THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT. OF - 1' COMMUNITY SERVICE PROGRAMS. IN SELECTED COMMUNITY COLLEGEsIN; T E17 . . THE UNITED STATES Thesis for the Degree ongd.D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GUNDER ARNOLD MYRAN 1969 ”I Q) \g 0 Instructions! RCSCUICOMOCCOICT 133 ERI" (guy-f I—IAIL MIOHICOOT ‘ .T'E LINK-“REBITY II Evy/III 48823 EAST-gxub. I..I. 4 ~44 I ”ERARY ] hfiggchggaa 3-253 tea University I w Imhucmr I {‘2on 3‘93?“ 133 ERA “A! lewfim§wmsnv EAXI‘JJINSMG MICHIGAN 48823 )V1531_J RETURNING MATERIALS: PTace in book drop to LIBRARJES remove this checkout from J-E-[SEEIL your record. FINE§ wiII be charged if BEER is returned after the date stamped beIow. -.—__———_ fi-v-—-I~—4-—.————_——---_-_ '"—_‘_““P’ — xa-L—n__ ABSTRACT THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNITY SERVICE PROGRAMS IN SELECTED COMMUNITY COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES By Gunder Arnold Myran This descriptive study was concerned with analyzing the community services dimension of the community college. The purposes of the study were to (1) define the elements of community services, (2) identify the organizational, staffing, and financing patterns through which community services programs are carried out, and (3) identify the factors within the college and in the community which, as perceived by community college administrators, contribute to the effectiveness of community service pro- grams as they develop. An interview guide was developed which included relatively general questions pertaining to each basic purpose of the study. A purposive sample of thirteen community colleges having effective and comprehensive community service programs was selected; administrators having responsi- bility for one or more aspects of community services were interviewed during one or two-day visits to each of the community colleges in the Sample. The interviews were relatively unstructured to allow freedom to explore more intensively particular perceptions and insights held by individual interviewees. Gunder.Arnold Myran Major conclusions of the study include: 1. Community services may be seen as an orientation of the entire 30 college, as well as those programs carried on by a division of community services. A strong commitment to community services which permeates the entire college becomes a foundation for a strong community service program. Each college organizes its effort to penetrate into the community to play a vital role in meeting localized social, economic, cul- tural, and civic needs in different ways. The patterns by which the community college may organize its relations with the com- munity it serves are described as (1) extended departmental pattern, (2) nucleated pattern, (3) advisory group pattern, (1+) antenna pattern, and (5) affiliate pattern. Community services is increasingly being recognized as a main- line function of the community college; this is reflected in administrative changes through which community service directors Join the "second level" of the administrative structure, report- ing directly to the president. Community service programs are not generally exportable. They are the most provincial of all community college programs, and most clearly reflect the socio-economic composition, the urban or rural setting, and the industrial-business structure of the local community. Community service programs are influencing organizational and instructional changes in traditional methods of operation in the community college. 6. Gunder Arnold Myran There are specific, identifiable factors related to the abilities and performance of community services administrators, and to conditions within and outside the college, which tend to influence the development of community services. These factors may be categorized under the following headings: Leadership and Adminis- tration, Institutional Setting, Linkages Within the College and Linkages With Groups in the Community. The major challenges which confront community service programs and which will influence its future development relate to pro- viding increased service to disadvantaged groups and to the black community, improving planning and teaching methods, and improving communication and articulation with groups in the community. During the course of the study, issues relative to the role of community services in the community college became apparent. These issues were: 1. The appropriate balance between those cultural, educational, and recreational programs of interest to the middle and upper socio-economic classes and less remunerative programs which respond to the tougher problems of those unemployed, under- employed, and disadvantaged in the lower socio-economic groups. The extent to which community services should be organized on a pay-asayou-go basis, and the extent to which these programs should be supported through the tax structure. 3: :u .q. a. A U Gunder Arnold Myran 3. The extent to which the community college should depart from a purely educational role in responding to community problems. h. The appropriateness of the terms "community services" as opposed to a more traditional and closely related term, "continuing education." In a final section, implications for leadership training were reviewed. The selection and recruitment of candidates for graduate pro- grams which prepare students for positions of leadership in community services, the body of knowledge related to community services, and the internship experiences which might comprise the leadership program of a college or university, were discussed. THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNITY SERVICE PROGRAMS IN SELECTED COMMUNITY COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES BY Gunder Arnold Myran A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Administration and Higher Education 1969 R . §\4 A_CKI‘IOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my special gratitude to Dr. Max R. Raines, Chairman of the doctoral committee, for his encouragement and guidance throughout the study, and for his confidence in me. I wish also to acknowledge the interest and helpful suggestions of the other members of the committee: Dr. Walter Johnson, Dr. Philip Marcus, and Dr. Kenneth Summerer. I wish to thank Professor Russell Kleis, who Joined the committee at the dissertation stage, for freely giving of his time to offer advice and constructive criticism. I am indebted to the administrators of the thirteen community colleges I visited during the study for the many courtesies extended to me, and for giving of their time to participate in interviews. I wish to express my appreciation to the W. K. Kellogg Foundation of Battle Creek, Michigan, for the financial assistance which made the study possible. I owe a full measure of gratitude to Marilyn Sargent,who did Veoman's duty in typing the study, always seemingly under time pressures. I wish to thank Marliss, my wife, for her encouragement; and my sons, Craig, Steven, and Mark for their patience during the course of my graduate work. Gunder Arnold Myran ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. II. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Services as a Function of the Community College . . . . . . . . . . . The Community College as a Part of the Community Interdependency System . . . . The Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Services . . . . . . . . . . . . Continuing Education . . . . . . . . . . . Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . . SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . Antecedents of Community Services . . . . . Current Problem Areas . . . . . . . . . . . The Problem of Organization Specialization The Problem of Class Unemployment . . . . The Problems of Race, Poverty and the Inner City . Responses to Contemporary Problems . . . . . Federal Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . New Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Development . . . . . . . . . . iii PAGE 10 10 11+ 16 17 17 22 22 23 2h 25 26 26 26 CHAPTER Elements of Community Services . . . . . . . . Organizing, Staffing, and Financing Community Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . Identification of Community Needs . . . . . . Linking Community Services With Other Areas of the College and With Community Groups . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION . . . . . . . . . . The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development of the Interview Guide . . . . . Selection of Community Colleges . . . . . . Arrangements for Visits to Selected Colleges Administration of Interviews . . . . . . . . . Organization of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . Organization Patterns to Provide Community Services Extended Departmental Pattern . . . . . . . Nucleated Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advisory Group Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . Antenna Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Affiliate Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of Community Services . . . . . . . . Defining Community Services . . . . . . . . iv PAGE 29 31 32 36 39 to 2+3 1+3 U4 MI 1+5 A6 A7 A7 AB 51 55 57 6o 61'. 61+ CHAPTER PhilOSOphical Base for Community Services . . . . . Organizational and Instructional Departures Associated with Community Services . . . . . . . . Taxonomy of Community Service Functions . . . . . . Organizing, Staffing, and Financing Community Services Organizational Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Responsibilities of Community Service Directors . . Staffing Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Financing Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership and Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of the Institution . . . . . . . . . . Institutional Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linkages Within the College . . . . . . . . . . . . Linkages With Groups in the Community . . . . . . . Identification of Community Needs . . . . . . . . . Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, ISSUES, IMPLICATIONS FOR GRADUATE LEADERSHIP TRAINING, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAGE 66 67 7O 78 78 79 81 85 87 88 88 93 95 95 97 101 107 110 112 113 CHAPTER Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of Community Services . . . . . . . . Organizing, Staffing, and Financing Community Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications for Leadership Training . . . . . . Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPEm ICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 PAGE 11h 11% 116 122 12A 125 126 128 133 11+o 113 It? TABLE LIST OF TABLES Taxonomy of Community Service Functions Individual Staff Positions in Community Service Programs . . . . . . . . . . Leadership Factors . . . . . . . . . . Administrative Factors . . . . . . . . Factors Related to the Institutional Setting Factors Related to Linkages Within the College Factors Related to Linkages With Groups in the comm1ty O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 vii PAGE 89 93 98 101 APPENDIX LIST OF.APTENDICES Letter of Introduction by Doctoral.Advisor Informational Letter to Director of Community Services . . . . . . . . . . Taxonomy of Community Service Functions AgendaFomoooooooooooooo Descriptions of Colleges Illustrating the Nucleated Pattern . . . . . . . . Check List of Supplementary Data . . . . Informational Letter to Each Interviewee Interview Guide 0 O . O 0 O O O O O O 0 viii RAGE 1&7 119 151 156 159 169 172 175 - - - - .Q 5/5 NJ‘J I 11‘: n 5 J CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This descriptive study is concerned with analyzing the community services dimension of the community college. Through an in-depth analysis of the community services programs of thirteen community colleges, the study addresses itself to defining the elements of community services, identifying the organizational structures through which community service programs are carried out, and identifying the factors within the college and in the community which, as perceived by community college administrators, contribute to the effectiveness of community service programs as they de- velop. In the study, answers to the following questions are sought: 1" What are the elements of community services in the community college; what are the commonalities and divergencies in programs? 2. What organizational, staffing, and financing patterns exist in community service programs? 3. What are the factors or conditions which influence the develop- ment and effectiveness of community service programs? h. How are those community needs which relate to the development of community service programs identified? 5. What are the means by which community services are linked with other areas of the college and with community groups? INTRODUCTION Egymunity Services as a Function of the Community College The major functions of the community college may be described as (1) the transfer function: providing the first and second year of a college .‘M R‘U F \ III. V a ACv ~e n .w "’q i‘Jr.‘v " l l". . I._I.‘\ .‘1.IJ,‘\‘! .. "",‘ ’73,; in. v“; .31.. i}; \ ’;,' ‘. \ 5{\I ~"-, " -,.'("',,’ 3., -‘.‘v,' , A» .. Lrl¢J;.,|,' I. “Ir."t‘v‘t-V -",l\‘/,‘"' program which is completed by study at a four-year college or university; (2) the vocational/technical function: providing programs of varying lengths through which students may develop competencies leading to employ- ment upon completion; (3) the student personnel services function: pro- viding personal, educational, and occupational counseling services to students; (h) the general education function: providing courses which remediate or facilitate the deve10pment of the student’s educational, occupational, avocational, or recreational interests; and (5) the community services function: providing courses, programs, and activities for those members of the community whose educational needs are not met by formal college degree or certificate programs. Community services have long been stated as a major objective of the community college; the proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the American Association of Junior Colleges in 1925 made reference to a curri- cudum "suited to the larger and everchanging civic, social, religious, and vocational needs of the entire community in which the college is located."1 The customary program of community services which develop in the intervening years was characterized by evening classes for adults, provid- ing an additional instructional base for continuing education in the community. Praiseworthy though such programs may be, what is now required is a broadening of the college mission to provide a more viable base for the development of human resources in the community, and to permit wide community participation in the learning process. Cyril O. Houle recognized this need as early as 19h8 when he said: ——— 1 American Association of Junior Colleges, Proceedings of the Fifth Annual.Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, February 20-21, 1925 IV (Chicago: The Assn. 1925)) pa “+0 "...but the center of focus has remained the resident student and we have paid relatively little attention to the student outside our doors. It is time we exam- ined our programs of community services and made some assessment of their future importance in the develop- ment of higher education." Houle's admonition still has relevance today. As yet, relatively few community colleges have community service programs with a professional staff prepared to carry forward programs of community services which are significant and which have their own identity. Dr. Leland Medsker concluded, on.the basis of his study of 2&3 community colleges, that community serv- ices activities were not performed by most community colleges on a regular basis.3 ' In spite of such shortcomings, the community college has begun to understand social action; it has begun to assume greater social responsi- bility in its community. The decade of the 1960's has been characterized by sweeping social change, and it is in this period that community services have emerged as an identifiable component of the community college. Just as the development of transfer programs, voCational/technical programs, and student personnel programs, have in turn been major efforts of com- munity colleges throughout the nation, it now appears that community serv- ices are becoming the next major thrust in program development. ngmunity Services: Creating a New Mold Through community service programs, community colleges are expanding beyond the traditional credit -semester basis for instruction with a great variety of non-credit offerings of varying lengths, and are expanding -—— 2 Cyril O. Houle, "Community Education Service as an.Emerging Function of Higher Education," Proceedings of the Institute for Adminis- trative Offices of Higher Education, l9h8, p. 23. 3 Leland L. Medsker, The Junior College: Progress and Prospect (New'York: MCGrawéHill Book Co., Inc., 1966) p. 75. beyond the campus as the exclusive base for operation. Further, these programs involve the college in community affairs in diverse areas such as cultural development, civic improvement, and services to disadvantaged groups. Community service programs permit the college staff to "reach ou " into its environment to identify community problems and serve as an agent of social change. In spite of the promise and potential of community services, how- ever, the community college must realize its limitations in dealing with the uncertain and difficult tasks involved. In our enthusiasm and busy- ness in accepting new responsibilities for unmet community problems, there is a danger that "leaps in the dark" will move the college beyond its physical and human capability to provide quality service. Certainly critics of the community college question whether it can effectively carry on the various functions, including community services, that its multi-purpose orientation requires. Devall typifies these critics in the following statement: "These proponents feel that the community college can be all things to all people, that it can give career orienta- tion to students, prepare students for college work by providing remedial training which they should.have received in high school, convince those students who will never be accepted by a four-year college that they must accept a lower level of aspiration, and at the same time, provide services to the community such as adult education, enter- tainment, and other cultural events which are found in any 'university town.'"h Being "all things to all people" is not without its appeal, yet it must be realized that a great deal of ambiguity and uncertainty surrounds h‘w. B. Devall, "Community Colleges: A.Dissenting View," Educa- 339n81.Record, Spring 1968, Vol. #9, No. 2, p. L68. £3 today's complex social prdblems, and our present limited knowledge of how to solve them should cause community colleges to avoid euphoric designs for rapid action and instant solutions. One must also recognize that community services are provided by many agencies in addition to the community college. Only extreme naivete would.allow the community college to view itself as the "super government of tomorrow." Elementary and secondary schools, four-year colleges and universities, public libraries, churches, governmental agencies, the mili- tary, communication media, and labor unions, are examples of agencies which carry on various forms of community services with educational serv- ices being either a secondary or a primary mission of the agency. The community college, therefore, cannot always be a "prime mover" for social, civic, cultural, and economic change; its role may often be a supportive or coordinative one. It will often play a "partnership" in reference to community prdblems because (1) educational approaches are only one compo- nent in the solution of the problem; (2) the college does not have all of the resources, human or financial, to attack the problem; or (3) those directly involved perceive the resources of the community college as rele- vant only to certain aspects of the problem. Eh? Community College as a Part of the Community_ Interdependency System Programs of community services which perform a coordinative function in bringing together diverse sub-cultures and groups in the community col- lege district, which make available educational and cultural experiences for all age groups, and which contribute to the solution of social, eco- nomic, cultural, and civic problems of the community, become increasingly important as our society becomes more complex and more urbanized. Such I"! programs require that the community college become an integral part of the community, and that its structure and programming be flexible enough to meet the demands for varied educational services created by rapid social change. To carry forward quality programs of community services, the community college must become more than it is now; it must bring about a breakthrough of service which cuts through the existing struc- ture both within the college and within the community. As the community college becomes "an integral part of the com- munity," it, in reality, becomes a part of the interdependency system of institutions in that community. This interdependence is due to the fact that solutions to complex social problems in the community increas- ingly require a solution which is educational in nature, and the college correspondingly requires citizen participation in planning learning experiences if it is to remain relevant to changing community needs. Ervin Sanders identifies the community system in terms of its major sub-systems: "Those institutionalized units meeting basic human needs, including family, economy, government, religion, education and Public information, health, welfare, and recreation."5 These insti- tutions, including the community college, form a community system in which a change in one component or institution may require concommitant modifications in other institutions. .Amiti Etzioni describes this inter- dependency as follows: "Social change, it is now held, may originate in any insti- tutional area, bringing about changes in other areas, which, in turn, make for further adaptations in the initial sphere of change. Technological, economic, political, religious, ideological, demographic and stratificational factors are 5 Ervin Sanders, The Community (new Yerk: Ronald Press, 1967) p. 31. [\L) - sg‘ all viewed as potentially interdependent variables whic influence each other as well as the course of society." This interdependency, as it pertains to the community college, may be described as follows: "Broad and pervasive social changes are ultimately imple- mented on the community level, there being a general cause- and-effect relationship between major social change and the behavior, attitudes, and expectations of the individuals living in a social microcosm: the local community. Thus, the sweeping changes in society shape and direct the two- year college as it is, in turn, attempts to meet changing community needs." THE NEED FOR wimpy The realization of the need for in-depth analysis of the develop- ment and structure of community service programs developed as the College of Education, Michigan State University, and the W. K. Kellogg Foundation finalized agreement on a plan entitled, "A Proposal to Explore and Expand the Continuing Education and Community Development Potential of Michigan Community Colleges." Specifically, such a study would facilitate carrying out two Objectives of the proposal as approved for funding on June 5, 1968, by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation: 1. To explore methods by which community colleges can identify and respond effectively to the needs, problems, and aspirations of the communities they serve. 2. To identify staffing patterns and staff qualifications which are concommitant with the development of effective programs of continuing education and community development. 6.Amiti Etzioni and.Eva Etzioni, Ed., Social Change, (Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New York 1961+) p. 7. 7 Clyde E. Blocker, Robert H. Plummer, Richard C. Richardson, Jr., The TwOAYear College: A Social Synthesis, (Prentice-Hall, Inc., Bugle- Wm, r9657 p. #7- The final proposal submitted by Michigan State university to the W. K. Kellogg Foundation included statements relative to the need for such a study: "While Harlacher's study (The Community Dimension of the Community College) reveals some exciting outcomes, it does not deal with an in-depth study of how programs came into :fistgnce, how they are financed, how they are staffed, Ervin L. Harlacher conducted a national study in 1967 in which he used the critical incident technique to identify behaviors which brought about successful courses, projects, or events within community service programs; the present study is an extension of Harlacher's research by providing an in-depth analysis of the development and structure of the community service programs in thirteen community colleges. In addition, this study is intended to form an important information base for Michigan State University programs . A correlative three-year project is being conducted by the American Association of Junior Colleges. This project, also supported financially by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, will provide national leadership in the development of the community services dimension of the community college. Plans for the project include the formation of a national advisory com- mittee, sponsorship of conferences, development of consultive services, cooperation with universities engaged in training community services per- sonnel, distribution of available research, and advisory services to indi- vidual community colleges . 8 "A Proposal to Explore and Expand the Continuing Education and Community Development Potential of Michigan Community Colleges," (Michi- san State University, May 1968) 1). 1h. A review of the literature related to community services in the community college reveals a general paucity in available research, and studies which are national in scope are particularly limited. The avail- able studies do not provide for in-depth analysis of how community service programs are structured and how they may develop effectively, and it is the need for such research that is the concern of the study; The rationale for this study is that an understanding of the development and structure of community service programs can be of value as an addition to the limited literature available on this subject and also serve as a resource for those responsible for planning and developing community service pro- grams in community colleges. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Thirteen community colleges were selected on the basis of excellence, comprehensiveness of community service programs, and geographic distribu- tion. The selection was based on colleges recommended by Ervin L. Har- lacher from among community colleges he visited during two national studies of community services, and concurred in by the author's doctoral committee chairman. It must be said that information on community service programs in community colleges throughout the country is not available, and criteria for evaluation of the quality of programs do not exist at this time. How- ever, Harlacher has completed the only known studies on community services at the national level; and in authorizing the Harlacher study, AAJC speci- fied.the identification of exemplary programs and/or activities as one of the purposes of the study; The thirteen selected colleges represent a Purposive sample of excellent programs of community services, and are not intended to be representative of programs in the total population of 10 community colleges. The generalizability of the conclusions of this study is limited by the fact that the sample is not representative of the entire population of community colleges in the united States. A further limitation of the study is based on the procedure by which interviewees were chosen. Community service directors on each campus were responsible for establishing the itinerary and were requested to arrange interviews with full-time administrators who were responsible for one or more community service functions. This was a facilitating procedure since it was difficult for the interviewer to make such arrangements prior to his two-day visit; yet this resulted in placing the selection of inter- viewees in the hands of an administrator at each college. _DEFINITIONS The recent emergence of community services as a mainline function of the community college has brought with it some semantic difficulties. Such terms as community services, continuing education, adult education, and community education are used in diverse ways by community college ad- ministrators and writers. The terms continuing education and adult education are nearly synony- mous in meaning and in common usage. For the purposes of this study, the term continuing education will be used. Similarly, the terms community services and community education are used in nearly identical ways; in this study the term community services will be used. Cimunity Services There is not yet general agreement as to what programs, courses and activities fall within the boundaries of the community services concept. During the present decade, however, there has been an increasing tendency 11 to separate such activities as short courses, seminars, workshops, lectures, concerts and social action programs from the administration of degree pro- grams, creating a division or department of community services. Some col- leges include collegiate courses offered to adults during the evening hours within the community services framework, while others administer this type of course separately. Ervin L. Harlacher provides this definition of community services: "Educational, cultural, and recreational services which an educational institution may provide for its commugity beyond regularly scheduled day and evening classes. Harlacher‘s definition is substantially the same as that of other writers, including B. Lamar Jehnson and Leland L. Medsker. Medsker defines community services simply as "the various special services which an edu- cational institution may provide for its community."10 William H. Miller, former Coordinator of Community Education at the College of San Mateo, San Mateo, California, stated that community services is a "revolutionary force that will make the college a catalyst in the emergence of true human community within the geographic community." The college becomes "available to all facets of the community and thus provides a bridge between those in need (material, psychological and Spiritual) and those who have the skills, time, and money to satisfy that need." The definitions above reflect the community-centered orientation of community services, and.give recognition to the dicotomy between k 9 Ervin L. Harlacher, The Community Dimension of_the Community Cgélege, (Report to the American Association of Junior Colleges, Nevember 1 7) p. 17. 10 Medsker, The Junior College: Progress and Prospect, p. 78. 12 community services and formal degree programs. These concepts are joined in the definition below; this definition is used for the purposes of this study: "Those efforts of the community college, often undertaken in cooperation with other community groups or agencies, which are directed toward providing educational solutions to localized social, economic, cultural, and civic prob- lems which are not met by formal collegiate degree or certificate programs." Community services are concerned with identifying unmet community needs, and drawing together resources in the college and in the community required to carry on programs which can effectively meet the needs. Any of the resources available within the college may be utilized in community services: credit offerings as well as non-credit offerings, day classes as well as evening classes, on-campus courses and activities as well as off-campus courses or activities, programs for youth as well as for adults. Community services encompass a continuum of service from human re- source development (directed toward individual needs) to community develop- ment (directed toward the institutional needs of the community, including social, economic, cultural or civic). Since individual needs and insti- tutional needs are in certain ways interdependent, these concepts merge in the center of the continuum where action in changing one necessarily involves the other . Human resources develOpment is the "individual needs" dimension of Community services. Human resources development describes those community services designed to change and improve the lives of participants through Planned educational and counseling experiences. Participants emerge from these experiences prepared to function in different and better ways, and with different goals, than before they began the experience. 