a... ., . a. non... fa... . o 5.... ... 1.»; 4.: J22) riJlrS 7.1!..12... .1... ..r. 57..» I ...o..l...;ao:4.« i . 1 , .17}; f . .: . I, . 11.5: . o E IES'. gr ~va I Do 1.. L... .f. 1.1!. .13. . [Jo/)1} 141-1!» . oi .6 moo... R . F. 32...... 1/. . ...t.,rn7r: .. "tlon' . ~I . V‘u-d. 1 t, xv! é . .rv’ Liupfc. 1 v Vyavyfto ;r .19 . 3.1.5.4. ’51....qu1 19}, V I $.th rt£5.3.r..i..ouxn ....... o 1.13;??? 77.... It. . , . o . o . . 5», 3.6:... 3...: , . . . .. , .. , , . over.“ . . . , . o . . .I of Lulu-«rod :. II: .4!- L I B R f P. Y Michigan State University “.3... n- "or- «pa. '\lflHWUHJIMWIWflflflumjj“MW L ..I a! :hfif-Mflm ..v .13.»... %, ABSTRACT WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS IN BIG TEN UNIVERSITIES BY Florence Byrd Stevenson The purpose of this study was to investigate factors relating to the employment level of women admin- istrators in Big Ten universities. To do so, answers were sought to the following questions: 1. What kinds of environmental support have women administrators had? 2. Is there a difference between position levels or age groups and certain educational, employment and psychological or personal variables of those women who are currently administrators: 3. Can California Psychological Inventory scores distinguish intellectual efficiency and capability of achievement either by conformance or independence among women administrators? 4. What do women administrators feel are the causes of their small representation at high level posi— tions in educational institutions? Florence Byrd Stevenson 5. How prevalent among women administrators are certain factors which business management theory considers important to success? This was a descriptive survey study whose subjects consisted of the entire population of full—time women administrators above entry level in all the Big Ten uni— versities. Findings and conclusions were based on usable responses from 327 of these women administrators. Instruments used in the study consisted of an in-depth interview schedule, a Basic Data Sheet, the Class III Scales of the California Psychological Inventory and a telephone interview schedule. Data from the Basic Data Sheet, except for the advancement factors, were analyzed using the chi square test to determine whether there were significantly differ— ent patterns between the position level groups, age groups and other variables. The California Psychological Inventory answer sheets were scored by machine. All other information was hand processed. Analysis of the data provided a basis for the following conclusions appropriate to the purpose of this study. 1. Titles and levels of positions of women admin- istrators indicate limited individual professional support. Need is felt for clear delineation of the responsibility along with general trust and confidence from superiors in Florence Byrd Stevenson their ability to fulfill it. Women administrators do not use out—of—office time toward career advancement. Their changes of position tend to be the result of non-supportive situations and they reflect the unsatisfactory environment by their lack of commitment to continuing in administra- tive work. Social life is difficult, resulting partly from the demanding job, being single, living alone and needing someone to fill a helping role. There is growing awareness of the need for and willingness of women to support each other professionally. 2. There are differences among groups of women administrators in Big Ten universities, the most salient of which are, by age: The largest group, the 104 who are 34 years of age or younger, are pursuing doctoral degrees in the greatest numbers, have the highest percent who are married but most have no children; (35 to 44 years old) less evidence of strong career orientation, highest ratio of children per mother, most are at mid—level positions; (45 to 54 years old) greatest number at higher level positions; (55 years and older) smallest group, greatest diversity in position level, highest percentage with the doctorate. The greatest differences in positions are at the top level. Most in this group are between ages 45 and 54; 79 percent hold the doctorate and the remainder the Master's Degree; 84 percent are in a field of work Florence Byrd Stevenson appropriate to their most recent degree; 89 percent had previously been administrators or in their own specialty field; 84 percent last moved within their own institution rather than changing universities; over half have been in their current position one year or less. 3. California Psychological Inventory scores did not yield highly significant levels; however, women administrators in Big Ten universities scored considerably above the national norms for both male executives and female college students on all three scales, which means that, according to this measure, they are more intelligent, efficient, resourceful, alert and well informed. 4. Women administrators feel there are several causes for their lack of advancement: (l) sheer discrimi- nation; (2) they have not been assertive; (3) interrupted career spans; (4) not being sponsored by those above them; (5) not uniting to improve their position. Factors con- tributing to the above are chiefly: the socialization of both sexes, women rejecting responsibility and men supporting other men, not women. 5. Women administrators in Big Ten universities are lacking in the following factors considered by man— agement theory to be important for career development: sponsorship, management training, informal interaction particularly among male co—workers, support in their personal lives and clear goals. Those few who have had WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS IN BIG TEN UNIVERSITIES BY Florence Byrd Stevenson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1973 9vo) o Lgb ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes particularly to express appreci— ation to Dr. Laurine E. Fitzgerald, Chairman of her Guidance Committee, for the opportunities she has provided, the confidence she has shown, the freedom she has allowed, during the course of this doctoral program, and her thoughtful, vigorous and persistent work for improvement of conditions for women in higher education. Dr. Mildred Erickson, in her gracious way, was of special help at a critical time, for which the writer is deeply grateful. Dr. Barrie Thorne provided valuable philosophical guidance and detailed concern. Dr. Gwendolyn Norrell assisted with some necessary problem solving. To other members of her Guidance Committee, Dr. Willa Norris, Dr. Martha Karson and Professor Russell Kleis, thanks are given for their interest and assistance. Acknowledgment is made to those women administra— tors who participated in the study and to Dr. Leroy Olson and Mr. Joseph Wisenbaker, whose assistance made possible completion of the work. Warmest recognition is due for the unfailing support of the writer's parents, Florence Cazort Byrd and ii Daniel Brian Byrd, Uneencouragement of her son, Gardner Stevenson and the patient cooperation of her son, Brian Byrd Stevenson. r . --- — —"--".—._--.—-‘_——..— '—"-——-——— ‘— TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. IV. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . Need for the Study . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . Organization of the Study . . . . . REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURE Women Administrators in Higher Education Women Student Personnel Administrators Socialization . . . . . . . . . Psychological Aspects . . . . . . Miscellaneous Factors . . . . . . Women Executives . . . . . . Summary . . METHOD OF STUDY . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . Instruments . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . Summary . . . . . . . . ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . The Single Campus In— Depth Interviews The Basic Data Sheets The California Psychological Inventory Scores . . Telephone Interviews on Career Development . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page ii vi 10 12 15 l6 19 61 69 72 73 75 75 92 125 128 135 ii: I I.I. n .lllll 11I“\mu11¢linlr gull. . Chapter Page V. SUMMARY OF THE STUDY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . 146 Summary of Data . . . . . . . . . 148 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Conclusions . . . . 182 Recommendations for Further. Research . . 185 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 APPENDICES A. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE . . . . . . 196 B. COVER LETTERS AND BASIC DATA SHEET . . . . 201 C. CLASS III SCALES OF THE CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY . . . . . 205 D. TELEPHONE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE . . . . . . 209 LIST OF TABLES Page Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-- Frequency of Areas and Titles . . . . . 94 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-- Position Levels and Age Groups . . . . . 96 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Position Level and Level of Education . . 98 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Level of Education by Age Group . . . . 100 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities—- Year of Highest Degree by Age Group and Position Level . . . . . . . . . 101 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Year of Highest Degree and Level of Education . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Ph.D. Degrees Received During and After 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities—- Similarity of Field Of Study and Area of Employment . . . . . . . 107 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Years in Current Position . . . . . . 109 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Years at Previous Institution . . . . . 111 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-— Institution of Previous Position . . . . 113 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities—— Access Route from Previous to Present Position . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities—— Marital Status . . . . . . . . . . ll7 vi ‘_ .-_ ., . / Women Administrators Number of Children Women Administrators Number of Children Women Administrators in Big 17 and in Big 18 and in Big Page Ten Universities—- Under . . . . 119 Ten Universities-— Over . . . . . 120 Ten Universities—— Advancement Factors by Item and Rank . . . 123 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities—— Mean Scores of Class III Scales California Psychological Inventory by Position Levels and Age Groups . . . . . . . 126 Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities—— Summary, Chi Square Statistic Level Of Significance for Analysis of Contingency Tables . . . . . . . . . . 141 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM In the early 18005 women sometimes became educa— tional administrators by the direct expedient of starting their own schools. Emma Willard was one who did this: in 1821 she founded the Troy Female Seminary at Troy, New York; another was Mary Lyon, founder Of the Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary at South Hadley, Massachusetts in 1837.1 These secondary level academies were followed by semi— naries whose organization was more stable. The next evolutionary phase was normal schools, with the avowed purpose of training young women to be teachers. These flourished, partly because teaching as a newly opened field of employment for women justified their education in general.2 As colleges for women were founded, the personali- ties of those who assumed positions of leadership in them were indelibly impressed upon the institutions with which lThomas Woody, A History of Women's Education in the United States (2 vols.; New York: The Science Press, 1929), I, pp. 344-59. 2Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Education of Women," in Encyclopedia of Education (10 vols.; New York: The Macmillan Company and the Free Press, 1971), 10, p. 559. 1 they were associated; for example, Alice Freeman Palmer, the spectacularly successful president of Wellesley at age 26,3 and M. Carey Thomas, whose insistence upon high entrance examination standards commanded continuing respect for Bryn Mawr.4 However, it is possible for entire histories of American higher education to be written without once mentioning any of these influential women.5 Women have never occupied significant numbers of important administrative positions in coeducational institutions, nor, if present, have they been recognized. Dr. Rita Cooley of New York University said: . . . the universities tend to think automati— cally in terms of men when filling a new position. In a sense it's like racism. This discrimination exists at an unconscious level. There is no opportunity for women in administration. We are up against a strong cultural phenomenon, mass male chauvinism. If a woman wants to be an administrator, the field is very narrow. 3Anne Firor Scott, The American Women, Who Was She? (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1971), p. 68. 4Jessie Bernard, Academic Women (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1964), PP. 19—20. 5Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, The Academic Revolution (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1968), pp. 291-312. See also Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University (New York: Vintage Books, 1962), pp. 307-328. , 6Robert M. Cunningham, Jr., "Women Who Made it Offer Insights into Their Problems," College and University Business, 48 (February, 1970), p. 60. Need for the Study As young women increasingly indicate their disil— lusionment with marriage and children as full-time, lifetime occupations and choose work leading to careers of challenge and fulfillment, education becomes a necessary foundation upon which to build that longest portion of their lives.7 Many Changes are needed in the educational system to maximize the potential of these young women, one of the important subjective factors being the visibility of older women achieving in the world of education through which they pass. Therefore, not only is it important to allow scope for the talents of women already working, but their presence is vital to the development of healthy self-concepts among today‘s students. Mary Bunting, concerned about women students, deplored as major problems with their education the "lack of models at the top, lack of encouragement along the way, and lack of opportunity to use one's skills once they are developed."8 This is a refrain heard over and over in the search for background on this subject.9 7"Is the American Family in Danger?" U.S. News and World Report, April 16, 1973, pp. 71-76. 8Mary I. Bunting, Patricia A. Graham, and Elga Wasserman, "Academic Freedom and Incentive for Women," Educational Record, 51 (Fall, 1970), pp. 386—91. 9Alice Rossi, "Discrimination and Demography Restrict Opportunities for Academic Women," College and University Business, 48 (February, 1970), pp. 1-12. Seealso Referring only briefly to the administrator's problems in her analysis of women in academe, Graham says: Probably the most important single factor in creating an environment that is as hospitable to the aspirations of women as to men is to appoint women in significant numbers to senior faculty and administrative posts in the university. And later: The presence of women in senior administrative positions will also encourage the able young undergraduate and graduate at the university to believe that a secretarial career, even a glori- fied one, need not be their vocationalambition, and it will remind the young men who will later be employers of women that women, too can be expert executives. No doubt it is also neces— sary, on most campuses, to increase the number of young women in junior faculty and administra— tive positions at the university, but this is generally neither as crucial nor as difficult as the senior appointments. Although the principle of academic freedom has traditionally meant that a professor could expound liberal philosophy from his lectern, "the university" as represented by male administrators almost exclusively, has been one of the more conservative and slowly changing institutions in America. "Discrepancies in male-female Ann Sutherland Harris, "The Second Sex in Academe," American Association of University Professors Bulletin, 56 (Fall, 1970), pp. 283—95. 10Patricia A. Graham, "Women in Academe, 169 (September, 1970), p. 1288. ll Science, Ibid. employment are prevalent in an area which is considered a liberator--education."l2 Within the past three years, women faculty members in various disciplines nationwide, and in numerous campus groups, have united to form caucuses and commissions to study and document existing conditions of their members such as salary, rank, tenure, time in grade, fringe benefits, part-time appointments, maternity leaves and child care facilities.13 These women have been presenting their findings, whether requested or not, and demanding action. This has brought some degree of progress in certain areas and locations; however, with increasing pressure from women's groups and the Federal government, institutions everywhere are being called upon to demon— strate non-discrimination by employing additional numbers of women at all levels. Since January 1970, the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) has filed formal charges of sex discrimination against more than 250 universities and colleges under Executive Order 11246, as amended, which forbids all Federal contractors from discriminating against women. None of 12Lawrence A. Simpson, "A Myth is Better Than a Miss: Men Set the Edge in Academic Employment," College and University Business, 48 (February, 1970), p. 72. l3Jean Barabas, Women and Their Educational and Career Roles (Bethesda: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, March, 1972). WEAL's charges have been refuted, and numerous universities have been asked to draw up affirma— tive action plans concerning the employment of women on their campuses. Until July 1970, none of the Big Ten universities were among those charged, although the Department of Health, Education and Welfare was later asked to investi- gate a number of these schools. The most widely publicized was the University of Michigan in which over $400,000 in contracts was withheld until the University presented a satisfactory affirmative action program to improve the status of women.15 Institutions covered by Executive Order 11246, as amended, are also required to develop numerical target goals for women. These are detailed in Revised Order Number 4, which specifies that among factors which must be taken into account is the number of available women in the labor force. At the academic level, that number is best determined on a national basis.16 There are several means of calculating availability statistics, one of which is by combining the numbers of degrees awarded from both the largest degree granting l4WEAL, "Facts About Women in Education," in Women's Work Has Just Begun (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Insti— tute of Continuing Legal Education, 1972), pp. 275—76. 15Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), p. 320. l6Statistics Concerning Doctorates Awarded to Women (Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges, April, 1972). institutions and the best ranked departments in the field. All Big Ten schools are listed among the 33 institutions j which have granted more than 2,000 doctorates, and are thus included in the computations.17 Status of Women Reports are reliable sources of information, since they are gathered locally where concern is strong, but they, too, primarily document faculty whose rank facilitates identification and comparison, and have difficulty separating administrative women. They tend to report somewhat in the manner of WEAL's "Facts About Women in Education" which presented precise numbers and percentages of faculty rank and salary, student admissions, aptitudes and degrees, but in the section on "Women as Administrators" was quite general: v Few women head departments, other than the strictly 'female' ones such as Home Economics. While there are some women in 'middle management' positions in academia, there are very few in policy—making positions. As in public school teaching, administrative positions in the col— leges go mostly to men. In fact, the proportion of women in college educational leadership posi— tions was lower in the mid-19605 than it was 25 or even 10 years before. A partial explanation of this vagueness has to do with determining just who administrators are. Women l7Officeofthe Chancellor, University of Wisconsin, Women Holders of the Ph.D., 1967—69, Top Degree Granting Schools (Washington, D.C.: Association of American Col— leges, April 1972). 18 WEAL, "Women in Education," p. 276. administrators have varied titles, which tends to obscure them.19 Those with teaching background or academic rank may be merged with faculty women. Sometimes efforts at identification are considered too complicated and not attempted.20 The 1970 census tried harder and arrived at a total of 29,797 males in "school administration, college,‘ as compared with 9,131 females.21 This is indeed a broad brush, since no definitions or titles were included, but it does provide some comparison. Four studies were located which deal with women ° administrators. Two were of localized areas,22 one with a broad geographical scope but concerned only with top level administrators,23 and another assessing numbers and 9Lynda Holmstrom, "Women's Career Patterns, Appearance and Reality," Journal of the National Associ- ation of Women Deans and Counselors, 36, No. 2 (Winter, 1973), pp. 76-81. 0Harris, "The Second Sex," p. 12. 21U.S. Department of Commerce, 1970 Census of Population Subject Reports, Occupation by Industry. PC (2) 7C. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), P. 483. 22Helen R. Gardner, "Women Administrators in Higher Education in Illinois: A Study of Current Career Patterns" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana Univer— sity, 1966); Helen Kaufman, "The Status of Women in Administration in Selected Institutions of Higher Education in the United States" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1961). 23Margaret H. Arter, "The Role of Women in Admin- istration in State Universities and Land—Grant Colleges" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1972). titles of women administrators as part of a larger general 24 Little effort has been evidenced higher education study. in the literature, of inquiry into supportive titles such as "associate" and "assistant" to see whether existing talent may lack visibility. There is virtually no informa- tion on age in relation to varying levels of responsibility which might be useful in evaluating the potential pool for advancement, or necessary steps for facilitating increase in the numbers of women qualified for upper middle and top positions., The assumption may have been made that since significant numbers of women have not been in evidence, they are not present, or it is not possible for them to fill positions of responsibility. One point of this study is to take issue with this kind of assumption and the practice of utilizing women administrators only at non- crucial, non—visible, non-policy making levels. In providing a more comprehensive picture of who and where women administrators are, this study proposes to add some understanding which may be useful to those interested in seeing women achieve more success in posi- tions of administration in higher education. Attention to the findings reported herein could be helpful to university administrators, advisors to 24Ruth M. Oltman, Campus 1970: Where do Women Stand? (Washington, D.C.: American Association of Uni- versity Women, 1970). 10 women students, affirmative action officers and women‘s advocate groups. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate certain factors relating to the employment level of women admin- istrators in Big Ten universities. This study explores a central research question: Are there identifiable factors which affect the employment level of women administrators in the Big Ten universities? To locate factors affecting the employment level of this group of university administrators, the following questions were explored: 1. What kinds of environmental support have women administrators had? 2. Are there differences between position levels or age groups and certain educational, employment, psycho— logical or personal variables of those women who are currently administrators? 3. Can standardized psychological test scores distinguish between position levels or age groups of women administrators and such characteristics as intel— lectual efficiency, achievement by independence or achievement by conformance? 4. Why do women administrators feel advancement is difficult for them? ll 5. How prevalent among women administrators are certain factors which business management theory considers important to career development? Thisinvestigation is pursued by four methods: (1) in—depth single campus personal interviews, (2) written questionnaires, (3) standardized psychological inventories, and (4) random sample telephone interviews. The interviews sought to determine: 1. What type and quality of personal and profes— sional support do these women administrators receive? \ 2. What career development patterns have they had in regard to mobility, modes of communication, career lines and decisions, goals, sponsorship and training? Subjects were divided according to the level of position which they currently occupy within their insti- tution, and by age groups. Written responses were analyzed to determine the following: 3. Is there a relationship between age group and position level? 4. Is there a relationship between date of highest degree and educational level? 5. Is there a relationship between position level and: highest degree, age at receiving highest degree, Inost recent field of study and field of employment, length C>f time in current and immediately previous positions, VVhether previous position was within current institution, lib. 12 type of work in previous position, marital status, ages of children; and psychological test scores for achievement via independence, achievement via conformance and intel— lectual efficiency? 6. Is there a relationship between age groups and: highest degree, age at receiving highest degree, most recent field of study and field of employment, length of time in current and immediately previous position, whether previous position was within current institution, type of work in previous position, marital status, ages of children;andpsychological test scores for achievement via independence, achievement via conformance and intel- lectual efficiency? 7. What are the reasons women administrators feel advancement is difficult in higher education? A complete description of method is found in Chapter III, Method of Study. Appendices contain copies of the instruments used, which provide details of the information sought from respondents. Definition of Terms Women administrators: Women above entry level, employed full time, primarily in non—teaching positions involving broad responsibilities, decision making, super— 'Vision of staff and general management functions. Big Ten universities: Term in common use rather 1:han the official title, "Western Intercollegiate Conference 13 of Faculty Representatives." Big Ten universities is the designation which will be used throughout this study. This conference consists of the following institutions of higher education: The University of Illinois, Indiana University, The University of Iowa, The University of Michigan, Michigan State University, The University of Minnesota, Northwestern University, The Ohio State Uni— versity, Purdue University and The University of Wisconsin. Position level: Arbitrary classification of areas of responsibility. They are described as follows: Level 4—-Associate or assistant chancellor, vice- president or provost; dean or associate dean of a college; dean or associate dean of students. Level 3——Director, associate director or head of an all—campus office; associate dean of a college; associ- ate director or director of a school; assistant to president, vice-president or provost. Level 2—-Assistant dean of a college; assistant director of an all-campus office; head of a subsidiary office; head of a division in the main library; assistant director of a school. Level 1--Assistant to a dean; librarian in a branch library; editor of a small publication; area housing officer; assistant director of a subsidiary office. Age group: (1) up to and including age 34; (2) ages 35 to 44; (3) 45 to 54; (4) 55 and over. 14 Access route: Type of work in immediately pre— ceding position: administrative or in same specialty field (e.g., library, publications), secretarial-clerical, teaching faculty, school attendance as a student, or an area outside the field of higher education. California Psychological Inventory Scale Descrip- tions: Those given in the test manual for the Class III, Measures of Achievement Potential and Intellectual Effi- ciency, and consisting of the following: Achievement via Independence. Those factors of interest and motivation which facilitate achievement in any setting where autonomy and independence are positive behaviors. High scorers are mature, forceful, dominant, demanding and foresighted; independent and self—reliant; having superior intellectual ability and judgment. Low scorers are inhibited, anxious, cautious, dissatisfied, dull; submissive and compliant before authority; lacking in self—insight and self—understanding. Achievement via Conformance. Those factors of interest and motivation which facilitate achievement in any setting where conformance is a positive behavior. High scorers are capable, cooperative, organized, responsi- ble, stable and sincere; persistent and industrious; value intellectual activity and achievement. Low scorers are coarse, stubborn, awkward, insecure and opinionated; easily 15 disorganized under stress or pressures to conform; pessi— mistic about their occupational futures. Intellectual Efficiency. The degree of personal and intellectual efficiency which the individual has attained. High scorers are efficient, clear—thinking, intelligent, progressive, thorough and resourceful; alert and well informed; place a high value on intellectual matters. Low scorers are confused, cautious, easygoing, defensive, shallow and unambitious; conventional and stereotyped in thinking; lacking in self—direction and self—discipline. Advancement factors: Items on Basic Data Sheet of reasons respondents feel women administrators have difficulty getting promoted. All—campus: Office which provides service for the entire campus; e.g., placement, main library, uni- versity relations. Central administration: Officials directing certain aspects of the whole campus; e.g., president, vice—president for finance, provost. Support: Financial; moral, emotional and personal; professional and promotional. Limitations of the Study The population of this study is limited to women in administrative positions above entry level as determined i _ _ _ _ _ 16 from the 1972-73 editions of the faculty and staff directories for each of the Big Ten universities. Groups not included are: teaching faculty, admin- istrative assistants, research and laboratory technicians, business office personnel, food services, part-time employees and those of emeritus status. This study does not separate women by race, nor is it a study of individual specialty fields such as librarians, editors, nurses or counselors. Another researcher, by selecting different cri- teria for inclusion, would probably arrive at different results. Since temporal elements prohibit exact replica- tion of this study, these findings must be evaluated in View of the material contained in the published directories for this period and by the selection and responses obtained by this method. This study involves only Big Ten universities, and its findings may not be generalizable to smaller, more specialized, private, single sex or primarily one sex institutions. Organization of the Study This study consists of five chapters followed by a bibliography and four appendices. The chapters contain the following information: Chapter I consists of a brief history of women in higher education administration, a broad View of the 17 current situation and recent social and legal changes. The need for the study is illustrated by reference to the dearth of material on the subject, and the purpose is explained as being the investigation of certain factors relating to the employment level of women administrators in Big Ten universities. The chapter concludes withaidefi- nition of terms, discussion of limitations of the study and a statement of the organization of the study. Chapter II is a review of research and literature related to women administrators in higher education, women student personnel administrators and women executives outside the field of education. Special attention is given also to research concerning the psychology and socialization of women, antecedent and educational factors and choice points in women's lives. Chapter III, which sets forth the design of this descriptive survey study, describes how the subjects were selected,1flu3various titles, areas of employment and levels of position which were included. It poses the research question, lists the four types of instruments used to collect the data and explains the method of analysis. Chapter IV presents a detailed account of the findings on environmental support and career development from the single campus in—depth interviews; the computer analysis of the Basic Data Sheets used to collect informa— tion on age groups and position levels to determine whether 18 there are relationships between them and various educa- tional, employment and personal factors; analysis of the results of the California Psychological Inventory scores; the advancement factors; and the random sample telephone interviews. Chapter V is a summary of interpretation of the findings and the conclusions which emanate from them. ._ CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURE Literature pertaining to higher education abounds; however, literature concerning women administrators is rare. For example, in The Academic Revolution one chapter is devoted to women and feminism, but no mention is made of women as administrators.l A remarkable insensitivity is apparent among writers on administration. A book on the administration of higher education commented on the need for recognizing trends which are developing in society as well as in higher education, while failing, in 1962, to note student unrest, racial minorities or women.2 Another, as recently as 1971, repeatedly referred to administrators as men in the narrowest sense, speaking of women in only one chapter, that titled "Administrative Assistant.” The author commented, "any man who has had an office knows that its smooth operation depends upon lJencks and Riesman, The Academic Revolution. 