PREGNANCY AND MOTHERHOOD
MOTIVATION IN UNMARRIED WOMEN:
SOME INTRAPSYCHIC, INTERPERSONAL
AND BEHAVIORAL FACT 0R5

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
GINETTE Bu LARGER
1975

  

  
 

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Michigan State
University

    
  

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Pregnancy and Motherhood
in Unmarried Women: Some nt '

presented by

Ginette B. Langer

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ABSTRACT

PREGNANCY AND MOTHERHOOD MOTIVATION IN UNMARRIED WOMEN:
SOME INTRAPSYCHIC, INTERPERSONAL,
AND BEHAVIORAL FACTORS

BY

Ginette B. Langer

The purpose of the present study was two-fold.
First, an attempt was made to investigate if premarital
pregnancy is specifically motivated. Second, an assessment
was made of certain personality factors that may account
for this motivation.

The adequacy of birth control use and frequency of
sexual intercourse were the two behavioral factors assumed
to affect the chances of premarital pregnancy. The type of
sexual relationship, temporary or steady, in which the
sexual activity occurs, was also expected to affect the
motivation for pregnancy. All three factors, birth control
use, sexual frequency, and type of relationship, were the
independent variables in a 2 x 2 x 2 design.

Fantasies of pregnancy and motherhood, daydreams
of having children and anticipation of abortion were
assessed to establish the link between the use of birth

control and the motivation for pregnancy and motherhood.

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Ginette B. Langer

Two conceptually different levels of femininity, gender
identification and sex-role style, were also assessed as
possible contributing factors relating to birth control use
and pregnancy motivation.

It was hypothesized that women using adequate birth
control would have less fantasy of pregnancy and motherhood,
be less feminine (more assertive) in their sex-role style,

and more feminine in their gender identification than women

wr— - W u

using inadequate birth control. Further, it was hypothe-
sized that among the women using inadequate birth control,
those with high sex frequency would have more fantasy of
pregnancy and motherhood and be less feminine in their
gender identification than those women with low sex fre-
quency. Also hypothesized was that women with a steady
relationship would have more fantasy of pregnancy and
motherhood and be more feminine (more interdependent) in
their sex-role style than women having temporary
relationships.

A total of 468 subjects were given questionnaire
material. From this sample, the responses of 129 sexually
active women were selected for the analyses who met the
criteria for adequate-inadequate birth control use, steady
or temporary relationship, and high or low sex frequency.
The measures included thematic apperception stories for
pictures chosen to elicit pregnancy/motherhood imagery, the
Franck Drawing Completion Test (Franck and Rosen, 1949),

a Sex-Role Style measure (McClelland and Watt, 1968), the

Ginette B. Langer

Femininity Scale of the California Psychological Inventory
(Gough, 1957, 1966), questions pertaining to daydreaming
about children and future plans if pregnancy occurred as
well as questions on sexual, contraceptive, and dating
habits. A Motherhood Thema Score and Pregnancy Thema Score
were derived from the TAT-type stories.

There was some evidence that premarital pregnancy
is motivated. Daydreaming of having children occurred
significantly more often among women using inadequate birth
control than among those using adequate birth control. An
interaction with type of relationship was evident for the
anticipation of abortion measure, with those in temporary
relationships using adequate birth control anticipating
terminating a pregnancy through abortion most often. The
scores derived from the TAT-type pictures did not yield any
differences. This was attributed to the strong stimulus
pull of the pictures used.

The birth control x relationship interaction for
sex-role style was also significant. Results showed that
women in temporary relationships using adequate birth
control were significantly more assertive than steady
relationship women using adequate birth control. A trend
was also found for adequate birth control users to be more
assertive than inadequate users among temporary relation-
ship women. Findings were attributed to the focus on
motherhood in a female's upbringing and the need for

assertive behavior to obtain contraceptives and to

Ginette B. Langer

maintain temporary relationships. The possibility of the
involvement in a relationship changing personality struc-
ture was also discussed.

A significant finding was also obtained for the
type of relationship x sex frequency interaction on the
Franck Drawing Completion Test. Women who have high sex
frequency in temporary relationships were more feminine in
their gender identification than women with low sex
frequency in temporary relationships as well as women with
high sex frequency in steady relationships. It was sug-
gested that security in one's female body concept may be
related to expressing the body sexually. Gender identifi-
cation was not found to be directly related to birth
control use. However, age proved to be significant with
older women using adequate birth control more often than
younger women.

A model was presented that conceptualized the
factors involved in premarital pregnancy as occurring in
three realms: the intrapsychic, the interpersonal, and
the behavioral. This provided a new perspective on the
data and suggested limitations in the design. Viewing
birth control use as a dependent variable may be more
productive. Type of relationship was shown to predict sex
frequency which in turn predicted the adequacy of birth
control use. Directions for future research were also

discussed.

Ginette B. Langer

Thesis Committee:

Robert A. Zucker, Chairman
Jeanne Gullahorn

Lawrence Messé

Albert I. Rabin

PREGNANCY AND MOTHERHOOD MOTIVATION IN UNMARRIED WOMEN:
SOME INTRAPSYCHIC, INTERPERSONAL,

AND BEHAVIORAL FACTORS

BY

A

\\

. \¢
Ginette Ba Langer

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Psychology

1975

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation to Robert A.
Zucker, my thesis chairman, for his continual support and
guidance throughout my graduate school career, in helping
me develop as a researcher and clinician.

I also wish to thank the members of my committee-—
Jeanne Gullahorn, Lawrence Messé, and Albert I. Rabin--for
their thoughtful comments and participation in this
research.

I am also grateful to my raters—-Karen Bock, Dave
Krasner, Ed Liverene, and Paul Himmel--who spent long hours
coding the data. Victor Battistiche's aid in training the
raters was also invaluable.

Bob Wilson, of the Office of Research Consultation,
was extremely helpful in providing computer consultation
and he deserves special thanks.

My husband, Larry Langer, immeasurably enhanced the
years spent in graduate school. The incessant pressures of
writing our dissertations was continually lightened by our

sharing of the experience.

ii

And finally, I wish to thank my parents, Moses and
Sara Balsam, who have always conveyed to me their belief
in my abilities to achieve something of value and who have

provided me with the love and encouragement with which to

mature.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . .

II.

III.

IV.

Premarital Pregnancy . . . .
Contraception . . . . . .
Premarital Sex and Intercourse

Frequency . . . . . . .

Interpersonal Relations and Pre-

marital Sex Practices . . .
Statement of the Problem. . .

METHOD 0 I O O O O O I 0

Subjects . . . . . . . .
Procedure. . . . . . . .
Measures . . . . . . . .

RESULTS . . . . . . . . .

Main Analyses . . . . . .

Additional Analyses . . .

Relationship Between Dependent
Variables . . . . . . .

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . .

Overview . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY 0 O O O O O O O 0

iv

Page
vi

vii

cow

13

14
16

27
27
28
3O
34

35
42

46
48
69

76

Chapter Page

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
APPENDICES
Appendix
A. Distribution of Full Sample on Independent
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 81
B. Sex-Role Style Measure. . . . . . . . 83

C. Thematic Apperception Test: Instructions
and Picture Descriptions . . . . . . 84

D. Sample Protocols of Daydreaming of Having
Children Measure and Abortion Antici—

pation Measure. . . . . . . . . . 87
E. Dating Patterns Inventory. . . . . . . 89
F. Analysis of Variance Summary Tables . . . 93

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. The Factorial Design of Birth Control Use
X Type of Relationship X Sex Frequency . . . 21

2. Analysis of Variance for Simple Effects
of Birth Control Use and Relationship
for Sex-Role Style. . . . . . . . . . 37

3. Analysis of Variance for Simple Effects
of Sex Frequency and Relationship for
Franck Drawing Completion Test. . . . . . 40

4. Correlations of Dependent Variables. . . . . 47

5. Distribution of Full Sample on the Inci-
dence of Premarital Intercourse . . . . . 81

6. Distribution of Subjects Currently
Engaging in Sexual Intercourse on Birth
Control Adequacy, Type of Relationship,
and Sex Frequency . . . . . . . . . . 82

7. Analysis of Variance for the Franck
Drawing Completion Test . . . . . . . . 93

8. Analysis of Variance for Sex-Role Style . . . 94

9. Analysis of Variance for Pregnancy
Thema Score 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 9 5

10. Analysis of Variance for Motherhood
Thema Score . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

11. Analysis of Variance for the Femininity
Scale of the California Psychological
Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

12. Analysis of Variance for Age . . . . . . . 98

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

F igure Page

.1.. Birth Control Use X Type of Relationship
Interaction for Mean Scores on Sex-
ROle StYle O O I O O O O O O O O I 38

22.. Type of Relationship X Sex Frequency
Interaction for Mean Scores on the
Franck Drawing Completion Test . . . . . 41

13.. Model of the Interrelationship of
Intrapsychic, Interpersonal, and
Behavioral Factors Leading to Pre-
marital Pregnancy. . . . . . . . . . 49

vii

 

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

While the Kinsey (1953) report dominated the field

0 f sexuality in the 19505 and Masters and Johnson's (1966)

‘UW 1.1-1.?

work was crucial in the 19605, the women's liberation

movement which began to reach prominence in the late 19603
provoked a renewed interest in the nature of female sexual-
ity- Whatever the value one attributes to Freud's
Conceptualizations of feminine sexuality, the psychoanalytic

writers have predominated in publications of a theoretical

nature in this area. Empirical research has been compara-

tively lacking and while the Kinsey report and Masters and

Johnson's study were milestones in sexuality research, they

were not of a psychological nature. Reexamination of the

I~‘a“t1:l.re of a female's identity, her sex role, and sexual

funQ tioning, triggered in part by the women's movement, has
new encouraged a beginning to comprehensive works on female
Sexuality from a psychological perspective (Fisher, 1973) .

Qt)r‘leern with population growth problems has also brought

upon an increased attention to female sexuality insofar as

 

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(Pohlman, 1969; Fawcett, 1973).

Though clinical work needs empirical backing, it

frequently stimulates deliberations that leads to extensive
research. In the course of psychotherapeutic work with
female adolescents and adults, the clinician becomes aware

that a certain segment of them report frequent fantasies of

either becoming pregnant and/or becoming a parent. The

Wish to be a mother usually involves a fantasy of having an
infant child and the closeness and warmth that accompanies

this relationship as well as strong senses of feeling

womanly. Fantasies of this type while probably experienced

by most women, occur in varying degrees and intensities and
may play a role in motivating certain kinds of sexual

behavior. Writers in the field of illegitimate births

(Roberts, 1966) for example, have proposed that a wish for
a <2lrmild, triggered by a variety of psychological factors,
contributes to the high number of illegitimate births. But
fantasies of course do not cause pregnancies, only behavior,
and thus it is crucial to connect the fantasy material to
ac‘tlmal behavior manifestations of sexuality.

The present study then investigates motivation for
pregnancy and motherhood by examining the fantasies for
pregnancy and motherhood and feelings and conflicts of

fie“lininity in unmarried women engaging in sexual inter-
cOllrse. Since frequency of sexual activity and the use of

ccNitraceptives are two behavioral factors contributing to

 

the possibility of translating the fantasy of pregnancy
into actuality, these two behaviors are key variables in
the study. Furthermore, since sexual intercourse is not
a purely individual act, but rather occurs in the context
of a relationship, the type of relationship, that is,

steady or temporary, is considered. h.