13 Community development is the "institutional needs" dimension of community services. Community development describes those efforts of the college directed toward cooperating with responsible community agencies in attacking specific social, economic, cultural, and civic problems which are recognized by the community, or by community groups, and for which the college has the capacity to contribute to a solution. Through the cooperative efforts of the college and other local agencies and groups, human and physical resources are properly allocated to change the insti- tutional (economic, political, or social) environment in such a way that individuals in the community find increased opportunity for personal growth. The definition of community services used in this study is based on a taxonomy of community service functions developed by Max R. Raines, Michigan State University. This taxonomy describes specific functions which constitute the scope of community services as viewed in this study: Career Development includes career counseling, jdb placement, group guidance sessions, etc. Social Outreach includes educational programs for ADC mothers, unemployed males, educationally deprived youth, welfare recipi- ents, etc. Community Analysis includes analyzing census tracts, analyzing manpower data, conducting problem-oriented studies, etc. Cultural Development includes fine art series, art festivals, artists in residence, community theatre, etc. Public Forum includes public affairs pamphlets, “town" meet- ings, TV symposiums, etc. Civic Improvement includes community self-studies, urban beautification, community chest drives, neighborhood clean- up drives, etc. R_ecreational Development includes sports instruction, outdoor education, summer youth programs, senior citizen activities, etc. 1h Educational Expansion includes institutes, tours, retreats, contractual in-plant training, etc. Cooperative Planning includes calendar coordination, informa- tion exchange, joint committee work, etc. Educational Extension includes evening classes, TV courses, "week-end college", etc. Public Information includes interpreting programs and activi- tIES of community services to the college staff as well as to the community-at-large. Faculty Consultation includes consulting with small businesses, advising on instructional materials, designing community studies, instructing in group leadership, laboratory testing, etc. Conference Planning includes professional assistance in registration procedures, program development, conference evaluation, etc. Advisory Liaison includes identifying and involving (in an advisory capacity) key members of the various sub-groups with whom cooperative programs are being planned. Facility Utilization involves encouraging community use of collegeETEEIIIties. Organizational-Administrative includes staff recruitment, job description, budgetary development, etc. Staff Development includes professional affiliations, ex- change visitations, professional conferences, advanced graduate studies, etc. Program Evaluation includes appraising probable effective- ness ofivarious facets of the program through participant ratings, attendance patterns, behavioral changes, program requests, etc. ggntinuing Education Russell J. Kleis has written the following definition of continuing education which is used for the purposes of this study: 11 Max R. Raines, "A Tentative Taxonomy of Community Services," Nbvember 1968, Michigan State University, unpublished Manuscript (Com- Plete manuscript in Appendix C). Ar) 15 "Continuing education may be defined as any deliberate effort of a person, whose principal occupation has ceased to be that of student, to seek learning as a means of de- veloping potential or resolving problems in himself, his institutions, or his community, or the deliberate effort of another peigon or an institution to produce such learn- ing in him." This broad definition of continuing education encompasses all learn- ing activities engaged in by persons, individually and in groups, who have moved from a "principal commitment to studenthood to a principal commitment to adulthood," that is, those who are committed primarily to adult responsi- bilities such as a job or a family rather than to a formal educational pro- gram. Analysis of the definitions above suggest that community services and continuing education are not mutually exclusive. One includes elements of the other; it is, therefore, folly to attempt to minutely delineate these terms. One Obvious delineation, however, is that community services may be provided to all age groups in the community, whereas continuing education implies service to adults only. Community services is also somewhat more closely identified with community development activities, although an argu- ment could be made that this is the domain of continuing education as well. Continuing education is most commonly identified in the community college with evening classes for adults. Where these offerings are designed to assist in the solution of localized social, economic, cultural, and civic problems, they may clearly be regarded as community services. On the other hand, where these offerings are primarily credit classes in academic 12 Russell J. Kleis, University Lecture, Seminar in Adult Education, Sumner l967, Michigan State University. 16 areas which are simply an extension of the daytime college transfer curriculum, the legitimacy of regarding them as community services is less clear. ORGANIZATION OF STUDY This study is presented in four chapters, in addition to Chapter I. Chapter II (Related Literature) is devoted to a review of publica- tions and research studies which are relevant to the present study. Chapter III (Method of Data Collection) describes the procedure preparatory to conducting interviews, the procedure by which interviews were conducted, and how the data produced by the interviews was organized for descriptive and analytical presentation in Chapter IV. Chapter IV (Presentation anthnalysis of the Data) provides a description of the community service programs involved in the study; and analyzes the data related to the basic questions of the study. Chapter V (Summary, Conclusions, Issues, Implications for Graduate Leadership Training, and Suggestions for Further Research) presents a summary of the study, conclusions, issues raised by the study, implications for graduate leadership training, and suggestions for further research. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF-RELATED LITERATURE This chapter summarizes the available literature which pertains to the areas of inquiry of this study: elements of community services; or- ganizational, staffing, and financing patterns, developmental factors, identification of community needs, and linkage with other areas of the college and with community groups. Since this study is descriptive in nature, no attempt is made in this chapter to establish or support hypo- theses, propositions, or assumptions regarding community services. Rather, the focus is on examining the conclusions and assertions of other writers as presented in the available literature. Following a brief discussion of the antecedents and contemporary influences of community services in the community college, the literature related to each basic question of the study is reviewed in a separate section of.the chapter. This format parallels that of Chapter IV, "Presentation and.Analysis of the Data," where each basic question of the study is the basis for a separate section of the chapter. ANTECEDENTS OF COMMUNITY SERVICES It is generally agreed that community services will be a major thrust of community college development in the next decade. James Thorntonl —_ l James‘W. Thornton, Jr., The Community Junior College, (New Yerk John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1960) P-I66- 1? 18 asserted that the scope and adequacy of community services determines whether the community college merits its name. Other authors, including Leland L. Medsker (The Junior College: Progress and Prospeci) have upheld this assertion. While the community services concept is only beginning its day in the center of the community college stage, it has a lengthy prologue. Several studies have provided extensive documentation of this fact. Har- lacher has traced the genesis of community services to the time of Socrates, when Socrates exemplified community services "by taking his wisdom into the streets and there creating a student-community representative of the people and actively concerned with the social and moral issues of the time."2 He traces this concept through history to the present day. A similar chronology is provided by George B. Erbstein.3 These studies report, for example, on the lyceum movement, a system of lectures and study groups started in the 1820's; the Chantauqua movement, a diversified adult education program which spread throughout the country and.which included summer schools, guided reading plans, correspondence courses, and activities such as lectures, concerts, and plays; and on the historical development of the community college from the time the "junior college" concept was deve10ped by William Rainey Harper at the university of Chicago in the 1890's. Other significant movements which may be viewed as antecedents of the community service concept include: 2 Ervin L. Harlacher, The Community Dimension of the Community 0011688, Op cit, p. 7. 3 George B. Erhstein, Informal Non-Credit Adult Education in the Public Community Junior College: Current Trend; and Future Prospects, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1962). 1. 19 Land grant colleges, which made higher education available to the masses, began in the mid-1800’s. The community college may be seen as an extension of the land grant concept in making available educational experiences at low cost to all segments of the community it serves. Cooperative extension, a program of "demonstration education" of land grant colleges and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, was legally established by the Smith-Lever Act of l9lh, and en- couraged the use of new agricultural technology by bringing the results of research to the farmer. Community services can be perceived as a form of urban cooperative extension service, bringing to the people of the community a variety of new edu- cational opportunities, and expanding its service beyond the boundaries of the college campus. The community school is typified by the Mott adult education and recreation program of the Flint Board of Education in Flint, Michigan. The Mott philosophy is very simple: The schools belong to all of the people. The community school is consciously used by the people of the community. Its curriculum reflects planning to meet the dis- covered needs of the community with changes in emphasis as circumstances indicate. Its buildings and physical facilities are at once a center for both youth and adults who together are actively engaged in analyzing problems suggested by the needs of the community and in formulating and exploring possible solutions to those problems. Finally, the community school is concerned that the people put solutions into operation to the end that living is improved and enriched for the individual and the community. University extension began in the late 1800’s with an emphasis on academic subjects, and shifted toward an all—embracing con- cept of the role of the university in serving all of the people of the state in relation to the full scope of liffi prdblems-- economic, political, social, cultural, and moral. It does not seem cogent to the purposes of this study to repeat detailed chronologies such as those of Harlacher and'Erbstein, and so the review will hereafter be limited to influences of a more recent nature. This is prdbably justified in any case, since it appears that the community h Malcolm S. Knowles, Handbook of Adult Education in the United States, (Chicago: Adult Education.Association of the U. S. Am, 19607? P' I8. \ w , '. Enron. C623 Lemar lnsfruciional 133ETNCKSON HALL 20 MICHIGAN STATE urwgs‘esrrv EAST LANSiNG, MICHIGAN 48823 services concept of the modern community college is rooted in the period of rapid social and economic change immediately following WOrld war II. It was during this period that the term community college gained accep- tance as recommended by the President's Commission in 19h8: "...the President's Commission suggests the name 'community college' he applied to the institution designed to serve chiefly local community education needs. It may have vari- ous forms of organization and may have curricula of various lengths. Its dominant feature is its intimate relations to the life of the community it serves." "Whatever form the community college takes, its purpose is educational service to the entire community, and this puns pose requires of it a variant of functions and programs." It was also during the post war period that the primary antecedent of community service--continuing education-~was becoming established in Junior colleges (the ternxadult education was in use in community colleges at that time). S. V. Martorana conducted a study in 19%? of public and private Junior colleges, receiving responses from 170 public Junior col- leges, in which he explored the status and prOblems of adult education in Junior colleges in the united States. He concluded that the majority of public Junior colleges did not offer adult education programs, and that most (four-fifths) of those having programs had initiated.them after 193k. In those colleges having adult education programs in.existence, there was heavy emphasis on vocational-technical offerings.7 5 President's Commission on Higher Education, Higher Education £9; American Democragy, (New York: Harper 8c Brothers, 1291385 III, 5."— 6 7 S. V. Nartorana, "Problems in Adult Education in the Junior Colleges, Junior College Journal, November 19h7, pp. 115-123. Ibid. , I, 67-70, 21 In 1950, Jesse Bogue8 stated that adult education was a relatively new function assumed by the community college movement, such programs having been previously offered by extension divisions of state colleges and universities. Bogue notes that little was said about adult education at the time AAJC was formed in 1920, and that Koos made no mention of adult education in his book, The Junior College MOvement, 1925. In l9h6, Sexson and Harbeson asserted that adult education had be- come a key function of the community college. For the successful perform- ance of this function, the Junior college should become the center of the educational and cultural life of the entire community. This function rests upon the philosophy that education is a lifelong process, extending from birth to death, and the time will never come in the course of one's life— time when he can say that his education is completed.9 Robert J. Havighurstlo outlines the following contemporary social processes which are dependent on education and at the same time transform the educational system; . The Expansion of Human Action on Space and Time Mass Production, Automation, Cybemation, and the Changing Significance of Work Metropolitanization World Interdependence and Cooperation Social Integration \J'I-P’U) (DI-J 8 Jesse Barker Bogue, The Community College (New York: Mc-Graw- 9 John A. Sexson and thn'w. Harbeson, The New American College, (New York: Harper & Brothers, l9h6) p. 58. ‘— 10 Rdbert J. Havighurst, "Social and Cultural Changes Molding the Future of the American People," Administering the Community College in avChanging WOrld, (The University Council for Educational.Admdnistration EEdIEHE‘SEEEEI‘Ef'Education, State university of New'York at‘Buffalo) PP. 7‘29 , 22 Illustrations of these social processes include man's growing con- trol over the forces of nature; his ability to cover more space and crowd more action into a unit 0f time; the rise of a productive and affluent society; increasing economic productivity through automation with the re- sultant problems of how to distribute work and leisure; the financial, political, social, and moral crisis of our big cities; the complexities of international cooperation; and the Negro Revolution. CURRENT PROBLEM AREAS Havighurst's outline is indicative of the scope of social processes which have influenced the develOpment of the community college and of com- munity services. In the section below, three current problem areas (organizational specialization, class unemployment, and the problems of race, poverty, and the inner city), which are related to the social processes above, and which seem especially pertinent to community services in the community college, are discussed. The Prdblem of Organizational Specialization One characteristic of what Amitai Etzioni calls the "organizational revolution" is the increasing specialization of organizations, and the establishment of new social units devoted to specific functions or human needs: "The process of modernization is one in which old functions are more effectively served rather than one in which new functions emerge. This gain in efficiency is largely achieved by differentiation, whereby the various functions which were carried out in one social Enit come to be served by a number of distinct social units." 11.Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations, (Prentice-Hall, Inc., En81ewoodCliffs, New Jersey, 196%) p. 166. 23 While this specialization is deliberately designed for the more efficient servicing of these functions, there is a tendency for the needs of the individuals being served to become fragmatized. A mother receiving ADC payments who desires to participate in a community college educct’ nal program, for example, may have problems related to housing, child care, finances, and health which prevent her from doing so. Several social agencies may be involved in ministering to these various needs. Yet the recipient of the services may be incapable of cutting through the special- ized organizational structure in order to solve what to her is one prdblem, rather than a series of fragmentized problems to be allocated in pieces to various agencies. The role of community services for this mother, then, is to make this "cutting through" manageable; to expedite the processes by which ob- stacles to participation in the educational experience are removed. The Problem of Class Unemployment In the second chapter of his book, 'The Other America, Michael Harrington12 describes the differences between poverty in the 1960's and during the depression in the 1930's. Harrington points out that, in the thirties, unemployment was a general problem of the society: a quarter of the workforce was on the streets, business was hit by the stock crash, both white and blue collar workers were laid off. In the 1960's, states Harrington, the number employed in increasing consumption is expanding, production is booming, and yet there is localized dapression. John Dunlop, of Harvard, has described the distinction in 12 Michael Harrington, The Other America, (New York: MacMillan, 1963) PP. 19-30 a 2h this way: in the thirties, there was mass unemployment; in the post war period, class unemployment. Harrington defines two groups from the "eco- nomic underworld" which have been singled out to suffer while all others experience poverty: (1) those who were born poor, and (2) those who have become poor--those whose skills have been rendered useless by technological advance. Community service programs which provide career counseling, Job retraining, Job upgrading, and basic educational experiences for the poor are examples of responses to this problem. Problems of Race, Poverty, and the Inner City In reading from the current outpouring of literature related to the problems of race, poverty, and the inner city, one senses the great impact the increasing awareness of this issue will inevitably have on community college education, and yet one also senses the need for monumental changes in accepted approaches to college recruitment and instruction. Herman P. Miller, in a book based on the united States census, demonstrates through charts and narrative that the economic position of the Negro relative to whites has grown worse, not better, in the 1950's and 1960's.13 James Coleman reports that, when measured by that yardstick, (segretation), American public education remains largely unequal in.most reSions of the country, including all those where Negroes form any sig- nificant proportion of the population.1h 13 Herman p, Miller, E19h Man Poor Man (New Yerk: New'American library of WOrld Literature, Inc., 196h3- 1h James Coleman, et al., Equality_of Educational Opportunity (washington: ‘U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966). 25 The Kerner Report reached this basic conclusion: Our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white--separate and unequal-- discrimination and segregation have long permeated much of American life; they now threaten the future of everyAmerican.15 After listing national figures which show that the preponderence of Negro students attend schools which have an enrollment 90 per cent or more Negro, a report of the Civil Rights Commission states that "in the Nation's metropolitan areas-~where two-thirds of both the Nation's Negro and white p0pulation now live-—school segregation is more severe than the national figures suggest, and it is growing."16 Obviously, community college community service programs alone can- not solve the problems of race, poverty, and the inner city. Community services can, however, participate in the solution through educational programs related to vocational training, race relationships, and com- munity development. RESPONSES TO CONTEMPORARY PROBIENS Several programs with various sponsorships have developed in response to the social,emonomic, cultural, and civic problems of the present day. Community services is one of these. Three other areas of response which are closely related to community services are described below: 15 Otto Kerner, et al., Report of the National Advisory Commission 99,01V11 Disorders (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967yf 16 thn A. Hannah, et al., Racial Isolation in the Public Schools, A Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights (washington: U. 3. Government Printing Office, 1967)- 26 Federal Legislation Measures in support of community activity characterized federal educational legislation in the 1960's. The Economic Opportunity Act of 196A, the Vocational Education Act of 1963, the Manpower'Development and Training Act of 1965, and the Higher Education Act of 1965 are examples of legislation having an impact on community service programs. Chapter IV provides many examples of community service programs financed by federal funds. New Careers The rapid increase in the employment of sub-professionals in health, education, welfare, neighborhood redevelopment, and public safety is result- ing in the reorganization of the world of work. The "career ladder" approach is creating new JObs and new relationships between 36b3, as sub-professionals take over many of the routine duties of professionals. Some examples of the more resourceful use of sub-professionals in- clude reading developers (assist teachers in working with slow readers); library assistants; neighborhood workers (advise persons in ghetto areas on education and other services); casework aides (work with social agencies); legal aides (work between attorney and cliente); and recreation aides (supervision of playgrounds). ngmunity Development "Community" is increasingly thought of in terms of behavior and the sharing of.common life elements rather than in terms of legal or geographic boundaries. In a complex, technologically advanced society such as our own, community is a relative term. A community is an aggregate of people tied 27 together by relatively frequent contact and interaction. Communities are more interdependent than independent. The modern metropolitan area is a constellation of specialized communities, a "community of communities." Most service agencies, including those with a major orientation toward adult education, are organized to serve a definite area or popu- lation or a definite segment within the population of an area. This is their functional community.17 Community develOpment refers to programs, whatever their names or sponsorship, which stress the citizens' participation in the improvement of their physical and social environment. To the extent that the community development process is concerned with favorable developments in people, as well as with economic, social, and governmental improvement, it is an educational process. Its main con- cern is with adults. But since infants, children, and adolescents are a part of most local accumulations of people, they must be included within the scope of community development. This is true even though these others may be served by other, more formal educational processes and institutions.18 Because it deveIOps human beings, community development is an edu- cational enterprise; but its methods disturb most traditional educators. Accustomed disciplines of teaching are displaced by disciplines from the behavioral sciences. Research--action research--is accented. The research 17 Edmund deS. Brunner, “An Overview of Adult Education Research, " (Adult Education Association of the U. s. A., 1967) pp. 21’4-215. la‘William‘W. Biddle, The Community;pevelopment Process: The Rediscove of Local Initiative, (Holt, Rinehart &‘Winston, Inc., 1965) p. 253 28 methodology grows out of the unique experience of cooperation with people in a process of dynamic growth.19 Community development has been customarily thought of as in the domain of the university rather than the community college. Some examples of university involvement, which center primarily on consultive services, are as follows: University of California (Berkeley), general consultation with Special emphasis upon public health and certain urban improvement projects. Offers annual seminar on "Principles and Practices of Community Development" for foreign partici- pants. Glenville State College (West Virginia), area and community improvement, with emphasis upon deve10ping underdeveloped regions. University of Michigan, Program of Community Adult Education Graduate work for degrees with emphasis upon CD. Institute for Social Research includes Group Dynamics and Action Re- search. School of Social Work previously offered summer seminars in CD. Michigan State University, Continuing Education and atten- tion to physical construction and governmental prdblems. Sociological and Economic Research. Extension focus upon social conflict and land-use. Graduate degrees in Socio- logy and Anthropology with area of concentration in CD. Northern Michigan University, health and community improve- ment'ifi a less developed section of the state. University of Washington, general consultation to meegocom- munity requests. Emphasis upon community self-study. 19 Ibid, 1). viii . 2° ma, pp. saunas. 29 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY SERVICES One of the basic questions of this study is: What are the elements of community services in the community college; what are the commonalities and the divergencies in programs? Program categories provided by Leland L. Medsker, James W. Reynolds, and Ervin L. Harlacher have been taken from the literature to analyze the common and unique elements of community services. Leland L. Medsker's study of 2A3 Junior and community colleges indi- cated the performance of the following special community services: N9. Reporting INS 11% 107 105 83 66 65 A2 Community Services Categories Widespread.use of the college physical plant by community groups. Assistance by college in safety and thrift campaigns, fund drives, and the like. Organization of special events, such as work- shops, institutes, forums for business, pro- fessional, or governmental groups either for the purpose of in-service training of employ- ees or the general improvement of the group. Promotion of cultural and recreational acti- vities, such as the development of community musical groups, sponsoring of little theater groups. Promotion by the college of community events in which public affairs are discussed. Organization projects with other community agencies relating to the improvement of health conditions in the community. Use of the college staff and students in mak- ing studies of the community (such as occu- pational surveys, sociological studies). Organization of services using college staff or students, or films and lectures from out- side, to further the conservation of natural resources. 3o No. Reporting Community Services Categories h2 Widespread use of college staff as speakers to community groups. hl Research by college staff and students for business or professional groups in the com- munity. hl Organization of child-care programs for 21 demonstration and instructional purposes. James W. Reynolds places community services into eleven categories:22 Mutual Aid for Meeting College-Community Needs Community-Experience Programs Community Study and Research Problems Public Affairs Education Specialized Community Services Community‘Development Community Participation and Leadership Training USe of Mass Media of Communication Public Relations Programs 10. Community Use of School Plant ll. Adult Education \OODNChUI-P'wml‘ Harlacher, in an article published in the JUnior College Journal, offered the following classifications:23 Community use of college facilities Cultural programs Provision of student programs for community Campus conferences and meetings Public affairs lecturs and forums Public information Speakers bureau Educational workshops, seminars, lectures for business, industry, and professions O O O O I I . (D-QONm-F'UJI'OH 21 Leland L. Medsker, The Junior College: Progress and Prospect, p. 799 *— 22 James W. Reynolds, "Community Services," The Public Junior 0011988, 55th Yearbook of the National Society for the Stgdy of Education, ChIcago, 1956, Ed: Nelson B. Henry, Chapter 8, pp. lHO-l 0. 23 Ervin L. Harlacher, "California's Community Renaissance," QEBiOr College Journal, April 196%, p. 18. 31 9. Special services for the community such as library, guidance, planetarium, museum,art gallery, and radio-televison ' 10. Campus special events (commencement, founders' day, etc.) 11. Community recreation programs 12. Campus tours 13. Alumni association 1%. Utilization of community recourses in instruction 15. College box office 16. Community research and development 17. Adult education classes (non-graded) Reynoldseh conducted a study of the community service activities of twelve community colleges. He identified 5,333 community service activities and classified these activities into seven areas, as follows: Area No. of Activities Use of Physical Resources 1,308 Formal Adult Classes 1,298 Use of Specialized Competence 1,282 Community Participation 9&0 Public Relations 260 Formal Studies and Research 165 Participation in Decision Making 71 ORGANIZING, STAFFING, AND FINANCING COMMUNITY SERVICES The second basic question of this study is: What organizational, staffing, and financing patterns exist in community service programs? Almost no research is available which describes these patterns in community service programs. Lanseres concluded, on the basis of a survey k 2h Reynolds, The Public Junior College, p. 60. 25 Roland Louis Lanser, The Community Services of Selected Public JUnior Colleges, (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of Missouri, 1959 p. 3 - 32 of three community colleges, that the extent and type of community service functions had little relationship to the source of financial support or the type of administrative structure. One study indicates that, in Cali- fornia at least, the administrative patterns for community services are changing: A survey conducted in California in 1967 by the California Junior College Association Committee on Community Services, showed that 23 of the 60 campuses polled anticipated some administrative change in community services during the next year; 12 planned to add a full-time administrator.26 DEVELOPMENTAL FACTORS The third basic question of this study is: What are the factors or conditions which influence the development and effectiveness of com- munity service programs? Reynolds cited eight criteria for effective community service pro- grams: 27 1. Sensitivity of the curriculum to community needs. 2. Extension of the educational program beyond the conventional classroom aspects including cultural actiVities, recreational activities, thought provoking activities, and adult education classes. Faculty competence used in solving community problems. Student competence used in curriculum problems. Community participation in curriculum making. Using the community as an instructional laboratory. An effective public relations program. A system for evaluating the success of the community service program. OD«JC\v1$?UJ 26 A Survey of Community Services in California Junior Colleges, 1966-67, California Junior College Association, Committee on Community Services, 1967 . 