2Gerald P. Burns (ed.), Administrators in Higher Education: Their Function and Coordination (New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1962), p. 224. l9 20 the woman who takes care of the detail on which principles are founded."3 While attitudes such as these can be expressed openly, there is clearly much literature relevant to a study of women administrators in higher education which concerns the socialization of both sexes. Examination will also be made of certain psychological studies dealing with early socialization, educational deterrents to women and typical lifetime decision points. As educational institutions have grown in enroll— ment and fiscal resources, they have tended to adopt business methods, from "management by objectives" to executive attitudes. Therefore, in addition to reporting on women administrators in higher education, this study will examine male management theory as it affects women executives. Women Administrators in Higher Education Academic Women made all the relevant points a few years ahead of the times; however, Bernard deals primarily with faculty women, as do most other writers on the subject, with an occasional paragraph referring to women . . . . . 4 administrators and their poor pos1tion. 3Stanley Salmen, The Duties of Administrators in Higher Education (Toronto, Ontario: The Macmillan Company, 1971), P. 130. 4Bernard, Academic Women, pp. 45, 180, 204. 21 No studies of women presidents were found; however, some information was gleaned indicating that out of all institutions of higher education, only 1 percent, or 23 of the women presidents of colleges and universities are not members of religious orders.5 Dr. Bernice Sandler commented, "right now, the best way for a woman to become a college president is to get herself to a nunnery. Were it not for the Catholic Sisters, the number of women college presidents would be far less than the number of whooping cranes."6 It has been gratifying in the recent perilous times for women's colleges, to see three able women appointed to presidencies: Matina Horner at Radcliffe, Barbara Newell at Wellesley and Gail Parker, who brought her husband with her as vice—president, at Bennington. In 1970 the American Association of University Women (AAUW), concerned that little data was available about women in higher education institutions, surveyed the 750 colleges and universities which hold corporate membership in the AAUW. They stated that their replies were broadly representative of the nation's colleges, although with a larger percentage of public institutions and schools with over 10,000 enrollment, and a smaller 5Harris, "The Second Sex,", p. 2. 6Bernice Sandler, "Women and Higher Education: Where Do We Go From Here?" Address to Wingspread Conference on Women in Higher Education. Racine, Wisconsin, March, 1972. 22 percentage of private schools and those with enrollments under 5,000. A section of their questionnaire pertained especially to administrators and they concluded, "the participation of women in university policy making is conspicuously lacking in the administrative area."7 They found that 92 percent of the schools say they include women in top-level administrative positions, but women administrators are seldom employed in positions involving critical decision making and are not actively recruited at higher levels. Ninety-five to 98 percent of the campuses surveyed had had only men during the previous three years in the positions of president, vice president, director of development and business manager. Men com- prised 80 to 89 percent of the deans of students, directors of counseling, college physicians, college psychiatrists, deans of a college and directors of financial aid, 77 per— cent of the associate or assistant academic deans and 76 percent of the directors of placement. The head librarian was a man in 70 percent of the institutions. Women were listed as college counselors by 68 percent of the schools, including the 32 percent which listed "both" men and women in this position.8 Other administrative positions held by women (1 to 5 percent) covered a wide range, including director of 7Oltman, Campus 1970, p. 14. 8Ibid., pp. 16—24. 23 admissions, registrar, dean of the school of nursing, director or dean of student activities, director or dean of housing, director of food services, director or dean for counseling and testing, librarian, bursar or budget director and director of special educational services. Many others were listed only once or were at a minor administrative level.9 There are comparatively greater opportunities for women in top administrative positions in women's colleges, and fewer in the larger public schools. Women are most often found at middle-management level or positions which involve sex stereotypes.lo In 1961, Kaufman obtained data from 355 college presidents and 156 women in executive positions in colleges and universities. At that time she found that few women were qualified for administrative positions. Forty—three percent of the respondents preferred male administrators, while saying, in theory, that sex should not be a deter— mining factor. Women held 4.4 percent of the positions included in this study, and they tended to be in tradi— tional women's areas such as home economics, nursing and women's physical education.ll 91bid., p. 16. lOIbid., pp. 14—17. llKaufman, ”The Status of Women in Administration," p. 199. 24 In 1966 Gardner found the personal characteristics considered necessary by her subjects for attainment of an executive position in higher education to include the ability to understand people, the ability to organize and a willingness to accept responsibility. Since two—thirds of the subjects she studied in Illinois were born there or in bordering states, she con— cluded that women administrators were not highly mobile. Also, two-thirds were not married. They had usually served as an assistant to a person holding a position similar to the one they then occupied. They had studied in a variety of fields and she concluded that no one field was more valuable than another for a future admin— istrator. Those who were aided in achieving their positions were helped by a former employer or supervisor or another administrator, although most said they reached their present position through their own initiative.12 The most recent and most useful study of women in administration was that of Margaret H. Arter in 1972, dealing with the role of women administrators in state universities and land grant colleges. This research was concerned only with top—level positions and she obtained her data from presidents, vice presidents or other chief 12Gardner, "Women Administrators in Higher Educa- tion in Illinois," pp. 104—07. 25 officers and from the top women administrators of 118 institutions.l3 She found that 60 percent of the institutions had no women at the top level. Twenty-one percent had one woman, and 19 percent had from two to six women. Fifty- six percent of the schools had not appointed a woman to an administrative post during the years 1966-1971, 33 percent had not considered women as candidates and 28 percent had appointed from one to three women.14 When asked what had helped them gain their present position, most women cited their qualifications. Those who gave another reason such as assistance from others, were more often at the lower salary level.15 Arter also found that those respondents who held no academic rank had been in from one to five positions in the course of their careers, while respondents who had an academic rank were approximately equally distributed between one to five positions and over five positions. Most respondents who had no academic rank had been employed in one state while a slight majority of respond— ents who had academic rank had been employed in two or more states.16 Both these findings indicate that women _______________i____ l3Arter, "The Role of Women in Administration in State Universities," p. 59. l4Ibid., pp. 78—81. l5Ibid;, p. 191. 16 Ibid., p. 122. 26 with academic rank, as well as administrative experience are more mobile than those without the academic stamp of approval. -Her summary found, in part, that there are few women in top—level administrative posts in state univer— sities and land—grant colleges. A few women have applied for and been considered for administrative positions, but very few have been appointed in the last five years. Sex is, but need not be, a factor in their failure to be selected. A woman administrator is likely to be over 50 years of age when she reaches the top rung of the success ladder, and the development of personal skills or qualifi- cations is highly important to her climb. The aggregate advice from her subjects was: have friends, know your institution, possess certain personality characteristics.l7 Arter assembled a profile for the woman adminis- trator in state universities and land—grant colleges, portions of which follow: she is likely to be single, but if married to have few children over 18 years of age. She has held from one to five positions, has served in one to three institutions and became an administrator when more than 35 years of age. Her plan is to remain in administration.18 Arter did a special analysis of 40 institutions cited for diScrimination and found that 18 institutions 18 l71b1d., pp. 126—30. Ibid., p. 130. 27 had appointed women to top—level jobs since issuance of Executive Order 11246, as amended. Of the total 71 women in these 18 institutions, 40 (56 percent) were appointed after issuance of the executive Order, and almost half the 40 were from various campuses of one institution.19 Women Student Personnel Administrators The National Association of Women Deans and Counselors (NAWDC) although mainly comprised of student personnel women, also has on its roster women of other ranks and titles. It comes closer than any other national organization to being generally representative of women administrators in higher education. In 1971, NAWDC published a report of a survey of its membership compiled with information received from 1,203 respondents. They found 310 different job titles in use. Forty-one percent of the respondents identified their position as being at the executive level; 41 per- cent at managerial level. Eighty—nine percent indicated that administration consumed at least one-tenth of their time, the second highest activity recorded. Advising individuals received a higher, 94 percent, response. Of the six professional activities cited most frequently, four were administrative. Doctoral degrees were held by 14 percent of the respondents; 74 percent, the master's. lgIbid., p. 126. 28 Forty-six percent were over 45 years of age and 25 per— cent were under 30. This organization has a student membership category.20 In 1966 Ayers, Tripp and Russel found approxi— mately 25 percent of the deans reporting directly to their presidents.21 Five years later, Berry and Fitzgerald found only 15 percent of the highest women student person~ nel administrators with no one between them and the top administrators on their campuses. The remainder had a range of from one to four persons intervening. Berry and Fitzgerald said the top woman student personnel adminis- trator . increasingly is not a budgetary head, nor a member of key decision- -making bodies. Analy— sis of current staffing patterns at all educational levels quickly highlights the diminishing roles agd opportunities for upward mobility for women. 2 Concern has been expressed that the interests of college women on the campus might be ignored or not fully repre— sented in top policy making groups.23 2OMargaretC.BerryandLaurineE.Fitzgerald, "Profile and Status of NAWDC Members," Journal of the National Asso- ciation of Women Deans and Counselors, 34 (Winter, 1971), pp. 50—59. 21Archie R. Ayers, Philip A. Tripp and John H. Russel, Student Services Administration in Higher Education (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 61. 22Berry and Fitzgerald, "MAWDC Members," p. 58. 23Mary E. Whitney, "Women Student Personnel Admin- istrators: The Past and the Future," Journal of College Student Personnel, 12 (January, 1971), pp. 7—10. 29 Many traditionally coeducational colleges have now replaced the separate dean of women and dean of men with a dean of students. Generally this reorganization, which was thought to be "progressive," has meant that a man was appointed. Graham says: . . . at one midwestern state university where this was done, the dean of women was nationally known and widely respected. The dean of stu- dents, who became her immediate superior, had no standing outside the community and not much locally, but he was of the same sex as the all male administration of the university, which had been coeducational since its founding in 1869. One study of mobility among student personnel administrators found that males tended to be more mobile than their female counterparts within given levels of student personnel organizations, even when female admin— istrators were as well, or better, qualified for upward mobility. It was concluded that the fastest route to the top positions in student personnel organizations within the Big Ten universities was not through upward promotion from within the organization. The majority of student personnel administrators in the most senior positions came from outside.25 Ferrari recently studied a national sample of 1,659 American colleges and universities and found men 24Graham, "Women in Academe," p. 1288. 25Paul R. Sherburne, "Rates and Patterns of Mobility of Student Personnel Administrators" (unpublished Ph.D. cilssertation, Michigan State University, 1968), p. 84. 30 holding two—thirds of the student personnel positions with women in one-third. He predicted a slight shift toward more women in this area.26 In March 1972, after a year in which to investigate less easily quantified matters, "cluster" reports were published at the University of Michigan. These provided review and evaluation of affirmative action goals sub— mitted by each department the previous year as a result of the investigation by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. The information was gathered by small groups of women close to and interested in their particular area of responsibility. The report for the Professional and Administrative (P&A) staff stated in part, that these designations represent an extremely diverse number of jobs, including professionals working in the many areas of research on campus, the administra— tive and supervisory jobs above the clerical ranges, and other non-teaching professional jobs such as editors, . . 27 librarians and counselors. 26Michael R. Ferrari, "National Study of Student Personnel Manpower Planning—-l972," National Association of Student Personnel Administrators' Journal, 10 (October, 1972), PP. 91-100. 27Mary B. Goames and Emily Gardner, "University Of Michigan Professional and Administrative Cluster Report," in Women's Work Has Just Begun (Ann Arbor, Michigan: The Institute of Continuing Legal Education, 1972), PP. 45-46. 31 The P&A group suggested that the University address itself to solving problems in the following areas: Remedy the lack of representation by using more senior women in selecting members of policy making committees whose decisions affect the P&A group; provide policy and counseling revisions to ensure active encour- agement to women seeking top-level and intermediate administrative positions; provide realistic job descrip- tions and reclassification when substantive changes are made and where higher duties and responsibilities are performed without official recognition.28 The report ended with the statement that from figures in a statistical report on non—academic categories sent by the University to Health, Education and Welfare on October 28, 1971, "it is clear that a sufficient number of suitable women employees is available; now they must be given the opportunity to advance in the same way as men."29 That advancement, however, is complicated by many elements, some of which are discussed below. Socialization Regardless of which traits may be considered Characteristic of males or females, which may have been 28110111. 29Ibid_., p. 46. 32 studied or not studied, which may appear suitable for certain activities and unsuitable for others, or for either sex alone, one most significant fact should be borne in mind. That fact is that if one is to attempt to explain behavior, consideration must be given to the particular social conditions under which that person or group lives. Naomi Weisstein developed the thesis that immedi— ate environment is a powerful influence on behavior. She cited Stanley Milgrim's experiments where 62 1/2 percent of the subjects administered shock to other persons which they believed could have been lethal while, when in the presence of stooges who refused to increase the shock voltage, only ten percent of the subjects continued the voltage to maximum intensity. She also noted the work of Schachter and Singer, whose subjects were injected with adrenalin which usually produces physiological arousal almost identical to fear, but who reacted with euphoria when placed near a stooge who acted euphoric and reacted with anger when with an angry stooge. Most recently, Gergen and Morse, experimenting with male job applicants, demonstrated how easily a dramatic change in self esteem ratings could be induced, 3ONaomi Weisstein, "Kinder, Kuche, Kirche as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female," in Sisterhood is Powerful, ed. by Robin Morgan (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), pp. 205—20. 33 according to whether the subject was next to "Mr. Clean," which resulted in a sharp drop, or "Mr. Dirty" which provided a psychological lift.31 From these and other studies, it is clear that" the human psyche is extremely susceptible to influence. This is equally true in the area of sex differentiation where social conditioning from almost the moment of birth until death is so heavily weighted with expectations. It is also easy to see the difficulty of lifting oneself from traditional roles, when the environment relentlessly presses them upon one, In a study of female psychologists of two different age groups, it was shown that those born before 1910 were like men in their feelings of adequacy, but those born after 1925 showed significantly less self confidence than the men. This was attributed to: . . . role conflicts imposed on these women psychologists by societal expectations which leave academic women unsure of themselves in spite of, or rather, because of their outstand- ing capacity, drive and achievement. It may be indicative of‘UNaprice they had to pay for being 'different' in a society that has conflicting expectations of what it means go be a woman, a professor and an academician.3 31Kenneth J. Gergen, "The Healthy, Happy Human Being Wears Many Masks," Psychology Today, 15 (May, 1972), pP- 31-35. 32Louise M. Bachtold and Emmy E. Werner, "Person— ality Profiles of Gifted Women," The American Psychologist, 25 (March, 1970), pp. 234—43. 34 Ruth Hartley's investigation of children's concepts of adult's sex—based roles, with major emphasis on women's roles, supports the contention that children are taught to believe that woman's place is in the home. In her study 134 children, 41 boys and 93 girls, from middle—class, two- parent homes assigned 68 percent of women's activities to the homemaking area. Hartley concluded: I . while men may climb snow—capped mountains, go to sea, or capture tigers, women generally are seen as remaining close to home, serving, com— forting, making small decisions and having coffee in the middle of the afternoon.33 It is a well known fact to primary grade teachers that children internalize stereotypes about sex roles long before they enter public schools.34 A six months study by 30 Princeton women of 150 classroom children's books from 12 different publishers which are read by the majority of children, showed the boys active, resourceful, energetic and the girls passive, intellectually limited and fearful.35 That achievement is not gender differentiated or innate was demonstrated by Rosenthal and Jacobson in their 33Ruth E. Hartley, "Current Patterns in Sex Roles: Children's Perspectives," Journal of the National Associ— ation of Women Deans and Counselors, 25 (October, 1961), p. 5. 34Jean Bernstein, ”The Elementary School: Train— ing Ground for Sex Role Stereotypes," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51 (October, 1972), p. 97. 5Spokeswoman, November, 1970, p. 3. 35 tests of a group of students, after which they reported to the teachers that some among the students tested "showed great promise." Actually, the students so named had been selected on a random basis. Some time later, the experi- menters re-tested the group of students. Those students whose teachers had been told that they were "promising” showed real and dramatic increments in their IQs as compared with the rest of the students. Something in the conduct of the teachers toward those who were believed to be the "bright" students actually made those students perform in a "brighter" way.36 Psychological Aspects Intellectual Efficiency According to Crandall et al., girls do not seem to evaluate their own abilities and performance as realis— tically as boys do. Children were asked how well they expected to do on a new task they were about to undertake. Among males, the brighter the boy, the better he expected to do on the new task. Among females, the brighter the girl the less well she expected to do. Also, when asked whether they believed their score on a task was mostly a function of their own efforts or a matter of chance or luck, the brighter boys more often believed that success was an outcome of their own efforts, while among the girls, 36Weisstein, "Kinder, Kuche," p. 215. 36 there was no relationship between IQ and belief in self— responsibility versus chance.37 Moss and Kagan reported in 1958 that maternal protection and warmth during the early years of life is related to high IQ in later years for boys; however, for girls, the crucial factors in the development of IQ appeared to be relative freedom from maternal restric— tion.38 A young child's interest in the games and activi- ties characteristic of the opposite sex is positively correlated with IQ was one finding of the Fels longitudinal study. It was determined that brighter girls are more likely to enjoy baseball and other boys' games, while the brighter boys will often engage in feminine activities.39 The Sontag studies at the Fels Research Institute examined cases of children whose intelligence test scores consistently improved from pre—school years through age 10 and contrasted them with a group whose scores consistently declined during this period. They found that a child whose IQ increased over the four year period was 7Eleanor Maccoby, "Sex Differences in Intellectual Functioning," in The Development of Sex Differences, ed. by Eleanor Maccoby (Stanford, California: The Stanford University Press, 1966), p. 32. 38 Ibid., PP. 32—37. 39Eleanor Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect," in The Potential of Women, ed. by Seymour M. Farber and Roger H. L. Wilson (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963), p. 33. 37 competitive, self-assertive, independent and dominant in interaction with other children. Those who showed declining IQs during that period were passive, shy and dependent.40 The studies cited indicate that . . . analytic thinking, creativity and high gen- eral intelligence are associated with cross-sex typing, in that the men and boys with high scores are more feminine and the women and girls more masculine, than their low—scoring same—sex counterparts.41 When asked what kind of developmental history would be necessary to make a girl into an intellectual person, one man replied, "the simplest way to put it is that she must be a tomboy at some point in her child- hood."42 Achievement Via Conformance. Maccoby says: Girls get better grades than boys thoughout the school years, even in subjects in which boys score higher on standard achievement tests. In adult— hood, after graduation from school, men achieve substantially more than women in almost any aspect of intellectual activity where achievements can be compared-—books and articles written, artistic productivity and scientific achievements. A follow-up study of gifted children showed that while gifted boys tended to realize their potential in their occgpations and creative output, gifted girls did not.4 401bid. 41Maccoby, "Sex Differences," p. 35. 42Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect," p. 33. 43Maccoby, "Sex Differences," pp. 27-28. 38 Maccoby also states that it is probably feminine conformist tendencies which help girls excel at spelling and punctuation since they are tasks for which there is only one "right" answer; however, for "higher level intel- lectual productivity" what is needed is independence of mind and ability to work alone on a problem unaffected by external influences.44 In 1963 Sears found that among girls, projective measures of "need affiliation" were positively related to academic achievement; in other words, achievement efforts can be motivated by a desire for social approval, and in the Sears studies this proved to be true to a greater degree for girls than for boys.45 Another Sears study, of anxiety and aggression in children between the ages of 5 and 12, indicates that anxiety develops in children of either sex who are not trained in what are considered sex appropriate ways. Something is beginning to be learned about the effects of anxiety on thinking: it is especially damaging to cre- ative thinking for it narrows the range of solution efforts, interferes with breaking set and prevents scan— ning of the whole range of elements open to perception. When anxiety facilitates performance, as it sometimes 44Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect," pp. 34—35. 45Maccoby, "Sex Differences," p. 44. 39 does, it facilitates already well—learned tasks; it does not contribute to breaking new ground.46 Since several researchers, noted below, have found successful professional women are firstborn or only chil— dren, it is interesting that Schachter found that firstborn children, when anxious, have stronger affiliative tenden— cies. They want to be with people, and in a state of anxiety, the individual evaluates his own feelings by comparing himself with others.47 Cross states that girls are more eager than boys to conform to the adult culture; however, she then goes on to tell how women were over—represented in the Berkeley Free Speech Movement. While women made up about 39 per— cent of the student body, they constituted 52 percent of the FSM students.48 She theorizes that protest is more a reflection of the liberal view of parents and faculty than actual adolescent rebellion. Nevertheless, a point can be made that a relatively small percentage of the entire student body was actively involved, and their per- formance represented a definite element of risk taking and independence. 46Maccoby, "Woman‘s Intellect," pp. 36-37. 47Stanley Schachter, The Psychology of Affiliation (Stanford, California: The Stanford University Press, 1959), P- 125. 48K. Patricia Cross, "College Women: A Research Description," Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors, 32 (Fall, 1968), pp. 12—21. 40 By the time they reach mid—teens, or college age, females have developed what Matina Horner calls "the will to avoid success," which means that a girl who wins aca— demic or career success loses vital masculine approbation and she therefore must fail in order to succeed where it really counts, with one man. This was illustrated by her students at the University of Michian with the now famous "Anne and John" stories. As a follow up, she tested her students in three different situations and found, among other things, that 77 percent of the girls who feared success did better alone than in competition. Horner says her findings suggest that "most women will fully explore their intellectual potential only when they do not need to compete, and least of all when they are competing with men."49 Achievement Via Independence When tests are not standardized to eliminate sex differences, girls are found slightly ahead of boys in "intellectual abilities" during the first three or four years of life. Girls learn to read more easily, excel in verbal fluency, and between the ages of 7 and 12 there are no consistent sex differences in skill at arithmetical computation.50 49Matina Horner, "Fail: Bright Women," Psychology Today, 3 (December, 1969), pp. 36—39. 50 Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect,’ pp. 26—27. 41 By the time students are in high school, consis- tent sex differences develop, with boys scoring up to 50 points higher on mathematical portions of the tests, but girls only 8 to 10 points higher on the verbal.51 There is evidence that girls who are underachievers in high school usually begin to be so at about the onset of puberty. This is considered by some to be indication that the achievement drop-off among girls as they reach maturity is linked to the adult female sex role.52 However, this may also relate to a fairly consis— tnet sex difference in which boys do better than girls on tests of "spatial ability." These involve determining, for instance, how many surfaces there would be on the opposite side of a pile of cubes——the side the viewer cannot see——or to select from an array of jigsaw drawings those that would fit together to form a designated pattern. Sex differences concerned with field dependence have been well illustrated by Witkin's rod and frame tests, in which the female's greater field dependence is demonstrated. Another means of showing the difference between the way the sexes deal with problem material was 51Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect," p. 28. 52Maccoby, "Sex Differences," p. 31. 