Several research areas can be isolated that are

relevant to the present theses: premarital pregnancies,

contraception, premarital sex and intercourse frequency,

 

and interpersonal relations and premarital sex practices. 3:"
Though there is considerable overlap in some of these

areas, for the sake of clarity, these topics will be

reviewed separately.

marital Pregnancy
There has been controversy in the field as to
whether premarital pregnancies are specifically motivated

(Roberts, 1966) or whether they are an accident of sexual

ac“=-_‘i_vity (Furstenburg, 1971). A number of theorists and

researchers have stated that unwed pregnancies are

motivated by unconscious mental processes.
Ps’§?<:hoanalytically-oriented writers (Kasin and Handschin,
1941; Clothier, 1943; Deutsch, 1945) view premarital

pregnancy as having been motivated to meet the needs of

uhresolved oedipal conflicts. These writers isolate two

tYDes of girls, one of whom looks upon the mother as a

plTostitute and who identifies with her by acting out the

role. Clothier (1943) states that though fantasies of rape
and prostitution are common during adolescence, the girl
who unconsciously views her mother as a prostitute and has
a poor sense of reality, will act out these fantasies. A
second type, acts out a fantasy of an "immaculate concep-
tion." This girl denies the role of sexuality while h
accepting motherhood in an attempt psychologically to play
the dual role of man and woman, thus attempting to replace

the missing penis. This girl therefore, has not accepted

 

her feminine role. L;

In an extensive clinical examination of ten girls

under 16 years of age who were pregnant, Bernard (1944)

found that "unclear and conflicted" femininity had led to

Promiscuity and unwed pregnancies. No controls were used,

hOWever, and findings could have been a function of the

pregnancy experience or interviewer demands. Blain (1967)

al so remarked, on the basis of clinical experience, that
only conception is adequate proof of femininity for some
women.

Young (1954), on the basis of extensive interviews
with 100 pregnant girls, differentiated the girls as coming
from homes where either the mother or the father had the
Dreponderance of authority and control in the family con-

Stellation. Those coming from "mother-dominated" homes
were motivated by both love and hate for the mother: the
YOUng girl shames the mother by having the baby but in

t-‘11':n offers the baby to the mother as proof of her love.

The ambivalence toward the mother leads to an inability
to feel and act as a woman according to Young, and the baby
represents a sign of maturity. For those girls coming from
" father-dominated" homes, the primary motivation is viewed
as revenge against a hated father.

Vincent (1961) in an extensive study of premarital

 

re...
pregnancy, found that the unwed mothers from broken and
intact homes scored lower on a measure of femininity (the
Femininity Scale of the California Psychological Inventory)
than did a matched group of single never-pregnant females 9

from broken and intact homes. Though it is not clear
whether this reflects pre-pregnancy attitudes on the part
of the unwed mothers, Vincent hypothesizes that if this is
the case, females low in their femininity are less secure
in their chances of finding men, marrying, and having
children and thus would be more likely to engage in pre-
marital sex than those comfortable in their femininity.
Ii‘:>"~i'ever, Vincent did not present data supporting the con-
tel"A‘tzion that unwed mothers differed from the controls on
ftwequency of premarital intercourse, and thus it is
possible that such factors as the use of birth control or
differences in fecundity accounted for the differences in
feltlininity scores, more than the premarital sex variable.
Segal and Ducette's (1973) research points to the
in“E><>rtance of considering sociological variables in studies
of this type. They found that in a White middle class high

3chool, pregnant girls had a more external locus of control

while the non-pregnant girls were more internally focused.
The opposite was evident in a lower class Black school
where the pregnant girls were the more internally focused.
In another study (Snyder, 1968), premaritally
pregnant girls, (ages 16-23) , were differentiated by the

degree of stability of the relationship with the putative

h.
father: from pick-up to engaged, and assessed on a number
of psychological measures. The study concluded that those 1
girls having the most casual relationships with the “ '
pIJtative fathers conform most to the stereotype of the g

 

unwed mother as insecure and conflicted. Steady and
engaged girls were emotionally healthy.

One recent study (Lynch, 1973) used a college
student population to assess personality factors in pre-
mar itally pregnant women who were seeking abortions.
Thirty-sex pregnant women were matched with non-pregnant
college women on age, race, religion, and income. No
differences were found between these two groups on the
R':>‘b‘ter Internal-External Scale, Berger Self—Acceptance
Sea la, the intropunitive factor of the Rosenzweig P—F Test,
and on a five-question item pertaining to female repro-
d‘1':3‘tive activities. It should be emphasized though, that

the pregnant women were a special subset, in that they were
all seeking abortions. Further, the matched group included
some non-coital women.

A number of other researchers have also found no

differences between unwed mothers and matched controls and

concluded that small differences found are a function of
the pregnancy experience and the concomitant anxiety of
being an unwed mother. No differences were found in self-
esteem between pregnant single women, pregnant married
women, and single non-pregnant women (Barker, 1969). In a
study comparing Rorschach responses of three groups of r ,‘
women (Wagner and Slemboski, 1968), only differences in the A
light shading response was found with pregnant unmarried

women scoring highest, non-pregnant married women next, and

 

Pregnant married women lowest. This was interpreted as
indicative of feelings of doubt and anxiety and attributed
to a reaction to living in a home for unwed mothers.

Furstenberg (1971) also questioned the past assump-

tion that unwed pregnancy is specifically motivated. He
contends that pregnancy is "the unanticipated outcome of
Sex activity." In investigating the use of birth control
in Unwed mothers, he found that the family influence is
conditional on the nature of the relationship with the
fa‘tl‘mer, that is, only when an ongoing relationship with the
male is maintained is the girl able to influence her part-
he]: vis a vis birth control and thus benefit from her
mother's instructions.

What little research that has been done then in
this area has not clarified whether the pregnancy of unwed
mothers is motivated and if so, what psychological factors

contribute to the motivations. Inconclusive research

3961115 to stem, in part from difficulty in obtaining

populations representative of the premaritally pregnant
female and adequate controls. Further, psycholoqical

d ifferences that are found can be a function of the preg-
nancy experience rather than of preexisting psychological
factors. The latter problem could be dealt with by
studying non-pregnant females who have a high likelihood of F"-
becoming pregnant. Females who have frequent sexual

intercourse without the use of birth control measures would

'F'w‘

fall into this category. Further, past research (Vincent,

 

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1961) has not adequately controlled for sexual experience w
and thus differences could be attributed to motivations for
pregnancy or for sexual coitus. Looking at the use of

c=C>lr1traceptives could also control this confounding variable.

@traception
Much of the research on the use of birth control
has stemmed from concern with pOpulation problems (Fawcett,
19 73) and thus has primarily dealt with married peOple.
Thongh there is surely an overlap in the psychological
variables related to birth control use in married and
unmarried peOple, it is not clear how much of the research
with married women can be generalized to include unmarried
women. Further, much of the past research has been con-
ce35-‘hed with non-psychological variables and therefore will
not be reviewed here.
However, one fact that emerges from the research is

that large numbers of adolescent females are not using any

 

birth control to prevent conception. In a study that

attempted to obtain a representative sample of adolescents

in America (Sorenson, 1973), even in the 16-19 year old

group, 38% did not use any birth control at their last

intercourse. When one considers that among those who did

use birth control, not all used it consistently, nor did
they all use effective techniques, it becomes clear that _

many girls in this age group take chances of becoming

Kantner and Zeknik (1973) similarly found that ..

 

Pregnant.
53% of the 15-19 year olds in their sample failed to use

any contraceptives the last time they had intercourse.

Even among those in college, 35% did not use any birth

control at last intercourse.
Ignorance of birth control techniques does not

aplbear to be the only explanation of the current situation.
Monsour and Stewart (1973) found that among 102 abortion
seekers from a university, the majority were aware not

only of contraceptive techniques but knew that they were

a‘\’ailable at the local health services.
For unmarried women, a high use of birth control

ha-s been related to an internal locus of control (McDonald,
1970; Lundy, 1972) low degree of dogmatism (Lundy, 1972)
and fear of parental rejection with pregnancy disclosure
( Etashere, 1971). In the McDonald (1970) study, the locus

control variable dld not vary With the number of sexual
Qttners or the time of first intercourse. These studies

§
1 1 used college student populations.

 

10

Furstenberg (1971) reports that among pregnant
unwed Black girls of low socio-economic status, past birth
control use was most frequent when the mother knew of the
girl's sexual activity, as confirmed by both the girl and

the mother. However, girls were only able to benefit from

tzlmeeir mother's instructions if their sexual activity was in
the context of an ongoing relationship with the partner.
Unfortunately, this study did not include any nonpregnant
control subjects.

A number of researchers examined the use of contra-
ceptives and its relationship to feelings of femininity.
Rodgers and Ziegler (1968) studied couples before the start

of use of oral contraceptives and for a four-year follow—up

after contraceptive use had begun. A "continuous" group

which continued use of contraceptives throughout the four
Years was differentiated from the "discontinuous" group
that stopped the use of contraceptives abruptly during the
four year period. It was found that "continuous" women
were more independent and self-satisfied but more feminine

( els measured by the Masculinity-Femininity Scale [MF] of the

515.11,” than the "discontinuous" women. Further, the con-

t imuous group was characterized by marriages in which the
wife as compared to her husband had more ascendant traits.
tub is is puzzling because one would expect a woman who was

LQ:re ascendant to be less traditionally feminine, in

s .
Qntradiction to the findings. Another study (Kutner and

hffy, 1970) also found that women who were less feminine,

 

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as measured by the MMPI, had more side effects from the use
of oral contraceptives. However, the MF scale of the MP1
is a poor measure of even traditional female sex-role
preference since it was validated on homosexual and non-
homosexual men (Dahlstrom and Welsh, 1960) .

Further, another study (Kapor-Stanulovic and Lynn,
1973) related femininity to the incidence of unpleasant
Side effects in the use of the pill, a factor that could

relate to the discontinuation of its use, and found results

‘w‘xialx rum—ma .Isz-R' 11537.1
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that somewhat contradicted the Rodger and Ziegler (1968) and
Klitner and Duffy (1970) studies. Two measures of femininity
Were obtained, one, the Franck Drawing Completion Test
(Franck and Rosen, 1949) yields a measure of sex-role
identification or "unconscious" femininity, and the second,
the Femininity (Fe) scale of the California Psychological
Inventory (Gough, 1957, 1966) which is interpreted as an
index of sex-role preference or "conscious" femininity.
F indings indicated that the group with the lowest inci-
a~ence of side effects had high Franck and low Fe scores.
For this group there is a strong feminine identity yet with
a minimal stereotyped sex-role preference. Nevertheless,
these women used the pill for only short periods of time,
bQ ing inclined to try diverse methods of birth control. The
Qal‘oup with the highest incidence of side effects was
Q11aracterized by high Franck and high Fe scores. These
QInen were interpreted as having a strong feminine identity

hd associated strong feminine sex-role preference. Women

s

   

12

with other combinations of the two scales fell in between

in their degree of side effects.

Chilman (1973) also discussed how conflicts over a

female's sense of adequacy can affect her use of contra-

She pointed out that a woman may avoid the use

 

ceptives.

of birth control, in particular the pill and IUD because of r-

a fear of being viewed a "perpetually contracepted" and 3

thus a "loose woman." Other women may avoid using contra- E

<2epotives because having a baby would prove that they were .
I.

" Whole" women.
Though Sorenson (1973) found that the most pOpular

explanation for a person's lack of use of contraceptives
Was carelessness and forgetfulness, he similarly found that
Some girls fear that birth control preparation, in particu—

lar the pill, makes it seem as if they were planning to
have sex. There is also evidence that birth control use is

1related to sex guilt. Schwartz (1973) reported that high

sex guilt subjects retained less birth control information

1alien low sex guilt subjects.

Previous research then has demonstrated that young
‘:>Imen have numerous Opportunities to become pregnant since
lbliey frequently do not use birth control. One factor that

3.3, account for this is that on some level these women

ind like to become pregnant. A number of investigators

( Q -g., Rodgers and Ziegler [1968], etc.) have suggested

1“-«at feelings about femininity may play a role in deter-

{hing birth control use. Extending these findings to

 

l3

unmarried women could be significant in illustrating how
f eelings of femininity affects sexual behavior and the use
of contraceptives, especially for a group for whom preg-
nancy and motherhood is so highly discouraged.
Premarital Sex and Intercourse
F requency

Again, the empirical research in this area has been
1 imited and frequently has not concerned itself with

psychological variables. Recent studies have shown that

 

the number of coital experiences among unmarried college
Students has increased (Bell and Chaskes, 1970; Kaats and
Davis, 1970).