27 James W. Reynolds, "What is a Community College," Junior 92}1886 Journal, December 1950, p. 202. """ 33 Later, he modified this listing somewhat in presenting the essential factors for success in developing community services: The college personnel must have a sympathetic understanding of the importance of such a program. The community to be served must have an understanding of what is being done by the college. An expansion of the educational program into the field of com- munity services will require additional staff members, facili- ties, and expense. Constant evaluation is highly desirable.28 Harlacher29 stresses the need for public involvement in the com- munity service program: "The effective program of community services is built upon: (1) a solid foundation of citizen participation and college-community interactions; (2) a thorough under- standing of the community. Citizens actually participate in the planning, maintenance, and evaluation of the pro- gram and the college, recognizing that it must be of the community and not Just in it, participates in the life of the community." Harlacher has stated that...it would seem obvious that before a program tailored to meet community needs could be developed, the institu- tion would first have to obtain a thorough understanding of the nature and needs of its community. A community survey would provide the means of identifying existing services in the community so as to prevent unnecessary duplication.3O Adams, in summarizing a review of pertinent research, stated: "The personality structure of the administrator (viewpoint, ability, leadership, and interest) appears to be an import- ant factor in the development of the community college in continuing education. 28 Reynolds, The Public Junior College, p. 160. 29 Ervin L. Harlacherg Critical Requirements for the Establishment gg'ngective Junior Colle e Pro rams of Communit Services _gpL_git. pp. -5 , 30 Ibid., pp. 58-59. LN -. I .\I IPV 3h "Other factors which appear to be important in the develop- ment of the role of the community college in centinuing education are: willingness of faculty to participate, financial resources available, community leadership, public relations programs, and community cooperation." 1 George B. Erbstein, in a study involving the responses of 280 chief executives of community colleges in the United States, concluded that coordination of adult education activity was essential in the planning and development of a comprehensive and meaningful program for a community. 1. Coordination of adult education activities in some form whether highly structured or informal, is essential to the planning and developing of a comprehensive and meaningful program for the community; 2. Each institution must have its own definition of purpose and policies in adult education. 3. Leadership is vital for the development of a well-balanced adult education program. A. Institutions should seek the widest possible base for the financial support of their education function.32 William R. Dakin33 conducted a study involving an extensive review of literature and the responses of fourteen experts in continuing education to determine the guidelines for development of continuing education serv- ices in a community. He concluded: . Appoint a local governing board as sponsoring agency. , . Appoint a Director of Adult Education to administer the program. With the advice of the Director of Adult Education, the sponsor- ing agency should appoint a lay advisory committee. Develop a sound philosophy and set of objectives for the program. Establish operating policies and procedures. Determine individual and community needs and interests upon which the program can be built. (hunt LUNH 31 Dewey Allen Adams, 'An Analysis of Roles of the Community lelege in Continuing Educatiofi—in Conjunction'With other Organizations Which Provide Education For Adults ' (Unpublished.doctoral dissertation, The University of Florida, 1 ) p. 36 - 32 Erbstein, o cit., pp. 207-212. 33 William R. Dakin, "A Plan for Implementing a Program of Con- tinuing Adult Educational Services," (Arizona State University, 1967). ) 1.... qlb ‘! 3C 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. human resources development dimension of community services. 35 Plan a well-balanced program of offerings to meet the needs and interests of the adults in the community. Provide adequate financing for the program. The Director of Adult Education should establish a complete plan of administrative procedures. Provide instructional facilities for the program. Locate an adequate source of qualified teachers. Develop necessary in-service training. Provide effective publicity and public information about the program offerings. Provide continuous evaluation of the staff, program, and partici- pants. The factors listed by the various researchers above relate to the There is no available research which relates to the community development dimension of community services directly; However, William W. Biddle has outlined the conditions that surround successful community development programs in general: 1. 2. Although concerned with the total improvement (economic, social, cultural, political, and so on) of a geographic area, CD focuses upon the development of people. It deals with development It is inherently unspectacular. processes in human beings and their achievement of a sense of responsibility for community welfare. This growth is slow and undramatic. The participation of all citizens is sought at several levels of saphistication, education, and wealth. An attempt should be made to provide participation activities for all residents of the area served. CD seeks to serve some concept of total community, not just some specialized interest, such as schools, housing, city plan- ning, health, or social welfare. Total community also means serving the welfare of all the people in the area, not just some one faction. Nevertheless, the number active at any given time will represent a small fraction of the total population. The CD process continues over a substantial period of time. It is an on-going process, not a single great endeavor with a termi- nation date. The slow growth and the permeation of influence throughout the area are dependent upon a growth that continues ovez'iflu3;years. 36 8. Although many programs have produced "how to" handbooks, a study of these leads to the conclusion that there is no universally useful formula. For best CD, local participants work gflt their own pattern, following an action research methodology. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMUNITY NEEDS The fourth basic question of this study is: How are community needs which relate to community service programs identified: The question is closely related to the previous one; in fact, the identification of com- munity needs may be regarded as a significant factor in the development of community service programs. Identification of the social, economic, and civic needs of the community is a prerequisite to service. This view- point was expressed by Jesse Bogue as follows: "The community institution goes to the people who live and work where it is located, makes a careful study of the needs of these people for education not being offered by any other institution of learning, analyzes these needs, and builds its educational program in response to the analysis. All too frequently people who are unfamiliar with the process are inclined to think of job analysis only, to the neglect of family life, civic and cultural community interests."35 In spite of its desireability, however, there is no evidence that utilization of such studies is widespread in community colleges. There is also little evidence from the literature that new or different tech- niques are used to identify community needs to be met by community service programs or activities, as opposed to other collegiate programs. A common approach to identifying community needs is the feasibility study made prior to the establishment of a community college district. 3”. Biddle, O s Cite, pp. 295-2%. 35 Bogue, op. cit., p. 21. 37 The primary focus of such a study, obviously, is the determination of whether or not the proposed district has the enrollment potential, finan- cial resources, and educational needs (i.e., the vocational-technical needs), to Justify the establishment of a community college. Such factors as high school enrollments, interest in post-high school education, edu- cational needs of adults, total population, and the presence of other institutions of higher education in the area must be considered. Such a study is likely to result in only very general recommendations regarding community services. For example, a feasibility study conducted by the Office of Community College Cooperation at Michigan State University in a proposed district includes this open-ended recommendation: It is recommended that the community college work closely with business, industry, agriculture, and educational leaders in the area in studying the vocational-technical needs, and to establish programs designed to meet gge particular needs of all segments of the community. Another type of study conducted by the community college is the development of a long-range master plan designed to meet the future needs of the district. Such a master plan is also likely to offer only general statements indicating that a program of community services will be pro- vided as determined by public interest and support and according to the ChanSing needs of the community. Howard E. Rawlinson37 developed an instrument to evaluate the com- munity college in terms of its ability to meet community needs. In the ¥ 36'Community College Feasibility Study for County Intermediate §ghool.Districts of Manistee and.Masgn, Office of Community College C°°Peration, Michigan State University, October 1966, p. 6. 37 Howard.E. Rawlinson, Public Junior College and.Community Reeds: Development and Application of Evaluative Criteria, (Unpublished.doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois university, l963).~. 38 initial use of this instrument, Rawlinson evaluated.Mt. Vernon Community College, Mt. Vernon, Illinois, where he was employed as dean of the college. The evaluation draws information regarding the community essentially from census reports and similar documents, with the majority of the instrument directed toward evaluation of the structure and functioning of the college itself. A study being conducted by the Urban Community College Project Office of the American Association of Junior Colleges focuses on a specific segment of the population: inner city high school graduates. This demo- graphic study, which is funded by the Ford Foundation, is being conducted in cooperation with community college districts in Philadelphia, St. Louis, Dallas-Fort‘Worflh, and San Francisco. Utilizing interviews and reviews of high school records, the study will attempt to determine attitudes toward post-high education among inner city youth in order to recommend appropriate recruitment procedures and curricula for this group. A comprehensive approach to the study of community needs is illus- trated.by a study directed by Russell J. Kleis38 of the continuing educa- tion needs in the Muskegon, Michigan,area. Seven citizen task forces, a steering committee, and a committee of the whole, worked intensively for a sixamonth period. Through the use of surveys, hearings, interviews, and deliberative sessions, the community needs for continuing education was studied. The committees then made recommendations for an area system of continuing education, making specific references to the role of the 38 Russell J. Kleis,.An.Area Approach to Continuing;§ducation, (Educational Publication Services, College of Education, Michigan State University) August 1967 . 39 community college, local schools, the intermediate school district, and community agencies. LINKING COMMUNITY SERVICES WITH OTHER AREAS OF THE COLLEGE AND WITH COMMUNITY GROUPS The fifth basic question of the study is: What are the means by which community services are linked with other areas of the college and with community groups? There is no available research which directly approaches this question. Thornton expressed the accepted philosophical view that com- munity services, when linked with college transfer, terminal, and semi- professional curriculum constitute the operational definition of the community college: The present Junior community college has evolved in three major stages. The first and longest lasted from 1850 to 1920. During that period the idea and the acceptable practice of the Junior college, a separate institution offering the first two years of baccalaureate curriculums, were achieved. Next, the concepts of terminal and semi- professional education in the Junior college, which had been described earlier, gained widespread currency with the foundation of the American Association of JUnior Col- leges in 1920. By the end of werld War II in 19MB, this idea was an established part of the Junior college con- cept. Finally, the changes in post-high school education brought by the war emphasized a third element of responsi- bility, service to the adults of the community, and so the period from 19h5 to the present has seen the development of the operative definition of the community Junior college. 9 At least one study concluded, however, that community colleges do not regard these three responsibilities as having equal importance. Dewey A. Adams concluded, on the basis of his study which involved eight 39 'Ihornton, op. cit., p. 1.5 . ho community colleges and.various panels of experts, that adult education and community services, while considered important by all respondents, do not.have the general top priority of college transfer and vocational- technical education. Occupational in-service education and.high school level adult education have higher priority than other adult education ho areas. One measure of the impact of community services on the total college program is the philosophical or organizational changes these newer programs bring about. Leland L. Medsker expressed the changing philosophy of the community college and its implications for administration as follows: The community college administrator must be broadly'trained. He must be able to understand the complexities of the chang- ing world and to translate them into the obligations of educational institutions such as the community college... The administrator must be able to play a leadership role. His big task is to assist others in interpreting needs, in visualizing the broad Obligations of the community college, and in translating ideas into action. He must himself be a doer, but he must also beha catalyst, both within the institution and outside it. 1 SUMMARY Antecendents of community services include the land grant college movement, the cooperative extension movement, the community school movement, the university extension movement, and the continuing education movement. ho Adams, op. cit. 1+1 Leland L. Medsker, "Implications of Social and Cultural Change for Community College.Administration," Administering the Community College in a Changing‘World, S. V. Martorana and Pauline F. Hunter, Ed. (The Uhi- vers y ounc or Educational Administration and the School of Education, State university of New Yerk at Buffalo) p. kl. hl Contemporary problems which influence the development of community services include organizational specialization, class unemployment, racial tensions, poverty, and the pathos of inner city. Contemporary responses to the problems caused by rapid social and technological change which are related to community services, include federal legislation, new careers programs, and community develOpment activities. 0n the basis of the review of literature related to the elements of community services, the commonalities in programming appear to be: Community use of college facilities. Evening credit and non-credit classes. Werksh0ps, institutes, seminars. Sponsorship of community cultural and recreational programs. Community development. Community college cooperation in public affairs projects. Public relations and information dissemination efforts. Speakers bureau. College participation in community studies and surveys. \om‘QmUT-F'wml'" o Mere unique programming would include: Child care centers. . Research by college staff for local business and professional groups. Community participation in determining college policies. Box office services. Campus tours. Community library, guidance services, museum, art gallery, etc. Projects to conserve natural resources. NH «ImW-F'w 0n the basis of the review of literature related to developmental factors, the following factors appeared to be significant: 1. Sensitivity of college to community needs through study and involvement. Community participation in program planning, through advisory committees, and coordinative activities with community groups. Commitment to reaching solutions to community problems. Clarity of purposes and policies. Adequate financial base. Leadership ability of college administration. Faculty competence and understanding. to «Jam-F4.» O 8. Balance between academic, vocational-technical, student personnel services, general education, and community service programs. 9. Communications and public relations. 10. Program evaluation. The literature revealed almost nothing of significance regarding the organizational, staffing, and financing patterns in community services. Limited information was available on the identification of community needs, although studies by Rawlinson, Kleis, and.AAJC offer some alternatives to approaching this aspect of community services. In relation to linking community services with other areas of the college and with community groups, the assertion was made that community services, when linked with college transfer and vocational-technical pro- grams, constitutes the operational definition of the community college. While community services is not presently given the priority in the com- munity college accorded college transfer and vocational-technical pro- grams, it is becoming increasingly important the community college administrator visualize the broader responsibility of the community col- lege in a changing world, and that he be a doer in the community as well as in the college. CHAPTER III METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION THE SAMPLE This study is descriptive in nature; the foundation of the investi- gation is in-depth analysis of the community service programs of thirteen community colleges throughout the United States. The analysis is based on the perceptions of 75 administrators from the colleges involved, each of whom was interviewed. Administrators of all of the thirteen community colleges selected for the study agreed to participate. Each college was visited; the dura- tion of each visit was from one to two days, depending on the interview schedule and on the number to be interviewed. The following colleges participated: Oakland Community College, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan College of San Mateo, San Mateo, California Foothill College, Los Altos, California Cerritos College, Norwalk, California Milwaukee Technical College, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Rockland Community College, Rockland, New York New York City Community College, New York, New York DelMar College, Corpus Christi, Texas El Centro Community College, Dallas, Texas Miami-Dede Community College, Miami, Florida Abraham Baldwin College, Tifton, Georgia Essex Community College, Baltimore, Maryland Cuyahoge Community College, Cleveland, Ohio 1‘3 Ah Development of the Interview Guide .After reviewing the pertinent literature and consulting with several professors in the College of Education, Michigan State university, an inter- view guide was developed to facilitate obtaining the data needed for the study; .After the preliminary interview guide was prepared, a visit was made to Oakland Community College, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, to field test the instrument. During and following the conducting of interviews at Oakland, criticisms were solicited regarding the interview guide and the interview procedure. The doctoral committee chairman also reviewed the guide and accompanied the author to Oakland Community College for the visit. His suggestions following the visit, as well as those received from interviewees, were considered in the develOpment of the final inter- view guide The guide, as finalized and as used in this study, included rela- tively general questions categorized according to the five basic areas of inquiry of this study. (See Appendix H.) Since administrators holding a variety of positions within the organizational structure of the college were interviewed, questions from each section were used only to the extent that they were pertinent to the position and reaponsibilities of the inter- viewee. It was intended that interviews should be relatively unstructured to allow freedom to explore more intensely particular perceptions and in-' sights held by individual interviewees. Therefore, no attempt was made to include all possible questions in the interview guide. §§lection of Community Colleges The thirteen community colleges which make up the sample were selected on the basis of the recommendations of Ervin L. Harlacher, who has conducted two national studies of community service programs; these ’6 recommendations were concurred in by Max.R. Raines, director of the Michigan.State University community services leadership program. The thirteen colleges constitute a purposive sample of institutions having effective and comprehensive community service programs. Arrangements for Visits to Selected Colleges The initial contact with selected colleges was made through a letter from the chairman of the author's doctoral committee to the college presi- dent asking each college to participate in the study and requesting the name of the person at the college who would be responsible for coordinating the visit. All presidents responded favorably with invitations to visit the college. The second contact with selected colleges was made through a letter and an informational packet from the author to the person responsible for coordinating the visit. The person usually designated was the Director of Community Services. The information packet contained the following: 1. .Agenda. The Director of Community Services was requested to arrange for approximately'hS-minute interviews with each administrator at the college responsible for one or more com- munity service programs or activities. (See Appendix D.) 2. Check List of Supplementary Data. The Director was requested to provide, at the time of'the visit, supplementary data which would provide basic information about the college and community service programs. (See Appendix F.) 3- interviewee Materials. The Director was requested to distribute to each person to be interviewed envelopes which contained an introductory letter explaining the purpose of the interview (See Appendix 9), a copy of the interview guide, and a news release concerning the Michigan State university College of Education community services leadership program. A few days prior to the visit, the Director was contacted by tele- Phone to make final arrangements and to ascertain the exact location and time of the first interview. Inshucfio fl («.gufiz CC? I 133 ERICI‘LSON HALL 1+6 MICHIGAN STATE U::z‘.-':~.:e51TY EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN 48823 ADMINISTRATION OF INTERVIEWS Interviews followed the format of the interview guide, although the exact nature of the questioning was determined by the responsibilities and the particular expertise of the interflme' “8°“: as Doggible’ an informal atmosphere was maintained. All interviews were taped. ORGANIZATION OF DATA The presentation and analysis of the data is ordered by the areas of inquiry to which this study is addressed: (1) the elements of com- munity services in the community college, (2) organizational, staffing, and financing patterns in community services, (3) conditions or factors which determine the development and effectiveness of community service problems, (A) methods by which community needs are identified, and (5) the means by which community services are linked with other areas of the college and with community groups. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION.AND.ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The purposes of this chapter are to: A. Present, on the basis of brief descriptions of community service programs, organizational patterns by which community colleges reach out into their communities to address social, economic, cultural, and civic needs. B. Present and analyze data related to the development and struc- ture of community services in the community college with refer- ence to the five study questions: 1. What are the elements of community service in the community college; what are the commonalities and divergencies in programs? 2. What organizational, staffing, and financing patterns exist in community service programs? 3. What are the factors or conditions which influence the development and effectiveness of community service pro- grams? A. How are community needs which relate to the development of community service programs identified? 5. What are the means by which community services are linked with other dimensions of the college and with community groups? The perceptions of the various administrators interviewed at each cellege have been incorporated to form.the response of that college. The pattern of responses across colleges to each of the basic questions of the study is the focus of the study; therefore, the colleges in the sam- Ple are not identified.individually in the analysis of the data. K4 of 2We ORGANIZATIONAL—FATTERNS TO PROVIDE COMMUNITY SERVICES Community services is, as one administrator interviewed said, "the eyes and ears of the college." This implies that sensitivity to community prdblems and needs should permeate all areas of the college. Community services is viewed as the responsibility, not of a single ad- ministrator or division, but of all areas of the college. The division of community services becomes the "cutting edge" of the college through which the resources of the entire college become increasingly more rele- vant to the prOblems and needs of the community; it is the program of the college that has the purpose and function of reaching out beyond the cam- pus to penetrate the basic social, economic, cultural, and civic prdblems of the area it serves. Through seeking educational solutions to tough, perplexing, and often neglected community problems, strong linkages are created between the community and the community college. It would seem logical that one could identify, through analysis of community service programs and the characteristics of the institutions within which they operate, how colleges organize to create this "cutting edge." The focus of such an analysis is on the "external functions" of the college--the relations between the college and its external environ- ment. Certain patterns of organization do, in fact, appear in an analysis of the community colleges included in the sample. These patterns are re- lated to the way the college is organized to meet those needs of its com- munity which can be met by approaches other than enrollment in the tra- ditional degree or certificate programs of the college. It is convenient, fer the purposes of classification, to attach labels to five organiza- tional patterns which emerge: 5A AB 1. Extended.Departmental Pattern 2. Nucleated Pattern 3. Advisory Group Pattern h. Antenna Pattern 5. Affiliate Pattern No college in the sample will fit one of these patterns in any exact way. For example, all colleges in the sample utilize advisory committees, yet only one college has "institutionalized" the advisory group structure to the extent that it can be seen as the cutting edge of the college in relation to its community. It is intended that, through the use of this approach in describing the community service programs of the colleges in the sample, it will be possible to more clearly under- stand the structure of the community services dimension than would be the case if a mere cataloging of thirteen community service programs were undertaken. Because of space considerations, one or two colleges will be described under each pattern in this section; the others will be described in Appendith. Extended Departmental Pattern - The traditional departmental organization of the college's instructional program is based in disci- plinary areas such as Humanities, Physical Science, and Business. In this pattern, community services are also generated through the depart- mental structure. Various departments offer short courses, exhibits, lectures, etc., according to how community needs are perceived by those Within each department. In this pattern, a staff member may be ap- Pointed to perform a coordinative function in promoting and administer- ing Programs developed by departments of the college. Milwaukee Technical College provides an.example of the extended departmental pattern. .At Milwaukee, each community service offering is sPonsored'by a division of the college based on requests from local 1}9 groups. Programs are developed cooperatively by the community groups and the department involved . The administrator responsible for community services performs a liaison function between instructional departments and the community; his role centers on program develOpment, public relations, and programming arrangements. In 1967-68, 85 community agencies, cooperatively with the college, sponsored a total of 100 community service meetings, seminars, and insti- tutes. All offerings were non-credit. Below is a listing of some of the programs offered in 1967-68; the division of the college sponsoring the program is also shown. Programs were one, two, or three sessions in length. No. Attending Dynamics of Supervision (Business) 88 How to Spend More--Owe Less--and Live Better (Business) 272 Construction Safety (Industrial) 110 Choral-Spring Workshop (General Education) 197. How to Conduct a Business Meeting (General Education) A2 Steam Cooker Workshop (Home Economics) 1&3 Law Enforcement and Narcotics (S &.H Occ) 598 Graphic Communication werkshop (G & A Arts) 802 Operation and Maintenance of Private Air- craft (Technical) 123 TV and Mass Media (Television) AA A total of 31,800 persons were served in some way through the community service program in 1968. At DelMar College, two divisions of the college, the Division of Fine.Arts and the Division of TechnicaJJVocational and.Special Programs, provided a variety of public services beyond their degree and certificate programs. The college does not have an individual designated as a di- rector of community services; rather, each division chairman is 50 responsible for community service activities within his area. The Divi- sion of Vocational, Technical, and Special Services is housed in the college's vocational-technical facilities. In addition to providing college transfer and non-credit vocational programs to full-time students in a wide range of occupational fields, the division offers non-credit extension classes in trade or industrial subjects, including such as: Basic Refrigeration and.Air Conditioning Basic Automotive Electricity Automotive Tune-up Aircraft Blueprint Reading Sheetmetal Pattern.Drafting Basic Instrumentation Advanced Television Servicing Through its Sales and Marketing Department, the division expands educational opportunities in the areas of advertising, banking, hotel- motel management, insurance, business management, real estate, and sales- manship. .A unique feature of this department is a popular series of courses in psycho-cybernetics, which grew out of an earlier interest in the department in sales and motivational psychology. Examples of courses offered in this department are: Advertising Copywriting and Layout Negotiable Instruments Inventory Methods and Procedures Hotel-Motel Organization and Management The Division of Fine Arts includes a School of Music and a School of Arts. The division's programs of service to the community, which are offered beyond its program for transfer students, provide an excellent example of commitment to community service in this area. Persons of all ages from the community may participate in private lessons and in college- sponsored performing groups; thus the community receives the benefit of 51 a music faculty of over 20 full-time instructors. Groups in which com- munity persons may participate include the chamber orchestra and the Corpus Christi Chorale. A guest artist series and faculty performances are provided for the public, as well as a collegium musicum program, which is a series of lecture-concerts tracing a historical survey of music and the humanities. The School of Art provides non-credit courses and many exhibits and lectures of public interest. In the extended departmental pattern, community needs are per- ceived through the eyes of specialists in various subject matter areas. While drawing on the strengths of subject matter specialization, the possibility of unbalanced emphasis and "tunnel vision" exists in this pattern. Nucleated Pattern - For this and the remaining three patterns, a differentiated administrative structure is established which is responsi- ble for community service programming. In this pattern, all members of the community services staff Spend a portion of their time identifying needs through meetings and professional contacts, and a portion of their time administering the programs that are developed. Faculty and advisory group involvement is significant in the nucleated pattern, but are more likely to be "reactor" panels rather than process initiators. Foothill College is an example of the nucleated pattern. Utiliz- ins an expert staff in various specialized areas, the program has devel- OPEd programs in a rather autonomous way in relation to other segments 0f the college. Community services at Foothill College is a district office function, with offices located on the Foothill College campus. .A com- munity services office has also been established on the DeAnza campus to 52 facilitate carrying on the program in that area of the district; this program is an extension of the district office function. The community services dimension of Foothill College includes a speakers' bureau providing faculty speakers to community groups without charge; a space science center; a planetarium and observatory program; a program of lectures, concerts, film series, art exhibits, seminars, workshops, conferences, and short courses; a community recreational pro- gram; a public information program; campus tours; and community use of college facilities. The recreation program of the college, which includes skills classes, organized athletic leagues, a camp program, and sports partici- pation opportunities, served over 67,000 persons during 1967-68. Nearly 2,500 adults participated in skills classes. Non-credit short courses, which are funded partially by the adult education tax which is a part of the California state tax support structure, were offered on such subjects as: No..Attending The Natural World.Around Us 8h . Great Music Epochs 72 Is America Really a "Sick Society" 72 Pursuit of Awareness 168 Non-credit short courses were organized to be presented in four to six three-hour meetings. WOrkshops, institutes, field trips, and short courses are also offered. In the summer of 1968, for example, 23 persons spent a week in the Minarets wilderness area of the High Sierras. Other programs included, in 1967-68, programs on amateur telescope making, real estate, inhalation therapy, tax planning for small business, para- PSYChology, and how to invest in stocks. 