42 developed by Kagan. In this test the subjects are given a number of pictures showing a variety of objects and people with a variety of postures, modes of dress and states of activity. The subjects are asked to group together the pictures that seem to belong together. Girls are more likely to form what Kagan calls "functional" groupings. For example, they will group together the picture of a doctor, a nurse and a wheel chair, because they are all associated with the care of sick people. Boys, on the other hand, will be more likely to form groups by selecting out some detail they have in common. They will, for example, group together all the pictures of people who have their right arms raised. This kind of grouping Kagan calls "analytic." This is thought to be indicative of boys' tendency to break down a percept and 53 There is an deal with elements rather than the whole. implication that the analytic, field independent approach is somehow superior although an alternative Viewpoint could be defended. It seems, however, that girls develop somewhat different ways of handling incoming information—-that their thinking is less analytic, more global and more persevera— tive. But since there are people of both sexes who perceive in the opposite manner, research is now moving to investi— gate why some people develop more analytic modes of 53Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect," pp. 28-30. 43 thought. Although still in the early stages, the key seems to be in whether, and how soon, a child is encour— aged to assume initiative, to take responsibility for herself and to solve problems by herself rather than rely upon others for the direction of her activities. Bieri and his colleagues in 1960 tested a group of college women and found those who were good at dis— covering the hidden figures in the embedded figures test, a test of spatial ability, were more strongly identified with their fathers, and those women also tended to be low in acceptance of authority--indications of the importance of autonomy in the development of this kind of analytic thinking.54 Maccoby says that among women, "masculinity" implies both independence and absence of repression——two positive factors in intellectual performance.55 Miscellaneous Factors Antecedents Women who enter college are likely to come from higher socio-economic status homes and with both parents better educated than those of college men.56 Whether or 54Maccoby, ”Woman's Intellect," p. 34. 55Maccoby, "Sex Differences," p. 45. 56Cross, ”College Women," p. 14. See also Helen Astin, The Woman Doctorate in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1969), pp. 24-25. 44 not her mother worked and how she felt about it exerts a strong influence on a young woman's career pattern.57 Some have found birth order to be a consistently important variable; for example, executive women tended to be firstborn.58 However, Fogarty, Rapoport and Rapoport, in their highly sophisticated studies, considered this factor equivocal and best understood in interaction with more proximate factors. That is, patterns adopted by the firstborn depend on intervening variables such as the advice or encouragement received, and the general environ- 9 r— ment of facilitation or inhibition.5 As a concrete measure of encouragement, women are more likely than men to receive their major financial assistance from home.60 Or it may take other forms such as mothers of girls who were expected to go to college being less likely to give them home chores to do.61 Childhood role models are a major influence. Plank and Plank, in their study of the autobiographies of 57Michael P. Fogarty, Rhona Rapoport and Robert N. Rapoport, Sex, Career and Family (Beverly Hills, Cali- fornia: Sage Publications, 1971), p. 311. 58Margaret Hennig, "What Happens on the Way Up?" The MBA/Masters in Business Administration, 5 (March, 1971), p. 9; see also Astin, Woman Doctorate, p. 91. 59Fogarty, Rapoport and Rapoport, Sex, Career and Family, p. 314. 60 Cross, "College Women," p. 14. 61Cynthia F. Epstein, Woman's Place: Options and Limits on Professional Careers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), P. 81. 45 famous women mathematicians found that these women had one important element in common: they all described an unusually close relationship with their fathers rather than their mothers as they were growing up, and they attempted to pattern themselves after their fathers.62 Hennig found her 25 executive women all had close relation— ships with their fathers, although they did not reject the feminine role.63 Educational Deterrents. The impact of counseling on career choice has fre— quently been the subject of investigation.64 One such study was with a counseling practicum in which interviewing bias was demonstrated toward a woman trying to decide between entering the field of engineering, a "masculine" occupation, or education, a "feminine" one. Three raters classified the counselor's statement as biased against females when the counselor rejected the counselee's stated interest in engineering and favored education.§5 62Maccoby, "Woman's Intellect," p. 34. 3Hennig, "What Happens," p. 8. 64Harris, "The Second Sex," pp. 3—4. See also Joyce A. Smith, ”For God's Sake, What Do Those Women Want?" The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51(October, 1972), pp. 133-36. ‘ 65J. J. PietrafesaenuiN. K. Schlossberg, "Counselor Bias and the Female Occupational Role" (paper presented at Galaxy Convention, Washington, D.C., December, 1969; mimeographed). 46 It has been agreed generally that women are dis— criminated against in college admissions.66 The same is true with financial aids.67 Lack of role models in the education-employment environment is also widely deplored.68 Lifetime Choice Points While the times at which men's career decisions must be made tend to cluster near the end of high school and at possible early retirement, those points for women are much more numerous. A woman may at any time encounter marriage, divorce or widowhood, which may constitute a choice point usually not applicable to a man's career. Epstein commented that "the absence of positive, supportive images relevant to the working woman's life results in the possibility that she can stop her advance in a career or abandon it altogether at almost any time.”69 66Harris, "The Second Sex," pp. 5-6; see also Spokeswoman, June, 1970, p. 2. 67Dorothy Truex, "Focus on Feminine Ferment," The Journal of College Student Personnel, 11 (September, 1970), pp. 323—31; see also Joyce M. Mitchell and Rachel R. Starr, "A Regional Approach for Analyzing the Recruitment of Academic Women," American Behavioral Scientist, 15 (November/December, 1971), pp. 183-203. 68Elizabeth M. Almquist and Shirley S. Angrist, "Role Model Influence on College Women's Career Aspira— tions," in The Professional Woman, ed. by Athena Theodore (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenckman Publishing Company, Inc., 1971), pp. 301-23; see also Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963), p. 75. 69 Epstein, Woman's Place, p. 27. 47 She concluded from her study of Wall Street women attorneys that the low percentage of women to men in the professions is "probably at least partially a reflection of the fact that those who ultimately chose a profession did so idiosyncratically, rather than through a sequence of introduction, training and assumption of career."70 One segment of the sequence has to do with the college decision, which with many men is not considered an option, but a necessity. According to an Educational Testing Service study in 1966, when asked how important a college education was for a man, 94 percent of the college women and 63 percent of the men said, "very important." Nowhere near this degree of unanimity was obtained when students were asked to rate the importance of college for a woman; only one— half of the women and one—fourth of the men ranked college equally important for a woman. However, the double standard may exist more in the abstract than the concrete, for when the question was changed slightly to ask how important college was for themselves, 92 percent of the men and 90 percent of the women said "very important.”71 Whether to plan for a career, marriage or a combination is another uniquely feminine choice and one in which many women merit scholars, for instance, plan to 70Ibid., p. 29. 71Cross, "College Women," p. 13. 48 depart from the tradition that the place of the young mother is in the home.72 Timing is of significance in some instances. Nurses have been found to decide on their careers in grade or high school, whereas social work students decide after entering college or even in their sophomore year.73 Later in life, when children are independent, or because of divorce or widowhood, many women have sought schooling and thereby re-entry into employment. The veterans of World War II returned to education in great numbers with grades markedly improved over their previous records.74 So, too, have mature women demonstrated their competence as students in the same or different fields.75 This is a choice point of recent origin, but one which promises to remain significant in women's lives. 2Donivan J. Watley, "Career or Marriage? A Longitudinal Study of Able Young Women," in The Profes- sional Woman, ed. by Athena Theodore (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenckman Publishing Company, Inc., 1971), pp. 272-73. 3Anne J. Davis, "Self Concept, Occupational Role Expectations and Occupational Choice in Nursing and Social Work," in The Professional Woman, ed. by Athena Theodore (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenckman Publishing Company, Inc., 1971), p. 375. 74Anne Roe, The Psychology of Occupations (Somerset, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956), p. 274. 5Prudence B. Randall, "Education of Women: Continuing Education," in Encyclopedia of Education (10 vols.; New York: The Macmillan Company and the Free Press, 1971), 10, pp. 563—74. ..... 49 A study of middle-aged women and self—esteem completed by Judith Birnbaum at the University of Michigan found that the career woman, whether married or single, finds as she gets older that her work is a growing source of satisfaction and self worth. This study also indicated that married career women viewed themselves as better mothers than did full-time homemakers. College educated women who have chosen the role of wife and mother instead of a professional career tend to have less self—esteem at middle age than their counterparts who have combined marriage and a career or those who have remained single.76 Pauline Bart, interested in maternal role loss, studied middle-aged women who were hospitalized for depression following the departure of children. These subjects were housewives whose major life focus had been home, family and traditional women's activities. It was found that standardized test masculine—feminine scores for these women at one hospital were one—half a standard deviation more feminine than the mean for the healthy, general population of women.77 Bart's conclusion was: If one's satisfaction, one's sense of worth comes from other people rather than from one's own accomplishments, one is left with an empty shell in place of a self when such people 76Women Today, April, 1972, p. 3. 7Pauline Bart, ”Depression in Middle—Aged Women,"in Woman in Sexist Society, ed. by Vivian Gornick and Barbara Moran (New York: Basic Books, 1971), pp. 115-16. 50 depart. On the other hand, if a woman's sense of worth comes from her own accomplishments, she is not so vulnerable to breakdown when significant others leave. This point is obscured in much of the polemical literature on the allegedly cas— trating, dominant American female who is considered to have lost her femininity. It is, after all, feminine women, the ones who play the traditional roles, not the career women, who are likely to dominate their husbands and children.78 For "a job" to become a career of accomplishment requires not only motivation by the woman but also suffi— cient acceptance by the employer for hope that recognition of achievement will result from the investment of oneself. This reward is often not forthcoming. Women Executives A 1972 study of women in management found that only 3 percent of the managerial positions were staffed by women in more than 70 percent of the companies responding, and those tended to be in Federal or state government. Three—fourths of the respondents, who were themselves managers of both sexes, were over 40 years of age and they characterized top managers as: decisive, consistent, objective and emotionally stable.79 No strong prejudice against women for managerial training positions or older women in particular was reported, but the small proportion of women in any mana- gerial positions pointed to the conclusion that women are 781bid., p. 116. 9Douglas C. Basil, Women in Management (New York: Dunellen, 1972), pp. 9-15. 51 rarely accepted for such training programs. Smaller firms without women in executive positions were particu— larly unfavorable to the idea that women make good managers, while companies who had had experience with women execu- tives tended to be more favorable.80 Respondents of both sexes said spending thousands of dollars in management training for a woman of childbear- ing age is a gamble, but women respondents felt male candidates are just as risky. Young men, impatient for advancement, find the quickest road to promotion by changing employers. This conclusion was also reached by other studies.81 Hennig found that, unlike most men in their early careers, the majority of the women executives she studied changed jobs very little and all remained in their respective companies most of their careers.82 Cussler considered one of the outstanding traits of the women she studied to be their loyalty to their 83 In studying career mobility and organiza- organization. tional commitment, Grusky found that female managers were more strongly committed in loyalty to the organization than male managers on each of three indexes he used. He 8OIbid. 81Ibid. 82 Hennig, "What Happens," p. 10. 83Margaret Cussler, The Woman Executive (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1958), p. 125. 52 noted that female managers "who find themselves promoted rapidly or on a level with managers of higher status (male) feel strongly obligated to the firm, because the rewards they have received have been greater relative to the others."84 A recent study with a nationwide probability sample of working women and men refuted what they called seven deadly half-truths about women, one of which is that women are less concerned than men with getting ahead on the job. The authors report an apparent significant difference initially, in that 64 percent of the men but only 48 percent of the women said they want to be promoted. How— ever, upon further investigation it was found that the statement of desire for promotion was largely the result of expectation of promotion. Women want promotions as much as men do——when they think they have a realistic chance of getting them. Their apparent lack of ambition is not a personality trait, but a result of their restric— tion to dead—end jobs. The authors commented, "we would guess that to avoid frustration, women, like men in the . . . . . 85 same Situations, scale down their ambitions." 84Oscar Grusky, "Career Mobility and Organiza— tional Commitment," in Organizational Careers, ed. by Barney Glaser (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), p. 190. 85Joan Crowley, Teresa Levitin and Robert Quinn, "Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women," Psychology Today, 6 (March, 1973), p. 96. 53 No matter what promotion process is used, socio- logical researchers have discovered a strong emphasis on finding the "right man for the job." Deciding factors for picking one from a group who all have adequate levels of ability are such things as "age, sex, religion, ethnicity, family background, wife, political preference and club affiliation."86 The inclusion of both "sex" and "wife" indicates the extent of the barrier to women. The same is true in education. Bursch hypothe- sizes about a college president thinking of hiring a vice president for student affairs or a dean of students and speaks of "bringing into the administration a good man from ."87 As Becker and Strauss note, ”a candidate [for higher position] whose background is too irregular is likely to be eliminated unless just this irregularity makes him ”88 This phenomenon has sometimes particularly valuable. been observed in relation to both racial minorities and women . 86Barney Glaser, "Career Concerns and Footholds in the Organization," in Organizational Careers, ed. by Barney Glaser (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), p. 182. 87Charles W. Bursch, "The Vice President or Dean of Students," in Administrators in Higher Education, ed. by Gerald P. Burns (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1962), p. 15. 88Howard Becker and Anselm L. Strauss, "Careers, Personality and Adult Socialization,” in Organizational Careers, ed. by Barney Glaser (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), p. 23. 54 The charge has been made that prestigious, male dominated professions support traditional career develop— ment systems that limit a woman professional's achievements through the protege system, sex typing of occupations, use of peer group relationships to establish performance criteria, and the use of sex, rather than credentials and achievement to determine status.89 In the academic area it is said: Termination on prejudicial or discriminatory grounds, usually those of race or sex, seem to be rare. Discrimination is far more likely to occur in hiring, and it is plain that at a few departments . . . only white protestant males need apply.9 It has been observed in the filling of high level vacancies and promotions that the executive's search moves on the assumption that those with qualities and interests like his own will think as he does.91 C. Wright Mills, who has devoted a great deal of time and attention to studying executives says, "time and time again, in 89Cynthia F. Epstein, "Encountering the Male Establishment," American Journal of Sociology, 75 (May, 1970), pp. 965-82. 90Theodore Caplow and Reece J. McGee, "How Vacan- cies Occur in Academic Careers,” in Organizational Careers, ed. by Barney Glaser (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), P. 336. 91Melville Dalton, "Vacant Position and Promo— tion," in Organizational Careers, ed. by Barney Glaser (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), p. 333. 55 close ups of the executive career, we observe how men in . 92 the same Circles choose one another." But what happens if one is not among the chosen? Hughes asks the question: In what circumstances can the person who is accepted formally into a new status, and then informally kept within the limits of the kind mentioned [specialists to their own 'odd group'] step out of these limits anngecome simply a lawyer, doctor or whatever? He admits they are large questions which he does not purport to answer, because they are unanswerable; how- ever, in another context he does answer by saying: The person who is the first of his kind to attain a certain status is often not drawn into the informal brotherhood in which experiences are exchanged, competence built up and the formal code elaborated and enforced. He thus remains forever a marginal man. As Becker and Strauss put it, "until a newcomer has been accepted, he will not be taught crucial trade secrets."95 It has seemed woman's lot to be forever a newcomer and a "marginal man." Jennings asserts that one must have a credible source of information within the firm and that "in the 92C. Wright Mills, "The Chief Executives," in Organizational Careers, ed. by Barney Glaser (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), p. 419. 93Everett C. Hughes, Men and Their Work (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1958), p. 115. 94Ibid., p. 109. 95Becker and Strauss, "Careers, Personality," p. 23. 56 early stages of his executive career, a subordinate needs "96 to model himself after somebody. Unless they are care- fully coached and counseled by sponsor-type superiors, they will lose their footing.97 Evidence of sponsorship has been found in studies of women executives which were made by women. In five eastern metropolitan areas women executives were often found to have been taken under the protection of an influ- ential sponsor who prepared them for responsibility, and then at the critical moment suggested them for the job. Usually the sponsor was a man.98 Hennig reports of her executive women: "Upon entering the business world, they quickly became affiliated with a particular young execu- tive with whom they worked throughout most of their ..99 career. In the academic arena also, this role is recog- nized in a more generalized way: At the Dean of Students or Vice President for Student Affairs level, as in all key adminis— trative spots, personal attention to the in-service development of likely junior execu— tives is a prime responsibility of the senior. 96Eugene Jennings, Routes to the Executive Suite (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1971), p. 236. 97Ibid., p. 27. 98Cussler, Woman Executive, p. 17. 9Hennig, "What Happens," p. 10. 100Bursch, "Vice President or Dean," p. 15. 57 How does one get sponsored? Jennings says high performance and trustworthiness are among the characteris- tics of the executive who is most apt to be sponsored. One must first become a "crucial subordinate" for which the conditions of trust are: accessibility, availability, predictability and loyalty. The root activity of becoming trusted by a sponsor is high interactional frequency on a face—to—face basis.lOl Women, however, frequently find themselves in a position where, when something needs discussing, the men get together for lunch but send a memo to any woman who may have an interest in the matter.102 In referring to a study of 673 laboratory scien— tists, of whom 68 were female, Bernard speaks of the opportunities for informal communication which depended on taking the initiative in making contacts, or which depended on invitation from others, and which tended to be less available to the women. The women were less aggressive than the men in actively seeking opportunity for such communication except by mail, and they were . . . 3 less often sought for such communication, even by mail.10 lOlJennings, Routes, pp. 147—70. 102Caroline Bird, Born Female: The High Cost of Keeping Women Down (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1968), p. 192. 103Bernard, Academic Women, p. 159. 58 Shilling, at George Washington University said that the barriers are probably of the subtle kind embedded in the mores which regulate the interpersonal relations between the sexes and still discourage overt aggressive- ness in women in initiating contacts with men. Especially in a young, attractive unmarried scientist, seeking out fellow scientists to discuss research problems might easily be interpreted as "making advances." This is an extremely difficult problem with which to cope. Bernard reported that the women she talked with think of themselves as individuals "just like anyone else” and it often comes as a surprise to them to find that their sex is very much in the minds of those who are observing or interacting with them. They might, under certain circumstances, forget they are women, but men do not.104 However, as women grow older they have less sex appeal and their age makes advancement more tolerable to 105 men. Also, the age of the hiring agents has an influence on the employment prospects of women candidates, as was demonstrated in Simpson's study. Men in the 20 and 30 age range and those over 60 years of age selected the highest number of women for academic positions. Men between 41 and 50 chose the smallest number of women, and generally those who discriminated against academic women 104Ibid., p. 203. 105Epstein, Woman's Place, p. 175. 59 also exhibited negative attitudes toward women in general. Female subjects in this study chose substantially more female candidates for employment than did males.106 The changing attitude of younger people may be prophetic. The editor of the intercollegiate publication, Moderator, which keeps a finger on the pulse of the male undergraduate, said: Guys today don't have any particular feeling about working with women. They're used to them in classes, in organizations. Besides that, a lot of their mothers worked. The masculinity of a man today depends on other things. Keepigg women in the home was their fathers' hang up. Summary An attempt was made through reviewing research and related literature to provide background on the status of women in the administration of higher education. A relatively limited amount of research has been devoted to this particular group, but a few recent, general studies were discussed. Research was reviewed on gender differences as related to the psychological characteris- tics being tested in this study: achievement, conformance, independence and intellectual efficiency. Briefly noted were studies of antecedent factors, educational barriers and the influence of various decision points in women's lives. 106Simpson, "A Myth is Better," p. 73. 107Basil, Women in Management, p. 95. 60 Executive women and traditional male management theory was examined within the framework of those who are different, mobility, sponsorship and informal communica- tion. Prior publications suggest a strong need for identification of women administrators as an entity distinguished from faculty, and much more information is needed about their characteristics, career patterns and opportunities for the future in higher education. CHAPTER III METHOD OF STUDY This is a descriptive survey utilizing material compiled from four sources: in-depth interviews, a Basic Data Sheet, a standardized psychological inventory and telephone interviews. Population The population consisted of all women who are administrators above entry level positions in the Big Ten universities. Big Ten universities were selected because of their large enrollments and presumably large administrative staffs. Combined, these ten universities present a large enough population to overcome the handicap of small numbers at any one campus, and few representa— tives of any particular type of position. Neither branch campuses nor medical schools were included. Subjects were selected from the 1972-73 published faculty and staff directories of each school, by first consulting the departmental listings and then cross checking to identify additional names from the alphabetical listings. This study did not separate women by race, nor is it a study of individual specialties such as librarians, edi- tors, nurses or counselors. 61 62 Positions Positions selected were of the type which would be expected to require at least a bachelor's degree, with advanced degrees accompanying upper level responsibility. They include the kinds of positions which might be con- sidered "ladder" or channels leading to top level, as well as the top titles themselves. These were positions for which some specialized proficiencies may have been required at entry, but at the upper levels, general admin- istrative skills have been superimposed and are of more significance than the initial field proficiency. Duties are broad and generalized, inVolving decision making and supervision of subordinate staff. Those women who were primarily teaching faculty were not included, although teaching per se would not prohibit inclusion, provided the major function was administrative. Deans of colleges or directors of schools were included because of this definition, while department heads were not. Although departmental chairman do much administrative work, their responsibilities frequently are allocated on a short-term rotation basis with other members, and their orientation tends to remain primarily within the academic discipline rather than focusing upon administrative concerns. 63 Areas Hospital facilities were not included since not all universities had a related medical school. Where there is one it tends to have very few women except as nurses and laboratory technicians which are primarily specialized technical, rather than administrative, posi- tions. If the decision had been made to include these facilities and types of positions, the numbers of subjects would have been greatly increased without providing a wider range of responsibilities or background experience. For similar reasons, extension services were not included, although historically this has been an important mission of many Big Ten universities. Clinicians such as psychiatrists, psychologists and psychometrists were not used because of the specifically personalized and individual nature of their work. Women whose primary responsibility appeared to be more technical than administrative were also omitted. These consisted of positions such as laboratory researchers, dietitians and other food service employees. Business office personnel were not included because even when titled, their chief functions frequently remain those of clerks, bookkeepers and accountants. Those who were selected appeared in the following areas: admissions, affirmative action and equal oppor- tunity, alumni, band, campus planning, central 64 administration, child care, colleges and schools within the university, community services, continuing education, counseling, data systems, development, editors of campus-wide offices and specific publications, educational services of various descriptions, financial aids, health services, housing, libraries, museums, placement, regis- trar, research centers, student services and functions designed to deal specifically with women. Titles While titles could be a decisive means of assessing a function and responsibility, in reality they often obscure. ThiSparticularly applies to the supportive titles of "assistant" and ”assistant to" which women frequently hold. Although "assistant" for an all—campus office was used, "assistant to" usually was not except in central administration. The size and organization of an institution directly influenced the selection process. Certain titles were used extensively in some institutions, while the same title denoted more responsibility elsewhere. The entire directory had to be considered according to the school's unique arrangement before choices could be made. One title originally included, but omitted after investigation, was that of administrative assistant. Although in certain cases this actually leads up, in most Schools this title is used for clerical and secretarial 65 functions, with the persons sometimes listed in the directory as secretary under one heading and in another as administrative assistant. Women with this designation were exceedingly numerous in some schools, indicating entry level positions, and the decision was made, therefore, to exclude them from this study. Women do not hold the chief positions such as chancellor, president, vice president or provost in any Big Ten universities, but they do hold positions related to the above titles in forms such as "associate," "assistant,” and "assistant to.” Women holding these titles were included. Also among those in this study are: dean, director, head and coordinator of various facilities, editor, librarian, curator and registrar, and in certain instances the supporting positions, with some additional titles which occurred only once. Directories Directories themselves varied widely: the kind of type, page layout, the amount of information included and its arrangement, whether there was a section for depart— mental listings, the accuracy and completeness of titles, the inclusion of highest degree and indication of sex all either facilitated or inhibited the selection of subjects. In each case it was necessary to carefully study the first half of the directory to get a picture of the terminology and its meaning. 