful proJects implemented in community or micro levels and studies more or less in an isolated manner without sufficient attention to the total system, the politico-administrative structure. As a result, science is weak in the intermediary range, in the process of optimum and efficient interlocking of the two levels. The PARD has evolved a role for itself as an inter- mediary between the government and the people, and this role has put the PARD into a unique position to link the macro-level planning with the micro-level planning. But, of course, its approach is mostly from micro to macro and the strategies evolved should be understood in the context of a traditional society in transition. This transition from a traditional background to a state of 297 298 planned change may be considered as a particular typology in the development process. The other typologies of the development process may be found in various combinations of the backgrounds of societal base (traditional, feudal, or tribal) and development orientations of the society (social, economic, or political). The Jurisdiction of the micro-system has been operationally defined to extend up to the thana level, the area of the PARD's original social laboratory. The system beyond that up to the national level is defined as the macro-system. The primary purpose of this study is to understand the Comilla program as far as possible with a historical perspective, so that one may discern some of its intricate but pervasive underlying principles at work. So in specific terms the statement of the problem for this thesis is to study: 1. The socio-economic preconditions of the local communities involved in the Comilla program. 2. The process of social change as understood from the study of the various strategies evolved in the system in the particular context of the socio-economic preconditions of the communities. 3. The role of the PARD in the process of building institutions in the micro-system and their integration in the politico-administrative set-up involving the macro-system. 299 A. The important factors of development in the local Comilla communities and the shaping of the future trend as revealed by the data and analysis. Theoretical Background The trend of research and publications in develop- ment planning and social change indicates a clear change of emphasis from pure short-run economic models to inter- disciplinary models which include long-term socio- psychological factors bearing on the basic personality traits of the nation. Then again the emphasis shifted to models of planning strategy which is inter- disciplinary and assumes that the processes involved in development efforts may be hastened. With the worldwide wave of rising expectations, the newly born developing countries are getting impatient to break their chains of poverty outright. The planned strategy asserts that the appropriate attitudes and, more importantly, the appropriate behavior will be forthcoming, once oppor- tunities and incentives are provided. Value changes may follow, not precede behavioral changes, and may therefore not be a pre—requisite for modern economic or political behavior. This notion is now being supported by the proponents of cognitive dissonance theory, which hypothesizes that when there is an inconsistency between the behavior of men and their values, it is often the 300 values that change. So strategies may be developed to facilitate development, not by a frontal attack upon values, but by a frontal attack upon institutions and structures that reduce incentives and opportunities and by supporting those institutions and structures which increase them. The development process is considered essentially an outcome of a complexity of factors. One factor may be highly effective within the complexity of the whole system, and completely ineffective if it were isolated. Therefore the complexity has to be considered precisely as a whole. The essence of a development model consists in bringing all really important and determining factors together in a consistent and logical framework, so that their mutual relations and their aggregate impact on development become manifest. Almost all the models available, though varying to a large extent because of broad generalizations based on professional ethnocentrism, have positively contributed in bringing out some of the most important factors of development. It is seen that the socio-psychological pre- conditions of the society in question form an important set Of determinants of development and its process. It is seen that a class of entrepreneurs whether in business, industry, politics, or administration, is another important factor. The incentive systems of the society 301 and its institutions constitute other factors of development. These also include market forces and governmental control and support. These are some of the important factors for consideration in making a macro—plan for social change. The success of these macro- plans, however, largely depends on the efficiency and strength of their inner mechanism to shape the develop- ment process from the micro-level up in a predictable pattern. For optimum speed and growth, this process of shaping should be both ways--up and down. But in practice, the basic weakness arises in the interlocking of the micro and macro 1evels—-the processes by which the micro proJects itself in the macro and the macro supports the micro; how the national goals and obJectives are transmitted to the people and how the - people's needs, desires and local efforts are integrated not only in the plans but also in the politico- administrative structure. The Comilla program provides a good case study on the linking process of the two levels. It is hoped that the accumulation of analyses of such processes based on case studies of different typologies, will bridge the long-felt gaps in theory- building by refining the middle range theories. Methodology Thirty-five village cooperatives from a total of A06 (including disbanded ones) were selected on a 302 purposive stratified random sampling basis for statistical investigations. The stratification was done on the following dimensions: (1) age of the cooperative; (2) membership size; (3) total savings; (A) total shares purchased; (5) total loan received; (6) total loan repaid; (7) loan outstanding; and (8) grading of the cooperative by the inspectors. Each of these dimensions was divided into three categories, depending on a com- promise of: (1) the range and natural distribution in the particular dimension; and (2) balanced proportion for a meaningful comparison. Three questionnaires were used--one for the coopera- tive, one for the manager of the cooperative, and one for the members of the cooperative. The first questionnaire was really a set of eight questionnaires-—one of them was filled in from the office records, five of them were filled in by responses in group concensus (the group consisting of the manager, member no. 1, member no. 2, and at least three other members), and the last two of the set were filled in separately by individual inter— views of the manager, member no. 1, and member no. 2 of each individual cooperative. Member no. 1 and member no. 2 were selected from the recommendations of the manager as being a good and a bad member, while the members themselves did not know the criterion of their selection. The second questionnaire was exclusively 303 meant for the manager, while the third questionnaire was used separately both for member no. 1 and member no. 2 of each cooperative. The inventories of the significant events in chronological order of the following were prepared: 1. Cooperatives 1. Four village cooperatives II. Other Organizations 1. PARD 2. KTCCA 3. Thana council III. ProJects Agriculture extension Mechanization of agriculture Storage, processing, and marketing Education Family planning Home development and women's education O‘xU'l-F—‘UUI'UI-J Case studies were prepared on each item on the above list except: (1) mechanization of agriculture; and (2) storage, processing, and marketing. Lastly a factor analysis was conducted with 90 variables out of almost 500 collected on the village cooperatives by. statistical investigations. Thirteen factors have been identified from the data as having consistent influence on the Village cooperatives. Strategies Evolved in the Comilla Program The Comilla program has grown both in its internal organizational structures and functions and external 30A relationships with other institutions, including government and foreign technical assistance programs. The PARD as an intermediary between the people and the government exerts change forces at each level of partici- pation. It further provides the link between the micro and macro levels by successively shaping the change obJectives and realization of change goals. The strategies evolved in making the program effective are discussed as follows. Socingsyphological Strategy Group approach.—-The most important pattern that emerges from studying the program is its avowed reliance on a group approach. When the most appropriate group approach was discovered, it was found not only to carry on the particular work, but also to create a socio- psychological environment for further work and coopera- tion. Orgsnizer system.—-The organizer system completely replaced the village—AID workers, or other government employees from each village. A new type of village leadership was developed based on purely functional roles. The training of local leadership based on functional roles increased their efficiency, made them more loyal as well as useful to the local communities. The organizer system very quietly, in course of time, transformed the traditional leadership role to a dozen 305 functional leadership roles stirring the activity front of the communities. Group_meeting.