In a study investigating the degree of sexual
intimacy among college students (Moser and Cross, 1971)
it was shown that for both men and women, high sex guilt
sstlbjects had less intimate sex contact and less permissive
premarital sex standards than subjects with low sex guilt.
Langston (1973) reported similar results. Kutner (1971)
also related sex guilt to sex activity in married birth
control users and found that high guilt women were less
capable of all phases of the sexual sequence. Sex guilt was
a*lso negatively related with a Sex Adjustment Scale, actual
il'l‘tercourse frequency, and preferred intercourse frequency.

Two studies (Diamant, 1970; Freedman, 1965) also
a"'i‘tempted to relate occurrence of premarital sexual rela-
tions to emotional maladjustment as measured by the MP1,

and found no such relationship to exist. The Diamant (1970)

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study also found no relationship between maladjustment for
females and the number of sexual partners or attitudes
towards sexual permissiveness.

Fisher (1973), in an extensive study of female
sexual responsiveness, related sexual frequency to measures
that he termed narcissism. He found that frequency of .
sexual intercourse was positively related to amount of E
effort maintained in improving appearances in two out of
four samples of women, averaging forty-two women per sample.

Further, frequency was correlated with a high score on the

 

u“.

Exhibition dimension of the Edwards Personal Preference
Schedule in one sample. Unfortunately, no attempt was made
to integrate these findings nor to explain the lack of
results in the other samples. It should be noted also that
all samples consisted of married women.

Research in this area has been minimal because
sexual frequency is probably a function of too diverse
interacting variables of a physiological, intrapsychic, and
interpersonal nature. Yet, the importance of considering
this variable in research on female sexuality is crucial
given its relationship to both a woman's sexual interest

and intensity and its relevance to the probability of

pregnancy.
Interpersonal Relations and
Premarital Sex Practices

Several researchers have examined various aspects

of female sexuality as it relates to the degree of

15

affection and commitment to the male partner. Ehrmann
(1959) found a direct relationship between frequency of
premarital sexual behavior and going steady and being in
love. Another study (Croake and James, 1972) dealing with
sex attitudes demonstrated that students have a more per-
missive attitude toward all forms of sexual experience as P
the behavioral commitment between a couple increases.
Snyder (1968) found that emotional stability among unwed

mothers was directly related to the degree of commitment

 

to the putative father. Furstenberg (1971) also found a L
relationship between the past use of birth control and the
extent of involvement with the sexual partner among unwed
pregnant girls. Contraception most likely occurred among
couples who had a stable romantic relationship.

Brashere (1971), however, found that choice of the
type of birth control was not related to the degree of
involvement or affection in the relationship.

Contrary to the Ehrmann (1959) study, a more recent
investigation (Bell and Chaskes, 1970) found that the degree
of sexual intimacy was no longer influenced by the
relationship involvement among college students in 1968.

In 1958 being engaged often was a prerequisite for sexual
intercourse while this was no longer the case in 1968.
Interestingly, Kaats and Davis (1970) demonstrated that
though behaviors may have changed, double standard atti-
tudes are still widespread. They found that both males

and females have a more negative attitude toward female

16

rather than male sexual activity, an attitude which is
most pronounced as the activity becomes more intimate and
when no affection is involved in the relationship.
Changing behaviors and attitudes over the years
make generalizations difficult. However, whether or not
the degree of involvement and affection in the male-female F

relationship proves to be related to the degree of sexual

NA .O'..L .n . '

intimacy or the use of contraceptives, it is hard to

imagine that the nature of the relationship does not have

‘Fw In .1-»-

a significant effect on a woman's subjective feelings

 

about the sexual experience as well as having a reciprocal
effect on the motives behind the activity. Examining the
interpersonal context of the premarital sexual activity

could clarify the parameters of these effects.

Statement of the Problem

 

In the review of the literature, several issues
have been raised that the present study examines. There
has been conflict in the literature on illegitimacy as to
whether premarital pregnancy and unwed motherhood is
primarily "accidental" (e.g., Furstenberg, 1971) or whether
it is more the result of specific motivational factors
(e.g., Clothier, 1943). Past research that could have
clarified the issue (Vincent, 1961) confused motivation for
pregnancy/motherhood with motivation for sexual activity.
The present study investigates this issue by using only

women having sexual intercourse and by comparing women who

17

use adequate and effective birth control to those who use

either no birth control or inadequate birth control. This

:i.ss a step in isolating the woman who has a similar
emotional makeup to the single pregnant woman, yet it

avoids having the pregnancy experience influence the psycho-

21_<>gical measures. Since the frequency of sexual activity

F13.
:i_£3 also a factor in the likelihood of ensuing pregnancy, '

‘tzlmis variable is also examined.

If premarital pregnancy is specifically motivated,

(Dame would expect that those most likely to become pre-

ITlaritally pregnant (those using inadequate or no birth

 

 

<3<3ntrol) would have more fantasies of pregnancy and mother-

hood than otherwise expected. This study then examines

fantasies of this type in a number of contexts.

If a wish for pregnancy and motherhood can be

<3emonstrated by establishing a link between birth control

\Jse and fantasies of pregnancy and motherhood, it is
important to identify personality variables that might

account for this. A number of researchers have found the

concept of femininity relevant to sex variables (Vincent,
1961; Rodgers and Ziegler,

1968; Kapor-Stanulovic and Lynn,
1972).

It has been repeatedly proposed (Deutsch, 1945;

Chilman, 1973) that conflict and insecurity about feelings

of femininity could lead a woman to reassure herself of her
feminine nature by proving her ability to conceive.

There
are multiple levels, however, of feminine identification

18

and only some may be related to birth control use and
motivation for pregnancy and motherhood.

On a most basic or primary level, an early gender
identification takes place that consists of the fundamental
experience of one's self as either male or female (Lansky,
1960; McClelland and Watts, 1968). This identification
takes place at an unconscious level and involves pride and
confidence in one's basic "femaleness" or "maleness." The

Franck Drawing Completion Test (Franck and Rosen, 1949)

 

measures this identification relating it to male and fig
female body imagery.

McClelland (1964) speaks of a secondary level of
identification that involves a stylistic approach to the
world that traditionally differs for men and women. The
sex-role style is associated with assertiveness in men and
interdependence (or yielding behavior) in women. Inter—
dependence involves a concern with social interactions and
sensitivity to the nature of relationships. McClelland
points out that women are more ready to adjust, to balance
and offset changes in others. Interdependence is not
synonomous with dependence in that with the former there is
concern with both the providing and receiving aspects of
nurturant relationships. This level is considered second—
ary to gender identification, as it develops later and
does not involve the more basic sense of being either male
or female in body. McClelland and Watt (1968) though,

still view this identification with either a male or female

19

style of behavior as occurring at primarily an unconscious
level. The stylistic differences coincide best with tra-
ditional descriptions and expectations of apprOpriate male
and female personality and behavior. A measure that taps
sex-role style has been develOped (McClelland and Watt,
1968). ts
On a more superficial level are the sex—typed
attitudes and interests that differentiate men and women

and that vary most greatly with particular cultural norms.

 

This level indicates conscious choice in likes and %)
interests and is therefore more content-oriented. Thus, it
is less relevant in predicting personality functioning.

A variety of measures have been used to assess this factor,
including the Femininity Scale of the California Psycho-
logical Inventory (Gough, 1957, 1966) and the Masculinity-
Femininity Scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Psychological
Inventory (Dahlstrom and Welsh, 1960). The Femininity
Scale does not correlate with the Franck Drawing Completion
Test (McCarthy, 1970) supporting the notion that they are
independent factors.

More recently, the bi-polarity of the femininity-
masculinity concept has been criticized (Constantinople,
1973). Bem (1974, 1975) has developed the notion of
psychological androgyny, suggesting that adaptability of
sex-role behavior may be more advantageous than stereotyped
masculinity or femininity. Masculinity-femininity is

treated as two independent dimensions.

20

The present study examines gender-identity and
traditional sex-role style to assess how they may dif-
ferentially affect sexual and contraceptive behaviors.
Though a measure of sex-typed interests is included no
predictions are offered as to how this level will predict
sexual behavior.

Finally, since there have been conflicting studies
on the importance of the degree of commitment of the sexual
relationship on a variety of sex variables (Ehrmann, 1959;
Bell and Chaskes, 1970) the present study attempts to
clarify the issue by including females whose sexual prac-
tices are in the context of either a steady or temporary
relationship.

To summarize, the present study examines the fan-
tasy for pregnancy and motherhood and feelings of femininity
in unmarried female subjects engaging in sexual intercourse
and varying in two sex related activities: the use of
adequate or inadequate birth control and the frequency of
sexual coitus. Further, two levels of an interpersonal
variable, temporary or steady relationship, is investi-
gated. (See Table 1.) The measures of femininity included
are measures of gender identity and sex-role style, since
it is expected that subjects will differ on both these
measures. The study thus has a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design,
in order to study differences in pregnancy and motherhood

fantasy and two femininity measures, of two conditions of

 

21

Table 1

The Factorial Design of Birth Control Use
X Type of Relationship X Sex Frequency

——- .- 7.- .1 -‘R 3
I

 

Type of Relationship

 

 

Birth Control Temporary Steady

Use

 

High Sex Low Sex High Sex Low Sex
Frequency Frequency‘ Frequency Frequency

 

Adequate

 

Inadequate

 

 

 

 

 

22

birth control use, two frequencies of sexual activity and

two degrees of relationship commitment.

The following hypotheses were tested:

Subjects using adequate birth control will score
lower on measures of fantasy for pregnancy and
motherhood than subjects using inadequate birth

control.

Women who are taking the chance of becoming preg-

nant and ensuing motherhood, when birth control information

and devices are readily available at the university health

service, do so because they are motivated in that direc-

tion.

It follows that they fantasize about being pregnant

and having children if this is the goal that they feel

(consciously or unconsciously) would be desirable and

fulfilling.

2.

Among subjects using inadequate birth control, those
having a high sex frequency will score higher on
fantasy measures of pregnancy and motherhood than
those with low sex frequency.

Since women not using adequate birth control who

have high intercourse frequency have a higher risk of

pregnancy than those infrequently having intercourse, it

follows that high sex frequency women would be more moti-

vated for conception and/or motherhood and would therefore

have more such fantasies. Subjects low in sex frequency

are less likely to become pregnant and may be less

motivated to conceive. For these women it is quite

x‘l ‘. J 4 a.
,_ 11213 ~

 

'(J

r 1"

r‘l‘

(2'

23

possible that they expect that their infrequent sexual
behavior will protect them from pregnancy. Among adequate
birth control users however, since there is little preg-
nancy risk, there is no reason to hypothesize a difference
in pregnancy and motherhood fantasy as a function of sex

frequency.

3. Those in a steady relationship will score higher

nu —. "'3.
I I,
."

on measures of fantasy for pregnancy and motherhood

than those in a temporary relationship.

 

It is reasoned here that women who are in a steady :1
relationship would be more likely to be planning for future
marriage and children, since this is the usual course of
events in our society, and fantasies of these future events
are part of the planning process. This would apply even to
those using birth control adequately since these may well
be temporary measures until circumstances are more appro-
priate (e.g., finishing school). On the other hand,
women in a temporary relationship should find it more
difficult to envision future marriage and children since
they do not have a permanent love object present and there-
fore have fewer fantasies of pregnancy and motherhood.

4. Subjects using adequate birth control will be more
feminine in their gender identity than subjects
using inadequate birth control.

It is reasoned that females who are engaging in
sexual intercourse without the adequate use of contra-

ceptives and thus taking a strong risk vis a vis pregnancy,

24

will be doing so because of doubts about their femininity.
It is assumed here that unconscious identification with a
less feminine orientation will arouse anxieties in the
woman which leads her to need confirmation of her essential
"femaleness" through conception and motherhood.

5. Subjects using adequate birth control will be less
feminine in their sex-role style than subjects
using inadequate birth control.

