AN ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN SKELETAL MATERIAL FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28), BAY CITY, MICHIGAN . Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY NORMAN JAY SAUER, IR. ‘ 1974 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Heme.“ I I - I n“... “-7.“ PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE CM”; ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN SKELETAL MATERIAL FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (ZOBY28), BAY CITY, MICHIGAN By Norman Jay Sauer, Jr. During the summers of l967, 1968 and l970, Michigan State University field crews excavated a Middle Historic Period (ca. A.D. I750 to I770) cemetery. The skeletal remains of a minimum of ninety- three individuals were associated with eighty-six Historic graves. Three prehistoric individuals were also discovered in the burial area and the remains of at least eighteen specimens were found either on the surface or within a nearby dike. After a detailed description of the skeletal material associated with each of the burials, comparisons are made with several other Great Lakes area Late Woodland and Historic Period populations. A profile pattern of craniometrics suggests a closer relationship to the Rock Island material, a Central Algonquain, Sauk skeletal sample from Northern Illinois than to two other Historic populations associated with cultural remains suggesting Huron affinities and thus supports the indications of the archaeological evidence. The age distribution of the sample is similar to other American Indian skeletal populations, ”I. Cffi/ , £§3 Norman Jay Sauer, Jr. 0\ except for the old age stage, which is under-represented. Females make-up 69% of the young adult stage, while the ratio between males and females in the middle adult category is 1:1 and there are six old adult males and two old females. Postcranial measurements indicate that the adults were unusually short. Numerous pathologies are described, but the most noticeable is a high incidence of osteoporosis. It is suggested that the presence of certain unusual features within the Fletcher sample may be related to the effects of disease and altered nutrition resulting from contact with Europeans. Several research projects are proposed to study Great Lakes area Late Woodland and Historic Indian populations for a consideration of the biological effects of contact. Appendix A is an analysis of the material from the dike and the surface which was not associated with specific burial pits. Appendix B is a presentation of the cranial metric data from the site. AN ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN SKELETAL MATERIAL FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (ZOBY28), BAY CITY, MICHIGAN By Norman Jay Sauer, Jr. A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Anthropology 1974 To Eileen ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The preparation of this manuscript was made possible only through the cooperation of a number of individuals. I wish to thank my guidance committee: Terrell w. Phenice, Lawrence Robbins, James Brown and Rex Carrow for taking the time to read several drafts of 1 this manuscript and for offering invaluable suggestions. A special debt of gratitude is due Dr. Phenice for his encouragement and guidance during all the years of my graduate program as my committee chairman and friend. The Department of Anthropology at Michigan State University is to be acknowledged for supplying me with funds and facilities which made my course of study, research and writing a much easier task than it otherwise might have been. Similarly, I am indebted to Western Michigan University's Department of Anthropology for space and computer time during the initial phase of this analysis. Two individuals were especially cooperative in providing me with data which was critical for comparisons with the Fletcher material. Dr. Elizabeth Glenn, Ball State University, made available the cranial metrics from the Crawford Farm site; and Ms. Shelly Saunders, Erindale College, University of Toronto supplied data from the Christian Island site. I am indebted to both of them. Dr. Moreau Maxwell provided me with information on burial associations and mortuary practices. Ms. Judy Tardoff's analysis of iii .-t-¥W..k “aw-Ann: -""" " .i" .r ,3, 324:; n. "-'-' -- o“? «o ‘ “as... the Fletcher site dentition was a valuable aid as were the suggestions of Mr. Robert Mainfort concerning the cultural aspects of the popula- tion represented at the site. Also to be acknowledged and thanked for his assistance in gathering data and proofreading this manuscript, is my brother, Mr. Randy Sauer. Finally, a very special gratitude is due my wife, Eileen and my children, Eric and Lisa for their patience and understanding while I was involved in the preparation of this volume. Again, I acknowledge the efforts of all those individuals mentioned above and others I may have omitted. Nevertheless, I take full responsibility for this manuscript and any inaccuracies which it may contain. iv .T NINA ' M~-_ - 1117“ ~ 1.41"“ .. \ TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . LIST OF PLATES Chapter I. III. IV. VI. II. INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY . Ageing Stages of Biological Maturity Used in this Study. Sexing Measurements Stature DESCRIPTION OF BURIALS The Burials . Summary MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS . Cranial Measurements and Indices . Interpopulational Metric Comparisons Postcranial Measurements and Indices Non-metric Cranial Observations Non-metric Postcranial Observations . Stature Summary MORTALITY PROFILES PATHOLOGY AND ANOMALIES . Arthritis Osteophytic Lipping on Vertebral Bodies Osteoporosis . . . . . Page vii xi T33 I .uulli .fiduul.‘..rllu|lll..fl..f..n.lv.ll I.I.. Chapter Page Inflammation of Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . l40 Traumatic Lesions . . . . . . . . . . . . . l42 Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . l44 Anomalies of the Cranium . . . . . I44 Anomalies of the Postcranial AxiaI Skeleton . . . . I45 Anomalies of the Appendicular Skeleton . . . . . . l46 General Pathologies . . . . . . . . . . . I47 Ossified Thyroid Cartilages. . . . . . . . . . T47 VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . l49 The Biological Effects of Contact with Europeans . . 155 REFERENCES CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l62 APPENDICES A. Material from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Which Was Not Associated with Specific Burials . . . . I70 B. Measurements of the Crania from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) Burial Area. . . . . . . . . . . 187 C. Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I92 vi Table T(). 11. 122. 1:3. 14. LIST OF TABLES Results of the McKern and Stewart (1957) technique for estimating age from the symphyseal surface of gs pubis compared to assessments by dental attrition analysis . Age stages used in this study and their criteria Mean measurements (in mm.): male crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Mean measurements (in mm.): female crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Mean measurements (in mm.): male mandibles from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Mean measurements (in mm.): female mandibles from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Mean indices: male crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) . Mean indices: female crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) . Mean measurements (in mm.): male postcranial material from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Mean measurements (in mm.): female postcranial material from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) . . Mean indices: male postcranial material from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Mean indices: female postcranial material from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) Percentages of vascular openings on the supraorbital border from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28) . . Percentages of crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28) with sutures into the infraorbital foramen . vii Page T5 T7 83 84 85 85 86 86 97 98 99 99 TOT TOT Table T5. T6. T7. T8. 19. 230. 2T. 22L 23L £24» 255 265. 27. 28- 29- Percentages of various types of suture formations in the pterion region of the crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28) Percentages of temporal bones from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) showing dehiscences of the tympanic element Percentages of mandibles from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) with mylohyoid bridges Percentages of crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) with parietal notch bones . . . . . . . Percentages of temporal bones from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) exhibiting exostoses of the external auditory meatus . . . . . . . . Percentages of crania from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) exhibiting parietal foramina . . . . . . Percentages of humeri from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) exhibiting a septal aperture . . Percentages of first cervical vertebrae from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) with bridges on the transverse processes . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated statures of the adult males from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) Estimated statures of the adult females from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) Frequencies and percentages of individuals from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28) in each of the established age stages . . . . . Individuals from the Fletcher Site (20BY28) exhibiting osteoarthritis . . . . . . Individuals from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) exhibiting vertebral body osteophytosis . . . . . . Individuals from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) exhibiting inflammation of bone . . . . . Non-burial provenience individuals from the Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) skeletal remains viii Page T02 T03 104 T04 T05 T05 T06 108 T09 III 123 129 T32 T42 T72 Table Page 30. Summary of the postcranial non-burial provenience material from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28) . . . . . T73 31. Cranial measurements (in mm.) of non-provenience material from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) . . . . . I75 32. Mean mesiodistal crown diameters of permanent teeth from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) miscellaneous material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T77 33. Mean buccolingual crown diameters of permanent teeth from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) miscellaneous material . . . . l78 34w Mean crown modules of permanent teeth from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 :35. Frequency of caries for each class of tooth from the miscellaneous Fletcher Site (ZOBYZB) material . . . l83 136. Frequency of shovel-shaping on the central and lateral incisors from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28) miscellaneous material . . . . l85 137. Male cranial measurements (in mm.) . . . . . . . . l88 323. Female cranial measurements (in mm.) . . . . . . . T90 ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure T. Map of the Upper Saginaw River Valley, with insert map of Michigan . . . . . . . 2. Map of the Historic Cemetery . 3. T-score profile patterns of mean female cranial measurements from the Fletcher Site and the Crawford Farm Site 4. T-score profile patternscfi‘mean female cranial measure- ments from the Fletcher Site and the Lasanen Site 5. T-score profile patterns of mean female cranial measure- ments from the Fletcher Site and the Christian Island Site 6. Comparison of the estimated stature from the Fletcher Site with four other Great Lakes area sites and Modern Chippewa 7. Percentages of subadults and male and female adults in each of the seven age stages 8. Mortality profiles of three Prehistoric Illinois Indian populations (after Blakely l97l), and the Fletcher population . . . . . . . . . . . 9. The incidence of osteophytic Tipping on the bodies of the vertebrae from the Fletcher Site (208Y28) It). Mandibular crown module profiles of the Fletcher miscellaneous material, Fletcher burials, Younge Site and Juntenun Site . . . T T . Maxillary crown module profiles of the Fletcher miscellaneous material, Fletcher burials, Younge Site and Juntenun Site . . . Page 92 93 94 TT4 T2T T22 T34 TBT T82 Plate mNO’TU‘T-wa T(L 11. 12L 1:3. 141. 155. Its. 127. ‘lea. Isa. :ZC). :21 Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania Crania from from from from from from from from from from from from Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies Pathologies the the the the the the the the the the the the and and and and and and and and and LIST OF Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Fletcher Anomalies from the Fletcher Anomalies Anomalies Anomalies Anomalies Anomalies Anomalies Anomalies Anomalies PLATES Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site (208Y28 Site Site (2OBY28 Site (ZOBY28) . from from from from from from from from xi (208Y28) . (208Y28) . (ZOBY28) . (208Y28) . (208Y28) . (ZOBY28) . (ZOBY28) . (208Y28) . ) (ZOBY28) . I the Fletcher the Fletcher the Fletcher the Fletcher the Fletcher the Fletcher the Fletcher the Fletcher Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site ZOBYZB). 208Y28). 208Y28). ZOBY28). ( ( ( ( Site (208Y28). (208Y28). (208Y28). (208Y28). ( 208Y28). Page T93 T95 T97 T99 20l 203 205 207 209 2ll 213 215 2T7 2T9 22l 223 225 227 229 23T 233 Plate Page 22. Pathologies and Anomalies from the Fletcher Site (ZOBY28). 235 23. Pathologies and Anomalies from the Fletcher Site (208Y28). 237 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Fletcher site is located on the western bank of the Saginaw River in Bay City, Michigan, a little more than three miles from the river's mouth in Lake Huron's Saginaw Bay (Figure l). The excavation of the site was originally undertaken as salvage archaeblogy and not necessarily under the most ideal conditions. Since the nature of the recovery of the initial burials had a significant effect upon the preservation of and the information about a significant portion of the sample, a description of the early stages of excavation, written by Dr. Moreau Maxwell (n.d.) is here presented verbatum: During the first week of August, T967, the U.S. Corps of Engineers, preparing to dredge the channel of the Saginaw River near the northern limits of Bay City, began bulldozing a dike and catchement basin for the dredged sand on the western bank of the river on property belonging to the Fletcher Oil Company. On Sunday, August 7, a local amateur archaeologist, Mr. Victor Talaga, discovered that the bull- dozer was destroying a number of Indian burials in what appeared to be an early, unmarked cemetary. At this time it was presumed that the area would be under water by Tuesday, and Mr. Talaga hurriedly summoned members of the Saginaw Valley Chapter of the Michigan Archaeological Society to assist in salvage operations. The owners of the property, the family of Mr. Richard Fletcher, Sr. were out of town for the weekend, and as the news quickly spread, the situation rapidly grew out of control. In spite of the best efforts of the Saginaw Valley Chapter members, by late Sunday there were an estimated 500 "treasure seekers" over-running the property and grabbing everything they could find. Fortunately, by Monday, the situation had been brought under some semblance of order; the bulldozer operations had Figure l.--Map of the Upper Saginaw River Valley, with insert map of Michigan. \r \ I Ifi‘ . v 1 (Q\ J I I .f‘ ,3 . 9"? OZ I /-/I 3‘ ~. ,7 ,/ s» I .5 SAGINAW BAY ,. emcnrv \\ ’ I .t . V1,»- "A“ '. c I 4/; \_ I ’l . 1 \l Pa; 1 ”WENT“??? . . I. -' .v" FLETCNER ' .- OIL col A -' \I .. - .p SA ESSEXVILLE FLETCHER ' ;‘ SITE» 5: j . . I‘ WTTE g) 05:05 AVENUE ‘ SHIPYARD .mcmumsmu uwcopmwz mcu to amz--.m mesmwu i Luna 2. 33¢ yié .w ,. 2.2 I new. AWV @ 0N >m 0N f . >555... 255.: ,stopped, and the Council on Michigan Archaeology notified. From that point on, controlled excavations have been carried on by Michigan State University, . . . As the quote implies, the recovery of the artifacts and burials from the Fletcher site was undertaken in order to rescue them from destruc- tion by the U.S. Corps of Engineers' operations. Many of the skeletal remains from the site which had to be hastily excavated during the second week in August, T967, are in rather fragmentary condition, and poorly recorded. It should be noted, however, that the information about a number of the burials is excellent. Excavations during the remainder of the summer of T967, were carried out under the direction of Mr. Peter Murray, then a student at Michigan State University. In the T968 field season, Dr. Maxwell directed operations, while the final phase of recovery was carried out during the summer of T970, under the direction of Dr. James Brown (Maxwell, n.d.). During the three field seasons the Fletcher site burial area yielded the skeletal remains of approximately ll4 indi- viduals from 86 graves. The site includes prehistoric as well as historic components, however, all but three of the burials are from the latter period. According to Brown (personal communication), the historic material is Central Algonquian and represents a population or populations who inhabited the area perhaps at different times between T720 and T775 A.D., but definitely during the T7505 and T7605. There is artifactual evidence that the Fletcher site population was initially in contact with French fur traders but later were trading with the British fur traders who took over the region in T760 (McGaugh, l950:25). The purpose of the present study is to analyze the skeletal material from the Fletcher site with the following goals in mind: 1. Because of the general lack of data concerning the biological status of Historic Period American Indians from the Great Lakes region, a significant portion of this analysis is devoted to a description of the nature and condition of the skeletal material from each of the burials including the estimated age and sex of each individual and any unusual features that were noted. In subsequent chapters, metric and non-metric observations, mortality profiles and pathologies are discussed. 2. An attempt is made to assess the biological relationships between the Fletcher site population and several other Historic Period skeletal samples from the Western Great Lakes. Craniometric comparisons indicate that the Fletcher site population is more closely related to a Central Algonquian group from Northern Illinois than to two roughly contemporaneous sites which contain cultural material suggestive of HUron affinities. 3. An attempt is also made to assess the relationship between certain cultural changes and features of the skeletal sample. As mentioned earlier, the Fletcher site population was interacting regularly with French and English fur traders. Steward and Murphy (T956z353), maintained that an almost inevitable result of contact and trading between Europeans and Native Americans was a disintegration of the culture of the latter group: "When the people of an unstratified native society barter wild products found in extensive distribution and obtained through individual effort, the structure of the native culture will be destroyed, . . ." Quimby (T960) claims that such was the case for Central Algonquian Indians. Contact led to a breakdown of the native culture. Instead of subsisting on resources obtained directly through exploita- tion of the local environment, these populations came to rely upon trade goods such as ". . . guns, knives, hatchets, blankets, clothing, brass kettles, rum, . . ." and numerous other manufactured items as well as a portion of their food, obtained in exchange for animal furs, particularly beaver (Quimby, l960:l48). Rum, according to Quimby (1960:154) had an especially harmful effect. That this relationship with Europeans had an effect upon the social organization of Central Algonquian Indians is evident in Hicker- son's (T970) reconstruction of prehistoric and historic Chippewa. The pre-contact Chippewa, he maintains (l970:l3): . . had an equalitarian political system founded in kin relations, with each group of relatives, no matter how large or small, acting as a semi-autonomous unit maintaining ties of hospitality with similar neighboring units to whom they were invariably related through marriage. Subsequent to contact, however, this clan oriented communal organization disappeared. The requirements of fur trading necessitated the "perma- nent mobilization" of larger populations. Thus, large villages or multi-clan tribes replaced the smaller kin groups which had prevailed when hunting and fishing were the dominant modes of subsistance (Hickerson, T970:50). The narratives of Peter Pond, a fur trader and explorer during the late eighteenth century (Gates, T965), and James Tanner, a white man who was captured by and who lived for a time with Central Algonquian Indians (Tanner, T956), describe some of the other effects which contact with Europeans had upon Great Lakes area Indians. Repeated allusions are made to the rapacity and dishonesty of the traders. Both authors recount episodes of natives trading large amounts of animal furs for liquor and the subsequent drunkenness of the Indians, which often lasted for several days. These drunken states were frequently accom- panied by theft and violence. Tanner (T956 l54) describes an incident, for example, during which two men had their noses bitten off because of a seemingly insignificant misunderstanding. Tanner generally describes the Indian condition as miserable. Starvation and disease were not uncommon, nor were violence and abuse by white traders. If contact with Europeans was as disruptive as these historical accounts indicate, and the nutritional states and disease levels had been significantly altered, then it is possible that evidence of this could be found in the skeletal sample. Several lines of evidence suggest that such was the case. Mortality profiles indicate that life expectancy was short; an apparent high frequency of osteoporosis may suggest that nutritional needs were not adequately met; the shortness of the long bones may suggest that nutritional inadequacies had affected bone growth; and the prevalence of enamel hypoplasia suggests that a large portion of the population was subjected to nutritional stress or periods of serious illness. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY 592319 In considering the ages at death of specimens from a skeletal population one must deal with two major problems. First he must decide how to organize and present the material, and secondly, he must select the methods to be employed in estimating the age at death of each individual. These methods are obviously related to the state of preservation of the material in question. In the present study, we are interested in individuals' chronological ages mainly as a reflection of biological maturity. Human beings behave differently at various stages in the life cycle and are consequently more or less susceptable to particular environmental factors depending upon their developmental status. Thus, mortality profiles may serve as indicators of the effect of environmental pressures acting on a population since they reflect differential mortality at different developmental stages. Furthermore, as Johnston (l969z336) so aptly points out, "An age difference of four years is not at all uncommon between like-sexed individuals who display the same degree of skeletal maturity. It should be clear that it is impossible to determine chronological age in the immature skeleton with enough accuracy to justify its attempt." TO TT Certainly, the same can be said of mature skeletons since the criteria for age assessments are even broader. Therefore, because of the variability of rates of skeletal maturation relative to chronological age and because of the fact that I am primarily interested in age as a reflection of biological maturity, it is more useful to classify skeletal material into developmental stages than chronological ages. There are a number of stage transitions which may be correlated with fairly objective and easily recognizable changes in the skeletal structure of an individual. For example, a skeletal stage marked by the eruption of the second deciduous molar may co-relate roughly with the initiation of weaning, while the eruption of the second permanent molar occurs at about the same time as the onset of puberty. Stages of Biological Maturity Used in this Study The age categories are classified in terms of developmental stages, each of which is correlated to certain morphological changes detectable in skeletal remains. The following list includes seven age stages and the criteria employed to place the individuals from the Fletcher sample within each of them: Stage 1: Infant (early) This stage includes all those individuals whose deciduous teeth had not erupted to the occlusal surface at the time of death. The designation is optimally based upon a full set of deciduous teeth, however, the second deciduous molars are the critical diagnostic element, since they are usually the last to erupt and therefore signal the com- pletion of the deciduous eruption sequence. T2 When working with skeletal populations, it is not uncommon for one to find disarticulated or loose teeth. In these cases, however, the eruption of a tooth to the occlusal plane can usually be confirmed by the presence of wear facets on the occlusal and mesial surfaces, the latter resulting from contact with an adjacent tooth. Stage II: Infant (late) All those individuals with a completely erupted deciduous dentition, but who had not had any of their first permanent molars erupted to the occlusal level at the time of death are included in this category. Again, it is not necessary for the first permanent molars to be in_situ for a judgment to be made regarding their state of eruption. Stage 111: Child This stage includes all those individuals with at least one first permanent molar, but none of the second permanent molars erupted to the level of the occlusal plane. Stage IV: Adolescent This, the final subadult stage, includes all those specimens with one or more second permanent molars erupted to the level of the occlusal plane, but which do not meet the criteria for assessment of adult discussed below. Stage V: Adult (young)_ The customary procedure for distinguishing subadult from adult Specimens is to consider the union of the major epiphyses of the long T3 bones, and the present classification does not depart from that scheme. Any individual whose proximal and distal epiphyses are fused to the diaphyses of all the long bones available, is considered adult. Not only do these criteria correlate well with the expected biological and behavioral changes generally associated with the beginnings of adult status but they also isolate that portion of the population which can be used for interpopulational metric comparisons, since the growth of long bones ceases with the fusion of the proximal and distal ephyses. Individuals will be considered young adult until the wear on the second permanent molars has exposed the secondary dentin. This generally correlates with a degree of wear on the first permanent molar that exposes dentin not only at the apex of the cusps, where it generally occurs first, but also in a continuous line between at least two of those cusps. These wear patterns may be described according to Brothwell's (l965z69) numerical classification of molar wear as level 3 in the case of M2 and level 4 in the case of M]. Stage VI: Adult (middle) The second adult stage includes those individuals whose teeth have worn beyond the level of stage Y, but not to the level of the appearance of uninterrupted secondary dentin, which obscures the cusp pattern altogether, on at least M2 and M]. Uninterrupted secondary dentin corresponds to Brothwell's level 5. Stage VII: Adult (late) The final adult stage includes all those individuals whose first and second molars are worn to the level of the appearance of dentin that T4 is continuous within the perimeter of the occlusal surface of the tooth and which obscures the cusp pattern. Also included in this stage are those individuals who display other signs of advanced age such as non- trauma related edentia, or marked degenerative changes elsewhere on the skeleton. The first three stages, then, are defined by the eruption of deciduous and permanent dentition, the fourth by the union of long bones epiphyses, and the final three by dental attrition. The use of dental attrition for the assessment of the skeletal age of adults has been criticized (Stewart, T962; Vallois, T960; and Blakely, l97l), mainly because of interpopulational and intrapopulational variations in rates, and Bass (l97lz239) and Genoves (1963:444) caution that tooth wear should be used for age estimations only in instances where some indications of the cultural conditions exist and when alternative ageing criteria are not available. In addition to dental attrition several other techniques were considered for assessing the ages at death of individuals from the Fletcher site. The McKern and Stewart (T957:7lff.) method for evaluat- ing age changes on the symphyseal surface of the pubic bone, which is generally accepted as the best method for ageing adult males (Bass, l97l:l55; Krogman, l962:ll0) was tested, but found to be applicable to no more than five individuals in the population. The results of those assessments are included for comparison with the stages derived by the analysis of dental attrition (Table l). The symphyseal age of the individual from burial 4 which had been placed in Stage V, was 23-28 l5 TABLE l.