66 In some instances the organization chart of the school obscured potential subjects. For example, Home Economics is often a school, in which case the director and assistant director would be used. In one institution, home economics was a department, resulting in one usual source of women administrators being lost through organi— zational rearrangement. Where there was no indication of sex, most foreign names had to be omitted, as were such indeterminate ones as "Pat" or "Terry." In schools which allotted limited space, perhaps one line per person, usually the academic rank was used, since in the typical collegiate environment this is accorded higher prestige. When "Director of Center" or other administrative responsibility is not stated, this aspect of the university tends to be down- graded. The same factor is at work in the departmental listings where only the head, by whatever terminology, and his secretary are named. Since women are most often the second or third in charge, the effect is to render them invisible. Because of particular interest in the subject, all directories were checked for departmental listing under "Women." One school published no departmental listings at all. Two schools did not include this heading. All the rest did use the term, but none had more than one 67 item under this classification. One was "Women's Faculty Club," another "Women's Residence Halls," one "Women's Advocate," one "Women's Programs (see Dean of Student's Office)" and two were extension related. The school which yielded the largest number of subjects also has a strong Affirmative Action program, although whether the two facts are related or which is cause and which effect cannot be determined here. Instruments Data were collected by means of four instruments, copies of which are in Appendices A, B, C and D of this study. The instruments were: 1. In—depth interview schedule for women admin- istrators on a single Big Ten campus. This consisted of 66 items covering the following areas: background, physi- cal, personal-social and professional environments especially concerned with support and career development factors. The schedule was refined four times after trial with at least one administrator and revision before addi— tional trials. Tape recordings were also made of each interview. 2. The Basic Data Sheet (BDS) constructed and revised after test interviews with three women adminis— trators on one campus. Development of the instrument was directed toward ease of response, brevity, inclusion of information relating to the major variables to be 68 analyzed, and feasibility of coding procedures. The Basic Data Sheet requested information in three areas, as follows: Personal: date of birth, marital status, ages of children, advancement factors which were a choice of statements of perceptions of difficulties in promotion for women, and the open ended suggestion that they write on any aspect of the problems of women administrators or include personal comments. Employment: space for current and previous posi— tions to include name of employing institution, title of position and dates of employment. Education: space for three degrees with year granted, institution and field of study. 3. The Class III Scales of the California Psycho- logical Inventory (CPI) measuring achievement via conformance, achievement via independence and intellectual efficiency. Detailed descriptions of these characteristics are found in Chapter I in Definitions. 4. The Schedule for Telephone Interviews collected minimal demographic material, but contained six general questions pertaining to career development: management training, career decision points, goals, sponsorship, style of informal communication and whether there was, or had been, an involvement in any aspect of the women's movement. 69 The central research question for this study was: Are there identifiable factors which affect the employment level of women administrators in the Big Ten universities? Data Collection In June, 1972, interviews were conducted with 14 women administrators on a single Big Ten campus, seeking information in areas which lend themselves to interview rather than written answers. Vitae were obtained to provide demographic material prior to the appointment, leaving the entire period for discussion of support, career mobility, communications and goals, in relation to their past three or four positions. An interview schedule was used to aid in securing similar information from all (see Appendix A); however, a portion of the time was given to free discussion of any aspect on which the participant chose to speak. Interviews ranged from one to two and one— half hours in length. All were tape recorded with interviewees' permission, for greater accuracy in quota- tions, although individual identities were guaranteed anonymity. Because of the nature of the inquiry, the small number of subjects and their relative homogeneity, no attempt was made to stratify along the lines of posi- tion level or age. This information is summarized in Chapter IV. In October, 1972, letters were written to the bookstore on each campus requesting a copy of the current 70 faculty and staff directory. For various reasons, it was mid—January, 1973 before all directories were received. On January 30, 1973 packets were mailed to women administrators of eight schools, with packets to the remaining two schools mailed February 9, 1973. A mailing packet consisted of a covering letter, Basic Data Sheet, a California Psychological Inventory, mark sense answer sheet, return—addressed and stamped envelope. The Beeie Data Sheet and answer sheet were stamped with a three digit code number. Complete follow-up packets were mailed to 184 women who had not responded at nine of the schools by March 5, 1973. Additional time was allowed for follow-up to one school which had experienced delay in delivery of the first mailing. Seventeen packets were mailed to that school on March 15, 1973. A total of 201 follow—up packets were sent. Between April 5 and 13, 1973, 33 follow-up tele— phone calls were made to women to whom original packets had been sent, but from whom no response had been received. Of a total potential population of 587 women administrators in Big Ten universities, it was determined by mail or by telephone that 48 of these persons did not, in fact, meet the criteria: 13 were no longer employed by that institution, 12 were not administrators (now 71 teaching only, secretaries or other designations), 11 were part—time employees, 5 were male, 4 were retired and 3 were on leave of absence. Elimination of these persons reduced the popula- tion to 539 women, of whom 387 or 72 percent responded by means of one or more of the four instruments employed in the study. Nine of the women interviewed in June, 1972 were no longer available for participation by January, 1973, for reasons similar to those stated above; therefore, they were not mailed the Basic Data Sheet packets, but never— theless are included in the total sample. Twenty persons indicated they did not wish to participate. The reason most often given for non— participation was objection to the standardized test which was considered too long, containing irrelevant items or not adequate without a personal interview as well. A total of 301 Basic Data Sheet_responses were analyzed by computer for position levels and age groups, and are summarized Chapter IV. Fifteen persons who returned the Basic Data Sheet did not complete the standardized test, leaving a total of 286 California Psychological Inventory scores processed for each of the three scales. These are summarized in Chapter IV. 72 During the first two weeks of April, 1973, seven- teen telephone interviews were conducted with non-respondents to the mailed, written material. These subjects were selected by means of a table of random numbers. The interviews lasted from 15 to 30 minutes and are summarized in Chapter IV. Data Analysis The Basic Data Sheet was designed to facilitate coding. Position levels were determined according to the criteria detailed in Chapter 1, Definitions. Information from the Basic Data Sheet was then transferred to computer coding forms for a total of 15 variables. When all coding was completed, the information was key punched into a card for each subject, and verified. Answer sheets for the CPI were scored through the Counseling Center at Michigan State University. Material from both types of interviews were hand tabulated. After consultation with research and computer specialists regarding the varied responses to the five advancement factors, it was decided that the most satis- factory method would be to weight and rank, and to tally these factors manually. All other materials from the Basic Data Sheet and CIP scores were analyzed by computer. Processing of the data was handled through the Michigan State University Computer Center, using the 6500 73 computer. The program used was the CISSR Executive from the CISSR file, APLIB language, ACT III Analysis of Contingency Tables, from the Computer Center library of available programs. The results of all these analyses are presented in Chapter IV. Summary This was a descriptive survey study of all women administrators above entry level employed in Big Ten universities, as indicated by their 1972-73 Faculty and Staff Directory. The central question for this study was: Are there identifiable factors which affect the employment level of women administrators in Big Ten universities? Detailed criteria for selection of subjects were outlined, as well as titles of positions included at each of four levels of responsibility. In—depth interviews were conducted with 14 high— level women administrators on one campus, inquiring into factors relating to environmental support in the areas of education, personal—social and professional life. Packets of material, mailed to 578 subjects, consisted of: a covering letter; a Basic Data Sheet with space for providing information such as personal facts, employment, education, advancement factors and an invitation to write free comments on women in administration; a copy 74 of the Class III Scales of the California Psychological Inventory; a mark sense answer sheet; and a return self— addressed and stamped envelope. Telephone interviews were conducted with a random sample of 17 women administrators on management training, goals, communications and support and sponsorship. Forty—eight women were found not to meet the selection criteria, thus reducing the total population to 539, of whom 387 persons, or 72 percent, participated in the study either by written response, interview or both. The findings from this study are presented in Chapter IV, with conclusions and recommendations stated in Chapter V. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS In this chapter the findings from all sources of information for this study are presented. The instruments used include: (1) the in-depth interview schedule employed on one Big Ten campus; (2) the Basic Data Sheet; (3) the Class III Scale of the California Psychological Inventory; and (4) the random sample telephone interview schedule. Analysis of the data provides information rela— tive to the areas of inquiry, as stated in Chapter I, and by methods detailed in Chapter III. Summaries are provided for each major area. The basic questions in the statement of the problem are answered by the findings presented in this chapter. The Single Campus In—Depth Interviews Fourteen upper— to middle—level women administrators from a single Big Ten campus were interviewed in June, 1972 for from one to two and one—half hours. Not everyone responded to all aspects of the interview schedule, particularly in the discussions of prior positions. They tended to center on what they considered significant rather 75 76 than numerical fidelity, therefore item totals vary accordingly. Personal-Social Environment The ages of this group ranged from 35 to 65 with the median being 58. Nine had never been married, two were divorced, totaling eleven single, with three married. One married woman has two children, one married woman has two step—children and the divorced women have two children each, totaling four women with eight children. One woman interviewed was an only child; three were firstborn; seven were middle children and three were the youngest in the family. The mean number of children per family was five. Five reported that as they were growing up they felt closer to their mothers; three closer to their fathers and six not closer to one or the other. Their ratings of the geographic area and community were mostly high, either 4 which was very satisfactory or 3 which was satisfactory. Housing for most was first a room or small apart— ment, then apartment and then a house. In their first position, most shared their housing. In the middle positions they were almost evenly divided between sharing and living alone. In their current position five live alone and nine share, either with a friend, child, husband or some combination of persons. 77 Their friends are mostly near the same age, with six indicating a mixture of ages and a few associating mostly with older or younger people. Most have friends among both sexes but four have friends mostly among women while two have mostly men friends. Over half have mostly friends who are single, with three having mostly married couples as friends and three say theirs are a mixture. Most friends are connected with the university, with some coming from among neighbors and three reported husband's friends being a source of contact for them. Some comments on their social situation were that they want variety in their associations: when working mostly with one sex, they like to add the other off duty. Women who work in administration are mostly with men and need to be with other women after duty hours to keep perspective. Those in '’women's fields" felt they benefited from the company of men in social situations. One expressed a common problem in saying, "I don't have much social life and that's going to be a problem if I don't do something about it soon. When I have a free evening I just want to put my feet up." Although there were times when no personal confi- dante was available, most have had someone to fill that role most of the time. This person has been a female in 21 instances over the past three or four positions, and male in 16 instances. 78 On a scale of l to 4, most rate their current personal-social environment at 4 or high, although there are some at 3, 2 and one who rates it as l, which is unsatisfactory. Free discussion of what were considered the most important aspects of personal-social support produced the following remarks: A comfortable environment. An esthetically pleasing place to live which is not noisy or "citified," yet has access to professional consulting as well as plays, symphonies, swimming, boating and other outdoor activities. Financial and household maintenance. Two of the married women mentioned this and indicated husbands filled this need, by providing income as well as assistance with household chores. On personal life: "Only a limited personal life is possible when in a responsible position which requires a great dealcflftime." "You cancnflgrtake it so long." "The single woman is socially difficult. She has to be 'gutty' to go places alone." "One needs the company of men and freedom to be accepted. If I had relied solely on females, it would have been a lonely life." On individual support: "The single woman needs a wife." "You need your husband's encouragement." "Off— the—job support must come from somewhere." 79 On groups of friends: "A network of both men and women friends is best." "Satisfactory personal relation— ships are fundamental." "Friendship requires aggressiveness. If you want friends, you do something about it." "You must have a variety of activities away from work." Advice for women administrators frequently had to do with confidence and self-knowledge. 1. Be aware of your strengths. 2. Have confidence that you can do the job. 3. Understand yourself. 4. Analyze your strengths and weaknesses. Avoid categorizing yourself as a female first. 5. Maximize the good that is female. 6. Be honest. Say what you feel needs to be said. 7. Don't be defensive because you are a woman administrator. A lot of barriers are arti- ficial. 8. Be your own person. 9. Be yourself. Administration is not any one way of doing things. Use your own style. Don't be defensive. Professional Environment Education.——In their aspirations for college under- graduate work, both parents encouraged seven respondents; the father alone for one and teachers for three. For advanced degrees, most decided on their own, although some— times influenced by teaching requirements for the Master's 80 Degree. Nine hold the doctorate, three the master's with one currently in a doctoral program; two the bachelor's. These were obtained in from 8 to 24 years for the doctorate and 7 to 17 for the master's. Employment.-—One was an assistant central admin— istrator, one a director of a school and all others were associates, assistants or at a level below dean or director. With a total of 45 positions discussed, 21 resulted from promotion or invitation; 11 from formal application; 8 personal contact and 5 professional con— tact. Five rated their current position as very suitable for them, three considered it not satisfactory while the remaining six found theirs satisfactory. For most, their office and staff were adequate or better, with only one reporting feeling facilities were inadequate and understaffed. Five of these women had had only male superiors for all their reported positions, while one had had only female superiors. For most women at most prior positions there have been only women or large numbers and percentages of women on the staff with them, with a smaller number of men. One exception was where there were about 70 men and only 3 women. Comments were: "All one-sex groups have a screening device of encap— sulating and withdrawing. They need to get into the arena of intellectual rubbing up against others, but they cannot, dare not, go powerless, defenseless and vulnerable." '5 81 Another said, "Women's negative characteristics are more Visible in one—sex situations." Career Development Goals.--Long range goals were reported by five at their first position, but eight reported having none. In their current position, two want to stay in administration. They are the two who had management training earlier in their careers. Future plans of five include getting out of administration, three plan to retire relatively soon and four had no particular goal. This totals to 12 with no positive goal. Their advice was: "If you are going to be a pro— fessional, you have to go on for the Ph.D." "One's career evolves and develops in stages; where the end point is cannot be anticipated." "Let in possibilities and keep open." "You need to prepare for and expect change." "Develop at least a five year plan for the future. Ask yourself what skills are being developed and where they can take you." Mobility.——As they were growing up, the families of six women never moved, one moved only once, four moved twice and one moved eighteen times. Four had been at the same institution through the past four positions; four had been at the same school for the last two positions, totaling eight, or more than half, who were not highly 82 mobile. Six had had a mixture of locations. None had experienced dramatically different geographical locations. On the basis of their last three positions, the respondents rated their moves in the following way, com— pared with their immediately previous position: First position: 11 upward, 3 lateral Second position: 8 upward, 4 lateral, 1 down Third position: 9 upward, 4 lateral, 1 down. Thus, although most moves were upward by rank and responsibility, after the early position, half or more made moves which were not upward. Of their reasons for changing position during the three or four positions considered in these interviews, answers were as follows: improvement, seven; some form of avoidance, thirteen (e.g., lack Of opportunity, too much work or conflict on staff); six changed for reasons which had no bearing on their position such as husband moved so she went with him, or schooling; three people mentioned a change of position because of their concept of duty and responsibility such as "the position was offered and I felt it my duty to take it“ or "I felt an obligation to help where needed." When asked what would tempt them to leave their current positions, two replied nothing would; three expected to leave shortly, upon retirement; three spoke ll of ideal opportunities which would be appealing, a I" 83 really solid program, sufficiently defined, with excel- lent facilities for training and research" or "a meaningful position (in a certain area) with shared goals and objectives providing maximum support"; three men— tioned negative aspects of their current positions indicating a willingness to consider some alternative; and two replied they didn't know. Communications.——Formal communications in their current positions were rated good by only half the inter— viewees. Appointment to appropriate committees was reported by eight, but non—appointment was indicated by three with no response from three. Membership in professional organizations ranged from one who belonged to none, to the others who belonged to as many as eight. The mean number of organizations was just under four. Six had held no office while two had held as many as four offices, with the others near two offices. Two had published more than one book and two had a book in progress. Three had published more than ten articles each, but seven had published nothing. Informal communications apparently improve over the years and as levels of responsibility rise; however, only five rated them very good, with five calling them limited. Comments were: "There is a matter of trust or lack of it, connected with informal communication, 84 whether it reflects the area (discipline) or the evolu- tionary stage of development of the individual." "I depend on it. Informal communication, 'good' communica- { tion, provides the basis for the future decision-making which later comes through formal channels. It allows time for evaluation and clarification of your position prior to committee meetings or staffings." I“Until you achieve that interpersonal relationship and while you are still threatening, still moving in the hierarchy, it 1 is particularly difficult. Women lack experience at trustingfl' As an example of general recognition of the importance of informal communication one administrator mentioned a new, younger person asking her before a meeting, "Is there anything I should know that isn't on the agenda?" "During my internship, informal communica— tion was everything. I was invited to their [her mentor's] house for dinner, went out with them socially. There was nothing I could have asked for." One referred to the male, sociallnn:professionally related,re1ationship when on Friday afternoons several of the men who work nearby come to ask her to go with them to the Faculty Club for a drink. On the need for communication to be two-way, that is speaking up as well as listening, one said of her early days, "If I had been Miss Milquetoast, my life would have been unbearable." Another noted the difficulty for millilg 85 women in reversing the socially trained supporting role to active participation. This cannot be done, even and perhaps especially where desired, unless it is permitted by acceptance from the males established in that circle. As an indication of communication patterns, interviewees were questioned about their weekly lunchtime habits. Five go home for lunch several times a week, one every day. Six attend one or more luncheon meetings per week, four eat at their desks and work one or more days each week, three lunch with colleagues at least once a week and most tryto keep one optional lunch period each week for errands or personal business. At both their first and second positions, three persons reported they had no one with whom to share profes— sional spill-over from the job. At the third and current positions no one reported having no one to fill this role. Of those who did have someone to discuss work related matter with, their choice was as follows: first or earliest position: seven talked with a female, four with a male, and four with people of both sexes. There appeared to be a shift in the male-female ratio when going up the position ladder from mostly women to a more even distribution with men. Several respondents suggested that as they moved up and became more experienced and knowledgeable, their need for sharing or receiving information became more specialized 86 to particular situations and they turned to a variety of people who were competent in the areas of concern. On interpersonal communication, this advice was offered collectively: Learn to work more competitively; cooperate but maintain identity. Don't be afraid to be helpful to other women. Don't take yourself too seriously, but take them (associates) very seriously. See your role clearly as it relates to co-workers. Cooperate and build trust first. No woman administrator will succeed who thinks first in terms of sex. A lot of barriers are artificial; people can relate as people; what society perceives need not be a stereotyped woman administrator. Women are more apt to accommodate to an immediate, pressing problem rather than trying to solve it. Know where the power is and how to operate with it; locate and tap in. Professional Support Financial.--Seven received financial assistance for some part of their education, but four of those who do not have the doctorate did not receive any financial assistance. For those who did receive help, it took the form of a small, personal loan, graduate assistantships, an NDEA loan and organization or large foundation fellow- ships. This assistance was received by three for the doctorate, one the master's and two for the bachelor's. One was for an internship prior to doctoral study. 87 Their ratings on salary relative to previous position were as follows: first or earliest position: 6 up, 6 lateral, 1 down. Second position: 9 up, 4 lateral, 1 down. Third or last position: 10 up, 3 lateral, 1 down. Thus, the numbers as well as percentage of those whose salaries increased became greater as they moved into their present positions. Support incident.——When asked for an incident indicating professional support during their time at the first position included in this discussion, eleven could recall at least one, three could not. This support took the form of financing or training in three instances, support from colleagues for four; from superiors for three. In their current positions, eleven supplied instances of professional support. Four took the form of promotion or a specific desired responsibility; three mentioned the attitude of their immediate supervisor; four said they were supported in general. Specific supportive incidents included such things as one immedaite superior saying, "If you try, I'll support you," and doing so; being given a needed type— writer by other staff members; being allowed to institute a new course which she had wanted to develop; being given a scholarship; having colleagues defend an article she wrxate which the immediate superior questioned. 88 Other comments were: from an assistant to a high administrator, "He trusts my judgment and knowledge of the institution enough to allow me to take a group quite far along before he gets into it." In referring to an internship with a male administrator, one said, "You must have men to work with who are secure enough to keep an open door. Where he went, I went. He discussed how he was attempting to work with a particular group, trying to neutralize personality conflicts and I saw it all happen. That's the best way to learn." And from another, "Women need confidence, awareness of strengths, someone to work with slowly over a long enough period of time that strengths are demonstrated and believed. They must develop the ability to read a situation and handle it with security. Women are skilled in perceptiveness. Some subservient skills can work in a supervisory role, but women often don't use them." When asked about incidents indicating non—support when they felt support should have been given, there were sixteen positions overall where no incident was reported to have occurred, but seven instances were men- tioned. These ranged from a general statement that the liniversity doesn't understand the needs of (the particular group she represents) to the withholding of money by a liigh school principal in an early position. 89 On support in general, the following express some of their feelings: A man who is insecure plays everything close to his chest and seizes sex as a way of throwing his weight around. More and more I believe how men feel about women depends greatly on their childhood and on their marriage. A childhood that is favorable toward people rather than judgmental in terms of sex first is very important. By a good marriage I mean to a woman who knows who she is, who relates well to people of both sexes, who does not base her life's activities in terms of sexual charac- teristics. You cannot manage the actions or comments of other people to make them fit a sexual structure. There are either good managers or poor managers. Some are men, some are women. Women are sometimes so intent on withstanding all the obstacles, either real or apparent, that they are reluctant to encourage or help other women lest it disparage or minimize them personally. Some women seem to think any success by another woman is detrimental to them rather than reflect- ing well on all. They are reluctant to congratulate other women on their successes or accomplishment because in some very deep way it makes them feel less a success or more a failure. Women need encouragement from both women and men but they are more apt to get it from men. In many ways it is even more meaningful from a woman because there may be a feeling that a man is just being kind or gentle, but if you have encourage— ment and appreciation expressed by a woman you are more apt to be touched by it than having the same acceptance from a man. We need women, not in a soft way, but in their sensitivity in every part of life to express deep feeling for humanity, to prevent and correct unnecessary suffering and express that side of mankind that is needed for completion. When asked whether there had been any change in general attitude during their time in the current posi- tion, four said it had improved, two said it was worse, 90 three reported no change with one of these being "always good" and the others not so positive. When asked whether they had ever been sponsored by anyone, the mid—level positions seemed the most produc— tive. Ten said they had been, three said they had not. In the course of conversation, three women referred to the same, rather high—level man, on their current campus, as having recommended them for positions, sought them for joint research or other sponsoring type activities. Comments were: "It is important to have support and relief systems." "Set higher expectations for help from superiors. Don't accept inadequate support." "There must be someone to work with." "Administrators are often given jobs without preparation or in-service train- ing. They should have budget work with an administrative assistant in the Dean's office, and find out what happens in related offices." Opportunities.--In their current positions, four replied they felt there was opportunity for advance- ment, five were doubtful, four definitely negative. Lines of upward movement from their current position were apparent for six, while six made no response and two considered outside positions the only option. Altogether, a cloudy or discouraging picture emerged for most of these women. However, one said when she asked women who com— plained about lack of women in central administration if . «ll 91 they would take such a job if it were offered, they all said "no," for many different reasons. Another said, "I worry about the percentage of women who are willing to accept the challenge. They have said they have the ability and training, but now that opportunity is avail- able, many women who complain they have been by—passed are 'chickening out.'" Perhaps more perception was evident in the comment, "I'm concerned about a woman having family responsibilities which limit her professional progress but then blaming herself for being a woman and not achieving." When asked about management training, two reported an offer at their first position, but none was available to most. Only one other opportunity was reported and that was at the current level. One of those who had the experience said, "Management training via the American Council on Education internship catalyzed my interest in administration; otherwise, I might never have turned on to administration because the administrators I saw locally weren't impressive." Advice was: seek opportunities for training, supervision and management. The difficult thing is now that it is proper for women to fill the administrative— executive role, who is willing to take this responsibility? It's hard work and long hours and you must want it to go into it. Accept responsibility; there are so few who will try administration. 