Two lines of reasoning lead to this prediction.
First, women who are stylistically feminine, or inter-
dependent, would emphasize feminine attributes and focus
more on traditionally feminine concerns of the home
environment. This type of woman's identity is closely
tied to her perceptions of a future home and motherhood
(Douvan and Adelson, 1966). Thus, she is more likely to
place herself in a position whereby she may actualize some
of these dreams, by not using adequate birth control.
Though it can also be argued that the stylistically highly
feminine woman would want a child only in the confines of
marriage, since this is part of the traditional pattern and
so should take adequate birth control precautions, this
woman may unconsciously hope that pregnancy will also lead
to marriage. Further, it is not suggested that the process
involves an active decision to become pregnant but rather
results from an identification with and concern with child-
bearing. Second, obtaining contraceptives (such as the

pill) or insisting on the partner's use of a condom

25

requires a fair degree of assertion. Women highly
feminine in their behavioral style would therefore be less
able to assert themselves to effectively obtain and use
contraceptives.

6. Subjects who are in a temporary relationship will
be less feminine in their sex-role style than those
in a steady relationship.

Some researchers (Ehrmann, 1959) have found that
premarital intercourse is most likely to occur in the con-
text of a steady relationship. Though there is evidence
that this has changed in recent years (Bell and Chaskes,
1970) studies still show less acceptance of premarital
intercourse in relationships characterized by less commit-
ment and affection (Kaats and Davis, 1970; Croake and
James, 1972). This is especially true in male and female
attitudes toward woman's sexual activity. Breaking these
codes of behavior (by being in a temporary relationship)
requires a more assertive, independently-minded woman.
Further, initiating short-term relationships necessitates
the ability to be assertive in meeting new peOple. Since
only the sex-role style level of femininity taps the
assertive-interdependent dimension of behavior, only a
difference on this level of femininity is predicted.

7. Among subjects using inadequate birth control,
those having low intercourse frequency will be more
feminine in their gender identity than subjects

with high intercourse frequency.

26

The rationale for this hypothesis, as in hypothesis
4, assumes that insecurity about feminine identity will
motivate females to take a chance of conception. However,
it is clear that subjects low in sex frequency are less
likely to become pregnant and may be less motivated to
conceive. Since at this point there is no reason to assume
that frequency of sex activity in general is related to

femininity, no sex frequency main effect hypothesis is made.

CHAPTER II

METHOD

Subjects

 

A total of 468 female undergraduate students in
psychology classes filled out questionnaire material. Four
subjects were immediately eliminated from this pool of
data, since they were divorced and three subjects were
eliminated who omitted information as to whether they had
ever had intercourse. Subjects who indicated that they had
had sexual intercourse at least once during the prior two
months were evaluated on the criteria set for the indepen-
dent variables. Nineteen of these subjects were eliminated
because they did not respond to a number of measures, were
accidentally not given all the measures to complete, or
gave incomplete, confusing, or contradictory responses to
birth control questions. A total of 129 female single
undergraduates met the criteria set for the study and
comprised the final sample used in the analyses. (See
Appendix A for the distribution of subjects on all vari-

ables).

27

28

Procedure

 

Subjects were recruited from psychology classes,
where they could sign up for a study entitled "dating
patterns in college women" in exchange for class credits.
Only single women under age 30 were asked to participate.
Subjects were administered the measures in large groups.
They were read the following instructions:

This is a study of dating patterns in college women.
In a few minutes, I will give you a booklet with
several parts to it. For example, you will be asked
to write some stories, draw some pictures, and answer
some questions of a personal nature. I would like to
assure you of the complete confidentiality of your
responses. As a matter of fact, I do not want anyone
to put their name anywhere in the booklet, this way
they will remain anonymous. If you feel uncomfortable
participating, feel free to return the booklet to me.
If you do participate, please do not leave out any
parts or answers and complete the booklet in the order
presented. Complete instructions are contained in

the booklet but you can raise your hand if you have
questions at any time. Before I give you the booklets,
I have some consent forms that you need to sign giving
your consent for participating in the study. When I
hand them out please read them carefully, sign on the
bottom and pass them up to the front. Then I will
give you the booklets for the experiment. Any
questions?

Consent forms were distributed, completed, and
collected. All subjects agreed to participate in the study.
A booklet containing all measures was then distributed.
Subjects returned the booklets as they completed them.

Responses of those women who indicated that they
had engaged in sexual intercourse at least once in the last
two months were evaluated for placement in the eight cells

of the design on the following criteria:

29

1. Birth Control Use. (a) Inadequate--Subjects

 

used either inadequate methods of birth control (i.e.,
coitus interruptus or rhythm) or used effective methods but
less than 90% of the time, or used no birth control tech-
niques at all. (b) Adequate--Subjects used effective
methods of birth control (oral contraceptives, condom,
contraceptive foam) singularly or in combination, 100% of

the time.

2. Relationship. (a) Steady——Subjects indicated

 

they were engaged, pinned, living with boyfriend, or dating
only one man in a "serious" relationship for at least three
months time. Subjects who indicated any of the above but
who were also dating more than one man were not included
here. (b) Temporary--Subjects indicated that they dated
more than one man, or that they were not dating. Subjects
who were in a "serious" relationship of less than three

months duration were also included.

3. Sexual Frequency. (a) High—-Subjects who had

 

sexual intercourse on the average of once a week or more
were included in this group. (b) Low--Subjects who had
sexual intercourse once a month or less were assigned to
this group. Women who had intercourse every other week

were not used in the main analyses.

Lac

".r'n
u :v

6713

30

Measures

 

The Franck Drawing Completion Test (Franck and Rosen, 1949)
A modified version of this test consisting of 11

simple line drawings was used (see Strodbeck, Bezdek,

Goldhammer, 1970). Subjects are asked to complete the
drawings however they wish. Franck and Rosen (1949) and
Lansky (1960) have interpreted the test as a measure of
unconscious aspects of sex role identity, related to male
and female body imagery.

The criteria used to score the drawings followed the
guide suggested by Bezdek and Madsen (1970). Abstract or
non-representational completions were scored according to
four criteria: internal, elaboration (feminine), roundness
(feminine), angularity (masculine), and closure (masculine).
Drawings with recognizable content were scored according to
three general principles: active versus passive, male role
versus female role, and symbolic versus realistic.

Three coders studied the guide provided by Bezdek
and Madsen and each practiced coding on the sample of 20
protocols within the guide until each reached 90% agreement
with the guide. Two coders then independently rated two
additional samples of 20 protocols each and reached 91% and
92% agreement with each other. Two coders then rated
independently all the protocols for the study. Reliability
on each of the 11 drawings ranged from 82% to 96% agreement

with a total (across all pictures) percent agreement of 91.

31

The third coder rated those drawings where there was
disagreement on coding.

A number of studies (McCarthy et al., 1970; Blane;
and Yamamoto, 1970) have shown that this measure differen-
tiates men from women, indicating concurrent validity.
Alcoholic women were also shown to be more masculine than

controls on this measure (Wilsnack, 1973).

Sex Role Style
This measure consists of nine true—false items
which are related to the assertiveness-interdependence
dimension of personal style (from McClelland and Watt,
1968). High scores indicate femininity. (See Appendix B.)
Though this scale has had only limited use, Wilsnack
(1973) found that alcoholic women were more assertive than a
control group of non-alcoholic women, demonstrating some

support for the concurrent validity of the scale.

Fantasy for Pregnancy and Motherhood

(a) Five TAT-type pictures were selected that would
elicit themes related to motherhood, pregnancy, relation-
ships and sex. (See Appendix C for pictures and
description.) Subjects were asked to write stories as
imaginatively as they wished. However, each story was
followed by a series of questions that could be used as a

guideline for the stories.

32

All stories were coded for presence and absence of
motherhood and pregnancy thema separately. Pregnancy thema
was defined as concern with the pregnancy experience, men-
tion of the pregnancy state, awareness of the fetal
movements before birth. Motherhood thema was scored
present when there was concern about the parenthood state,
focus on the child or parenting relationship after the
birth of a child.

Two coders scored all stories. They achieved 95%
agreement on presence of pregnancy thema and 97% on pres-
ence plus absence. The coders obtained 98% agreement on
presence of motherhood thema and 99% on presence plus
absence.

Since only stories 1, 3, and 4 succeeded in
eliciting thema, scores were derived by assigning a score
of +1 for presence of thema on each of these stories and
summing across stories. Separate scores were derived for
motherhood thema (MT) and pregnancy thema (PT).

(b) Fantasy of children-—Ss were asked, "Do you
ever daydream about having children? If so, please
describe this daydream." Responses were sorted into
affirmative and negative responses. (See Appendix D for
sample protocols).

(c) Abortion fantasy--Ss were asked, "If you found
out next month that you were pregnant, how would you feel?

What plans would you make?" Responses were sorted into

33

those that specified they would have an abortion versus
those that chose other alternatives or were undecided.
(See Appendix D for sample protocols.)

The Femininity (Fe) Scale of the California Psychological
Inventory (Gough, 1957, 1966)

This measure consists of 38 true-false items that
have differentiated men from women. This dimension focuses
on attitudes and interests and is considered a conscious
measure of femininity.

The Fe scale has been widely used and validated
in American and cross-cultural samples (Gough, 1966). It
has consistently differentiated men from women. The Fe
scores correlated with ratings of femininity and mascu-
linity made by fraternity and sorority members. Though the
Fe failed to correlate with the Franck Drawing Completion
Test, there was a significant correlation between the Fe
Scale and the MMPI MF Scale in a college sample (McCarthy

et al., 1970).

Dating Patterns Inventory

This questionnaire contains items on demographic
information, sexual history, contraceptive practices, sex
frequency, and interpersonal relationships. Responses were
used for selection and placement in the study. (See

Appendix E.)

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

The thrust of the argument leading to this investi-
gation has been that pregnancy is a motivated state. The
primary behavioral correlate indicative of this motivation
is the inadequate use of readily available birth control
techniques for the sexually active female. In addition
her sexual coital frequency will influence the likelihood
of ensuing pregnancy. The link between birth control use
and motivation for pregnancy and motherhood can be demon-
strated by testing the fantasy for pregnancy/motherhood in
sexually active women. This has been assessed by two TAT
measures, a measure of daydreaming about having children,
and a measure of anticipation of abortion if pregnant.

The degree of permanence of the sexual relationship
is also expected to be related to the motivation for
parenthood. Also of interest are the personality factors
that account for differences in fantasy levels of pregnancy/
motherhood and contraceptive use. Femininity, considered

as a primary gender identification (the Franck Drawing

34

35

Completion Test) and as a behavioral style of interdepen—
dence rather than assertiveness (Sex-Role Style) are the

personality dimensions to be investigated.

Main Analyses

 

The main analyses consisted of a 2 x 2 x 2 multi—
variate analyses of variance for unequal cell frequencies.
Since the distribution in the cells is presumed to be
indicative of the distribution in the pOpulation, a least
squares solution was used (Winer, 1962, p. 292). The
following dependent variables were included: (1) The
Franck Drawing Completion Test, (2) Sex-Role Style,

(3) Motherhood Thema Score, and (4) Pregnancy Thema Score.
Two of the measures, daydreaming of children and abortion
anticipation were not included in the multivariate
analyses because they required non-parametric procedures.
Other statistical tests were also performed to clarify the
results.

For the multivariate analyses, the alpha level for
significance was set at p<.10. At this level none of the
main effect multivariate tests reached significance. In
the multivariate tests for interaction, the Birth Control
X Relationship interaction proved significant, F(4,118)=
2.19, p<.07. In the concomitant univariate test only
Sex-Role Style demonstrated a significant trend, F(l,121)=
4.78, p<.03. (See Appendix F for complete analysis of

variance tables.)

36

The Relationship X Sex Frequency interaction multi-
variate test also reached significance, F(4,118)=2.02,
p<.09. In the associated univariate analyses of this
interaction, only the Franck Drawing Completion Test
univariate F test was significant, F(l,121)=6.32, p<.01.