5—.- (J A.I ‘14 :3. 53 The Community Science program includes a planetarium, which served both the public schools and adults (30,935 attended in 1967-68); an observatory with a 16" reflecting telescope (3,259 participated in 1967-68); a Friday night "Science Spectacular" which includes science films, and the use of the planetarium and the observatory. Three musical performing groups are sponsored by community serv- ices: the Schola Cantorum, the Mastor Sinfonia, and the Nova Vista Symphony. .A Campus and Communiterusic Guild was formed to help promote attendance at the performances of these groups. The district radio station (KFJC) is operated by a faculty ad- visor and students training for commercial station operation. Its edu- cational services offer a unique opportunity for communications between the college and the community. These services include interviews with guest speakers and distinguished visitors, regular coverage of campus and community news, a daily calendar of campus and community events, discussion programs with student leaders, and numerous broadcasts of seminars, workshops, and lectures. Through its Special Services office, Foothill College scheduled a total of 382 public-use events in its facilities during 1968. Ninety- five community organizations used its facilities. Several community groups also used the box office facilities, which also handles ticket sales for college organizations. The Foothill Theatre, Planetarium, Choral Building, Campus Center, and gymnasium were among the buildings used. Because visitors come to the Foothill College campus from through- out the country and the world, many campus tours and visits are arranged by Community Services. Faculty members participate in a speakers' 5h bureau, which is coordinated by Community Services. The Community Information service provides news releases and promotional materials, distributes pertinent published articles to faculty and administrators, maintains college staff photo and bibliographical files, and is responsi- ble for editing, design, and layout of official college publications. Another example of the nucleated pattern is the program at Oakland Community College. Community services at Oakland Community College was organized in 1966, and is administered by an executive director for com- munity services and a specialized staff. The program is a district office function serving the entire district. The Division of Community Services is organized into five opera- tions: Community'Education Cultural Affairs Community Development PolicelAcademy Special Services The evening credit classes of the college are administered by aca» demic departments if held on campus, but by the Community Education sec- tion of the Community Services Division if held in the eight extension centers located in high schools throughout the district. .A coordinator, usually an administrator at the local high school, is employed to provide local supervision. Another aspect of community education is non-credit short courses, seminars, workshops, and conferences. Examples of such offerings include: Dental Radiography Great Decisions Problems of Overprivileged and under- privileged.Adolescents Seminar in Developing Executive Skills 55 The Oakland Police Academy is a part of the Division of Community Serv- ices. Both trainees and active law enforcement personnel take courses in such areas as Basic Police Training, Traffic Law Enforcement, In- Service Refresher, and Police Supervision. .A special services section handles campus tours and visits, the speakers' bureau, box office functions for college events, and publishes a monthly master calendar of college events. The Human Resource Training section operates MDTA, paraprofessional, apprenticeship, and other occupation programs. At present, MDTA programs in practical nursing, security guard, medical receptionist, and machine operator are being held. The Cultural Affairs section sponsors performing groups, exhibits, lectures, film series, fine art programs, cultural tours, and short courses. A contrast series, which is sponsored by students and the pub- lic, brings outstanding artists to the area. A community band and com- munity chorus are local performing groups sponsored by the college. Courses, workshops, and tours offered during 1967-68 include: New York Theatre Tour Chicago Art Tour Theatre Directors Workshop Concert-Renaissance Quartet The Community Development section seeks to serve as a catalytic force in bringing together college and community resources in response to community prdblems. Emphasis is placed on developing proposals seek- ing funding from outside sources to carry on social action programs. One outcome of the effort is Project SERVE, which (1) created a counsel- ing and placement service for senior citizens, (2) created a volunteer bureau to utilize the talents and experience of senior citizens in 56 solving community prdblems, and (3) established.short courses, such as "Creative Craftsmanship," "Dynamics of Leadership," and "Echoes of the Past." Still another funded proposal is Project COPE, which is in opera- tion in l968-69-and which provides educational counseling and training to disadvantaged persons. Community centers in ghettO' areas are staffed by counselor-coordinators and community education aides. Focuses of the project are recruitment of disadvantaged students for regular college programs, and short courses on such subjects as Money Management, Tips on Income Tax Reporting, and Driver Training for’Disadvantaged Adults. While the staff of community service specialists characteristic of the nucleated pattern provide the format for a broadly based and uni- fied approach to community needs, it may lack the discerning capacity and ready communication with various community groups possible through the extended departmental pattern. Advisory Group Pattern - The majority of community colleges have the services of advisory committees, typically using them for "reality testing" in designing courses of instruction. In this pattern, however, advisory committees play a more crucial role in sensing community needs in their area of specialities (i.e., health, law, engineeringL.in design- ing new programs, evaluating present ones, and in promoting these pro- grams to the potential clientele. The college may have a staff member who is a coordinator of the various advisory committees. In addition to the more common semi-permanent advisory committees, this pattern includes ad hoc committees dealing with critical issues. An excellent example of the advisory group pattern is the Cerritos College Community Service program. 57 One of the distinctive features of community services at Cerritos College is the network of active citizens advisory committees which play an active role in planning, promoting, and carrying out programs. The Dean of Community Services at the college is a liaison secretary for all committees. Committees include fine arts, community research and develop- ment, business, industry, professions, recreation, special education, community volunteer services, and civic responsibility. An outstanding example of the effectiveness of the advisory group pattern in attacking local prdblems is the work of the civic responsi- bility committee, formed by the college in 1966. After deciding on nar- cotics education as its focus, the committee spent nine months studying the problem. The outcome was a series of panel discussions at the col- lege which attracted full houses, and an "impact day" presentation to fifth and sixth graders throughout the area. This effort appears to be having far-reaching effects in the area, and is a result of cooperation between the college, the committee, the schools, the courts, the hospital, and the police. Administered by an.Assistant Superintendent and Administrative Dean of Community Services and a specialized staff, the college operates, in cooperation with advisory committees and community groups, a compre- hensive community service program. This includes extensive use of college facilities, a speakers series, a documentary film series, recreation pro- grams which served approximately 50,000 persons during 1967-68, a college arts gallery with continuous exhibits, and a wide spectrum of seminars and workshops. In 1967-68, for example, seminars and workshops included: Secretarial Workshop for School Employees legal Aspects of Small Business Advanced Real Estate Childrens.Art Summer Werkshop Dictation Skills for the Boss 58 Music and art activities includes an intercollegiate jazz festival, a community high school gallery exhibit, and music conservatory recitals. While those involved in advisory groups are likely to be experts in their particular area, it is possible that they represent best the "establishment"--the traditional power structure of the community--and that their interpretation of needs will reflect this representation. Antenna Pattern - This pattern achieves its goal of maintaining a sensitivity to community needs by employing staff members whose locus of operation is in the community rather than on the college campus. Staff members may be assigned to carry on liaison activities with business and industry, disadvantaged groups, the professions, etc. These persons serve as the "antennae" of the college by identifying needs in their area of specialities, and become process initiators for new programs at the community college. These persons may be given titles such as Com- munity Relations Specialist, or Counselor. An example of the antenna pattern is provided by the program at Cuyahoga Community College. Through federally funded projects, staff members are placed in sensitive areas of the community and through per- son-to-person contact with clientele or potential clientele, provide a feedback loop to communicate needs to the college. Said one adminis- trator at Cuyahoga: "The community college should be receptive to ex- pressed needs, but the obligation doesn't end there. Community services must take a leadership role in identifying community problems and in in- vestigating educational solutions, including sources of funding. Other- wise, identification of needs will come by force--burning buildings and danger to life and lim ." 59 The Cuyahoga community service program, administered.by a Dean of Community Services, was established in 1965 to expand educational oppor- tunities in the district. In 1966, federally funded projects were initi- ated, and cOOperative programs with business and industry established. The on-going federal projects are Project EVE (informational, counseling, and referral services for women making decisions in the areas of educa- tion, volunteer activities, and employment opportunities); New Careers Project (program to prepare individuals as sub-professionals in new careers as police safety aides, plumber inspection aides, health service aides, and recreation aides); Project SEARCH (a comprehensive educational recruitment, counseling, and public relations service in the Rough area, the largest Cleveland ghetto). An evening program of both credit and non-credit courses is presently administered.within community services, although plans are being made to separate the evening program into a separate department this year. Courses are offered on campus as well as at off-campus sites in several industrial firms: Cleveland State Hospital, churches, and the Federal Office Building. Non-credit courses offered in 1967-68, in cooperating with businesses and other community groups, include: Applied Mechanics and Strength of Materials Asphalt Pavements Business and Transportation Law Personnel Management for Executive Housekeepers Surveying for Carpenters Introduction to Interior Design Several types of workshops, seminars, and conferences are also offered by community services. During 1967-68, courses and programs such as those below were offered: 6o No. Attending- leadership Seminar for Registered Nurses 62 Effective Writing for the Technician 19 Beginning Data Processing Operations 23 Introduction to Data Processing for Middle Management Personnel 51 Street and Highway Construction 52 An experimental project to explore the feasibility of establishing a dance program at the college is being developed. The program includes dance instruction for all ages, and envisions student performances on campus, sponsoring of visiting artists, and promoting interest in dance as an art form in the Cleveland area. Project SEARCH represents a unique and outstanding example of the antenna pattern. It is administered by a project director, three coun- selors, and counselor aides. Letters and personal visits to homes by counselor aides constitute the first contact with unemployed persons, high school dropouts, and high school graduates who are not aware of educational opportunities available to them. A SEARCH Newsletter, de- scribing specific job opportunities and mailed throughout the Hough area, is also a means of reaching potential clientele. The counselor-client relationship begins when the individual appears at the counseling center. Career and educational exploration provide the focus of the initial counseling sessions, and the client is followed closely throughout his subsequent educational or work program. A SEARCH Financial Aid Fund provides assistance to clients in meeting educational costs. During 1967-68, approximately 780 clients were recruited and served, of whom 201 were enrolled in a college in the spring of 1968. An additional 71 were enrolled in adult education programs, technical schools, govern- mental training programs, and hospital training programs. 61 The work of the community relations specialist is likely to be related to immediate and pressing needs "out where the action is." This pattern may result, due to the personal involvement of the specialist in the areas of need, in a lack of awareness of the broader picture which less personal involvement permits. Affiliate Pattern - This pattern moves basic units of community service beyond the administrative structure of the college. .Adminis- trators of these units will have a direct responsibility to organizations in the community other than the college, and will have an "affiliate" relationship with the college. Minimal financial support will come from the college. In this pattern, sensitivity to community needs and the identification of problems for which the community college has resources to contribute to a solution depend on the work of a network of affiliated organizations. Rockland Community College is an example of this pattern. In ex- plaining the rationale for this arrangement, an administrator at Rockland said, "A centralized community services office has certain weaknesses. W9 prefer a relationship that insures feedback to the college from vari- ous segments of the community, such as the industry and the health field. WE want an on-going and continuously developing community service program." Rockland Community College has no director of community services, nor does it have an organized department to carry out this function. Rather, responsibilities for community services are diffused throughout the institution and, in fact, beyond the administrative control of the institution. The Evening and.Extension.Division offers both credit and non- credit courses.) men-credit course offerings in the Spring of 1968 included: 62 Having Fun With Folk Music (10 sessions) Newer Trends in Nursing (10 sessions) Review Study for Professional Engineers Exam (15 sessions) Introduction to Community Services (10 sessions) Some extension courses are sponsored by community groups, such as the Rockland Mental Health Association and the Women's Auxiliary of the Medical Society of Rockland County. Excellent examples of affiliate relationships between the college and the community or regional groups are provided by these four programs: The Management Institute was established in 1965 after initial meet- ings between the college president and area business and industrial leaders. A needs study by the New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations followed, and shortly thereafter a non-profit educational corporation was formed to provide development and train- ing courses in management and supervisory skills for industrial and commercial firms, governmental agencies, professional personnel, and other organizations in the area. The executive director of the institute (which is housed in college facilities but uses community facilities as well) also provides consultive services for the career programs of the college. The Health Occupations Program, funded through a private foundation, focuses on the development of two-year degree programs in the health areas and on the development of an in-service center which will offer refresher and upgrading courses, clinics, and workshops for health workers. The Title III Project is a coordinative effort between the college and eight school districts in the Rockland area. Conceived by the college president and funded under Title III of the Elementary and Secondary Act, the staff of the project is housed in the college library. The focus of the project is the deveIOpment of a com- munity learning center, and is one of the fifteen regional centers in.New'York under Title III. The New York State Guidance Center of‘Women, which is located off- Campus, assists women with social, economic, and educational prob- lems. Funded by the State University of New York, the center pro- vided counseling, testings, and educational and vocational placement services. Rockland Community College is committed to the educational- cultural center concept, and this is evidenced by efforts to develop a strong community cultural program. Several art exhibits are presented 53 throughout the year, lecture-demonstration series are sponsored by vari- ous divisions of the college, and outstanding poets, scientists, and performing artists are brought to the campus. A concert series, art festivals, and the college barn theatre series are other examples of the cultural affairs of the college which involve both student and community participation. Through the affiliate pattern, the college gets feedback on com- munity needs from a variety of perspectives, and the efficiency in terms of finances is obvious. On the other hand, the danger of "establishment bias" does exist, and the college must recognize that it forfeits some of its capacity to influence action. In this section, our attention has centered on the individual pro- grams of several community colleges. It is clear that various colleges organize their efforts to penetrate into the community and to play a role in meeting local social, economic, cultural and civic needs in somewhat different ways. Each college organizes its relations with external con- ditions in ways it perceives will best utilize the available resources to attain its goals. From this point in the study, no further attention will be given to individual community colleges or their community service programs as aswhole. It seems important, therefore, to keep these patterns in mind as each component of community services is analyzed separately in the succeeding sections. Our attention turns, then, to analyzing patterns which exist across all colleges in the sample, beginning with an analysis Of eiementsvof community services. 6h ELEMENTS g; commrr SERVICES The question being addressed in this section is: What are the elements of community services in the community college; what are the commonalities and divergencies in programming? The first task in describ- ing the elements of community services is to attempt to draw "boundaries" around this concept: how can one distinguish community services from other areas of the college? The second task then becomes that of ana- lyzing the common and uncommon‘elements of community services that fall within these boundaries. Three areas will be analyzed to provide an answer to the question, "How can one distinguish community services from other areas of the col- lege?" 1. Definitions of Community Services 2. The Philosophical Base for Community Services 3. Organizational and Instructiona1.Departures Caused by Community Services Defining Community Services Official college publications provided a variety of definitions of community services: Any program which does not lead to a degree, but helps the individual gain employment or improve his life. Short-term activities of the college in cooperation with community agencies. Educational, cultural, and recreational services which an educational institution may provide for its community over and.heyond regularly scheduled day and evening courses. Any non-credit service the college provides for the com- munity beyond degree programs or prescribed courses of study. Community services is the arm of the college that reaches out into the community to persons not enrolled.in regular full-time programs, and which involve college people in divic or community affairs. 65 The general nature of community service programs is basi— cally one of identifying needs associated.with community development and determining the appropriate role of the college in fulfilling these needs. Community services expand the educational opportunity avail- able at the college beyond that typically offered for full- time college-age students. Community services expand educational opportunity to those whose needs are just not met by standard collegiate programs. Community services is to the urban dweller what the land grant college was to the farmer. It is not designed to solve the prdblems of citizens, but to show them how and where to receive help--to make them politically astute. Courses offered on a non-credit basis to persons interested in training for various technical or business specialities, improving work skills, or increasing the enjoyment of leis- ure time. Through an analysis of these definitions, a beginning can be made in identifying distinguishing characteristics of community services: Community services are: 1. An expansion of the educational opportunities avail- able at the college. 2. Based on the identification of community needs. 3. Designed to reach out into community to serve persons not enrolled in regular full-time programs. h. Designed to help the individual gain employment or improve his life. 5. Primarily planned and implemented in cooperation with community agencies and groups. 6. Primarily short-term courses and activities. 7. Designed to involve the college in community affairs. Community services are not: 1. Programs leading to a degree or certificate. 2. Regularly scheduled day and evening classes. On the basis of the data above, the following definition has been used in this study: Those efforts of the community college, often under- taken in cooperation with other community groups or agencies, which are directed toward providing educational solutions to localized social, economic, cultural, and civic problems which are not met by formal Col- l88:1ate degree or certificate programs. 66 Philosophical Base for Community Services An Oakland Community College publication contains this statement: "Community services...has as its major objective the serving of all segments of the community by offering educational op- portunities throughout the entire district..." An El Centro College publication contains this statement: "The community service program forms an integral and vital part of the college's offering. It is our mission to react to the desire of the public for courses of both utilitarian and esthetic significance. We are also in a position to be creative, and to demonstrate educational leadership.“ An Abraham Baldwin College publication contains this statement: "The college, as an integral part of the community it serves, offers cultural programs, intercollegiate athletic events, and an extensive and varied program for adults. It also offers the use of its facilities to civic and community groups, and provides off-campus programs and school related services." A Foothill College publication contains this statement of principles which guide the operation of community services: 1. Involvement of community in planning and develop» ment program. 2. Involvement of faculty and students in planning and development of program. 3. Coordination of services with other community groups to avoid unnecessary duplication. h. Encouragement of college staff to participate in coma munity services. 5. Identification of community needs and interests. 6. Tailoring of services to specific needs and interests of community. An Essex Community College publication contains this statement: "Because the local community is the center of American life, the community must always have a direct concern for the self-realization of each of its citizens. The accom- plishment of this objective is a major concern of the com- munity college." "The college functions as a cultural center for the comm munity and thus provides a source of’enrichment for its citizens." 67 A Guyahoga Community College publication contains the following statement: "The function of the community services program is to enlarge educational opportunity beyond the traditional limitations of time, place, and subject matter normally associated.with insti- tutions of higher learning. The program implements cultural, educational, and occupational offerings at a time and place and of a nature determined by community need and interest." A Rockland Community College administrator, in discussing the philosophy of his college said, "It is our aim, through community services, to provide any specialized extension courses or programs which may be use- ful to groups within our area; to serve as an intellectual and cultural center. These statements support distinctions based on the definitions listed above, and further clarify the community service concept. Analysis of these statements clearly indicate that it is through its community service programs that the community college expresses it philosophical orientation toward becoming an integral part of the community. Involve- ment, coordination, and expansion are common words in these statements of philosophy and purpose. In a real sense, the community college dis- trict is seen here as being a new form of functional community, having within its boundaries "community" characteristics such as a sense of unity and an ability to meet the emerging needs of people. The recurring notion of serving as an educational and cultural center is, in reality, an expression of a desire to become a basic service institution which can meet human needs, and which can provide integrating experiences which will enhance the feeling of "community" within the boundaries of the cellege district. Qgganizational and Instructional.Departures Associated.With Community Services The consideration above of definitions and philosophical base produced some specific distinguishing characteristics of community 68 service programs. The listing below is somewhat broader in scope in that it moves away from characteristics of specific programs toward a consider- ation of characteristics of the institution as a whole. The thesis is that, based on the data available through this study, certain organiza- tional and instructional departures would tend to distinguish a community college having a true commitment to community services from one that does not. This listing views community services as a responsibility of the entire college, rather than as the responsibility of a division or depart- ment of community services alone. While a division of the college may be designated to initiate and coordinate community service programs, the existence of this division within the college is only one indication of a commitment to community services. Others would include: 1. Commitment to Concept of Education as a Life-long Process Community services relate to all age groups in the community, but particularly to adults. Thus the development of a com- munity service program requires a balancing of commitment to education of adults and education of college-age students. 2. Movement Away From Semester-credit Base For Instruction Community service programs may be either credit or non-credit, and may be as short as an hour or as long as needed to accom- plish the goals of the program. Such programs are not locked into semester units of time. 3. Movement Away From the Campus as a Single Base For Instruction Colleges in the sample provided many examples, such as exten- sion centers, mObile units, and use of governmental and.husi- ness buildings, of bases of instruction located throughout the community college district. h. Experimentation With Instructional Approaches, One administrator said, "The community college operates in a legalistic and academic framework which does not allow much leeway in most areas. Community service programs, however, offer a great deal of latitude for experimentation. This is one of the few opportunities we have to move the entire enter- prise closer to the community we serve." 69 One experimental approach in community services is the "project method." After a community need is identified, a program is designed as a project requiring a specified period of time for completion, and funding is sought through the governing board of the college, or from foundation or governmental sources. If funding is obtained, the project is staffed and the project placed in operation. Upon completion, the project staff is either retained for another project or their services terminated. This arrangement has given rise to a position at New York City Community College called "coordinator of projects." Differentiated Administration The development of a community service program ultimately re- quires the appointment of a person to administer this area of the college. Creation of Non-traditional Positions Within the College Structure Positions such as community relations specialist, counselor aide, and project director are emerging as a result of the development of community services. Movement Away From the Exclusive Use of Certified Personnel Community services typically draws upon the best human resources available to carry out programs, without regard for teacher certification or other legalistic requirements. Movement Away From Formal Admission Requirements There is an almost total absence of admission requirements and record keeping related to participants involved in community services. Consideration of Community Services in Campus Architectural Design Rockland Community College is presently building a new campus which views community services as the "master integrator" of the plan. Buildings used primarily by full-time students, and those used primarily by the public, will be joined by a "forum" which provides facilities to be shared by the public and full- time students. Consideration is being given to creating a con- tinuing education center at Abraham Baldwin College which will serve the entire coastal plain area of Georgia. Essex Community College is developing a new campus which is designed for con- venient public use; the building typically called the student center is being called the "community center." Milwaukee Tech- nical College has designed auditorium facilities that make possible the display of large machinery and tools for use by industrial groups. 7O 10. Modification and Reduction in Administrative Contrgl_ Expansion of educational efforts which involve coordination with other community groups necessarily modifies the adminis- trative control the college may exercise over these programs. Shared administrative control can result in a structure that permits the college to be more rapidly impacted by community changes and needs. 11. Expansion of Role of College Beyond Offering Organized Classes Community services cause the college to become involved in "non-student" projects such as beautification, community studies, and other coordinative and consultive activities. 