--The weekly general meetings of the cooperative members, dispel mutual distrust and pluralistic ignorance and make it possible for individuals to test the rumors, insights, and plans for action. ’ The group approach as applied in the Comilla program seems to: 1. build up psychological strength and a feeling of togetherness and security; 2. discipline the individual for a group cause through a notion of rights and obligations; 3. facilitate pooling of resources, efforts, and talents; A. provide a better chance of success, which may be further built on to develop a spirit of self-help, mutual-help, and a sense of group power. Socio-political Strategy Local control. plannipg and leadership.--The technique of delegating authority for local control and planning in the Comilla program seems to: 1. develop responsibility and constructive attitudes; -__ —;._ 306 2. increase initiative to acquire more knowledge and insight for better control and planning; 3. make planning more realistic to local situations; u. increase the amount of participation at grass-roots; 5. provide an effective combination of responsibility and authority for efficient management; 6. provide training in decision—making, conflict-resolution, and resource development. Avoidance of head-on clashes and development of mutual interest.--It is of utmost necessity to avoid any head-on clash of interest, because any trouble in the beginning will be an obstacle against introducing anything new later. Considerable emphasis is placed on the importance of each success in problem-solving, and the problems selected are often those which offer a visible and non-controversial target. Socio-economic Strategy Most of the original proJects were simple and were intended to increase income directly either by adding a gain, or reducing a loss for the participating groups. The more acceptable projects were those which could distribute profits equally to all participants. Patience 307 for delayed gratification was almost absent. The entire program has been successively shaped through a very subtle and carefully planned incentive system. However, side by side there is a constant effort to impress upon the client system that a period of hard work, higher production, greater solvency, and more stable institutions are necessary before any social welfare could be organized——a "pain perspective" that one has to endure for getting something desirable. Educational Strategy Multiplying the channels of communication.--The multiple channel of information through the local volun— tary agents, the organizer system, is considered by the villagers to be free of vested interests and so more reliable. At any moment the system can reach the masses through many agents. The system has been found to be very efficient in diffusion;and propagation of ideas through interpersonal means where mass media is not likely to be so efficient because of illiteracy and cultural barriers. Continuity of efforts and linkage.--In formulations of change objectives the PARD reveals an implicit assumption that movement toward the final change goal is a sequential process which requires a number of sub- goals. The village cooperatives continued with various types of projects every time making those projects the 308 leverage points for those particular moments to reach the change goal through a sequence of projects. The skill learned at every point in problem-solving enriches the capacity to solve still higher level problems in the sequence. The continuity of efforts builds up a psychological trust of sincerity of purpose among the various sub-parts of the client system as well as between the change agent and the client system. Realistic curriculum.—-The PARD has introduced a method of realistic curriculum building for its educational purposes, the spirit of which may be described by the statement, "our text is the social laboratory of the Comilla thana." The training is given to the cooperative members on a continuous basis, one day a week or a fort- night, or a short period each month, continued through- out the year. The continuity of training builds up a psychological trust among the farmers that they would not be abandoned in the near future and makes it possible to educate them gradually whether semi-literate or illiterate. Sociological Strategy The Comilla program has concerned itself from the beginning with redefining the roles of some of the vital partners in the system. It was very difficult to change these set roles in the beginning. But with persistent efforts and a carefully laid educational program in 309 collaborative projects where the various partners were involved, a breakthrough has been attempted. It is vitally necessary that the roles to be played by the various partners in such situations be compatible with the general policy of the whole system. A Serious and pervasive effort is seen to redefine the roles of the (l) villagers, (2) officers, (3) technical and research experts, (4) training institutes, and (5) government; all of whom constitute the overall team for developmental planning and execution. The redefinition of roles of the various partners in the system has been conceived to achieve the following: 1. to arouse initiative and responsibility among the people to shape their immediate environment; 2. to introduce the dual role of an executive and a teacher among the officers dealing with the people and convince them that something good is possible, if they honestly try; 3. to develop a spirit of partnership between the people and the government. Scientific Strategy It was necessary for the PARD to be experimental in its approach. It assumed no dogmatic notion about solutions of rural problems. This idea forced it to 310 undertake research with the village people on their problems. The extension programs with the villagers, action research in the field, and pilot projects in collaboration with government departments are the outcome of this principle to explore along with the people and the government departments the practical solutions of the problems. It emphasized more attention in the field of social sciences—-administration and management, social engineering, group dynamics, and human relations. This particular role of the PARD was also welcomed by the technical departments and a mutual dependence grew between the PARD and departmental programs out of their complementary specialties. Institution-Building and Integration in the System The whole process of institution-building and inte- gration in the system has been discussed in two steps. The first step is the development of functions and its consequent impact in developing appropriate structures needed for efficient progression of development within the micro-structure. The second step consists in developing the PARD role in integrating these structures in the politico-administrative system projecting itself in the macro—system. 311 Functions and Structures Developed in the Micro-system The special merit of any of the projects in the Comilla program is that it identifies the problems in real situations and prescribes some solution on an ad hoc basis depending on the existing resources and tries to reinforce it from all possible directions. If it is found not to work even then, a new ad hoc solution is again tried with all other forces gradually shaped to reinforce it. But if some processes are found not to reinforce the potential successful solution, a "survival approach" is taken for the time being. The friction and anomalies are made known with scientific objectivity through research monographs, reports, and conferences without directly attacking those forces. It has been possible this way to induce the prOponent of the particular force to take a rational view and change it so as to reinforce the right situation and become a participant in the development process. The projects developed at various times really belong to a continuous development of one underlying force, namely, the improvement of the condition in the rural sector. A project or a set of projects was formu- lated on a time scale, when the conditions in the environ- mental structure yielded to make place for it. This makes another condition incumbent on the project or the set of projects-—that it must have acquired by that time the optimum functionality in the existing system. 312 It has been found that most projects for rural development need an interdepartmental approach for effective implementation. While the presence of the PARD is the first step in getting the departments involved, it need not be nor is it desirable for it to be a permanent feature. In the absence of the institutional means for coordination and COOperation, the PARD plays the missing role, but for stabilizing the prOCess and intergrating it in the system, some built-in coordination system is evolved. The educative process at work among the various parties involved in the program-building helps in con- structing further action programs which are gradually reinforced through an integrating process of socio- psychological maturity of the groups and the evolution of the politico-administrative structure to hold them effec- tively. A schematic presentation of the program-building process has been introduced. Integration of these Institutions in the Politico-Administrative System The establishment of the PARD, with its anticipated role in the field of rural develOpment administration was itself a big step taken by the government toward modern- izing public administration. The composition of the board of governors for the PARD symbolizes the interdepartmental approach to problems of rural development and the urgency of their solution. 