To trace these interactions, simple main effects
were calculated for the significant interactions on Sex
Role Style and the Franck Test. Table 2 presents the
analyses for Sex-Role Style. A comparison of adequate
versus inadequate birth control users in temporary rela-
tionships, approached significance (Fé3.44, p<.lO). An
examination of means (See Figure 1) indicates that in
temporary relationships, inadequate birth control users are
more feminine (more interdependent and less assertive) than
those who use birth control adequately. However, for
women in a steady relationship, no differences were found
as a function of birth control use. This finding then
provides only partial support for Hypothesis 6 which pre—
dicted that adequate birth control users would be less
feminine in their sex-role style than those using inadequate
birth control.

Birth control users with temporary versus steady
relationships were also compared on the Sex-Role Style
measure and the comparison proved significant, (F=8,20,
p<.01). Looking at Figure 1, one can see that among
adequate birth control users, those in a temporary

relationship are less feminine (more assertive) than those

37

Table 2
Analysis of Variance for Simple Effects of

Birth Control Use and Relationship
for Sex—Role Style

Source df F

 

Adequate--Inadequate Birth Control
Use in Temporary Relationship 1 2.80*

Adequate--Inadequate Birth Control

 

Use in Steady Relationship 1 1.90
Steady--Temporary Relationship
with Adequate Birth Control Use 1 8.20**
Steady--Temporary Relationship
with Inadequate Birth Control Use 1 0.03
*p<.10

**p<.01

38

 

 

 

 

 

4.60 44.53

m

m

u

o

o

m

m 4‘

":1

u 3.91

m

m

H

o

m

I

x

m

m

c

m

m

22

3s
Inadequate Birth
Control Use
: e» : Adequate Birth
Control Use
0 1 1
Temporary Steady
Relationship Relationship

Figure 1. Birth Control Use X Type of Relationship
Interaction for Mean Scores on Sex-Role
Style.

 

39

in a steady relationship. No such relationship is present
among inadequate birth control users. Among adequate birth
control users then there is support for hypothesis 7 which
predicted that women who are in a temporary relationship
are less feminine in their sex-role style than those in a
steady relationship. Figure 1 indicates that the signifi-
cant interaction is largely attributed to the adequate
birth control users.

Table 3 shows the simple main effect comparisons
of the Franck Drawing Completion Test. An examination of
means in Figure 2 indicates the following: (1) Among sub-
jects in a temporary relationship, high sex frequency
subjects were more feminine in their gender identification
than those low in sex frequency (F=5.92, p<.05). (2) For
subjects in the steady relationship condition there is no
difference as a function of sex frequency. (3) Among high
sex frequency subjects, women in temporary relationships
are more feminine in their gender identification than
women in steady relationships (F=4.34, p<.05). (4) For
subjects having low sex frequency, there are no differences
as a function of the type of relationship.

Figure 2 serves to illustrate and clarify the
Relationship X Sex Frequency interaction for the Franck
Test. Women with high sex frequency in temporary relation—
ships have the highest Franck Test Scores, or the most
feminine gender identification. The main contribution

appears to come from differences in the high sex frequency

40

Table 3

Analysis of Variance for Simple Effects of
Sex Frequency and Relationship for the
Franck Drawing Completion Test

Source df F

 

High--Low Sex Frequency in
Temporary Relationship 1 5.92*

High--Low Sex Frequency in
Steady Relationship 1 1.38

Steady--Temporary Relationship
with High Sex Frequency 1 4.34*

Steady--Temporary Relationship
with Low Sex Frequency 1 2.61

 

*p<.05

Mean Franck Drawing Completion Test Scores

Figure 2.

41

 

 

 

7%
6.52
6.04
5‘
5.46
5.16
5.1
4d
3‘
High Sex Frequency
2‘ ~—&—-—o—¢ Low Sex Frequency
11
I I
Temporary Steady

Type of Relationship

Type of Relationship X Sex Frequency Inter—
action for Mean Scores on the Franck Drawing
Completion Test.

42

group, although Figure 2 suggests that the interaction is
not solely attributable to those subjects.

Only Hypotheses 4 and 7 dealt with the Franck
Drawing Completion Test. Since no significant differences
were found for main effects or interactions that concerned
birth control use on this measure, no support is indicated
for Hypothesis 4, which predicted that subjects using
adequate birth control would be more feminine on a measure
of gender identification than subjects using inadequate
control. Hypothesis 7 also predicted that among birth
control users subjects with low sex frequency would be more
feminine in their gender identity than those with high sex
frequency. No support was found for this hypothesis.
Further, insofar as low sex frequency subjects were lower
on the Franck Test than high sex frequency subjects, in the
temporary relationship condition, (which includes inadequate
birth control users) the finding is counter to that

predicted.

Additional Analyses

 

Crucial to this investigation is the connection
between motivation for pregnancy and motherhood and the
behavioral act of birth control use. Concern and fantasy
about pregnancy and motherhood is a measure of this tie.
Hypothesis 1 tested this relationship by predicting that
adequate birth control users would score lower on a measure

for pregnancy and motherhood than those using birth control

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43

inadequately. Further, an interaction with sex frequency
was predicted in Hypothesis 2. Since fantasy for pregnancy
and motherhood may closely tie in with the nature of the
sexual relationship, Hypothesis 3 also predicted a higher
score on pregnancy and motherhood fantasy measures for
those in a steady relationship.

The Pregnancy Thema Score and the Motherhood Thema
Score derived from the TAT-type stories failed to support
these hypotheses as indicated by the multivariate analyses.
One difficulty with these scores, in particular with the
Motherhood Thema Score was that the stimulus pull of the
pictures was so strong that they elicited responses from
almost all subjects.

Two additional measures were available, however,
that yielded indicators of fantasy for motherhood and
pregnancy. Subjects had been asked: "Do you ever daydream
about having children? If so, please describe this day-
dream." Answers were sorted into affirmative (with
subsequent descriptions) and negative responses. A chi-
square analysis for replicate four-fold tables (Winer,
1962) revealed that adequate birth control users have less
often had daydreams about having children than did
inadequate birth control users (X2=5.05, p<.02, two-tailed
test). This is supportive of the prediction made in
Hypothesis 1. The main effect chi square analysis for

temporary versus steady relationship yielded a trend

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44

toward significance (x2=2.79, p<.lO). This provides only
weak support for Hypothesis 2 which had predicted this
relationship.

A second measure was derived from responses to the
question: "If you found out next month that you were preg-
nant how would you feel? What plans would you make?"
Responses were sorted into those that stated they would get
an abortion versus those that did not state they would get
an abortion. Subjects in the latter group included
responses of adoption, single parenthood, marriage, or
uncertainty as to their future behavior. This measure then
is an index of the fantasy of pregnancy termination.

A chi-square analysis for replicate four-fold
tables yielded no main effect results but the interaction
between birth control use and relationship proved signifi-
cant (x2=4.66, p<.05). Simple main effect chi-squares
therefore were computed. Among subjects in a temporary
relationship, inadequate birth control users anticipated
abortion significantly less often than did adequate birth
control users (x2=6.62, p<.02). In the steady relationship
condition, birth control use did not distinguish fantasy
for abortion. This lends some further support for
Hypothesis 1, at least among subjects in a temporary
relationship.

A chi-square analysis between temporary and
steady relationship women among adequate birth control

users, also proved significant (x2=6.67, p<.Ol) offering

45

some support for Hypothesis 2. However, among inadequate
birth control users, the type of relationship did not dis-
tinguish between subjects on the anticipation of abortion
question. These findings provide evidence for the link
between birth control use and motivation for pregnancy and
motherhood.

In the multivariate analysis, only the measure of
Sex-Role Style was found to be related to birth control
use. The Fe scale of the CPI also yields a measure of
femininity but focuses more on interests and attitudes
that distinguish females from males, rather than the
behavioral style component. Since scores on the Fe cor-
related with scores on the Sex-Role Style measure for this
sample (r=.34, p<.001), an additional univariate analysis
was computed with this variable to determine if similar
results would be supported with this measure. No signifi-
cant main effects or interactions were found however (most
F<1).

Since age might also be a factor related to use of
birth control, a univariate analysis was also computed for
this dependent variable. This yielded a main effect
significant relationship for birth control use, F(l,121)=
9.55, p<.0025). An examination of means reveals that users
of adequate birth control are older (X219.09) than
inadequate birth control users (X518.4). No other main

effect or interaction relationships proved significant.

 

 

 

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46

Relationship Between
Dependent Variables

 

 

To clarify the results obtained, correlations
among the dependent variables were computed. (See Table 4.)
Among the measures where significant results were found,
Sex-Role Style and daydreaming of having children were
significantly correlated suggesting that the more tra-
ditionally feminine woman more frequently has had fantasies
about motherhood. Daydreaming about having children and
anticipating abortion were also negatively correlated as
expected. Women who have had fantasies of children are
less likely to anticipate that they would terminate a
pregnancy. It should be noted that these relationships
are still of a low order, suggesting the basic independence
of all the measures used.

It is also important to note that the relationship
between daydreaming of having children and age fails to
reach significance. Both these measures have been shown to
predict birth control use but these two factors apparently

function independently of each other.

47

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CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

The present data confirms the previous research
findings (Kantner and Zelnik, 1973; Sorenson, 1973) that
large numbers of single women are taking a chance of
becoming pregnant by having intercourse without the benefit
of adequate birth control techniques. A primary purpose of
this study has been to investigate whether premarital
pregnancy is specifically motivated. The results offer
some support that there is a link between birth control use
and motivation for pregnancy and motherhood, but the issue
appears more complicated than originally prOposed. In
order to conceptualize the multiple factors affecting
birth control use and sexual functioning, I have developed
a model that illustrates the complex chain of inter-
relationships (see Figure 3). The model serves to clarify
the present results as well as offering a broader perspec-
tive of the levels involved in pregnancy motivation, that

lays the groundwork for future research.

48

49

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50

Factors leading to pregnancy and motherhood occur
on three levels: intrapsychic, interpersonal, and behav~
ioral. Crucial to demonstrating that premarital pregnancy
is motivated is the establishment of the link between these
levels, in particular between the intrapsychic factors and
birth control use. The present data provide support for
this link by demonstrating a significant relationship
between daydreaming about children and birth control. Women
who fantasize about having children and who imagine them-
selves in the role of mothers, are more likely to avoid
providing themselves with adequate contraceptives, thus
increasing the likelihood that pregnancy and motherhood
will ensue. In a sense they are providing themselves with
the Opportunities for their fantasies to be translated into
reality.

There is no evidence, however, that the "decision"
not to use adequate birth control is a carefully thought
out or even a conscious plan to become pregnant and to be a
mother. On the contrary, very few of those who use inade-
quate birth control reported being consciously happy about
the prospect of being pregnant next month. The inadequate
use of birth control then involves a good deal of
ambivalence.

On the other hand the woman daydreams about being
a mother and having children, anticipating this as a
rewarding and fulfilling experience. (The daydreams were

almost exclusively positive.) On the other hand, she

51

realizes the profound difficulties pregnancy would create
(a sense of shame, conflict with parents, drOpping out of
school) and thus in part dreads the immediate fulfillment
of her dreams. The data provide additional support that
there is a conflict between wanting to be pregnant and
becoming a mother and fearing the consequences. Even
among the inadequate users of birth control only a small
percentage (20%) made no attempt to use any birth control
techniques. Thus the vast majority used birth control but
still took chances of becoming pregnant.

The model illustrates that the relationship between
daydreaming about having children and birth control use is
a direct one, insofar as the relationship is a main effect
rather than an interaction with other variables. However,
it does appear that daydreaming about children and the type
of sexual relationship is also related but the relationship
in this case is weaker. Though it is plausible that the
woman who has daydreams about children would be more likely
to seek out a steady relationship, perhaps in the hope that
this would lead to marriage, the direction of causality may
be reversed (as indicated by the dotted arrows in Figure 3).
Women in steady relationships are more likely to have plans
and fantasies for future marriage than women in temporary
relationships, and daydreams about children form one
aspect of the planning process.