12. Development of Community Feedback System for Curricular Change Community needs which are initially met through short courses or seminars developed by a community services division may evolve as organized certificate or degree programs of the college. For example, a short course for policemen may trigger the development of a one or two—year program for police trainees. 13. Increased Participation of Citizens on the College Campus Community service activities, such as concerts, lectures, seminars, etc., bring people in the community to the college campus who do not participate in the traditional credit course offerings. 1%. Programs for the Development of Community Groups Which Have Not Articulated Their Needs in the Past Many community service programs address themselves to persons with long-term educational and vocational-preparation defi- ciencies; these persons have traditionally been ignored in community college programming. 15. Creation of a New Image of the Community College in the Community The evolving concept of the community college as the educational and cultural center of the community, with community services as core of that center, will cause the community college to de- velop a new image as an agent for community development as well as an institution which provides educational leadership in the community. Taxonomy of Community Service Function§_ Having considered those characteristics of community service pro- grams which distinguish them from other programs of the college, and 71 having summarized the organizational and instructional departures which characterize those community colleges having a true commitment to com- munity services, attention is now turned from questions of boundaries to a consideration of actual programs, courses, and activities which fall within those boundaries. The question of importance here is, "What are the elements of community services in the community college; what are the commonalities and divergencies in programs?" This section is not an attempt to catalog all community services offered by the community colleges in the sample; rather, the focus is on describing through the use of a taxonomy of functions, those programs, courses, and activities which comprise community services. This descrip- tion of community services is presented through the use of a taxonomy of community service functions developed by Max R. Raines, Michigan State university, and is used with his permission (for complete taxonomy see Appendix C). For those colleges included in the sample, the following functions were reported: Table l Taxonomy of Community Service Functions Functions No. Reporting This Function TASK FUNCTIONS Career Development 6 Social Outreach 12 Community.Analysis 9 Cultural Development 13 Public Forum 13 Civic Improvement 5 Recreational Development 3 Educational Expansion 13 8 Cooperative Planning 72 TABLE 1 (Continued) Functions PROCESS FUNCTIONS Educational Extension Public Information Faculty Consultation Conference Planning Advisory Liaison Facility Utilization Organizational-Administrative Staff Development Program Evaluation No. Reporting This Function 13 13 2 l3 l3 l3 1 13 It should also be noted that the inevitable overlapping of certain functions in the taxonomy may at times cause some differences in reporting. For example, all institutions do conference planning in connection with their educational expansion function. Since most such activities are sponsored cooperatively by the community group and the college, and repre- sent an expansion of educational opportunities, they are likely to be placed under educational expansion rather than conference planning. On the basis of the available data, the following are common func- tions within community services (12 or 13 reporting): Social Outreach Cultural Development Public Forum Educational Expansion Educational Extension Public Information Advisory Liaison Facility Utilization Organizational-Administrative Program Evaluation Nine colleges reported having a community analysis function. Functions reported by six or fewer colleges may be considered the more un- common functions engaged in by the colleges in the sample: 73 Colleges Reporting Career‘Development Civic Improvement Recreational‘Development Conference Planning Faculty Consultation Staff Development H me'IUI O\ In the following paragraphs, the taxonomy of functions is presented in detail, and examples from the colleges in the sample are provided for each function. Career Development Function - Providing opportunities for indi- vidual self-discovery and fulfillment with particular emphasis upon voca- tionally related activities. Rockland Community College employs a community relations specialist to attack the prOblem of low enrollment of minority groups in the programs of the college. His activities include recruitment, counseling, working with community agencies and groups, and curriculum development. Project EVE at Cuyahoga Community College provides counseling and referral services for women in the areas of education, employment, and volunteer work . , Project SEARCH is a comprehensive educational counseling service for ghetto residents. Project COPE at Oakland Community College is a program of counsel- ing for ghetto residents. Project SERVE at Oakland assists senior citizens in the community become more active and productive in community life. Social Outreach Function - Organizing programs to increase the earning power, educational level, and political influence of the disad- vantaged. Project Transition at New York City Community College provided civilian jdb training in computer skills to servicemen considered likely to join welfare rolls after discharge. NYCCC, through Project READY, pro- vided a summer reading program for youth from ghetto areas. Oakland Community College has developed a cultural enrichment program providing enrichment activities in the fine arts and performing arts for ghetto children. The College of San Mateo developed a college readiness program in- volving'basic classes, recreational activities, and campus work experience, Ceawfully selected tutors worked with the program on campus and also in the students“homes. Inswuchonnl Branches Csnfix 133 ERKNQ¥DNY€ALL 71+ MICHlGAN STATE UNIVERSH’Y EAST LANSING. MlCHldAN 48823 Communit Analysis Function - Collecting and analyzing significant data which reflect existing and emerging needs of the community and which can serve as a basis for developing the community service program of the college. Cerritos College involved over 100 citizens as well as adminis- trators and faculty in a community services survey which served as a basis for the program of the college. Foothill Community College is conducting a study of economic depri- vation in its service area. Rockland Community College, in cooperation with the Labor Relations Institute at Cornell University, studied the need for management training programs in the college's service area. Cultural Development Function - Expanding and enriching opportuni- ties for community members to participate in a variety of cultural activi- ties. DelMar College founded the Corpus Christi Symphonic Orchestra, and houses the performances of the orchestra. DelMar College also hosts a number of annual music and art festivals. Cerritos College increases opportunities for cultural experiences by arranging bus trips to concerts, ballets, etc., in the Los Angeles area. The College of San.Mateo originated CAPES, a block booking service for California colleges, and offers an extensive lecture concert series. All colleges in the sample provide lecture-concert series which are open to the public. Public Forum Function - Developing activities designed to stimulate interest and understanding of local, national, and world problems. Essex (Jommunity College operates a public forum series which pro- vides lectures on world, national, and local issues. Cerritos College developed a narcotic education project which in- cluded a public forum series and a curriculum for fifth and sixth graders in the district. The College of San Mateo sponsors a community education series con- cerned with social problems: youth loss of identity, roots of prejudice, teen-parent communication, crime in the community, etc. Civic Improvement Function - Participating in cooperative efforts with local government, business, industry, professions, religious and social groups to increase the resources of the community to deal with mBJOr prdblems confronting the community. El Centro College is cooperating in a city-wide improvement project called “Goals for‘Dallas." Members of the community service staff serve on an area adult education committee, which is one aspect of the project. 75 Abraham Baldwin College serves a coordinative function in Project SURGE. Initiated by the president of the college, the project involves 11+ committees made up of leaders from business, industry, education, and public services. Cerritos College, through its community research and development committee, became involved in a city beautification project which included clean-up, paint-up activities. Recreational Development Function - Expanding opportunities for com- munity members to participate in a variety of recreational activities. MiamiADade operates a community recreation program which includes extension programs in ghetto areas. All California junior colleges in the sample have comprehensive community recreation programs. Educational Expansion Function - Programming a variety of educa- tional, up-grading, and new career opportunities which reach beyond the traditional limitations of college credit restrictions. Milwaukee Technical College provides clinics on income tax, social security, insurance, investments, etc. In addition, the college offers, in cooperation with local business and industry, a variety of short courses, workshops, seminars, and conferences. The College of San Mateo provides field study trips to Mexico, Death Valley, England, etc. Cuyahoga Community College provides on-site and on-campus job train- ing in cooperation with local business and industry. The college operates new careers programs in such areas as social casework aides, home health aides, public safety aides, plumber inspector aides, and recreation aides. New York City Community College, in cooperation with the union local of American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees, trains persons for promotion exams from the civil service commission, and provides on-the-jdb training to upgrade employees. DelMar College offers non-credit courses in GED preparation, citi- zenShip and literacy, conversational English, data processing, fashion design, creative writing, etc. All colleges in the sample provide a variety of short courses and seminars on a multitude of subjects. gggperative Planning Function - Establishing adequate linkage with related programs of the college and community to supplement and coordinate rather than duplicate existing programs. Rockland Community College is developing a centralized library and learning resources center in c00peration with schools and libraries in the service area. The college is also involved in a cooperative program with 76 the School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University in operating a management institute to provide courses in management and supervision. The college, in cooperation with the New York State Guidance Center for Women, provides vocational.guidance for women through a local center. A health occupations program has been organized in cooperation with local hospitals and doctors. El Centro College operates a retail institute in c00peration with the Dallas Retail Association and the Dallas Merchants Association, pro- viding short courses and seminars on various phases of retailing. Cerritos College participates in an area Adult Education Committee consisting of representatives of all community agencies involved in adult education programs. Its purpose is to coordinate programs to avoid dupli- cation of effort, to coordinate publicity, and to delineate responsibili— ties for specific endeavors. MiamiéDade operates, in cooperation with the Florida Small Business Administration and the MiamiéDade Chamber of Commerce, a management im- provement institute which offers supervisory training programs. Educational Extension Function - Increasing the accessibility of the regular courses and curricula of the college be extending their avail- ability to the community at large. MiaminDade provides a "weekend" college which permits students to pursue their educational goals through Saturday classes, and operates ex~ tension centers as well. Cuyahoga Community College Operates a program for municipal employ- ees in government buildings. Oakland Community College has a number of extension centers in area high schools. Foothill College operates a radio station providing prOgrams from National Educational Radio, music programs, and discussions on local, state, and national issues. The College of San Mateo has a "college of the air" which includes ETV and radio, closed circuit TV, and an instructional program in tele- communications. .Milwaukee Technical College also operates an ETV-ITV station. All colleges included in the sample engage in extension activities of some type. Public Information Function - Interpreting programs and activities of community services to the college staff as well as to the community at large and coordinates releases with the central information services of the college. 77 .All colleges in the sample are engaged in the publication of sched- ule calendars, flyers and brochures, news releases, periodic newsletters, etc. Conference Planning Function - Providing professional assistance to community groups in the planning of conferences, institutes, workshops, etc. Foothill College employs a professional staff to assist community groups in planning activities, particularly as related to the use of col- lege facilities. These include a supervisor of special services, a box office manager, and an auditorium manager. Advisory Liaison Function - Identifying and involving (in an ad- visory capacity) key members of the various sub-groups with whom coopera- tive programs are being planned. Cerritos College employs a staff member who is a liaison secretary to all of the advisory committees related to community services. All colleges in the sample are involved with liaison with advisory committees; utilizing these committees on either an ad_hoc or permanent basis. Facility Utilization Function - Encouraging community use of college facilities by maEing them readily accessible, by facilitating the schedul- ing process, and by designing them for multi-purpose activities when appropriate. All colleges in the sample encourage use of college facilities by community groups and organization when the purpose of such use is edu- cational or will benefit the community. The most extensive use of facili- ties is found in California, in accordance with the State's Civic Center Act. Qrganizational-Administrative Function - Establishing procedures for procuring and allocating the physical and human resources necessary to implement the community services program. Obviously, all colleges engage in staff recruitment, budget develop- ment, and other similar maintenance activities. Staff Development Function - Providing opportunities and encourage- ment for staff members to up-grade their skills in program development and evaluation. Abraham Baldwin College has received a federal grant to develop an in-service training program on how adults learn, which will be available to instructors in the community service program Program Evaluation Function - Developing with the staff the specific objectives of the program, identifying sources of data, and establishing Procedures for gathering data to appraise the probable effectiveness of various facets of the program. 78 The evaluative techniques of the colleges included in the sample are discussed in the section of this study on developmental factors, under "Leadership and Administration." ORGANIZING) STAFFING, AND FINANCING COMMUNITY SERVICES The question pertinent to this section of the study is: What organizational, staffing, and financial patterns exist in community service programs? Organizational Patterns A variety of administrative organizational structures exist in the community college included in the sample, and these structures appear to change frequently. In eight of the colleges, major changes in the administrative structure involving community services have been made in the past three years; five of these involved the establishment of a directorship. The present placement of the person responsible for community services in each institution was obtained through a review of adminis- trative organization charts. These organization charts indicate that, in the majority of colleges (7), the person responsible for community services reports directly to the president of the college or campus, or to the chief executive officer of the community college district. In six of these cases, the community services administrator'holds a line position in the second level of administration; the seventh holds a staff position. At three colleges, the person responsible for community services reports to the Dean of Instruction or the equivalent, and at one college this person reports to the Dean of the Evening College and.Adult Education. At two colleges (DelMar and Rockland), no single administrator was responsible for community service programs. At DelMar, the majority of 79 programs were offered by the Division of Vocational-Technical Education and Special Programs, and by the Division of Fine Arts. At Rockland Com- mmnity College, each community service program is administered separately by'a director who either reports directly to the president or is jointly responsible to the college and to an outside agency or group. 0f the four multi-campus community college districts visited, two (Miami and San Mateo) operated separate community service programs on sash campus, while the other two (Foothill and Oakland) organized community services as a district office operation. It must be said that the College of San Mateo was just developing a second campus at the time of this study, and it is quite possible that the community services organization will change when the second and third campuses of the district are in operation. Responsibilities of Community Service Directors The responsibilities of community services directors vary as does their placement in the administrative organizational structure. Following are selected listings of responsibilities; the names of the colleges pro- viding these listings are not given to avoid any implication of evaluative or comparative statements regarding the responsibilities of the director at each college: 14 Determine need for programs of self and job improvement and reaction. . Develop advisory committee. . Develop curriculum. . Employ instructors. . Enroll and counsel students. . Collect fees. . Maintain records. . Submit program report. 1. Organize, direct, and supervisor short courses. 2. Coordinate the programming, organization, and operation of non-credit courses. 3. Direct a program of publicity with regard to opportunities in continuing education. (I) -1 GU14? NH 80 Recruit and organize continuing education faculty. Serve as member of advisory council. Formulate, propose, and administer an annual continuing education budget. Maintain a record of courses and conferences, and prepare an annual report. Keep abreast of current practices, trends, and issues in the field of continuing education. Responsible for program of part-time students and community services. Supervise and evaluate the staff. Participate in publications regarding program. Responsible for development, direction, supervision, and evaluation of community services program. Administer the college community service program. Administer the develoPmental planning of all community service publicity materials. Administer the development of all community service proposals. Determines the cost requirements and administers the community service budget. Allocates functions to assist directors supervising their performance and recommending promotion, demotion, and dis- missal. Evaluate the community services activities and programs to determine the extent to which they meet college educational Objectives, and the needs and interests of the community. Administers the implementation of an advisory council and committees to strengthen college-community communications, to serve as a clearing house, and to recommend program imple- mentation. Participates in the formulation and administration of general college policies as a member of the Vice-President's Council. Administers the implementation of all extension college credit courses and non-credit courses or programs such as MDTA, 0E0, paramedical and police training. write program proposals. Operating, developing, and administering community service programs. Employ and supervise staff. Assist president in establishing an advisory council. Responsible for public relations related to the program. Control program expenditures. Prepare annual report. Responsible to the president for planning, directing, and supervising of a district-wide program in community services. Control and coordination of college facilities by community groups. - Foster growth of cultural activities and stimulate plannin in area of public events. \oooxloxxnr 12. 13. 1h. 81 Direct college recreation program. Planning of education workshops, seminars, institutes, etc. Maintain speakers' bureau and information services. Responsible for special exhibits. Administer college publications. Develop alumni service. Prepare community service budget. Stimulate interest in community participation on advisory committees. Encourage faculty participation in community services. Prepare news releases. Provide leadership for development of community research center. A review of these listings indicates that the more common responsi- bilities are: l. omnrrwm Administering the programming of courses and other community services. Employment and supervising of staff and instructors. Directing a program of public relations and publicity. Formulating, proposing, and administering an annual budget. Developing advisory committees. Formulating an annual program report, and keeping the neces- sary records to make this possible. Less common responsibilities are: Administering the development of community service proposals. Enrolling and counseling students. Collecting fees. Staffing Patterns The organization charts above provide a summary of the staffing patterns within the colleges included in the sample. The table below is intended to supplement the organization charts by focusing on the indi- vidual staff positions which exist in the community service programs: TABLE 2 Individual Staff Positions in Community Service Programs Position Administrative Dean of Community Services 1 Adult and Special Education, Supervisor Auditorium Manager 82 TABLE 2 (Continued) Position Box Office Manager Career Programs & Community Services, Director College of the Air, Associate Dean Community'DeveIOpment, Associate Director Community Education, Dean of Community Education, Director Community Liaison Counselor Community Relations, Assistant for Community Relations Specialist Community Services, Assistant Director of Community Services, Chairman Community Services, Coordinator Community Services, Dean or Director of Community Services, Executive Director Conductor, Music Groups Continuing Education, Assistant Director Continuing Education, Assistant for Continuing Education, Dean of Cooperative Education Programs, Coordinator Cultural Programs, Assistant for Evening College, Director of Extension Center, Director Gallery &.Exhibits, Director of Health Careers, Director Human Resources Training, Director Institutional Service Programs, Coordinator NanaSement Institute, Executive Director MannSement WOrkshops, Assistant for Observatory Manager Planetarium, Coordinator of IA F‘ +4 I4 P’ F‘ r4 +4 F‘ r4 to la no a: F‘ r4 :4 O\ n) r4 to P‘ +4 be F‘ F‘ F‘ re re :4 83 TABLE 2 (Continued) Position Police.Academy, Coordinator Practical Nursing Coordinator Projects, Coordinator of Project Director Publications, Director of Public Information Officer Public Service, Director of Public Relations Director Recreation, Director of Sales & Marketing, Supervisor Sciences Services, Coordinator Special Services, Supervisor of Trade & Industrial Education, Supervisor :a pa no a: t4 to F‘ be F‘ rd \n F' P4 *4 Vocational Trade Preparation, Supervisor In addition to permanent staff positions, qualified persons from the community, or in some cases persons with regional or national repu- tations in a certain area, serve as instructors or speakers in community service programs. Oakland Community College employs a person from the community as a coordinator for each short course or seminar; this person is paid an established sum and is typically a community leader in the area with which the course or seminar is concerned. Instructors in community services are typically employed on a part- time basis, although there are exceptions. New York City Community College, for example, employs approximately 2h instructors on a full-time basis to staff the various projects operating within the division. Within the college, division or department chairman often play a vital role in community services. At DelMar College, deans of vocational 8h and technical education, fine arts, and arts and sciences coordinate com- munity services related to their respective areas. At Milwaukee Technical College, the arrangement is similar except that an assistant to the college director plays an active role in initiating community service programs. At Cerritos College, coordinators in various areas such as business and technical education are responsible for the supervision of community serv- ice programs in their area. In all community colleges included in the sample, administrators and faculty members in instructional divisions are involved to some degree in suggesting, initiating, and coordinating com- munity services. Members of advisory committees are not members of community service "staffs," but should be included in a discussion of persons involved in planning and implementing programs in this area. A common format for ad- visory committees is the establishment of a central advisory council which is supplemented as needed through the creation of semi-permanent and ad_ hgg_advisory committees. At Essex Community College, an advisory council of 15 members meets three times each year to evaluate previous programs and plan programs for the succeeding four months. At El Centro College, a business advisory council serves in a similar capacity and also helps to Promote the programs offered within their area of business. At Abra- ham Baldwin College, an advisory council holds an annual one-day meeting for an intensive review of the community services program and to suggest fUture programs. At Cerritos College, a more complete format of an "umbrella" ad- visory council, citizens advisory committees for Specific areas of com- munity services programming, and a faculty advisory committee, is used. The Dean of Community Services is a "liaison secretary" for all advisory 85 groups; in a real sense, the Cerritos College program is based on this advisory group structure. At Oakland Community College, an "umbrella" advisory council made up of the chairmen of each specific advisory com- mittee is organized; the work of this group is thus coordinated with that of the specific advisory committees. All other colleges in the sample do use advisory committees, although a central advisory council as indicated above is not utilized. Financing Patterns Although colleges participating in the study were generous in pro- viding summary budgetary data, it became obvious on analysis that a sub- stantially more thorough approach to the study of financial patterns would be necessary in order to prepare an accurate comparative analysis. Since this was considered beyond the sc0pe of the present study, the analysis focused upon more general statements of financing patterns. The following statements emerged from such an analysis: 1. Tax support at the state level for community service programs varies from state to state, and to some extent may condition the type of courses and activities offered. In California, where a community service tax makes it possible for the local community college district to levy a 5 cent tax override per $100 of assessed valuation to provide for community educational, recreation, and cultural activities, one finds a preponderance of non-credit offerings. In Michigan, where there is presently no state tax support for non-credit offerings in the community college, one finds a preponderance of credit offerings; this is true of the Oakland Community College community service offer- ings. The non-credit pattern is also found in Florida, where state minimum foundation support provides aid for non-credit courses on a clock hour basis; 820 student-clock.hours presently constitute one unit for minimum foundation support. Accordingly, MiamiéDade Junior College has many programs organized on a non- credit basis. The Texas Education Association provides 75 per- cent of the cost of supervision and instruction for approved non-credit programs. It is expected that this arrangement will be changed to a formula based on instructional hours, similar to that of Florida, next year. Ohio community colleges may in- clude requests for funding of public service programs in their E6 biannual budget to the Ohio Board of Regents, and it is expected that funding from this source will increase in the future. For colleges visited in other states, there appeared to be no direct state support for non-credit community service offerings. 2. Community service programs are more subject to the ups and downs of the federal budget than other programs of the college. A major focus of the majority of the colleges visited is the de- velOpment of proposals for funding by the federal government or by private foundations. These sources of funding fill the finan- cial gaps where projects of a non-remunerative nature, such as those involving training programs for disadvantaged groups, are offered. Generally, the local district is unable to support such projects solely from local tax sources. 3. Charges to participants in community service programs and activi- ties are generally low. Milwaukee Technical College, College of San Mateo, Abraham Baldwin College, Cerritos College, El Centro College, and Foothill College indicated that most activities were either free or involved a charge of from $1 to $3. In such cases, major programming costs are borne by sponsoring groups or by state tax support. In other cases, courses and activities were organ- ized on a "pay-as-you-go" basis with administrative and indirect costs absorbed by the general operating funds of the college. A. Financial considerations limit the willingness of most community colleges to enter "high risk" programs of a non-remunerative nature. There is little evidence, for example, that significant expenditures are being made from local tax funds to support ex- perimental community services programs designed to benefit disad- vantaged groups. 5. The major sources of funding for community services are local tax funds, state aid, tuition and fees, federal contracts, foundation grants, and community support (for example, financial assistance from a community group sponsoring a given short course or seminar). 