--Results of the McKern and Stewart (T957) technique for estimating age from the symphyseal surface of gs pubis compared to assessments by dental attrition analysis. Burial Symphyseal Symphyseal Attrition Number Component Age 'Stage 4 l0 23-28 yrs. V 64 T3 23-39 yrs. VI 68 l5 36+ yrs. VI 8T l4 29+ yrs. VI l05 T5 36+ yrs. VII years; while the individuals from burials 64, 68, and BT which all had been assigned to the sixth age stage had estimated symphyseal ages of 23-39, 36+, and 29+ years, respectively; and the specimen from burial l05 had been placed in Stage VII and had an estimated symphyseal age of 36+ years. Other macroscopic techniques, including the examination of suture obliteration, changes in the internal structure of long bones (Schranz, T959), and general degenerative changes are no more accurate than dental attrition for assessing the age of adults and in the case of Schranz' technique, more difficult to use. The Fletcher site is located in the Saginaw River Basin and since the last glaciation has periodically been under water (Brewster, n.d.). As a result, the region is quite sandy from the surface to well below the excavated area. Given the level of technology of the popula- tion represented at the site it is unlikely that great care was taken l6 nor that the facilities were available for the efficient protection of their food from the various elements in the environment, including sand. Consequently, most of the food eaten by the inhabitants of the region was probably very gritty. Since the amount of accidental abrasives in food is one of the principal factors dictating the degree of dental attrition in human populations (Brothwell, l965:67) the teeth of the individuals at the Fletcher site undoubtedly wore relatively quickly. Tordoff (n.d.:49) reached the same conclusion in her analysis of the dentition. Therefore, since as mentioned above, there are no alternative criteria available for the assessment of age for the site which are demonstrably more efficient than the analysis of tooth wear, and since we do have some idea of the environment and cultural conditions of the population represented (i.e., a very sandy region and a technological level that does not indicate particularly efficient protection from this sand), ageing the individuals by dental attrition becomes a reasonable choice as a method. It should be re-emphysized that I am not attempting to establish a precise correlation between dental attrition and chronological age. The seven age stages are summarized in Table 2. In order to facilitate comparisons with reports that present data in the framework of chronological ages, estimates of these, derived from Schour and Massler (T944), for dental eruption and from Krogman (T962), for the union of epiphyses are provided for the subadults; as is an adaptation Of Brothwell's (T963) scheme for dental attrition for adults. TABLE 2.--Age stages used in this study and their criteria. T7 . . Chronological Stage Cr1ter1a Age Estimate I to the eruption of the deciduous dentition to 2 years to the occlusal plane :_6 months 11 from Stage I to the eruption of the first to 6 years permanent molars to the occlusal plane :_9 months 111 from Stage II to the eruption of the second to l2 years permanent molars to the occlusal plane :_6 months IV from Stage III to the union of the major to 18-20 long bone epiphyses years V from Stage IV to the exposure of dentin on young adult the cusps of the second permanent molars (to 30 yrs?) VI from Stage V to the exposure of uninterrupted middle adult dentin on the occlusal surface of the second (to 40 yrs?) permanent molars ~ VII beyond Stage VI, or demonstrating other signs old adult of advanced age (40+ yrs?) seven age stages whenever possible. Each of the individuals from the site was placed into one of the In those few instances where the evidence was not adequate for such an assignment, the specimens were classified only as adult or subadult. Sexing Since the observable secondary sex characteristics necessary for accurate sexing of skeletal remains do not appear until late adolescence, only adults and several of the Tate subadults were sexed. The innominates were used whenever possible, specifically, the subpubic concavity, the ventral arc of the pubic, and the conformity of the ischio-pubic ramus T8 (Phenice, T969a) and the sciatic notch, the subpubic angle and the pre- auricular sulcus (Hrdlicka, T952). In cases where the innominates were too fragmentary for sex determination, various features of the cranium, as described by Hrdlicka (T952), were used. If neither the hip bones nor the cranium were complete enough for a reliable assessment, the sex of an individual may have been estimated on the basis of the size and robusticity of the long bones or if this was ambiguous, sex was not assessed at all. Because no sectioning points were established for the Fletcher population for the determination of sex by discriminant function analysis, the Giles and Elliot (T963) formulae were not used. According to Birkby (T966:2T), the use of such an analysis on a population other than that from which the functions were derived may be even less accurate than visual inspection alone. Measurements Twenty—nine cranial and twenty-five postcranial measurements were recorded for the Fletcher material using the following instruments: a sliding caliper, a spreading caliper, a coordinate caliper, an osteometric board and a Western Reserve Head Spanner. The list that follows contains each measurement, the abbreviation used for that measurement elsewhere in the study and the sources for the procedure: Measurement (Cranial) Maximum length Maximum breadth Basion-bregma Endobasion-nasion Endobasion-alveolar point Endobasion-gnathion Porion-bregma Minimum frontal breadth Bizygomatic diameter Nasion-alveolar point Nasion-gnathion External alveolar length External alveolar breadth Nasal height Nasal breadth Left orbital height Left orbital breadth T9 Abbreviation L E-N E-A E-G P-B MFB BZ N-A N-G AL AB NH NB 0H 08 Procedure Martin-Saller (T957:453, N0. Martin-Saller (1957:455, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:459, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:455, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:474, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:474, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:46T, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:457, No. Martin-Saller (T957:476, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:476, N0. Martin-Saller (T957:476, N0. Martin-Saller (19572480, No. Martin—Saller (T957:480, N0. Hrdlicka (T952zl46, No. Hrdlicka (T952zl46, No. Martin-Saller (T957:478, No. Martin-Saller (1957:477, N0. 40) 42) 20) 45) 48) 47) 60) 6T) T8) l9) 52) ST) 20 Measurement (Cranial)_ Abbreviation Procedure Biorbital breadth BOB Martin-Saller (T957:475, No. 44) Basion-porion B-P Bass (l97l:66, No. 5) Auricular height AH Martin-Saller (T957:462, No. 2T) Porion-nasion P-N Bass (T964z80) POrion-subnasale P-S Bass (T964280) Porion-prosthion P-P Bass (l964z80) Porion-gnathion P-G Bass (l964:80) Symphysis height SH Martin-Saller (T957:48T, N0. 69) Bigonial diameter BGD Martin-Saller (T957:48l, No. 66) Bicondylar diameter BCD Martin-Saller (T957:48l, No. 65) Ascending ramus height ARH Bass (l97l:72, No. 2T) Corpal length CL (gonion to pogonion) Measurement (Postcranial) Humerus: Maximum length Max. Lgt. Hum. Hrdlicka (l952:l68) Maximum diameter at Max. Diam. M.S. Hrdlicka midshaft Hum. (l952:l86) Minimum diameter at Min. Diam. M.S. Hrdlicka midshaft Hum (l952:l68) Maximum diameter of head Max. Diam. Hd. Montagu Hum. (1960:620, No. 2) Measurement (Postcranial) Clavicle: Maximum length Femur: Maximum length Physiological length Anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Transverse diameter at midshaft Transverse subtrochanteric diameter Anterior-posterior subtrochanteric diameter Maximum diameter of head Tibia: Maximum length Physiological length Anterior-posterior diameter at nutrient foramen Transverse diameter at nutrient foramen Radius: Maximun length 2T Abbreviation Max. Lgt. Clv. Max. Lgt. Fem. Phys. Lgt. Fem. A-P.M.S. Fem. Trans. M.S. Fem. Trans. S.T. Fem. A-P. S.T. Fem. Max. Diam. Hd. Fem. Max. Lgt. Tib. Phys. Lgt. Tib. A-P. N.F. Tib. Trans. N.F. Tib. Max. Lgt. Rad. Procedure Hrdlicka (l952:l7l) Hrdlicka (l952:l69) Hrdlicka (l952:l69, . . bicondylar length) Hrdlicka (l952:l69) Hrdlicka (l952:l69) Montagu (l960:622, No. l7) Montagu (l960:622, No. T6) Montagu (l960:622, No. l5) Hrdlicka (l952:l70) Hrdlicka (l952:l70, bicondylar length) Bass (l97l:l87) Bass (l97l:l87) Hrdlicka (l952:l69) Measurement (Postcranial) Ulna: Maximum length Scapula: Height Breadth Innominate: Height Breadth Sacrum: Length Breadth Fibula: Maximum length 22 Abbreviation Max. Lgt. Uln. Hgt. Scap. Br. Scap. Hgt. Innom. Br. Innom. Lgt. Sac. Br. Sac. Max. Lgt. Procedure Hrdlicka (l952:l69) Hrdlicka (l952:l70) Hrdlicka (l952:l7l) Hrdlicka (l952:l72) Hrdlicka (l952:l72) Hrdlicka (T952, T72, sacral height) Hrdlicka (l952:l72) Hrdlicka (l952:l70) 23 Thirteen cranial indices were calculated using the above cranial measurements. They are as follows: Index Abbreviation MEEDQQ, . . Max. Br. x T00 Cran1al 1ndex C.1- Max. Lgt. Cranial module C.M. Max.Lgt.+Max.gr.+Bas.-Breg. Bas.-Breg. x T00 Mean height index Mn. Hgt. T. Max.Lgt,-+Max.Br. 2 . . Bas.-Breg. x l00 Length he1ght 1ndex Lgt. Hgt. 1- Max. Lgt. . . Bas.-Breg. x l00 Breadth height 1ndex Br. Hgt. I~ Max. Br. Po.-Breg. x l00 Porion-mean height Po.-Mn. Hgt. I. Max.Lgt.-+Max.Br. index 2 . . Min.Fr.Br. x TOO Fronto-parietal 1ndex Fr.—Par. 1. Max. Br. . Nas.-ATv.Pt. x T00 Upper face 1ncex Up. Fac. I. Bizyg. . Nas.—Gnath. x TOO Total face 1ndex Tot. Fac. I. Bizyg. . Nas. Br. x l00 Nasal 1ndex Nas. 1. Nas. Hgt. . . Orb. Hgt. x l00 0rb1tal 1ndex Orb. I. Orb. Br. . Ext. Alv. Br. x l00 Palatal 1ndex Pal. 1. Ext. Alv. Lgt. Flatness cranial Cra. Ba. 1. Ba.-Po. X ‘00 'base index ' Bas.-Breg. 24 Nine indices were calculated using the above postcranial measurements. They are as follows: Ingex Abbreviation Methgg Humero-femoral index Hum.-Fem. I. Max Mtg? L22? FngOO Claviculo-humeral index CTav.-Hum. I. Max.M: I LSIIVHu;,]OO ””5”“: We" P“: 1- Aifgif'lféi'rédo" I. Tibio-femoral index Tib -Fem. I. MaXMaigtLgEIbFe$,]OO “em“ ”‘19" “em“ I- ”a”SI-I:I:FT‘I.=b’f ‘00 Humero-radial index Hum.-Rad. I. maxMaigtLgEIdHu;,IOO Scapula index Scap. I. BrigiBagéa;.IOO Innominate index Innom. 1. Br HgIVOTnnémIOO Stature The stature estimates are based upon the methods and data providedtw Genoves (T966). His information, derived from Mesoamerican cadavers, is perhaps more applicable to American Indians than that taken from Caucasion or Negro specimens. In the present study, each complete and undeformed long bone was matched with a stature estimate for either males or females on Genoves' table T2 or T3. A maximum and 25 minimum value was recorded for each individual from which more than a single bone was used and these ranges are provided in both centimeters and feet and inches on Table 23 (males) and Table 24 (females). The metric figures are rounded off to the nearest T/2 centimeter and the feet and inches to the nearest inch. CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF BURIALS Ninety-six individuals were disinterred from the eighty-six burials at the Fletcher site (see Figure 2). Ninety-three of these (96.9%) are from the Historic period while three are Late Woodland (burials 75, 85 and 96). Due to the nature of the field records of the initial excavations, it is difficult to make general statements about burial practices for the entire sample, however, certain general- ities are indicated by those burials for which adequate records are available. Nearly all of the Historic specimens recorded were fully extended, however, seven individuals had their legs flexed to varying degrees. One of the prehistoric burials was flexed with the knees at the level of the chest, the right hand at the face and the left arm only partially flexed with the hand on the left leg. The individual was placed on its right side. The Historic specimens were consistantly interred in wooden plank lined graves that were oval in shape. The burials contained grave goods which often included European trade items, but also seed beads and occasional non-human bones. Much of the human skeletal material was stained green, presumably the result of association with braSs artifacts. Vermillion was also associated with a number of burials and accounts for the red stain present on many of the specimens. 26 27 One particularly interesting aspect of the Historic burials is their orientation (see Figure 2). All the burials were aligned in a generally east-west direction with the head to the west. Dr. Maxwell (n.d.) has proposed that the position of these interments may be related to the sun, since although the burials are not parallel to each other, "few if any were facing more than thirty degrees north or south of True East." The individuals, he maintains, were placed in the ground facing the rising sun and the variation in alignment is due to the variation of the position of the sun at different times during the year. The depths of the "coffins" also varied, from less than two feet to more than three and a half feet deep. Maxwell (n.d.) has demon- strated that a positive correlation exists between the depth of the "coffin" and the age of the individual, and suggests that this depth may also be related to his status. The skeletal specimens from the Fletcher site are generally in good condition, however, many of the calvaria are broken and several of the individuals are represented by a few fragments only. Variations in preservation are probably due to differences of soil and water condi- tions at various areas within the site, but, I am aware of no analyses such as soil sample studies from the various areas within the site which might shed some light on that question. The Burials The following discussion of the skeletal material from the Fletcher burial area (Figure 2) includes a description of the condition of each of the ninety-eight individuals recovered, their assessed age 28 and sex, and any anomalies or pathologies which were noted. In order to be consistant with the archaeological reports, the individuals are designated by the burial numbers which had been established in the field. Specimens recovered from multiple interments are designated by letters A, B, C, D, . . . following the burial number. Burial l (A) Age: 11 (late infant) Sex: indeterminable Burial T (B) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable These two individuals were found aggregated in the laboratory and probably represent a multiple interment. Fragmentary cranial material was assignable to one or another of the individuals and a right tibia and fibula and right and left femora and humeri were assigned to B. A number of postcranial bones were assignable to either of the specimens. Burial 2 (A) Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: presumably female Burial 2 (B) Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: presumably female Burial 2 was probably also multiple. Portions of adult hip bones and two crania, one fragmentary and one virtually complete 29 (Plate l), all suggest that both the individuals were females. 0f the postcranial material, a fairly complete vertebral column was assigned to the fragmentary skull, individual A, while fragments of seven certical vertebrae probably belonged to B. Two sets of long bones, one slightly larger than the other, could be matched to neither of the axial skeletons. Additional unassignable material included two left and two right fragmentary hip bones and scapulae, one right and two left clavicles, a manubrium fragment, portions of several ribs, fairly complete sets of foot bones and five carpels, eight metacarpels and eight hand phalanges, possibly all from the same individual. One set of right foot bones were stained greenish-black. Burial 4 Age: V (young adult) Sex: male This robust specimen is in an excellent state of preservation (Plate l) and is complete except for several foot and hand phalanges. The manubrium, sternum, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and the iliac fossa of the left ilium are all stained red. A fragment of the distal epiphysis of a right ulna and the distal one-half of a metatarsal from a second individual are present in the same burial box, but since they are weathered considerably more than the above skeleton, they were judged not to be a part of burial 4. Burial 7 Age: V (young adult) Sex: male 30 The temporals from this specimen are disarticulated and the base of the calvarium is fragmentary, but the rest of the cranium, including the mandible is complete (Plate 2). Postcranially, only the right and left patellae, the right fibula, left ulna, three lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum, several ribs, the hands and many of the foot bones are missing. A red stain was noted on the proximal diaphysis of the right femur, the right radius and right ilium and the right and left tibiae and humeri. Moderate osteophytic lipping is present on several of the cervical and thoracic vertebral bodies. A metacarpel and right scapula from another individual are associated with this burial, but like the extra material from burial 4, are in a much poorer state of preservation than the more complete specimen. Burial l0 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male Although the cranium of this specimen is fragmentary, the post- cranial skeleton is complete except for some rib shaft fragments, the right patella, and many of the bones of the hands and feet. The left central incisor and the molar had been lost ante mortem and their alveoli are resorbed. Fragments of an ossified thyroid cartilage are also present as is the ossified xyphoid portion of the sternum. The coccyx is fused to the sacrum (Plate T7). The acromial epiphysis of the left scapula is unfused. OsteOphytic Tipping is moderate around the distal articular surface of the left femur, the heads of both humeri, around the left and right acetabular rims and on the bodies of 3T some of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, and marked on several of the thoracic vertebrae. Some additional exostosis is present in the region of the sterno-clavicular joint. Burial ll Age: adult Sex: female Neither a calvarium nor a mandible were present in these remains. The first two cervical, twelve thoracic and four lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum are present although somewhat fragmentary. All the long bones and the patellae were examined, as well as the right and left hip bones and scapulae, fragments of twelve right and seven left ribs and numerous rib shaft fragments. The feet are virtually complete except for the phalanges while the hands are represented by three left carpels, five left and two right metacarpels and seven phalanges. The distal aspect of the right femur is rotated about 45° antero- medially, and all of the lower limb bones are osteoporotic. There is a foramen of the right iliac fossa and moderate and marked osteophytic lipping on the thoracic and lumbar vertebral bodies respectively. Burial l2 Age: adult Sex: female This individual is poorly represented. Neither the calvarium nor the mandible is present, and most of the bones examined are frag- mentary. Complete right and left femora and tibiae were observed as 32 were portions of the left humerus, the right and left hip bones, and the sacrum. Only four cervical (including the atlas and axis), three thoracic and the body of one lumbar vertebra are present along with four small rib fragments, one left and three right tarsals, four meta- tarsals, a phalanx and a left clavicle. No pathologies were observed. Burial l3 Age: V (young adult) Sex: female The calvarium and mandible of this specimen are fragmentary and part of the vault is missing. Fragments of six cervical, six thoracic and two lumbar vertebrae are present, as are all the long bones, although only the femora and left tibia are complete. The right and left innominates, clavicles and scapulae, the sternum and manubrium, and several ribs are present but fragmentary. The hands are represented by a single phalanx. The diaphysis of the right ulna, and the sternum are stained green. No pathologies were observed. Burial l4 (A) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Burial l4 (B) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Burial l4 (C) Age: adult Sex: indeterminable 33 The three individuals in Burial T4 are in a very poor state of preservation. The subadults are represented by a fragmentary mandible, protions of the right and left greater wings of the sphenoid, a right lateral portion of the occipital and two small vault fragments. The adult material included a fragment of the diaphysis of the right tibia, a metacarpel and a metatarsal. No pathologies were noted. Burial l5 Age: V (young adult) Sex: female The vault of this individual is partially broken and the right ascending ramus of the mandible is eroded, but the cranium is otherwise complete (Plate 2). Portions of the atlas and axis, the third through the seventh cervical, parts of four thoracic, and three lumbar vertebrae were examined. The right and left tibiae and femora are complete while the remainder of the long bones are fragmentary, as are the right and left hip bones, the right scapula and the left clavicle. Two left and two right ribs, four left and two right tarsals, two metatarsals, four right carpels, two metacarpels and nine phalanges are also present. The spinous processes of the caudal five cervical vertebrae are stained green. No pathologies were noted. Burial l8 (A) Age: V (young adult) Sex: male Burial l8 (B) Age: VII (old adult) Sex: male 34 The individuals from this multiple burial are poorly repre- sented. A frontal, maxilla, sphenoid fragment, mandible and right and left temporals were assignable to individual A, and a frontal, right maxilla and zygomatic, a basi-occipital, a mandible and petrous portions of the right and left temporals probably belong to B, while right and left parietals and two occipital squama could not be matched to either. Similarly, a right and left femur, one right and two left tibiae, a right fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, scapula and a left hip bone fragment and portions of five right ribs could have belonged to either A or B. One thoracic and six cervical vertebrae, all with marked osteophytic lipping on the bodies, most likely belong to B, while five cervical, twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae with no lipping probably represent the younger individual. Six tarsals from a right foot, six metatarsals, four phalanges (foot), and a greater multangular and navicular from a hand were also noted. The right temporal and right ascending ramus of the mandible of individual A are stained green. Burial 2T Age: 111 (child) Sex: indeterminable This individual is poorly represented. Only a fragmentary calvarium, a mandible, seven cervical and twelve thoracic vertebrae, a manubrium, a right clavical and scapula, the distal end of a left tibia and numerous rib fragments are present. No pathologies or anomalies were observed. 35 Burial 22 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male Individual 22 appears to be fairly complete. The vault is fragmentary and the frontal and maxilla are disarticulated but only the left tibia and fibula, the right innominate, three thoracic vertebrae, seven ribs, part of the sacrum, phalanges from the feet and most of the carpels, metacarpels and phalanges from the hand are missing. The acromial epiphysis of the left scapula remains unfused (Plate 2T). There is arthritic destruction and eburnation on the articular surfaces of the left inferior articular processes of the third lumbar and the left superior articular process of the fourth lumbar vertebrae. The lumbar vertebrae also display slight osteo- phytic lipping on the bodies. Burial 26 (A) Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male Burial 26 (8) Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female Burial 26 (C) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable 36 Burial 26 (0) Age: adult Sex: indeterminable Burial 26 (E) Age: subadult Sex: indeterminable A minimum of five individuals are represented in burial 26, three adults and two subadults. Individual A, an adult male is repre- sented by a fragmentary calvarium and broken mandible. A green stain on the right mastoid process is similar to stains on a right scapula, right and left clavicles and right and left humeri, and strongly suggests that these bones all belong to the same individual. Additional adult material, which appears to be male and probably belongs to A includes right and left femora, a right tibia, right and left hip bones, twelve thoracic and four lumbar vertebrae and a fragmentary sacrum. The female, individual B, has a fragmentary and incomplete calvarium and mandible, and is probably represented by the following postcranial bones, all of which are unusually gracile: right and left femora, and tibiae; a left fibula. humerus and ulna; a right innominate; eight thoracic vertebral bodies; nine thoracic vertebral arches; portions of four lumbar neural arches; a sacrum; a sternum; portions of seven ribs; right and left feet which are virtually complete except for the right calcaneous, two metatarsals and most of the phalanges; a fairly complete left hand; and two carpels and possibly some phalanges from a right hand. 37 There are a number of adult bones which may belong to either individual A or B or the third adult, individual 0. Evidence for the third adult includes the presence of three right femora and scapulae and three mandibles. The unassignable bones include vault, rib and innominate fragments, right and left scapulae and clavicles, one left and two right ulnae, two right radii, foot and hand bones (many frag- mentary) and several long bone fragments. Individual C is represented by a fragmentary cranium, rib frag- ments, portions of six vertebral arches and six vertebral bodies and right and left ilia and ischia. Additional right and left temporal bones indicate the presence of a fifth individual, E, a subadult. The adult female, B, in addition to possessing osteoporotic and extremely gracile long bones, exhibits marked scoliosis of the spine in the thoracic region (Plate l8). Each of nine arches curves to the left (when viewed from behind) and the left sides of the corresponding vertebral bodies are collapsed. One of the right ulnae has a healed fracture on the distal aspect of the diaphysis. Since neither of the right radii show signs of trauma, this may be an example of a parry fracture, which often results from being hit on the ulnae when one is attempting to protect oneself from a blow to the head (Wells, l964:54). Burial 34 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: indeterminable This subadult is in a poor state of preservation. The vault is markedly distorted, the mandible is missing and the rest of the cranium 38 is fragmentary. Postcranially, only a fragmentary diaphysis of the right femur and left tibia, two additional long bone fragments, several epiphyses, a rib fragment and a right talus and calcaneous were present. Burial 35 (A) Age: V (young adult) Sex: male Burial 35 (B) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Burial 35 (C) Age: 1 (early infant) Sex: indeterminable The adult male and two infants from this burial are also in poor condition. Individual A is represented by distorted calvarium and mandible fragments, diaphyses of the right and left tibiae, a portionof the shafts of the right femur and fibula and left humerus, several tarsal fragments, and three certival vertebrae, including the atlas and axis. The two infants were identified by examination of mandibular corpora and dentition. Several additional cranial fragments including a right temporal and two vault fragments which were stained green and red and a portion of a maxillary alveolus were identified but could not be assigned to either individual B or C specifically. 