The finding that women in a temporary relationship,

who use inadequate birth control would be less likely to

52

anticipate abortion as their behavior during pregnancy,
than women who use adequate birth control, indicates
further support that the pregnancy state is more desirable
for the former group. The woman who uses adequate birth
control (in a temporary relationship) is clear and con-
sistent in her intentions: she does not want to be pregnant,
she practices birth control faithfully, and anticipates
that she would have an abortion if she became pregnant
anyway. In contrast, the woman who is motivated to become
pregnant, does not use adequate birth control (at least in
temporary sexual relationships) and is more likely to
become pregnant, yet is not as likely to anticipate that
she would want to terminate the pregnancy (though what her
reactions might be, faced with this reality is Open to
speculation). Kanter and Zelnik (1973) similarly found
that it is the girl who used contraceptives at her last
intercourse who is more likely to choose abortion as the
best Option for an unwed pregnant girl, than the girl who
did not use contraceptives at her last intercourse.

The type of sexual relationship that the woman is
involved in clearly has a moderating influence on the
fantasy of pregnancy termination, or abortion anticipation.
Women who use adequate birth control in a steady relation-
ship anticipate abortion no more Often than do inadequate
birth control users in a steady relationship, but signifi-
cantly less often than birth control users in temporary

relationships. Even though adequate birth control users

53

having a steady relationship do not want to become preg-
nant, they nevertheless have the Option of marriage
available to them that those in temporary relationships do
not. The choice of abortion as an Option to terminating
an unwanted pregnancy is complicated and emotionally
ladened. The woman who does not want to be pregnant but
has alternative Options available to her (e.g., marriage)
will be less sure of her future behavior than the woman in
a temporary relationship who has fewer Options. Here the
interpersonal factors influence the intrapsychic level, as
well as the intrapsychic and interpersonal levels inter-
acting to produce behavioral variation in birth control
use (illustrated by the two-way arrows in Figure 3).

Up to this point, the discussion has considered
motivation for pregnancy and motherhood as somewhat
interchangeable concerns. However, interests in becoming
pregnant, enjoying the pregnancy state, and proving one's
ability to conceive, clearly differ from interest and
fantasies about being a mother, caring for and being needed
by a child. The relationship between birth control use
and daydreaming about having children provides support only
for the notion that birth control use is related to moti-
vation for motherhood but does not address itself directly
to motivation for pregnancy. The relationship between
anticipation of abortion and birth control use among women
in temporary relationships points to a link between birth

control use and motivation for pregnancy; the inadequate

54

birth control user in a temporary relationship is less
likely to want to terminate the pregnancy experience.
Insofar as continuing the pregnancy provides the opportunity
for becoming a mother, this finding also demonstrates
support for a relationship between birth control use and
motivation for motherhood among women in temporary rela-
tionships. This latter conclusion is offered most
cautiously, however, since the responses of those who were
not certain they would choose abortion included uncertainty
and adoption as well as marriage and single parenthood.

It is not at all clear whether motivation for
pregnancy and motherhood are identical or whether the
dynamics involved in each of these motivations differ
substantially. Similarly, the present study does not
clarify whether it is motivation for pregnancy or mother-
hood that is more crucial in determining birth control
practices, though there are indicators that interpersonal
factors may moderate the influence of pregnancy motivation.

The fantasy measures derived from the TAT-type
pictures do not clarify this issue as originally antici-
pated, since neither the Pregnancy Thema Score nor the
Motherhood Thema Score is related to the independent
variables. The results using these measures then fail to
support the hypotheses that birth control use and relation—
ship are related to fantasy for pregnancy and motherhood.
Though the lack of significant results might indicate that

the relationships predicted do not exist, the significant

55

findings that adequate birth control users have less often
had daydreams about having children, and the trend for
women in a temporary relationship to have less such day-
dreams than women in a steady relationship, suggests that
the TAT measure may not have adequately assessed existing
differences in fantasy levels of pregnancy and motherhood.

Though five pictures were originally presented to
the subjects, only three pictures elicited substantial
pregnancy and motherhood imagery--all pictures with either
a pregnant woman or woman and infant. The picture of a
nude couple elicited only seven instances of motherhood
theme and five instances of pregnancy theme. The picture
of a woman looking in a mirror elicited only two of
motherhood theme and no instances of pregnancy theme. The
three pictures that did elicit substantial imagery, had
such strong stimulus pulls that large numbers of women
produced scorable imagery, including those in the adequate
birth control condition. This was particularly apparent
with motherhood thema where the number of scorable responses
were 111, 120, and 126 (of a N=129) on each Of three
stories.

It is quite possible then that though not all
women have pregnancy and motherhood as ongoing concerns,
they certainly respond to pictures that overly depict
these themes by producing comparable stories. The
relationship of thematic apperception test imagery to

ongoing daydreaming patterns has not been systematically

()

56

investigated (Singer, 1966). The essentially zero cor-
relation between Pregnancy Thema Score and the Motherhood
Thema Score with the daydreaming of having children
measure indicates that these instruments are not tapping
the same factors.

A second purpose of the study has been to investi-
gate how femininity issues, or feelings Of "womanliness"
might be related to birth control use. As the model
prOposes, the personality factors of sex-role style and
gender identification influence birth control use through
interpersonal factors and sexual activity. For sex-role
style the results of the present study indicate that among
women in a temporary relationship there is a trend for
those who use adequate birth control to be less tradi-
tionally feminine, or more assertive, than those who use
inadequate birth control. The woman who uses birth control
in a temporary relationship is also significantly less
feminine, or more assertive, than the birth control user in
a steady relationship. These findings are in the direction
hypothesized, though simple main effects rather than inter-
actions were predicted.

A number of researchers have prOposed that a core
component of traditional feminine sex-role identity is the
goal of becoming a wife and mother (Douvan and Adelson,
1966). A behavioral style of interdependence develops in
part from the emphasis on family and home relationships

that is more typical in female upbringing. Thus the

57

woman who is more traditionally feminine, less assertive,
and more interdependent is more likely to connect sexuality
and her interpersonal relationships with reproduction and
becoming a mother and therefore places herself in a position
whereby these expectations might be met, i.e., she uses
inadequate birth control while having sexual relationships.
The data do provide support, albeit weak, that femininity
as measured by Sex-Role Style is related in fact to day-
dreaming about having children (r=.18, p<.05, for the full
sample of sexually active subjects, including mid-sex
frequency subjects, N=157).

However, the more crucial element here may be that
sex-role style influences the behavioral components
leading to birth control use: Obtaining contraceptive
information, making medical appointments, buying and using
devices, insisting on male use of condoms, etc. These
behaviors all involve a high degree Of assertion, unavail-
able to the more traditionally feminine woman. Hence a
more feminine, less assertive sex-role style may not just
be related to pregnancy/motherhood motivation per se but
related rather to the skills and qualities associated with
the actual acquisition and use of adequate birth control.

Following this reasoning, the use of particular
birth control techniques should also be related to the
interdependence-assertion dimension. Even among the
adequate birth control users those who sometimes have

relied on their partner's use Of contraceptives (e.g.,

58

condom) should be more interdependent and less assertive
than the woman who has taken sole responsibility for pre-
vention of pregnancy. The data provide support for this
contention. Though few women relied exclusively on the
partner's use of birth control, those who had occasionally
relied on their partner (during the previous six months)
were significantly less assertive than those who had used
the pill or intra-uterine device exclusively (x2=5.76,
p<.02, two-tailed test). Thus, the behavioral style of the
sexually active woman may lead to differences in the choice
of birth control technique which involve adequate or
inadequate methods.

This line of thought must be accepted with caution
however, since the difference between adequate and inade—
quate birth control users is only a trend among temporary
relationship women. The interpersonal factors again
moderate the influence of the intrapsychic factors on
birth control use. It is important to note though that
the interaction observed between birth control use and
relationship on the Sex-Role Style measure is similar to
that found on the anticipation Of abortion measure, though
these measures are independent of each other (r=.08). The
adequate birth control users in a steady relationship
appears to be more similar to the inadequate user of birth
control (regardless of relationship) than to the adequate

birth control user in a temporary relationship.

59

One possible explanation for these findings is
that the woman who uses adequate birth control and has
intercourse only within the context of a steady relation-
ship, conforms more to the typical and acceptable mode of
behavior, having intercourse only within a committed
relationship and so is also less apt to break society's
code against premarital pregnancy. She is following the
traditional pattern of feminine identity by having an
early exclusive relationship with a man. It is important
to note that these women are tied to one man at an early
age (X518.9). Thus her sex—role style is to be more
interdependent than the woman in a temporary relationship
who uses adequate birth control. Similarly, the woman
having temporary relationships needs to assert herself
to meet new partners.

The interaction with the type of relationship,
however, also suggests that the sexual relationship itself
may change personality. When a woman develops an ongoing
exclusive relationship with a man significant internal
changes may occur as a result of the process of being
intimately involved with another human being. She develOps
a sensitivity and awareness of the quality and nuances of
her relationship with her partner that can carry over to
her behavior with others. Sensitivity to relationships is
a major element of interdependence. In addition, assertive

behavior may be discouraged within such a relationship

60

while being a definite advantage in maintaining multiple
relationships.

It is the woman who uses birth control and is
involved in sexual relationships of a more temporary nature
who breaks society's codes Of behavior. This is the woman
who may be viewed as Chilman (1973) phrases it as "per-
petually contracepted." This woman, unlike her more
feminine contemporaries is more assertive in her behavior
style and less traditional in her sexual practices.
Unfortunately, the present study did not collect more
detailed information as to the number of sexual partners
that women in this group were involved with. Further
research needs to clarify whether birth control use and sex-
role style are more related to the commitment level of the
sexual relationship, the affectional level, or to the
number of sexual partners.

The relationship of femininity with birth control
use and the sexual relationship is evident only when
femininity on a behavioral-style level is considered. NO
support is given in the present study for a direct
relationship between primary gender identity (as measured
by the Franck Drawing Completion Test) and birth control
use. Though psychoanalytic writers have proposed otherwise
(Deutsch, 1945) conflict or disturbance in femininity on a
primary unconscious level does not appear to be directly
related to motivation for premarital pregnancy. Neverthe-

less gender identification is related to sex frequency

61

(in temporary relationship women) and sex frequency in
turn predicts birth control use.

Writers who found disturbances in primary feminine
identification in premaritally pregnant girls (Clothier,
1943; Bernard, 1944), concluded that this disturbance was a
preexisting state and that this motivated the girls to
prove their ability to conceive and to play the role of a
mother. In these studies the use of already pregnant
girls, no control groups, or control groups of non-pregnant
(but also possible virginal) girls may have led to
erroneous conclusions. Many of these older studies also
had moral overtones that may have biased the investigators.

The present data in fact can be viewed as contra-
dictory to the prOposition that low and insecure feminine
gender identity should be found among single pregnant
women. Among women involved in temporary relationships,
those having high sex frequency (once a week or more)
score significantly higher on the Franck Drawing Completion
Test (or are more feminine in their gender identification)
than those with low sex frequency (once a month or less).
This finding does not hold for women in steady relation-
ships. Similarly, among high sex frequency, those in a
temporary relationship score more feminine on the Franck
Test than do women involved in a steady relationship. The
most securely feminine women then are those involved in a
temporary relationship who have intercourse on a regular,

at least weekly basis. Inadequate birth control users of

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62

course are among those who have high sex frequency. Insofar
as women who have intercourse frequently are more likely

to become pregnant, one would expect the pregnant temporary
relationship woman to be more feminine in her gender
identification.

The dimensions of the relationship between sex
frequency and gender identification, among temporary
relationship women, needs to be further explored. The
woman who is highly feminine in her basic gender identifi—
cation, presumably has a stronger unconscious sense and
security of her basic "femaleness," which includes internal
representations Of her body image. This identification
with more female body images (e.g., roundness) may well
entail a degree Of comfort with her body that permits her
to engage in more regular sexual activities. In contrast,
the woman less secure in her identification with female
body imagery, may be more inhibited in using her body in
sexual expression and thus has only sporadic sexual
contact.