313 The PARD is consciously moving toward greater involvement with the provincial departments, the planning bodies, and the highest administrative leaders of the government to formulate long range policies, and adminis- trative plans so that new policies and plans reinforce the system developed in the micro-setting. The officials belonging to civil services and nation-building departments study the PARD pilot projects as models of program-planning and administration while in training at the PARD. These training programs greatly orient the officials to appreciate the modern effective methods of administration. The PARD constantly evaluates its own pilot projects and also those government programs which are accepted on the basis of the PARD pilot projects for large-scale implementation. These evaluation reports greatly help extension and modification of the programs as well as development of new plans and programs. The PARD is constantly engaged in organizing con- ferences of high-level officials, workshops, and seminars on controversial scientific issues where research scholars and experts exchange their views. These efforts greatly help to refocus attention on vital issues and build up a professional community interest. The process of institution-building is forced by an effective program-building. The net institution- building is a more stable process and is effected by the 314 total pull of the forces of the complementarities. A schematic presentation of the institution-building has been introduced to simplify the description and under- standing of the abstract process of institution—building. Findings of the Factor Analysis A factor analysis has been conducted with 90 variables having a priori relevance to the development processes of the village cooperatives. The purpose of using the result of the factor analysis is to have more insight in explaining some of the facts already observed in identifying the various evolving strategies in Chapter VI, especially related to the village cooperatives. It is also expected that the knowledge of these various factors will help to include more relevant dimensions in future research. However, the present analysis of the underlying factors reveals some very interesting phenomena and trends, which may call for some modifications in some of the old strategies and also introduction of some other new strategies. Thirteen factors have been identified as a first approximation, which may be further investigated. They are as follows: Factor F Probation 1 Factor F2 : Desperate Myopia Factor F State of Formal Education 3 315 Factor F“ : Cohesion in Enlightened Groups (Corporate Monopoly) Factor F5 : Basic Weakness in Capital Formation Factor F6 : Urbanization Factor F7 : Organizational Health Factor F8 : Lack of Patience for Delayed Gratifica- tion (also Irrelevancy of Purpose) Factor F9 : Urgency of Birth—Control Factor Flo: Lack of Initiative Factor F11: Freedom from Cultural Restraints Factor F12: New Power-Structure (Institution- Building) Factor F : Inefficiency and Traditional Attachment l3 (Traditionalism) The important observations made from a close scrutiny of the factors are given below. The state of formal education (F3) in the village cooperatives seems to form a constellation which does not include extension education although it is so pervasive in the whole program. This calls for exploration into the purposes and functions of these two types of education which may provide rich dividends in the field of educational planning for social change. when considered 12 side by side bring out the various implications of the The three factors F”, F8, and F size of the cooperative and the village with respect to discipline, cohesion and identification, unity of purpose and power, which may be responsible for introducing 316 new strategies or even for raising new philosophical questions. The Factors F6 and F11 jointly throw light on some aspects of the women's program and education. Here again women's education and women's participation in economic pursuits are widely separated and fall in two different constellations. The factor Urgency of Birth-Control (F9) forms a constellation with positive opinion of the manager on the family planning program and lower percentage of families with high level income, but not with higher percentage of poor families. Exploration of the reasons for this may lead to a possible discovery of some interesting con— straints on the opinions of the members of poor families with regard to family planning, (one of which may be the feeling of insecurity with fewer children because of high mortality rate or another, better scope of earning by the children). Some Comments on the New Trends of the Cooperative Program "No—new-projects" concept of the villagers discussed earlier (page 131) may be taken up. This may mean any one of the following: (1) lack of education to under- stand the new projects as distinct from older projects, (2) some older projects have assumed newer dimensions which actually need a period of consolidation or trial, 317 and learning of special skills before steps in new directions may be taken, and (3) the program is not generating newer projects for whatever reasons there may be. Finding of clear answers for this will greatly help in formulating new programs. Land—through—loan program discussed earlier (page 13A) may be further analyzed. Formerly loans were given by the central association to release the members' mortgaged land. With the introduction of improved methods this loan program was extended to provide capital to the members to rent the land of others for improved cultivation. Recently this loan policy has been further extended to provide capital to the cooperative members to buy land from others. The policy of loan giving to members in this particular aspect shifted from that of earlier periods. At first loan money was never allowed to be used for buying land from others, and the utiliza— tion of loan was very carefully scrutinized by the KTCCA, through the device of a jointly drawn production plan. The loan disbursement policy, however, has shifted from the production plan device to an upper-ceiling limit device. The upper-ceiling of loans payable to a group is determined by its collateral and past transactions behavior.1 The utilization of loans depends largely now 1The upper—ceiling of loans payable to a group may be fixed at a maximum of five times its collateral pro— vided all other required conditions are satisfied. 318 on the plans of the cooperative groups themselves without much control from the central association. The central association remains satisfied with timely repayment of the loan dues. The full implication of this shift from the production plan device to upper-ceiling limit device is yet to be analyzed. Probably, this shift may be related with the business emphasis of the KTCCA. This may be also related with the growth of oligarchy or corporate monopoly in the village cooperatives in certain cases. The land-through-loan program is also growing in size. In the year 1967-68, out of a total amount of Rs. A,2AA,A77.00 issued as loans to agriculture cooperatives, Rs. l,A80,A55.00 (i.e. 35%) was issued under the land-through-loan program.1 This program includes: (1) land lease loan, (2) land release loan, and (3) land purchase loan. The raising of this issue is intended to indicate that it is a new trend and its implication should be carefully studied. The introduction of high-yielding rice varieties, improved potato seeds, and other vegetables along with the introduction of power irrigation system, need high investment and better skill and management in agricul- ture. This may tend to develop a new class of farmers and oust others who were marginal. The price of land 1Badar Uddin Ahmed and Rezaul Karim, The New Egral Coogerative System for Comilla Thana, Eighth Annual Report, PARD. Comilla, East Pakistan, April, 1969, Table 23, p. 28. 319 would go up and would be transferred to the entrepreneur class gradually, who would put the land under intensive cultivation. This will create two problems, one with agricultural education and the other with gradual transfer of surplus pe0ple to other occupations. The former relates to the problems of insects and insecticides with all the year round greenery and of meeting the shortage of pasture land and green manures. The latter problem relates to effective utilization of the available power in the village to develop various agro-industrial units to employ the displaced persons. Till now, the utilization of power in the cooperative village has been very low. Fresh thinking has to be done in setting up the various industrial units. The central associa- tion (KTCCA) has already set up a new federation, Comilla Industrial Cooperatives Federation (CICF). A new kind of program planning has to be taken up in the field of agro-industry involving the villages more and more. A trend of increasing interest is also noticed both among the agricultural and non-agricultural cooperatives to get involved in business and industries. PARD's New Function and Role It seems clear that the scope of the PARD's action research will extend beyond its thana laboratory with the acceptance of the District Integrated Rural Develop- ment program for implementation in the whole province. 320 The PARD should continue the evaluation research of the various pilot projects, even though they are now beyond the thana level. The PARD should now evaluate more seriously its various training programs. The training needs of the various groups, and the effective methods of training based on constant evaluation and long-range effect both on the trainees and their work program should be care- fully analyzed. The PARD should assume more and more the responsi- bilities of research and extension services for rural development. The methods apprOpriate to this task as a rule require, to approach an optimum size, a substantial number of competent scientists and assistants and an array of expensive facilities for experimental work. No private profit organization can take up this function because such firms cannot capture all of the products of value that a scientific establishment produces.l For an agricultural extension service to be efficient, it cannot restrict its activities to the promotion of one or even a few new agricultural factors. It must, for example, also bring to farm people information pertaining to other aspects of production and to consumption and values and tastes that affect their standard of living. 1Richard R. Nelson, "The Simple Economics of Basic Scientific Research," Journal of Political Economy, 67, (June, 1959), pp. 297-306. 