39 The right inferior articular surface of one of the cervical vertebrae (number 3, 4, 5'or 6) from the adult, exhibited osteo- arthritic destruction and some lipping. Burial 36 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable This individual, probably less than six months old, is in an excellent state of preservation. The following bones were recovered: right and left frontalis right and left temporals, including a disarticulated tympanic ring presphenoid and postsphenoid parts of the body and right and left greater wings of the sphenoid vomer nasal conchae right and left palatines right and left zygomatics right and left maxillae right and left mandibular corpora and rami an incus and a malleus right and left lateral, basilar and fragments of the squamosal occipital parietal fragments all the deciduous teeth except the maxillary canines and second molars right and left scapulae right and left clavicles right and left first ribs 40 5 additional rib fragments 7 left neural arch portions of vertebrae 7 right neural arch portions l3 vertebral bodies left and right humerus diaphyses left radius diaphysis 3 additional long bone fragments several epiphyses and additional small bone fragments. No pathologies or anomalies were observed. Burial 38 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable This infant, poorly preserved, is represented cranially by several vault fragments, the squamous portion of the occipital, the right ascending ramus of the mandible and a fragment of the left maxilla. A right clavicle, an atlas, a centrum and six neural arch fragments of vertebrae, diaphyses of right and left humeri and a right radius are also present. Burial 39 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Individual 39, a neonate, is represented by the petrous portion of a right temporal, a left mandibular corpus, eight neural arch fragments, possibly a maxillary fragment and a piece of a first deciduous molar only. 41 Burial 40 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: female The remains of this individual are in fair condition and include a fragmentary calvarium and a complete mandible. All the long bones are present, as are the innominates, the clavicles, the scapulae and the right patella. Only three thoracic, one lumbar and three sacral vertebrae are missing completely, but some of those present are frag- mentary. Neither the sternum nor the manubrium were recovered nor were many of the foot phalanges and most of the bones of the hand. Portions of four left, nine right and five unsideable ribs are present. The bones of the left forearm are both stained green. The right and left transverse foramina of the second cervical vertebrae are patent (Plate TS). Burial 4T Age: III (child) Sex: indeterminable Only a few fragments of this subadult were recovered, including right and left disarticulated maxillae, a central portion of the body of the mandible, pieces of the left parietal bone and the occipital squama, and a right first metacarpel. No unusual features or pathologies were noted. Burial 42 Age: V (early adult) Sex: female 42 In fair condition, these remains include a fragmentary neuro- cranium and face and a mandible with the alveoli largely eroded post- mortem. The diaphyses of the right and left femora, tibiae, and fibulae and fragments of the left radius and ulna were identified, as well as the left hip bone, portions of the right and left scapulae and clavicles and three right and six left ribs. Seven cervical, three thoracic and neural arch fragments of four lumbar vertebrea and the right and left feet, complete except for many phalanges were also recovered. The right posterior side of the vault, many of the ribs and the thoracic vertebrae are stained green. Burial 43 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: female The calvarium and mandible from this individual are complete except for a small portion of the vault (Plate 3). All the long bones with the exception of the right radius are present, at least partially, as are the clavicles, the scapulae, the hip bones and patellae. All seven cervical, fragments of nine thoracic, two lumbar, and two sacral vertebrae were also recovered, along with numerous rib fragments. Although no hand bones were identified, both of the feet were nearly complete. The individual, in a fair state of preservation, was discovered enclothed in the remains of a French trade coat. The right gonial region of the mandible was stained green and red as were many of the postcranial bones, several of which also had pieces of fabric adhering 43 to them. A clump of hair was attached to several of the cervical vertebrae. Several pathologies were observed. The left jugular foramen is partially occluded; the long bones are very fragile with thin cortices indicating moderate osteoporosis; and the second cervical vertebra is fused to the third, probably a congenital condition (Plate T6). Burial 44 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: presumably male The sex of this individual is difficult to assess, because the skull is gracile, but the hip bones indicate the individual was a male. Since the bones of the pelvis are generally considered more reliable than the skull as a sex marker, especially in the subadult (Krogman. l962:l22), this individual is provisionally estimated to be male. In an excellent state of preservation and recovery, these remains are virtually complete except for the sternum, several ribs, a cervical vertebra, some of the smaller bones of the hands and feet and a number of epiphyses (Plate 3). Mild chronic osteitis is present on the proximal diaphyses of the right and left femora. Burial 45 Age: V (young adult) Sex: female Although the cranium of this individual is fragmentary and much of the face is missing, the postcranial bones are in excellent condition and well represented. All the long bones except for the lower legs are 44 present, as well as all the ribs; all the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae; both of the hip bones; the pectoral girdle, and the sternum. The right and left hand bones, except for several phalanges are virtually complete. There were no foot bones present. The distal aspect of the right and left radii and the iliac fossa and crest of the right innominate are stained green. Several fragments of an ossified thyroid cartilage were also noted. Burial 46 Age: VII (late adult) Sex: female Despite a fairly complete calvarium and mandible (Plate 4), the ramains are in relatively poor condition mainly due to weathering. Many of the bones are severely eroded. Except for the right fibula, at least fragments of all the long bones are present along with the innominates, the clavicles and the scapulae. Fragments of the first four cervical, all twelve thoracic, all five lumbar and two sacral vertebrae, several ribs, all the tarsals and metatarsals and most of the foot phalanges are present as well as several hand bones. Phalanges from both the right and left hands are colored greenish-black and covered with some kind of matter that appears to be organic, perhaps flesh. Close to the vertex of the skull exists a sizeable hole, about 4 cm. in diameter, which exhibits some remodeling on its anterior border (Plate T3). The presence of scratches near the edge of the hole which appear to be the result of rodent activity, as well as the presence of non-remodeled bone around much of the border suggest that 45 the opening might have been enlarged after death, but the remodeled bone on the anterior aspect indicates that at least a small hole was present some time before the individual died. Possibly this enlarge- ment was due to rodents attracted to the soft organic material which was exposed through the original hole. No marks that could be interpreted conclusively as the result of cultural practices were observed nor was there evidence of an infection on the skull or any- where else on the skeleton. Burial 48 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female The left side of the vault and the base of the skull of this female are fragmentary and somewhat eroded, while the mandible is com- plete and intact (Plate 4). Except for the right and left fibulae and the right radius, the long bones are all present and complete. The right and left hip bones, clavicles and scapulae, the sternum, patella, and numerous ribs are fragmentary. Seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar and three sacral vertebrae were also noted, as well as a fairly complete set of foot and hand bones. The most noticeable pathology on this individual is the fusion of the atlas vertebra to the base of the skull. Both the left and right superior articular processes of the vertebra appear to be com- pletely fused to the occipital condyles. Also, the right transverse process of the atlas is connected to the occipital by a honey column (Plate l3). 46 The caudal five cervical and the thoracic vertebrae exhibit moderate osteOphytic lipping around their bodies. Osteoarthritis and attendant eburnation were observed on the articular surface of the right inferior articular process of the second thoracic vertebra and on the right superior articular process of the third thoracic vertebra. The necks of the right and left femora are compressed and the heads slightly mushroomed. Accompanying this are shallow acetabula on both hip bones, however, no displasia was evident. The cortical bone of both of the femora and tibiae is thin and indicates osteoporosis. Burial 49 Age: VII (Tate adult) Sex: male Most of this old male's bones were recovered and the material is in fair condition. The calvarium is fragmentary and was distorted postmortem, while the mandible is complete and intact (Plate 5). All the mandibular teeth posterior to the first premolars and all the maxillary teeth are missing and their alveoli are resorbed. Post- cranially, all of the long bones except the left fibula are at least partially represented, as are the hip bones, the patellae, the bones of the pectoral girdle and the sternum, eleven right and eleven left ribs and seven cervical, twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum. The bones of the left hand and the right and left feet are virtually complete, while the right hand is represented by a few metacarpels and phalanges only. Multiple pathologies were observed on this individual. The long bones all exhibit varying degrees of osteoporosis. Osteophytic 47 lipping is present around many of the articular surfaces and is expecially marked at the knee joint, including the patellae, and on the bodies of many of the vertebrae some of which are collapsed. Arthritic lipping is severe around the heads of both of the femora, the necks are compressed and both the proximal and distal articular surfaces exhibit osteoarthritic destruction and severe eburnation (Plate 2T). Similarly, severe eburnation was noticed on the medial and lateral condyles of the right and left tibiae and the surfaces of the acetabula. Eburnation is also present on the articular facet of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra and on the opposing facet on the anterior arch of the atlas vertebra; on several of the superior and inferior articular facets of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae; and on the articular surfaces of several carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. The articular surfaces of the right distal humerus and proximal radius and ulna have been markedly distorted by osteoarthritis, to the degree that movement at that joint must have been severely limited, if it was possible at all (Plate 20). Examination of the articular surfaces of the right knee joint indicates that full extension of the right tibia was probably impossible. As mentioned above, the bodies of several of the vertebrae had collapsed and they all exhibit osteophytic lipping. Also, ankylosis was observed between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae (Plate l6), and between the fifth lumbar vertebra and the sacrum, although the latter pair had broken apart since death. Also present for this individual is an ossified xyphoid tip fused to the sternum, several ossified costal cartilages, and fragments of an ossified thyroid cartilage. 48 Burial 50 (A) Age: 11 (late infant) Sex: indeterminable Burian 50 (B) Age: 111 (child) Sex: indeterminable Burial 50 (C) Age: 1 (early infant) Sex: indeterminable The material from this burial had been placed into a number of small boxes, four of which were labeled North Individual, two of which were labeled South Individual and another labeled Infant. "Burial 50(A)" corresponds to the North Individual, "50 (B)" to the South Individual and "50 (C)" to the Infant. 50 (A) is represented by a number of cranial bones and fragments of long bones, ribs, vertebrae, and a few carpals. Similarly, cranial bones, fragmentary long bones, ribs, carpals and vertebrae were identi- fied for individual 50 (B). The infant box contained several deciduous teeth, two vertebral bodies and several neural arches, clavicle frag- ments, and a sternum segment. None of the individuals showed any anomalies or pathologies. Burial 53 (A) Age: 11 (late infant) Sex: indeterminable Burial 53 (B) Age: adult Sex: female 49 Both of these individuals are in poor condition. The child is represented by fragmentary cranial bones and pieces of two ribs only and the adult by a right radius and ulna and portions of both hands, hip bone fragments, a sacral ala, and the bones of the lower leg. No pathologies or anomalies were noted. Burial 54 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female The remains of this female are fairly complete, though quite fragmentary. The base of the cranium is crushed and some postmortem antero-posterior compression of the vault has taken place. The right articular process of the mandible is missing as well as the lower Icentral incisors and the posterior teeth from the left side. The alveoli for all these teeth are resorbed. Postcranially, fragments of all the long bones, except the left ulna and radius, were identified along with a patella, the hip bones, and the bones of the pectoral girdle. The left and right foot skeletons are nearly complete, while the hand bones are rather poorly preserved. The vertebral column of this individual is problematic. While all seven cervical vertebrae are present, there are only eleven thoracic vertebrae but six lumbar vertebrae. The designation between the latter two types is based upon the presence of articular facets for ribs on the bodies and many of the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae and their absence from the lumbar vertebrae, as well as the orientation of the superior and inferior articular processes. Unfortunately, no rib fragments were identified, but 50 presumably the individual had only eleven ribs on either side. The sacrum is quite fragmentary. Slight osteophytic lipping was observed on the bodies of the fourth through the seventh cervical and on some of the thoracic vertebrae. Lipping is also present on the odontoid process of the axis vertebra and some eburnation is evident on the articular facet. Eburnation was also identified on the articular facet on the anterior arch of the atlas vertebra. An unhealed fracture was noted on the lateral one-fourth of the left clavicle, which apparently developed a pseudarthrosis. Burial 56 Age: V (young adult) Sex: female These remains are in excellent condition. Both the cranium and mandible are complete (Plate 5). All the long bones, the hip bones, the clavicles, the scapulae, the sternum, and the left patella are present, as well as seven cervical, twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum. All the tarsals, metatarsals, and eight phalanges from the feet and several carpals, metacarpals and phalanges from the hands were identified. Osteoporosis is present in all the long bones. The bodies of several of the lumbar vertebrae are stained green as is the anterior aspect of the sternum, which also contains a sternal foramen. Burial 57 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable ET This infant is in fair condition, with fragments of the temporals, maxillary alveoli, sphenoid, left lateral occipital, portions of the vault, and a complete mandible recovered and identified. Eleven vertebral centra, ten left and nine right neural arches, a piece of the shaft of a humerus, portions of both clavicles and the sternum, and numerous rib fragments are also present. No pathologies or anomalies were noted. Burial 58 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable In poor condition, this infant is represented by several cranial bones including right and left greater sphenoid wings, petrous portions of the right and left temporals, the left zygomatic, a frag- ment of maxillary alveolus, and a mandible. Postcranially, fragments of at least five vertebrae, a rib, a right femur and a left tibia and several additional long bone fragments are also present. No pathologies or anomalies were observed. Burial 60 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: female The bones from this burial are in excellent condition. The calvarium is fragmentary but most of the bones are present, while the mandible is complete and intact. The diaphyses of all of the long bones are present as were most of the proximal and distal epiphyses, and the greater trochanter epiphyses of both femora. The remainder of 52 the postcranial skeleton is virtually complete, lacking only a few phalanges from the hands and feet and several epiphyses. There were no pathOTOgies or anomalies. Burial 6T Age: VII (late adult) Sex: female The remains of individual 6T, an old female, are in good condi- tion and very complete (Plate 6). All the teeth posterior to the first premolars are missing and their alveoli are resorbed and remodeled to form a well defined ridge, indicating an advanced age for the indi- vidual. The calvarium and mandible are both intact. The postcranial remains include, intact or fragments of: all of the right and left long bones, the left patella, the right and left hip bones, scapulae, clavicles, a fused sternum and manubrium, seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum, right and left hands, complete except for four distal phalanges and two carpels, and right foot lacking only middle and distal phalanges. Many of the bones, including the cranium, have a thin cortex and exhibit moderate to extreme oste0porosis. Large sinuses are present on the posterior aspect of the diaphysis of the right femur immediately above the medial epicondyle; on the posterior aspect of the shaft of the right tibia just below the medial condyle; on the right ulna medial and distal to the ulnar notch; and on the right humerus in the region of the olecranon fossa (Plate 20). Since none of these appear to communicate with the marrow cavity, they are not taken to indicate the presence of osteomyelitis. Possibly, the sinuses are the 53 result of benign tumors or low grade infections (Morse, l969:l22). The right tibia also exhibits chronic osteitis on the anterior surface of the middle third of the diaphysis (Plate 22). Arthritic lipping is present around the articular surfaces of many of the joints, especially the left knee where it is accompanied by eburnation on the medial condyle of the tibia. Osteophytic lipping is also present on the bodies of many of the vertebrae, progressing from slight to severe inferiorly in each group. The bodies of the sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae are moderately compressed. The superior and opposing inferior articular processes of several of the vertebrae exhibit very porotic surfaces and arthritic destruction. Arthritis has also distorted the articular surfaces of the left elbow to such a degree that movement must have been severely restricted (Plate 20). Accompanying this and possibly related, are an atrophic right clavicle and scapula. Burial 62 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female These remains are quite fragmentary and badly weathered. Cranially, only portions of the parietals, temporals, basioccipital, and the frontal were recovered along with a severely eroded mandible. The long bones, the innominates and the bones of the pectoral girdle are all eroded or fragmentary. The hand bones are represented by three right carpals, three right metacarpals, and a phalanx, while the right and left feet are complete, except for two proximal, four middle and nine distal phalanges. Seven cervical and fragments of the neural arches from 54 seven thoracic vertebrae were also identified, as were a number of rib fragments. Osteoarthritis and eburnation were present to varying degrees on the articular processes of the inferior five cervical vertebrae and on several of the thoracic neural arches. Erosion prevented the examinationcfi the vertebral bodies for osteophytic lipping, however, lipping is severe on the distal articular surfaces of the first meta- tarsals and slight on the odontoid process of the axis vertebra. Eburnation and arthritic destruction of the right mandibular condyle is accompanied by a dislocation of the tempero-mandibular joint. Burial 64 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male This specimen is in good condition. The very robust cranium and mandible are complete and in an excellent state of preservation (Plate 6). Except for several ribs and a few of the bones of the hands and feet, the postcranial skeleton is virtually complete. Ossified thyroid and cricoid cartilages were also identified. Both the right and left occipital condyles and superior articu- lar facets of the atlas vertebra are bifaceted and appear to have restricted head movement. Possibly related to this is an articular facet on the superior aspect of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra (Plate l5), which matches a similar facet on the anterior border of the foramen magnum (Plate l4), indicating that a pseud- arthrosis had formed between the two bones. Also on the skull, the left 55 jugular foramen is partially occluded and a small drainage sinus is present on the lateral aspect of the left mastoid process (Plate T4). The sixth cervical vertebra is fused to the seventh and the body of the latter is markedly collapsed (Plate l6), while the remain- ing cervical and adjacent thoracic vertebrae exhibit little or no arthritic changes. Moderate osteophytic lipping was noted on the bodies of the inferior most thoracic vertebrae. Complete spina bifida was noted on the sacrum (Plate l7). Neither of the acromial epiphyses have united to the scapula and a healed fracture was identified on the midshaft of the right radius. Burial 65 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: indeterminable The mandible of burial 65 is complete and intact, while the calvarium is quite fragmentary. The postcranial material is also badly broken but fragments of all the bones of the appendicular skeleton were observed, as were many epiphyses. Also identified were a sternum seg- ment, four right and four left ribs, seven cervical and fragments of at least twelve additional vertebrae, and a complete sacrum. Several tarsals, all but two metatarsals and the phalanges were missing from the feet, while no carpals, only a few metacarpals and several phalanges from the hand were present. The only pathological change noted for this individual was a severely atrophied middle phalanx from the hand. This atrophy, along with the absence of any articular surface at the distal end suggest that the distal phalanx had been missing during life. 56 Burial 66 (A) Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: indeterminable Burial 66 (8) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable The older individual from this multiple interment is in excellent condition and was well recovered. The face, frontal, and left parietals are intact, while the remainder of the cranium is disarticulated but present. Except for the right patella and a few of the major epiphyses, the postcranial skeleton is virtually complete: all the long bones; right and left ilia, ischia and pubes, clavicles, scapulae, and sternum, all the vertebrae, all the ribs; right and left hands, complete except for the pisiforms and eight phalanges; and feet which lack several metatarsals and most of the phalanges. A red stain was noted on the right iliac fossa and acetabulum. The recovery of the child was not so complete. The mandible halves are intact, but the remains of the calvarium are limited to the petrous portions of the right and left temporals, a pair of maxillae, zygomatics and lateral as well as basi-occipital. Several ribs, the clavicles, a sternal segment, a scapula and fragments of a minimum of eight vertebrae comprise the postcranial material. A bit of red stain was noted on the left maxilla. No pathologies were noted. Burial 67 Age: 11 (late infant) Sex: indeterminable 57 The calvarium of this individual is quite fragmentary, although most of the bones are present. The mandible is complete. Portions of the diaphyses and several of the epiphyses are present from all the long bones except the right fibula. A right and left ilium, the scapula, sternal segments, and five metacarpels were also identified as were numerous ribs, and vertebrae. No pathologies nor anomalies were noted. Burial 68 Age: VII (late adult) Sex: male The remains of this specimen are in excellent condition. The skull and mandible are intact (Plate 7) and the postcranial skeleton is virtually complete. Only two carpals, several metacarpals and phalanges from the hands and feet were not located. Fragments of ossified thyroid and cricoid cartilages were also identified. Osteophytic lipping is associated with nearly every articular surface in the postcranial skeleton, except for some of the smaller bones of the hands and feet. The bodies of many of the vertebrae exhibit moderate to severe lipping, which increases caudally in each group, while the bodies of several of the cervical vertebrae have partially collapsed. Arthritic destruction with eburnation was also identified on many of the superior and inferior articular processes, as well as on the odontoid facet of the atlas vertebrae and the facet for the atlas on the odontoid process. The right superior articular facet of the axis is oriented much more vertically than the left and may have affected head movement (Plate T8). Exostosis on the atlas vertebra 58 appears to represent the ossification of the right rectus capitus Tateralis muscle. Eburnation was also identified on the following articular sur- faces: distal left femur and proximal left tibia; distal right tibia and the trochlea of the right talus; the acromial facet of the right clavicle and the opposing facet on the scapula; distal right radius and the radial condyle of the right navicular; and on the distal first right and left metatarsals. Pea size sinuses on the proximal articular surfaces of the right and left third metatarsals and distal articular surfaces of the third cuneiforms suggest that small tumors or abcesses were present between those bones. Burial 70 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: indeterminable The remains of this individual are in poor condition. The calvarium is fragmentary and the face and mandible are missing. Post- cranially, shafts of the femora, the tibiae, a humerus and probably an ulna were observed, as were portions of the right and left scapulae, and a right clavicle. Seven cervical and four thoracic vertebrae, several ribs, and tarsal bones only from the right and left feet were recovered but all were severely eroded. The occipital squama is stained green. No pathologies were noted. 59 Burial 7T (A) Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Burial 7l (B) Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female The recovery of the infant remains was quite incomplete and the bones are in poor condition, due largely to weathering. The cranium is represented by right and left maxillae and temporals, a right palatal bone, a vomer, portions of the sphenoid and both halves of the mandible. Postcranially, the right and left clavicles and the manu- brium, a sternum segment, six rib fragments and portions of at least eight vertebrae were observed, as well as a fragment of the diaphysis of the left femur. The cramium of the female is fragmentary but fairly complete with a mandible lacking only the condyloid processes. Postcranially, the leg bones are all present, although several are broken. Also recovered were the right and left hip bones, scapulae, clavicles, two very complete hands, several foot bones, rib fragments, and portions of five cervical, two lumbar, and at least two thoracic vertebrae. The only pathological change noted for these two individuals was in the region of the left hip joint of the adult. The cortex on the proximal end of the femur is very thin and almost non-existent on the head and on the surface of the left acetabulum (Plate T9). The joint has been destroyed. Severe chronic osteitis was noted on the iliac fossa and gluteal surface of the hip bone (Plate 19) and on the proximal diaphysis and the neck of the femur. There is also 60 evidence of osteomyelitis on the femur. An accessory articulation is present between the sacrum and the left ilium. Burial 72 Age: II (late infant) Sex: indeterminable This child is poorly represented. The calvarium is fragmen- tary, and includes the right and left temporals and maxillae, frag- ments of the sphenoid, frontal, a zygomatic and right lateral and basi-occipital. The mandible is virtually complete. Postcranially, a relatively complete vertebral column was observed, as were several ribs, three sternal segments, two long bone shafts and the distal epiphysis of the right femur. Burial 73 Age: 11 (late infant) Sex: indeterminable Very little material from this infant was recovered. Only a right temporal, a portion of the right maxillary alveolus, and several vault fragments remained of the cranium, while a right scapula, two long bone fragments and several ribs represented the infracranial skeleton. A slight greenish-black stain was noted on the base of the zygomatic process of the temporal. 