The evidence in the present study, however, only
supports the above reasoning for women in a temporary
relationship. As with the anticipation of abortion
measure, and the Sex-Role Style measure, differences that
appear among women having temporary relationships are not
maintained for those having one steady relationship. In
this case, the lack of consistent differences among steady

relationship women may be more a function Of situational

63

factors than of personality factors. Since the woman in a
steady relationship presumably does not have to seek out

a partner, it is less clear what factors might account for
sex frequency. The woman in a steady relationship is
dependent on one particular man for a regular sex relation—
ship. Some of the women with low sex frequency may be
having infrequent sex because the sexual partner is not
living in the area. No specific data was collected on

this issue but a number of women spontaneously mentioned
this in their responses. If this is the case, the relation~
ship between sex frequency and gender identification may not
emerge unless partner availability is controlled.

The third measure of femininity, the Fe Scale of
the CPI did not prive to be related to any Of the indepen-
dent measures. Attitudes and interests traditionally
associated with females do not appear to be related to
birth control use, type of sexual relationship, or sex
frequency. Researchers using the Fe scale of the CPI
(Kapor-Stanulovic and Lynn, 1973) or the MF scale of the
MMPI (Kutner and Duffy, 1970) have found that this type of
femininity is related to the incidence of side effects
reported with use Of oral contraceptives. However, having
side effects does not necessarily lead to discontinuation
of effective birth control.

The present study also indicates that sex-role
style is more closely related to attitudes and interests

of females than to gender identity, insofar as the Sex-Role

64

Style measure and the Fe were significantly correlated,
while Sex-Role Style was not correlated with the Franck
Drawing Completion Test. This contradicts McClelland and
Watts (1968) proposal that sex-role style, like gender
identity, is still experienced at an unconscious level.
Sex-role style appears to be more closely connected to the
sex-typed attitudes and interests measured by the Fe scale,
though the low correlation implies that they are still
essentially measuring different aspects of personality.
However, since the develOpment of the assertiveness—
interdependence dimension of behavior is not entirely
clear, it is premature to state that it is primarily
experienced at either a conscious or unconscious level.

~ The original design of the study does not really
parallel the model for pregnancy motivation that I have
prOposed. In the model there is a chain Of influence that
goes from the intrapsychic factors, to the interpersonal
factors, to the behaviors Of sex activity and sex frequency
and finally to birth control use. Though the effects may
be reciprocal this is the basic direction that provides a
route to premarital pregnancy. The design however, treats
birth control use (together with sex frequency and
relationship) as an independent variable, while the model
suggests that this factor may be more productively viewed
as a dependent variable. Further, birth control use for
convenience was considered as an "either-or" situation

whereas in reality there were clear gradations of

65

contraceptive adequacy among the inadequate birth control
users.

Breaking out of the confines of the design
clarifies and supports aspects of the model. A simple
chi-square analysis that included the expanded sample with
mid-sex frequency women (every other week, N=157) demon—
strated that high sex frequency women more often use
adequate birth control while mid and low sex frequency
women more often use inadequate birth control, x2=8.8,
p<.02, two-tailed test. Apparently having intercourse
frequently provides an impetus (possibly by keeping the
issue salient) to Obtaining contraceptives. With low sex
frequency, the pattern of sex activity may not be well
enough established to have developed consistent contra-
ceptive habits. It should also be noted that taking birth
control such as the pill may also allow the woman the
freedom to more frequently engage in sexual intercourse,
without the fear of pregnancy.

The type of relationship, however, temporary or
steady, does not predict birth control use, x2=.87, p>.10.
Nonetheless the type of relationship does predict sex
frequency with steady relationship women having high sex
frequency more often and temporary relationship women
having mid and low sex frequency more often than expected,
x2=ll.5, p<.01, two-tailed test. This provides evidence

for the chaining presented in the model whereby the type of

66

relationship influences sex frequency and sex frequency in
turn affects the adequacy of birth control use.

It is important to note that the present sample
included only those women who were currently having inter-
course, so for this sample, only sex frequency was relevant
to the box labelled sex activity in Figure 3. However, the
model prOposes a broader perspective on this issue. Sexual
activity for single women also includes the initial
decision to engage in premarital coitus; women who have
decided to take this step may be more motivated for preg—
nancy and motherhood than virginal women. The model
suggests that the intrapsychic factors (e.g., fantasy,
sex—role style) together with the relationship will affect
the decision making process involved in premarital inter—
course, as well as the later choice of birth control.
Research is needed to clarify the dimensions of these
relationships.

One crucial non-psychological factor that emerges
from the data that accounts for adequate birth control use
is age. The adequate birth control user is significantly
older than the inadequate birth control user. In the
model, the third behavioral factor involved in birth con-
trol use, concerns birth control knowledge and availability.
Though there is no empirical evidence, the strong influence
of age on birth control use may come into play at this
point. The Older woman has had more time to learn of the

adequacies of various birth control techniques and has had

67

the time to obtain them. Further, those with the means to
dispense birth control (e.g., medical doctors) may be
reluctant to dispense the pill to younger women. Though
the university health services were available to all of
these women, many of the younger women were first term
freshmen, who would have had to obtain, the pill at least,
from home town physicians.

For an Older sample of woman, the relationship
between birth control use and age may no longer by evident.
However, the model is intended to be applicable to diverse
samples. Other sociological variables are expected to be
involved at this level of influence. For example, the
availability and knowledge of birth control should also be
crucial for those of low-socio-economic status.

The question can also be raised as to whether the
proposed model is broad enough to encompass pregnancy
motivation in general rather than the premarital pregnancy
situation alone. It is not at all clear whether factors
related to motivation for pregnancy and motherhood and the
use of birth control are similar for married and unmarried
women. At the very least the context of the relationship
differs, and insofar as this factor has been significantly
related to pregnancy and motherhood motivation in the
present investigation, one would expect differences to
emerge between married and unmarried women, though the

parameters of these differences needs to be explored.

68

Femininity may also play a part in the decision to
have premarital sex to begin with and consequently have a
different effect on the unmarried women, than on the married
women for whom this issue is no longer relevant. The
relationship between sex-guilt and retention of birth
control information (Schwartz, 1973) may also change
depending on whether premarital sex is a crucial issue for
the woman's guilt level. Finally, the relationship between
sex frequency and gender identity for married women may
also differ since they have a more readily available
partner, whereas many of the unmarried women in this study
were living in dormitories. Nevertheless, though the
strengths of the various relationships may differ, the
model may well be useful in exploring the factors that
lead to pregnancy in married women as well.

A final factor that has not as yet been mentioned
is the role of sex drive in the overall model. Clearly
sexual drive is too important a component involved in sex
activity and in the develOpment of relationships and in
turn to birth control use, to be omitted from the model.
However, it is beyond the scope of the present investiga-
tion to explore the complexities of this area. Other
research will be needed to study the dimensions of the

input of sex drive on the model.

69

Overview

 

A model has been proposed that provides a frame-
work in which to view the multiple levels involved in
premarital pregnancy. Basically the model divides the
factors into intrapsychic, interpersonal, and behavioral
variables and suggests a pattern of relationships between
these levels. Further research of course is needed to
confirm various aspects and to clarify the relevance of
other variables. Other personality factors in particular
need to be investigated (e.g., sex guilt, narcissism) and
room has been left in the model for further develOpment.
The model, nevertheless, provides a useful framework in
which to conceptualize new research directions, in particu—
lar in viewing birth control use as the dependent variable.

The present data provide some evidence that birth
control use is related to motivations for pregnancy and
motherhood. The relationship between daydreaming about
having children and anticipation of abortion with birth
control use and the sexual relationship, helps establish
this link.

The TAT measures did not support this finding but
the pictures may not have been appropriate to assess the
fantasy levels of motherhood and pregnancy. Further
research needs to clarify how pregnancy and motherhood
fantasy and motivation are related to each other and

whether they differentially affect birth control use.

70

In investigating the issue of femininity, only sex-
role style appears to be directly related to birth control
use again with the sexual relationship acting as a moder-
ating influence. An interdependent style of behavior,
developing out of a focus on the home, and an emphasis on
being a wife and mother, may lead to increased fantasies
of children and the mother role and to avoiding adequate
birth control techniques, for the temporary relationship
woman. Further, an assertive style also makes Obtaining
contraceptive information and devices easier and influences
the type of birth control techniques chosen.

A disturbance in gender identity is not directly
related to birth control use. A relationship does exist
between gender identity (the Franck Drawing Completion
Test) and sex frequency (which in turn predicts birth
control use) and the type of sexual relationship. An
elaboration of the interpersonal level with more detailed
data on the nature and number of sexual partners and the
overt reasons for high and low sex frequency, may clarify
the process by which gender identification effects sex
frequency and the sexual relationship. High sex frequency
women, in temporary relationships, are more closely
identified with female body imagery and this may provide
them with the comfort to express their bodies sexually.

The interrelationship between the various intra—
psychic factors also needs clarification. Gender

identification is the most primary of the factors explored

71

and presumably develOps at the earliest age. Yet it is not
predictive of later stylistic femininity nor of the likeli-
hood of having daydreams of having children. Similarly,
the latter two factors are only weakly related. Sex-role
style is probably somewhat more flexible to change than
gender identification and may well vary depending on the
circumstances involved.

Daydreaming about having children would also
certainly be expected to change in response to external
events. The present study assessed only whether the women
had ever had a daydream about having children. Further
investigation of the frequency of such ongoing fantasies
as well as their nature and SCOpe may well clarify the role
they play in sexual functioning and the underlying dynamics

involved in their occurrence.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY

The purpose of the present study was two-fold.
First, an attempt was made to investigate if premarital
pregnancy is specifically motivated. Second, an assessment
was made of certain personality factors that may account
for this motivation.

The adequacy of birth control use and frequency of
sexual intercourse were the two behavioral factOrs assumed
to affect the chances of premarital pregnancy. The type of
sexual relationship, temporary or steady, in which the
sexual activity occurs, was also expected to affect the
motivation for pregnancy. All three factors, birth control
use, sexual frequency, and type of relationship, were the
independent variables in a 2 x 2 x 2 design.

Fantasies of pregnancy and motherhood, daydreams
of having children, and anticipation of abortion were
assessed to establish the link between the use of birth
control and the motivation for pregnancy and motherhood.

Two conceptually different levels of femininity, gender

72

73

identification and sex-role style, were also assessed as
possible contributing factors relating to birth control
use and pregnancy motivation.

It was hypothesized that women using adequate
birth control would have less fantasy of pregnancy and
motherhood, be less feminine (more assertive) in their
sex-role style, and more feminine in their gender identifi-
cation than women using inadequate birth control. Further,
it was hypothesized that among the women using inadequate
birth control, those with high sex frequency would have
more fantasy of pregnancy and motherhood and be less
feminine in their gender identification than those women
with low sex frequency. Also hypothesized was that women
with a steady relationship would have more fantasy of
pregnancy and motherhood and be more feminine (more inter—
dependent) in their sex-role style than women having
temporary relationships.

A total of 468 subjects were given questionnaire
material. From this sample, the responses of 129 sexually
active women were selected for the analyses who met the
criteria for adequate—inadequate birth control use, steady
or temporary relationships, and high or low sex frequency.
The measures included thematic apperception stories for
pictures chosen to elicit pregnancy/motherhood imagery, the
Franck Drawing Completion Test (Franck and Rosen, 1949),

a Sex—Role Style measure (McClelland and Watt, 1968), the

Femininity Scale of the California Psychological Inventory

74

(Gough, 1957, 1966), questions pertaining to daydreaming
about children and future plans if pregnancy occurred as
well as questions on sexual, contraceptive, and dating
habits. A Motherhood Thema Score and Pregnancy Thema Score
were derived from the TAT-type stories.

There was some evidence that premarital pregnancy
is motivated. Daydreaming of having children occurred
significantly more often among women using inadequate birth
control than among those using adequate birth control. An
interaction with type of relationship was evident for the
anticipation of abortion measure, with those in temporary
relationships using adequate birth control anticipating
terminating a pregnancy through abortion most Often. The
scores derived from the TAT-type pictures did not yield
any differences. This was attributed to the strong stimu—
lus pull of the pictures used.