321 Only an institution interested in the comprehensive development of the communities can capture most of the returns from such a program.1 Once this non-profit governmental institution is set up for research and extension, other private and public institutions may join with it in its distribution program. Conclusions A step has been taken in analyzing the Comilla program in its total perspective in an interdisciplinary approach. The various strategies evolved and the process of institution building in the development system have been analyzed with a theoretical frame. The role of the PARD in the micro-macro inter- locking process of the development planning has been clearly brought out and simple schematic presentations of these processes are provided. The present trends of the cooperative program in its micro-setting have been analyzed. In the light of these trends, the future implications on the strategies and program-planning have been discussed. The PARD's new functions and role were also indicated. 1Theodore W. Schultz, Transforming Traditional Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), pp. 159-165. . 322 Needed Research The present research on the Comilla development process represents the beginning of a series of research programs in this field. The data of this research analyzed by the R-technique of factor analysis involving correlations between variables over the cooperatives need a transposed factor technique, known as Q-technique to discover the cooperative types from the constancy of patterns over the variables. These two techniques taken together would probably throw interesting insights on various under- lying factors of contents and groupings in the entire developmental processes of the Comilla cooperatives. The factors identified by the present analysis should be further approximated by a new factor analysis by rearranging variables from the experience of the present analysis and collecting new data. Many research hypotheses have been generated in this study which should be tested and their implications in program-building analyzed. The most important questions to be explored are: What are the incentive systems and how do they influence the development process? Who are the entrepreneurs for agricultural development? How can they best be encouraged? What are the important factors that help or retard the development processes of the village cooperatives? What are the 323 implications of various socio-psychological characteristics on the development of the village cooperatives? What are the impacts of various types of education on the development process of the village cooperatives? What is the impact of religion on development? What strategies should be developed to popularize the women's program, the family planning program and others? More penetrating research is needed on mechanization of agriculture and agricultural production. However, the most useful research would emerge when some of the important factors of development are identified. BIBLIOGRAPHY 321} BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmed, Badar Uddin, and Karim, Rezaul. A New Rural Coop- erative System for Comilla Thana--Rural COOperative Pilot Experiment. Eighth Annual Report. Comilla, East Pakistan: PARD, 1969. Baggaley, Andrew R. Intermediate Correlational Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964. Bertocci, Peter J. Pattern of Social Organization in Rural East Bengal. To be published by the Asian Studies Center of Michigan State University as part of the proceedings of the Fourth Annual Con- ference on Bengal held in 1969. Campbell, Olive Arnold. The Danish Folk School; Its Influence in the Life of Denmark and the North. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928. Cattell, Raymond B. "Concepts and Methods in the Mea- surement of Group Syntality." Psychological Review, 55 (1948), A8-63. . Factor Analysis: An Introduction and Manual for the Psychologist and Social Scientist. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952. Cohdy, M. M. Masters of Their Own Destiny. New York, London: Harper, 1939. Colombain, Maurice. Cooperative and Fundamental Educa- tion. Publication No. 632, second of a series of booklets, Monographs on Fundamental Education. Paris: UNESCO, 1950. Fairchild, H. W., and Huq, Shamsul. A New Cooperative System for Comilla Thana. First Annual Report, PARD, 1961. O Festinger, L. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957. 325 326 Di Franco, Joseph. A Collection of Principles and Guides. Comparative Expansion Publication, No. A. Edited by John M. Fenley. Ithaca: New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 1959. Hagen, Everett E. On the Theory of Social Change. Home- wood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1962. . The Economics of Development. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968. Kaiser, Henry E. "The Varimax Criterion for Analytic Rotation in Factor Analysis." Psychometrika, Vol. 23, No. 3 (September, 1958), 187-200. Khan, Akhter Hameed. Progress Report on the Comilla Cooperative Project, June, 1962. Second Annual Report--A New COOperative System for Comilla Thana, PARD, 1963-63, Appendix D. Khan, Akhter Hameed, and Khan, Abdul Aziz. "Comilla Cooperative." Part II. PARD, February, 1969. (Mimeographed.) Lasswell, Harold D., and Holmberg, Allan R. Foundation for Research on Human Behavior, Comparatiy§_ Theories of Social Change. Edited by Hollis W. Peter Lewin, Kurt. "Frontiers in Group Dynamics." Human Rela- tions, 1 (l9U7), S—Al. Lewis, W. Arthur. The Theory of Economic Growth. 8th ed. London: George Allen & Urwin, Ltd., 1968. Lippitt, Ronald; Watson, Jeanne; and Westley, Bruce. The Dynamics of Planned Change. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1958. Maier, Norman R. F. Principles of Human Relations. New York: Wiley, 1958. McClelland, D.C., and Winter, David G. Motivating Eco- nomic Achievement. New York: The Free Press, 1969. Miles, Matthew B. "Educational Innovation: The Nature of the Problem." Innovation in Education. Edited by Matthew B. Miles. New York: Bureau of Publica- tigfis, Teachers College, Columbia University, 19 . 327 Muyeed, Abdul. "An Experiment with Youth Clubs." Journal of the Pakistan Academy for Village Development, Vol. 1, No. l (1960). Myint, Hla. The Economics of the Developing Countries. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1965. Nelson, Richard R. Nelson. "The Simple Economics of Basic Scientific Research." Journal of Political Economy, 67 (June, 1959), 297-306. Neuhaus, J. O., and Wrigley, Charles. "The Quartimax Method--An Analytic Approach to Orthogonal Simple Structure." British Journal of Statistical Psy— chology, Vol. VII, Part II (November, l95U), 81-91. Ponsioen, J. A. National Development--A Sociological Contribution. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.. Rahim, Syed A. "Diffusion of Innovations in a Development System: A Study of Collective Adoption of Innova— tions by Village Cooperatives in Pakistan." Un- published Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State Uni- versity, 1968. Rostow, W. W. The Economics of Take—off Into Sustained Growth: Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic Association. London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1964. Schuler, E. A.; Huq, M. Nurul; and Schuler, K. R. "East Pakistan's First Village Women's Cooperative: The Ashrafpur Grihya Lakshmi Cooperative Society Ltd., Kotwali Thana Development Area, Comilla District." Journal of the Pakistan Academy for Village De- velopment, Vol. 1 (1960), l9-3H. Schultz, Theodore W. Transforming Traditional Agriculture. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 196A. Sorenson, Roy, and Dimock, Hedley. Designing Education in Values: A Case Study of Institutional Change. New York: Association Press, 1955. Stwdelmann, F. J. Frederich William Raiffeisen: His Life and Work. St. Gall: 1930. Wayland, Sloan R. "Structural Features of American Edu- cation as Basic Factors in Innovation." Innovation in Education. Edited by Matthew B. Miles. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. APPENDIX A A GUIDELINE FOR CASE-STUDIES 328 APPENDIX A A GUIDELINE FOR CASE-STUDIES Introduction The educational influence of the PARD is best pro— pagated through its projects. These projects need support of various organizations at different levels. New insti- tutions are needed to reinforce, supplement or replace old institutions or values according to their relevance to the developing process. The developing process shapes itself under the influence of various interests, organi- zations, and institutions. These sources may have con- flicting forces, reinforcing forces and sometimes deflect- ing forces to exert upon a particular program. So a particular program takes its gradual shape in a course dictated by the resultant force at a particular point and time in a systemic way. A clear analogy may be drawn to describe the situation from the field of dynamic equili- brium of forces with multiple foci located at various points in the field. The various foci in such cases may be identified as stronghold of influences exerted by various organizations, groups, institutions, values, resources, etc. 329 330 A successful project makes a balance of these forces in its field of action and is incorporated in the system. A good program may not be successful because of its deficiency of adaptation in the existing structure. We are concerned more in this process of adjustment be- tween program and structure. A project may be unsuccess— ful not because of its inherent quality or content but because of its non—acceptance in the existing structure. So in the study it will be of interest to see how a program originates, what context is necessary, how it thrives, what problems it solves, what strategies are adopted to introduce the program and then to make it work, how its growth process is regulated, how its growth influences the social and structural environment, and lastly to see the factors that contribute to its being successful or unsuccessful. So a tentative outline may be given as follows. Tentative Outline I. Socio—Economic Pre—conditions: 1. Social and economic systems prevailing at the time of initiation. 2. Realization of the problem and task knowledge. 3. Socio-psychological preparation. 331 II. Initiation of the Program and its Planning Strategies: 1. 