6. The major categories of expenditures are professional and secre- tarial salaries, instructional salaries, travel, advertising, printing, office and classroom supplies, rentals, capital outlay, and contracted services. Capital outlay as a category of expendi- ture is limited largely to California community colleges, where capital expenditures may be made from community service tax funds if the facilities are intended primarily for community use. Except for California, where remuneration for programming costs is available through restricted tax funds, the pattern for financing community services may be summarized as folloWS: l. 87 Salaries for professional and clerical personnel are included in the general operating budget of the college. Miscellaneous office costs are similarly budgeted. Programming is largely self-supporting, although a nominal amount may be available in the operating budget of the college. Interesting enough, California colleges also budget salaries for community service personnel from general funds at times, since a large portion of the community services tax may be committed to capital outlay projects. DEVELOPMENTAL FACTORS This section is concerned with three questions: What are the factors or conditions which influence the develop- ment and effectiveness of community service programs? What are the means by which community service is linked with other areas of the college and with community groups? How are community needs which relate to the development of community service programs identified? The focus is on those factors related to the abilities and perform- ance of community services administrators, and to those conditions within and outside the institution, which enhance the development of effective community service programs. The developmental factors are classified as follows: Leadership anthdministration Leadership Administration Characteristics of the Institution Institutional Setting Linkage With other Areas Within the College Linkage With Groups in the Community 88 LEADERSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION In this section, James A. Liplham's1 concept of leadership and administration is utilized. The view is taken that leadership and administration are not synonymous. Leadership is defined as the initi- ation of a new structure or procedure for accomplishing an organization's goals and objectives or for changing an organization's goals and Objec- tives. The leader emphasizes change, he is disruptive of the present state of affairs. Administration is defined as the utilization of existing structures, procedures, or Objectives to achieve and organi- zational goal or objective. The administrator is a stablizing force concerned with maintaining, not changing, established structures, pro- cedures, or goals. Leadership Those interviewed provided the following factors which they per- ceived as contributing to the development of effective leadership of community service programs: 1 James M. Lipham, "Leadership and Administration," Behavioral §£1§nce and.Educational Administration, Ed. Daniel E. Griffiths. Chicago; University of Chicago Press, l96fi. 89 TABLE 3 Leadership Factors 222325. No. of Colleges Intimate Knowledge of Community 13 Personal Contact With Key People in Community 13 Ability to Stimulate Local Interest in Community Affairs 13 High Standards for Courses and Activities 13 Creativity 13 Aggressive Seeking of Funds 13 Focus on Specific Community Needs 13 Quick, Effective Response to Problems 13 View to Long-range Development of Excellence l3 Willingness to Take Risks, Make Changes 10 High Tolerance of Frustration, Restraint Intensive Curriculum Planning and Development Resist Formalization of Community Service Programs moxOoxo Personal Contact With Students An important factor in community service leadership is knowledge of the community and close ties with key people in the community. One respondent stated, "You need a livewire director who has local ties and contacts, or the program won't go anywhere. This is because the community service program is based on person-to-person contacts." Another adminis- trator referred to having "the pulse of the community." Another observed, "We need to identify the power structure of the community-~we must con- front key persons whether they have positive or negative attitudes toward Community service." One administrator viewed this as an educational process: "YOu must take the time to educate the key people in the community to be sympathetic 90 and supportive of community service programs." Another administrator saw contact with political figures as important: "It is important to involve community officials from the very beginning, to cement relationships at high levels." An example of such involvement is the work of the Mayor of Cleveland to locate employers to cooperate in Cuyahoga Community College's parapro- fessional training programs. Many respondents stressed the importance of contact with community leaders through college involvement in community organizations and civic projects, and felt that developing good relations through such involvement required long-term residence in the community of at least some of the key administrators at the college. High standards for courses and activities was commonly viewed as an important factor by respondents. One administrator said, "You must set standards. Quality is what makes the total community service program go." Many comments regarding standards centered around the decision as to what the college could do well and what it could not do well in community services. .A typical comment: "Be honest with yourself: just because you identify a need does not necessarily mean you can handle it effectively." One administrator equated quality with the trust developed by the college in the community: "You must build a trust, a rapport between the community and the college. People know when they are being pawned and when they are being dealt with sincerely and honestly." Honesty and sincerity is also a factor in regard to the groups to which programs are addressed: "You should consider service to all groups, all prOblems, not just those that will help you build your academic or cultural image." .Administrators were concerned about developing programs which were addressed to "real needs" in the community, rather than creating a facade 91 of symbolic activities which remove guilt feelings or anxieties, but which do not bring about needed changes in the community. This concern was typically expressed in reference to programs for the disadvantaged. Consideration of quality may discourage proliferation of courses and activities. One college was offering lhO non-credit courses and, after study of the quality of the offerings, reduced the number to 70. An unanticipated outcome of this tactic was that total enrollment increased. One administrator summed up his concept of standards in this simple way: "There should be a real effort to do a good job, to show a real con- cern for human beings. The college should know what it can and cannot do." Four factors relate to the administrator's tolerance for change: willingness to take risks and make changes; tolerance of frustration and restraint; quick, effective response to problems; and resistance to formalization of community service programming. One administrator pointed out that when working with community groups, one must be willing to have good ideas discarded. Inertia is sometimes encountered in attempting to introduce new programs, such as that at times present when new careers or paraprofessional programs are introduced. Inertia is frequently re- placed by resistance when controversial programs are introduced. The College of San Mateo caused rumblings in the community when it permitted a Communist to speak on campus. This experience actually resulted in a valuable exchange of views in the community and strengthened the role of the community service program in the community. Risk-taking is generally referred to as the willingness to offer courses or activities which were potentially controversial or might be unsuccessful. This state of affairs was typically contrasted with the "safe" approach on transfer and vocational-technical programs of the 92 college. Programs of community services, which are on the "cutting edge" between the college and community, do inherently involve risk-taking as new approaches to difficult community problems are explored. Nor should successful programs cause community service programming to become highly structured or formalized. One administrator said, "There is a tendency for what has been done and is successful to become secure and formalized. If community services is to be effective, it must always be on the cutting edge of community needs-~the focus should be on community problems rather than administrative structure." The majority interviewed felt that it was far too early in the his- tory of the community college to attempt closure on the concept of community services, to draw precise boundaries around the type of community problems which may be addressed by these services. A fluidity of staffing, programming, and instructional approaches is clearly a characteristic of community service programs. Quick, effective response to program requests and community problems is a function of a fluid staff structure that per- mits rapid changes in staffing and in program format. Aggressive seeking of funding is required since many community service programs, particularly those involving services to disadvantaged groups, are largely non-remunerative. Legislation such as Title I of the Higher Education Act, the Economic Opportunity Act, and the Manpower‘pe- velopment and Training Act, provide federal funds which make it economi- cally feasible for the community college to approach difficult community prdblems at a new level of intensity. Community colleges utilize a variety of c00perative arrangements with local industrial and'business groups which, in addition to enhancing the quality of the programs offered, pro- Vide for financial support by the benefited groups . 93 Perhaps the most common form of personal contact with students is participation by the community services director or his representative in some aspect of the courses or activities offered. Two administrators indicated that they attended the first session of each short course or seminar offered to orient the class and to introduce the speakers or in- structors. The following section on Administration is a continuation of the discussion above in the sense that it is also concerned with the abilities and performance of those who lead community service programs. Administration All respondents viewed the following factors as important in de- veloping effective community services administration: TABLE A Administrative Factors "Non-pedagogical" Course or Activity Titles Post-instructional Evaluation Proper Scheduling of Courses and Activities Continuously Updated Mailing Lists In-service Training of Staff The assigning of non-pedagogical course or activity titles and Proper scheduling are simplistic and obvious factors, yet essential. Several administrators felt that attractive titles that communicated with the clientele, rather than academic-sounding titles that did not, made.a difference in enrollments. For example, a short course might be entitled, "Courtship Revisited and Marriage Reconsidered," rather than "A Study of Courtship and Marriage." Scheduling refers to judgments as to the time (‘3 L1 9a of day, days of the week, and time of year to offer certain courses or activities. It also refers to sequence of offerings. Again, administrators felt the careful scheduling did make a difference in enrollments. Evaluation of community service offerings was fairly unsophisti- cated in the community colleges visited; there was no evidence that these community colleges carry on extensive evaluation procedures. Common means of evaluation included the review of attrition rates, requests that the course be repeated, and feedback from previous students. Advisory com- mittees commonly meet one or two times a year to review past offerings. In Dallas, an evaluation of a salesmanship seminar was conducted by shop- ping in the stores where the students were employed after instruction was completed, noting whether the sales techniques reflected what had been taught in the course. Follow-up studies of students involved in community service programs were not available. Maintaining an efficient mailing list was repeatedly mentioned as an important factor. One administrator told of an inefficient mailing list he first used in which a mailing of 20,000 brochures produced 21 program participants. Developing and updating specialized mailing lists, while time-consuming, is obviously a more reasonable solution. .At times, insti- tutions are able to use mailing lists of cooperating community groups, or are able to have flyers and brochures included in mailings made by other groups. Specialized mailing lists are also available from industries, civil rights groups, neighborhood improvement associations, social agencies, etc. Persons who have previously participated in certain types of courses or activities often form the core of a specialized mailing list. At Abra- ham Baldwin College, a mailing is made to request nominations of persons 95 who might enjoy or benefit from a certain course; a follow-up mailing is then made to those nominated. In-service training of the community service staff, including in- structors, typically was informal and was carried on through periodical staff meetings and planning meetings with instructors. Abraham Baldwin College did receive a Title I grant under the Higher Education.Act to de- velop a training program on how adults learn. Attendance at conferences and reading of professional magazines were also mentioned as in-service training techniques. The almost complete lack of an intensive in-service training program was simply a question of priorities, according to adminis- trators. The pressures of the on-going program and the limited staff time available for the planning of such experiences were cited as reasons this obvious lack, rather than a rejection of the worth of such programs. This concludes the section on Leadership and Administration. The focus in the next section moves from community services administrators to conditions in the institution which effect the development of community service programs. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INSTITUTION The community college as a whole exercises control over its various Parts, including community services. Control of the deve10pment of com- munity services by the community college is a function both of the inherent characteristics of the institution which may either enhance or restrict community services, and of the linkages between groups within the college. Institutional Setting Those factors related to the institutional setting are presented in this section. Those interviewed considered the following as important developmental factors: 96 TABLE 5 Factors Related to the Institutional Setting Factors No. of Colleges Strong Collegiate Programs 13 Overall Commitment of College to Community Services 13 Atmosphere of freedom to Innovate, Experiment 13 Facilities Adequate for Public Use 13 Adequate Financial Base 13 Location of College, Points of Service 10 Supportive Preparatory or Remedial Courses 9 Campus Environment A The need for strong collegiate programs as a foundation for the development of community services was discussed by administrators in general terms. A community services program is based on strong and com- prehensive community college programs in the liberal arts, vocational- technical areas, student personnel services, and general education. Using the analogy of a saw, a community service program becomes the "cutting edge" by which the college enters into community life and keeps its total Program relevant to community needs. If the saw itself is weak or in- appropriate to the task, the cutting edge soon becomes dull and useless. ("In vain we build the world, unless the builder also grows.") Supportive curricular offerings such as preparatory or remedial programs were re- Sarded as important by the majority of those interviewed. There was general agreement that, in reality, community services is the responsibility of the total institution rather than of the community services staff only. One administrator referred to this as the "philo- sophical idea of being involved in the community." Community services 97 is based on a "total college philosophy which requires that all areas of the college get into the act." Since the structure of community services requires great flexi- bility in order to allow quick reaction to community needs, it was felt that community services programs should be free from "organizational tie- ups," such as requiring proposed changes or programs to go through a net- work of committee actions prior to approval. Several administrators stressed the importance of providing off- campus points of service, particularly extension centers to serve the dis- advantaged. Others felt that creating a climate on campus which would make a "wide span of people feel welcome" was more important. One adminis- trator said, "One of the weaknesses of the community college has been its inability to create an appropriate campus climate and environment. I feel it is possible for a community college to have an exciting environment which will attract persons to the campus for various forms of educational and cultural programming." Within the institutional setting, various administrative, faculty, and student groups operate. How these groups may be linked to enhance the development of community services is the next topic. Linkages Within the College The question of importance here is: What are the means by which Community services are linked with other areas of the college? (Linkage 18 the process by which the various parts of the institution may come to be viewed as a single unit.) Decisions regarding college policy and structure made at the board and administrative level (as well as operational decisions made at the division or departmental level) determine the extent and form of linkage 98 between other areas of the college and community services. The more often decisions are made with the best interests of the institution as a whole in mind, rather than the interests of a single area, the stronger the link- age between the areas become. Those interviewed perceived the following factors as important in linking community services with various areas of the college: IABLEtS Factors Related to Linkages Within College BOARD AND ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT No. of’Colleges Board Informed and Supportive 13 Chief Administrator Committed and Supportive 13 Administrative Interest and Support 13 FACULTY INVOLVEMENT OR INTEREST Faculty Advisory Committee 2 Requests for Faculty Recommendations for Com- munity Service Programming 13 Faculty Utilized as Participants and Instructors l3 Orientation of New Faculty Members 2 Faculty Interest in Bringing Distinguished Persons or Specialists to the Campus for Com- munity Service Programs 5 Community Service Needs Considered in Faculty Recruitment and Development 1 CURRICULUM Community Service Defined as an Integral Part of the Curriculum 13 Community Service Courses and Activities Lead into Certificate or Degree Programs A COMMUNITY SERVICE STAFF Placement of Director in Administrative Structure 7 Staff Participation in Faculty Organizations and Affairs 13 STUDENT INVOLVEMENT Participation of Full-Time Students in Planning Community Service Programs 5 99 Administrators emphasized the importance of keeping the governing board informed and supportive. In a sense, the board was to be "educated" about the goals and functions of community services. On the other hand, board support depends partly on the ability of the director to sense what is acceptable to the board in terms of new programming. One administrator said, "You are on thin ice if the board constantly questions the scope of community services. You have to bring them along with you." No other factor was more strongly recognized as a developmental factor than the commitment and support of the president or chief executive. One administrator said, "We started to move when we got a new president who wantesthe college to have an impact on the community." Comments were related to the importance of having a president with imagination, one who was willing to take on the tough jobs in the community, who was able to "handle the heat" ("where there is movement, there is risk-taking"), and who had.compassion for minority groups. The interviews brought out the fact that, while the president has an entry to certain groups and indi- viduals in the community not available to the community services director, he is also the target of criticism when there is adverse reaction to new programs; thus, he must be committed to community services and be willing to take risks at times in supporting new programming. Another focus was on the participation of top administrators in community service activities: "The tOp administrators should participate in.commmnity service programs. If we involve key people from the community, shouldn't we also involve key administrators from the college?" Faculty involvement and interest in community service programs is more likely to be obtained through direct participation than through service on advisory committees. One administrator said, "Faculty members lOO tend to think of community services activities as watered-down versions of what happens in their classes on campus. The best way to educate them is to involve them in a program as instructors." Many of those inter- viewed indicated that, after initial exposure, faculty members bring recom- mendations for community services courses or activities in which they would like to participate. There was general agreement that community services should be de- fined as an integral part of the college curriculum. One comment sums up the ideas expressed regarding this factor: "I think it would be a serious mistake to separate community services from other programs of the college. There is no clear division between services to the community and to young people. Priority should be placed on integrating community services into the total life of the institution." One administrator, however, saw the possibility that strong linkages could create a problem: "There should not be a total blending; the community should realize the difference since we deal with critical log§l_issues." The placement of the Director of Community Services in the adminis- trative structure was considered to be an important factor in the develop- ment of the community service programs. It was felt that this individual needs the authority and autonomy that is concommitant with placement in a top level of the administrative structure in order to deal effectively with groups both within the college and in the community. Reporting directly to the college president or to the dean of instruction was preferred, as was membership on the policymaking "administrative council," made up of the President and second level administrators. The discussion shifts at this time from those linkages internal to the institution to linkages between community services and groups in the community. 101 linkage With Groups in the Communigy Linkage with groups in the community are possibly more critical for community services than for any other area of the college. If community services is to be the "cutting edge" of the community college in relation to local needs, strong linkages must be maintained.throughout the community; The degree and nature of linkage with community groups conditions the nature of community service programming, and determines the quality of interaction between the college and the community. The following were cited by those interviewed as important factors in linking community services with groups and agencies in the community: TABLE 7 Factors Related to Linkages With Groups in the Community Support of Key Groups and Persons Acceptance by Community of the College as an Originator of Community Services Acting as well as reacting role in Community Development Political Neutrality Cooperative Planning and Programming Public Relations Utilizing Persons from the Community as Instructors Community Services Staff Participation in Community Affairs Advisory Groups Identification of Community Needs While it is important that community services be accepted by the college board, administration, and faculty as a mainline function of the college, it is equally as important that the program has the support of key persons and groups in the community. In a real sense, the essence 102 of a community services program is its relationships outside the college. The program depends on its acceptance by the community and its leaders. The college must project the image of an educational and cultural center of the community. One administrator said, "If you play the role of an educational and cultural center well, people will begin to realize that the college can do the job." Another person interviewed expressed the idea in a somewhat different way: "You should be out in the community so much that when anyone things of education, they think of the community college." For the college, acceptance as an originator of community services is obviously a prerequisite to playing an active role in the community. Those interviewed felt that the community college must, through community services, become an active participant in the affairs of the community. One administrator said, "The college is an agent for community development. If not the college, then what? This is the question I would pose to any- one who criticizes the role of the college." "Education," said another Person, "and community development are inseparable. When you start deal- ing with people and their prdblems, you soon learn that you must also deal with their environment. In a sense, I suppose you are trying to make edu- cation a part of his environment." Changing the environment through education becomes important in introducing new programs, such as those for paraprofessionals. "Parapro- fessional occupations often threaten the entire work structure and so there is resistance. Programs such as secretarial science are understood by everyone and so there is no resistance. This is not true of programs for teacher aides or various technicians; in such programs, we must have (m l—‘v r“.- E"! 103 continuous public relations and involvement of the community in curriculum development-~we must re-educate the structure.“ One administrator saw the college in a very central role in com- munity development: “I believe it is the function of the community college to create a community. By this I mean that the college tries to create a complex of facilities that will serve the entire community and will also try to reach out beyond the campus to identify needs and then serve those needs." If the community college is to "create a community," does this sug- gest that it is to impose its image of the "ideal community" and strive to intervene wherever necessary to bring about changes in the community that bring it closer to this ideal? One of those interviewed felt that the college should have a vision or ideal, but should not impose this vision on the community: "We are probably addressing a variety of communities, each with its own interests. I think, in general terms, we do have a vision of what those communities should be, and it is our job to bring this vision to the people, to make them aware of community problems." Others also agreed that the college should be an image of the ideal community, but pointed out that (1) it may not be the same as that held by the community, and (2) the college image of the ideal community is con- stantly changing. One person interviewed said, "Our concept of the ideal Community may not necessarily be the same concept as that held by the com- munity. We don‘t have all the answers--we are educational specialists." Another echoed the same view, adding that the community may also have a vision of the "ideal community college:" "This is a two-way relationship-- what the college sees it can do, and what the community perceives the col- lege can do." 104 What the college sees it can do and what the community perceives the college can do changes as a result of interaction: "I believe our perception of the ideal community is constantly changing as a result of our efforts in community services, and particularly through our contacts with community groups." Assuming that the community college has a legitimate claim to be- coming an agent for community development, then what is its proper role in this respect? One administrator said, "Primarily, I think our job is to provide people with the skills or personal resources they need to get things done in the community." Another made a similar comment: "I think the community has to reach its own conclusions. We give them some inputs, orfihelp them find inputs, that they can plug into the process of change." Still another said, "We are becoming a part of the conscience of the com- munity. We remind them of what they are not doing." One administrator summarized the college‘s role as follows: "The community college is in- volved in the process of social improvement; it provicbs the tools for social change--people become more efficient and effective." In summary, those interviewed perceive the college as an agent of community development, and they feel that the college should.have in mind some image or ideal of the community toward which they are working. They suggest, however, that this image may not be the same as that held by the community, that the perceptions of the community as to what the college can (or should) do with respect to community development is a limiting factor, and that the college should not in any case impose its views on the community. Rather, it should provide educational leadership by making the community aware of its problems, and then provide people with the skills and personal resources they need to get things done. 105 "We don't have all the answers--we are educational specialists,” said one person quoted above. Thus, solutions to problems often involve cOOperative planning and programming between the college and other com- munity groups. The college can often serve well the function of bringing together community groups because of its political neutrality. On adminis- trator said, "Because we are outside the realm of politics, we can be effective in bringing about desireable changes in the community through finding new ways for groups in the community to work together." Developing new working relationships between groups in the community is a difficult, time consuming task. Said one administrator, "This re- lationship must be strong. Shallow relationships will soon be uncovered and the Job won't get done. I would think nothing of working, for example, with schools and social agencies for six months to develop a program." Several administrators told of adverse reactions and accusations of "empire building“ from persons in the community who saw the work of the community college as a threat to their place in the community power structure. One person interviewed said, "Conflict with politicians and governmental agen- cies is always possible when you get involved 1n.helping people become more astute politically. It is very important that you keep these people in- formed as to what you are doing and try to involve them as much as possible." One compelling reason for seeking new levels of cooperation within the community is that of economy. "Community services looks at the com- munity as a whole. By getting all organizations to work together so that service is coordinated, savings result which may be utilized for additional services." In summary, the community college should serve a coordinative function in cutting across institutional lines to identify new patterns of cooperation within the community which will contribute to the solution 106 of community prdblems. This requires intensive and long-term efforts by the community service staff, but the result is greater and more economic service. Good public relations, both within the college and in the community, was perceived as an essential factor in developing an effective community service program. Since community service programs are often short-term and.non-repetitive, there is a challenge to continuously find and attract new students. The emphasis is now, however, on slick, professional public relations, but on "telling the story" of what the college has to offer. One community relations director said, "My Job is not to sell the college to the people because if you don't have something to start out with you have a hopeless sales Job on your hands. I think the more fully we can tell the story of this college, the better community relations are going to be." Numerous tactics are used by community service staffs in public relations efforts. Campus faculty newsletters, various flyers and brochures, visits to key persons in the community, social contacts, college speakers' bureau, bringing community groups to the campus, visual displays in li- braries and downtown stores, close cooperation with newspapers, and thank you letters to speakers are examples of public relations tactics. One administrator writes thank you letters to each speaker, to the speaker's employer, and to his wife: Visibility is the vital factor; a continuous effort appears to be necessary to keep the community aware of community services and what it has to offer. Utilizing instructors from the community, and the reactions of Present and previous students as they tell others of their experiences, are Obvious means of linkage between the community and community services. 