6T Burial 74 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Like the previous individual, this infant is poorly represented. The right and left temporals and maxilae, the left zygomatic, the frontal, the sphenoid, and portions of the vault and ethmoid along with the mandible were observed from the cranium, while seven rib shaft fragments, a vertebral body, and a distal phalanx comprise the post- cranial material. No anomalies or pathologies were noted. Burial 75 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: indeterminable The remains of this specimen are in fair condition. The left temporal, the occipital squama and the posterior portions of both of the parietals are all articulated and additional cranial bones include the right temporal, the maxilla, portions of the occipital, sphenoid, the frontal and a broken mandible. Postcranial material includes the right and left humeri, ulnae, and radii and several of their epiphyses, portions of the right and left scapulae, rib frag- ments, five complete cervical vertebrae, the neural arches from the remaining cervical, twelve thoracic, and five lumbar vertebrae and relatively complete hands. Only the left femur, tibia and patella were recovered from below the level of the lumbar vertebrae. No pathologies were noted. 62 Burial 76 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable These remains are in fair condition. The calvarium and mandible are fragmentary and only partially represented. Postcranially, no material from the lower appendicular skeleton was recovered, however, the left arm bones and the left scapula and clavicle, the manubrium, eleven vertebral bodies and neural arches form seven cervical vertebrae were observed in addition to rib fragments and five meta- carpals. The right half of the neural arch of the fourth cervical vertebra is fused to the neural arch of the third, probably congeni- tally (Plate l8). The left half of the neural arch of the fourth cervical vertebra remains a separate bone. Many of the cranial and postcranial bones exhibit a marked green stain. Burial 77 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable This individual is in a poor state of preservation. A portion of the posterior vault, the petrous portion of the left temporal and a left mandibular angle represent the cranium. Postcranial remains include a left clavicle, two left ribs, and fragments from at least eight vertebrae. Many of these bones are covered with a red and green stain. 63 Burial 78 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female The recovery of this individual was fairly complete, but, unfortunately most of the material is severely eroded. The calvarium and mandible are complete (Plate 7). Except for the right radius, all the long bones are represented, as are the right and left hip bones, patellae, scapulae, clavicles and three right, two left and numerous unsideable rib fragments. At least fragments of all seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum are present. Right and left feet, complete except for a few phalanges and four carpals, four metacarpals, and seven hand phalanges were also noted. Burial 79 Age: adult Sex: indeterminable Only leg and foot bones were recovered from this burial. Present are: distal portions of the right and left femora; the tibiae, fibulae, and the right and left feet, complete except for most of the phalanges. The shafts of both tibiae are stained green and a piece of fabric is adhered to the right. 64 Burial 80 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female The calvarium and mandible of this female are virtually complete (Plate 8) and in excellent condition, as is the appendicular portion of the postcranial skeleton, except for some foot phalanges and hand bones. From the axial skeleton, six cervical, and neural arch fragments from eleven thoracic vertebrae and numerous rib frag- ments were observed. No pathologies or anamalies were identified. Burial Bl Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male The cranium of this specimen is fragmentary but quite Com- plete, except for a missing mandible. All seven cervical, twelve thoracic, and five lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum and coccyx, the manubrium, and twelve left and twelve right ribs were recovered. The appendicular skeleton lacks only a pisiform and the phalanges from the hands; and several left foot phalanges and all of the right foot. Fragments of an ossified thyroid cartilage are also present (Plate l5) and ossified first costal cartilages are fused to the manubrium. An accessory articulation was noted between the right trans- verse process of the fifth lumbar Vertebra and the sacrum (Plates l7 and T9). Osteophytic lipping is slight to moderate on the thoracic 65 vertebrae, especially numbers six through ten and the right and left twelfth ribs are fused to the twelfth thoracic vertebrae (Plate l6). Burial 82 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male A moderate degree of erosion has affected these remains. The calverium is fragmentary, while the mandible is complete and intact. Seven eroded cervical vertebrae and the neural arches and some of the bodies of twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae were recovered, along with rib fragments, right and left hip bones and scapulae, a right clavicle, fairly complete feet, and several hand phalanges. No pathological changes were identified. Burial 83 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female The cranium of this female is in excellent condition (Plate 8), while the postcranial material is somewhat eroded. The long bones are all represented, except for the right radius, however, none have escaped modification due to weathering. Similarly fragmentary, but present, are the right and left hip bones and scapulae, the left clavicle, the sternum and ribs. The vertebral column is represented by fragments of all the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum. Except for phalanges, the feet are virtually complete, while only five hand bones were identified. 66 Weathering prevented the examination of vertebral bodies for arthritic changes, however, lipping is evident on the left inferior articular process of the fifth lumbar vertebra and on the correspond- ing superior articular process of the sacrum. Green stain and a piece of fabric are associated with the left tibia. Burial 84 Age: 111 (child) Sex: indeterminable The calvarium is fragmentary, lacking most noticeably the posterior portion of the vault, while the mandible is present though severely eroded. The cervical vertebrae are all complete but frag- ments of only four of the thoracic and no lumbar or sacral vertebrae were identified. Portions of the bones of the pectoral girdle, a number of ribs, a pubis and several hand bones were recovered with diaphyses of all the long bones except a fibula and ulna. Several dpiphyses were also noted. There were no pathologies. Burial 85 Age: III Sex: indeterminable Specimen 85 is probably a prehistoric bundle burial and is poorly represented. The petrous portions of the right and left temporals, fragments of the vault, a right maxilla and a basi- occipital and several teeth were recovered. No pathological changes or anomalies were observed. 67 Burial 86 Age: VII (late adult) Sex: male This material has been eroded severely. The calvarium is complete, but broken into several large pieces, and most of the alveoli are eroded away on the otherwise complete mandible. Fragments of all the long bones except for one of the fibulae were recovered, as well as portions of both hip bones, scapulae, a right clavicle and five right carpels. The infracranial axial remains include seven cervical vertebrae (mostly bodies only), twelve thoracic and five lumbar verte- brae and right and left rib fragments. The cervical and thoracic bodies exhibit slight osteophytic lipping as do several of the articular processes. Six eroded body fragments from the sacrum were noted. Many of the bones were stained green. Burial 87 Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: indeterminable The calvarium is quite fragmentary, but most of the bones are present. The mandible is complete and intact. Except for the right forearm, all the long bones and many of their epiphyses are present in addition to the right and left scapulae, clavicles, and the manubrium. The cervical vertebrae are complete, whereas only four of the thoracic vertebrae were identified. Several right and left 68 rib fragments were also noted and a few metacarpals and phalanges represent the hands. Marked green stains are present on the hand bones, in the region of both knees, on the medial clavicles and on the vault. The bones with the heaviest green stain seem to be the best preserved in this individual. Pieces of hair were preserved on the cranium. Burial 88 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: female (presumably) The sex of this individual is difficult to assess. The sciatic notch appears intermediate between male and female; there is a marked pre-auricular sulcus; but the bones are fairly robust. Nevertheless, a robust female seems to be the best designation at this time. The individual is in good condition and represents an excellent disinterment, which includes a complete calvarium and mandible (Plate 9). Except for several foot phalanges and some of the bones of the hands, all the appendicular bones were identified, although several are fragmentary. The postcranial axial remains consist of seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar and portions of the sacral vertebrae and at least seven right and eleven left ribs. Many of the bones, including the cranium, exhibit advanced osteoporosis;and chronic osteitis was observed on the bodies of all the left ribs. 69 Burial 89 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable The fragmentary remains of this individual include several vault pieces, petrous portions of the right and left temporals and several teeth from the cranium and portions of the left ulna and radius, two additional long bone diaphysis fragments and an ilium, from the infracranial skeleton. Burial 90 Age: II (lafe infant) Sex: indeterminable The mandible from this individual is in one piece whereas the calvarium is represented by disarticulated bones and lacks the parietals and the occipital. Only the left humerus and two addi- tional fragments are present from the long bones. Other postcranial remains include right and left clavicles and scapulae, the manubrium and three right and left ribs, neural arches from seven cervical and two thoracic vertebral, and nine verbebral bodies. Several of the cranial and postcranial bones are stained either red, green or both. Burial 91 Age: V (young adult) Sex: female) Many of the bones from this burial are eroded, but it is otherwise in good condition, with a virtually complete calvarium and 70 mandible (Plate 9). All the long bones were present, along with the bones of the pelvic and pectoral girdles. Five cervical, eleven thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae, a sacrum and a number of rib frwagments are also present. The feet lack only several phalanges, wiiile only the left hand is well represented. Sinuses, similar to those identified in burial 68 are present or1 'the third lateral cuneiforms and third metacarpals and similarly may suggest some kind of neoplasm between the two pairs of bones (F’léate 2T). The left forearm and hand are stained green with traces of red. Burial 92 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable Only several cranial and postcranial fragments were recovered fer*‘tlw'is infant: petrous portions of the right and left temporals, a rTSJht frontal, right and left mandibular corpora, vault fragments, two r‘i lbs and two vertebral bodies, and a few teeth. Green stain was noti<2e3r‘eae, the sacrum and numerous pieces of ribs. Only one foot phalanx Elr1<1 no bones from the right hand were identified, whereas, the left Ililr1d was virtually complete. No unusual features were noted. Burian 97 Age: I Sex: indeterminable These remains are rather incomplete. The bones of the Cranium are disarticulated and those form the top and posterior "991’ ons of the vault and most of the mandible are missing. Post- cranially, fragments of the right arm, several rib pieces and four 73 vertebral centra were identified in addition to a right and a left ilium. No pathologies nor anomalies were noted. Burial 98 Age: V (young adult) Sex: female While the skull of this speciumen is represented by one small vault fragment, the postcranial skeleton is fairly complete. Vir- tually all of the appendicular material was identified except for the left humerus and scapula, the right clavicle and some of the hand and foot bones. The postcranial axial skeleton includes the caudal eight thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum, a large number of right and left and unsideable rib fragments and a portion of the manubrium. A hiatus to the level of the spine of S1 was observed on the sacrum. The right lower leg bones and several of the thoracic vertebrae were stained green. Burial 99 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male Representing an excellent excavation, these remains include virtually complete cranial and postcranial axial skeletons (Plate ll), missing only a portion of the sacrum and two or three ribs. In contrast, all but one of the long bones are fragmentary. The right and left hip bones, scapulae, clavicles and patellae are also present, as are rather fragmentary hands and feet. 74 The shafts of the long bones exhibit slight osteOporosis and a small sinus was noted on the proximal articular surface of the third metatarsal, similar to those mentioned in the descriptions of burials 68 and 9T. The right occipital condyle and the right superior articu- lar surface of the atlas vertebra are bifaceted. Burial TOO Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male Most of the remains of this individual are complete and well preserved, however, the only post-pelvis bone to be recovered was a portion of the head of the femora. The lower limbs were lost to an historic ditch. The calvarium and mandible are complete (Plate ll) and all of the bones of the upper limb except a pisiform and several phalanges are present. Fragments of five cervical, ten thoracic, and the neural arches from five lumbar vertebrae and a sacrum were also recovered as were a manubrium and sternum and numerous ribs. Large portions of the auricular surfaces of the right ilium and the right side of the sacrum have been destroyed by osteo- arthritis. A band of green stain about two inches wide encircling the vault corresponds to the remains of a fabric head band found associated with that area of the skull. Both forearms and hands and the sternum and manubrium were also stained green from silver armbands. 75 Burial lOl Age: IV (adolescent) Sex: female The base of this individual's calvarium has been broken (post- mortem), but all the pieces are present and the rest of the skull is intact and well preserved (Plate l2). Portions, at least of all the appendicular bones and many of their epiphyses were identified, with the exception of distal phalanges only from the feet and a number of hand bones. All seven cervical vertebrae are present and intact, however, the rest of the column is represented by three thoracic vertebrae only. The sternum and a number of ribs were also present from the axial skeleton. The right iliac fossa is stained red. No pathologies or skéletal anomalies were identified. Burial l02 Age: I (early infant) Sex: indeterminable The fragmentary cranial remains of this fairly well preserved specimen include: the right and left corpora and left ascending ramus of the mandible, the left maxilla and zygomatic bones, the right temporal, a lateral occipital and fragments of the alveoli and the vault. Postcranially, right and left femora and hip bone com- ponents, three sternal segments, a clavicle, eleven vertebral bodies, and numerous neural arch and rib fragments were recovered. 76 Burial l03 Age: VII (old adult) Sex: male The material from this burial is in an excellent state of preservation. The calvarium is fragmentary and portions are missing, but the mandible is complete. Attesting to the old age of this speci— men is the absence of the posterior teeth and accompanying alveolar resorbtion. All the bones from the appendicular skeleton were identi- fied except for six phalanges from the left foot, one from the right hand, and two from the left hand. The infracranial axial skeleton included the manubrium and sternum, numerous rib fragments, seven cervical, twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum. A fragment of an ossified thyroid cartilage was also noted. Extensive pathological changes were observed on this indi- vidual. Osteoporosis is generalized and afflicts nearly every bone, although it is most noticeable on the long bones and more pronounced on the right side than the left. Also generalized on this specimen is osteoarthritic destruction of articular surfaces and osteophytic lipping. The destruction is especially marked on the left mandibular condyle, the right hip and the left knee joint (where cancellous bone appears to have been exposed; Plate 2T); on many vertebral bodies and articular processes; and on metatarsals, metacarpals and phalanges. Eburnation accompanies this arthritis on the distal left femur, and proximal left tibia, several of the vertebral articular processes, a number of the phalanges and the articular facet for the 77 acromion on the left clavicle. Osteophytic lipping is also extensive on the bodies of many of the vertebrae, where it varies from moderate to severe (Plate T8). The bodies of the sixth and seventh cervical and some of the lumbar vertebrae are compressed, while a slight lateral curvature, upwards to the left is apparent on the lower most thoracic and the first three lumbar vertebrae. The angle of declination (i.e. between the bilateral axis of the distal condyles and the neck) of the femur is nearly 90°, the distal aspect being rotated postero-medially (Plate 22). Burial l04 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male The calvarium of this specimen is quite fragmentary while the mandible is complete and intact. Another very complete appendicular skeleton is present including at least the portions of all the bones except a cuneiform and several phalanges from the feet and two carpals and two distal phalanges from the left hand and the entire right hand. In addition to the fragmentary skull, the axial skeleton is represented by seven cervical, nine thoracic, two lumbar vertebrae and several fragmentary vertebrae; ten right and ten left ribs; and a manubrium and a sternum. A fragment of an ossified thyroid carti- lage was also identified. 78 Burial l05 Age: VI (middle adult) Sex: male These remains are in excellent condition (Plate l2). The axial skeleton is complete and all the bones are intact except for a number of fragmentary ribs, while the appendicular skeleton is lacking the head of the left femur and three distal phalanges from the hands and one proximal, three middle and six distal phalanges from the feet. The age of this specimen has been assessed at stage VI, based upon maxillary molar attrition, however, since the posterior mandibular teeth had been lost some time before death, it is possible that the individual lived any number of years with no appreciable wear on the remaining molars. Consequently, individual l05 may be older than stage VI. A number of interesting pathologies were observed on this specimen. The cranium exhibits, on its right side, evidence of a severe gash, apparently the result of a blow by some sharp instru- ment, such as a sword. The evident blow cut almost completely through the zygomatic arch, nearly severed the styloid process and tympanic plate of the temporal bone, cut deeply into the base of the mastoid process and may have been responsible for the destruction of the right condylar process of the mandible (Plate l4). That the individual survived the injury is demonstrated by the presence of advanced remodeling of each of the lesions mentioned. Also the occlusal plane is oblique, i.e. up and to the right when viewed from the front and is presumably an adjustment to the injury. 79 The right tibia and especially the right femur have both been modified severely by chronic osteitis, periostitis and osteomyelitis (Plate 23). The cortex of each of the bones is greatly enlarged (the maximum anterio-posterior diameter of the femur is 43mm., whereas the mean for the p0pulation is 29.5mm. for that measurement), however, no involucra were identifiable from radiographs. Large drainage sinuses are present on the anterior aspect of the proximal and distal diaphysis of the femur and the proximal tibia. The tibia also exhibited a marked medial bowing, as did the right fibula, although the latter showed no sign of inflammation. In contrast to the right side, the left femur, tibia and fibula are severely atrophied and show no signs of osteomyelitis (Plate 23), except for possibly a Brodie's abcess on the tibia. According to Aegerter and Kirkpatric (T968:29l), "Brodie's abcess represents an aborted acute suppurative osteomyelitis . . . , which appears radiographically as . . . a well defined, radioluscent lesidn surrounded by opaque reactive bone." Such a lesion was identified in the region of the distal metaphysis of the left tibia. Many of the articular surfaces display osteoarthritic lipping to varying degrees, but it is especially marked on the left knee. The bodies of most of the vertebrae exhibit some lipping but none of it is particularly severe and none of the bodies are collapsed. Eburnation accompanies the lipping on the proximal articular surface of the left tibia, the ulnar notch of the right radius, the head of the right ulna, and on the right lunate. 80 The head of the left femur is missing, however, the marked distortion of the left acetabulum indicates that the left hip joint was displastic, probably congenitally (Plate l9). On the right side, the sacroiliac articulation is fused (Plate T7). The acromial epiphyses of the left scapula is non-united. The left ulna exhibits a healed fracture (Plate 22) while no such lesion was observed on the (radius from that side, as in a parry fracture (see the description of burial 26). Burial l06 Age: II (late infant) Sex: indeterminable The calvarium of this child is quite fragmentary, including portions of the right temporal, and a few vault fragments, while the mandible is nearly complete. Diaphysis fragments of both tibiae, fibulae and humeri, and the right femur were identified as were frag- ments of the right and left hip bones, a right clavicle and scapula, segments of a sternum, seven cervical, and fragments of fourteen additional vertebrae and numerous rib shaft pieces. The hands and feet are poorly represented. No pathologies or anomalies were observed. Burial l08 Age: II (late infant) Sex: indeterminable No cranium fragments were identified from this specimen, which is in very poor condition. Portions of a number of long bone 8T shafts were present along with right and left ilium fragments, two ribs and several hand bones. Most of the bones are stained green, while the right radius and a fibula fragment showed traces of red. Summary. The excavation of eighty-six graves containing human skeletal material yielded the remains of 96 individuals. While the majority of the burials were single interments, ten of them contained more than one individual. Burials l, 2, TB, 53, 66, and 7T contained two individuals; burials T4, 35, and 50 contained three and burial 26 contained five. In the foregoing pages 47 adults and 49 subadults are described. Of the 47 adults, 20 were sexed as males, 23 as females, while four were not sexed. A more detailed presentation of the age and sex distribution of the sample is found in Chapter V in the discussion of mortality profiles. CHAPTER IV MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS Cranial Measurements and Indices Twenty-nine measurements (twenty-four from the calvarium and five from the mandible) were taken and thirteen indices were calculated from the more complete crania. In cases where the crania were frag- mentary, as many measurements as possible were extracted. Eighteen male and nineteen female crania were complete enough for one or more of the metric observations, however, less than five of the male calvaria were complete enough for measurement and calculation of the majority of the indices used in this study. The female crania were generally more complete and eleven or more of the thirteen indices were calculated for eleven of the skulls. The data are summarized on Tables 3 through 8, for the Historic specimens only. The cranial measurements recorded for each individual in the sample are provided individually in Appendix B, in order to allow other investigators access to the Fletcher data for future use in statistical analyses that require measurements from each member of a sample. I am thinking particularly of certain genetic distance operations. Both the male and female samples are generally homogeneous in their measurements. An exception is the individual from burial 88 which has an extremely robust cranium, compared to the rest of the 82 83 TABLE 3.--Mean measurements (in mm.): Site (208Y28). male crania from the Fletcher No. Mean 5.0. Range L 6 l80.3 3.98 l77-l87 B 6 l50.6 3.39 l47-l55 H 5 T33 6 3.97 l27-l37 E-N 7 TO4.7 5.l9 99-ll4 E-A 7 l02.6 7.00 94-lll E-G 3 ll6.0 8.72 l06-l22 P-B 3 l2l.O 4.58 ll6-l25 MFB l2 98.l 3.80 92-l03 B2 4 l45.3 5.68 l37-l50 N-A l0 74.6 5.62 63- 84 N-G 3 T22.7 3.2T l99-l25 AL T0 54.7 4.52 49- 64 AB l2 67.3 4.03 6T- 72 NH l0 53.4 3.20 48- 58 NB 8 26.l 2.30 22- 29 OH lO 35.4 2.07 3T- 38 0B To 44.9 2.85 40- 49 BOB 6 T02.3 3.20 97-l05 B-P 4 l5.0 2.94 l2- l8 AH 3 l2l.3 3.2T ll9-T25 P-N 5 98.2 3.49 96-l04 P-S 5 98.2 3.70 94-l03 P-P 5 l04.0 6.60 96-lll P-G 3 l20.7 5.86 ll4-l25 84 TABLE 4.--Mean measurements (in mm.): female crania from the Fletcher site (2OBY28). w- ._. ‘_ No. Mean 8.0. Range L l2 T7l.7 3.63 l66-T80 8 T0 T4T.0 4.52 134-T47 H ll T27.T 5.63 TT8-l35 E-N Tl 97.5 4.08 93-104 E-A TT 95.9 3.70 90-T02 E-G 9 l09.3 4.39 l05-T17 P-B TT TT5.9 4.2T l08-T2T MFB l6 9T.8 3.36 87- 99 BZ 6 l32.2 3.97 T27-T38 N-A l4 65.6 3.46 59- 7O N-G 9 ll0.2 4.58 l04-ll9 AL T4 50.6 2.34 45- 55 AB T3 63.3 3.25 57- 67 NH l4 47.7 2.23 45- 53 NB T4 26.3 1.73 23- 30 OH l2 33.0 2.50 3T- 4T 08 T3 40.9 3.47 32- 45 808 T2 95.7 3.23 90-TOT B-P TO T5.0 4.52 6- 2T AH l0 TT6.3 6.75 l02-T24 P-N TT 9T.8 4.l2 87-T00 P-S 6 92.7 5.79 86-T02 P-P Tl 97.5 4.34 92-T05 P-G 9 ll5.0 5.85 lO9-T25 85 TABLE 5.--Mean measurements (in mm.): male mandibles from the Fletcher site (208Y28). No. Mean 3.0. Range SH TS 36.T 3.T7 3T- 44 860 T4 103.] 6.94 88-TI2 BCD T0 l25.8 4.6T TT8-T33 ARH T5 60.3 4.94 51- 65 CL l4 96.0 4.47 90-T04 TABLE 6.--Mean measurements (in mm.): Fletcher site (208Y28). female mandibles from the -——.——.-—--a —_ _- ._ No. Range SH l6 3l.l l.84 28- 34 800 T3 94.0 6.39 8l-l03 800 7 ll7.3 4.6T ll2-T25 ARH 9 55.7 4.50 50- 64 CL 9 90.2 3.96 85- 97 86 TABLE 7.—-Mean indices: male crania from the Fletcher site (2OBY28). —-0 .» '..— '..- -.._ -_..-- -.______. No. Mean 5.0. Range C.I. 5 83.64 l.56 8l.6- 86.l C.M. 3 l55.00 4.09 l50.3-l57.7 Mn. Hgt. I. 3 79.00 l.22 78.2- 80.4 Lgt. Hgt. I. 4 73.43 2.64 7l.l- 77.0 Br. Hgt. I. 4 88.35 2.49 86.4- 9l.9 Po.—Mn. Hgt. I. 2 73.00 l.98 7l.6- 74.4 Fr.-Par. I. 6 66.05 l.60 64.2- 68.9 Up. Fac. I. 4 52.45 2.39 5l.0- 56.0 Tot. Fac. I. 3 85.43 l.3l 84.4- 86.9 Nas. 1. 8 48.80 2.23 45.8- 50.9 Orb. I. TO 78.95 3.70 73.9- 87.5 Pal. I. TO l23.65 5.03 ll2.5-T28.6 Cra. Ba. 1. 2 l3.40 l.l3 l2.6- l4.2 TABLE 8.--Mean indices: female crania from the Fletcher site (208Y28). 7" __.-L w...”- ..—. .- _. H- No. Mean 5.0. Range C.I. TC 82.23 3.78 74.4- 87.4 C.M. l0 l46.83 2.64 l43.3-l5l.0 Mn. Hgt. I. TO 8l.82 3.T9 75.6- 86.l Lgt. Hgt. I. ll 74.l3 2.80 69.8— 77.5 Br. Hgt. I. TO 90.74 4.99 82.5- 99.9 Po.-Mn. Hgt. I. TO 74.67 l.90 7l.3- 77.7 Fr.