3. Initiation of the program--parties in- volved, processes utilized and resources needed. Establishment of organization and stream- lining of management procedures. Ensuring people's participation. III. Problems of Implementation and Stabilization: l. 2. 3. Problems of education and skill training. Problems of coordination and adaptation with other agencies at various levels. Evolution of a self—propelling device. IV. Problems of Growth, Expansion and Integration: 1. Facing of new challenges and development of new outlook. Planning of expansion of the program both in sc0pe and function--inter-departmental jealousy and coordination. Integration of the program with the total "system" of development. V. Evaluation and Conclusion: 1. A. 5. Impact of the program on the people and the "system." Trends in program objectives. Trends in structural develOpment needed to fulfill the objectives of the program. Developmental stages. Strategies and educational processes. So attention will be focused on the background socio—economic situations, identification of problems, 332 planning and implementation of program, the course of events with their chronology leading either to success or failure, the organizational development and adminis- trative set-up, departmental cooperation and coordination at various levels, and lastly its integration in the develOpmental process. The purpose of this effort is to discover the strategies evolved at various stages and the underlying educational processes that build up a gradual process-structure interplay to make a project an integrated part of a development program. APPENDIX B LIST I OF VARIABLES 333 APPENDIX B LIST I OF VARIABLES Ninety (90) Variables Used in Factor Analysis The interpretation of correlations between any two variables of the list depends on the direction of the scales of the variables. ll. 12. Date of starting of the cooperative. Date of registration of the cooperative with the Central Association. Membership size in the year 1967—68. Number of members dropped out from the beginning. Number of pioneer members dropped out from the cooperative till the end of 1967-68. Total cumulative savings by the cooperative in the year 1967—68. Average annual savings by the cooperative. Cumulative share purchase by the COOperative till the end of 1967-68. Average annual share purchase by the cooperative. Average annual deposits per member of the cooperative. Total capital formation (savings + share) by the cooperative till the end of 1967-68. Loan absorption in terms of number of loan-receiving years and the period of existence of the COOperative. 334 13. 1A. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 335 Total loan received by the cooperative till the end of 1967-68. Average annual loan received by the cooperative. Number of years loan—offering was withheld. Total loan repaid by the cooperative till the end of 1967—68. Average annual loan repaid by the cooperative. Number of households (single kitchen-units) in the cooperative village. Percentage cultivable Percentage 5 kanis (2. Percentage 10 kanis. Percentage land. Modal size Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Occurrence of families (households) with no land. of families with land from 2 kanis to 5 kanis = 1 acre). of of of of of of of of families with land from 5 kanis to families with more than 15 kanis of land-holdings per household. families below subsistence level. families at subsistence level. families above subsistence level. families at higher levels (rich). social conflicts in the village before the establishment of the cooperative. Number of functionally literate persons before the cooperative came into being. Number of functionally literate persons in the year 1967-68. Percentage increase of functional literates during the period of the cooperative till 1967-68. 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. A0. Al. A2. “3. AA. A5. A6. A7. A8. 336 Total persons (M+F) formally schooled up to primary level before the cooperative came into being. Percentage increase of persons formally schooled up to primary level during the period of the cooperative. Educational points obtained by the village for its total Primary education before the COOperative was started. Total increase of educated persons (matriculation level) during the period of the cooperative. ”fl Educational points obtained by the village (Pry., Matric., and Higher Educ.) before the cooperative was established. F _ -.-l'__z_‘A- It. '0 Educational points obtained by the village (Pry., matric., and higher) in the year 1967-68. Whether women encouraged for higher education. Experience of organizational work in the village (irrespective of success or failure). Trouble faced in setting up the initial organization. Modal size of land-holding in the cooperative. Percentage of families among the members having income below subsistence level. Percentage of families among the members having income above subsistence level. Percentage of members with no schooling. Percentage of members with ability to read the Quran. Percentage of members with education "class I to class III." Percentage of members with education "class IV to class V." Identification of the members with the cooperative group. A9. 50. 51. 52. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 6A. 65. 66. 337 Whether the traditional leaders are still active (manager's Opinion). Whether the COOperative has given rise to new power- structure (manager's opinion). Increase of cliques and factions because of the cooperative (manager's opinion). Total number of trainees attending various courses. Members' attendance in weekly meetings. Members' interest in learning improved skills. Members' efforts to repay cooperative loans on time. Members' efforts to save money. Members' loyalty to the cooperative as a whole. Reasonable sharing of risks by the members (adventurous but rational). Reasonable sharing of profits by the members. Interest developed in the individual members through the cooperative work to deposit savings and buy shares of the cooperative. Interest developed in the individual members through the cooperative work to learn and practice improved methods of agriculture. Member's perception of the weekly cooperative meeting as the forum for discussing improved methods of agriculture and other issues of mutual interest. Increased efforts developed among the members a desire to break with illiteracy and to absorb new knowledge and training. Age of the manager. Education of the manager. Whether land was brought under cultivation by any of the three means (share-cropping, renting by cash, and mortgage) by the manager in the year 1967—68. ‘I-bm Q. n .33“? I? 67. 68. 69. 7o. 71. 72. 73. 7A. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 8A. 85. 86. 338 Economic position of the manager. Turnover of managers. Manager's feeling in working with his group. Impact of various training courses and conferences on the skill of the manager. Manager's satisfaction from the work. Annual growth rate of membership of the cooperative. Coverage ratio of the village by membership in 1967-68. Rate of increase in the coverage ratio (per year). Rate of increase of share purchases by the COOpera- tive. Rate of increase of capital in the cooperative (average annual rate). Proud moments of past achievement remembered by the villagers. Events remembered as shameful moments of degradation. Villagers' past remembrance about their achievement (from shameful to neutral to proud). Gain in educational points of the Village (Pry. + Matric. + Higher) during the period of the coopera- tive. Gain in educational points due to female pri- mary education during the period of the COOpera— tive. Outlook towards women's education. Experience of successful events through organizational procedures in the village. Experience of unsuccessful events in the village. Presence of women members in the cooperative. Number of various training courses attended in total by the members of the cooperative. 87. 88. 89. 90. 339 Opinion about the women's program of the Academy (manager's opinion). Opinion about the Family Planning program of the Academy (manager's opinion). Any experience of the manager inside or outside the village. Length of the membership period of the present manager in the cooperative. APPENDIX C LIST II OF VARIABLES 3A0 APPENDIX C LIST II OF VARIABLES The remaining 93 variables (out of 183) which were not used for factor analysis. 10. 11. 12. Membership size of the cooperative in the beginning. Number of members dropped out during the first-half period of its existence. Number of members dropped out during the last-half period of its existence. Percentage of drOpped out members dropping out during the first-half period of the existence of the cooperative. Total capital formation per member of the coopera- tive till the end of 1967-68. Outstanding loan of the cooperative (not necessarily over-due) till the end of 1967—68. Number of people (total population) in the coopera— tive village. Total land of the villagers under actual cultivation. Average income per acre of land (taking into con- sideration all types of land) in the village. Number of minimum distinct social strata in the village. Whether a primary school exists in the village. Whether a secondary school exists within a radius of one mile from the village. 3A1 13. 1A. 15. 16. 17. l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 3A2 Total persons formally schooled up to the primary level in the year 1967—68. Educational points obtained by the village for its total female primary education before starting the cooperative. Whether women encouraged for Bengali Percentage of household units having land" (member-families). Percentage of household units having kanis of land (member-families). Percentage of household units having kanis to 5 kanis (member-families). Percentage of household units having kanis to 10 kanis (member-families). Percentage of household units having kanis to 15 kanis (member—families). Percentage of household units having or more (member—families). Percentage of families having income level. ' Percentage of families having income level (rich). Number of members with no schooling. education. "no cultivable land up to 2 3 ‘HA ‘5‘ land from 2 F;— land from 5 land from 10 land 15 kanis at subsistence | at higher | Number of members having education from "class IV to class V." Number of members having education from "class XI to class X." Number of members having matriculation certificate (high school graduation). Percentage of members with education class VIII." Percentage of members with education class X." "class VI to "class IX to 30. 