93 tested for significant differences between groups and the variables of education, employment and_personal factors. The computed chi square statistics were tested for signifi— cance at the 0.050 level; however, if the statistic was also significant at the 0.010 or 0.001 level, this was indicated. Where significance was not found at the 0.050 level, lower levels were tested and these are noted with- out being included in the summaries as significant findings. Table 4.18 shows the variables which were found by chi square test statistics to have significance at the 0.050, 0.025 or 0.001 levels. Resulting contingency tables are presented in Tables 4.2 through Table 4.6 and Tables 4.8 through 4.15 presenting data in the form of frequency and percentages. Advancement factor responses are analyzed by item, weighted and ranked and presented in Table 4.16. Table 4.17 presents the mean scores of the Class III Scales of the California Psychological Inventory by position level and age groups. Areas and Titles This information is presented in Table 4.1, with the exception of those positions in Central Administration, which are shown below. The category "other" in Table 4.1 contained one or two persons in the following areas: Band, Campus Planning, Administrative Training, Health Services, Saturday Classes, Summer Session and University 92 They considered the most important elements of professional support to fall into four major categories: (1) Method. Be in a valued field; be open, flexible and persistent; it is not enough to give evidence, you must build a power base that will threaten. (2) Financial Support. Having sufficient staff and graduate assistants; central administration financial support because it determines status and morale. (3) Responsibility. A dependable immediate superior; understanding the demands of the job; being responsible to only one person and having a clear understanding of your responsibility. (4) Treee. Being allowed to carry a project, trust and confidence that you will do what the job requires; general confidence in your ability; freedom to learn, gain experience and develop; opportunity for decision—making; recognition; words backed by action; men are very aware of your being a woman and somehow as a sole female repre— sentative you speak for all women. The Basic Data Sheets Women administrators of all Big Ten universities were sent requests for information to be completed on the Basic Data Sheet. Of interest to the study were titles and areas of work of those who responded. This information is presented in Table 4.1. Other information from the Basic Data Sheet was analyzed according to position level and age group and 94 TABLE 4.l.-—Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities——Frequency of Areas and Titles. Titles Area Total Asst. Dir. Head Coord. Other AS7OC' Asft' to Dir. Dir. . Dir. Admissions 8 2 10 Affirm. Action 2 l l 4 Alumni l l 2 4 Commun. Svc. 7 2 5 2 l6 Cont. Educ. 4 2 l 3 10 Counseling 1 4 2 7 Development 3 3 Editor, All—Campus 6 1 8 15 Edit. Public. 4 5 1 10 Educat. Svcs. 3 2 5 Finan. Aids 2 l 4 l 8 Housing, All—Campus 1 l 2 Resid. Life 11 2 1 14 Library, Univ. 16 2 l8 Branch/Coll. 14 10 24 Museums/ 5 5 Collects. Placement 4 2 2 l 4 4 l7 Registrar 2 1 3 6 Research Ctr. 3 2 4 9 Stu. Pers. 5 10 l l 5 22 Women 1 2 1 1 5 Dean of 2 l 6 9 Other ' 9 TOTAL 2 3 2 95 Center. In Central Administration, Colleges and Deans, including student personnel, were the following: Assoc. or Asst. Chancellor, Vice President or Provost 6 Asst. to the President, Vice President or Provost 4 Dean of College 6 Associate Dean 11 Assistant Dean 16 Assistant to the Dean 18 Director of School 6 Asst. Director of School __2 69 Respondents to the Basic Data Sheet were divided into age interval groups. Twenty-three was the youngest reported age and 67 years the oldest. Those few at the outer extremities were included with others nearest their age. Analysis of Contingency Table 4.2, Position Level and Age Group, provides numbers and totals for each category. The computed chi square statistic of 21.174 with 9 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.025 level. The third age group, from 45 to 54 years, provides the greatest percentage of women at the two upper position levels, while the youngest group accounts for more people at both lower position levels. The second group, ages 35 to 44, and the oldest group, above 55, contain the smallest numbers. The second age group, those women born between 1929 and 1938 proves to be different from the others in various ways. As can be seen, at no position level does this group contribute the highest percentage of 96 .mocmdwwsm BOHmQ mommcpconmm cH mCEdHoo mo wmmocmonomn .wocmdwwsm mo #QmHH Op mwmwcpcmnmm CH macs Mo mmmpcmoummm AOOHV Hom AHm.w v mH Amm.MHV Nw Anw.hmv vHH Awm.va oNH HmBOH Amm.Hmv AHm.mmv AmH.oNV Aos.NHV Ahm.mHv mm AHm.OHV o AmH.wHV oH Amw.va mm Amo.mmv wH Hm>o w mm a AHH.NwV Amm.mmv Amm.HNv Amv.HNv Amm.vmv vs AHm.OHV w Amm.mHv wH Amh.mmv mm Amw.omv mm wmlmw m Amo.HNv Amo.mHv ANm.va Amm.omv Amm.mmv mm Awm.m v w Am>.HHV w NH.¢¢ om Awm.wmv om wwnmm N Awm.m v AHw.mmv Amm.HmV Qflvm.mvv Amm.vmv on Aom. V H Amo.m V 0H Amo.vmv mm MAHm.vmv hm vm OH H w .02 w .02 w .02 w .02 w .02 m o mummy Q50 H p E v m m H CH om< H0 Hm>mH SOHpHmom .Awmmpcmouwm can hocwsvmnmv mmsoso mm< U.S...M mH®>®~H COflfiHmomllmmflflflWmerHGD STE mflm Gun WHO#MH#WHQH§¢ CQEOEII.N.V mgmdB 97 women, although 44.12 percent of their total number are in Level 2 positions, and they have almost as high a percentage of the overall total of respondents as the third age group. The distribution of respondents by amount of education and position level is shown in Table 4.3. The computed chi square statistic for level of education by level of position is 55.56 with 12 degrees of freedom, yeilding significance at the .001 level. As can be seen, 146 (48 percent) of the respondents have the master's degree, with 22 percent having the doctorate; however, of those at Level 4 positions, almost 79 percent hold the doctorate or its equivalent. At all except the highest position level, more women hold the master's degree than any other level of education, to the extent of being near one—half of all respondents at each level. At the two lower position levels, the bachelor's degree is the second most frequent level of education, while at the upper two levels it is the doctorate. None at position Level 4 have less than a master's and at Level 3 only two have less than a bachelor's degree. Even at the two lower levels a relatively large percentage hold the doctorate, totaling 11 percent at position Level 1 and rising with each position level. However, the number with doctorates at Level 1 is only half the theoretical fre— quency yielding a cell chi square of 7.35; Level 2 shows 98 .hocwswmsm SOHmQ momeHsmnmm cH mcEdHoo mo mmmucmonmm Q .hocmswwnm wo pcmHH 0p mmmwcpcmsmm EH mBOM mo mmmgcoouwmm Hem an ms was GNH gases Amm.msV ioa.mmV AwH.ONV AHH.HHV Amm.NNV we Apo.NNV ma imm.mmV on Amw.mmV mm Amm.oNV an 6u6n0poom imo.HmV ims.ssV imm.an Aka.mmV iom.va was iss.m V a Aos.maV om iso.smV mm Amm.msV so m.pmpmmz is V Amm.m V Asa.mNV iam.mmV Amm.omV me lo V o Amm.w V a Amo.GaV am Amm.ssV om m.nonmaomm lo V Amm.m V Amo.m V Amm.m V imm.m V as lo V o imo.a V H ism.smV m Asp.msV a mmmnaoo msom lo V imm.m V Aam.m V pimm.p V Amm.a V ms is V o imp.s V H iss.omV a miem.HwV m Hooaom roam w .02 w .02 w .02 w .02 w .02 Hmuoe a m N H conpmospm pmmnmnm Hm>mH cOHpHmom .Awmmucmonmm paw mucosvwnmv coHpmoocm Mo H®>®H UQM warqu QOH¥HWOQIIW®H¥flmH®>flCD HMO—H. mflm C3... WHOU.M.HU.wHQHEmu¢ QQEOBII.M.W MQMANH. 99 a close correlation; Level 3 has almost twice as many as expected while Level 4 has over three times the theoretical frequency giving a cell chi square of 26.71. Table 4.4 shows level of education and age group. The computed chi square statistic of 25.31 with 12 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.025 level. For all age groups, the master's degree predomi— nates. Of the youngest age group 58 (56 percent) hold the master's degree, 12 the doctorate, and predictably a greater number, 24, than among other age groups, hold the bachelor's degree. In the second age group 34 (50 percent) hold the master's and 18 (26 percent) the doctorate. In the third age group, the 45 to 54 year olds, again the master's predominates with 32 (43 percent) and doctorates are second with 21 (28 percent). The oldest group follows the same pattern with 22 (40 percent) having the master's and 17 (30 percent) the doctorate. In all except the youngest, where bachelor's degrees account for the second greatest numbers, the doctorate is the second most frequent level of education. The cell chi squares show that age group 1 has half as many doctorates as expected; all other age groups have more than expected. Table 4.5 shows date of highest degree by position level and age group. The computed chi square statistic of 201.42 with 18 degrees of freedom for year of birth was 100 .WHHHHQHmmH wammmm new pmccsom mmmucmouomo .mGESHoo How mmmMHGmonm wsm mHoQEdc BOHmQ mmmwswcmumm cH moHDmHmn .m3OH How mommvcooumm mum mHonasc mo HcmHH was OH mononucmnmm CH mossmHmm Amm.NNV Noiom.mHVmHH ima.ONV mm Amo.mV HH ANN.HV mH Haeoa AmNV imHV ANNV Hm>o mm AHmV NH AOHV NN AmNV 6H 0 N a mm H AHNV ANNV AHNV as ANNV HN ANHV Nm AONV mH H N HmlmH m imNV ANNV AGHV No AGNV NH AomV Hm OH o G Halmm N ANHV AOHV mimmV HoH ANHV NH AGmV mm 6meV HN s N am 09 H HMHOB mumsowooa muogmmE m_HOHm£omm mmeHoo Hoocom QmHm mnmm sH wwm msonw :OHNMUSUm .AmmMchouwm paw hocmsvmnwV QSOHO omfl ha nOHgmospm mo Hm>mHIImmeHmHm>HcD awe mHm CH mHOHMHpchHEU< cmaozll.v.v MHmo w mm AONV AmNV HooV «S m Ame hm AONV mH AwNV Hm m o H vmlmv HoHV AmmV Ava we AOHV n HovV Hm Hva mm o o o H «wumm AvsV HomV HOH 22 Nm 3.8 S m o o o N am 09 "mdonw mmd Hom mv mmH mm mm mH v a HHBOH mH H AmmV 0H m m o o o v Nv HmNV m onV SH AmHV m AHNV m H o m m vHH AmmV Ava vH Ava om ANNV mm s a N H m oNH AmmV AmmV QANVV AmHV mm HovV om o.mANNV mm VH m N H H "Ho>wH GOflanmOnH HMHOB Ho>0 w Han onIHomH owIHmmH omIvaH olemmH ommH OB mmnmmo oz Hmww .Ammmuconwm can >ocmdwmeV QDOHU 6mm cam Hm>mH COHuHmom an wmnmoo umman: mo wumollmmHuHme>ch :wB mHm CH muoumnumHCHfipm :wEOBII.m.v mqmme 102 significant at the 0.001 level. The statistic of 20.56 with 18 degrees of freedom for date of highest degree- and position level was not significant even at the 0.250 level. At a glance it can be seen that the nine year period 1961 to 1970 was the bumper year for women administrators in Big Ten universities, with 133 of the 301 total having completed a degree during that time. The greatest percentage of women at each position level received their highest degrees during this time, and of all those whose highest degree was granted in these years, 53 percent are women at Level 4, the top level of position. As might be expected, the greatest number of persons receiving highest degrees in 1971 or after are at Level 1, with 23 (53 percent). By age group, the youngest received the most degrees, with 67 (64 percent) being granted during the sixties and 32 (31 percent) gaining a degree during or since 1971. This figure exceeded the theoretical fre- quency of 14.86 by so much that the cell chi square is 19.78; however, for all other age groups, the numbers receiving degrees since 1971 are fewer than expected. Predictably, age increases the years during Which degrees are received, with the largest number of highest degrees granted during the ten year period following the usual age for bachelor's degrees. The 103 three lower age groups received the greatest percentage of highest degrees during the sixties, with only the oldest age group receiving their greatest number of highest degrees during the fifties. Table 4.6 shows date of degree by level of educa- tion. The computed chi square statistic of 73.45 with 24 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.001 level. Table 4.6 shows that more master's degrees than any other form of education were completed in the period 1971 and after, accounting for 23 of the total 43 recent degrees. Among those completing their education in 1971 or since, no one among these respondents has less than a B.A. degree. For each period in the past 20 years, since 1951, there are more respondents with Ph.D. degrees than the— oretically expected. Among those With doctorates, 55.88 percent were received during the 1961—70 period, aCCOunting for 38. The second largest number, 17 (25 percent) were received during the interval 1951-60 and 11 have already been received since 1971. Table 4.7 of Ph.D. degrees received since 1971 Provides a non-computer breakdown of the 11 Ph.D. degrees received in 1971 or more recently, with their age group indicated for each. Six of these are in Level 1 posi— tions, and seven are in the age group up to age 34. No WOmen of 55 or over have received doctorates since 1971, 104 .prHHQHmmH prmmum How popcsou woodpcmouom U .mcESHoo How mom8pcmoumm mum mHmnsdc BOHmQ monocucwumm cH mmhsmHmQ .mon How mommgcmoumm MHm meQEDC mo HgmHH map on mmmocpcwnmm cH wwHDmHmm Hom iaHV ma AHvV NNH HNNV so AHHVNm ipV wH HHV a LHV a Hasog ipNV AmNV AmNV mo HoHV HH HpmV mm HmNV RH H H o o quHm>Hsam Ho mumsouooo HmmV nHHmV pwH HoHV MN HBHV mm mm mH m o N m.prmmz mm m AmmV HN m NH m a o m.HoH6gumm HH 0 HmHV m N N H o H mmmHHoo meow NH o H . AamV s H m o H Hoonom anm HMHOB wOQHm w HhmH OhIHomH ooIHmmH OmIvaH OVIHmmH OmmH OH condom OZ Hm>oH omsmwo pmwsmHm mo Hmow HMGOHpmozpm .memvcoonmm can hocwsqumV coHumonm mo Hm>oH can wonmwo pmmanm mo HmwwllmmeHmMm>HcD awe mHm CH mHoumupmHsHfipm :mEOBII.®.v MHmHH 105 TABLE 4.7--Women Administrators in Big Ten Univer- sities—~Ph.D. Degrees Received During and After 1971. Year Granted Poiétéin Total 1971 1972 1973 a 1 l (l) 2 (l) 2 (l) 6 1 (l) 2 1 <2) 1 (2) 3 (3) 3 1 (1) 1 4 1 (l) _l Total 2 ' 3 6 11 Age Group 1: tx>age 34 1 3 3 7 2: 35—44 1 l 2 3: 45—54 2 2 4: 55 and 0 over ——— ——— ——— ——— Total 2 3 6 ll aAge group in parentheses. 106 but two each have received that degree within the age groups 35 to 44 and 45 to 54, indicating a developing pool of educationally qualified women at lower position levels preparing to rise to higher responsibility. Table 4.8 shows the similarity of field of study to current employment. The computed chi square statistic of 9.525 with 6 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.250 level for position level. No significance was found in computation of the chi square statistic of 3.513 with 6 degrees of freedom when testing age group with similarity of field of study to present position. When examining the appropriateness of the last field of study to current position, 186 (62 percent) are in work for which their formal education would be expected to prepare them. The percentage of those in appropriate positions relative to their field of study steadily rises with the position level, indicating that as one advances there is more choice of specialization, or that these or similar positions were targets at the time of beginning last degree study. When analyzed according to age groups, slightly over half are in work that is suitable to their highest degree field of study. At the lowest position level those in non—appropriate fields amount to 45.24 percent and those in appropriate fields come to 53.97 percent, a difference of only about 8 percentage points. Thus, even 107 TABLE 4.8.--Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-- Similarity of Field of Study and Area of Employment (frequency and percentage). Similar Not Similar Total Position Level: 1 68 (54)a 57 (45) 125C 2 73 (64) 41 (36) 114 3 29 (69) 13 (31) 42 4 16 (84) 3 (16) 19 Age Group: 1 62 (60) 41 (40) 103C 2 4o (59) 28 (41) 68 3 46 (62) 28 (38) 74 4 38 (69) 17 (31) 55 TOTAL 186 114 300 (61.79)b (37.87) aFigures in parentheses to the right of numbers are percentages for rows. b . . Figures in parentheses below numbers are percentages for columns. COne with no data. 108 though most persons when analyzed by either age or position level are in appropriate fields, the percentage does not rise with age as dramatically as with position level. The mean percentage difference between those in appropriate fields by position level is 35.83 as compared with 25.09 difference among those analyzed by age group. Table 4.9 shows years in current position by position level and age group. The chi square statistic for position level and years in current position is 63.034 with 84 degrees of freedom, and is not significant at the 0.250 level. The computed chi square statistic of 132.160 with 84 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.001 level for age group. Ninety—seven (32 percent) of all the Big Ten women administrators studied have been in their current position one year or less. Forty—seven (16 percent) have been there three years and 35 (12 percent) have been there two years. Sixty percent, therefore, have moved within the past four years, with the greatest number of those having moved within the past year. The year 1970 saw the second great- est percentage of moves for both position level and age group. At Level 4, ten (53 percent) have been in that position one year or less, with one each having been in their current position ten and eleven years. The two persons having been in their position for four years were 109 .muHHHQHmmH whoa How popcoou mum mommucmonwm Q .m30H How mommusmoumm mHm mumnfidc mo ucmHH 0:» 0H mwmwspcmumm cH meDmHmm is E E :V is :V 2: 2: 8V a: so ANHV 1N2 H38 28 466 N NH OH H N 8 NH mH OH mN NH mm NO N Haaos mm m m N H m H m N m m m H HmHV N O a «N v N N N N N N N O O NH O ANNV OH O m we O N N H N O O O m N O m AOHV NN N N «OH O O O O O H N N m OH NH HN HmHV NH O H "mmmmmnmmm HNV HvV HOV HHV ANV AHV HHV HOV HOV AmV AOHV ANHV HNmV nHmopsucmonmm HON N NH OH O N 6 NH OH OH mN Na mm NO O HNNON OH O O H H O O H H H N H H immV OH H a Na N N N H O O m m m N H m AmmV «H m vHH m m N N a N O O N O OH NH ANNV HO O N ONH H O O O m N N m O NH HN OH wiNNV NH H H "Hw>oH :OHuHmom Hmuoa HN Hw>o HNIOH mHIHH OH O m N O m a m N H 666D coHpHmom pcmHHSU CH mummy oz .Awmmucwosmm paw MocwDUwHwV COHuHmom pcmHHDU :H mummwllmoHprHw>HGD awe mHm sH mHoumHuchHEp< cmEozl|.m.v HHmO HNIOH OHuHH OH O O N O O H O N H OOOO OZ coHpSqumcH mSOH>mHm pm mHmmM mocwsmemV GOHuSuHumcH m50H>mHm pm mHmmwllmmeHmHo>HcD .Ammmucmosom pom COB mHm EH mHouOHuchHfipm cmEOBII.oH.H mqmdB 112 reportable relevance. At Level 4, 32 percent had been in this previous position only one year. Table 4.11 shows whether the institution of their previous position was the same or different from their current one. The computed chi square statistic of 9.528 with 6 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.250 level for position level and institution. When considering age groups and institution the chi square statistic of 6.414 with 6 degrees of freedom is not significant at the 0.250 level. At every position level, more than half came to their present position from within the institution, and the percentage tends to increase with position level increase. The only exception is a fractional drop at Level 2. Thus, while 55.56 percent of those at Level 1 came from within their institution, by the time Level 4 is reached 16 (84 percent) of the total 19 have come from within the institution. Percentage differences show that with regard to age groups, a decided drop occurs in the percentage of older people who came to their current position from within the institution. It is only one percentage point less than for those at the youngest age group, suggesting the possibility that women move from institution to institution at age 55 and beyond almost as often as they remain within it. Of course, since only about 11 percent of those filling Level 4 positions were 113 TABLE 4.11.——Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-- Institution of Previous Position (frequency and percentage). Same Different Position Level: 1 7o (56)"”"C 56 (40) 2 63 (55) 50 (35) 3 29 (69) 13 (16) 4 16 (84) 3 ( 9) Age Group: 1 58 (56) 46 (33) 2 44 (65) 24 (25) 3 46 (62) 28 (26) 4 3O (55) 24 (17) TOTAL 178 (59.14) 122 (40.53) aFigures in parentheses to the right of numbers are percentages for rows. bFigures in parentheses below numbers are percentages for columns. cPercentages rounded for more legibility. 114 from this age group, the ability to move at that age does not necessarily indicate they move up. Almost half their age group are at Level 2 positions. Regardless of whether in or out of the same insti— tution, it seemed desirable to know what their background of experience was. Table 4.12, Access Routes from Previ- ous to Present Positions, indicates the field of employment in their previous position. The computed chi square statistic for position level and access route of 45.221 with 18 degrees of freedom is significant at the 0.001 level. With regard to age group and access route, the chi square statistic of 47.178 with 18 degrees of freedom was significant at the 0.001 level. A total of 169 (56 percent) came from either administration or their suitable specialty such as library or the editorial field. Again, a very high percentage, 89.47 percent, of the women at Level 4 posi— tions had been administrators in their previous positions. Only two had been teaching faculty and none came to their present Level 4 positions from any other route. Per— centages in administration at their immediately preceding job decreased gradually in the lower level positions. The second greatest number at Level 3 also came from faculty, while at the two lower levels the second largest category of access to their administrative position was from out- side higher education or administration. Of the total figures, only 9.30 percent came from faculty. 115 .hHHHHQHmmH mHoE How pmccuou mum mommpsmosmm Q .mBOH MOM mommgcwouwm mum muonfidc mo HHOHH map on mwmoavsmumm QH OOHSOHOO mm O o m m AHNV mm o H Hm AOHV HH H h m AOmV HH 0 m mo 0H m O O AmmV mm N N HOH HH 0N HH O AOHV om o H ”QDOHG mm< Hom mH HN NO ON HOOV OOH N HHBOB OH N OH o H NH H m H N HOOV ON H m HHH AHHV NH OH HH HH HHOV OO o N ONH AmNV Nm HH ON O n.mAmHV Hm o H "Hm>wH COHpHmom chmpdumV HOUHHOHU HO OHHMHommm Ho Opmo HOHOB mpHmuso Hoonom HOHHmuwHomm MHHsomm COHHOHpchHEpd oz .AOOOHQOUHOQ paw wocwswmeV COHuHmom ucwmmum ow m50H>OHm EOHH mpsom mmwoodllmepHme>HcD owe OHm CH mHOpmHHchHEpm cmEOBII.NH.H MHmmH COHuHmom Hmpoe pmouo>Ho OmBOUHB pwHHHmz wHOCHm .AmOmpCmonm UCO MUCmdvamV msumum HmuHHmzllmmeHmHm>HCD COB OHm CH muoumupmHCHfipm COEOBII.OH.H mqm®H COHprom 8.8.6 mam... . . m N . . .02 .oz Hmuoa Hmuoe OOHOHHOO Ho Hmnssz .Ammmquonm OCm OOCmameV HmpCD OCO NH CmeHHCU mo HOQECZIImmHUHmHm>HCD CmB OHm CH mHouwHuwHCHEOH CmEozll.HH.H mqmda 120 .NHHHHQHOOH OHOE How UOOCCOH OHO mOOOpCOOHOmQ .mBOH How mOmmuCOoHOm OHM mHOQECC mo HQOHH OCH CH wOmOQQCOme CH mOHCOHmm Amm.V Amm.V HOO.NV AOO.MV AN0.0V AmO.mV HHN.NNVHOHOH HCOOHOm H H 0 NH hN PH HMN H4908 mm NN H H H m m H AOOV mm H mm mm I I m m NH w ANHV mm m h w I I l I H m AHmV No N o o I I I I I l AOOHV HOH H "QCOHO OOH w m m o AHmV OH H NH 5 O O H O N H Ame mm m Oh NN H o m m N m AONV hm N 00 OM o H m H ANHV mH hnfiwfith mm H "HO>OH COHpHmom COHOHHQU COEoz O m H m N H O .02 .oz HOHOB HOOOB COHUHHQU mo HOQECZ .AOOOQCOUHOQ UCO NOCOCOOHHV HO>O OCO OH COHOHHCO mo HOQECZIIOOHHHOHO>HCD COB mHm CH OHOQOHOOHCHEOO COE03|I.OH.H MHmHB 121 statistic of 16.419 with 18 degrees of freedom is not significant at the 0.250 level for position level and children 18 years of age and over; however, the chi square statistic of 102.884 for age group and children over 18 is significant at the 0.001 level. Table 4.15 shows 77.74 percent of the total respondents have no child 18 years of age or over. There is a reversal from the pattern of those with children 17 years of age and under, in which no children were found among the upper age group, 55 years and older. In Table 4.15, children 18 and over, there are none among the age group up to 34 years, and only six women in the age group 35 to 44 who have children of this age. The 55 and over group have children in every category, including one woman with six children over 18. In total percentages, 77.74 percent of the total population of women have no children this age, with the greatest number in any one category being 27 or 8.97 percent who have two children each. Advancement Factors One section of the Basic Data Sheet provided a choice of five reasons plus an "other" as to why women have difficulty getting promoted. Respondents were asked to check as many as they wished, and to rank if they noted more than one. While a few respondents did not check any, most did, but a great number did not rank, simply 122 putting an x in the space provided. This necessitated two methods of scoring. The frequency tally for those who did not rank the items produced the following results: Sheer discrimination against women 54 'They have had interrupted career spans 50 They have not been sponsored by those above them 50 They have not been assertive 48 Women have not united to improve their positions 37 Other 21 Among the written free comments were several in this vein: "I can't rank them because I think they are all key factors which have worked together against women." "If you had not asked that the reasons be order ranked, I would have put a '1' by each.” "Each is a valid reason; each is important." Table 4.16 shows the details of choices made by those respondents who ranked their selections. Since "other" was sometimes included as a numbered choice, each factor was weighted on a scale of six with the results apparent. The selections written in for "other" were too varied to produce an identifiable category. While both methods of computation produced the same first and last place results, other numbers were slightly different. In the ranked results, lack of assertion was second, but it was fourth in the frequency count. 123 .mOmOQOCOHmm CH OOHCOHM @OQQOHOBO OOH HOQOO O HON COHpHmom HHOQB O>0HQEH ou OOuHCb Qoz m Omm EOQB O>0Q< OOOQB NQ UOHOmComm Qoz H HOO mCOmm HOOHOO OOHQCHHOQCH O OOO O>HunOmm¢ COOm uoz O>mm COCOS N NONH COCOS umCHOOH COHOOCHEHHOOHQ HOOCm H mg (mg xcmm OOH ANVN HHV N AHNVO HONV N AOOV N HOOV OH HOQQO HON Hme HNHVHN ANHVHN HOOV NN AomV OH AOOV m OOQHCD poz Omm AOVO HHHVN HOOVOH ANHHVON AOOHVOO HOOHVOO OOHomcomm uoz NONH AHVH AONVOH HNHVHH AOOHVNN AOHHVON AOOOVHO COHOOCHEHHOOHC HOO ANVN ANNVHH AOOVON AOOHVHO HomHVoO AHONVOO mHOOHOU UOHQCHHOQCH OOO HHVH AHHVN AOHVOH ANOV ON AOONVNH OAOONVHH COHQHOOOH OQCHom O m H O N H HmuoH. mom no EOHH muCOUCommOM NQ UOmem OH .xCOm @CO EOQH OQ mHouomm OCOEOOCO>OHIIOOHOHmHO>HCD COB OHm CH mHOpmHumHCHEUH COEOBII.OH.H MHmmB 124 Interrupted career spans was third in the ranked and second in the frequency. Not being sponsored was fourth in the ranked and third in the frequency. The numbers for the three middle categories are close enough together to suggest that even where the specific comment was not made, many women feel these advancement factors may be equally relevant. Free comments were written in by many respondents and it was possible to group most of these under the following headings: Frequency Socialization of both sexes 24 'Rejection of responsibility and/or the administrative role 23 Men support men, not women 16 Women lack qualifications such as degrees 15 Not being allowed training experiences 12 Family inhibitors, or men‘s fear of it 12 Denial of any problem of promotion 11 Women's lack of confidence 10 Dislike of women as bosses 7 Lack of role models 4 Women not sponsoring or supporting others 4 Discrimination against minorities 2 Lack of a wife 2 Specific comments from these categories will be included in Chapter V discussion. 125 The California Psychological Inventory Scores There were 286 women administrators who completed the Class III Scales of the California Psyehological Inventory. These data were machine scored, then processed by computer as part of the analysis of contingency tables. Mean scores for each of the Class III Scales are presented in Table 4.17 and compared by position level and age group. Their total mean scores for each class are also compared with those for male business executives and female college students. In the Class AI (achievement via independence) and position level the chi square statistic was 19.540 with 15 degrees of freedom, and is significant at the 0.250 level. By age group, the chi square statistic of 27.813 with 15 degrees of freedom was significant at the 0.100 level. The total group mean score for these women adminis- trators was 24.4, as compared with 19.7 for male business executives and 21.9 for female college students, as reported by the Consulting Psychologists Press. In the Class AC (achievement via conformance) and position level, the computed chi square statistic of 20.212 with 15 degrees of freedom was not significant at the 0.250 level. By age group the chi square statis— tic of 27.398 with 15 degrees of freedom was significant at the 0.050 level. 126 ‘ TABLE 4.17.—-Women AdministratorsjaiBig Ten Universities—— Mean Scores of Class III Scales California Psychological Inventory by Position Levels and Age Groups. . ' Achieve. Achieve. Intell. POSltlon Level v v Effic. Indep. Conform. c 1 24.2 30.9 43.9 2 24.1 32.2 43.7 3 26.1 32.9 45.0 4 26.8 34.7 48.3 ’ ' Total 24.4 32.3 45.0 Male Execs. 19.7 28.7~ 40.0 7 Difference 4.7 3.6 5.0 Age Group 1 24.6 32.5 45.7 2 23.2 32.3 45.5 3 24.8 32.8 45.6 4 23 6 30.1 41.3 Total 24.4 32.3 45.0 Fem. Coll. Stu. 21.9 28.8 41.4 Difference 2.5 3.5 3.6 127 The women studied had a total mean score on this measure of 32.3 as compared with that of male business executives of 28.7 and female college students of 28.8. On the measure of Intellectual Efficiency, the computed chi square statistic of 22.408 with 12 degrees of freedom was significant at the 0.050 level for position level, and the statistic of 22.052 with 12 degrees of freedom for age group was also significant at the 0.050 level. The total mean score produced for this class on the psychological inventory was 45.0 compared with 40 for male executives and 41.4 for female college students. Thus only in achievement via conformance by age group, and intellectual efficiency by both position level and age group is even an 0.050 level of significance achieved. It is clear that those persons at Level 4 posi— tions scored well above the other levels on all three scales, and those in age group 3 had the highest scores on achievement both by conformance and independence. Their scores on intellectual efficiency were only one—tenth of a point lower than that of the highest scorers, age group 1, which is the youngest. Age group 1 scored higher than age group 2 on each of the scales. Comparison with scores of the same scales for male eaxecutives shows the mean score for women administrators 128 above the men by 3.6, 4.7 and 5.0 points. Comparison with female college students also show women administra- tors higher scorers by 2.5, 3.5 and 3.6 points. A11 male mean scores were lower than any female mean scores on these measures. Achievement via inde- pendence had the narrowest range of difference between scores for position levels, with 2.7; achievement via conformance was next with a difference of 3.8; intel- lectual efficiency showed the greatest difference with 4.6 between position Level 2 and position Level 4. By age groups, intellectual efficiency again had a greater divergence from group to group with a differential of 4.4. Achievement via conformance had 2.70 with achievement via independence still the smallest difference, 1.60. Telephone Interviews on Career Development Telephone interviews were conducted with a sample of 17 women administrators from the Big Ten universities selected according to their code numbers from a table of random numbers. The objective was to obtain informa— tion concerning specific aspects of career development. Results of these interviews follow. Demography.-—Three were near age 30, 10 were near 50 and 4 near 60. None were at Level 4 positions, 3 were at Level 3, 5 at Level 2 and 9 at Level 1. Since these subjects were randomly selected and no Level 4 positions 129 were included, a foundation-heavy structure emerges with a large proportion at Level 1. There were 2 Ph.D. degrees, 5 degrees in library science, 2 law degrees, 1 M.D., 2 master's degrees, 3 bachelor's degrees and 2 people with some college work but no degree. Areas represented were: assistant or assistant to: deans of biological sciences, mathematics and physical sciences, nursing and provost. Director, assistant or assistant to director of: continuing education, health service, placement and 3 educational services. One all— campus editor, 2 department heads in main libraries and 4 branch library heads. Management training.