—Par. I. TO 65.28 l.92 62.6- 67.7 Up. Fac. I. 6 50.25 3.54 44.9- 54.3 Tot. Fac. I. 5 82.68 5.37 75.4- 88.2 Nas. 1. l4 55.l6 4.32 47.2- 62.2 Orb. 1. l2 83.00 6.02 75.6- 84.6 Pal. 1. l3 T24.08 6.26 ll3.8-l34.0 Cra. Ba. 1. l0 ll.76 3.33 5.0- l5.6 females in the population. For example, while the mean of the maximum lengths of the female crania is l7l.7mm. and the next highest value for that measurement among females is l80mm., the maximum length of the B-88 skull is l87mm. In fact, the cranium represents the maximum value of the female range for thirteen of the twenty-nine cranial measurements, and is clearly abberrant. As mentioned in the burial description, due to the inconsistencieSnythe secondary sex character- istics, the assigned sex of this individual is tentative. For this reason, I have excluded it from the descriptive statistics portion of the analysis. The mean cranial index for males is 83.6 and all but one of the five males complete enough for the necessary measurements are brachy- cranic. The exception is the hyperbrachycranic skull of individual 4 with a cranial index of 86.l. The mean value for the females is slightly lower (82.2) with two of the eleven skulls being mesocranic and one dolichocranic while two are hyperbrachycranic and the remainder are brachycranic. Individual 56 has the broadest neurocranium of the sample (C.I. - 87.4). That the females represent both extremes of the range for this particular index is possibly a function of the differ- ences in sample size between the two sexes. Generally, then, all of the male and 72.7% of the female crania in the population are brachy- cranic or hyperbrachycranic. The cranial module is said to be a rough indicator of cranial size (Anderson, l968z23). The mean value for the three males in the population which were complete enough for the calculation of the module is T55.0, and the range from l50.3 to l57.7. The mean cranial module 88 for ten females from the site is l46.3, ranging from l43.3 to l5l.O. As expected, the female neurocrania are consistently smaller than the male neurocrania. Several indices relating to the height of the neurocranium were calculated, however, Stewart (T942z38) demonstrated that the mean- height index is more reliable than either the breadth-height or length- height index. The mean-height indices for three males from the population range from 78.2 to 80.4 and average 79.0. According to Stewart's T965 classification (Bass, l97l:65), two of these crania are low and one is medium in height. The mean female values for this index, derived from ten crania is 8l.8 including two low, six medium and two high skulls. Hence, the male crania are relatively low, while the female crania tend to be medium in height. A porion mean-height index has been suggested (Bass, l97l:65) for height comparisons between crania with fragmentary bases and data for that index are also included (Tables 7 and 8). The means of both the upper and lower facial indices, 52.5 and 85.4 respectively, suggest that the male faces are medium in width. Two of the four crania complete enough for the necessary measurements are mesoprosopic and mesenic, one is europrosopic and mesenic and one is leptenic with the total facial index unobtainable. The females tend to have considerably broader faces, with an upper facial index mean of 82.7. Three are mesoprosopic and mesenic, one is mesenic and euryprosopic, one eurynic and hypereuryprosopic and one hypereurenic and hypereuryprosopic. 89 The mean nasal index for eight of the males is 48.8 and sug- gests nasal apertures which are narrow to medium in width, with five mesorrhine and three leptorrhine specimens. Again the females from the population have much higher mean values (55.2) and therefore broader nasal apertures. While one of the individuals is leptorrhine and three are mesorrhine, ten are platyrrhine. Both the male and female orbits are relatively wide with orbital index means of 79.0 and 8l.5 respectively. Nine of the males are chamaeconchic and one is mesoconchic while eight females are chamaeconchic and three mesoconchic. A high mean value for the maxillo-alveolar index indicates that generally both sexes have quite broad palates. Nine of ten males and twelve of thirteen females are brachyuranic with means of l23.7 and T24.l respectively. Interpopulational Metric Comparisons Interpopulational comparisons based upon measurements were made difficult by the inadequacy of the Fletcher sample and by the un- availability of comparative data. The nature of the Fletcher data has been discussed above (also, see Appendix B). While there appears to be a fair abundance of data derived from the preceeding Woodland period in the Great Lakes area, Historic sites with adequate samples and which represent comparable cultural (and presumable genetic) affinities are less frequently encountered. The archaeological and historical evidence indicate that the Indians represented in the Fletcher burial area were Algonquian (Brown, personal 90 communication), however, most of the Historic period sites from the Western Great Lakes are Iroquois (or Huron). One goal of this project has been to examine whether or not the biological evidence agrees with the archaeological and historic evidence of the affinities of the Fletcher population. To this end cranial metric data from three sites were compared with the Fletcher site. Each of the sites are from the Historic period and all are from the Western Great Lakes area. The Lasanen site consists of a number of small burial pits and represents an occupation ”At the outside . . . between T670 and T7l5" (Cleland, l97l:92), and is located in the city of St. Ignace on the Northern shore of the Straits of Mackinaw in Michigan's upper peninsula. According to Cleland (T972 93) the population represents an amalgamation of Huron and Ottawa groups, although additional components are possible. The Christian Island site is a supposed Huron site (Saunders, personal communication) located near the Southeastern extremity of Georgian Bay in Ontario. The skeletal series represents an occupation during the winter of l649-50 A.D. A report of this site is yet to be published. The only Central Algonquian site, other than the Fletcher site from which cranial metric data could be obtained for this study is the Crawford Farm site, Rock Island County, Illinois. This site was occupied by Sauk Indians from about A.D. T790 to A.D. l8l0 (McKusick and Slack, l962z3). Both male and female cranial measurements are available for each of the sites. However, since the measureable female skulls from 9T the Fletcher site outnumber the male skulls by roughly 50%, this analysis departs from the usual practice and compares female crania. While the female cranial data were more complete in the Fletcher sample, they were not significantly less frequent in any of the other sites. Fourteen measurements were comparable in the three populations: Maximum length, Basion-bregma, Porion-bregma, Endobasion-nasion, Endobasion-alveolar point, Nasion-alveolar point, Nasal height, Nasal breadth, Orbital height, Orbital breadth, External alveolar length, External alveolar breadth, and Symphyseal height. Though not individ- ually listed in Figures 3, 4 and 5, the measurements appear in the above order. Much consideration was given to the decision of which of the various techniques to use in comparing the cranial metric data from the four Historic period sites. Multivariate distance operations were not used for the following reasons: (l) large amounts of missing data, i.e., from skulls which were only partially measureable, made an already small sample inadequate; and (2) since the goal of these comparisons was to test the assumption that the Fletcher population was Algonquian, and not to determine degrees of relationships among a number of skeletal popula- tions, a comparison of means proved adequate for the information desired. Hence, the means of the measurements from the four populations were graphically displayed. In order to adjust for some of the size differences, the means were transformed into T-scores, as is suggested by Wilkinson (l97l:26). This operation also permits measurements with widely disparate means to be easily displayed on a single graph. The T-score is a method of 92 use ”A .AIIIIV even seem vcoezmcu on» v mpmm Leguumpm mg» Eocw mpcmemcammme _m_:mcu mFmEmm cams we mccmpumn «Freoca ecoum-»--.m mesmwm om 93 new “A .AIIIIV muwm cmcmmmg esp Eocw v muwm cmsuamFm as» sage mgcmEmgammms mecmeu «Fugue cmmELh.mccmuuma mppmoga meoumtptu.e mcamwu om .A----V aewm eeeFmH cavemeteu wee gate V 3.5 cmcuumE mfi 59C $552385 3.286 32.3 :85 .8223qu 3.58.5 mcoum-._.-...m mesa: use 2 on on on 95 transforming variables so that the mean for each variable is 50 and the standard deviation is TO. Wilkinson (l97l:26) presents the formula as: = ID (Xil - Xi) T + 50 E. 1 where Xi] = the mean value of the variable i in population l, X II the mean value of variable i in all populations, the mean standard deviation of variable i in all populations. OJ 3 0. U1 II Once obtained, the T-scores for each of the Historic popula- tions were plotted on separate graphs with the Fletcher scores (see Figures 3, 4 and 5). A visual inspection quickly demonstrates that of the three populations, the Algonquian group from the Crawford Farm site matches the Fletcher material very well, while both the Lasanen and Christian Island data show wide disparity in most of the measure- ments. Thus the indications from this comparison of mean cranial measurements are that the Fletcher population is indeed morphologically similar to Algonquians. In fact, the high degree of agreement between it and the Crawford Farm material suggests that neither had experienced a great deal of admixture from non-Algonquian populations, unless, of course, it was the same or closely related groups, an unlikely prospect. It is not maintained here that comparisons of cranial metrics between these four skeletal series are finished. With the addition of more Algonquian and Iroquois material much could be gained from further comparisons of Upper Great Lakes Historic Indian populations. 96 Perhaps migration routes could be plotted; and estimates of genetic distance could be used to estimate temporal distance; or possibly the composition of groups such as the Lasanen population which are unknown as to the amount of Algonquian influence, could be assessed. Certainly there are other questions to be answered. For the purposes of this study, however, a comparison of means transformed into T-scores has demonstrated a closer biological proximity between the Fletcher sample and an Algonquian population than to two other groups, one of which was most likely Huron, while the other is suspected to have represented an intermixture of Algonquian and Iroquoian populations. Postcranial Measurements and Indices Summaries of the twenty-five postcranial measurements and eight indices are contained in Tables 9 through l2. The left side was used for the measurement and index averages wherever possible and in no cases were both sides from the same individual included. Five of the postcranial indices measure proportions between long bones, but very little comparative data are available for them. The mean humero-radial or brachial index is 75.5 for eight males and 77.2 for three females with ranges of 72.8 to 80.5 and 76.0 to 78.0 respectively. The means for both sexes are close to the value, 76.9 to 78.2, reported for "Amerindians" by Comas (l960:428). The indices for determining the degree of flattening that has taken place on the diaphyses of leg bones indicate that the femora of the males and especially the females are platymeric. The mean value for eleven males is 83.0 and for eighteen females is 77.0. 97 TABLE 9.--Mean measurements (in mm.): male postcranial material from the Fletcher site (20BY28). No. Mean 5.0. Range Humerus: Max. Lgt. l3 320.2 l8.32 284-344 Max. Diam. M.S. l2 23.0 l.7l 20- 25 Min. Diam. M.S. l2 T6.2 2.44 l2- l9 Max. Diam. Hd. l0 44.7 2.63 4T- 49 Clavicle: Max. Lgt. l0 l53.2 l0.67 l35-l67 Femur: Max. Lgt. l3 437.2 26.l8 4l4-49l Phys. Lgt. l3 432.7 25.39 398-477 A-P. M.S. ll 29.5 3.07 25- 34 Trans. M.S. Tl 26.8 2.56 23- 30 Trans. S.T. ll 32.4 3.20 27- 37 A-P. S.T. 9 26.3 2.l2 23- 29 Max. Diam. Hd. 7 47.6 2.37 45- 52 Tibia: Max. Lgt. 9 362.0 22.4l 332-403 Phys. Lgt. 9 346.9 2l.83 320-392 A-P. N.F. l3 35.3 4.40 28- 43 Trans. N.F. l3 23.4 2.40 20- 27 Radius: Max. Lgt. l2 244.4 l6.l9 2l0-262 Ulna: Max. Lgt. 8 266.3 l3.90 239-283 Scapula: Hgt. l l49.0 - - Br. 4 l05.3 5.50 98-TTO Hip Bone: Hgt. 7 2T2.3 ll.9O l95-23O Br. 3 l53.7 l2 90 l43—l68 Sacrum: Lgt. l l06.0 - - Br. 3 ll4.0 2.65 ll2-ll7 Fibula: Lgt. 5 355.6 T9.93 339-390 R TABLE lO.--Mean measurements (in mm.): from the Fletcher site (208Y28). 98 .o- female postcranial material No. Mean 5.0. Range Humerus: Max. Lgt. l4 296.l 9.l3 283-3l6 Max. Diam. M.S. l2 20.8 l.96 l7- 23 Min. Diam. M.S. ll l5.0 l.55 l2- l7 Max. Diam. Hd. 5 39.8 l.3O 38- 41 Clavicle: . Max. Lgt. 5 l40.6 5.90 l32-l46 Femur: Max. Lgt l8 4T0.7 20.56 370-444 Phys. Lgt. l7 403.5 2l.26 365-438 A-P. M.S. l5 25.6 2.75 2T- 3T Trans. M.S. l7 24.3 2.49 l9- 28 Trans. S.T. l9 30.3 2.2T 27- 34 A-P. S.T. l6 23.0 2.03 l9- 27 Max. Diam. Hd. 7 43.6 3.3T 39- 48 Tibia: Max. Lgt. l6 336.6 20.l8 302-363 Phys. Lgt. l3 32l.l l9.36 289-347 A-P. N.F. l4 30.5 2.90 24- 36 Trans. N.F. T6 2l.0 2.83 l5-28 Radius: Max. Lgt. 5 225.0 7.52 2l5-234 Ulna: Max. Lgt. 5 24T.6 6.58 235-249 Scapula: Hgt. O - - - Br. T 92.0 - - Hip Bone: Hgt. 2 l89.0 l 4T l88-l90 Br. 0 - - - Sacrum: Lgt. 2 l07.5 3.54 l05-llO Br. 3 ll5.7 2.3T lT3-ll7 Fibula: Lgt. 4 332.3 l7.67 309-352 F 99 TABLE ll.--Mean indices: male postcranial material from the Fletcher site (20BY28). No. Mean 5.0. Range Hum.-Fem. I TO 74.05 4.00 70.2- 83.5 Clav.-Hum. I 9 47.52 2.0T 44.5- 50.0 Pil. I. TO lll.38 6.33 l04.0-l22.9 Her. I. ll 83.05 7.64 7l.9- 97.8 Tib.-Fem. I. 9 83.92 3.3T 79.6- 88.2 Cnem. I l3 66.69 7.60 .58.3- 8l.8 Hum.-Rad. I. 8 75.73 2.62 72.8- 80.5 Scap. I. 0 - - - Innom. I. 3 72.03 l.00 7l.0- 73.0 TABLE l2.--Mean indices: female postcranial material from the Fletcher site (208Y28). No. Mean 5.0. Range Hum.-Fem. I l2 7l.43 l.79 68.0- 74.2 CTav.-Hum. I 4 48.48 0.86 47.4- 49.5 Pil. 1. l4 l04.7l 9.33 85.2-ll6.7 Her. I. T8 76.98 5.00 67.7- 85.7 Tib.-Fem. 1. l4 8l.38 l.4l 79.l- 83.9 Cnem. 1. T4 69.l4 9.l9 6l.l- 93.3 Hum.-Rad. I. 3 77.20 l.06 76.0- 78.0 Scap. I. 0 - - - Innom. I. O - - - TOO The male and female values for the cnemic index do not suggest any nOticeable medio-lateral flattening of the tibia. Both means, 66.7 for the males and 69.l for the females are mesocnemic. None of the scapulae were complete enough for the measurements of both height and breadth, so no scapular indices were computed, and fragmentary hip bones prohibited the measurements necessary for the calculation of the innominate index in all but three of the males (see Table ll). Non-metric Cranial Observations A total of ten discontinuous traits were observed on the crania. Except where otherwise stated, these are described in terms of the fre- quency present or absent. Phenice (l969:43) suggests that size designa- tions in discussions of ear exostoses and dehiscences of the tympanic element of the temporal bone introduce error when different investiga- tors are compared. Therefore, those traits, often described by size designations, are reported here only as present or absent. Vascular Openings in the Supraorbital Border The passage of the supraorbital nerve and vessels from the orbit to the supraorbital region of the skull accounts for at least three possible conditions in the supraorbital ridge: (l) the presence of a foramen, (2) a notch, or (3) multiple openings. The frequency of the occurrence of each of these conditions was recorded and is sum- marized here for males and females (Table l3). TOT TABLE l3.--Percentages of vascular openings on the supraorbital border from the Fletcher site (208Y28). .._._.._. .- Right Left % % % % % % No. Foramen Notch Multiple No. Foramen Notch Multiple Males l7 l7.6 47.l 35.3 T6 6.3 62.5 3l.2 Females 20 20.0 65.0 l5.0 l8 33.3 50.0 l6.7 Sutures into the Infraorbital Forameg According to Bass (l964:8l), the infraorbital suture may or may not intersect the infraorbital foramen. The frequency of individuals on which the suture entered the foramen is summarized on Table T4 for both sexes. TABLE l4.--Percentages of crania from the Fletcher site (208Y28) with sutures into the infraorbital foramen. -——-—._-..—.———.—._‘._- '—-_-_.__. _.___-_.——.—.-—_.—~ _. --_—_—__.__‘—.___._—~___- -.-__‘_..- -- _‘_._—-______ Right Left % % % % No. Yes No No. Yes No Males ll l8.2 8l.8 l0 30.0 70.0 Females . l5 33.3 66.7 T3 23.l 76.9 .Sgtures in the Region gf Pterion The intersection of the coronal, sphenofrontal, squamosal, and sphenoparietal sutures in the region of pterion were recorded as having T02 the appearance of a wide H, a narrow H or whether or not an epipteric bone was present (Bass, l964:8l). The frequency of the occurrence of those traits is summarized for males and females in Table l5. TABLE l5.--Percentages of various types of suture formations in the pterion region of the crania from the Fletcher site (208Y28). Right Left % % % % % % No. Wide Narrow Epipteric No. Wide Narrow Epipteric H H Bone H H Bone Males 6 50.0 33.3 l6.7 7 7l.4 l4.3 l4.3 Females 9 44.4 44.4 ll.l 8 50.0 50.0 0.0 Sutural Bones Ossicles were observed in the coronal suture of one of the sixteen females examined for the trait (6.3%), and in none of the eight males. In three of the nine males examined (33.3%) and four of the fifteen females (26.7%) the lambdoid suture showed wormian bones. No sutural bones were noticed on the saggital suture or at bregma. Inca Bones Two of nineteen females and one of eleven males has an Inca bone, l0.5% and 9.l% respectively. I III III I .II (I I, l03 Dehiscences of the Typmanic Element of’the TemporaT Bone Foramina in the tympanic portion of the temporal bone were recorded as present or absent and the frequency of their occurrence is summarized in Table l6. Occasionally, erosion can create an opening in this thin plate of bone. Consequently, those tympanic portions which have openings surrounded by irregular non-remodeled bone that may be the result of erosion were excluded from the sample. TABLE T6.--Percentages of temporal bones from the Fletcher site (208Y28) showing dehiscences of the tympanic element. “2*" ---—.———__-——_—__._ _. .. _ - _ . _.. - _~. _. -.w-.- _ u..- - . __‘A .~. -_ Right Left % % % % No. Present Absent No. Present Absent Males 20 35.0 65.0 l9 26.3 73.7 Females l7 52.9 47.l l7 52.9 47.l Mylohyoid Bridge A bridge of bone over the groove on the medial aspect of the ascending ramus of the mandible for the passage of the mylohyoid nerve and vessels was observed and the frequency of its occurrence is sum- marized on Table 17 for males and females. ~Parietal Notch Bone A summary of the frequency of the occurrence of a small bone located at the parietal notch of the temporal bone is summarized for both sexes on Table l8. T04 .TABLE l7.--Percentages of mandibles from the Fletcher site (208Y28) with mylohyoid bridges. Right Left % % % % No. Present Absent No. Present. Absent Males l8 27.8 72.2 l8 38.9 6l.l Females l7 ll.8 88.2 l9 l0.5 89.5 TABLE l8.--Percentages of crania from the Fletcher site (20BY28) with parietal notch bones. - ._._. -_-- — _~__ Right Left % % ' % % No. Present Absent No. Present Absent Males ll l8.2 8l.8 ll 9.l 90.9 Females l4 2l.4 78.6 l2 l6.7 83.3 Ear Exostoses As mentioned above, exostoses in the auditory meatus were observed and recorded for presence or absence. The results for the p0pulation are presented for males and females on Table l9. Parietal Foramina The frequency of the occurrence of openings in the parietals through which veins pass to the superior saggital sinus were recorded and a summary is presented for males and females on Table 20. T05 TABLE l9.--Percentages of temporal bones from the Fletcher site (20BY28) exhibiting exostoses of the external auditory meatus. Right Left % % ' % % No. Present Absent No. Present Absent Males l8 lT.l 88.9 20 l5.0 85.0 Females TB 0.0 lO0.0 T7 0.0 lO0.0 TABLE 20.--Percentages of crania from the Fletcher site (208Y28) exhibiting parietal foramina. om..— Right Left % % % % No. Present Absent No. Present Absent Males ll 45.5 54.5 ll 45.5 54.5 Females l3 69.2 30.8 T4 78.6 2l.4 Metopic Sutures Nineteen adult males and twenty adult females were examined for the presence of a patent metopic suture. None were observed. Non-Metric Postcranial Observations Four discontinuous morphological traits were considered for the postcranial skeleton. For reasons mentioned above, degrees of involve- ment or size designations were avoided for both the septal aperture of the humerus and the depth of the scapular notch. T06 Septal Aperture of the Humerus The frequency of the occurrence of a foramen through which the corocoid fossa communicates with the olecranon fossa, is presented for both sexes in Table 21. TABLE 21.--Percentages of humeri from the Fletcher site (20BY28) exhibiting a septal aperture. Right Left % % % % No. Present Absent No. Present Absent Males 13 15.4 84.6 9 0.0 100.0 Females 15 26.7 73.3 13 23.1 76.9 Vertebral Border of the Scapula An attempt was made to study the conformation of the vertebral border of the scapula, but due to the fragile nature of that structure, only two individuals out of the entire population could be observed for the trait. Both of the individuals are males and in both cases, only the right scapula is complete enough for the examination of the border. One of them is concave while the other is convex. Sgepular Notch The opening of the superior border of the scapula for the passage of the suprascapular nerve may be in the form of a notch; if the superior transverse ligament has ossified, a foramen (Gray, 1971:213); or not present at all. On the scapulae from the Fletcher site which were 107 complete enough for the examination of this feature (five left and three right, all male) only notches were observed. Transverse Bridge on the First Cervical Vertebra Anderson (1968:36) states: The commonest anomaly of the first cervical vertebra is a complete or partial bridge of bone extending from the superior articular facet either laterally to the transverse process or posteriorly to the posterior arch, thus forming a tunnel for the vertebral artery. Forty-four cervical vertebrae were complete enough for the examination of the transverse process for either a lateral or posterior bridge. Eighteen of them (40.9%) exhibit one or another of the anomalies. 0f nineteen males examined, eight showed bridges, while they are present on four out of eighteen females and five out of seven unsexable individuals. The anomalies are not always bilaterally symmetrical, however, a posterior bridge on one side never paired with a lateral bridge on the other. Individuals 4, 84, 96 and 103 possessed both a lateral and posterior bridge on at least one of the processes. The trait was observed on subadults as well as adults, four of the individuals identified with a bridge being stage IV or less. The frequency of the occurrence of lateral and posterior bridges on the transverse processes of the first cervical vertebrae is summarized in Table 22. 108 TABLE 22.--Percentages of first cervical vertebrae from the Fletcher site (ZOBYZB) with bridges on the transverse processes. Lateral Bridges Posterior Bridges No. % with Bridge No. % with Bridge Males 19 21.1 19 21.1 Females TB 5.6 18 16.7 Stature Tables 23 and 24 present the maximum and minimum stature estimates for each of the males and females complete enough for such an assessment, as well as a list of the bones used to arrive at the values for each individual. As mentioned earlier, the data provided by Genoves (1966) were used for stature estimation. In the tables, the metric figures are rounded off to the nearest 1/2 centemeter and the feet and inches to the nearest inch. The mean statures for the Fletcher p0pulation were determined by first calculating the mean of Uwzestimates from the various bones used for each individual, then calculating the mean of these values for both males and females. The estimated stature of the individuals from burials 54 and 105 appear on Tables 23 and 24, however they are eliminated from the summary statistics either because they were based upon too little information, i.e., one arm bone, or, in the case of burial 105, because pathological modifications were severe enough on the long bones so that stature was undoubtedly effected. 109 .aee_p Beep eea Sem_t .Lgeae eea_ nee Beard =m.m-=m.m m.mm_-o.nm_ mm .aeaee uea_ eea eem_e .Lseat Hea_ eea peace .m:_eat “cap eea gem_c .aeFa eea_ eea peeve .mseae3e eta_ eea peace =©.m-.e.m m.ee_-m.mo_ _m .a_aee eea_ eea peace .Lseae eea_ ace Benet .meeeae Benet .aeF3 Sea_ eea unmet .mgea53e eea_ eea Dem_m .m.m-._.m o.ee_-o.em_ we .a_e_e eea_ aea eem_e .L:Eat ete_ ace Semec .maeeat unmet .mseae=e peeve =m_m-.e_m m.FN_-o.NeF am .ceeac eea_ eea peeve .mscae:e peeve =m_m-.m.m m.me_-o.am_ Ne .Leeac Heme .m:_eac eta_ .mzeae=e Sea_ eea Semem .m.m-.m.m o.me_-m.oeF me .a_a_e eem_c .Leeae eca_ .m:_eac Sem_t .macae:e eemwm .N.m-._.m m.~m,-m.ame NN .aea_e eca_ .c35ae Sea_ eea peace .m:_eac Sea_ .ae_: eemec .mstae=e agave .N.m-.e.m o._N_-m.~e_ o_ .aeeee “new; .cseae eta_ nee Semec .ae_= Benet .m=_eae e;m_c .maeae=e agave =m.m-.e.m o.mu_-o.me_ A .aeaee eta_ eea unmet .czeae eta, nee Heme; .aeF: eca_ eea Beam; .m:_eac eta, nee pem_c .mseae=e Heap eea eea_m =m.m-=m.m m.mo_-o.mm_ a cowumF=upmu see new: mmcom mmcucH vcm ummu «mcmumewucmu ”wwwum .Amm>momv muwm gmcuuw—m ms» Eocw mmFmE p_:uo mcu we mmczumum vmumewummii.mm m4m_ncw mv:_ucw no: on meme xcm553mv mm.m N_.me_ m_ 1a.... Ham. .2. 232.. .a_=eec eta_ eea peeve .e_e_e peep nee peace .ezeae eem_e .m=_eee eca_ eea unmet .ae_= Sea_ nee peeve .matae:e eta, use eem_m zN.m-.m.m o.ou_-o.oe_ mo_ .aeaee Sea_ eea Sem_e .Laeae Sea_ .ascae=e peas .e.m-.m.m m.me_-o._e_ eo_ .c35me uth .m:_umc utmfi use unmet .ae_= peep nee peeve .mata235 ecae eea “Lowe =N.m-=P.m m.hm_-m.em_ mo_ .ae_: Sem_c .m=_eat unmet .matae=e Semem .e.m m.eep-o.eep co. .L35ae Deep sea peace .maeeac eea_ .mgtae=e “was .m.m-.e_m o.me_-o.Ne_ am .Lseat eta_ eea Heme“ =m.m-=e.m o.me_-m.mo_ mm 111 .mSLwEDS Hfimwm :O.m O.mmr Gm .a_aee Sea_ .Leeae eca_ eea Unmet .m:_eac eeae .ae_= Sea_ .meca53; Beau =__.e-=m.e m.PmP-m.meF we .mwflwfl “$0! aLDEQW “$04 :F.ml:O.m O.©m—Im.rmr 0V .czemw uth use pear; .mc—z “ca_ .aeeeat eea_ eea peace .maeae35 eca_ nee “seem =N.m-=F_.e o.em_-m.omfi ma .aee_e eea_ nee Benet .Lseae eta_ eea unmet .meeeat eta, .mata532 Semem .N.m-.o.m m.omr-m.mm_ oe .aeaee eta. eea Benet .LDEat Semem .a.e-.w.a o.ma_-o.ma_ em .a_eee Sea_ ace Benet .tzeae ece_ eea agave =PF_a-=o_.e o._m_-o.meF mp .aeeee Heap .Laeat eta_ nee Beard =e.m-=m.m o.~e_-o.mm_ m_ .eeeee eca_ nee Deuce .Laeat ecm_ eee “norm .o_.a-.m.a m.ma_-m.ee_ N_ .aeaee eca_ eea unmet .e35ac Sea_ nee Sem_e .ae_= Sem_t .meeaEDe peeve =__m-.o_m o.em_-o.mm_ _F .aee_e eta? eea e;m_e .Laeae Sea_ eea eemec .maeeac Demem .N.m-=_.m o.mm_-m.amp momv mu_m cmcupmpu mcu Eoew mmFmEmm “Faun mcu we mmezumum uwumeumm11.¢N m4m~:o mucosa; mpmcwm a con: comma mm; momewumm mczpmum ecu mucwm em _mzuw>wncw muzpucw we: on mums xcm553mv om.¢ oo.mm_ mm 112 Imiw eaaz z m_aeoes .eee_e unmet .czeat peace =o_.e-.m_e m.we.-o.eep _o_ .c25me uwm— vcm “cow; .mzwvmc agave .mc—s uzmwm =m.m-:o.m o.mm_Io.mmF mm .aeaee “cap nee unmet .Leeat Heap eea Heart .metaEDe Bea, eea Sem_m =__.e-.m.a m.FmF-o.Ne_ em .eea_e Sea_ .EDEac eem_c .macae=e eta; =e.m-.m.m m.mo_-m.mmP Fm .a_aee eta. .caeac Heap eea Benet .azca231 “coax =m.m-._.m o.mm_-m.mm_ mm .aee_e eta_ eea eem_c .eeeae eca_ eea agave =__.e-=o_.e m._m_-o.NeP om .a_=e_c unmet .aeeee unmet .235at peeve .mzea53; peer eea peeve =m.m-:~.m m._o_-o.mm_ m“ .235ae eca_ eea Semem .N.m-.__m m.wm_-o.~m_ mp“ .caemw peep .mzwvmc “cap ace peace .aepz Sea_ nee “govt .mstae=; Beau .m_m-=P.m o.oe_-o.mm_ _e .mwnwu uwmp .caemw uwmp new ucmwc .mzcmszc uwmA :F.mi:o.m o.mm_1m.mm~ om 113 The mean height for fifteen males is 163.17cm. (5'4.2") and the range is 154.5cm. to 175.0cm. For twenty females, the mean stature is 153.6cm. ranging from 144.5cm. to 163.5cm. Comparisons of these stature estimates to those derived from other Historic or Woodland skeletal series from the Great Lakes area reveal that both the males and females from the Fletcher site are, on the average, quite short (see Figure 6). In his analysis of the Lasanen population, Clute (1971:122) reported mean statures of 168.79 and 163.58 for males and females respectively. Anderson (1963:37) estimated the mean stature for the Fairty population, a Woodland group from Ontario, at 169.3 (sexes pooled). For the Mound group from the Serpent Mounds site, another Woodland population from Ontario, the same author (1968:41) reported mean estimated statures of 170.7cm. for the males and 165.9 for the females. Finally, according to McPherron (1967:230), the mean stature for adults (presumably males and females) from the Late Woodland Juntenun site is approximately 168cm. Unfortunately, there are no Historic period Central Algonquian populations from the Great Lakes area for which data were available to compare with the estimated statures of the Fletcher series. Such a population, if fairly closely related to the Fletcher population biologically, might provide some clues as to the influence of genetics relative to the environment in determining the stature of individuals from the Fletcher site. In the Holmes Anniversary Volume, Ales Hrdlicka (1916:209) presents measurements and descriptions of various traits among a number of living, twentieth century Chippewa. The mean statures he reported, 114 Males S e 1 W. F .m Hm . m s\ ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ...................................................................... //////////////////////////////////////////////m llld‘llcllll‘ ---------------------------------------------------------------- ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 2222222222222222. . W 2.. 