31. 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. A0. A1. A2. “3. AA. “5. 3A3 Groups' feeling for resisting external threat and pressure directed towards its disintegration. Whether the traditionalleaders are still active (opinion of member 1). Whether the traditional leaders are still active (opinion of member 2). Relationship of the cooperative with the traditional leaders (manager's opinion). Relationship of the cooperative with the traditional leaders (opinion of member 1). Relationship of the cooperative with the traditional leaders (opinion of member 2). Whether the cooperative has given rise to a new power structure (opinion of member 1). Whether the cooperative has given rise to a new power structure (opinion of member 2). Increase of cliques and factions because of the cooperative (opinion of member 1). Increase of cliques and factions because of the cooperative (opinion of member 2). Emergence of new leadership because of new roles brought by the cooperative (manager's opinion). Emergence of new leadership because brought by the cooperative (opinion Emergence of new leadership because brought by the cooperative (opinion of of of of new roles member 1). new roles member 2). Members' efforts to increase deposit with the cooperative account. Interest developed in the group as a whole through the cooperative work to deposit savings and buy shares of the cooperative. Interest developed in the group as a whole through the cooperative work to learn and practice improved methods of agriculture. A6. A7. A8. A9. SO. 51. 52. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 3AA Members' group perception of the weekly cooperative meeting as the forum for discussing improved methods of agriculture and other issues of mutual interest. Increased efforts developed among the group as a whole a desire to break with illiteracy and to absorb new knowledge and training. No good or bad habit has been developed in the group because of the cooperative work. Serious crisis faced any time during the existence of the cooperative. Number of times the cooperative faced the crisis. Quantity of land owned by the manager before joining the cooperative. Quantity of land owned by the manager in the year 1967-68. Quantity of land under cultivation in the year 1967- 68. Whether land was brought under cultivation by any of the three means (share-cropping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) before joining the cooperative. Whether land was given out by any of the three means (share—crOpping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) before joining the cooperative. Whether land was given out by any of the three means (share-cropping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) in the year 1967-68 Manager's work experience inside the village before joining the cooperative. Manager's work experience outside the village before joining the cooperative. Length of the membership period of the present manager in the cooperative. Length of the period that the present manager is responsible. _3 fig.) 61. 62. 63. 6A. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 7A. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79- 3A5 Whether the responsibility of the manager's position was assumed from the beginning of the COOperative. Whether any change occurred in the role of a manager while the current manager was in the office. Manager's liking for a fixed salary for his work. Whether the cooperative can possibly employ the manager on a fixed salary (as stated by the manager). Age of the member (member 1). Age of the member (member 2). Educational qualification of the member (member 1). Educational qualification of the member (member 2). Length of membership period (member 1). Length of membership period (member 2). Member's total deposit (net) till the end of 1967- 68 (member 1). Member's total deposit (net) till the end of 1967- 68 (member 2). Amount invested in share purchase till 1967-68 (member 1). Amount invested in share purchase till 1967-68 (member 2). Total loan received by the member till 1967—68 (member 1). Total loan received by the member till 1967—68 (member 2). Total amount outstanding to the member of 1967-68 (member 1). Total amount outstanding to the member of 1967—68 (member 2). the end of the end of the end of the end of till the end till the end Quantity of land owned before joining the cooperative by the member (member 1). 80. 81. 82. 83. 8A. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 3A6 Quantity of land owned before joining the cooperative by the member (member 2). Quantity of land owned in the year 1967-68 by the member (member 1). Quantity of land owned in the year 1967-68 by the member (member 2). Whether land was brought under cultivation by any of the three means (share—cropping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) before joining the cooperative (member 1). Whether land was brought under cultivation by any of the three means (share—cropping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) before joining the cooperative (member 2). Whether land was given out by any of the three means (share-cropping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) in the year 1967-68 (member 1). Whether land was given out by any of the three means (share-crOpping, renting by cash, and mortgage deed) in the year 1967-68 (member 2). Whether any training received by the member through the cooperative (member 1). Whether any training received by the member through the COOperative (member 2). Educational points.obtained by the village for its female primary education in the year 1967—68. Opinion about the women's program of the PARD (opinion of member 1). Opinion about the women's program of the PARD (opinion of member 2). Opinion about the family planning program of the PARD (opinion of member 1). Opinion about the family planning program of the PARD (opinion of member 2). APPENDIX D QUESTIONNAIRES 3A7 (From Office Records) Ques. No. 1.1 Name of the Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY I. GENERAL Name of the Cooperative: Date of starting the Cooperative: Date of registration of the Cooperative: No. of members in the pioneer group: Membership-strength: UWJZ’UUNH Year—wise breakdown of membership-strength Total No. of Year members (at the end of the year) No. of chulas* covered in the entire village Number of Drop-outs *chula refers to family under one kitchen (or household unit) 6. How many of the members of the pioneer group have dropped out of the organization? Number 7. Share-capital and savings Year-wise breakdown of share capital and savings Year Total Deposits Total share Average Deposit by the members purchase per member (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) 3A8 349 8. Loans (a) Year-wise breakdown of loans and repayments Total loan Received Total Year Loan Outstanding . in kind Total in cash (Rupee-value) (Rs-) Repaid (Rs.) ' (Rs.) (b) Utilization of loans Year Loans Utilized in Various Projects (Name the Projects) 9. Inspectors' Grading of the general performance of the Cooperative Year Grading Comments by the Manager of the Cooperative (Group Consensus of Villagers) 350 Questionnaire No. 1.2 Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY II. 1. Size of the village: BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF THE COOPERATIVE VILLAGE a. Total Population: b. No. of households: (Household refers to c. Total Acreage: 'Chula') (Only land under cultivation) 2. Economic status of the village: a. Land-Holding Size of Land-Holding per Household No. of Units Percentage Modal size No cultivable land Land up to 2 kanis 2 kanis - 5 kanis 5 kanis - 10 kanis 10 kanis - 15 kanis 15 kanis and above b. Income Categories No. of House— holds Per- centage Occupations Practiced (According to Importance) Occupations Percentage of Income Income below subsistance level Income at subsistance level Income above subsistance level Income at higher level (rich) 351 3. Earning Per Acre Proportion of Land under Average Types of Land the Type Income Acre Fraction of per 16 annas Percentage (Rs.) Land of one crop Land of two crops Land of three crops A. Occupational Structure of the Village Name of Number of Percentage of Total Number Occupation Households* of Households ”The same household may be included under more than one occupation, if the case be so. This means that the summation of this column may not correspond to the total number of households in the village. 5. Social condition of the village a. Did you have any factions in the village (Before establishing the cooperative) in the past? Yes Undecided No 352 b. If 'yes,' then find out the direct and immediate reasons causing the faction according to the following table: Reasons for the Emergence When Originated of the faction (How many years back) c. Describe the factions and give some examples of their conflict in the past? d. How were the conflicts resolved? e. Do you feel that there are distinct social strata among the people of your village? Yes Indefinite No f. If 'yes,' then when and in what occasions do they manifest themselves very clearly? g. How many distinct social strata have you in the village? Number 1 h. Did you have a village samaj? Yes Undecided No i. What roles did it play in the village? j. How could somebody become the village leader? 