107 Participation of the community services staff on an individual basis in community affairs is also an obvious, and important, linkage. One adminis- trator, who is a member of several organizations in his community said, "We have to give of our talents to other community groups if we expect them to share their talents with us." Another said, "Through meeting people from the college who are involved in community affairs, people from the community often become involved in college affairs." Advisory groups are obviously an essential linkage between the com- munity and community services. However, because of their close identity with organizational patterns in community services, advisory groups were discussed in the section on "Organizing, Staffing, and Financing Community Services." Identification of Community Needs One of the basic questions of this study is: How are community needs identified? Because of the importance of the identification of community needs as a linkage between the community and community services, it is included here rather than in a separate section. The discussion of identification of community needs will be related to the patterns described earlier. In the extended departmental pattern, it is expected that the com- munity service offerings will be based on how community needs are perceived by those within each department in liaison with community groups. In the Sales and marketing Department at DelMar College, for example, needs are identified through cooperation with a variety of groups such as the Ameri- can Banking Institute, Texas Restaurant Assn., local board of realtors, Small Business Administration, etc. (‘2 108 In the nucleated pattern, it would be expected that needs would be identified through the use of a specialized college staff. The Foothill College staff, for example, is concerned about providing increased service to disadvantaged groups and during 1968, the district is conducting a study of economic deprivation in its service area. The study is concerned with (1) how to increase awareness of the prdblems of the disadvantaged in the dominant white culture, (2) how to better serve the "qualified" disadvan- taged (i.e., those not limited by language problems), and (3) the hard core disadvantaged (those having economic and linguistic problems). MiamiéDade Junior College, College of San Mateo, and Oakland Com- munity College are also developing specialized staffs who can deal in an expert way with investigating needs and establishing programs in desig- nated areas of service. At New York City Community College, Abraham Baldwin College, Essex Community College, and El Centro College, needs are determined primarily by a staff member through his contacts in the community. In the advisory group pattern, it would be expected that the identi- fication of community needs would involve action by advisory committees. At Cerritos College, advisory committees in such areas as the professions, recreation, fine arts, business, adult education, community research and development, and youth sense needs in their areas of specialty and bring their recommendations to the college for implementing programs to meet the needs. It is interesting to note that one committee-~Community Research and.Development-~actually has as its purpose the identification of community needs and problems which might be met by a Joint college-community action. A study in 196k at Cerritos College involving over 100 lay persons repre- senting various groups and interests in the community as well as the 109 administration and faculty of the college, formed the basis of the present community service program and structure of advisory committees. In the antenna pattern, it would be expected that the identifi- cation of community needs would involve action by staff members whose locus of operation is the community rather than the college campus. The use of "community relations specialists" or counselors at Cuyahoga, Miami- Dade, and Rockland Community Colleges are examples of this approach. Cuyahoga Community College, through federally funded projects such as Project EVE (counseling and referral services for women), Project SEARCH (outreach counseling, recruiting, financial aid, career and educational information in ghetto areas), and a new careers project, places staff members placed in sensitive areas of the community. Person-to-person contact with clientele or potential clientele provides a feedback loop to communicate needs to the college. In the affiliate pattern, sensitivity to community needs and the identification of problems for which the community college has resources to contribute to a solution depend on the work of a network of affiliated organizations. At Rockland Community College, the affiliate organizations are themselves the result of community studies. The Management Institute was an outcome of a community study which included a series of meetings which brought together persons from 75 industries to discuss the need for a management training program. .A second study, funded through a founda— tion grant, made possible a survey to determine needs foruhealth service workers; a later grant made it possible to initiate a health careers pro- Ject. Another study at Rockland Community College focused on the need for a community learning center. The study is exploring possible 110 ways to coordinate and centralize library and learning resource materials for use in schools and libraries throughout the area. For the most part, regardless of the pattern, the techniques used for the identification of community needs were simple and were directed toward specific groups or problems. Techniques such as studying census information, reviewing publications and studies of the Chamber of Commerce, tabulating program requests, mailing questionnaire surveys, reviewing self- studies for regional accreditation, and reading newspaper stories were used. There was no evidence of intensive programs of community analysis. As one administrator said, "The needs we deal with are so obvious that we could not justify spending months studying the problem." One institution that spent six months on a study prior to initiating a program was dis- couraged with the results, feeling that it had become primarily a clerical exercise. CHALLENGES In the data above, the factors which influenced the development and effectiveness of community services as perceived by those interviewed have been presented. In addition to being asked to identify developmental factors, administrators were also asked to comment on the major challenges faced by their community service program. It was felt that by identifying challenges, some indices of future development might be obtained. On the basis of an analysis of the responses, it appears that administrators are particularly concerned about: 1. Increased efforts to be of greater service to disadvantaged groups and to the black community. 2. To improve methods of planning and teaching in community services. 3- To do a better job of communicating within the college and with various segments of the community; to articulate pro- grams more closely with other community agencies. l. 111 The challenges as indicated by those interviewed are as follows: Leadership and Administration a. b. C. d. e. f. g. h. i. More effective research of community needs Better evaluation of programs Long-range planning Creativity in conceiving and implementing programs Broadening the scope of community services Improve methods of teaching by making educational experiences relevant to those being served Expanded use of audio-visual aids and services in teaching Increased faculty sensitivity to those being served Greater willingness to embark on programs having high financial risk or which are controversial Linkages Within the College 8.. b. c. d. e. f. Increased faculty and student commitment to the program Greater use of talentresources of faculty Greater administration, faculty, student involvement in planning and promoting program Greater college financial commitment Greater college commitment in terms of providing facilities Improved information services to college administration, faculty, students Linkages Within the Community 8:. Increased efforts to be of service to disadvantaged groups and to the black community; create image the community services are directed toward all segments of the community; attract groups not previously in- volved in the programs of the community college. Improved information service to all segments of the community; specialized information service appropriate to each group (i.e., aged, blue collar, disadvantaged, etc.) Increased efforts to cooperate with other community agencies. Create an image of willingness and commitment to meet- ing community problems. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, ISSUES, IMPLICATIONS FOR GRADUATE_LEADERSHIP TRAINING, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The purposes of this chapter are to present a summary of the prob- lem, methodology, and findings; to present the conclusions of the study; to point out major issues concerning community service programs in com- munity colleges; to offer implications for the graduate leadership train- ing of community service administrators, and to offer suggestions for further research. SUMVIARY 93 THE PROBLEM This descriptive study has dealt with the develoPment and struc- ture of community service programs in community colleges; the study has been guided by basic questions related to the elements of community services; organizational, staffing, and financing patterns; developmental factors; identification of community needs; and the means of linkage with other programs of the college and with groups in the community. For the Purpose of analyzing the data, these basic questions were organized according to the following format: A. Elements of Community Services . Defining community services . Philosophical base for community services . Organizational and instructional departures caused by community services . Taxonomy of community service functions 4r corona 1L3 113 B. Organizing, Staffing, and Financing Community Services 1. Organizational patterns 2. Responsibilities of community services directors 3. Staffing patterns h. Financing patterns C. Developmental Factors 1. Leadership anthdministration a. leadership b. administration 2. Characteristics of the Institution a. institutional setting b. linkage with other programs of the college c. linkage with groups in the community 3. Identification of Community Needs A. Challenges SUMMARY OF DATA COLLECTION The data for the study was obtained through in-depth analysis of the community service programs of thirteen community colleges in the United States. For the purposes of analysis, the data was organized according to the format summarized above so as to synthesize the data for each question across colleges. Preliminary to making actual visits to the community colleges in the sample, an interview guide was developed and field tested. While the interview guide was designed to give some structure, it was intended that the interviews be conducted so as to allow freedom to explore more intensely particular perceptions and insights held by individuals intera viewed. An established procedure was followed in making arrangements for each visit: 1. An initial letter was sent to the‘college president asking the college to participate and requesting the name of the person who would be responsible for coordinating the visit. Inshixfiional Prssurrcs Cefficr 133 ERKJ Transfer, VocationaluTech, I v_s .1 Sr. ¢>‘ Grad .College : School | I I I I I Jr. ' Elem ' High'H. S General Education, Student ' | Personnel Services I | A : ' Community Eervice lr.structional .1 IL __ -___Ii’-‘;‘3I"E‘__ ___u ‘\\W \\1\ Courseling [>, Job Placement DROPOUTS Child Care \\~ Testing Service Reading Imgrovement k\\ Studyi inllS [P Pirancial Aid -_ Luz Re-enteging the) cycle throughout life Having explored the boundaries of community services, attention is turned to those programs, coure. es , and activities which fall within those boundaries. Using a taxonomy of functions developed by Max B. Raines, it was determined that the following were common functions within the community colleges in the sample: Social Outreach Public Information Cultural Develogment Advisory Liaison Public Forum Facility Utilization Educational Expansion Organizational~Administrative Cooperative Planning Program Evaluation Educational Extension The following were considered to be uncommon functions within the com- munity colleges in the sample: Career Development Conference Planning Civic Improvement Faculty Consultation Recreational Development Staff Development 122 Organizing, Staffing, and Financing Community Services A review of the administrative organizational charts of all colleges in the sample reveals that, in the majority of colleges (7), the person responsible for community services reports directly to the president or to the chief executive officer of the community college district. In six of these cases, the person responsible for community services holds a line position in the second level of the administrative structure. In the other case, the person resgonsible holds a staff position. In four cases, the person responsible for community services reports to someone other than the president. Of the four multi-campus community college districts visited, two operated separate community service programs on each campus, while the other two organized community services as a district operation. At two colleges, no single administrator was responsible for com- munity service programs. In one case, division chairmen were assigned this responsibility; in the other, each community service program was administered separately by a director who either reported directly to the ruesident or was responsible Jointly to the president and to an outside agency or group. A review of the responsibilities of community services directors in this study indicates these common responsibilities; H . .Admdnistering the programming of courses and other community services activities. Employment and supervision of staff and instructors. Directing a program of public relations and communication. Formulating, proposing, and administering an annual budget. Formulating an annual report, and keeping the necessary records to make this possible. was-cum Less common responsibilities are: 1. Administering the development of community services fUnding proposals. 2. Enrolling and counseling students. 3- Collecting fees. 123 Forty-seven different job titles were assigned to community services staff members at the thirteen colleges. Six colleges have a person who holds the title of dean or director of community services, and five have project directors; no more than one or two colleges assign any of the other forty-five job titles. Some of the more unique titles include community relations specialist, associate dean of the college of the air, community liaison counselor, associate director for community development, coordinator of science services, director of public service, executive director of management institute, coordinator of police academy, and coordinator of gallery and exhibits. There is obviously little uni- versality in the Job titles presently assigned to professional persons employed in community services in the community college. Other persons serving in this area in some way are the full-time and part-time instructors, division chairmen of the college, and advisory committee members. The following general statements can be made regarding financing patterns in the community colleges in the sample: 1. Tax support at the state level varies from state to state from no support to providing a separate community services tax. 2. Community services are more subject to the ups and downs of the federal budget than other programs of the college. 3- Charges to participants in community service programs and activities are generally nominal. 1+. Financial considerations limit the willingness of most com- munity colleges to enter "high risk" programs of a non- remunerative nature. 1 5. The major sources of funding for community services are loca tax funds, state aid, tuition and fees, federal contracts, foundation grants, and community support. 6. The major categories of expenditures are professional salaries, travel, advertising, printing, office and classroom supplies, rentals, capital outlay, and contracted services. 12h Factors or conditions which influence the development and effective- ness of community service programs were perceived by those interviewed to be as follows: I. Leadership and Administration A. Leadership (Task Functions) 1. 2. 30 h. 5. 6. 7. 8. 90 10. ll. l2. l3. Intimate knowledge of the community Personal contact with key people in the community Ability to stimulate local interest in community affairs High standards for courses and activities Creativity Willingness to take risks, make changes High tolerance of frustration, restraint Aggressive seeking of funds Resist formalization of community service programs Focus on specific community needs Quick, effective response to problems Intensive curriculum planning and development View to long-range development of excellence B. Administration (Maintenance Functions) 1. Ulcran) "Non-pedagogical" course or activity titles Post-instructional evaluation Proper scheduling of courses and activities Continuously updated mailing lists In-service training of staff II. Characteristics of the Institutign. A. Institutional Setting (D-JCh\n#rUJn)ha Strong collegiate programs Supportive preparatory or remedial courses Overall commitment of college to community services Atmosphere of freedom to innovate, experiment Location of college, points of service Facilities adequate for public use Campus environment Adequate financial base B. Linkages Within the College 1. Board and Administrative Interest and Support a. Board informed and supportive b. Chief administrator committed and supportive c. Administrative staff interest and support Faculty Involvement and Interest a. Faculty advisory committee b. Requests for faculty recommendations for community service programming c. Faculty utilized as participants and instructors d. Orientation of new faculty members e. Faculty interest in bringing distinguished persons or specialists to the campus for community service programs f. Community services needs considered in faculty recruitment and development Curriculum a. Community services defined as an integral part of the curriculum b. Community services courses and activities lead into certificate and degree programs Community Service Staff a. Placement of director in administrative structure b. Staff participation in faculty organizations and affairs Student Involvement a. Participation of full-time students in planning community service programs C. Linkage With Groups in the Community 1. ghallenges Acceptance by community of the college as an originator of community services. .Acting as well as reacting role in community development Political neutrality Cooperative planning and programming Public relations Utilizing persons from the community as instructors Community service staff participation in community affairs Identification of community needs In addition to being asked to identify developmental factors, administrators were also asked to comment on what they perceived to be the major challenges facing community service programs. Challenges may be summarized as follows: 126 1. Increased efforts to be of greater service to disadvantaged groups and to the black community. 2. Improved methods of planning and teaching in community services. 3. Improved methods of communication within the college and with various segments of the community; articulate programs more closely with other community agencies. CONCLUSIONS No useful purpose would be served by reiterating, in the form of conclusions, the rather extensive and detailed summarizing statements in the preceding section. In addition, it is felt that certain concluding statements can more effectively be presented as issues; these are presented in the succeeding section. For these reasons, the concluding statements presented below will be brief and general in nature. 1. The development of community services depends on the portion of the available resources of the college which are committed to academic programs in relations to the portion committed to pene- trating the localized social, economic, cultural, and civic problems of the communities in which the college is located. 2. The development of community services depends on the degree to which the community college will continue to respond to the traditional pressures from industry, the professions,and middle- class parents; and the degree to which it will respond to those not so forceful in articulating their needs: senior citizens, disadvantaged groups, homemakers, the unemployed and under- employed. 3. The develOpment of community services depends on the ability of the college to achieve an appropriate balance between those community services desired by the higher socio-economic groups, who provide the preponderance of financial support to the col- lege, and those less remunerative community services needed by the lower socio-economic groups. A. The development of community services depends on the genuine commitment of the community college to work cooperative with the people of the community on local problems. 5. There are Specific identifiable factors related to the abilities and performance of community services administrators, and to con- ditions within and outside the college, which tend to influence the development of community services. These factors are summar- ized in the preceding section. 10. ll. 127 The major challenges which confront community service programs and which will influence its future development relate to pro- viding increased service to disadvantaged groups and to the black community, improving planning and teaching methods, and improving communications and articulation with groups in the community. Community services are increasingly being recognized as a main- line function of the community college; this is reflected in the administrative changes indicated in this study by which directors of community services Join the "second level" in the administrative structure, reporting directly to the president. Community services may be seen as an orientation of the entire college, as well as those programs carried on by a division of community services. A strong commitment to community services which permeates the entire college becomes the foundation for a strong community service program. Each college organizes its effort to penetrate into the com- munity to play a vital role in meeting localized social, eco- nomic, cultural and civic needs in different ways. The patterns by which it organizes its relations with the community it serves are described as (1) extended departmental pattern, (2) nucle- ated pattern, (3) advisory group pattern, (h) antenna pattern, and (S) affiliate pattern. Community services are influencing organizational and instruc- tional departures from traditional approaches in the community college. Through the evolving concept of the educational and cultural center of the community, a new image of the community college is being formed. Harold Grant, Michigan State University, has observed that religion was once the center of community life; the churches were often physically in the center of the community, and their influence permeated the daily life of the residents. Later, the central business district developed, and became the symbol of the trend toward economics as the center of community life. Today, it appears that education is moving toward a more central role in the community, as rapid social and technological changes turn our attention from the work week to the work-study week. The community educational and cultural center concept envisions education as central to the functioning of the community, with the community college at the apex of the educational structure. It envisions a merging of "town and gown," an integration of the college and the community. 12. 13. 1h. 15. In this concept, the community college becomes the central facilitator and coordinator of educational and cultural services in the community. Through the sharing of financial, human, and physical resources, the quality of educational and cultural services is enhanced and, at the same time, pro- vided in the most economical way. Many of the educational and cultural services of the community would be centrally located on the community college campus. The community col- lege would cooperate with public scheols, other educational institutions, libraries, music and art groups, social agencies, governmental agencies, etc., by becoming in actu- ality an educational fulcrum for its commun ty. Programs for the inmservice training of community services staffs are limited at present. (’1) Task or goalnori ntel diagnosis of special community needs was episodic at best in the majority of colleges visited. Cooperative planning and programming with community groups is generally limited. Although the colleges in the sample did cooperate with community groups in some way, overall organization to accomplish this goal was generally weak or non-existent. Community colleges cannot possibly become wise enough or solvent enough to carry on effective community service pro- grams without genuine and continuing cooperation with com- munity groups from all sectors of the community, and so this weakness must be an area of concern. Community service programs are not generally exportable. Community services are the most provincial of all community college programs, and most clearly reflect the socio-economic composition, the urban or rural setting, and the industrial- business structure of the local community. Whereas a degree program in computer technology in New York might easily be exported and adapted as a program in Michigan, a community services program to train construction and building inspec- tors in New York would not be exportable to Michigan. Com- munity services is based on the identification of local community needs; there is no such thing as a core or standard curriculum in community services. ESUES During the course of the study, issues related to the role of com- munity services in the community college became apparent. At this point, it seems appropriate to identify these issues. 129 Issue l-Community Services in the community college is confronted with the question of finding the appropriate balance between pro- grams of an educational and cultural nature which are relatively risk-free and which enhance the public relations efforts of the college, and programs which address the major social problems of our society. Should community services focus on: A. Cultural programs, short courses and seminars for busi- ness and industry, and lectures and conferences on sub- jects of general interest, or B. The tougher, less remunerative, and less dramatic prob- lems of the unemployed and underemployed, minority groups, and disadvantaged groups. Rationale for Alternative A: Concerts, lectures, and short courses, conferences, etc., are clearly educational in nature and are legitimate activities of the community college. The community college has no business getting involved in community development and in programs which are not clearly educational. It does not have the human, physical, and financial resources to do more than scratch the surface in finding solutions to the major problems confronting our society. Further, it has no clear mandate from the public, which supports the college through its tax dollars, to become involved in new ways in the expensive programs that would be required to make a significant effort in this area. Rationale for Alternative B: In this period of rapid technological, economic, political, religious, ideological, demographic, and stratifi- cational change, the community college can play a vital and unique role in human resource and community development. The point is not that lec- tures, swimming classes, and concerts are unimportant, but that community services in the community college has the potential to be so much more than one more pleasant and stimulating experience for those who have already found so much pleasure and stimulation through our school system. 30 J. Kenneth Cunm.is}qsylhas stated; "The group that is served does appreciate our services--we know how to talk to them and they to us. The group that is served is usually well represented on our advisory committees and more often than not the ‘thought leaders' and 'decision makers' of our community. If our community services programs are intended to build community support for the institution, we are on the right track. If our purpose is to analyze and assist in thenrevolution of our community ills, we have hardly begun. The assertion here is that, in additien to providing opportunities for the well-cared-for middle class to participate in educational, cultural, and recreational experiences, community services must also commit itself to the tough, non-remunerative, and undramatic problems of the lower socio-economic groups in the community. Issue 2 - Should community services be - A. On a pay-as-youwgo basis. B. Supported through the tax structure. Rationale for Alternative A: Some of those interviewed considered it either desirable or inevitable that community service programs be self-supporting. The rationale for this position is that community serv- ices are directed toward Specialized interests or problems of various groups in the community; they are not, therefore, available or of interest to the general population. The public should not have to pay the cost of a short course on salesmanship or a lecture on oriental music because only select groups benefit from these offerings. Further, the limited resources of the community college are already being stretched to provide academic, vocationalwtechnical, and counseling programs; these are the Primary responsibilities of the community college. __ 1 J. Kenneth Cummisley, Taken from Speech at Adult Educational Association of the U. S. A. Meeting, November 1968, Des Mbines, Iowa. 131 Rationale for Alternative B: Pay-as-you-go financing simply is not possible if community services is to be the "cutting edge" of the community college in relation to the community; the aggresive seeking of funding from outside sources on the part of many of the colleges in the sample is a testimony to their recognition of this fact. Yet most community colleges, if they truly seek to play a critical role in human resources and community development, must begin to commit a larger portion of operating funds to this dimension of service. The public they serve must increasingly accept community services as a mainline function of the college, and support it within the tax structure. Further, state legislatures must provide financial support to community colleges carrying on community services, either on a student-clock hour or contract basis. In terms of financial commitment, this situation is analogous to the support given student personnel services in the community college. These services are provided because of a commitment on the part of community colleges to do so, not because of financial advantages. The same commitment should be true for community services; the type of program offered should.be based on prior- ities of community needs, not on financial considerations. Issue 3 - The prOper role of the community college in addressing the major problems of our society is: A. Leadership in seeking solutions to all aspects of the problems faced by the community. B. Extension and expansion of the educational resources of the community college to all sectors of the community. Rationale for Alternative A: Few would espouse this alternative, and.yet the temptation always exists to depart from educational approaches and take on the nature of a social agency or a governmental unit. In viewing the problems of the disadvantaged, for example, the lack of action in providing;housing, employment, police protection, and other 132 services by the community may convince the community college that it must launch a frontal attack on these problems. Rationale for Alternative B: Community services should not attempt to become the "super government of tomorrow" or, alternatively, another community social agency. The community college derives its legitimacy as an institution from its educational role; the community services function also derives its legitimacy from this role. The community college is not a govern- mental agency, a social welfare agency, a museum, a social club, a theatre, a voluntary association, a religious institution, or a labor union. The position taken is that community services in the community college is legitimate only to the extent that it is an extension or expansion of the educational.resources of the community college directed toward solving the social, economic, cultural, and civic needs of the community. Issue h - Seven of the colleges in the sample used the term "community services" to describe their efforts to provide educational opportunities to the community beyond their degree and certificate programs; five used "continu- ing education" or some variathmnof this term, and one used "community education." The best term is: A. Community Services B. Continuing Education Rationale for Alternative A: "Community services" is unique term used only by community colleges to define a programming area; most four- year colleges and universities offer some type of "continuing education" Program. Thus using the term "community servixnf'identifies a unique community college program, rather than one that might be viewed as an imitation of programs offered at four-year colleges and universities. The term used by community colleges should be clearly distinguished from the term used by high school districts inwdefining their adult 133 education activities. The term "community services" achieves this, whereas the terms "continuing education" and "adult education" are used interchangeably and do not provide this distinction. Rationale for Alternative B: The term "continuing education" is already understood and accepted by the community college and by its clientele. Adding another term simply introduces an unnecessary confusing element. The use of the term "community service" implies a subservient role on the part of the community college which is not consistent with necessary leadership roles carried on in this area; "continuing education" does not carry this implication. Virtually any program which can be called "community service" can be called "continuing education" as well; therefore, no useful purpose is served by adding another term. DIPLICAZIONS FOR. LFAETBSE’IP TRAINING If community services is indeed the next major thrust in program deve10pment for the community college, it follows logically that the demand for persons to administer community services will grow in the coming years; thus it becomes the responsibility of universities to pro- vide professional training to prepare persons for leaderShip positions in this area. It is the purpose of this section to suggest the impli- cations of this study for leadership training. The implications enumerated below are not purported to represent a format upon which a community service leadership program could be built. Rather, it is suggested that these implications should be considered in planning such a format. 