6.398823 5" .oflfiapu “.355"va 5oz with four other Great Lakes area sites and Modern Chippewa. Figure 6.--Comparison of the estimated stature from the Fletcher site 115 ll7.9cm. for 17 males and 157.2cm. for 41 females are considerably higher than any of the means listed for Western Great Lakes area Woodland or Historic period skeletal populations. These data could be indicating any of a number of salient facts. First, Chippewa and even Central Algonquians in general, may have been on the average unusually tall, and the Fletcher population may be truly aberrant in this respect. The data could also be demon- strating, however, that the admixture (noted by Hrdlicka, p. 21, as a possible factor), had a marked effect upon twentieth century Chippewa. This is quite unlikely, however since an apparently rigorous screening process was undertaken in order to select "full-blooded" Indians for the study. Finally, it is possible that much or all of the disparity is due to methodological factors. Possibly, the two methods used to calculate the stature of living individuals from skeletal remains is of less value than anticipated when applied to populations other than those from which the regression equations and the data are derived. Another possible methodological problem becomes apparent when one considers the manner by which the assessments used for the mean stature comparison were derived. While, as mentioned above, the Fletcher series statures were estimated using the Genoves (1970) method, the statures reported for the Lasanen, Fairty and Serpent Mounds material were all calculated by the Trotter and Gleser (T958) technique. In order to control for disparities in these resulting values which were due to differences in the method used to derive estimated height, each of the Fletcher specimens was re-assessed with the Trotter and (Sleser technique and the data were summarized. 116 The re-evaluation demonstrated a significant difference in the results obtained by the two methods. The adjusted mean values for the males from the site was 167.2cm. while the female mean was l6l.2cm., compared to 163.7cm. and 153.6cm. for the groups, respectively, when derived by the Genoves method. Thus, the Trotter and Gleser estimate represents a 2.5% increase over the Genoves estimate for males and a 4.9% increase for females. SUch a discrepency clearly demonstrates the need for further research and more data pertaining to the relationship between long bone lengths, especially for American Indians. Also, it emphasizes the fact that investigators must use extreme caution when dealing with published stature data. The application of the Trotter and Gleser (T958) technique to the Fletcher material obviously has the effect of greatly reducing the apparent uniqueness of very short stature (see Figure 6). Nevertheless, both the males and females from the Fletcher series still appear shorter than the males and females from all the other sites presented except for the female Chippewa (Hrdlicka pointed out, p. 209, that the Chippewa exhibited an unusually marked degree of sexual dimorphism). Only the Lasanen report presented data which permitted a t-test for the significance of the differences between means. The differences were not significant for males, but were significant at the .05 level of probability for the females (t = 1.795, 30 d.f.). The mean stature value for the Fletcher site with the estimates pooled as to sex 163.7cm.) is similarly less than both the Juntenen and Fairty populations. 117 Thus, the individuals from the Fletcher site are short among selected Great Lakes area Woodland and Historic period Indian popula- tions. Summar Unfortunately, only a few of the male crania were complete enough for the calculation of more than a few of the indices. The importance of this deficiency is amplified by the fact that most of the published comparative material only includes the metrics of the male crania. The females, however, are in slightly better condition and provide a more sizeable body of data. Twelve of the female crania yielded most of the desired measurements. The crania from the Fletcher burial area are rather homogeneous, with one notable exception, burial 88, which, as explained earlier, was excluded from the metric analysis portion of the present study. The neurocrania from the site are large, generally brachycranic and relatively medium in height. The female faces and nasal apertures are quite broad while the male faces and nasal openings are medium in width. Nearly all the eye sockets are wide and the palates are broad. Sutural bones are relatively infrequent, even on the lambdoid where they most often occur. A third of the males and 26.7% of the females exhibited the bones. Inca bones were noticed on only three out of thirty skulls. The male mandibles are quite large with square chins and pro- nounced gonial angles. The female mandibles, on the other hand are fairly rounded at the chin and gonial angle. Mylohyoid bridges are quite frequent on the male segment of the sample. 118 The most noticeable feature indicated by the postcranial metrics is the low mean estimated stature of both the males and females from the site, 5'4.3" and 5'0.7” respectively. Both sexes are shorter than the specimens from the Historic and Prehistoric sites to which the Fletcher sample was compared. The Fletcher sample was compared to three other Historic . skeletal series using mean cranial measurements: (1) the Crawford Farm material, an Algonquian population from northern Illinois; (2) the Christian Island material, a Huron population from southern Ontario; and (3) the Lasanen material, possibly a mixed Iroquois and Algonquian population from the region of the Mackinaw Straits in Michigan. In order to correct for size differences as well as to facilitate graphic representation, the means were converted to T-scores which were then plotted. The resulting profiles indicate that the Fletcher series was relatively closely related to the material from Rock Island and quite distinct from the other skeletal series. This assessment is consistent with the archaeological and historical evidence. Of the several postcranial non-metric observations studied, the bridge of bone on the atlas vertebra, extending from the superior articular to either the transverse process or to the posterior arch was noted in particularly high frequency. One or another of the bridges was identified on 40.9% of the atlas vertebrae complete enough for the examination of that region. Few site reports mention this anomaly, however, Anderson (1968:51) reported a 31% incidence among the Middle Woodland Mound group from the Serpent Mounds, and a 10% 119 incidence in the Late Woodland Pit group. It would be interesting to study this anomaly over a broader spectrum of time and space and explore possible genetic or environmental influences. Statures were estimated for fifteen males and twenty females from the Fletcher site. Both the Genoves (1970), and the Trotter and Gleser (1958) methods were used. It was discovered that the two methods yielded considerably different assessments using the same data. The statures derived by the Trotter and Gleser method were, on the average, 2.5% higher for males and 4.9% higher for the females than those obtained by the Genoves technique. While the Trotter and Gleser method increased the stature estimates for the Fletcher Population, the individuals were still shorter than the several Historic and Woodland skeletal series to which they were compared. A t-test indicated that the differences between the stature estimates of the females from the Fletcher and Lasanen sites were significant at the .05 level of probability. CHAPTER V MORTALITY PROFILES All but six (6.67%) of the 96 individuals from the Fletcher site were assignable to one of the seven age stages. One of the exceptions is a subadult while the remaining five are adults: three females and two sets of remains which are too fragmentary for sexing. The frequencies of individuals in each of the age stages are summarized on Table 25 and Figure 7. Figure 8 presents a comparison of the mortality profile from the Fletcher site to three Illinois sites: one Archaic, one Hopewell and one Middle Mississippian (Blakely, 1971). One problem evident from the skeletal age schemes used in the present study is the inequality of the duration in years of each of the seven stages. Stage I probably includes a two to three year span; whereas the second stage might include three to four years; stage III, five to seven years; and stage IV six to eight years. The adult stages are even broader and stages V and VI probably include an average of five to fifteen years. The last stage is open ended and its duration obviously depends upon the longevity of the individuals within the population. Thus, one cannot assume that simply because one stage includes more specimens than the other, that the former stage is more hazardous for its members. An attempt is made to circumvent this problem, when comparing this scheme to Blakeley's 1971 scheme, for example, by combining several of the age categories where necessary. 120 121 Males . Females 30 - 20 “T 10 - Percentage of samples in each group. I II III IV V VI VII Age Groups Figure 7.--Percentages of subadults and male and female adults in each of the seven age stages. .37. .86me m5 .1.I.I.I.1“=m.a igmmmpmmwz mpuvwz ...............cmw_pm3waoz . ......... mommguc< . .cowumFaaoa cmgoumpu mg» ucn .Apmmp apmxmpm cmummv meowumpagoa :mwncH mwocwppH upcoumwsmea amen» mo mmpwmocg aumeucozii.m mcamwm acne» cw mm< om ow om . ON or o I: 122 tow fiom toe '(ehuaqu; qoea ut safiezuaouad Sm 123 TABLE 25.--Frequencies and percentages of individuals from the Fletcher site (208Y28) in each of the established age stages. Stage Frequency Per Cent I 21 23.3 II 9 10.0 III 7 7.8 IV 11 12.2 V 12 13.3 VI 22 24.4 v11 _g3_ _§_._9_ TOTAL 90 99.9 Slightly more than one-half (53%) of the individuals from the Fletcher site were subadult (less than stage V) at death. Largely responsible for this is the expected high frequency (23%) of neonatal deaths. The following stages show a decrease in frequency to stage III which has the smallest percentage of individuals (8%) of any of the groups. Stage IV, which includes adolescents is higher than either stage II or stage III, but this may be related to the fact that stage IV undoubtedly encompasses a greater age range than any of the previous stages. A significant sexual difference in mortality is detectable in the first adult stage, V, within which 69% are females and 31% are males. Blakely (1971:46) encountered a similar sexual difference in deaths during the third decade in three Indian populations from 124 Illinois and suggested two alternatives which might have accounted for the discrepancy. On one hand, it may have been due to an increase in famale deaths related to childbearing and parturition. On the other hand, it could have been the result of the activities of males from that age group, which may have taken them away from the remainder of the population. If these men died away from the habitation area, it is possible that they were not transported back to the cemetary. There is reason to believe that either or both of these conditions had an effect upon the Fletcher population. First, that some of the females would have died during gestation and parturition is virtually indis- putable. Secondly, if the assumption that the Indians were trading furs is valid, and if as McGaugh (1950:22) claims, the major fur outlets for the region were near the Straits of Mackinaw and Detroit, it is reasonable to suspect that the males did, in fact, leave the home base for extended periods of time while transporting furs or trading goods. The lack of inequality of males and females in the next stage may be at least partially due to the fact that men in their fourth decade of life were less likely to make such long journeys and were therefore more likely to have died near the village. A second mode appears in the next stage, V, representing 24% of the total sample. The sexual discrepancy observed on the previous stage disappears and there is a 1:1 ratio of males and females. Data supplied by Blakely (1971) on prehistoric Indians from Illinois are used for comparative purposes. Unfortunately, his age categories are different from mine and comparisons between them require adjustments of figures. In his Table l (p. 47), frequencies of deaths are presented 125 in intervals of ten years for an Archaic, one Hopewell, and a Middle Mississippian population. In order to facilitate comparisons, stages I, II, and III from this report are combined and matched to Blakely's 0-10 years category; stages IV, V and VI are compared to his categories 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40, respectively; and finally, since I did not distinguish separate age groupings beyond the beginning of old age, Blakely's stages from 40 to 80 are compared to stage VII. Mortality profiles of the three Illinois populations and the Fletcher site with sexes combined appear in Figure 8. With two exceptions, there seems to be a fair degree of con- cordance between the three prehistoric and the historic mortality pro- files (Figure B). The exceptions are the high frequency in the fourth decade, or stage VI from the Fletcher site, and the low frequency of individuals in the category containing all the individuals beyond the age of forty, or stage VII in the Fletcher population. Several explanations for the high frequency of individuals from the Fletcher site in stage VI are possible. The first is sampling error, always a possibility when samples the size of the Fletcher population are under consideration. Secondly, the Fletcher stage VI could be too inclusive and contain individuals from the fifth, sixth and even seventh decade, a fact which would also account for the low frequency of individuals in the following stage. However, this is unlikely because several investigators who independently examined the Fletcher material failed to find more than eight individuals that appeared to be greater than forty years of age. Finally, it is possible that middle adulthood or the 126 years from approximately thirty to forty were particularly hazardous for the inhabitants of the area. Maxwell (n.d.) has offered an interesting and very plausible explanation for the anomalous mortality profile of the Fletcher sample. In his analysis of burial practices, he maintains that the orientation of the graves towards the rising or setting sun suggests a seasonal habitation of the area. He states: ”The site, . . . appears to have been occupied only sporadically by small family bands in the late fall and winter; intensively occupied in the months of March and April; virtually abandoned in the summer, and occupied again by a large com- munity between mid-August and mid-October" (p. 15). The assumption is that the largest number of burials would have been dug during the periods when the habitation was most intense. Therefore, since the population was concentrated away from the Fletcher site during the harsh winter months, a greater proportion of the weak might have died and been interred elsewhere. The resulting mortality profile would show an otherwise unexpected lack of individuals in certain age cate- gories, for example the elderly or stage VII. CHAPTER VI PATHOLOGY AND ANOMALIES Skeletal pathologies were observed on thirty-four of the adults and several of the subadults from the site. For the present discussion, these have been placed into five general categories (adopted with slight modifications from Anderson [1969] and Morse [1969]): arthritis, osteophytic lipping of vertebral bodies, osteo- porosis, infections, and trauma. A residual category, general pathologies, has been added to include those features which seemed inappropriate for discussion in one of the established subdivisions. Arthritis The build up of ossified pannus which is characteristic of rheumatoid arthritis (Phenice, 1969:9), was identified on only one joint in the population, the proximal articular surface of the left tibia of individual 103. Osteoarthritis, on the other hand, is quite prevalent and its diagnosis was based upon the presence, on diarthrodial articular surfaces of ". . . eburnation of bone, osteophytic formation, alteration of articular surfaces and sclerosis of subchondral bone" (Sandison, 1968:224). Bourke (1969:355) and Chapman (1972:31) maintain that since intervertebral articulations contain no synovial membrane and thus are 127 l.llI||-l| !{'I\IIITI.I 128 amphiarthrodial joints, the osteophytic lipping which often occurs on the antero-lateral borders of the vertebral centra must be distinguished from that which surrounds diarthrodial joints. Bourke (1969:355) states, "Osteophytes can grow to great size at the margins of vertebral bodies, but these are not osteoarthritic. They are the consequence of collapse of the intervertebral disc and protrusions of the annulus." Therefore, osteophytic lipping of the borders of vertebral bodies is discussed separately from osteoarthritis. It must be kept in mind, however, that the apophyseal articulations of the vertebral column do contain synovia and are discussed in this section. Table 26 summarizes by burial, the incidence of osteoarthritis in the Fletcher population. Fourteen individuals from the site exhibit noticeable osteoarthritic modifications. One of these is a male, age stage V; four are stage VI males; five are stage VI females; four are stage VII males and one is a stage VII female. The arthritic lesions on most of the individuals appear to be degenerative ageing phenomena, however, several may be traumatic. The osteoarthritic lipping on the articular surfaces of several of the ribs of individual 26B is probably related to the extreme scoliosis observed on the spine of the specimen. Individual 35 shows an isolated arthritic lesion on a cervical vertebra, which, especially when the assessed age of stage V is taken into account, appears to be traumatic rather than degenerative. The eburnation on the articular facets of the odontoid process of the axis and the anterior arch of the atlas vertebrae of individuals 54 and 83, both stage VI females is also suggestive of a traumatic change. Finally, the 129 TABLE 26.--Individuals from the Fletcher site (208Y28) exhibiting Burial Number osteoarthritis. Pathology 10 22 26B 35 48 49 54 61 62 Osteophytic lipping on distal articular surface of left femur, the heads of both humeri and both acetabular rims. Destruction with eburnation of the left inferior articular facet of the second lumbar vertebra and the left superior articular facet of the third lumbar vertebra. OsteOphytic lipping on the articular facets of several ribs. Osteophytic lipping on the right inferior articular facet of a cervical vertebra. Destruction with eburnation of the right inferior articular facet of the second thoracic vertebra and the right superior articular facet of the third thoracic vertebra. Osteophytic lipping with eburnation on the proximal and distal articular surfaces of the right and left femora, the proximal articular surfaces of the right and left tibiae, several vertebral articular facets, the articular surface of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra and the facet for the process on the anterior arch of the atlas vertebra, and on several hand and foot bones; osteophytic lipping on the proxi- mal and distal articular surfaces of the right and left humeri, the proximal articular surfaces of the right and left radii and ulnae, the glenoid fossae of the right and left scapulae, the sternal articular facets of the right and left clavicles, and the articular facets of several ribs; severe arthritic destruction of the articular surfaces of the left elbow. Eburnation on the articular facet of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra and the facet for that process on the anterior arch of the atlas vertebra. Osteophytic lipping on the distal articular surfaces of the right and left femora, the proximal articular surface of the left tibia, the glenoid fossae of the right and left scapulae, and several vertebral articular facets; severe arthritic destruction of the articular surfaces of the right elbow; eburnation on the proximal articular surface of the left tibia. Osteophytic lipping on the distal articular surfaces of the first right and left metatarsals; arthritic destruction of the articular facets of the inferior five certical vertebrae and 130 TABLE 26.--Continued. Burial Number Pathology 68 83 94 100 103 105 several of the thoracic vertebrae; arthritic destruction and eburnation of the right mandibular condyle. Osteophytic lipping with eburnation on the distal articular surface of the left femur, the proximal articular surface of left tibia, the acromial articular facets of the right and left clavicles, the clavicular articular facets of the right and left acromia, the articular facets of several cervical and thoracic vertebrae, and the articular surfaces of several hand and foot bones; osteophytic lipping on the proximal and distal articular surfaces of the right femur and the distal right humerus. Osteophytic lipping of the articular facet on the odontoid process of the axis and on the facet for that process on the atlas vertebra. Osteophytic lipping on the acromial articular facet of the right clavicle and on the opposing superior and inferior articular facets of two thoracic vertebrae. Marked osteoarthritic destruction of the auricular surfaces of the right ilium and the right side of the sacrum. Osteophytic lipping with eburnation on the proximal articular surface of the left tibia, the acromial articular facet of the right clavicle, the inferior articular facets of the fourth and fifth and the superior articular facets of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae and the articular surfaces of several hand and foot bones; osteophytic lipping and destruction of the distal articular surface of the left femur, the proximal articular surface of the right tibia, the proximal articular surfaces of the right and left humeri, the proximal articular surface of the left ulna, the right acetabular rim, the glenoid fossae of the right and left scapulae, the acromial articular facets of the right and left clavicles, and articular facets of several ribs. Osteophytic lipping with eburnation on the proximal articular surface of the left tibia, the ulnar notch of the right radius, and the head of the right ulna; osteophytic lipping on the distal articular surface of the left femur, the proximal articular surface of the left tibia and fibula, the proximal and distal articular facets of the right and left radii and ulnae, the acromial articular facets of the right and left clavicles, the articular facets of several vertebrae, and the articular facets of several hand and foot bones; arthritic destruction of the right mandibular condyle. 131 destruction of the right sacro-iliac articulation of individual 100 may be related to an injury. Osteophytic Lipping on Vertebral Bodies The assessment of the degree to which osteophytic lipping occurs on the upper and lower margins of the bodies of the vertebrae from the site was made difficult by the fragmentary nature of the material. Many of the vertebral columns were partially or completely eroded beyond the point where lipping could be identified. Had the remains been more complete, certainly a greater number of individuals would have exhibited at least some involvement. Nevertheless, vertebral body osteophytosis was noted in varying degrees in fifteen of the adults from the site (Table 27). That eleven of those fifteen (73%) are males does not necessarily indicate an unequal distribution of lipping between the sexes, since there is not an equal number of males and females from each of the age categories represented. Only one of the individuals from stage VII is female. All of the individuals from stage VII show moderate to severe lipping except individual 46, the vertebral bodies of which are severely eroded. Only six of the 22 specimens from stage VI exhibited osteophytic lipping on vertebral bodies, but again many of the indi- viduals from that category have vertebral columns which were excluded from diagnosis because of weathering. Lipping was noticed on one stage V individual, number 7, a male. 132 TABLE 27.--Individuals from the Fletcher site (20BY28) exhibiting vertebral body osteophytosis. Burial Number Age Sex Locat1on and Degree of Lipping 7 V M Slight on 8th through 12th thoracic. 10 VI M Moderate on 5th and 6th cervical; marked on several thoracic. 11 adult F Moderate on several thoracic; marked on all lumbar. lBB VII M Marked on 2nd through 7th cervical and lst thoracic. 22 VI M Slight on all lumbar. 48 VI F Moderate on 3rd through 7th cervical. 49 VII M Moderate to severe on 3rd through 7th cervical and lst through 12th thoracic; marked on all lumbar with ankylosis of 3rd and 4th lumbar and 5th lumbar and sacrum. 54 VI F Moderate on 5th through 7th thoracic. 61 VII F Moderate on 6th and 7th cervical and lst through 11th thoracic; severe on 12th thoracic and lumbar. 64 VI M Slight on 3rd through 5th cervical; ankylosis of 6th and 7th cervical; moderate on 6th through 9th thoracic. 68 VII M Moderate to severe on 3rd through 7th cervical; moderate on thoracic and lst through 4th lumbar; severe on 5th lumbar. 81 VI M Slight on lst through 5th thoracic; moderate on 6th through 12th thoracic. 86 VII M Moderate on 6th cervical and several thoracic. 103 VII M Moderate to severe on all cervical, thoracic and lumbar. 105 VII M Moderate on several thoracic. 133 In comparing the relative frequency of cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae exhibiting osteophytic Tipping of the upper and lower margins of the bodies, it appears that there is no significant dif- ference in the presence or absence of the lesions between groups (see Figure 9). However, mgrkeg_lipping was observed on the thoracic vertebrae of only three out of nine of the affected individuals, but on the cervical vertebrae of six out of nine and the lumbar vertebrae of five out of six of the individuals that displayed noticeable lipping in those regions. Three cases of vertebral body ankylosis were noted, two of which were diagnosed as osteophytosis. On individual 49, the third and fourth lumbar and the fifth lumbar and the first sacral vertebrae are fused (Plate 16) as are the sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae of individual 64 (Plate 16). In both of these specimens the lesions are associated with extensive osteophytic lipping. The third incidence of spinal fusion occurs between the second and third cervical vertebra of individual 43 (Plate 16) and is not accompanied by lipping. The two bodies are in direct contact with each other, with no intervertebral space and the diarthrodeal apophyseal articulations are also fused. Possibly this is a congenital abnormality. Osteoporosis There are several difficulties inherent in considerations of osteoporosis. First, since there are no discrete features associated with the condition, it is best represented quantitatively. However, the various methods which have been suggested for assessing bone Cervical Thoracic ._J...a..a N—‘OOCDVOTUT-fiwN-Jflmmbw Lumbar 01-wa Figure 9. I... .. no u . ....... n... u... .u. ga.... - c- no..u-o-u-c.-.... . .a-n... . AAAIAIAAIJI"II - . .. . .o .. ..... ...... can... --o- a... 1 8 9 10 11 Incidence of OsteOphytic Lipping --The incidence of osteophytic lipping on the bodies of the vertebrae from the Fletcher site 208Y28 . 