353 k. Whom do you think the villagers used to respect most? 6. Education of the village: a. How many persons could read and write for functional purposes (excluding children under 7 years of age) before the estab- lishment of the cooperative? And now in the year 1967-68? b. Did you have a primary school within the village before the cooperative was established? c. Did you have a primary school within a radius of one mile? d. Did you have a high school within the radius of one mile? e. Did you have a madrasa within the radius of one mile? Male Female Male Female Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No f. Number of educated persons belonging to the village (whether living or not) Male Female Total Standard Of Before Prfigent Before Prifient Before Prfigent Education Coop. (1967- Coop. (1967- Coop. (1967- 68) 68) 68) Primary School Passed Matricula— tion I.A./ISc/ICom. B.A./BSc/BCom. M.A./MSc/MCom or above 354 g. Did you use to encourage women's (give the majority view) Religious education? Yes Undecided No Secular education? Yes Undecided No Higher education? Yes Undecided No Special Problem: Did you have any special problem-- Physical, Social, or Psychological barring development work in the village? Significant events: Can you remember any events either good or bad which the villagers will keep in their memory either with a sense of pride or shame for a long time? Good Bad 355 (Group Consensus 0f the Questionnaire No. 1.3 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY III. ORGANIZATION OF THE COOPERATIVE How did you get the idea of forming the cooperative? What were the objectives for setting up the cooperative? Did you have any experiences of organizational work in the village? (Irrespective of success or failure.) Yes Undecided No Describe: Cases of success: Cases of failure: Did you face any trouble in setting up the initial organization? Yes Undecided No Describe the nature of trouble: People of what characteristics, in your opinion, are the supporters of this organization? People of what characteristics, in your opinion, oppose this organization? What are the long-range problems of your organization? (Group Consensus of the Members) 356 Questionnaire No. l.A Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY IV. MEMBERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS l. Socio—economic background of the members a. Land-Holding (Taking all members together): Size of Land Holding No. of Percentage Modal Size Units No cultivable land Land up to 2 kanis 2 kanis - 5 kanis 5 kanis - 10 kanis 10 kanis - 15 kanis 15 kanis and above b. Income Categories Occupations* practiced No. of (according to impor- Members tance) Income below subsistance level Income at subsistance level Income above subsistance level Income at higher level (rich) it: The occupations may be described as follows: (1) Agriculture; (ii) Agricultural labor; (iii) Industrial labor; (iv) Jobs and services; (v) Business and Trade, etc. 357 Education Percentage Class Aiabiis of total Population (1) No Schooling (ii) Class I - Class III (iii) Class IV - Class V (iv) Class VI - Class VIII (v) Class IX - Class X (vi) Matriculation (vii) College (2 years' and above) (viii) Know how to read the Quran (ix) Certified literate from the adult education center 2. Age and sex composition: Age Male Female- Total Less than 15 15 - 20 years 20 - 25 years 25 - 30 years 30 - 35 years 35 - A0 years A0 - A5 years A5 - 50 years 50 - 60 years 60 and above What are the most pressing needs of the members? 358 What is the general pattern of compliance of the members towards the Cooperative? (i) Coercive (ii) Indifferent (iii) Calculative (iv) Moral (v) Some combination* of the above. *Specify the above combinations. How strong is the identification of the members with this cooperative group? (1) Very strong (ii) Strong (iii) Neutral (iv) Unpredictable How strong does the group feel to resist external threat and pressure directed towards its disintegration? (i) Very strong, will uphold even if personal sacri- fices are needed (ii) Strong (iii) Calculative (neutral) (iv) Unpredictable (v) Not so strong 359 (Individual Interview of Questionnaire No. 1.5 Members with Replication) Interviewer: l. a. b. c. 2. a b. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY V. LEADERSHIP What were the roles of the traditional leaders of the village? To whom were they answerable? To their own village people To themselves To the leaders of a bigger 'Samaj.' Are they still functional in your village? Yes Yes, but their ways of functioning have greatly changed. On some special occasions* but not always (mention those special occasions below). No. *Special occasions: What relationship the cooperative has with the traditional leaders? Same leaders Very cordial Subserviant Casual Independent Aggressive Has there been any change in the relationship of the cooperative with the traditional leaders of the village? Yes, a positive change Yes, a negative change No change, always positive No change, always negative No change of indifference 7. 360 Has the cooperative given rise to a new power-structure? Yes Uncertain No Has the cooperative increased cliques and factions in the village? Yes Uncertain No Did new leaders emerge because of new roles and responsibilities brought by the cooperative? Yes Uncertain No How was the new leadership absorbed and accommodated in the village power-structure? (whether on a subserviant, equal, or superior role). How does the cooperative develop its leaders? What kind of relationship the cooperative leaders have with the cooperative members? (i) Role of a teacher (ii) Role of a director (iii) Role of an employee or servant (iv) Role of a despot (v) Role of a persuader or motivator (vi) Role of a benefactor (vii) Role of a partner in business (viii) Oligarchical role Whose leadership is most crucial for your cooperative? (more than one response may be given with priorities numbered, highest priority indicated by 1). PARD KTCCA Government Cooperative Department Cooperative Chairman Cooperative Organizer/Manager Cooperative members Others (mention name). 361 Who is the most influential leader of your cooperative? (more than one response may be given with priorities numbered as before; the leaders should be mentioned by their positions or roles, not names). What are the sanctions behind his/their authority? 362 (Group Consensus Questionnaire No. 1.6 of the Members) Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY VI. PROJECT WORK OF THE COOPERATIVE 1. What different projects it has taken since it was first established? (project refers to a planned purposeful activity undertaken by a group or individual initiated or supported by the cooperative). Name of projects (in chronological order) Year 2. Give detailed description of the projects according to the following proforma (projects to be listed in chronological order as Project Nos. 1, 2, 3, and so on.) Project Project No. 1 No. 2 a. Project Name of the project: Starting date: Nature and description of project b. Objectives Conceived at initial stage Conceived at the subsequent stages (if there has been any change of original objectives) 0. Status of the project Great success Satisfactory Doubtful success Unsuccessful 363 Project Project No. 1 No. 2 Continued at higher level Continued as it was Continued with modification Terminated (Give date of termination) d. Proposed by whom By Cooperative By KTCCA/PARD (with some compulsion) By KTCCA/PARD (without compulsion) By KTCCA/PARD (with incentive) By the Govt. (with compulsion) By the Govt. (without compulsion) By the Govt. (with incentive) By other Agencies (on business terms) By other Agencies (with incentive) By joint collaboration between___ With or without e. Supervised by whom Cooperative (self-supervision) KTCCA/PARD Government Others (mention) Supervision by Cooperative and KTCCA/PARD Supervision by Govt. and PARD/ KTCCA Supervision by other agency PARD/KTCCA (Name other agency in the column of comments) f. Material Resources From individual members From cooperative Jointly from members and COOperative From the KTCCA From the PARD Jointly from KTCCA and PARD From the Government From other agencies (name other agencies in the column of comments 36A Project Project No. 1 No. 2 g. Procurement of Finance Individual funds Cooperative funds Loan from KTCCA Subsidy from government Subsidy from PARD Grant from government Grant from PARD Grant from other agencies (mention) h. Investing partners according to importance (rank them according to importance by putting 1, 2, etc. against them). Member of the cooperative (individual or small group) Cooperative society as a whole KTCCA Thana Council Government department PARD Other agencies Any combination of the above (Name other agencies or the combination) 1. Sharing of Benefits Equally by all Unequally by all By some By a very few Sharing process not properly realized. ‘5 3. Educational services through cooperative a. What preparations were necessary for making the cooperative program a success? (1) In Technical aspects (ii) In Social aspects (iii) In Psychological aspects 365 coHpHuoqmg p30 x I mcmcxgwx Egmg no m\QooI.poomQ .u>oo .Eoo m I Ham CH mafia» 03» Lo oCOIoHowLoqm 02 I co>Hw poz Boom Box I o 3 ocomgoo o upcmpmcoo mcfloomx .moz .m I HMpHQwom memm wezo I pmo>\mmsap m Axpoz Locuo go ofiomgoaoa mow m o ochE gmmw an HHH>.Q I mmmaafi> ngocmo :mcp mgoE AdamcofimMooo zpfiHHonCOQmog cufizv mLODoMgmfipmm H u mmmmwmw I Lao» wcfimmmgooa HHH> I mmmHHH> m4 I Loazwmg zHHmscc< mIo I cm>ao zgmHmm poom mpm> ospIMCApmowpm smog no QmfiucmocH go .pHHsz go .o: HNDOB ncogw mcficfioge go 63Hm> wdacflwue go mamB and memos omgsoo mco gH co>fiw wcficfiwg» Lm>o moccawgp wcfiocoppm m>flp Laos prOD CH mm>fiucmocH go muHHmza go gonESC .Imgooooo on» gm>o fimocopom omocouow mcficfimge wcficfimge mcficfiwpe go oEmz on» Ca ocoge Eogg mmocfimgp moEHo g .oc moEHp go mscm> go page go .o: annoy on» ma scope go .02 p ”.6 pm» on» tons: cm> m oOOo oz» Eon. 63 on we..gwmg mm: Loeao Hmoflmofiocopco oo wcfipgooom we CHmLB H r H L fl momma mooHumgmomgd one cup: 30$ .0 powwoga coauwosnm Emgmogg m.cmEoz weaccmaa kHHEmm wcflomxgme Cum omMLOBm noauflaflomg ufioogo ocm coapmegog Hmofiamo Amcflcflwgp :ofimcouxm new coapmNHcmcomE .cofiummwggu moosaocfiv coapozoogg new cofimcmuxm mLSpHSUHLm< muomom< Hm0fionocozmg cg mpooam< Hmfioom CH mpgwemg gunfirzomy gg mooowogg oazgmmoongm moomnogd mhuonng can mcflxme Log mammmmooc ohm mcofipmgmqmgq umcz .n 366 .AmpcoEEoo go CESHoo ogp CH COflongomoo o>HmV zmz gocpo >c< Amaoammoa gfl mEmcv mgmgma go cflomaazo Hmflooqm mgmpcoo go mpommoga moflmpso oo mgooEmE o>fipmgmdooo an pHmH> mamwoflggo mpflmuso pcm mmqg x9 