--On1y one had had any manage- ment training and she reported it not particularly helpful; however, she then designed a more effective training program herself. One had attended a university sponsored seminar on professional development and another knew of a campus invitational workshop on management by objectives, but had not attended it. One works with executive development programs for business provided through the university and said the first woman to attend one of these was sent last year by a bank. Since the fee is over $2,000, organizations must recommend and subsi— dize participants. She herself has never considered formally takinthhe course, although she has an advanced degree, a number of years of work experience and is well 130 within the age from which an institution could expect suf- ficient return on its investment. Several commented they wished there were some such training, saying, "I would try for it if there were." Since almost one-third of the sample were in libraries it was interesting that although none had attended any management training courses,one knew of an executive development program being worked out through the state libraries and one university within her state. Another mentioned that some thought is being given to developing some type of management training for librarians. Decision points.—-Seven recalled decisions which were upward or resulted in moving up, such as direct job changes or going to school. Four spoke of downward directed decisions. For one it was dropping out of graduate school to take a secretarial position at the death of her father and never returning for the degree; one changed fields after her husband's death; one with an architectural degree took a non-professional position outside her field; one with a law degree chose to stay at home with her two young children, then although working, she never practiced law. Other responses were not clear- cut vertical decisions but in some instances meant a lateral change, such as selecting some specialized aspect of her field. Some simply could not think of any decisive choice they had made. 131 Goals.—-Four had immediate projects such as "this summer's institute to get through," or developing certain programs. .Two are actively seeking new opportunities for employment; four are so near retirement that that is their only goal; three are evaluating their current posi- tion to determine whether to develop a new goal or one within that same area; three said they had no goal, either immediate or long range and one was so vague her response could not be classified. Sponsorship.—-Only one answered "yes" decisively when asked if she had been sponsored, and 11 easily answered "no." Others mentioned assistance with getting a first job, a graduate school advisor or first boss, but it was clear that these were short-term, friendly help and not continuing, career-making sponsorship. The one who claimed sponsorship is still working with, or as a subordi- nate of the man she named, and is one of those with both immediate and long range goals. One comment was that this is done in a limited way among student personnel people, but the academic areas seem to do this better than admin- istration generally. Style of informal communication.——This was a rather broad question which required some illustration to'estab— lish the type of information desired, yet could not be Specific enough to "lead" them. The result was a wide ‘Variety of replies. 132 Three stated they were "people" persons, one link— ing this with flexibility, responding to personality, knowing the ropes and people, and adjusting to circum- stances; another tied it in with enthusiasm, studying who she is going to deal with, ability to empathize and reach people on a human level; the third was concerned with faculty-administrative relationships. All these were responses from those who had consistently moved up and had definable goals. The highest ranking of any of the interviewees said her staff probably regarded her as a benevolent dictator, however her conversational tone strongly suggested emphasis on the "benevolent" rather than "dictator." Another who gave a similar impression said she thinks of herself as "informal" although "my staff may not." Altogether six included the word "informal" in describing themselves. One really seemed to have a "relaxed attitude" and others amplified the term believably; two emphasized "codifying" communications and "having a few rules" to an extent that denied informality. One who described herself as "very direct" and "known on campus as one who will give a straightanswer“ probably creates responses similar to the genuinely informal types. Two, in a businesslike manner emphasized efficiency and being well prepared, but also referred to impediments because of being female. "I used to feel that when you 133 were doing a job, whether you were a man or a woman didn't make any difference. I think now I was innocent." "I have very good communications. I am not a very aggres- sive person, but I make sure I know the right answers. I have had difficulty as a woman in being accepted since I deal in fiscal matters, but I think this is gradually being overcome." Both have had upward moving careers, although one is near retirement and the other is relatively young. Another stressed hard work and that unless you put in a great deal of time and effort you have nothing to show for it. This person seemed to fit into a classi— fication of "loner" along with two others because of comments about Working autonomously and others being no smarter than she. One of these loners dwelt at length on her need for freedom, and another remarked that she doesn't ask what she can do, she just does it. Three seemed to follow the traditional feminine style of quiet, non—assertiveness and accommodation which one described as "without strain," another as "demonstrating by behavior." One could not verbalize her style, but if her manner in the interview is indicative, could only be described as "thorny." Another was either very suspicious or low in self understanding, saying she had not studied psychology or thought about her way of dealing with people, and refused to comment. This person was one who had made a downward choice early in her career and never 134 I reversed direction. Generally, the tone of people's (L. remarks expressed attitudes about themselves which were consistent with the objective facts about their careers. Lower positions, less education, less positive outlook clustered together in some individuals while the oppo- sites were found in others. . ,gj Involvement in the women's movement.-—This question brought affirmative responses from five whose activities included helping form the university's women's group, chairman of the women's council, developing women's studies as part of her job, and being on univer— sity committees. Seven said they were not directly or actively involved--"not much," "not formally"——but con- tinued the discussion with indications of support. "I agree with many of their goals," "have written letters and signed petitions," "am on the University Women's Committee," "have acted as a professional consultant to the women's group," and "probably would be if I were younger." One said, "I was very much involved many years ago in the union (of her field). I am thoroughly sympathetic and if I were coming up now, I probably would be active in it." ‘ Only two said no" definitely. One of these had commented earlier that she works almost entirely with men and in some ways plays up being a woman; the other is a black woman. 135 Two others also said "no," but in a different way. One said, "I have stayed away from it. I am disgusted with it. .They are defeating their own purpose," but then continued that she has been very resentful of men trying to hold women down. The other, after saying, "No, I am not," quite decisively, went on to state, "I believe very strongly in women being paid well for what they do. I do my job for less money than the man who did it six years ago, and this doesn't trouble me, except abstractly." Both these responses, of course, exemplified the ambiva- lence often found in women whose mode of dealing with people is traditionally feminine, as was the case with each of them. One person first spoke of the general uni- versity situation, of the Office of Economic Opportunity and Affirmative Action, but when channeled into inquiry as to her personal activities replied, "I prefer not to make any comment." In concluding discussion concerning male—female relationships, one of the younger women said, "Among the older male staff, I am always viewed as a woman. With my peers, I am viewed just as a person." Summary Personal Interviews Fourteen women administrators from a single Big Ten university were asked to discuss their last three or four positions within a framework of their personal—social 136 and professional environment. These interviews are summarized under three headings: support, mobility and communications. Support.——E1even of the fourteen are single, but nine (64 percent) share housing either with a friend, child, husband or some combination of persons. Most have friends of their OWn age group, and most have friends among both sexes. Over half have mostly single friends. Most have had a personal confidante most of the time; usually this person has been female. In their current positions all have persons with whom they can share professional spill-over, although in early positions this was not always the case. In early positions this person was most often female, possibly because in lower echelons women predominated; now there is more inclusion of men, resulting partly from the need for a variety of experts rather than a single listener. Most felt they have experienced particular support at various times, and provided illustrative incidents, although some examples were not extraordinary. Judging from their current position level, those who had achieved most significantly tended to report consistent, continu- ing, generous Support. Ten said they have been sponsored at some time, with two continuing in a semi—sponsored relationship. Sponsorship usually occurred at a mid-level 137 A position and eight reported they have sponsored others, usually women, as they themselves moved up. Mobility.—-All were at upper, but not top posi- tions. Most had come to their present position from within the institution. Most positions had been obtained through personal or professional contact and the interest of others. Eleven of 45 positions occupied by these women had been obtained by formal application. Most had had a zig—zag pattern from job to job, not always moving up, but sometimes moving laterally or down. Generally, they stayed within a limited geographical area. Opportunity for advancement appeared limited for ten of the fourteen, and in some cases moving to another institution seemed the only, and an apparently unattractive, option. The reason given most frequently for changing positions was some form of avoidance or a reason unre— lated to advancing in the position. A self—sacrificing attitude was voiced in some instances rather than achieve— ment motivation. Most have no positive goal, seeing only retirement or, in five instances, leaving administration. Only the two who had had management training visualized staying in administration and becoming a college president or other high level administrator. 138 Communications.——Formal communications were rated good by half; poor by three. Informal communications were rated good by only about one—third. Most belong to professional organizations, with slightly over half having held office. Half had published nothing, but three had published more than ten articles, more than one book and two currently had a book in progress. Their lunchtime habits showed that most are not using this space in their day to advance their careers. Basic Data Sheets Responses from the 301 women administrators whose Basic Data Sheets were processed yielded the following information: Two hundred thirty—two women were found in 18 areas of employment within their institutions, plus 9 indi— viduals who could not be classified with other groups. Sixty-nine were in central administration, deans or directors of colleges and their assistants. Aside from the 69 in central administration and colleges, most of the other 232 administrators were at supporting levels. Sixteen were heads of all—campus facilities, leaving 216 filling positions which might be considered preparation for advancement. Six percent of these women administrators are at Level 4 positions; 14 percent at Level 3; 38 percent at Level 2; and 42 percent at Level 1. Of the total N A L in 139 ( respondents, 49 percent hold the master's degree and 23 \‘W percent the doctorate. At Level 4 positions, 79 percent hold the doctorate; the remainder the master's degree. During the period 1961—70, 133 (44 percent) of the total respondents received their highest degree. Fifty—six percent of the doctorates were granted during this time, but in the short period since 1971, 11 doctoral gfi degrees have been awarded, accounting for 16 percent of that total. Seven of these recent doctorates are in age group 1, those up to 34 years, and three are at position Level 1. Although two women each from the middle—age ranges are among those recent recipients, only one is at position Level 4. H Area of work gradually reaches a closer relation- ship to field of study as these women advance. At Level 1, 54 percent were in suitable work for their preparation while at Level 4, 84 percent were in a field of work related to their field of study. Women administrators in Big Ten universities have been unusually mobile in recent years. Thirty—two percent of these respondents have been in their current position one year or less and 60 percent have moved within the past four years. Almost 29 percent were in their previous position only one year before moving. Almost 70 percent of these respondents were in their previous position five years or less. More than half moved to 140 their current position from within their institution, although a higher percentage of those in the age group 55 and over than any other age group came from outside, sug— gesting that it is possible to change institutions at any age. Fifty—six percent came to their present positions via administration or their field of specialization, with 89 percent of those in Level 4 having been administrators previously. Fifty—five percent of the respondents are not married, with 36 percent having never been married. Seventy-four percent of these women have no children age 17 or younger and 78 percent have no child 18 years of age or older. Table 4.18, Chi Square Statistic Level of Signifi— cance for Analysis of Contingency Tables, shows at a glance the variables which, when tested, yielded a chi square statistic which was significant, and at what level. Chi square statistics for the following variables reached significance at the 0.001 level: position level by educational level, date of degree by age group, date of degree by educational level, years in previous posi— tion by position level, years in previous position by age group, years in current position by age group, access rOute by position level, access route by age group, marital status by age group, number of children R. 141 TABLE 4.18.--Women Administrators in Big Ten Universities-—Summary, Chi Square Statistic Level of Significance for Analysis of Contingency Tables. Level of Significance Table . No. Caption 0.050 0.025 0.001 4.2 Position Level by Age Group X 4.3 Position Level by Level of Education X 4.4 Age Group by Level of Education X 4.5 Date Highest Degree by Age Group X 4.6 Date Highest Degree by Level of Educ. X 4.9 Years in Current Position by Age Group X 4.10 Years in Previous Posit. by Age Group X 4.10 Years in Prev. Posit. by Posit. Level X 4.12 Access Route by Position Level X 4.12 Access Route by AGe Group X 4.13 Marital Status by Age Group X 4.14 Women w/Child. to Age 17 by Age Group X 4.15 Women w/Child. over Age 18 by Age Group X 4.17 CPI, Achieve. via Conform by Age Grp. X 4.17 CPI, Intell. Effic. by Posit. Level X 4.17 CPI, Intell. Effic. by Age Group X \‘1 142 17 years of age or less by age group and number of children ‘\ 18 years of age or more by age group. Advancement factors.——Reasons respondents felt women have difficulty getting promoted, when weighted and ranked were as follows: (1) sheet discrimination against women; (2) women have not been assertive; (3) interrupted career spans; (4) women have not been sponsored by those above them; and (5) women have not united to improve their posi— tion. Analysis of unranked frequency produced slightly different results. The first and fifth reasons remained g in place, but the second, third and fourth were in another order. m The free comments resulted in the following: (1) the socialization of both sexes; (2) women reject the administrative role or don't want responsibility; (3) men support men, not women; (4) women, by their own efforts, have not become qualified. Other reasons were also suggested, but less often. California Psychological Inventory The mean scores for the 286 women administrators who completed this test are well above the national norms for both male executives and female college students on each of the three scales. These two groups are the most 143 similar to the population of this study with norms which can be compared. Mean scores are shown in Table 4.17. Women at Level 4 positions ranked well above the others on each score. Age breakdown showed group 3, 45 to 54 years, with the top scores on achievement via independence and achievement via conformance, with only one-tenth of a point below the top score, which was achieved by the youngest group, on intellectual efficiency. The scores by age are not as dramatically higher as are those by position level. Age group 4 had the lowest scores on achievement Via conformance and intellectual efficiency. Age group 2 was lowest on achievement via independence. Position Level 2 had the lowest scores for achieve— ment via independence and intellectual efficiency, while position Level 1 was the lowest on achievement via conformance. Table 4.18 shows that of six possible combinations of the three CPI scales by position levels and age groups, significance was found at the 0.050 level for only achievement via conformance by age group, intellectual efficiency by position level and intellectual efficiency by age group. Telephone Interviews Telephone interviews were conducted with a random sample of 17 of the women administrators at Big l44 Ten universities on six subjects relating to career development. About half, or nine were at position Level 1; five at Level 2; three at Level 3; and none at Level 4. Ten were near age 50; three near 30, and four near 60. Twelve had advanced degrees, three the bachelor's and two some college work but not a degree. They offered a good representation of non—traditional fields for women. Only one had had any management training but several expressed interest and would like to receive training if it were available. When questioned about critical decisions during their careers, almost half reported upward decisions. Several of those reporting downward decisions linked them with the life of another person. More than half, 11, had no positive goal, either immediately or long range. Two were looking for other employment as an immediate goal. Four had immediate goals within their current positions and outlines of long range goals. Eleven had clearly had no sponsorship. One had, and is still within that relationship; others seemed almost unaware of the concept. One commented that this activity is not done as well among administrators as in academic disciplines. Several of these women liked to think of their style of communication as informal, whether it was an YR 145 accurate description of them or not. The typical feminine type was not in as satisfactory a position as those who L accepted intelligence, competence and energy in them— selves. Twelve expressed support of the women's movement, two disavowed it in answer to the question but reversed their philosophical position upon further discussion. mg Only two were decisively negative. One declined to com- ment, perhaps because of environmental circumstances at her institution. CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The final chapter of this study consists of a summary of the data, conclusions reached and resulting implications with suggestions for further research. The purpose of this study was to investigate fac— tors relating tO'Uuaemployment level of women administrators in Big Ten universities. To do so, answers were sought to the following questions: 1. What kinds of environmental support have women administrators had? 2. Is there a difference between position levels or age groups and certain educational, employment and psychological or personal variables of those women who are currently administrators? 3. Can California Psychological Inventory scores distinguish intellectual efficiency and capability of achievement by either conformance or independence among women administrators? 4. What do women administrators feel are the causes of their small representation at high—level posi- tions in educational institutions? 146 147 5. How prevalent among women administrators are certain factors which business management theory considers important to success? The methods used to attempt to obtain answers were: 1. In—depth interviews with women administrators on a single Big Ten campus; 2. Written questionnaires completed by women administrators from all Big Ten universities; 3. Standardized psychological tests completed by women administrators from all Big Ten universities; 4. Telephone interviews with a random sample of women administrators from Big Ten universities. 'This was a descriptive survey study whose subjects consisted of the entire population of full-time women administrators above entry level in all the Big Ten universities. Findings and conclusions were based on responses from 327 of these women administrators. Instruments used in the study consisted of an in—depth interview schedule, a Basic Data Sheet, the Class III Scales of the California Psychological Inventory and a telephone interview schedule. Data from the Basic Data Sheet, except for the advancement factors, were analyzed using the chi square test to determine whether there were significantly different patterns between the groups. The psychological ii, l i,\ ii 148 inventory answer sheets were scored by machine. All other information was hand processed. Summary of Data Support Most women administrators have had relatively ' limited environmental support. Most are single, over one—third live alone and over half have mostly single friends of the same sex. Some share housing, although this may be with children. They emphasize the value of a variety of associations in their social life while noting the difficulty of this for a single woman, particularly in View of a demanding job with no partner to provide assistance. Although they report having had a confidante most of the time, there appears to be need for a more stable, long—term, close relationship to allow coping with time pressures, personal responsibilities and the stress of the alien office environment. They are lacking in status support in that they ‘ have educational qualifications, experience and personal ability, but do not have the job titles with resulting public recognition of the work they are doing, or would be capable of doing under suitable conditions. They feel the need for clear delineation of their responsibility and general trust and confidence from superiors in their ability to fulfill it. They are lacking in financial support comparable with that of men in their salaries and R; 1“ 149 office budgets. They are often lacking in adequate office staff to free them for planning and achievement of posi— tive objectives. They are lacking in open, continuous, dependable,v informal communications with superiors which result in being aware of future events, higher administrative atti- tudes and possible courses of action, and allowing time for discussion, formulation of position and influence in final decision making. They are almost totally lacking in the long—term ' genuine concern by a powerful person which results in open doors, optimum development and advancement and is called sponsorship. They frequently make career decisions which are not advancement oriented, are aiming toward development of informality rather than more valued characteristics, and are mostly without clear goals, perhaps as a result of not seeing possibilities for attainment. Those who have had some form of management training or internship for higher level administration have a more positive attitude. There is growing awareness of the need for and willingness of women to support each other profes— sionally. Differences Among Groups There are differences among women administrators according to both age groups and position levels. 150 Significance was found at the 0.001 level by chi square statistics for the following variables: Position level by educational level; Date of highest degree by age; Date of highest degree by educational level; Number of years in previous position by position level; Number of years in previous position by age group; Years in current position by age group; Access route by position level; Access route by age group; Marital status by age group; Number of children 17 years of age or less by age group; Number of children 18 years of age and over by age group. Age group l.--Those women up to age 34 account for the largest of all age groups. This may be indicative of a trend toward more women working, since they are the only age group with over 50 percent married women, and in other times these would be childbearing and rearing years. Seventy—four percent of them have no children, and of those who do have children, most have only one. During or since 1971, 31 percent of this group received a degree, and over half the Ph.D. degrees in this period were awarded to this age group. Most of them have a master's degree and most work at position Level 1 or 2. This group 151 contributes to Level 3 and 4 positions to within half a percent of the number coming from the next highest age group. Age group 1 reflects present attitudes of young women toward personal and professional life. They marry, but keep working, continue their educations, do not have as many children nor have them as rapidly as women their age have in the past. Age group 2.——These women, from 35 to 44 years of age, differ more from the groups contiguous to them than does any other group. Their total numbers dip slightly below those of group 3, but there are fewer women from this age group in Level 3 or 4 positions. Almost half of them are at Level 2 positions. Although most have the master's degree and the doctorate is held by the second largest number, they also have more high school graduates than any other age group. They received only two of the eleven doctoral degrees awarded during the most recent period and one of those was in 1971, so they do not appear to be pursuing that level degree to the extent that the other younger group is. Although a smaller percentage of this group is married than either those immediately younger or older, they have the highest ratio of children to women of any group and the fewest women with no children under 17 years of age. They also have the lowest scores of any group on. achievement via independence. Twenty—four 152 percent of this group were in their previous position only one year, but 40 percent have been in their current posi- tion only one year. Age group 2 appears to represent casualties of the "feminine mystique." Age group 3.—-This group, ages 45 to 54, contrib- utes the greatest number and highest percentage of women to both Level 3 and Level 4 positions. This group also received the highest scores on the California Psychological Inventory for achievement via independence and achievement via conformance, coming to with .l of the youngest group for highest score on intellectual efficiency. They are still pursuing doctoral degrees and account for two of the most recently awarded of the eleven awarded in or since 1971. This represents an element of persistence since many graduate schools discourage or refuse to admit students at these ages. They are the group which have received degrees over the longest time period, since many were undergraduates in the forties and they are still receiving degrees. Older women have stopped now and younger ones had not started in the early years. This age group has the smallest percentage who are single, but also the largest percentage divorced. They have more children than any age group and the smallest percentage of women who have no children over 18, although their ratio of woman per child under 17 is low. 153 These women matured during World War II when women filled jobs left by men called into service and either did so themselves or saw others do it, which age group 2 did not. Also, their mothers were mature during the last years of battle for women's suffrage, may have worked in positions of responsibility in education since during that time most elementary school principals were women and they were more often than currently found in other positions of administrative leadership. In other words, these women had role models, so going to work or staying there was not a strange concept. Their high rate of marriage, divorce and widowhood could be related to wartime marriages. Age group 4.——This group has the smallest number of any of the women administrators studied. However, this group provides the second highest percent of those working at either position Level 3 or 4. About half this group is at position Level 2. No one at this age group has received a doctoral degree in the period 1971 or later. Most of their number hold a masters, although a higher percentage of their group (31 percent) hold a doctorate than any other age group. This group, with 22 percent, has the highest per— centage of widows and also no children under age 17. Their scores were the lowest of any group on achievement via conformance and intellectual efficiency. This group, like the others, has a high percentage who have been a 154 short time in their current positions, which is more unexpected thanamongyounger women. Also, they have the lowest percentage having come to this position from within the same institution. This group may have suffered the attrition of an inhospitable environment. Many women similar to these marry in their late fifties or early sixties and leave the field, not in capricious desertion, but after advancement has been blocked for several years and reorgani- zation within their departments erodes their responsibility and opportunity for significant contribution. Position Level l.—-Over half at this level are from age group 1. Over half have the master's degree, the next greatest number having the bachelor's, and 11 percent the doctorate. This level accounts for over half the degrees awarded in 1971 and after, a much greater percent than expected, indicating either coming quickly into positions or persevering in preparation for continu- ing advancement. Fifty—two percent of this group are married although most of them have no children. Position Level 2.——More women in this group have the master's degree than any other degree, as is true at other levels; however, more bachelor's degrees are found at this level than any other. Almost half of those who received their highest degree in the period 1961—70 are 155 at this level. One-third of those receiving degrees in or since 1971 are at this level. They are close to Level 3 in appropriateness of field of study to current employment, and 61 percent came to their present adminis- trative position from administration or their specialty field. Eighteen percent spent one year in their previ— ous position, while 27 percent have been one year in their present position, indicating rapid mobility. While 45 percent are married, this group also has the highest divorce rate of any position level, with 15 percent. This position level accounts for more children of all ages than any other. Position Level 3.——Most of these women are from the third age group, 45 to 54 years old. Sixty-nine percent are working in fields appropriate to their last area of study, and 69 percent worked in administration or their specialty field in their last position. A low 31 percent of these women are married. Position Level 4.