13h Selection and Recruitment 1. Those entering a community service leadership program.need not have a teaching background. Persons who have held administrative or training positions in business or government, for example, should be regarded as eligible if they meet the other admission requirements of the university. Since there is always competition for available leadership talent, recruitment of students is necessary in order to bring into the program the type of person who has the potential to make a significant contribution in a community college and in the community. Students who wish to enter community services careers should be motivated by a desire to serve, not by income and status. Compassion and empathy for disadvantaged groups should be characteristic of these students. Although difficult to assess, students entering community services careers should demonstrate some ability to adapt to changing conditions, and to be creative in handling adminis- trative problems. These persons should be able to tolerate ambiguity and unsolved problems since they will deal with community problems for which there are no quick,. easy solutions. Students who wish to enter community service careers Should demonstrate leadership ability. Ebe Body of Knowledge In reviewing the literature, it quickly becomes obvious that only the most meager beginning has been.made in developing a definitive body Of knowledge about community services in the community college. The 135 available literature in this field is inadequate as a foundation for a leadership program. On the other hand, it is both necessary and desir- able that the substantive knowledge from other related fields of study be drawn upon in forming the theory and research base for a leadership program in community services; these related fields would include: Higher Education Sociology Educational Administration Political Science Urban Planning The body of knowledge upon which a community service program.is based, then, will be interdisciplinary in nature. Not only should courses in these areas by included in the graduate program, but the various disci- plines should be integrated through courses of seminars which center on interdisciplinary subjects such as "The Role of Education in Community and which draw on the collective talents and professors in such I Change,’ areas as Sociology, Education, and Political Science. Conceptualization of a Leadership Program.for Community Services A community service leadership program should be oriented toward A. administrative action, not toward making a significant contribu- tion to the theory of administration. B. .A community service leadership program should prepare specialists in the administration of community services in the community col- lege, but should also be flexible enough to provide leaderShip training experiences for persons who aspire to community college presidencies and other administrative positions. C. A leadership program should converge on the development of con- ceptual skills and on administrative skills. 1. 136 :_ .\ v M. w: < E33? Lifiifi'b. -;‘H~ The development of conceptual skills a. C. C. The community service administrator should understand the community college as a social organization. He must develop a "point of view" about society and the place of the community college and community services in it. He must perceive the task of community services in modern society. The administrator should develop a thorough concep- tualization of community services and the objectives it aspires to achieve. The administrator must understand the process of planned social change. The administrator should have an understanding of edu- cational administrative theory and practice. The administrator should have an understanding of theory and practice in continuing education. The administrator should develop a high level of self- awareness of his personality and values. He Should develop an understanding of the dynamics of inter- personal relationships. development and administrative skills The administrator should be a competent diagnostician; he should be skilled in analyzing community prdblems. The administrator should be a skilled.manager; he should have the ability to handle the budgetary, scheduling, and reporting requirements of an adminis- trative position. The administrator should have a concept of the "pattern‘ of the community service program.toward which he is working. The administrator should be skilled at curriculum building and evaluation; he should view his program in terms of long-range development of excellent. The administrator Should know how to build board, administrative, faculty, and student support. The administrator should develOp personal relation- ships with key persons and groups in the community, and should explore ways to work cooperatively with them, The administrator should be an active participant in community affairs. 137 h. The administrator should develop his public relations and communication skills. 1. The administrator should be skilled in working wifln disadvantaged groups and developing programs to meet their needs. J. The administrator should be skilled in seeking funding, both from college sources and from outside sourcez, to support community service programs. The Content of A Community Service Leadership Program No attempt will be made to suggest typical courses which might be included in a leadership program. However, a combination of courses, seminars, independent studies, and field internships appears to be needed in terms of the conceptualization above. The listing below, therefore, will suggest content for the subject matter aspect of such a program and desirable experience for the internship aspect. These listings focus on what might be included in a Doctoral program; Specialist and Masters candidates would not, of course, pursue the intensive course work, internship, thesis progression of the Doctoral candidate. The intern- ship period might be from three months to one year in length, and need not be limited to one college. However, the majority of an intern’s efforts should be directed toward one institution and community. In listing possible subject matter content below, it is not sug- gested that a course would be offered in eadh area ot that all areas would be included in such program. Rather, these content areas are rapresentative of what might be included in such a program: 138 Subject Matter Content Community»Services Taxonomy of community service functions Public relations and communication The city as an educational laboratory New careers concept Cooperative planning of educational experiences Community services programming patterns: short courses, seminars, conferences, workshops, projects, etc. Methods of instruction in community services Advisory group relations Educational Administration Theories of Educational Administration Educational administrative practices Evaluation Business management Long-range planning Developing behavioral objectives Faculty recruitment and development Budget preparation Preparing reports Administrative-faculty relationships Curriculum planning Political Science Political organization Metropolitan government and politics Community decision-making Political change internship Experiences Sociology Planned social change Minority groups Community organization and structure Urban sociology Social stratification Social systems Small group relationships Social Welfare Methods of Community Research Higher Education Continuing education The community college The community school Cooperative extension University extension Urban Planning Community Planning and Development Community health Community recreation 1. The intern at the doctorale level should be assigned areas of responsibility within, but not limited to, community services. Assignments related to business management, curriculum develop- ment, institutional research, and general administration which complement the major emphasis on the administration of community 139 service programs should be included. It is important that the intern develop an awareness of how community service pro- grams relate to the institution as a whole. The intern should: 8.. g. Have opportunities to develop a knowledge of community needs, to work closely with community leaiers and with community groups. Work with those who participate in community service pro- grams, to observe and conduct classes or activities. Plan courses and activities, beginning with determining the need and establishing objectives; and carrying through the entire process to evaluation. Work with faculty groups in planning community service activities. He should plan a minimum of one project in cooperation with members of each college division. Spend a period of time working with the major social agencies in the community, analyzing new areas of coopera- tion. Be responsible for a time for supervising each area of community services, such as the teaching staff, the com- munity services office, the public relations effort, and ultimately, the entire community service program Be an observer at the administrative council meetings of the college. Work intensely on at least one project involving disad- vantaged groups in the community. lhO 1. Meet periodically with other interns and the university staff to discuss the community services program in which they are involved and to exchange views on internship experiences. 3. Attend meetings of the governing board of the college, where the college is controlled by'a local board. k. Prepare an analytical paper in which he assesses the basic premises and goals of the college's community service program, diagnoses basic community needs which are not being met by community services, and prescribes a long-range program for the college. This paper should be presented by the intern at a meeting of the community college and university staff, at which time critical response can be made to the paper. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH On the basis of the analysis of the data of this study, the following areas are suggested as worthy of further research: 1. A study of the attitudes of community college presidents toward community services, and of how they perceive this area in relation to the future of the community college is desirable. One conclusion of the present study was related to importance of the chief executive in the development of community service programs. A study directed toward presi- dents would be of importance in projecting trends in com- munity services. lhl Several studies of university resources which could be utilized These 2. in developing community service programs are needed. studies would locate authorities in community analysis, community development, sources of funding, etc., who could provide assist- ance to community colleges either individually, or in groups in situations such as workshops and conferences. Such studies could be replicated in universities throughout the country; these studies would identify new areas of university-community college cooperation. All known studies on community services have dealt with com- munity colleges, and only peripherally with the communities in which they'are located. Of significance, therefore, would be a study of the awareness and attitudes of persons in various socio-economic groups in the community toward the college's community service programs. h. A study of the awareness and attitudes of faculty members toward community services would be useful. .A research design that compared those in vocational-technical areas with those in academic areas, new faculty members with experienced mem- bers, etc., would yield valuable information on the role community services plays within the institution. 5. .A study which could be replicated in various communities would identify all of the community resources available to a community college for developing a community service program. Such studies would suggest many areas of college-community ccxuxxnaticni. 6. 8. lh2 An in-depth study of community college budgets is required to identify all categories of spending for community service, to indicate amounts allocated to various budgetary items re- lated to community services, to identify sources and amounts of revenue, and to identify patterns of income and expense. Little is known at present about the commonalities and diver- gencies in terms of financing community services. A study which compared various means of identifying community needs, and which presented patterns for developing continuing sensitivity to the neeis of the community, would be extremely helpful. Little is now known about effective ways to identify community needs when the specific objective is to determine whether community service programs are feasible or required. In Chapter h, various patterns of organization through which community colleges arrange their relationships with the com- munity they serve were presented. Further study which ex- plored the validity of these patterns, the strengths and weaknesses of each, and the type of programs likely to be produced by each would be useful. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Biddle, William W}, The Community'Development Process: The Rediscove§y_ of Local Initiative. New York: Holt, Rinehard & Winston, Inc., 1955. Blocker, Clyde E., et al, The Twanear College: A Social Synthesis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1965. Bogue, Jesse Barker, The Community College. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1950. Brunner, Edmund deS., An Overview of Adult Education Research. Chicago: Adult Education Association of the U. S. A., 1967. Etzioni, Amitai, A Comparative Analysis of Organizations. New York: The Free Press, 1961. Etzioni, Amitai, Modern Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall’ Inc., 1%lio Etzioni, Amitai, et a1, Social Change. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 196k. ""' Hanna, Paul R., at al, "The Community School.Defined," in The 52nd YEarbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Ed. Henry B. Nelson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953. Harrington, Michael, The other America. New York: The MacMillan Com- pany. 1963 . Havighurst, Robert J., "Social and Cultural Changes Melding the Future of the.American People," in Administering the Community College in a Changing WOrld. Buffalo: The University Council for Edu- cational Administration and the School oanducation, State University of New York, 1967. Knowles, Malcolm 8., Handbook of Adult Education in the United States. Chicago: .Adult Education.Association of the U. S. A., 1960. Lieberman, Myron, The Future of Public Education. Chicago: The Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1965. Iipham, James M3, "Leadership and.Administration," in Behavioral Science and Educational Administration, Ed. Daniel E. Griffiths. Chicago: university of Chicago Press, 196k. Loomis, Charles P3, Social Systems: Essays on Their Persistence and Change. Princeton: D. Van Nestrand Co., Inc., 1960. 1A3 1’41} Medsker, Leland L., "Implications of Social and Cultural Change for Community College Administration," in Administering the Community College in a Changing World. Ed. S. V. Martorana and Pauline F. Hunter. Buffalo: The University Council for Educational Administration and the School of Education, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1967. Medsker, Leland L., The Junior College: Progress and Prospect. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960. Miller, Herman P., Rich Man Poor Man. New York: New American Library of World Literature, Inc., l96h. Parsons, Talcott, Structure and Process in Modern Societies. Glenco: The Free Press, 1960. President' a Commission on Higher Education, Higher Ed ucation for American Democracy. New York: Harper & Brothers, 19h8. Reynolds, James W., An Analysis of Community Service Programs of Junior Colleges. Austin, Texas: university of Texas, 1960. Reynolds, James W., "Community Services," in The Public Junior College, 55th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Ed. Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952. Sanders, Ervin, The Community. New York: Ronald Press, 1967. Sexson, John A., et al, The New American College. New York: Harper & Brothers, l9h6. Thornton, James W., Jr., The Community Junior College. New York: thn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1960. B. PERIODICALS Devall, W. E., "Community Colleges: A Dissenting View," Educational Record, Spring 1968, p. 168. Harlacher, Ervin L., "California' a Community Renaissance," Junior College Journal, April l96h, p. 18. Henderson, Leon. "Acceptance of Community College Concept," Junior College Journal, April 1955, p. #73. Martorana, S. V. "Problems in Adult Education in the Junior Colleges," Junior College Journal, November 191W, pp. 115-123. Reyn01ds, James W. "What Is A Community Colic; ," Junior College Journal, December 1950, p. 202. 1h5 C. REPORTS American Association of Junior Colleges. Proceedings of the 5th Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio,_February 20-21, 1925. Chicago: The American Association of Junior Colleges, 1925 California Junior College Association, Committee on Community Services. A Survey of Community Services in California Junior Colleges, 1966-67. Norwalk, California: Cerritos College, 1967. Coleman, James, et al, Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966. Dakin, William R. A Plan for Implementing a Program of Continuing Adult Educational Services. Tempe: Arizona State University, 1967. Hannah, John A., et a1. Racia.1 Isolation in the Public Schools, A Report of the United” States Commission on Civil Rights. Washington: U. 8. Government Printing Office, 1967. Harlacher, Ervin L. The Community'rimension of the Community College (Report to the American Association of Junior Colleges, November 1967) 1967. Houle, Cyril 0., Community Education Service as an Emerging Function of Higher Education, Proceedings of the Institute for Administrative Offices of Higher Education,l9h8. Kerner, Otto, et a1. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disor iers, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. Kleis, Russell J. An Area Approach to Continuing Education. East Lansing: Educational Publication Services, College of Education, Michigan State university, August 1967. Michigan.State Uhiversity,0ffice of Community College Cooperation. Community College Feasibility Study for County Intermediate School Districts of Manistee and Mason. East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1966. Raines, Max R. A Proposal to Explore and Expand the Continuing Education and Community Development Potential of Michigan Community Colleges. A Proposal Submitted to the W. K. Kellogg Foundation of Battle nggk, Michigan. East Lansing: Michigan State University, May 1 o lh6 D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Adams, Dewey Allen. .An Analysis of Roles of the Community College in Continuing Education in Conjunction With Other Organizations Which Provide Education For Adults. Unpublished doctoral disser- tation, The University of Florida, 1966. Cologne, Rose. Coordinating Resources for the Development of a Community Program in Family Life Education. Unpublished doctoral disser- tation, Columbia, New York, l9h7. Erbstein, George B. Informal Non~Credit Adult Education in the Public Community Junior College: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1962i— Goud, Nelson H. A Social Systems Analysis of Junior College Student Personnel Programs. Urgublished doctoral dissertation. Michigan State University, 1967. Harlacher, Ervin L. Critical Requirements for the Establishment of Effective Junior College Programs of Community Services. Unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, University of California, 1965. Hodson, George A., Jr. A Survey of the Cultural Services Provided by Community Colleges in the United States. unpublished doctoral dissertation, Washington State University, l96h. Kennedy, Donald J. The Study of the Recruitment and Orientation Policies and Practices for Part-Time Instructors in the Public Junior Colleges of Illinois and Maryland. unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, 1966. Lanser, Roland.L. The Community Services of Selected Public JUnior Colleges. unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, 1959. Rawlinson, Howard Edmonds. Public Junior College and Community Needs: Development and.Application of Evaluative Criteria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University, 1963. APPENDIX A LETTER OF INTRODUCTION BY DOCTORAL ADVISOR lh8 Dear The College of Education, Michigan State university, has received a grant from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation to work with selected Michigan community colleges in developing their continuing education and community service potential. In addition, the grant provides for the development of in- service and graduate educational experiences for persons who have ad- ministrative positions related to the community service function of the community college or who are preparing for such positions. In preparation for this task, we want to make an inadepth study of selected community service programs throughout the country; Dr. Ervin Harlacher has recommended a small number of outstanding programs, in- cluding the program at your college, for visitation during this study. we are particularly interested in the developmental processes by which your program became an outstanding one. Would you be able to participate in this study? Mr. Myran would plan to make a two-day visit to your campus to interview various persons involved with community services and to college supplementary data. Mr. Myran is presently attempting to establish a schedule which will per- mit him to visit Community College on July 15 and 16. Since he is also planning to visit other colleges in your section of the coun- try during the same trip, it would simplify his scheduling problems if these dates would be satisfactory for your college. If you are willing to participate, we would appreciate confirmation by return mail. In addition, may we have the name of a community service administrator in your college to whom Mr. Myran may send further data prior to his visit. Thank you for your kind consideration. Cordially, Max.R. Raines Associate Professor Enclosure APPENDIX B INFORMATIONAL LETTER TO DIRECTOR OF COMMUNITY SERVICES Mn..- - '- 150 Dear Thank you for your willingness to cooperate with us in our study of com- munity services in the community college. An enclosed envelope addressed to you will give you details about this study and its part in our total community service project. I would appreciate your cooperation in making those arrangements for my two-day visit which would be difficult for me to do personally before I arrive. My visit at your college is now set for July 15 and 16. I am enclosing several items which are related to my visit: 1. Envelopes for each person to be interviewed: I would like to inter- view each person at your college who holds a full-time administrative po- sition, and who is responsible for one or more community service functions. Please distribute an envelope to each person. 2. Agenda sheet: It would be helpful if the schedule for interviews : was established prior to my arrival. The interviews would be more mean- i ingful if the people to be interviewed received the enclosed envelopes and were aware of the time schedule prior to my visit. Each interview will be approximately #5 minutes in length. 3. Check list for supplementary data: It would be helpful if as many of these materials as possible were collected prior to my visit. If this is not possible, they should be available at the time of the critique on the second day. h. Institutional data: Please obtain the data requested on the "Insti- tutional Data" form enclosed. I realize that this visit will require a considerable amount of time on the part of you and your staff. Your participation, however, will pro- vide important information which will be used throughout the duration of the project. The study should make a real contribution to the available research related to community services. I will call you a few days prior to my visit to discuss final arrange- ments. Please call me if problems arise. Sincerely, Gunder.A. Myran Consultant l#26 Erickson Hall GAM: csp APPENDIX C TAXONOMY OF COMMUNITY SERVICE FUNCTIONS Ire?“ (" rv» n- c: 14716 n Department of Administration and Higher Education College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan A TAXONONY 0F COMMVNITY SERVICE ‘TNCTIONS Max R. Raines Career DeveIOpment Function--Providing opportunities for individual self- discovery and fulfillment with particular emphasis upon vocationally related activities; e.g., career counseling, job placement, group guidance sessions, etc. 1. Project EVE at Cuyahoga Community College (Ohio) provides counseling and referral services for women in the area of education, volunteer work, and employment. 2.- Project COPE at Oakland Community College (Michigan) is a program of counseling for ghetto residents. 3. Rockland Community College (New York) employs a connmnity relations specialist to perform counseling and recruiting services in the black community. Social Outreach Function--Organizing programs to increase the earning power, educational level, and political influence of disadvantaged; e.g., ADC mothers, unemployed males, educationally deprived youth, welfare recipients, etc. 1. New York City Community College deveIOped a training program for welfare recipients to assist them in achieving a high school equivalency rating. 2. The College of San Mateo (California) Operates a reading development institute for those with educational deficiencies. 3. Oakland Community College (Michigan) has a cultural enrichment program providing fine arts and performing arts eXperiences for ghetto children. (kmmmnity Analysis Function--Collecting and analyzing significant data which reflect existing and emerging needs of the community and which can serve as a baSis for deveIOping the cownmnity service program of the college; e.g., analyzing census tracts, analyzing manpower data, conducting problem oriented Studies, etc. Ll n»; ll Uu : 1. Cerritos College (California) invol\ed over 100 citizens, as well as administrators and faculty, in a community services survey which formed the basis for their prOgram. 2. Foothill Community College (California) is conducting a study of economic deprivation in its service area. Cultural Development Function--Expanding and enriching Opportunities for com- munity members to participate in a variety of cultural activities; e.g., fine art Series, art festivals, artists in residence, community theatre, etc. Public Forum Function--DevelOping activities designed to stimulate interest and understanding of local, national, and world problems; e.g., public affairs pamphlets, "town" meetings, TV symposiums, etc. 1. Cerritos Community College (California) deveIOped a narcotics education project which included public forums and a curriculum for fifth and sixth graders in the district. 2. Essex Community College (Maryland) Operates a public forum service providing lectures on world, national, and local issues. Civic Improvement Function-~Participating in COOperative efforts with local government, business, industry, professions, religious and social groups to increase the resources Of the community to deal with major problems confronting the community; e.g., community self-studies, urban beautification, community Chest drives, neighborhood clean-up drives, etc. 1. Cerritos College (California), through its community research and develOpment committee, participates in a city beautification project, one aSpect of which is clean-up, paint-up activities. Recreational DeveIOpment Function--Expanding Opportunities for community members C0 participate in a variety of recreational activities; e.g., sports instruction, outdoor education, summer youth programs, senior citizen activities, etc. 1. Miami-Dade Junior College (Florida) Operates a community recreation program which includes extension programs in ghetto areas. 2. Several California conmunity colleges Operate extensive community recreation prOgrams. Educational Expghsion Function--Progranming a variety of educational up-grading and new career Opportunities which reach beyond the traditional limitations of college credit restrictions; e.g., institutes, tours, retreats, contractual in- plant training, etc. 1. Milwaukee Technical College (Wisconsin) provides clinics on income tax, social security, insurance, investments, and so on. 2. The College of San Mateo (California) Operates field study trips to Mexico, Death Valley, England, etc. 3. Cuyahoga Community College (Ohio) provides on-site and on- campus job training with a variety of industry and business firms. 4. ElCentro College (Texas) Operates a retail institute providing short courses and seminars on various phases of retailing. 5. Rockland Community COllege (New York) is develOping a human services curriculum to prepare subprofessionals in the health, educational, and public services fields. Cooperative Planning Function-—Establishing adequate linkage with related programs of the college and community to supplement and coordinate rather than duplicate existing programs; e.g., calendar coordination, information exchange, joint committee work, etc. 1. Abraham Baldwin College (Georgia) serves a catalytic function in Project SURGE, which involves 14 committees made up of leaders from business, industry, education and public services. The college provides its facilities and the expertise of its staff. The project was actually started by the president of the college. 2. Rockland Community College (New York) is developing a centralized library and learning resources center in cooperation with schools and libraries in its service area. fiflflgflfiional Extension Function--lncreasing the accessibility of the regular COurses and curricula of college by extending their availability to the com- munity-at-large; e.g., evening classes, TV courses, "week-end college”, etc. “'1'? A..- l. Cuyahoga Community College (Ohio) Operates a program for municipal employees in government buildings. 2. Oakland Community College (Michigan) Operates a number of extension centers in area high schools. Public Information Function--lnterpreting programs and activities Of community services to the college staff as well as to the conmmnity-at-large and coordinating releases with the central information services of the college. Faculty Consultation Function-~Identifying, develOping, and making available the consulting skills of the faculty in community deveIOpment activities; e.g., consulting with small businesses, advising on instructional materials, designing community studies, instructing in group leadership, laboratory testing, etc. 1. Essex Community College (Maryland) conducted an air polution study for the State Department of Health. Conference Planning Function--Providing professional assistance to community groups in the planning of conferences, institutes and workshOps; e.g., registra- tion procedures, program development, conference evaluation, etc. Advisory Liaison Punction--ldentifying and involving (in an advisory capacity) key members of the various sub-groups with whom COOperative programs are being planned; e.g., community services advisory council, ad hoc advisory committee, etc. 1. Cerritos College (California) employs a staff member who is a liaison secretary to all of the advisory committees related to community services. Facility Utilization Function--Encouraging community use of college facilities by making them readily accessible, by facilitating the scheduling process, and by deSigning them for multi—purpose activities when appropriate; e.g., campus tours, centralized scheduling office, conference rooms, auditorium design, etc. Organizational-Administrative Eunction-—Estah1ishing procedures for procuring and allocating the physical and human resources necessary to implement the com- munity services prOgram; e.g., staff recruitment, job descriptions, budgetary develOpment, etc. Staff Development Function--Providing opportunities and encouragement for staff members to up-grade their skills in program development and evaluation; e.g., professional affiliations, exchange visitations, professional conferences, advanced graduate studies, etc. Prggram Evaluation Function--Developing with the staff the specific objectives of the program, identifying sources of data, and establishing procedures for gathering data to appraise the prObable effectiveness of various facets of the program; e.g., participant ratings, attendance patterns, behavioral changes, program requests, etc. VAR-4'. 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