muflmfl> HMCOHmmooo mHmHOAggo «669x an mpama> cefizwmm mono HmEgog ms» cmcu gogpo mwcfipmoe CH mLoBEoE o>flpmgmmooo one go cowmmsomflp HMEgoch mmmafia> map pm m>flpmgmdooo mgu go meapooE Hmflomom go zaxmmz Qm mcflxcmm mpflamsa go pcoge co mocmEEoo ngmcoo HmEgogcfi pcm HmEgog no nmpmmgo mgmgamofipw ngocmw m as .o>gpmgoqooo mg» CH mcflaflm>mgg cogpmozpm ngmcmm go aoflamsw go pcogo \l Hangm>o cm mpmofimcH mam mEmofl msofigm> map ozone wogmfifioo Hsgmcma mEom meme omfi< .omOngd 62p gog pcm>oflog poc mgmkpo opp wcflmmogo was pgmsgo oo H Eogg Hosp mcfixcmg mo m>Hpmgoqooo Loom go mgmnEmE mg» mcofim :oflomozflo ngmcmm go mossaao d mcflocmccm :fl mcoflpzoflngOo mgoE m>m£ wcflsoaaog mco go zofizz mumoflmcfi ommmfig .wamsfifl>aficfl scm majogm go cofipomgmpcfi i pmgsgm on has mommooogo HmcoflBMosoo one soapmosom ngmcmo A. a H \./ (111) Members participation and enthusiasm a. 367 Group support Previous records of group actions Successful Unsuccessful Members' attendance in weekly meetings Members' interest in learning improved skills Members' efforts to repay cooperative loans in time Members' efforts to save money Members' efforts to increase deposit with the cooperative account Members' loyalty to the cooperative as a whole Reasonable sharing of risks by the members 90—100% 75% 50% Less than A0% High Medium Low Very high Satisfactory Low Very low Very high Satisfactory Low Very low Very high Satisfactory Low Very low Very high Satisfactory Low Very low Very high Satisfactory Low Very low What are the different important ways by which you maintain your channels of communication and business transactions with the central association (KTCCA)? (mention the ways according to importance). 368 What habits or educational processes (both positive or negative) have been incorporated in the individual members and the COOperative group because of the project work initiated in the village? Individual level (i) (ii) (iii) Group level (i) (ii) (iii) 'L '41". WT _ F“; 1.: (Group Consensus 369 of the Members) Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY VII. GENERAL PROBLEMS OF THE COOPERATIVE What were the most important problems of the coopera- tive in its initial stage? a. b. C. Psychological Social Technical What are the most important problems at present? C. d. Management and Leadership Social-Psychological (Loyalty, discipline, commitment, cooperation, etc.) Technical (resources) Did your organization ever face any serious crisis? Yes No If 'yes' how many times? Number Questionnaire No. 1.7 Describe in brief the most serious crisis How was it avoided? General comments about the nature of problems and efforts to solve them _.——.._-_a- ...n'. -—. ‘r‘ «fizlo 370 (Individual Interview of Questionnaire No. 1.8 Members with Replication) Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE SOCIETY VIII. GENERAL REACTIONS OF THE MEMBERS 1. a. What are some of the good aspects of your Cooperative (may include projects, notions, outcomes, practices, etc.)? b. What are some of the bad aspects of your Cooperative (may include projects, notions, outcomes, practices, etc.)? 2. What training needs are there for the members for developing the cooperative programs effectively? 3. Do you have any general or specific objections against the program? A. a. What is your opinion about the women's program of the PARD? b. What is your opinion about the Family Planning Program of the PARD? 5. Can you suggest something in the nature of a program other than the cooperative which could have been more effective for your village development? 371 (Individual Interview with Questionnaire No. the Manager) Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE MANAGER General 1. Name of the Cooperative society: 2. Manager's individual particulars: a. Name: b. Age: c. 'Educational Qualification: d. Occupation Major: Minor: e. Economic status 2 l‘..: _. ‘m (“.1 .-..‘F‘AA 372 IRRI. AGOHpcoE mmmoagv mnmnpo mmmcfimsn pew momge Ao>fipmgogooo QHV mQOHmmHEoo one whoa Am>fipmmomooo mcfimpzov mooa>gom pew moon Aamfigumspca paw HMLSpHdOHmwm sponv mowmz ocmq mEOOQH Hmpop go oprcoopmg oEoocH go moonsom oEoocH AHHV .cfi emaaag ma easonm macs 03» was goon mmfizcmnpo .ca emHHHg ma easonm .pcmmmga p<. sop maco con» .gmmm mco omooxm poc mooo poagma afinmpmnEoE on» gHs ucommpg p¢ o>apmnmaooo on» *wQHcHOn ogogom co>Ho cmxme co>fim cmxme co>fio coxme Avon go omczov Gonzo mwmmpgoz meaagogolmgmnm coapm>fipaso zaawzpo< so ocmq ommmq so puma so ocmq goons ocwq ocmq appogogg ooucmq Afiv 373 (iii) Economic position 10. 11. 12. Income below subsistance level Income at subsistance level Income above subsistance level Income at higher level Any other experiences of the manager before joining the Cooperative a. Within the village: b. Outside the village: When did you become a member of the Cooperative? Date: When did you assume the charge of management? Date: Is it from the beginning of the Cooperative? Yes No If 'no', what happened to the previous manager? (Reasons for his removal or going away etc.) How many managers did precede you? What are the general reasons for the changes of the managers? How were you selected for the position of the manager? Do you have any special advantages over the other managers which were in cognizance of the group? Yes Uncertain No If 'yes,' what are they? 37A 13. a. How long do you expect to work with the cooperative? I am working temporarily in somebody else's place I am working for a short period I am going to work for a long period I shall work as long as I can train up somebody to take my place I will work as long as the group wants me I do not know b. Comment on your response by showing reasons. Role of the Manager 1A. What were your roles in the beginning when you took charge of the cooperative? 15. a. Have there been any changes in the role of a manager within the period of your office? Yes Uncertain No b. If 'yes,' what are the most important changes? 16. What are the most improtant functions that you must do? 17. What are the most important functions that you consider most difficult to perform? (Arrange them in a descending order of difficulty.) Problems of Organization 18. What are the problems that you face in organizing the cooperative program in the village? 19. What assistance from various quarters can you count to solve these problems? .arfi 375 20. What are a few most important problems you have that hinder progress of the cooperative? Work Efficiency 21. How are you trying to increase the efficiency of your cooperative group? 22. How do you feel working with your group as a manager? Pleasant Normal Troublesome 23. What do you feel about the impact of the various training and conferences of the KTCCA/PARD on your skill as a manager? Very helpful Helpful Neutral Not so helpful 2A. How can the manager's efficiency be improved? (according to priority). Compensation and Remuneration 25. How were you compensated in the beginning? 26. Will you like to work as a manager on a fixed salary? Yes Uncertain No 27. a. Is it possible now for the cooperative to employ you on a fixed salary? Yes Uncertain No b. If 'yes,' then how? c. If 'no,‘ then why? 28. What compensatory allowances you get now? 29. Your comments, if any, about various allowances. AAA A :' A—A‘ J .._ . 376 Work Satisfaction 30. 31. 32. 33. 3A. What are your purposes in becoming the manager? What personal loss or benefit have you incurred by being the manager? (If possible support your statements with figures and examples.) Economic: Social: Others: Are you satisfied with your work: Yes Uncertain No Why? Give reasons. How could this work be made more satisfying to the manager and useful to the members? 377 (Indivicual Interview Questionnaire No. 3. with the Member) 1. a. b. Interviewer: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COOPERATIVE MEMBERS Name of the cooperative society: Inspector's average grading of the cooperative society: 2. Particulars of the member: a Name: b. Age: T 0. Educational standard: d. Occupation ‘ Major: Minor: e. Member since when? f. Deposit up—to date: (with the cooperative) g. Share capital purchased: h. Loan received on various occasions: Amount of Final Total Year Loan Received Outstanding Repayment (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) 378 mEoocH Hmuoe go mwqumogmg oEoocH go mmogsom "mEoocH go mmogdom .n .QH omHHHg on oasogm mzo.H 03» one cpoo omflzgocpo .QH pmaafig on oasonm .pcmmmga pg. 30g maco comp «new» mso omooxo pom moon coagoa QflnwngEmE on» ng pcmmogq u< m>fipmgogooo on» *wcHCaOn mgogom cm>fiw meme co>ao coxme cm>Hc :oxme Gonzo mwmwpgoz momma wcfiaaogoImgmnm coapm>apaso zaamzpo< Co ocmq so Ucmq co ocmq goon: puma ozmq "mpgogogm cmocmq AHV 379 k. Various training received through the cooperative: Comments* Year Nature of Training Duration on on Allowances Usefulness "Comments on allowances may be expressed as "given" and "not given"; on usefulness as (i) Very useful, (ii) Useful, and (iii) Not so useful'. 3. Why did you become a member? A. What specific benefits did you derive by being a member of the cooperative? (Your statements must be supported by figures and examples and should be specific rather than general.) a. Economic: (1) On landed property: (ii) On credit and deposit: (iii) On business and trade: (iv) On jobs and services (not with COOperative): (v) On jobs and commissions (with the cooperative): b. Social: Social status within village: Social status outside village: 0. Educational: On learning improved methods: On learning technical skills: d. Others: 5. a. How did you help the cooperative grow? b. Were these efforts effective? Yes Uncertain No b. 380 If 'yes', do you think that there were also other factors besides your effort to make them effective? If 'no', why? What are the problems of your cooperative? How they may be solved? What problems do you see with the members in relation to the cooperative? How can they be solved? Do you face any problem in remaining a member of the cooperative? Yes Uncertain No If 'yes', what are the problems? Do you have any special comments on the following aspects of the cooperative? a. b. Management: Educational program and its impact: Community involvement: Future prospects: Any other aspects: .lillllllllllll'