135 demineralization by measuring cortical thickness (Garn, 1970:10-13; Dewey, et a1., 1969:15) are frequently inappropriate for archaeological specimens. In the Fletcher sample, for example, many of the cortices have been reduced by erosion so that such measurements may be misleading. Recently, Perzigian (1973) suggested a radiologic method for measuring osteoporosis. Since it measures the mineral mass rather than gross dimensions, it should be less affected by weathering than the more traditional methods. The materials necessary for this technique, however, were not available for the present study. A second problem associated with studying osteoporosis is the lack of comparative data from North American Indian skeletal series. The few skeletal analyses which mention paleopathology, generally neglect bone demineralization. The only systematic study published on the subject appears to be Perzigian's (1973) article. Unfortunately, because of the methods used and the mode of data presentation, studies of the condition by more traditional means are not comparable. Thus, for North American Indian populations, comparative data on osteoporosis is generally lacking. Finally, a third problem is one of determining the implications of various levels of bone demineralization in populations. There is disagreement about the causes of interpopulational variation. Several etiological factors are mentioned by Garn (1970): nutrition, genetics, inactivity and disease. Arguing against the first of these factors, nutrition, Perzigian (T973) maintains that osteoporosis is independent of a popula- tion's diet and that interpopulational differences in the occurrence of 136 the condition are more likely due to genetics. He states (p. 44), that an analysis of the osteoporosis in an Archaic period and a Hopewell population ". . . suggests that dietary sufficiency does not contribute to maintenance of either cortical or trabecular bone." In support of his statement, he has demonstrated radiologically that there is more bone demineralization in the Hopewellian Pete Klunk Mound Group than in the Archaic Indian Knoll skeletal series. Based upon the assumption that the Hopewell diet was "nutritionally more adequate" than the Archaic diet he concludes that the differences in the occurrence of osteoporosis between the two is due to factors other than diet. This assumption, that the diet of the Hopewell population was better than that of the Archaic group, is explained by presenting the following evidence: (1) the Hopewell population had a "superior hunting technology“; (2) the floral remains recovered from the later site were more varied; (3) the Hopewell period is characterized by an increase in population density; (4) the life expectancy of the latter group was longer than that of the former; and (5) the average diameter of the radii from the Hopewell population was greater than that of the Archaic group. Each of these lines of evidence is well documented and there is no reason to suspect any are inaccurate or misrepresented. Nevertheless, the conclusion that any or all of them demonstrate a dietary improvement from Archaic to Hopewell times is not consistent with other evidence. In the first place, a "superior hunting technology" does not necessarily indicate a superior diet. Certainly the availability of game is a factor. If the later population was more sedentary than the earlier 137 one (as the author has suggested), then local over-kill may have limited the supply of game in the region. Secondly, the more varied floral remains associated with the later group may also be a function of increased sedentarism, in that the longer a population remains in a particular locale the greater the probability that different kinds of seasonably exploitable plants will be recovered from the campsite. Third, Richard Lee (1972) has shown that, at least among the !Kung, population growth is not related to diet, in the sense that Perzigian suggests. Rather than an indication of an improved nutritional status, the increase in population among the groups he considered was related to the economic role of women and the restrictions that high mobility places upon mothers with infants. He concludes (p. 342) by stating: Data on the !Kung (who are in one sense on the threshold of the Neolithic) suggest that sedentarism alone may trigger population growth, since women may have children more fre- quently without any increase in work on their part and without reducing their ability to provide for each one. Fourth, because of the problem of placing restrictions upon a group's mobility, one would expect to find fewer aged individuals in a mobile group than in a more sedentary population. Thus, the increased life expectancy reported for the Hopewell group, may also be a function of sedentarism and not due to dietary amelioration. If the above assumptions can be considered not demonstrative of an improved Hopewellian diet, the only evidence that remains con- sists of the diameters of radius diaphyses. An increased width of the radius is taken to be indicative of an improved diet for Hopewell populations. Nevertheless, later in his paper (p. 89) the author states, "The width of bone has been shown to positively correlate 138 with B.M.C."1 Here is an important contradiction. If bone width is positively correlated with B.M.C. and if increased bone width shows an ". . . ostensibly . . . more adequate diet . . ." (p. 88), then it follows that B.M.C., oste0porosis, is correlated with a better diet. The fact that the two populations used in Perzigian's study do not agree with this general trend, apparently indicates that they are exceptional in these respects. Undoubtedly, the question of the etiology of osteoporosis remains unsettled, but diet has yet to be eliminated as a possible factor. Since the materials necessary for measuring B.M.C. were not available for the present analysis and since erosion precluded quantifi- cation of osteoporosis by the methods proposed by Garn (1970) and Dewey et al. (1969), judgments concerning the presence or absence of significant mineral loss were necessarily subjective. A bone or skeleton was assessed as osteoporotic only when the cortex was particularly thin both morphoscopically and in most cases, radiographic- ally. If it were unclear whether involution or erosion was responsible for a thin cortex, no judgment was made concerning the condition on that individual or bone. The Fletcher material was found to be consistent with the expected age and sex distribution of bone demineralization. Garn (1970) working with modern populations and Dewey, et a1. (1969) with Nubian archaeological populations both found a positive correlation between 1Bone Mineral Content 139 cortical involution and ageing. These authors also agree that sex differences exist with respect to the process. According to Dewey (1969:25): The females show a definite and progressive involution from age 20 to 50+, while the males, in general, appear to maintain their femoral cortical thickness until nearly the fifth decade before exhibiting obvious bone loss. At least nine of the individuals from the burial area exhibit obvious cortical involution. All but two of these are stage VI or VII individuals. The exceptions are a stage IV and a stage V female. Of the remaining seven, three are stage VI females, one is a stage VII female, two are stage VII males, and one is a female listed as an adult in the burial description, but which is most likely at least a stage VI individual. Thus, while there are the same number of females and males in the middle adult category, three of the four identifiable cases of marked osteoporosis are females. In the later age category, wherein the males appear to outnumber the females, it should be pointed out that only two stage VII females were identified in the population and one of these was severely eroded so that the degree to which cortical thinning was due to involution could not be determined. One additional stage VII male exhibited marked involution of the cortex of the left femur and tibia only. Since, however, this individual (B-105) also showed severe pathological modifications including marked osteo- myelitis on the right femur and tibia, it was judged that the osteo- porosis was probably related to prolonged inactivity which was not likely the case for the other specimens. 140 This sample is admittedly small for making generalizations about the population, however, it is interesting to note the consistency of the Fletcher material with other groups in terms of osteoporosis. If more discriminating methods were to be applied to this population, in terms of analyzing this condition, such as the radiographic method described by Perzigian, the sample could certainly be expanded. Also, if such a technique could be applied to a number of populations, it is conceivable that bone demineralization could become a useful tool in estimating either biological relationships (if, in fact population differences do have a significant genetic component) or perhaps the nutritional status of a population. For example, the presence of at least nine individuals from the Fletcher series who exhibit marked cortical involution may be an indication that the population was living under conditions of adaptive stress and at least some of the individuals were not receiving adequate nutrition. In the absence of reliable comparative information, however, it is difficult to demonstrate that the Fletcher skeletal material is unique or unusual in this regard. Inflammation of Bone Bone infections are generally categorized under three types of diseases: osteitis, inflammation of the bone; periostitis, inflammation of the periosteum; and osteomyelitis, inflammation of the marrow cavities (Morse, 1969:17). Nevertheless, Sandison (1968:224) warns that since a bone is a single unit and not made up of separate entities and since the three diseases often lead to one another and may even appear together, this type of classification is artificial and difficult to 141 apply. Therefore, in the present study, the term osteitis refers generally to an inflammation of boney tissue whether or not it is the periosteum, endosteum or cortex which is involved. Any designation beyond osteitis is made on the basis of well marked objective criteria. In the case of periostitis, a layer of ossified periosteum must be present. Unless the marrow cavity was observable either morphoscopi- cally or radiologically, drainage sinuses were the necessary diagnostic element for osteomyelitis. Since these diseases are etiologically so closely related, emphasis should be placed on the presence of infection rather than on the type of tissue involved. The incidence and type of bone infection identified on the material is summarized in Table 28. Though most of the cases of inflam- mation identified were chronic osteitis of diaphyses, one example of advanced osteomyelitis was diagnosed; the right leg of individual 105 (Plate 23). The cortex of both the femur and tibia is greatly enlarged and large drainage sinuses are present on the proximal and distal diaphyses of the femur and the proximal diaphyses of the tibia. On the left tibia, there appears to be an arrested episode of osteomyelitis in the form of a Brodie's abcess (see description of B 105). This indi- vidual also exhibits a number of additional pathological changes, including a severe wound on the right side of the cranium, which occurred at least several years before the individual's death. Individual 64 exhibits a small hole, about 4mm. in diameter, medial to the tip of the left mastoid process (Plate 14). The hole, which is well defined and somewhat remodeled, appears to communicate with the mastoid sinus and may be evidence of a suppurative infection. 142 TABLE 28.--Individuals from the Fletcher site (208Y28) exhibiting inflammation of bone. Pathology 33.23.21 I... 7 V 22 VI 44 IV 49 VII 61 VII 64 VI 718 VI 88 VI 105 VII Acute osteitis on the shaft of the right femur. Mild chronic osteitis on the anterior mid-shaft of the right tibia. Mild chronic osteitis on the proximal shaft of the right femur. Chronic osteitis on most of the long bones. Chronic osteitis on the anterior midshaft of the right tibia. Acute osteitis, with a drainage sinus, on the left mastoid process. Severe chronic periostitis and osteitis on the iliac fossa and gluteal surface of the left ilium and the neck of the left femur. Chronic periostitis on the internal surface of the bodies of the left ribs. Advanced chronic osteomyelitis and osteitis on the right femur and tibia; chronic osteitis and possibly a Brodie's abcess on the left tibia. Traumatic Lesions Several of the cases of osteoarthritis and osteitis may have been responses to injuries, however, the evidence is indirect and the relationship cannot be demonstrated conclusively. Nevertheless, there are certain lesions, fractures for example which are more direct evidence for trauma. Four fractures, three of them completely healed, were noted in the Fletcher sample. A fractured and healed right ulna 143 was identified on individual 26 A and a fractured and healed left ulna was associated with individual 105 (Plate 22). In neither case was the lesion accompanied by an injured radius from the same side and both may be examples of Parry fractures (see burial description 26 A). A healed fracture was also noticed on the midshaft of the right radius of individual 64. An unhealed fracture was identified on the lateral aspect of the shaft of the left clavicle of individual 54. The bone was in two completely separated sections and there was no indication that the normal healing process was underway. Since there was remodeling on the opposing surfaces of each segment, the lack of callus was not likely due to the recency of the injury. It seems possible that a pseud- arthrosis had formed or was in the process of being formed between the lateral and medial segments of the bone. In addition to the healed fracture of the left ulna, an unusual set of lesions is present on the right side of the cranium of individual 105 (Plate 14). The zygomatic arch is split nearly in half; the tympanic and styloid processes of the temporal appear to have been almost completely separated from the remainder of the bone, as does the mastoid process; and the articular process of the mandible is virtually destroyed. Taken together, these changes suggest that the individual received a severe blow to the right side of the head from a sharp instrument, such as a sword. Since all of the affected surfaces show advanced remodeling, it is assumed that the individual survived the immediate effects of the injury, which, as the degree of healing shows, must have occurred some time before death. An additional 144 adjustment that further attests to the fact that the event took place long before the individual's death is the oblique orientation of the occlusal plane and bilaterally assymetrical dental attrition. A number of other pathological modifications (see the description of B 105) were noted on the individual. A large hole (approximately 4cm. in diameter) was noted near the vertex of the skull of individual 46 (Plate 13). While most of the border of the hole has been eroded, a small section of the anterior border appears to have been remodeled and suggests that at least a portion of the Opening may have been present ante-mortem. No evidence of cultural practices or inflammatory reactions were associated with the apparent lesion. The possibility that the "remodeled area" may actually be an artifact of weathering has not been ruled out. Aggmalies For this study, the term anomaly refers to unusual discrete or discontinuous variations observed on the skeleton. The more commonly occurring anomalies such as wormian bones and septal apertures of the humerus are discussed in Chapter IV, in the section on non-metric cranial and postcranial observations. For convenience, however, a number of the less common variations of the ossification process are treated here. Anomalies of the Cranium Individuals 64 and 99, both adult males, exhibit bifaceted occipital condyles and the left jugular foramen of individual 64 is 145 almost completely occluded. Multiple mandibular foramina were identi- fied on individual 45, an adult female. Anomalies of the Postcranial Axial Skeleton Extreme scoliosis is present in the vertebral column of an adult female, individual 26 8 (Plate 18). An examination of the neural arches and bodies of the inferior eight thoracic vertebrae indicates the presence of a 90° lateral curve, up and to the left when viewed from behind. Neural arch fragments from four lumbar vertebrae were also studied and found to be distorted, but no curve to either the right or left was indicated. Presumably, a compensatory curve was present in the upper thoracic and cervical region, however, none of those vertebrae were recovered. The heads of five lower left ribs were also identified and were all severely compressed. Many of the other bones from individual 26 B were extremely osteoporotic. Complete sacral spina bifida and sacral spina bifida to the level of the spine of the first sacral vertebra were identified on individuals 64 (Plate 17), an adult male, and 98, an adult female, respectively. Two individuals, 10 (Plate 17), an adult male, and 11, an adult female, exhibited a coccyx that was fused to the sacrum. The transverse foramina were patent in the axis vertebra of an adult female, individual 40 (Plate 15). A pseudoarthrosis was identified between the odontoid process of the axis vertebra and the occipital bone on individual 64, an adult male. 146 The right half of the neural arch of the fourth cervical vertebra of an infant, individual 76 (Plate 18), is fused to the right side of the neural arch of the third cervical vertebra, while the left half of the neural arch of the inferior vertebra is present as a separate bone. Accessory articulations were observed on individual 81, an adult male between the fifth lumbar vertebra and the right sacral ala (Plate 17), and between the sacrum and left ilium of individual 71 B, an adult female. The right and left twelfth ribs of individual 81 are fused to the twelfth thoracic vertebra (Plate 16). The second and third cervical vertebrae of individual 43, an adult female are fused (Plate 16) with no evidence of osteophytic lipping on the centra and no ossified longitudinal ligaments as in ankylosing spondylitis (Morse, 1969:15). Exostosis on the right transverse process of the atlas vertebra of individual 68, an adult male, appears to be a partially ossified rectus capitus Tateralis muscle. The left hip of individual 105, an adult male, is displastic, probably congenitally (Plate 19), and the right ilium is fused to the sacrum (Plate 17). Anomalies of the Appendicular Skeleton Four adult males, individuals 10, 22, 64 and 105 have unfused acromial epiphyses. Epicondylar spurs were noted on the right and left humeri of individual 4, an adult male. Small, "pea-sized" sinuses 147 were observed on the proximal articular surfaces of the third meta- tarsals and the distal articular surfaces of the third cuneiforms of three individuals: 68 and 105 which are adult males, and 91, an adult female. A sternal foramen was noted on the remains of individual 56, an adult female. General Pathologies Individual 61, an adult female, exhibited large sinuses on the diaphysis of the right femur, immediately above the posterior aspect of the medial condyle; on the diaphysis of the right tibia just below the medial condyle; and on the shaft of the right ulna, adjacent to the trochlear notch. Similar lesions were identified on the right hip bone and sacrum of individual 100, an adult male, adjacent to the opposing auricular surfaces of the two bones. In each case, the sinuses are closely associated with an articulation which has been altered by osteoarthritis, especially the right elbow of individual 61 and the sacro-iliac joint of individual TOO. Morse (1969:122) has diagnosed similar lesions as evidence of "low grade infection or benign tumor." Ossified Thyroid Cartilages One deveTOpmental modification which generally receives little or no attention in human skeletal analyses is the ossification of the hyaline cartilage structures of the larynx. According to Woodburne (19692184), "Ossification begins in the thyroid cartilage in the third decade, and . . . (the structure) may, in old age become completely 148 converted to bone . . . . In addition to the thyroid, the cricoid and the base of the arytenoid cartilages normally undergo ossification in the later years of life (p. 184). Fragments of ossified thyroid cartilage ranging in size from small pieces of lamina to virtually complete structures were identified with the remains of ten individuals from the site (Plate 15). Five of these individuals (10, 64, 81, 104 and 105) are stage VI males; four of them (49, 6B, 86 and 103) are stage VII males; and one, individual 45, is a stage V female. The increased frequency of occurrence in the older age category (four out of the seven individuals from the site assessed at age VII) is to be expected, since the ossification of the structure is an ageing phenomenon, however, the male-female difference is problematic. Perhaps it is due to the sexual dimorphism mentioned by Gray (1971:1126), i.e., the structure is larger in the male than in the female. Also identified on individuals 49, 64 and 68 were ossified cricoid cartilages. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Excavations undertaken at the Fletcher site (208Y28), Bay City, Michigan, during the 1967, 1968 and 1970 field seasons yielded the ' skeletal remains of a minimum of 114 individuals. Ninety-six of these are from a burial area proper (see Figure 2) and were associated with specific graves. The remaining eighteen were discovered on the sur- face, in a nearby dike or within the burial area but not associated with specific pits. Since the site is a multicomponent one, contain- ing evidence of both Historic and Prehistoric period remains, and since it is impossible to determine with any degree of certainty the component represented by these eighteen surface and dike specimens, they are treated apart from the other burials in Appendix A. Ninety-three of the remaining ninety-six individuals were from the Historic period. They were consistently buried fully extended in wooden box "coffins" which had been placed in oval pits. The graves frequently contained European trade goods and much of the skeletal material was stained either green, presumably from brass artifacts, or vermillion red. The condition of the skeletal material ranged from excellent, virtually complete specimens, such as the individual from burial 4, lacking only several phalanges, to the presence of several badly 149 150 eroded fragments, as was frequently the case with early subadult bone. Many of the adult crania were fragmentary and yielded little or no metric data. This problem can be illustrated by the fact that while this investigator attempted to take twenty-four measurements from each calvarium, only seven males and twelve females were complete enough to provide nine or more. Because of this, many statistical operations were inappropriate due to the inadequacy of the sample (see Appendix B). An aim of the present study has been to describe the skeletal remains of these 114 individuals. The methodology, as discussed in the first chapter employed many of the traditional techniques of physical anthropology. The measurements were taken on all the skele- tons when not prohibited by either postmortem destruction or extreme pathological modification. The reconstruction of fragmentary specimens was often precluded by warpage and only attempted when the investi- gator could be certain that the resulting structure accurately repre- sented the shape of the bone at interment. The measurements were all summarized and these summaries were presented as tables in Chapter IV. In addition, Appendix 8 presents all the cranial measurements obtained in the analysis of the burial area specimens. Non-metric variation was also recorded and presented in the text. Most of the traits were selected from Bass (1964). Age determination was based primarily upon dentition. In subadults, assessments depended on the eruption sequence as well as the development of individual teeth. By comparing dental attrition, in adults, to other ageing criteria in more complete skeletons, a llllillllkl lllIl-TIII I 151 schedule of tooth wear was established within the material. For con- sistency, each of the adults from the site were aged by dental attri- tion. Several of these age estimate were confirmed by comparisons with age assessments based upon the examination of the symphyseal sur- face of the pubic bone. Following Vallois (1960), the assignment of chronological ages to the individuals from the site was avoided. It was felt, first, that the variation in rates of deveTOpment between individuals is too great for estimates to be made in terms of numbers of years; and second, that we are less interested in the numbers of years which had passed since an individual's birth than in his deve10pmental status or stage. A series of seven biological stages was developed for the Fletcher series: Stggg Criterion I - Early infant to the eruption of all the deciduous teeth 11 - Late infant to the eruption of the first permanent molar III - Child to the eruption of the second permanent molar IV - Adolescent to the union of the major long bone epiphyses V - Young adult to the exposure of secondary dentin on the second permanent molars VI - Middle adult to the exposure of a surface of uninterrupted secondary dentin on at least the first and second permanent molars VII - Old Adult beyond level VI For a more complete discussion of these stages and their criteria, see Chapter II. 152 Chapter III presented a description of the skeletal material from each burial within the site, including: (T) the number of indi- viduals present (designated by A, B, C, . . . follOwing the burial number); (2) the estimated sex and age of each of the individuals; (3) a list of the bones recovered and examined; and (4) any unusual features which may have been associated with any individual such as cultural practices, anomalies and pathologies. Metrics and discontinuous variation were discussed in the succeeding chapter. Both the male and female crania were found to be large and generally brachycranic, with cranial indices of 83.6 and 82.2, respectively. The faces, the nasal apertures, the eye orbits, and the palates also tend to be broad in the population. The cranial metrics were transformed into T-scores (with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10) and a pattern profile was constructed and compared to three Great Lakes Historic period p0pulations: the Craw- ford Farm material from Illinois, the Christian Island material from southern Ontario, and the Lasanen material from northern Michigan. The Fletcher cranial data correlated highly with the data from the Crawford Farm site but poorly with the other two sites. Both the Craw- ford Farm and the Fletcher sites are supposedly Algonquian, while of the remaining two, the Christian Island p0pulation was Huron and the Lasanen series probably contained both Algonquian and Iroquoian influence. The application of the Genoves (1970) data and formulae for the assessment of stature indicated that both the males and females from the site were rather short, the males averaging around 5'4.3" and the females, 5'0.7". Trotter and Gleser's (1958) formulae for 153 Mongoloids were also applied to the Fletcher data. While the latter method yielded estimates which were significantly greater than the former, both males and females from the Fletcher were still shorter, on the average, than each of the populations to which they were compared, except that "modern" Chippewa females were smaller than the females from the Fletcher site. The most notable postcranial traits observed were the bridges of bone which extend from the superior articular surfaces to either the transverse process or the posterior arch of the first cervical vertebrae. One or both of the features were observed on 40.9% of the atlas vertebrae from the Fletcher sample complete enough for the examination of that region. While Anderson (1968) describes the trait in his report of the Serpent Mounds material, it generally has received no attention to date in skeletal analyses. Nonetheless, the trait may prove useful in future skeletal analyses as either genetic markers or environmentally determined modifications in boney structure. At this time sufficient comparative data are lacking. Chapter V deals with the mortality profile of the Fletcher skeletal series. That better than 5 % of the sample is represented by subadults is not unusual, nor is the 13.3% representing the early adult stage, nor the 24.4% in the middle adult category. A notice- able deviation from the expected distribution of individuals in the age groups, however, appears in the old adult stage, or stage VII. According to the available pubic symphysis age assessments as well as an agreement between several independent investigators it appears that no more than eight individuals, 8.9% of the population, lived to the 154 fifth decade. This absence of individuals in the seventh stage is especially apparent when the Fletcher data are compared to Blakely's (1971) data from three prehistoric series from the Illinois Valley. He reported that 23%, 37%, and 25% of an Archaic, a Woodland, and a Mississippian population respectively were over forty. Maxwell (n.d.) has suggested that this unusual lack of old specimens in the Fletcher series is related to a seasonal habitation which he postulates for the region served by the burial area. Accord- ing to him, the greatest period of concentration in the area was from mid-August to mid-October. The older individuals, he suggests, would most likely have died during the harsh winter months when the Fletcher population was away from the area, and therefore be under- represented in the Fletcher burial area. Paleopathology and certain congenital anomalies are con- sidered in the sixth chapter. The categories of diseases described include: rheumatoid and osteoarthritis, vertebral osteOphytosis, inflammation, trauma and general pathologies. In addition, there was a brief