——Most women at this level are also drawn from the third age group. Seventy-nine percent have a doctoral degree, with all the remainder holding a master's. This group produced the highest scores on all three California Psychological Inventory scales. Eighty— four percent are in a field of work appropriate to their most recent degree area. Eighty-nine percent had 156 previously been administrators or in their specialty field, with the remaining 11 percent having been faculty. Eighty-four percent moved within the same institution. Fifty—three percent have been in their position one year or less. This may reflect willing recognition, or pressure to show women at this administrative level. This group has the smallest number of children of any position level, with a total of 13. California Psychological Inventory Significance was found at the 0.050 level for: achievement via conformance and age group, intellectual efficiency and position level and intellectual efficiency and age group. Mean scores for these Big Ten women administrators were well above those for both male executives and female college students. Women at Level 4 positions ranked well above other levels. Age group 3, those women 45 to 54 years old, led in the two achievement scales and were only .1 below the top score on intellectual efficiency. Advancement Factors The reasons these respondents felt women have difficulty getting promoted were: (1) sheer discrimina— tion against women; (5) women have not united to improve their positions. The second, third and fourth reasons appeared in a different order when ranked than when 157 summarized by frequency of mention. By rank: (2) women have not been assertive; (3) interrupted career spans; (4) women have not been sponsored by those above them. By numerical frequency: (2) and (3) equally, interrupted career spans and not sponsored by those above them; (4) they have not been assertive. A tally of free comments created the 13 categories Which were mentioned from 2 to 24 times. Those appearing most often were: socialization of both sexes, women reject responsibility and/or the administratove role, men support men not women, women have not by their own efforts become qualified. Career Development Factors This is a combination of responses from the total of 31 women who were interviewed: 14 at Levels 3 and 4 on a single campus and 17 randomly selected from all Big Ten universities who were all at Levels 1, 2 and 3. Management training.——Twenty-eight have had none. Three have had some. To the extent that the California Psychological Inventory scores are valid, these women have exceedingly high achievement potential. They represent a pool for advancement in which support is lacking in the form of recognition of ability resulting in formal training and informal sponsorship. 158 1 Career decisions.--When asked to recall a critical decision in their career, 31 referred to an upward deci— sion and 22 to one which was not up; that is, either lateral or down. This seems a poor ratio when considering upper echelon administrators. Generally those who made early downward decisions, decisions based on situations in the lives of others and those who made later downward deci— R sions out of a sense of duty, are not currently in upper level positions. Those who have had management training or sponsorship have made upward decisions; are now at upper levels. One exception is-a woman who was an acting president and declined to accept the position permanently in order to return to school for doctoral work; however, her goal does include this type of position ultimately. Few of these women seemed to have followed what they identified as typical career lines. Egal§.—-Six expressed positive goals, 10 negative goals and 15 had no goal. Combination of the "negative" with "no goal" results in 25 percent, a poor ratio compared with those having positive goals. It appeared that several of these women once had hope and ambition which has been subdued over the years. Now they cannot afford to admit their anger, resentment and frustration or they couldn't survive "until retirement." They are therefore making the best.they can of comparatively 159 mediocre conclusions to their careers. The upward deciders seemed to have personalities which expressed SUCCGSS . Communications.——It is impossible to consolidate these responses, although the comment must be made that "diffident" expressed the impression made by a number of them. Regardless of being asked about their communication with peers or superiors, several referred to how they handle their staff, which could be interpreted as not really "hearing" or lack of awareness of this aspect of their professional position. Of those who could identify their style, the word "informal" cropped up repeatedly. There could be a ques- tion as to how productive an ideal this is; whether this quality is valued in the world of work. Several referred to being "people" people, leading to speculation as to whether women as a group may want their job to express their entire personality, rather than being goal or objec— tive oriented. That may not be negative, but it should not be unconscious. Until the system changes to be that way, too, that quality may be unappreciated. Basil's study found the characteristics of top managers were not being informal or people oriented, but: decisiveness, consistency, objectivity and emotional stability. The 14 who rated communications in their position resulted in the following: formal communication, 7 good; r\ [\‘\ ~\ 160 ; informal communication, 5 very good, 5 limited, 4 poor. r\ Given the tendency of people to report as favorably as possible, this is not an exceptionally good record. Sponsorship.—-Currently three are sponsored, eight have been previously and twenty have never been. There was a definite impression that many of these women do not C\\- know what sponsorship or support really is. They sometimes responded with a generalized expression even when asked for specific instances of support or non—support. Some replied, when asked if they had ever been sponsored by anyone, with remarks such as, "Oh yes, several," or when ‘ asked if they had sponsored others, "I do at every 1 possible opportunity,‘ as though a few encouraging words one day or one recommendation for a job constitutes sponsorship. There was generally active, or at least philo— sophical, involvement in the women's movement and recognition of the benefit its objectives can be to professional women. Discussion The indeterminate status of women administrators ‘ is evident in some of the responses received from women who appeared to meet the criteria of this study, but who returned the material, uncompleted, noting that they were not administrators. This attitude accounted for a great 16]. ‘5 number of women who are not included in the study. ‘W Usually, they cited their academic rank, which they con~ sidered more definitive of their position in the academic community, even though they clearly held administrative responsibility sufficient1x3merit listing by that title in the directory. Others completed the material but protested, as did one assistant placement director, "I'm I not an administrator." She did not elaborate on "who" she was in that event, but the frequency of this reaction expresses the degree of rejection of the administrative . role among women who could claim it. There seems to be a preference among some, for the academic rank. Unless otherwise identified, quoted remarks through- u out this section will be from respondents of the Big Ten study. Basil reports that chief administrators say they have no objection to employing women at decision or policy making levels, but the fact seems to be that they do not do so to a great extent. The unversities appear to be employing at upper levels, high school graduates and others who are under— credentialed, rather than making use of their available 1 talent. Either because they command lower salary, are more tractable or for other reasons, people are being employed without the educational background or related 162 i experience and put in positions which would seem to require qualifications. One Big Ten respondent said: I am the only woman in the central administra— tion of the college who is full time in administration and my immediate colleagues are the two associate deans; the three of us report to the dean; the man whom I replaced was also an associate dean; the job title was changed just for me. Now "coordinator," she holds the Ph.D. At the same insti— ,% tution there is another woman with the same title, but no degree. Her apt comment: "I don't see women getting promoted as a problem here." . By contrast, many women secretaries in these schools have master's and even Ph.D. degrees. One woman ' with a master's degree had been working as a cook in a nursery school. Some comments on employment conditions: I do believe discrimination exists here, but not the kind that can be reported to the proper authorities; it's very subtle. In spite of HEW, women's salaries are not competi— tive with men's in similar job situations. This and the above (advancement factors listed on the Basic Data Sheet) have influenced me to leave the university and I will not look for another posi— tion of this kind (head—5f all-campus office, Level 3). I feel that women themselves too often are afraid ‘ to even apply for higher administrative positions. Often the men who finally accept the positions have no more and sometimes less to offer than women who felt inadequate for the same positions. In many cases, I find women must prove their capabilities by their performance. Men seem to be accepted without proof. 163 Women are not taken seriously. Men never view ”a women as capable individuals able to assume managerial roles. Women have not learned the 'political strategies' necessary to promotional mobility. Valued qualities in men are often not valued in women, yet such qualities are necessary for promotion. When women treat subordinates in the same manner as men, women are often accused of not being able 'to get along' with them. Women themselves often pre- fer male superiors. Women often value performances by men more than the same perform- ance by a women. Although Kaufman concluded in 1961 that there were few qualified women, the high percentage of those in this current study who received degrees after that time may suggest that the shortage has been remedied. The P&A Cluster Report from the University of Michigan impatiently reminded the administration that there were, and had been, a sufficient number of suitable women available, who were not adequately employed. Gardner's subjects said they advanced by their initiative. Arter's respondents credited their qualifi— cations with getting them to the top. It may be that women are denying a large part of the dynamics of career advancement. There are many women with degrees, years of work experience, ambition, intelligence and pleasant personalities. Are these qualifications? Why are they, too, not at the top? Arter's advice from practicing women administrators was, among other things, "have friends." Whether admitted or not, that may explain a part of the secret of their advancement and be a useful missing element for anyone's career structure. 164 Super said, "The process of vocational develop- ment is essentially that of developing and implementing a self concept." He stated that the nature of the career pattern--the occupational level attained and the sequence, frequency and duration of trial and stable jobs, is determined by the individual's parental socio- economic level, mental ability and personality characteristics, and by the opportunities to which he is exposed.1 Hughes' statement that "a man's work is one of the more important part of his social identity, of his self,"2 is no less true of women. It has become a matter of judgment as to what her ”work" really is, and when it shall be performed. Given the past pattern of staying at home while raising children and then returning to school or employ— ment after a several years' interval, women have been comparatively older than men at any level of work. Age group 2, for example, between 35 and 44 years old, may be similar in level of achievement to men several,years younger; however, the physiological fact is that women age less rapidly with both mental and physical capacities extending beyond those of males the same age. A woman at the height of her capacity as exemplified by age group 3, 1Donald E. Super, The Psychology of Careers (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), pp. 80—82. 2Hughes, Men and Their Work, p. 43. R. 165 from 45 to 54, may be equivalent to a man 39 to 48, which would be an ideal stage for investment in training for peak productivity. One who apparently managed successfully said: I began my career after my children (3) were all into the elementary grades, and it has accelerated very rapidly. I am the first woman on several university committees. I have, in the last three months been asked to consider two college presi— dencies and two education deanships. I'm convinced that a man with my record would be earning 10 percent more. I believe, rightly or wrongly, that it requires more ability for a woman to advance as I have done than for a man to do so (Ph.D., Level 3). As has been noted, women are often accused of using their sex to aid in career advancement, but it seems even more prevalent for men to rely on their sex by their general refusal to admit there is another and that she may possess executive potential. Some Big Ten women wrote the following: Sex discrimination in academic libraries is a relatively new but rapidly growing problem, because it has only been quite recently that salaries for librarians have been high enough to attract more than a handful of men into the pro— fession. Opportunities at least up to the middle management level and even beyond have been rather good for any woman at all interested in working for them. Now the situation is closing down. The top jobs in this library all go to men. There are at least two women who should have been promoted into administrative positions two years ago when we had a change of command and big shift— ing of positions. There is a feeling among many of the women on the staff that five of these men wouldn't make the equivalent of one of some of the women who were available. One woman who did apply for one of the positions was told by the Head R. 166 Librarian, 'You know a woman must be twice as good as a man in an administrative position. Do you think you are twice as good?‘ Women have simply been selected out. In part, it's our own fault for not being assertive; but at our institution the recognition has only come recently that women actually do want to run things, too. Although no one has ever suggested it, I find that I work harder than most others around me, partly because I set higher standards for myself than others set for me but in part, I suspect to prove that women can do anything men can do——at least as well. We have initiated an aggressive affirmative — action program for women and minorities which is making some difference, but slowly. While one reason often given for women's lack of acceptability in the executive suite is that they are over— emotional, some women see this as not an exclusively .1 female characteristic. I do think men are often just as emotional as 2 women, hold grudges forever. Here men have been given the 'nod' over women consistently. Although women have faced the public, men have been the administrators. Now the staff has organized and women are being recognized for their contributions. I have found that male colleagues are discreetly jealous and competitive when it's not necessary, when no attempt is made on my part to compete. My concern is to do the best job possible and compliment other colleagues who are doing similar tasks. My greatest complaint is the annoyance of having to deal with older males who still have the atti- tude that all women have a 'file clerk mentality' and therefore their requests, comments or com— ( plaints do not deserve either any time or consideration. Another, more charitably, said: For many men, women are invisible and inaudible when they are operating at an executive level. I believe this is more often a habit pattern than a conscious and deliberate attempt to put women down. 167 If this exclusion of women is, however, based in part on the temptation theory that women are fascinating, C disturbing, forbidden fruit, the problem will diminish if the associations are with older, less physically stimu- lating women. Also, the problems for both will diminish as women are employed in greater numbers and therefore are less of a novelty. As younger men, who have generally been less repressed and inhibited, become a higher per— centage of organization males, this, too, will put association with females into a less loaded atmosphere. This Big Ten study of women administrators does suggest the possibility that the younger women who have achieved higher levels of position tend to be non-sexy, "one of the boys” types, from a religious order, or in other ways dampening the feminine effect. As "unisex" takes over, increased personal sexual freedom and a de-emphasis on woman's need to "catch a man" in the minds of both males and females, will defuse the potentially explosive situ- ation of men and women working closely together and ease the restriction on women's participation in employment. For there do seem to be many reasons to foster this. Olive Schreiner, 60 years ago, thoughtfully reviewed the historial—social scene. When men lost hunting and agriculture as a means of livelihood, they were replaced with industry; yet, women's loss of household function has had no acceptable replacement. She commented on 168 on the days of great empires of Greece, Rome, China, and Turkey and concluded: "Everywhere in the past, as in the present, the parasitism of the female heralds the decay of a nation or class." First the woman lives in un-earned luxury; then the debilitating effect passes to the men.3 HOWever, even where parasitism is not welcomed, many women find it thrust upon them, requiring determina— tion, not without frustration, to develop and use their talents. Two of them said: I have lived apart from my husband since 1969 in order to obtain my Master of Science and Ph.D. degrees at respectable institutions. If he had not been supportive of my career, I would—have been faced with a divorce and a choice between pursuit of a career or marriage. A hard deci— sion. I now face restricted opportunities, because I'm looking for an administrative job in the area where he lives. My career has been hampered severely because I am in the same field as my husband. He is in a very high administrative position, so the university withholds similar opportunities from me. My own position is very good, but not what it would be if we were not married. I resent the fact that I must leave an excellent position whenever my hus— band moves to advance his career and then in our new location I have to take what I can get and 'try harder.’ Gardner's subjects had "usually served as an assistant in a similar position" which is another way of saying an apprenticeship. It is unfair to both the institution and the individual woman to elevate her to an unrealistically high position to satisfy legal requirements 3Olive Schreiner, Woman and Labor (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1911), pp. 77—97. 169 for numbers of women at management level without adequate preparation to give her the likelihood of succeeding. One Big Ten administrator who is a Level 4 made this analysis: 'Sheer discrimination' is best understood as the common assumption that a woman with an adminis— trative title does not have real authority until her personal reputation is sufficiently widely known to prove otherwise. The reverse is prob— ably true for men. As a consequence, executives with all good will may hesitate to place a woman in a position in which belief in her authority by persons who do not know her is necessary to her successful performance. This may be particu— larly a problem in higher education, where authority is often personal and lines of command are rarely single and linear. Either an apprenticeship in one position, a series of short time experiences in a variety of key offices, a formalized course of management training, or some combina— tion would provide a foundation for job performance. The w popularity of so—called management training courses for women provided by women who see this need has proven that women themselves recognize and wish to benefit from the opportunity for preparation. However, for a woman to pay her own fees, even though she may learn the skills and concepts, will not be of maximum benefit since her company has not made a commitment to her opportunity for advance- ment by nominating her and investing its own funds in her career. Although when questioned, many women report they got their positions on their own initiative, it is not possible to gain advancement without consent of the 170 institution. The institution consists, in the final analysis, of individuals who approve the change. Those who credit help from others usually mention a former supervisor or employer and this is an absolutely essential element of advancement: one must have help, it must come from superiors and whether one chooses to recognize this fact has no bearing on its validity. One woman made this testimonial: I have been fortunate that my supervisor has believed in my ability and has continually encouraged me to move ahead professionally. With— out such encouragement, I would probably not have made the very substantial effort which has been necessary to acquire the credentials for this male-dominated field. Others had a different story: It is my experience that if a woman is doing her job well, the institution is content to leave her in it for her entire career; when higher level jobs open, recruiting is done on the outside rather than from within. I am surrounded by extremely capable women who have spent their full careers in one capacity. My own career advance— ments have been made by leaving the institution and coming back at a higher level. In my case, I'm locked into my present position. I cannot receive enough editorial training with so much else to do as assistant to the director, so I will never be promoted to a position of editorial responsibility. The director likes having me where I am. Promotion to assistant director did not include commensurate salary increase. There is more than $10,000 difference between mine and the direc— tor's. No superiors have encouraged an effort, on my part, to get on the tenure tract, in a per- sonal kind of way. 171 . There are two choices if support is not forthcoming: she can remain at her current level or seek another posi— C tion in the hope that it will be higher or at least have the opportunity for advancement later. For many women 0? the unknown offers dubious improvement, and they cautiously take the position that they might as well stay as to make a costly lateral or downward move. In such cases many R. years at the same institution indicates lack of positive support; tolerance, but not an active effort at displace— ment. In some instances, a change of institution by a woman may be the result of withdrawal even of tolerance, with pressure to leave. Reorganization, of course, is one favorite method. This may be an explanation of the moves among older women which were more prevalent than expected among Big Ten administrators. It is interesting to note the contrast: as men gain degrees, then experience, they move up; women often are moved out. Gardner's finding that women stay within a °" relatively limited geographical area is consistent with the findings in this Big Ten study, and illustrates conservative self preservation in the face of heavy odds against them. It is difficult to get employers interested ‘ in hiring you when you are far away unless you are unique enough to merit their paying the cost of your visit to the campus, and even then the situation is complex. Arter found that those women administrators without academic rank 172 had held fewer positions in fewer states, and it is probably the element of risk which contained them. Sherburne concluded that the fastest route to the top in'“ Big Ten schools is from outside; however, he was speaking of senior student personnel positions and he was speaking of men, neither of which circumstance can be generalized to women. Although women's vaunted loyalty to the organiza— n tion, and willingness to accept a position because it is felt to be their duty or they are needed, may be admirable in the abstract, it may be misplaced in actual practice. Even for men, as Jennings notes, "The sixties were a most unconventional, disconcerting and confusing decade. They marked the end of the loyalty era and the beginning of the career-centered period."4 It would appear that women first need a loyalty to themselves, and are justified in expecting something from their employing institution rather than simply giving their self—sacrifice. The key elements are in being of recognized value and having bargaining power, both of which are notably lacking in many women's experience. It is at this point that achievement motivation, when effectively blocked, turns to denial of the wish. Why have a goal when there is no way to reach it? Lack— ing clear definition of these dynamics, some women divert 4Jennings, Routes, p. 12. R. 173 their drive to a manageable framework, that of qualifi- cation or education. It was notable that a number of Big Ten women had continued getting second master's degrees in various fields but not gaining a doctorate. This seem to be indicative of uncertainty of goal, or an urge to "do something" even if it is of only private benefit. However, until women recognize that achievement “ by chance is not achievement, and the clear enunciation of a goal is the first step toward developing means of reaching a place of value, little progress can be expected. Unconsciousness is not an effective frame of mind. Cussler put it another way in quoting one woman execu- tive, "If you don't know what to order in the restaurant, you probably will not be served anything."5 To order, however, one must communicate. Here, as in other situations, there is divergence between popular conception and fact; between male and female method. Women have been accused of being devious, covert and deceptive. They have then been defended as having those behaviors forced upon them as a result of inferior, powerless status. Men are thought to be direct, out— spoken, open and above—board. While these generalities are to some extent true, they are not by any means absolute. 5Cussler, The Woman Executive, p. 125. 174 Barbette Blackington, of the International Insti- tute of Woman Studies, pointed out a little recognized or accepted fact of the male behavioral pattern in the pro- fessional world. She said: The code calls for a 'John Wayne' approach; be straightforward, speak out, win through, solve the problem. But this isn't how it actually works out. They don't behave the way the code goes; quite the opposite. Men play games of 'feminine wiles,l although they are engaged in '4 highly controlled games of aggression. You don't tell a man he's a nit-wit; you get the com— mittee to deny him tenure. You don't do anything directly. Men's behavior is very indirect, very discreet, very backstairs. Women coming into a male environment innocently suppose the code is in actual operation and attempt to adopt it, to their sorrow, because no one else works that way. On the other hand, lack of assertiveness in pro— moting themselves will get women nowhere. The Big Ten woman is not alone in having noted that "in meetings with men, a woman's comments often seem to be only tolerated and not really listened to or respected." iflmabestresult by far, is that of the fortunate woman who reported: My own situation is excellent, in part precisely because the chief officer of this institution is especially skillful in delegating authority effec— tively. In addition, I have had full access to relevant executive—level meetings in which policies \ are formulated. It is my impression from conver— sations with colleagues elsewhere that many women administrators cannot count on either one of those advantages. 6Barbette Blackington, speech for the Association of Women Students, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, Janu— ary 16, 1973. 175 Women may resort to reliance on formal communica- ” tion, in which case, the charge is brought up that women E don't publish as much as men and this is what really counts. Since 1967 when Simon, Clark and Galway made known the results of their research, showing that married women published slightly more than men, this assumption has at least been open to question. However, in their R. discussion, they went on to comment on their finding that women may suffer discrimination such as denial of many informal signs of belonging and recognition, not being able to find someone with whom to share a research project or with whom to talk professionally.7 Big Ten women were also aware of this impediment. “ Said one: Mainly because of male dominance in areas of higher education, few women are treated as equal col- leagues in the informal atmosphere, such as casually being included in luncheon plans, athletic activities and other social activities during which 'shop talk' goes on. In their study of top male executives, the editors of Fortune magazine found their respondents tended to make all their activities relevant to their careers. Rising young men fill their daily calendars with purposive appointments, whether coffee breaks, lunch, golf or cards or clinching a deal in a bar.8 Women may be advised, and 7Rita Simon, Shirley Clark and Kathleen Galway, "The Woman Ph.D.: A Recent Profile," Social Problems, 15 (Fall, 1967), pp. 221-36. 8Cussler, The Woman Executive, p. 21. 