The birth control x relationship interaction for
sex-role style was also significant. Results showed that
women in temporary relationships using adequate birth
control were significantly more assertive than steady
relationship women using adequate birth control. A trend
was also found for adequate birth control users to be more
assertive than inadequate users among temporary relation-
ship women. Findings were attributed to the focus on
motherhood in a female's upbringing and the need for

assertive behavior to Obtain contraceptives and to maintain

75

temporary relationships. The possibility of the involve-
ment in a relationship changing personality structure was
also discussed.

A significant finding was also obtained for the
type of relationship x sex frequency interaction of the
Franck Drawing Completion Test. Women who have high sex
frequency in temporary relationships were more feminine
in their gender identification than women with low sex
frequency in temporary relationships as well as women with
high sex frequency in steady relationships. It was sug-
gested that security in one's female body concept may be
related to expressing the body sexually. Gender identifi-
cation was not found to be related to birth control use.
However, age proved to be significant with Older women
using adequate birth control more often than younger women.

A model was presented that conceptualized the
factors involved in premarital pregnancy as occurring in
three realms: the intrapsychic, the interpersonal, and the
behavioral. This provided a new perspective on the data
and suggested limitations in the design. Viewing birth
control use as a dependent variable may be more productive.
Type of relationship was shown to predict sex frequency
which in turn predicted the adequacy of birth control use.

Directions for future research were also discussed.

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Douvan, E., and Adelson, J. The Adolescent Experience,
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Ehrmann, W. Premarital Dating Behavior. New York: Holt,
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Fawcett, J. T. (ed.) Psychological Perspectives in POpula-
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Fisher, 8. The Female Orgasm. New York: Basic Books,
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

DISTRIBUTION OF FULL SAMPLE

ON INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Table 5

Distribution of Full Sample on the Incidence
of Premarital Intercourse (N=461)*

._ .___— .—_

Group Subtotal Total

 

Total subjects never having
intercourse 232

Subjects currently (last two
months) having intercourse 177

Subjects who have had inter- -
course but not currently 52

Total subjects who have had
intercourse 229

Total Sample 461

 

*Four subjects who were divorced and three subjects
who did not give information on premarital sex status were
eliminated from the original sample of 468.

81

82

Table 6

Distribution of Subjects Currently Engaging
in Sexual Intercourse on Birth Control
Adequacy, Type of Relationship,
and Sex Frequency (N=158)*

Sex Frequency
Group

 

High Mid Low

 

Adequate Birth
Control

Temporary
Relationship 11 7 ll

Steady
Relationship 35 3 10
Inadequate Birth

Control

Temporary
Relationship 10 6 20

Steady
Relationship 19 12 13

 

*Nineteen subjects were eliminated from the sample
of 177 currently sexually active subjects because of
incomplete or confusing responses.

APPENDIX B

SEX-ROLE STYLE MEASURE

9.

*The items are keyed for femininity.

APPENDIX B

SEX-ROLE STYLE MEASURE*
(from McClelland and Watt, 1968) P}

I like to accept the leadership of someone else in

deciding what the group is going to do. (true) ,1

 

I think of myself as a soft rather than a hard person. L}
(true)

My feelings are not easily hurt. (false)

It is very important to do your best in all situations.
(false)

Everyone ought to accomplish something really
important. (false)

While in trains, busses, etc. I often talk to
strangers. (false)

I have at times had to be rough with people who were
rude or annoying. (false)

In school I was sometimes sent to the principal for
cutting up. (false)

It is always a good thing to be frank. (false) 1

83

 

APPENDIX C

THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST: INSTRUCTIONS

AND PICTURE DESCRIPTIONS

APPENDIX C

DESCRIPTION OF THE PICTURES USED
IN THE FANTASY MEASURES

Picture l--This is a picture of an obviously pregnant-

 

looking woman staring out a window. She is
standing sideways among some large plants.
Details of her face are not apparent.

Picture 2-—A nude young-looking man and woman are standing

 

looking out a window with their arms around each
other. Only their backs are shown. The room in
which they are standing is unfurnished.

Picture 3--A young woman is cradling a very young infant.

 

The infant appears to be asleep.

Picture 4--A pregnant woman is sitting beside a man. His

 

arms are around her, one arm touching her
stomach. The woman is also feeling her stomach
and holding his hand. There is a fire in a
fireplace in the background.

Picture 5--A young woman in a body—suit is looking at her—

 

self in the mirror. She is brushing her hair.
There is an assortment of cosmetics and perfumes

on a counter in front of the mirror.

84

85

Instructions for Storytelling

 

On the following pages you are to write out some brief
stories that you make up on your own. There are no right
or wrong answers. This is designed to give you an oppor-
tunity to be as fanciful as you wish, to imagine a
situation quickly and write out a brief story about it.

In order to help you get started, there are a series of
pictures that you can look at and build your stories
around. When you have finished reading these instructions,
you should look at the first picture briefly, then turn
the page again and write a story suggested by the picture.

To help you cover all the elements of a story plot in the
time allowed, you will find four questions spaced out over
the page. They are:

1. What is happening? Who are the peOple?

2. What has led up to this situation? That is, what
has happened in the past?

3. What is being thought? What is wanted? By whom?

4. What will happen? What will be done?

Your overall time for each story is about five minutes.
There is no strict time limit, but don't write much over
five minutes.

 

86

Spend about 5 minutes on this story.

1. What is happening? Who are the people?

2. What has led up to this situation? That is, what has

happened in the past?

3. What is being thought? What is wanted? By whom?

4. What will happen? What will be done?

 

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE PROTOCOLS OF DAYDREAMING
OF HAVING CHILDREN MEASURE AND

ABORTION ANTICIPATION MEASURE

 

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE PROTOCOLS OF DAYDREAMING
OF HAVING CHILDREN MEASURE AND F;
ABORTION ANTICIPATION MEASURE i

DO you ever daydream about having children? If so, please

describe this daydream?

Yes, I always dream of childbirth and being preg-

 

'11-W

nant. I'm looking forward to having children and I want to

nurse them but in my dreams I'm always happily married

because I have a long time to be in school, and my career

Comes first so I'll just be careful.

If you found out next month that you were pregnant, how

Would you feel? What plans would you make?
I would be upset and hurt. I'd tell my boyfriend

and we'd come up with something together. One thing for

Sure, I would love my baby! (no abortion)

87

88

Do you ever daydream about having children? If so please
describe the daydream?

I dream about having kids since I love them so
much. I think of names and how I would dress them and take
care of them and how my husband and I would take them

everywhere with us and love them.

If you found out next month that you were pregnant, how
would you feel? What plans would you make?

It would depend on who got me pregnant, if it was
my boyfriend I would probably keep the baby. If it was
someone I didn't love or even like I would probably have

an abortion although I strongly disagree with them.

 

89

Do you ever daydream about having children? If so, please
describe this daydream.

I daydream about my first baby and what it would
be like. That I would be married and that my husband and
I would be very happy.

Or that I'd been married for a very long time and

 

that I have about six kids and what type of family situa—

tion I'd have.

 

If you found out next month that you were pregnant, how

1‘. .

would you feel? What plans would you make?
I'd be scared and probably mad. I would make
plans to get an abortion but I would discuss it first with

the guy.

 

APPENDIX E

DATING PATTERNS INVENTORY

APPENDIX E

DATING PATTERNS INVENTORY

Please answer all the questions below. You need not put

your name on the questionnaire.

1. Age: Father's occupation:

Year at School:

Religion: Mother's occupation:

2. Are you presently:

(circle answer that applies) Single
Married
Divorced
Separated
Widowed

3. If you are single, are you presently:

(circle as many as are relevant)
a)
b)
C)
d)

e)

f)

9)

engaged

pinned »

living with boyfriend
dating only one man in
a serious relationship
dating only one man,
but not a "serious"
relationship

dating more than one
man

not dating

4. If you circled any of the answers "a-d" above, please
indicate how long you have been going with this

individual:

90

 

91

1) one month or less

2) under three months
3) three to six months
4) six months to a year
5) more than a year

5. Have you ever in the past (prior to your current
dating situation) been:

a) engaged

b) pinned

c) lived with boyfriend

d) dated one man in a
"serious" relationship

e) dated only one man, but
ESE a "serious"
relationship

f) dated a number of men .
at the same time "u,

g) I have never dated till ;i 1
now &

h) I never dated

 

 

6. Have you ever had sexual intercourse? YES NO

7. If yes, how old were you at your first sexual
intercourse?

8. Are you presently engaging in sexual intercourse?
(Answer "Yes" only if you have had intercourse at
least once in the last two months.)

YES NO
9. How often on the average, are you having intercourse?

1) at least once a day

2) 2-3 times a week

3) once a week

4) about every other week

5) once a month

6) less than once a month

7) I am not having sexual intercourse

10. Have you ever used birth control or contraceptive
techniques?

YES NO

ll.

12.

13.

92

If yes, please circle those you have used:

1) oral contraceptives-~the "pill"

2) foam or spermicidal jellies

3) diaphragm
4) condom or rubbers
5) withdrawal

6) Intrauterine device--IUD

7) rhythm

8) other--please explain:fi__

 

Within the last 6 months, have you used any birth
control techniques?

If yes, please indicate the percentage of the time when
you have had intercourse,

YES NO

following techniques?

1) the "pill"

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

that you have used the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

/ / / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100
foam or spermicidal jellies

/ / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100
diaphragm

/ / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100
condom or rubbers

/ / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100
intrauterine device-~IUD

/ / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100
withdrawal or "coitus interruptus"

/ / / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100
rhythm

/ / / / / / / / / / /

0 20 40 60 80 100

93

14. Are there times in the last 6 months that you have
engaged in sexual intercourse without the use of some
form of birth control?

YES NO

15. Please indicate how often in the last 6 months you
have engaged in intercourse without the use of birth

 

control.
/ / / /

I am practi- I have occa— I frequently I almost
cally never sionally had have inter- always have
without intercourse course intercourse
birth con- without without birth without birth
trol during birth control control. control.
intercourse

 

 

APPENDIX F

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLES

 

 

Table 7

Analysis of Variance for the Franck
Drawing Completion Test

 

 

Source df F p
A. Birth Control 1 .35 .55
B. Relationship 1 .01 .91
C. Sex Frequency 1 .72 .40
AB 1 .03 .86
AC 1 3.63 .06
BC 1 6.32 .01*
ABC 1 .01 .94

 

94

 

Analysis of Variance for

95

Table 8

Sex-Role Style

 

Source df F p
A. Birth Control 1 .08 .76
B. Relationship 1 3.50 .06
C. Sex Frequency 1 .60 .44
AB 1 4.78 .03*
AC 1 .25 .62
BC 1 .00 .95
ABC 1 .07 .79

 

 

96

Table 9

Analysis of Variance for Pregnancy Thema Score

 

Source df F p
A. Birth Control 1 2.26 .14
B. Relationship 1 .13 .71
C. Sex Frequency 1 .32 .57
AB 1 1.12 .29
AC 1 2.15 .14
BC 1 .12 .73

ABC 1 .19 .66

 

 

Analysis of Variance for Motherhood Thema Score

97

Table 10

 

 

Source df F p
A. Birth Control 1 .00 .99
B. Relationship 1 .00 .96
C. Sex Frequency 1 .08 .78
AB 1 1.76 .19
AC 1 .05 .81
BC 1 .52 .47
ABC 1 .02 .90

 

 

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98

Table 11

Analysis of Variance for the Femininity Scale
of the California Psychological Inventory

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Source df F p
A. Birth Control 1 .00 .95
B. Relationship 1 1.95 .16
C. Sex Frequency 1 .17 .68
AB 1 .60 .44
AC 1 .77 .38
BC 1 .15 .70
ABC 1 .33 .56

 

 

99

Table 12

Analysis of Variance for Age

 

 

Source df F p
A. Birth Control 1 9.55 .0025**
B. Relationship 1 1.04 .31
C. Sex Frequency 1 1.21 .27
AB 1 1.68 .19
AC 1 1.51 .20
BC 1 1.71 .19
ABC 1 1.70 .19

 

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