discussion of ossified thyroid cartilages. A notable patho- logical modification was present in the frequency of oste0porosis. Eight of forty-two adults (19%) from the Fletcher skeletal series exhibited obvious bone loss. The fact that six of these individuals were females is consistent with the conclusions of both Garn (1970) and Dewey, et_gl, (1969) that the onset of bone demineralization occurs considerably earlier in females than in males. The etiology of the condition is presently unknown, but Garn (1970) suggests several possible factors: nutrition, genetics and 155 disease to explain populational variation in the frequency and severity. In an attempt to demonstrate that interpopulational dif- ferences in the occurrence of osteoporosis are not related to dietary differences, Prezigian (1973) made a number of assumptions which, according to this author, make his conclusions quite tenuous. It is maintained here that diet may take a part in determining the time of appearance and/or the rate of bone demineralization. The Biological Effects of Contact with Europeans It has been asserted (Quimby, 1960:123; Kinietz, 1965:322) that the Indians who inhabited the region which included the Upper Saginaw River Valley during the mid-eighteenth century were hunter- gatherers who probably participated in at least part-time agriculture. However, there is evidence, both historical (McGaugh, l950:25) and archaeological, that by the 17505 and 17605 the native populations of the region were interacting regularly with French and English fur traders. By that time, in addition to their dependence upon resources exploited from the local environment to meet their own life needs, the Indians had come to rely upon numerous European goods which were obtained through trade. Native items, primarily beaver, were exchanged for ". . . guns, knives, hatchets, blankets, clothing, brass kettles, rum . . ." and certain foods (Quimby, l960:l48). This bartering relationship with Europeans, according to Quimby (p. 147), eventually led to a disintegration of the native economy: 156 . by 1760 every Indian in the region was in some way dependent upon the fur trade and thus in a sense was working for the white men. Animal skins, particularly those of beaver, had become money. And the Indians had to obtain this animal-skin money in order to buy the tools, weapons, utensils, clothing, ornaments, and even food that they formerly had produced themselves. These effects of such a relationship between native people and Euro- peans is consistent with the model pr0posed nearly twenty years ago by Steward and Murphy (1956) in their duscussion of North American fur trappers and South American rubber trappers. To them, cultural break- down was an almost inexorable outcome of Native American-European contact. The Indians of the Saginaw Valley region had adapted for cen- turies to a system of subsistence exploitation. To have entered into a relationship of economic dependence with Europeans meant that resources which were formerly exploited for native consumption, such as beaver and certain vegetable products (Quimby, l960:l48) became trade items and were exchanged for non-consumables such as weapons and tools or consumables of low nutritional value, such as rum and sugar. Rum, according to Quimby (p. 154) had a particularly devastat- ing effect. The possibility that the contact between the population repre- sented at the Fletcher site and Eur0pean traders which is inferred by the literature (McGaugh, T950; Quimby, 1960) and demonstrated by the amount of trade items associated with the burials, had the effect of disrupting the native culture and the traditional adaptive strategy is a concern of the present study. An assumption being made at this point is that such a disruption could have placed stress upon the 157 population through poor nutrition and high desease levels. Several areas of investigation-—metrics, pathologies, mortality profiles and the dentition-~were examined with a special interest in detecting the presence of any skeletal changes which might be a reflection of such a condition. Metrics The Fletcher population was shown to be shorter than any of the five other Great Lakes area populations used for comparison except the females from Hrdlicka's modern Chippewa data. That a decrease in the stature of adults is one of the consequences of faulty nutrition is well known (Frisancho, etLQTJ, 1970), and the relatively low stature of the Fletcher series may be an indication that the pOpula- tion was under nutritional stress. However, there is also a genetic component to the determination of adult stature (Frisancho, 1970), which may be responsible for all or some of the interpopulational variation. Therefore, at this time, it can only be stated that the adult stature of the Fletcher population is consistent with the idea that their diet was less than adequate. Pathology The most notable pathological change which might be related to nutrition or the adaptive status of the Fletcher series is bone demineralization or osteoporosis. Like discussions of stature, the degree to which the condition is affected by either genetic inher- itance of the environment is presently the subject of debate (Perzigian, T973; Garn, 1970). If we can assume that nutrition and 158 disease are important factors in bone demineralization, then the fre- quency of the condition among the Fletcher series is another indica- tion that the population was experiencing the effects of a less than adequate diet. However, at this time, because of the possible genetic influences, it is impossible to draw definite conclusions based upon these data alone. Mortality Profile That the Fletcher series is aberrant in the age distribution of the individuals is indisputable. The old adult category (VII) is clearly underrepresented. Blakely (1971) reported that 23%, 37% and 25% of the total population were estimated to be in the fifth decade of life or older in an Archaic, a Hopewell and a Middle Mississippi site respecitvely, whereas in the Fletcher series only eight individuals or 8.9% of the population were estimated to be in that category. The explanation that this absence of older adults is due to the seasonal occupancy of the site, with the weaker, aged individuals being eliminated during the harsh winter months while the group was away from the area of the Fletcher site is one possible explanation. However, if this were the case, would not one expect to find the weaker infants also underrepresented in the burial area? An alternative possibility is that the low frequency of older individuals is due to a relatively short life expectancy. If the population were living under conditions of malnutrition and pressure from deseases, then the probability of individuals living to old age 159 is lessened. The reason why the seventh age stage is underrepresented at the Fletcher site could be that few individuals were living to the fifth decade and may be an indication of adaptive stress. Dentition Tordoff (n.d.) analyzed the dentition of the individuals from the Fletcher cemetery. It was her conclusion also that the popula- tion expressed signs of nutritional stress. The most significant indication was the high frequency (81% of the individuals) of gross enamel hypoplasia. Hypoplasia results form an interruption of growth during the formation of a tooth and is believed to be caused by a severe disease or faulty nutrition (Brothwell, 1963:281). The fre- quency of the condition among the Fletcher material indicates that better than eight out of ten adults had experienced a serious disease or faulty nutrition during the tooth forming years. The problem mentioned by Tordoff (n.d.) that comparative data from American Indian remains are lacking has yet to be ameliorated. To date, a systematic framework within which to place the Fletcher data is non-existent. In conclusion, the indications of the level of osteoporosis, the average stature, the mortality profile and the frequency of enamel hypoplasia are that the Fletcher people were living under conditions of nutritional stress. However, because of the lack of comparative data, both published and unpublished, it is impossible at this time to statistically validate this assertion. Also, since the correlation of the nutritional status of the Fletcher population with European 160 contact rests upon comparisons with non-contact Indian groups, this stage of analysis will also have to await the availability of more data. This report is presented as the first analysis of a sizeable Historic Period Central Algonquian skeletal series. Hopefully, it will provide a body of data which will be useful as a basis for com- parison in future research on American Indian skeletal series from this time period. The report is also to be offered as an initial step.in the reconstruction of the effects that contact with EurOpeans had on the biology of native Americans. In order to understand more fully some of the questions raised in this paper several research projects are suggested: 1. A controlled study of osteoporosis should be undertaken on Historic skeletal series, such as Perzigian's (1973) analysis of the condition in the Prehistoric Illinois Valley. The radiologic assess- ment of bone mineral content appears to be the best available method for studying bone demineralization, the major limitation of which is facilities. 2. Data on growth arrest phenomena, especially enamel hypoplasia, should be retrieved from existing Historic and Late Pre- historic skeletal series and systematically compared. One indicator of the impact that contact had upon these populations would be the degree to which individuals suffered from childhood malnutrition and disease. Gross enamel hypoplasia could provide important information in that area. 161 3. Data on the overall growth of individuals need to be col- lected from these skeletal series and studied for the effects of nutritionally inadequate diets. It is proposed here, that in order to avoid the risk of error in calculation, long bone lengths be com- pared rather than estimated stature, especially if the data are to be compiled by more than one investigator. 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W. l969a A Newly Developed Method for Sexing Os Pubis. American Journal of Physical AnthrOpologxa Vol. 30, pp. 297-302. l969b An analysis of the Human Skeletal Material from Burial Mounds in North Central Kansas. University of Kansas Publications in Anthropology, No. 1. Lawrence. Quimby, G. I. 1960 Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes, 11,000 8.0. to A.D. 1800. University of Chicago Press. Sandison, A. T. 1968 Pathological Changes in the Skeletons of Earlier Populations Due to Acquired Disease, and Difficulties in their Inter- pretation. In: The Skeletal Biology of Earlier Human Populations, D. R. Brothwell, ed. Pergamon, Oxford. Schour, I. and M. Massler 1944 Development of Human Dentition. American Dental Association, Chicago. Schranz, D. 1959 Age Determination from the Internal Structure of the Humerus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 17, pp. 273-277. 168 Stewart, T. D. 1942 1962 Tanner, J. 1956 Anthropometric Nomenclature: The Indices of Head Height. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 29, pp. 23-39. Comments on the Reassessment of the Indian Knoll Skeletons. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 20, pp. 143—148. The Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, (E. James, ed.). Ross and Hines, Minneapolis. Tordoff, J. D. n.d. The Dental Anthropology of the Fletcher Sitey(208Y28). M.A. Thesis, Michigan State University. Trotter, M. and G. Gleser 1958 A Re-evaluation of Estimation of Stature Based on Measure- ments of Stature Taken During Life and of Long Bones After Death. American Journal of Phygical Anthropology, Vol. 16, pp. 79-123. Vallois, H. V. 1960 Wells, C. 1964 Wilkinson, 1971 Woodburne, 1969 Vital Statistics in Prehistoric Populations from Archaeologi- cal Data. In: The Application of Quantitative Methods in Archaeology, R. F. Heizer and S. F. Cook, eds. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, N0. 28, pp. 186-222. Bones,,Bodies and Disease. Thames and Hudson, London. R. G. Prehistoric Biological Relationships in the Great Lakes Region. Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 43. Ann Arbor. R. T. Essentials of Human Anatomy, Oxford University Press, London. APPENDICES 169 APPENDIX A MATERIAL FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28) WHICH WAS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC BURIALS 170 APPENDIX A MATERIAL FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28) WHICH WAS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC BURIALS In addition to the ninety-six individuals represented in the Fletcher burials, the remains of a number of individuals were recovered from the surface, the dike (see Figure 2), and within the burial area but not associated with particular burials. Because of the poor pro- venience of this material and its fragmentary condition and the fact that the Fletcher site has multiple temporal components, it was assigned to neither the Historic nor the Prehistoric populations represented. It is therefore treated separately from the material associated with specific burials. An inventory of the bones demonstrated that a minimum of eighteen individuals, ten adults and eight subadults are represented in this miscellaneous material. A minimum of fifteen individuals were identified by fragments of fifteen right maxillae. Additionally, three mandibles were identified that could not have belonged to the same individual as any of the maxillae. Table 29 lists the eighteen indi- viduals, their estimated ages and the sexes of two, along with the diagnostic skeletal material confirming the presence of an individual. A summary of the postcranial material is included in Table 30. 171 172 TABLE 29.--Non-burial provenience individuals from the Fletcher site (208Y28) skeletal remains. _._..-____'—. - .-_~‘.- w..._.. ——-_., Catalogue No. Age Sex Diagnostic Skeletal Material (Bones from Dike) V M? Fragmentary cranium. VI ? Fragmentary cranium. 3234.D.9 VI ? Fragmentary cranium. VI ? Fragmentary cranium. 3234.0.4 V ? Maxilla. 3234.0.6 V ? Right half of maxilla. VI ? Maxilla fragments. VII ? Maxilla fragments. VI ? Fragmentary cranium. VI ? Fragmentary cranium. IV ? Fragmentary cranium. III ? Right maxilla. I ? Fragmentary cranium. III ? Left maxilla and several vault fragments 3234.0.5 I ? Mandible and right temporal. 3234.0.13 I 7 Mandible and several vault fragments. IV ? Left maxilla Left mandible. 173 TABLE 30.--Summary of the postcranial non-burial provenience material from the Fletcher site (208Y28). Axial Right Left ? Vertebrae Cervical lst 2nd 3rd-7th Thoracic Lumbar Sacra Clavicles Scapulae Sterna Ribs lst 2nd-12th Innominates Humeri Ulnae Radii Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Proximal Middle Distal Femora Tibiae Fibulae Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges Proximal Middle Distal Patellae 39 23 b —I \D-DCDODVOWCD 14 14 12 47 31 16 15 40 40 174 Cranial Measurements Five of the fragmentary crania were complete enough for several measurements and these are presented on Table 31. The number of observations for any one of the variables prevents generalizations about the characteristics of this collection of specimens, but it should be noted that none of the measurements falls outside of the ranges established for the burials and in most cases are less than one standard deviation from the mean male and female values. The Analysis of the Dentition A total of 224 permanent teeth and fourteen deciduous teeth were identified from the miscellaneous material. Each of these was examined for genetic anomalies and pathologies and whenever possible, measured. The measurements taken on the teeth were the mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters. Some disagreement was encountered in the literature as to the most desireable method for obtaining the mesio- distal diameter. According to Moorrees (1957:78-79), "the greatest mesiodistal dimension of the tooth crown, measured parallel to the occlusal and labial surfaces,” is a satisfactory definition for that measurement, "because it describes the anatomy of individual teeth and is not dependent on the position of the teeth in the dental arcade." Nevertheless, many investigators have relied upon the maximum diameter between mesial and distal contact points (Moorrees, 1957:79). For the present study, the former method is used because it is felt that the impact of environmental factors and genetic influences of traits other than the determination of tooth crown size would be 175 TABLE 31.--Cranial measurements (in mm.) of non—provenience material from the Fletcher site (208Y28). Ind. Ind. Ind. Ind. Ind. l 2 3 4 9 L - _. - - - B - l46 - - - H - - _ - - E-N - - - - - E-A - - - - - E-G - - - - - P-B - ll5 - - - MFB 94 98 91 - - BZ - - - - - N-A 73 65 - - - N-G - - - - - AL - 52 45 - - AB 67 66 69 - - NH 49 48 - - - N8 28 29 - - - 0H 30 34 - - - 08 44 41 - - - BOB - - - - - B-P - - - - - AH — 115 - - - P-N - 93 - - - P-S - - - - - P-P - - - - - P-G - - - - - SH - 33 - 29 3O BGD - 99 - - - BCO - 120 - - - ARH - 56 57 58 - CL — 94 94 87 - 176 less if the form of the tooth was used as the landmark for the measure- ment rather than contact points. In her analysis of the dentition of the specimens from the burial area, Tordoff (n.d.:ll) used the latter of the two techniques when the teeth were in normal anatomical position. However, in cases where the tooth was "displaced or rotated, "the measurement was taken from the places where the points would have probably occurred if the tooth were in normal position, i.e., along the mesiodistal axis of the tooth or parallel to the labial and occlusal surfaces. Consequently, since contact points were relied upon only when the tooth was oriented with its mesiodistal axis contiguous with the axis of the dental arcade, her measurement criteria and mine are virtually the same (parallel to the labial and occlusal surfaces of the tooth). Although mesiodistal diameter is often used as an indicator of crown size, and those data are presented here for the miscellaneous burial from the Fletcher site, Brace (1973:316) maintains that both interproximal wear and occlusal wear may diminish the size of that dimension and suggests that ". . . the buccal-lingual diameter is a better indicator of tooth size, . . ." He goes on to say that "the use of both mesial-distal and buccal-lingual measurements can be expected to have a certain damping effect on the impact that individual or idiosyncratic variation may have on the attempt to portray the course of evolution." Thus, in addition to the means for mediodistal and buccal-lingual diameter, which are presented in Tables 32 and 33, mesiodistal diameter+ buccal-lingual diam. the mean of the crown modules ( 2 is also presented in Table 34. I 177 TABLE 32.--Mean mesiodistal crown diameters of permanent teeth from the Fletcher site (208Y28) miscellaneous material. Tooth No. Mean 5.0. Range Maxilla: I] 4 8.18 0.63 7.4- 8.9 I2 7 7.20 0.41 6.5- 7.7 C 12 7.99 0.22 7.6- 8.4 P1 14 6.94 0.41 5.9- 7.6 P2 15 6.77 0.48 6.2- 8.2 M1 15 10.48 0.67 9.3-ll.9 M2 16 9.72 0.59 9.0-10.7 M3 10 8.74 0.62 7.7- 9.7 Mandible: I] 6 5.43 0.38 5.0- 6.1 I2 10 6.00 0.60 5.0- 6.7 C 13 7.05 0.22 6.7- 7.4 P1 12 6.89 0.25 6.5- 7.3 P2 14 7.03 0.28 6.5- 7.4 M] 15 11.44 0.42 10.4-12.l M2 14 10.99 0.34 10.5-11.6 M 11 10.78 0.60 9.9-ll.5 178 TABLE 33.-~Mean buccolingual crown diameters of permanent teeth from the Fletcher site (208Y28) miscellaneous material. Tooth No. Mean 5.0. Range Maxilla: I1 8 7 03 .51 6 0- 7.4 I2 10 6 48 0.46 5 3- 6.8 C 14 8.23 0.46 7.5- 8.9 P1 10 9.72 0.37 9.1-lO.4 P2 12 9.57 0.63 8.7-lO.5 M1 13 11.45 0.58 10.5-12.4 M2 15 11.20 0.80 9.9-12.6 M3 10 10.79 0.68 9.7-ll.8 Mandible: IT 9 5.77 0.40 5.3- 6.3 12 10 6.18 0.84 5.4- 7.7 C 14 7.49 0.62 6.5- 8.5 P1 10 7.98 0.41 7.2- 8.4 P2 12 8.32 0.61 7.3- 9.3 MI 11 10.68 0.26 10.2-11. M2 13 10.53 0.41 10.0-11.4 M 10 10.43 0.55 9.4-ll.0 179 TABLE 34.--Mean crown modules of permanent teeth from the Fletcher site (208Y28). Tooth No. Mean S.D. Range Maxilla: I1 2 7.70 0.64 7.25- 8.15 I2 6 6.97 0.66 5.90- 7.95 C 12 8.13 0.24 7.80- 8.50 P1 11 8.36 0.37 7.60- 8.80 P2 12 8.11 0.43 7.55- 8.70 M1 13 10.99 0.50 10.15-11.60 M2 15 10.43 0.64 9.55-ll.40 M3 10 9.77 0.49 8.70-10.40 Mandible: I1 6 5 63 0.32 5 20- 5.90 12 10 6 09 .67 5 20-1.1o C 13 7.34 0.38 6 70— 7.85 P1 10 7.43 0.28 7.00- 7.75 P2 14 7.64 0.39 6.95- 8.20 M1 13 11.07 0.33 10.30-11.55 M2 14 10.71 0.29 10.30-11.15 M 10 10.66 0.43 9.80-11.20 180 The buccal-lingual diameter is measured as the maximum diameter of the crown of a tooth perpendicular to the mesiodistal axis (Moorrees, 1957:80). Tordoff (n.d.) compared the crown modules of the Fletcher burial sample to those of two prehistoric populations: the specimens from the Younge Phase of the Younge site and the specimens from the Juntenun site, 900 A.D. to 1100 A.D. and 800 A.D. to 1400 A.D., respectively. She found that both maxillary and mandibular were generally larger in the Fletcher sample than in either of the other two sites. Figures 10 and 11 show that the anterior teeth from the miscellaneous material from the Fletcher site follow a profile pattern very similar to the material from the burial area, however, all three molars in both the maxilla and mandible are closer in mean crown modules to one or the other of the prehistoric sites. While the miscellaneous sample is small and this author therefore hesitates to draw conclusions about evolutionary trends, the crown module metrics may suggest that at least some of the miscellaneous individuals may be from populations other than those represented in the burial area. Possibly, there is a higher proportion of prehistoric individuals represented in the miscellaneous portion of the Fletcher sample than in the burials. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the dif- ferences between all four populations is small and that the miscellaneous sample is quite limited. The incidence of caries in the miscellaneous material is pre- sented in Table 35. Again, because of the small sample, little can be 181 11.5 r 11.0 ‘ 10.5 F 10.0 * Crown modules (in mm.). Figure lO.--Mandibu1ar crown module profiles of the Fletcher miscellaneous material, ; Fletcher burials, ------ ; Younge site,______; and Juntenun site, ..... 11. 11. 10. 10. Crown modules (in mm.). Figure 11 182 L. I’ I '\ i. i. I. 1] P1 P2 M1 1'12 H3 material, .--Maxillary crown module profiles of the Fletcher miscellaneous ; Fletcher burials, ------ ; Younge site,_.-_3 and Juntenun site, ...... 183 TABLE 35.--Frequency of caries for each class of tooth from the miscellaneous Fletcher Site (208Y28) material. M—_.— 100th ExaNTned CarIous CaFIOUS Maxilla: I] B 2 25 OO 12 10 2 20.00 C 15 1 6.25 P] 15 2 12.50 pz 19 9 47.37 M] 15 5 31.25 M2 15 5 33.33 M3 11 2 18.18 Mandible: I] 11 o .00 12 12 0 .00 C 15 1 6.67 P] 14 1 7.14 P2 13 2 15.38 M] 13 2 15.38 M2 13 6 46.15 M 12 1 8.33 184 said in terms of generalizations about the population, however, it is apparent that the high frequency of carious lesions noted in the burial specimens (Tordoff, n.d.:73) also characterizes the miscellaneous material. Evidence of decay is most prevalent on the second maxillary premolar and second mandibular molar, while none was identified in either of the lower incisors. On the molars, carious lesions were most prevalent on the occlusal surface (30.43% of those affected) and occurred least on the buccal and lingual surfaces (13.03% each). Because of the fragmentary condition of the maxillary and mandibular alveoli and because most of the teeth were recovered loose, no attempt was made to tabulate the frequency of either abcesses or ante mortem tooth loss. Shovel shaping of the incisors was recorded as absent, slight or marked. Table 36 shows the frequency of each of these conditions on the miscellaneous material. Consistant with Tardoff's (n.d.:l7) observations on the burial material, marked shovel—shaping was most prevalent on the maxillary lateral incisors and occurred least fre- quently on the lateral and central mandibular incisors. In fact, all the mandibular incisors exhibited slight shovel-shaping except two central and two lateral members, which are probably all from the same individual. Cusp patterns could be discerned on all the first and ten second maxillary molars. All of the first molars had four cusps, while only eight of the second had four cusps and two had three cusps. Five maxillary third molars possessed three cusps and two had two cusps. The most common cusp pattern on the first mandibular molars was the Y-5 185 TABLE 36.--Frequency of shovel-shaping on the central and lateral incisors from the Fletcher site (208Y28) miscellaneous material. % M % % No. TOOth No Expression Marked Slight Observed Maxilla: I1 .00 42.86 57.14 7 I2 .00 55.56 44.44 9 Mandible: I] 18.18 .00 81.82 11 I2 20.00 .00 80.00 10 which was present on eleven out of twelve. The remaining first mandibular molar had a +-5 pattern. The Y-5 pattern was also present on five out of the seven Tower second molars while a +-5 on one and a +-4 on another. Five of the third mandibular molars exhibited a +-4 while two had a Y-5 pattern. Spmmary Appendix A describes skeletal material of relatively poor provenience from the Fletcher site. A minimum of eighteen individuals, ten adults and eight subadults were identified by cranial fragments, specifically maxillae and mandibles. While the cranial and postcranial bones are generally quite fragmentary, 224 permanent teeth yielded a significant body of data. The crown modules for the anterior teeth and 186 premolars indicate a strong affinity to the material analyzed by Tordoff (n.d ) from the burial area but the molars were closer in size to the material from the Juntunen and Young sites. It is sug- gested that a higher percentage of prehistoric individuals may be represented in the miscellaneous material than among the specimens from specific burials. APPENDIX B MEASUREMENTS OF THE CRANIA FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28) BURIAL AREA 187 188 mm um mm co 1 cm om_ Pop mmp 1 mo_ _op mmp mmr mmp mo— - mm 1 i 1 cm i I I i i 1 i i I co~ 1 i i i i 1 1 mm 1 1 i i I 1 1 mo_ mm mv co —m opp Om mm— mm NNF coy mm mo— om? mcr 1 oo— mm mm mm .mm 1 on i oo~ i 1 mm mop mm— mm_ mm_ mm mm cm Pm me 1 mx 1 mm 1 i i 1 1 1 1 mm 1 1 mo 1 i i i i i i i 1 i i I '1; I m CAT .' -:::""¥"efx I “ '35 war J: .L 0 50mm PLAT E 7 207 PLATE 8.--CRANIA FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28). a. Burial 80: Norma LateraTis b. Burial 80: Norma Fronta1is c. Burial 83: Norma Lateralis d. Burial 83: Norma Frontalis 208 ‘ I: ' ‘ i. t :‘1I3‘iul "I," "V E PLATE 8 PLATE 9.--CRANIA FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28). a. b. c. d. Buria1 88: Buria] 88: Buria1 91: Buria1 91: 209 Norma Latera1is Norma Fronta1is Norma Lateralis Norma Fronta1is 210 PLATE 9 PLATE 10.--CRANIA FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28). a. Buria] 94: b. BuriaI 94: c. Buria1 95: d. Burial 95: 211 Norma Latera1is Norma Fronta1is Norma Latera1is Norma Fronta1is b —--—v——-— — —————— 212 5E PLATE 1o PLATE 11.--CRANIA FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28). a. b. Buria1 99: Buria1 99: Buria1 100: Buria1 100: 213 Norma Lateralis Norma1 Fronta1is Norma Lateralis Norma1 Fronta1is —’~‘_—_ 214 0 50mm PLATE 11 215 PLATE 12.--CRANIA FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28). a. Burial 101: b. Buria1 101: c. Buria1 105: d. Buria1 105: Norma Lateralis Norma Fronta1is Norma Latera1is Norma Fronta1is 216 SS! PLATE 12 PLATE 13.--PATHOLOGIES AND ANOMALIES FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (2OBY28). a. b. C. Buria1 48: Buria1 61: Buria1 46: 217 First cervica1 vertebra fused to the base of the sku11. Grooves on the vertex of the sku11. Large ho1e at the vertex of the sku11. —_——u—c—'—I_-_. 218 PLATE 13 219 PLATE 14.--PATHOLOGIES AND ANOMALIES FROM THE FLETCHER SITE (208Y28). a. b. C. d. Burial 45: Buria1 64: Buria1 64: Buria1 105: Suture in the right mastoid process. Facet on basi-occipita1 for articu1ation with the odontoid process of the second certical vertebra. Sinus on the 1atera1 aspect of the 1eft mastoid process. Injury to the right mastoid process and the right zygomatic arch, apparent1y the resu1t of a b1ow by a sharp instrument. 220 PLATE 14 22]. .mmm_wpaaa awoaacp um_cwmmo H_m _mwtzm .8 .mgnmugm> quw>gmu umcwm mgu Lo mmmuoga mmgm>mcmgu uwm_ mcu co mmmuwca Lowcmumoa use Pmcmpmb H_m megzm .u .mcwsmco» mmgm>mcmgu acmpmq cur: ccnwggm> pmuw>cmu ucoumm Nov mecam .n .__:xm mcp Lo mmma mnu ;p_z cowumpzuwugm Low mgnmucm> Pmuw>gmu acoumm as“ $0 mmmuoga uwoucouo mcu mo xmam mcu co “mood ”no megam .m .Amm>momv mHHm muIUHmAm mxh 20mm mmH4 LmnE:_ nugao+ vcm ugwgu mg» mo mwmo—xxcq ”ow _mwczm .v .mmcnmpcm> _muw>cmu zucm>mm can cuxwm mg» mo mwmopxxc< new _m_gzm .u .mmgnmpcm> .muw>gmu ugwcu new ucoumm mzu we mwmopzxc< ”me mecsm .n .mcnmugm> ovumgosp zumpmzu an“ o» amaze mart “ca_ veg ucmwm n_m _awcsm .m .Amm>momv whHm mMIUHMAm m1» 20mm mmH4momv whHm mm10Hw4u NIP 20mm mmH4momv mka mquHmAu mxh zomu mmH4