176 may try, to adapt this avenue of contact, but they may find that although men will accept a business luncheon appoint- ment, they will not reciprocate, and women finally realize that whatever their choice of behavior, their sex creates such "noise" that their ideas can't be heard. Thus, even though men may develop their careers through socializing, many women are forced to act on the philosophy expressed by one woman executive who said, "If I'm out for an evening socially, I try to make sure it is with people completely apart from my work."9 This, unfortunately, eliminates '0 one means of informal communication which is a foundation of support, which is a foundation of advancement. As the reference was made to those of irregular ” background being eliminated unless that quality was the one to make him valuable, it appears that women will continue to be subject to such contingencies until they take responsibility for themselves and each other and unite, increasing their numbers to an extent that will offset the irregularity; to where that "action of a sponsor which is almost a necessary condition for upward mobility at upper levels" and which in the early stages keeps a new person from "losing footing," can be a realistic expectation for a woman administrator.g Several studies mentioned earlier underscore the importance of sponsorship for women: Sears' studies of 91bid., p. 30. RI 177 women motivated toward achievement by need affiliation, those of anxiety over non sex—appropriate behavior and Bachtold and Werner's women psychologists' role conflicts. As one woman said: A major theme in American society has been that you pull yourself up by your own bootstraps and we do not really recognize support systems. If you don't get support from your own family or group, the rest of society is not going to pro- vide it, or does not at present. The absence of a very basic type of support, that of office ° help, was noted by several Big Ten women. Women have trouble getting adequate clerical staff to back them up. Men seem to get it and can maintain the more professional look simply because the work can be done. Many hurdles such as this are put in the way of women administrators. Secretaries cater to men and they can make or break you by choosing not to do your work on time. I was hired and have been treated as a token woman. I had good experience and the proper edu- cational background to do a good job as the budget officer. They expected me to push paper. I felt the most important aspect of the job was future planning and I had to fight to accomplish anything constructive. I was the only administrator with— out a secretary. They gave me a typewriter which I promptly sent back to the storeroom. I was finally able to convince them that I needed some help and was given a secretary 15 months after I started. Discrimination against women in employment has been u proven and admitted, but what is discrimination? Ulti— mately, it is lack of support; however, its absence in one area can be compensated for by others who provide support. In this, as in other realms, woman's passivity hurts her. r. R\ 178 Women typically give support, and to men, rather than 0’ receive it or give to each other. On the basis of some Big Ten women's comments, some insight may be being gained. The basic problem is women's negative judgment regarding other women. Seldom do women praise others to superiors. Those women who are ambitious often suffer from _ the social phenomenon that men enjoy a certain camaraderie while women fail to support each other for promotion (Librarian, Level 3). There are encouraging signs that women are moving away from being impressed by the authority of simple maleness, in instances such as Basil's report of women defending management training for women as being no more a gamble than that expended upon men, and Simpson's female employers choosing more women than did the men employers. The telephone interviews with Big Ten women, which were almost entirely supportive of the women's movement, exemplify the change in outlook toward increased respect for women's needs. There are a host of social forces, of which the legal aspects are only one of the visible signs, creating conditions which press toward women's increasing significant participation in upper level administration of higher education institutions. When those who deeply believe the justice of the principles of the women's movement can raise their daughters first to overcome the contaminating environment, and later TU" 179 to feel freely comfortable, achieving women executives will be produced. Maccoby suggests a solution to the resistance caused by the conflict between femininity and achieve— ment. She inquires: Does a woman really need to be passive and dependent in order to be sexually attractive to men, or in order to be a good mother? Could we not accept and encourage the active, dominant, independent qualities of the intellectual girl without labeling her as masculine, and encourage in her whatever aspects of feminity are compati— ble with an analytic quality of mind? Meanwhile, the status quo cannot remain or there will be no role models as a point of departure for those to follow. And role models, if taken the next logical step, form a support system. Those women in the Big Ten study who are in Age Group 2, from 34 to 45, and those at Position Level 2 are most in need of an immediate, supportive program. They are in education in fewer numbers than those who are younger, and they have more burden of negative socializa- tion. They are the weak link which must be strengthened to fill the places left as the 45 to 54 year olds diminish in numbers and effectiveness. The outlook will indeed be gloomy unless action is taken. One woman administrator of a Big Ten school wrote of a proposal which she is making for "leap—frog" train- ing to help compensate for shortages such as this. Guttman suggested executive training as a part of graduate R. 180 professional training programs for women to at least reach the younger women coming into the field,loand Fogarty, C Rapoport and Rapoprt suggested a "marketing approach" to improve the chances of women's abilities being fully used.ll Internships at high levels within universities “ should be awarded to talented, aspiring women chosen by widely publicized application and offering a series of experiences to include important areas such as with the vice president for finance, student services, provost and president, to provide acquaintance both with those individuals and their functions. This, of course, requires male conviction that the activity is worthwhile. For women's groups and others who want to see evidence of the advancement of women, administration is an obvious, effective answer. In the classroom it is not apparent to students whether a person is part—time lecturer or full professor, and they possibly would not understand the full implications even if they knew the title. In administration, by contrast, a president or vice president has high visibility. This is not to suggest that faculty women do not need to be increased 10Mary A. Julius Guttman, "Is The Gray Mare Only a Workhorse?" Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51 (October, 1972), pp. 115—21. 114 rogarty, Rapoport and Rapoport, Sex, Career and Family, p. 422. 181 everywhere——they do--but administrators seem to be the unjustifiably forgotten women. Women will have to decide whether they will try to play by established male rules of surface cooperation and subterranean competition or develop new systems. Some kinds of coalitions are basic, first with men who are understanding, then when there is a nucleus of women working among themselves bringing in additional women to form their own power bloc. Men move up from positions of strength, success °° and Support. Women, when supported, consider this a good sufficient unto itself and stay put, not looking for advancement, and therefore do not advance. When not supported, women tend to be more uncomfortable, have fewer resources for combating negative influence, and eventually move. Moving from a psychological low and feeling the need for relief, they are not in good bar- gaining positions, thus tending to move laterally or down in order to escape./' Women need to be made aware of men's, and there- ’“ fore the organization‘s common practices and learn ways to adapt them to their benefit. Women need greater expectations, and plans for long range goals. There need to be more women who can form supporting networks for information, depth backing and lend confidence to reach farther. 182 Institutions facing legal pressure to show numbers °° of women need more understanding of how to take their marginal women and bring them in to where they can be genuine assets, not simply palliative numbers to quote for publication. They need to realize that these women are bright enough, and their shortcomings born of exclu— sion can be remedied by some fairly accessible meansv/ Since it is inevitable that women will be moving in and up, men should try to benefit from the change by allowing themselves more human concern, less competitive- ness, and increased mental and physical health, along with other advantages to be realized once the process is in motion. Conclusions Analysis of the data in Chapter 4 provided a basis for the following conclusions appropriate to the purpose of this study, which was to investigate factors relating to the employment level of women administrators in Big Ten universities. 1. Titles and levels of positions of women admin— istrators indicate limited individual professional support. They feel the need for clear delineation of their responsi— bility and general trust and confidence from superiors in their ability to fulfill it. Women_administrators do not use out-of—office time toward career advancement. Social life is difficult, resulting partly from the 183 demanding job, being single, living alone and needing someone to fill a helping role. Their moves tend to be the result of non-supportive situations and they reflect the unsatisfactory environment by their lack of commit— ment to continuing in administrative work. Those who have had some form of management training or internship for higher level administration have a more positive attitude. 2. There are differences between groups of women administrators in Big Ten universities, the most salient of which are, by age group: to 34 years--the largest group, pursuing doctoral degrees in greatest numbers, with highest percent married but most having no children; 35 to 44 years old—-less evidence of strong career orientation, highest ratio of children per mother, most are at midflevel positions; 55 years and older——smallest group, greatest diversity in positions with half at mid- level but contributing second greatest number to upper level positions, highest percentage with the doctorate, lowest percentage who came to present position from the same institution. The greatest differences in positions are at the top level. Most in this group are between ages 45 and 54; 79 percent hold the doctorate and the remainder the master's degree; 84 percent are in a field of work appro— priate to their most recent degree; 89 percent had X“ 184 previously been administrators or in their specialty fields; 84 percent last moved within their own institu- tion rather than changing universities; over half have been in their current position one year or less. 3. California Psychological Inventory scores are significant for age groups, with those between 45 and 54 years scoring highest on both achievement via con— formance and intellectual efficiency. Scores are significant for position level on intellectual efficiency, with the top level having highest scores. Other scores did not yield highly significant levels. Women adminis- trators in Big Ten universities scored considerably above the national norms for both male executives and female college students on all three scales, which means that on this measure they are more: clear—thinking, intelligent, efficient, progressive, thorough and resourceful; alert and well informed; placing a high value on intellectual matters. 4. Women administrators feel there are several causes for their lack of advancement: (l) sheer dis— crimination; (2) women have not been assertive; (3) interrupted career spans; (4) they have not been sponsored by those above them; (5) they have not united to improve their positon. They feel that factors con— tributing to the above are chiefly the socialization of 185 both sexes, women's rejection of responsibility, and men's support of other men, not women. 5. Women administrators in Big Ten universities are lacking in the following factors considered by man- agement theory to be important for career development: sponsorship, management training, informal interaction particularly among male co—workers, support in their personal lives and clear goals. There is growing aware- ness of the need for and willingness of women to support each other professionally. 6. There are significant differences by chi square statistics between age groups and the following variables: position level, level of education, date of highest degree, number of years in previous position, access route, number of years in current position, marital status and numbers of children. There are significant differences between posi- tion levels and the following variables: age, level of education, date of highest degree, number of years in previous position and access route. Recommendations for Further Research As a result of the findings of this study and the conclusions drawn from them, the following recommendations are made for further research: 186 1. Investigate mobility among older women to attempt to determine the causes of their frequent change of position and institution. 2. Research is needed on the availability to women of management training programs such as Office of Education Fellowships or American Council of Education internships, and case studies made of those who have attended. 3. Study attitudes of women in higher education administration toward the profession of administration. 4. Examine specific fields of administrative responsibility with regard to the age and sex of those filling positions. BIBLIOGRAPHY 187 Y\ BIBLIOGRAPHY Books ‘ Almquist, Elizabeth M., and Angrist, Shirley S. "Role Model Influence on College Women's Career Aspira— tions." The Professional Woman. Edited by Athena Theodore. 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Stanford, California: The Stanford University Press, 1959. Schreiner, Olive. Woman and Labor. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1911. Scott, Anne Firor. The American Woman: Who Was She? Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1971. Sklar, Kathryn Kish. "Education of Women." Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. 10. New York: The Macmillan Company and the Free Press, 1971. Super, Donald. The Psychology of Careers. New York: Harper and Row, 1957. ”Watley, Donivan J. "Career or Marriage? A Longitudinal Study of Able Young Women. The Professional Woman. Edited by Athena Theodore. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenckman Publishing Company, Inc., 1971. L 191 Weisstein, Naomi. "Kinder, Kuche, Kirche: Psychology Constructs the Female." Sisterhood is Powerful. Edited by Robin Morgan. New York: Vintage Books, L 1970. Woody, Thomas. A History of Women's Education in the United States. Vol. I. New York: The Science Press, 1929. Journals Bachtold, Louise M., and Werner, Emmy E. "Personality Profiles of Gifted Women." The American Psycholo— gist, 25 (March, 1970), pp. 234—43. Berry, Margaret C., and Fitzgerald, Laurine E. "Profile and Status of NAWDC Members." Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors, 34 (Winter, 1971), Pp- 50-59. Bernstein, Jean. "The Elementary School: Training Ground for Sex Role Sterotypes." The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51 (October, 1972), pp. 97-101. Bunting, Mary I.; Graham, Patrcia A.; and Wasserman, Elga. = "Academic Freedom and Incentive for Women." : Educational Record, 51 (Fall, 1970), PP. 386—91. I Cross, K. Patricia. "College Women: A Research Descrip— tion.” Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors, 32 (Fall, 1968), pp. 12~21. Crowley, Joan; Levitin, Teresa; and Quinn, Robert. "Seven W Deadly Half—Truths About Women." Psychology Today, 6 (March, 1973), pp. 96-98. Cunningham, Robert M., Jr. "Women Who Made it Offer Insights into Their Problems." College and Uni— versity Business, 48 (February, 1970), pp. 56—61. Epstein, Cynthia F. "Encountering the Male Establishment." American Journal of Sociology, 75 (May, 1970), pp. 965—82. Ferrari, Michael R. "National Study of Student Personnel Manpower Planning——l972." National Association of Student Personnel Administrators' Journal, 10 (October, 1972), pp. 91—100. 192 ‘ Gergen, Kenneth J. "The Healthy, Happy Human Being Wears I Many Masks." Psychology Today, 15 (May, 1972), pp. 31—35. L ”Graham, Patricia A. "Women in Academe." Science, 169 (September, 1970), PP- 1284-90. Guttman, Mary A. Julius. "Is the Gray Mare Only a Work— i horse?" Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51 (October, 1972), pp. 115-21. vHarris, Ann Sutherland. "The Second Sex in Academe." American Association of University Professors Bulletin, 56 (Fall, 1970), PP. 283-95. Hartley, Ruth E. "Current Patterns in Sex Roles: Chil- dren's Perspectives." Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors, 25 (October, 1961), pp. 3—13. Hennig, Margaret. "What Happens on the Way Up?" The MBA/Masters in Business Administration, 5 (March, 1971), pp. 8—10. 'Holmstrom, Lynda. "Women's Career Patterns, Appearance ._ and Reality." Journal of the National Association Q of Women Deans and Counselors, 36 (Winter, 1973), 4_ pp. 76—81. , Horner, Matina. "Fail: Bright Women.” Psychology Today, 3 (November, 1969), pp. 36—39. Mitchell, Joyce M., and Starr, Rachel R. "A Regional Approach for Analyzing the Recruitment of Academic . Women." American Behavioral Scientist, 15 1 (November/December, 1971), pp. 183—203. ‘Rossi, Alice. "Discrimination and Demography Restrict Opportunities for Academic Women." College and University Business, 48 (February, 1970), pp. 1—12. -Simon, Rita; Clark, Shirley; and Galway, Kathleen. "The Woman Ph.D.: A Recent Profile." Social Problems, 15 (Fall, 1967), pp. 221—36. ‘ Simpson, Lawrence A. "A Myth is Better Than a Miss: Men Set the Edge in Academic Employment." College and University Business, 48 (February, 1970), pp. 72-73. Smith, Joyce A. "For God's Sake, What Do Those Women Want?" The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51 (October, 1972), pp. 133-36. 193 Spokeswoman. June, 1970, pp. 1-4; November, 1970, pp. l-4. Truex, Dorothy. "Focus on Feminine Ferment." The Journal of College Student Personnel, 11 (September, 1970), pp. 323—31. U.S. News and World Report. "Is the American Family in Danger?" April 16, 1973, pp. 71—76. Whitney, Mary E. "Women Student Personnel Administrators: The Past and the Future." Journal of College Stu— dent Personnel, 12 (January, 1971), pp. 7-10. Women Today. April, 1972, p. 3. Unpublished Dissertations ‘ Arter, Margaret H. "The Role of Women in Administration in State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1972. 'Gardner, Helen R. "Women Administrators in Higher Educa- tion in Illinois: A Study of Current Career Patterns." Unpublished doctoral dissertation,' Indiana University, 1966. 'Kaufman, Helen. "The Status of Women in Administration in Selected Institutions of Higher Education in the United States." Unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, New York University, 1961. Sherburne, Paul R. "Rates and Patterns of Mobility of Student Personnel Administrators." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. U.S. Government and Associations Publications Association of American Colleges. Statistics Concerning Doctorates Awarded to Women. Washington, D.C., April, 1972. Ayers, Archie R.; Tripp, Philip A.; and Russel, John H. Student Services Administration in Higher Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966. 194 Barabas, Jean. Women and Their Educational Career Roles. Bethesda: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, 1972. aGoames, Mary B., and Gardner, Emily. "University of Michigan Professional and Administrative Cluster Report." Women's Work Has Just Begun. Ann Arbor: The Institute of Continuing Legal Education, 1972. 'Oltman, Ruth M. Campus 1970: Where Do Women Stand? Washington, D.C.: The American Association of University Women, 1970. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1970 Census of Population Subject Reports, Occupation by Industry. PC (2) 7C. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970. University of Wisconsin, Office of the Chancellor. Women Holders of the Ph.D., 1967-69, Top Degree Granting Schools. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges, 1972. WEAL. "Facts About Women in Education." Women's Work Has Just Begun. Ann Arbor: The Institute of Continu- ing Legal Education, 1972. Other Sources Blackington, Barbette. Address to The Association of Women Students. Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, January 16, 1973. Pietrafesa, J. J., and Schlossberg, N. K. "Counselor Bias and the Female Occupational Role." Paper presented at Galaxy Convention. Washington, D.C., December, 1969. (Mimeographed.) Sandler, Bernice. "Women and Higher Education: Where Do We Go From Here?" Address to Wingspread Conference on Women in Higher Education. Racine, Wisconsin, March, 1972. (Mimeographed.) P'WR APPENDICES 195 APPENDIX A IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 196 Aswuimaw $893080 «Bud Aw .23. 3385 $0 Nx «0800.8 3 6e 3 33. 3.93385 60> .0\ «6.5:. 3.ng 35$, g 3:3 SSE 33.x EQSQK .933. d «S sax wd 083. .23. 33%. SD 6.543% wax 53030. gas n§.<.. 3. 5s. «EQSVK 55% av 5.3.00 638M Mo $588 39x1. 053 §§§§ a a0». .01 agixo 3.5.45 33 N0 «40.08%.» 35:. 5 dgok 08.5083 333. .363 38?... HQ «858% #33 SSW .N\ no.3 3 is. 53.. 3.. .2 o: 53. «.05st Rio $8 SQ 085,383“. 03.3%:650... 0303 33.. 09.40 .3. \Vzfisqmw $5535 No $35130 \ nuggop 9.0“ 6308s 33. 1.538 0.6% 33 83R. .m «8.3.86 3.5.38? 8? QASQwsx 3%. N36 dexné 33 53%. a. A8336 a. 139x080 65. 038% 3%. 06.06 was “503 53m. N §§3.§& .0 .30 38:3 .SQNWEB «80% SSMXQ .m Sfidmgz 03§MQ. «€6.66... <6 <66. 6 <6..XK6&.6 663366.55 <6\.... \ N .. ... V9.36 .666 666%. 66..~\\6 6w6& \ m M e 4.3.. <6» S...w.1.6«\ 3.: \...6 ubxwquuga. SEQ . \. \..\ .2 wfl6~§Nm6\\ 6w $636631 35" 6E6.» 3 63 wkfiuw 3663 V63? wow nfioniuc wgavuwgzfiék 5 NSVBBSS 356 3 wfiS .§ «#:566sz 6665 5335.6 63W 86 .onmkfic ~336MQ. .mm A6136“ 5. 365 6636K «9% 663. Mm / «6.53.56 5.35% 66$ 3% Km «65.6“ negwdak g 5 6666.66 6% 66633566 68% 65>. 6m 3360656668 VSSQMS 65. 6N6R .mm n<66fiflw§68 figkfikmqu :6 EQSQ 66m 655 .3. \_\ APPENDIX B COVER LETTERS AND BASIC DATA SHEET 201 202 Dear Holleague: Professional women in higher education are few in number and the attention they have received in publications has been directed For the most part toward faculty members. As a former and future administrator who is female, I am concerned with the lack of informa— tion about this group. Because of this, and to complete my research For the Ph.D. degree, I am attempting to obtain some such material. showing how very busy you are, it is with humbleness that I ask the time and thought required for you to contribute your part of this picture. plan is to gather certain basic information, leave an area apon which you may write if and as you choose, and ask you to respond on an lb! answer sheet to several true-false items which are part of a standardized test. You may feel, as others have, that some items sound more suitable for high school students, and this is one short» Cumlflf of tests in general; however, there are norms for male business executives, but none for similar females. One side benefit from this study may be a Contribution toward the establishment of norms for female administrators. A selected, randomized sample of those receiving material by rail will be contacted for telephone interview to broaden the study. Yay I call your attention particularly to the sections in the basic Data Jheet which refer to your age and dates of schooling. Because of the discontinuous patterns in women's careers, this is an imyortant factor. I am well into middle age and still working on a degree, so your age is not of interest personally or specifically, but is highly significant as part of the pattern for all women administrators. Please do complete those sections accurately. Ji' .ou are interested in the results of this study, pilease so iniicate in the space provided and I will be happy to send them to / I o This kind of effort needs the cooperation of those presently fn the field, and since the numbers are extremely limited, each response is vitally needed. Of course, your reply will remain confidential and unidentifiable. Return to me only the Basic Data Sheet and the IBM Answer Theet. Thank you for your prompt assistance. Florence P. Stevenson 203 1 BASIC DATA SHEET Name Telephone Date of Birth Marital Status Ages of Children, if any ‘ Employment (start with present job, listing last four exclusive of student status) Employing Institution Title of Position From To Education Degree Year Granted Institution Field of Study Reasons I believe administrative women have difficulty getting promoted. (Check as many as you wish; rank if more than one.) They have not been assertive They have had interrupted career spans Sheer discrimination against women They have not been sponsored by those above them Women have not united to improve their positions Other AAA/\AA VVVVVV Please send me the results of this study ( ) If you wish to comment on an aspect of the problems of women adminis— . trators in higher education generally, or on your particular situation, i please continue on the back of this sheet. Your remarks will be ‘ treated confidentially. 204 | ll47 N. Washington Blvd, Apt lZ-C " Hamilton, Ohio A50l3 Dear Colleague: You were recently mailed some material in connection with a research project on administrative women in higher education which I am doing at Michigan State University. Your response has not been received to this date, and since there are relatively few women who fill my requirements, I would appreciate very much your cooperation. Enclosed is another set of papers and a stamped, self-addressed envelope. The multi—purpose answer sheet for the standardized test should be marked as follows: darken the ”l” box for the items you consider true and the ”2” box for false. You need not return the Inventory itself; only the answer sheet and the Basic Data Sheet. in the event you have already sent back the original material, please disregard this letter. Thank you for your assistance. Sincerely, Florencc B. St APPENDIX C CLASS III SCALES OF THE CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY ‘. 205 CLASS III SCALE OF THE CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY (Items are worded and arranged as they appear in the original inventory) You need not blacken the IBM boxes for your name; only write it on the side of the Answer Sheet. l3. 14. 15. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. 28. 29. 30. The only interesting part of the newspaper is the "funnies." I looked up to my father as an ideal man. Our thinking would be a lot better if we just forgot about words like "probably," "approximately" and "perhaps." have a very strong desire to be a success in the world. liked "Alice in Wonderland" by Lewis Carroll. usually go to the movies more than once a week. have had very peculiar and strange experiences. am often said to be hotheaded. gossip a little at times. When I was going to school I played hooky quite often. I have very few fears compared to my friends. For most questions there is just one right answer, once a person is able to get all the facts. I think I would like the work of a school teacher. When someone does me a wrong, I feel I should pay him back if I can, just for the principle of the thing. I seem to be about as capable and smart as most others around me. The trouble with many people is that they don't take things seri— ously enough. It is always a good thing to be frank. A Windstorm terrifies me. I often feel as if the world were just passing me by. People often expect too much of me. When in a group of people I have trouble thinking of the right things to talk about. It is annoying to listen to a lecturer who cannot seem to make up his mind as to what he really believes. I don't blame anyone for trying to grab all he can get in this world. Planning one's activities in advance is very likely to take most of the fun out of life. I was a slow learner in school. I like poetry. There is something wrong with a person who can't take orders without getting angry or resentful. Sometimes without any reason or even when things are going wrong I feel excitedly happy, ”on top of the world." Most people make friends because friends are likely to be useful to them. It is all right to get around the law if you don't actually break it. H H H H H H 206 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 70. 71. 207 Parents are much too easy on their children nowadays. I have a tendency to give up easily when I meet difficult problems. I certainly feel useless at times. I read at least ten books a year. I have the wanderlust and am never happy unless I am traveling about. I am sometimes cross and grouchy without any good reason. My parents have often disapproved of my friends. Teachers often expect too much work from the students. My way of doing things is apt to be misunderstood by others. I have had blank spells in which my activities were interrupted and I did not know what was going on around me. I have had more than my share of things to worry about. I am quite often not in on the gossip and talk of the group I belong to. I like to keep people guessing what I'm going to do next. I think I would like to fight in a boxing match sometime. In a group of people I would not be embarrassed to be called upon to start a discussion or give an opinion about something I know well. If given the chance I would make a good leader of people. I like to plan a home study schedule and then follow it. I enjoy a race or game better when I bet on it. I have often found people jealous of my good ideas, just because they had not thought of them first. In school I was sometimes sent to the principal for cutting up. People pretend to care more about one another than they really do. I like to read about history. I am so touchy on some subjects that I can't talk about them. The future is too uncertain for a person to make serious plans. I like to talk before groups of people. I am often bothered by useless thoughts which keep running through my mind. I like to plan out my activities in advance. I must admit I find it very hard to work under strict rules and regulations. I like large, noisy parties. I sometimes feel that I am a burden to others. Only a fool would try to change our American way of life. In school I found it very hard to talk before the Class. I always try to do at least a little better than is expected of me. Lawbreakers are almost always caught and punished. I would be very unhappy if I were not successful at something I had seriously started to do. I dread the thought of an earthquake. I like science. I often lose my temper. . My parents were always very strict and stern with me. I am bothered by people outside, on streetcars, in stores, etc. watching me. I often get disgusted with myself. 208 72. Society owes a lot more to the businessman and the manufacturer than it does to the artist and the professor. 73. I like to read about science. -. 74. I have never been in trouble because of my sex behavior. 75. I think I would like to belong to a motorcycle club. ‘ 76. I used to like it very much when one of my papers was read ‘ aloud in school. 77. I feel that I have often been punished without cause. | 78. I often get feelings like crawling, burning, tingling or "going to sleep” in different parts of my body. 79. I don't seem to care what happens to me. 80. I must admit I have no great desire to learn new things. 81. I seldom worry about my health. 82. I have never seen a vision. 83. The future seems hopeless to me. 84. I have had no difficulty starting or holding my urine. 85. Success is a matter of will power. 86. I get pretty discouraged with the law when a smart lawyer gets a criminal free. 87. I am quite a fast reader. 88. I daydream very little. 89. At times I have been so entertained by the cleverness of a crook that I have hoped he would get by with it. 90. I have had atacks in which I could not control my movements or speech, but in which I knew what was going on around me. 91. I have had no difficulty in starting or holding my bowel move— ment. . 92. I do not read every editorial in the newspaper every day. ‘ 93. Any job is all right with me, so long as it pays well. 94. It often seems that my life has no meaning. 95. I feel like giving up quickly when things go wrong. 96. If people had not had it in for me I would have been more success— i ful. 97. I am not afraid of picking up a disease or germs from doorknobs. i 98. It is more important that a father be kind than that he be suc- l i cessful. l 99. My skin seems to be unusually sensitive to touch. 100. I have often been frightened in the middle of the night. 101. I get sort of annoyed with writers who go out of their way to use strange and unusual words. 102. I work under a great deal of tension. The foregoing reproduced by special permission from The California Psychological Inventory by Harrison G. Gough, Ph.D. Copyright 1956 us— a . . .__...._7 APPENDIX D TELEPHONE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 209 TELEPHONE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Name Tele. University Posit. Title Personal Data Management Training Career Decision Sponsorship Goals Informal Communications Women's Movement. General Comments Code NO. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Florence Byrd Stevenson was born in Weldon, North Carolina, on January 1, 1922. She received the Bachelor of Arts Degree in English from the University of Arkansas; the Master's Degree in Student Personnel Administration from The Ohio State University. In the several years' interval between degrees she married, became the mother of Gardner and Brian, was divorced, lived in France, Germany and Japan, worked in the fields of recreation, social work and real estate. She was Dean of Women at the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma for six years before enter— ing the doctoral program in higher education administration at Michigan State University, where she was teaching assistant for the Associate Dean of Students in the College of Education. She is an honorary Mortar Board, a member of the Committee on Continuing Education for Women of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors, and was an early member of both the National Organization for Women and the Women's Equity Action League. 211 s— figuri- W: HHHHHHHHHHHH - mil lljlllilllllllliillill 312 41