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University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Decision Making and 'I‘raVel Behavior: A Midwestern Study presented by Paul Barry Myers has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctor offihflQSQLthdegree in Resource Development 04’ W Cl ”1% Major professor / Date 1 1974 0-7 639 ’5' D . smoma av " HDAE & SHNS' 800K BINDERY INC LIBRARY BIND! RS usual-mum- lllllsllll. Ll!" m ; {bu—mill“ warm. AW'fi‘HS—l chi MAGIC 2 ”k... . Mame , M mam was I A n ‘ ~ 1.5.7. -. 'UA.‘ ABSTRACT DECISION MAKING AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOR: A MIDWESTERN STUDY By Paul Barry Myers Developing attractions to draw pleasure travelers is often seen as one way that localities, regions, and nations can supplement the economic benefits flowing into the area. Successful travel-based economic development involves effective promotion of the destination area and in this way the travel industry is similar to other industries dependent upon extensive marketing activities. It is fundamentally important, therefore, that promotional efforts created to attract visitors to an area be efficient and effective. This research was an assessment of decision making patterns of travel consumers. Interest centered upon domestic automobile pleasure travelers in the Midwestern United States. The areas selected as locations of high potential for travel development were Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Ontario. The findings of the study should permit improvement in the efforts of the agencies responsible for promotion in these states and this province. Conceptually, the research was based on the creation and tests of hypotheses drawn from previous studies of family decision making, Paul Barry Myers spatial assessment and perception, social class, and family ideology. Optimal integration of conceptual and applied concerns was attempted. A survey was executed in eight Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois counties in May and June, 1974, to gather the data for analysis. Total sample size was four hundred seventy-eight. The instrument was the structured personal interview questionnaire. Major findings of the research include the patterns of decision making between spouses on the destination, route, and lodging choices before them. The destination and lodging decisions were found to most frequently be democratic while the route decisions most often are made by the male head of the household. The patterns of decision making between parents and children are shown to be largely a function of the age of the children. Autonomy of decision making between age and class groups was examined, but the findings did not strongly support the hypotheses taken from the literature. Social class, visitation of relatives or non-relative centered destinations, and family ideology linkages were fruitfully discovered. The psychological assessment of the form destination areas by respondents in the sampled state was measured with the semantic differential. Differences between persons who had visited the destin- ation areas and other persons who had not been exposed directly to these states and this province are clear-cut. Previous visitors were nore positive in their evaluations of the places. A series of proposals developed after examination of the data are also included. These ideas fall into two groups. Future research is suggested that would be built upon this study and would further Paul Barry Myers clarify the issues involved. The policy implications of the findings are presented in the hope that the principal agency clients will find the research useful in policy considerations. DECISION MAKING AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOR: A MIDWESTERN STUDY By Paul Barry Myers A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Resource Development 1974 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is first expressed to the members of my graduate connfittee: Professor Lewis Moncrief, who made the financial support for the study available, had sufficient confidence in my abilities to allow me to largely plan and execute the research, and actively chaired the committee; Professors Raleigh Barlowe, Robert McIntosh, and Denton Morrison, who served on the committee and lended their wise assistance to the planning of my program and development of this study. As a group and individually, these men worked with me and in my behalf during the period of my graduate training at Michigan State. Several fellow students also participated in the project. Their contributions were put forth both formally and informally. Reckoning with their ideas was to my advantage. Included in this group of good friends and student colleagues are Charles Aldini, Robert Manning, David Mihalic, and Daniel Stynes. Their presence made my stay at Michigan State much more enjoyable and enlightening than it would have been in their absence. The staff of the Recreation Research and Planning Unit, Jean Geis, Mary Casanova, Laura Nelmers, Anne Mills, and Daniel Stynes. was relied upon heavily for several different types of assistance. I am blessed with a family in which we comfort, cheer, and appreciate one another. My gratitude to the three feminine jewels of WW personal Triple Crown, Nancy, Parke, and Heidy, cannot be adequately expressed. Through them, I am fulfilled. ii The Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission funded the study through Technical Assistance Project #10320168. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY . TRAVEL-BASED ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT . Impacts in the Economy . . . . . . . Impacts on Social Institutions . Impacts on the Natural Environment THE ROLE OF BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH IN TRAVEL DEVELOPMENT . OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH . Decision Making Between Spouses . Decision Making Between Parents and Children Assessment of Place and the Destination Decision . Travel Decision Making and Travel-Based Economic Development . . II. REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE SOURCES OF TRAVEL MOTIVATION DECISION MAKING IN THE FAMILY . . Patterns of Decision Making Between Spouses Patterns of Decision Making Between Parents and Children . . . . . . . Family Ideology and Role Definition . THE ASSESSMENT OF PLACE LITERATURE . The Attitudinal Perspective . . . . . . . The Imagery Perspective . . . . . Sensory Psychology and Psychotherapy . . . Marketing and Travel . . . . . Geography . . The Environmental Perception Perspective iv Page ii vii ix CIJU'H—u-n| 11 12 13 14 15 17 17 20 20 24 25 26 27 28 31 32 Chapter III. CONCEPTS, THEIR MEASUREMENT AND HYPOTHESES . CONCEPTS AND THEIR MEASUREMENT . Decision Making Between Spouses . . Decision Making Between Parents and Children . Family Ideology Assessment of Place Exposure to the Region Travel for Pleasure Purpose of Pleasure Trip Social Class . Background Factors HYPOTHESES TO BE TESTED The Destination Decision . The Route and Lodging Decisions Family Ideology and Autonomy IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS . . . . . DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSTRUMENT . . . Pretest One . . . . . . . . . . . . Pretest Two . SAMPLING . . Definition of the Area to be Sampled Between County Sampling . . . . Within County Sampling . . . . Response to the Survey . . . . . . PERSONNEL AND THEIR TRAINING . CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE AND THE POPULATION Educational Achievements . Income . . . Racial Composition . . . Sexual Composition . Summary of the Check for. Representativeness PROCEDURES OF ANALYSIS . V. FINDINGS: THE DESTINATION DECISION PATTERNS BETWEEN SPOUSES . PATTERNS BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN . VISITATION OF RELATIVES AS THE ATTRACTANT ASSESSMENT OF PLACE IN THE DESTINATION DECISION SOCIAL CLASS AND EXPOSURE . V Page Chapter SUMMARY OF THE DESTINATION DECISION FINDINGS VI. FINDINGS: THE ROUTE AND LODGING DECISIONS THE ROUTE DECISION. Patterns Between Spouses . . . Patterns Between Parents and Children . THE LODGING DECISION . . . . . . . . . . Patterns Between Spouses . . . . Patterns Between Parents and Children . . . VII. FINDINGS: FAMILY IDEOLOGY, AUTONOMY, AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOR FAMILY IDEOLOGY AND TRAVEL SOCIAL CLASS AND VISITATION OF RELATIVES AUTONOMY IN TRAVEL DECISION MAKING . Social Class and Autonomy . . . . . . . Age and Autonomy . SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER VIII. SUMMARY, POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS, AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . SUMMARY POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS . . Recognition of Children as Travel Decision Makers . Researching Assessment of Place As a Destination Promotion Tool . . . Attracting the Traveler that Regularly Visits Relatives . . . RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS . . Further Study of the Role of Children in Travel Decision Making . Clarification of the Relationship Between Exposure and Assessment . Examination of Latent Influences on Perception of Natural Areas . . . Inquiry on the Causal Relations Between Income and Visitation of Relatives . . . Analysis of the Social Class and Autonomy Relationship LITERATURE CITED APPENDICES vi Page 82 84 84 84 88 91 91 94 98 . 103 . 107 . 107 . 109 . 111 . 113 . 113 . 116 116 . 117 . 119 . 120 . 120 . 120 . 121 . 122 - . 122 Distinguishing Between Decision Making and Influence . 123 . 124 . 131 Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF TABLES The County Within Each Stratum Selected for Study Response by County . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the Median Years of Education Completed by Respondents and the Populations Comparison of Annual Household Income of Respondents and the Populations by County . . . Comparison of the Racial Composition of the Sample and the Populations by County . Comparison of the Sexual Composition of the Sample and the Populations by County . . . Response to the Destination Question between Spouses by Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Response to the Destination Question between Spouses by Educational Level . . . . . . . . . . Response to the Destination Question between Parents and Children . . . . . . . . . . . The Age of Children Influence on the Destination Decision between Parents and Children . . . . Maternal and Paternal Patterns in Visitation of Relatives. The Polar Adjectives Used in Measuring the Assessment of Place Factor . . . . . . . . . . Intra—Regional Comparisons of Mean Scores on Each Scale County Means of the Summated Attractiveness Score Toward Each Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means of the Summated Attractiveness Score Toward Each Area by Exposure . . . . . . . . . . Exposure to the Region by Different Educational Groups - Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Page 49 51 55 57 59 59 63 65 68 68 71 73 74 76 78 82 Table Page 17. Response to the Route Decision Question between Spouses by Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 18. Response to the Route Decision Question between Spouses by Educational Level . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 19. Response to the Route Decision Question between Parents and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 20. The Age of Children Influence on the Route Decision between Parents and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 21. Response to the Lodging Decision Question Between Spouses by Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 22. Response to the Lodging Decision Question between Parents and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 23. The Age of Children Influence on the Lodging Decision between Parents and Children . . . . . . 95 24. Response to the Family Ideology Scales by County . . . . 101 25. Mean Scores on the Family Ideology Measure by Reason for Trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 26. Differences in Educational Achievement by Reason for Trip . 105 27. The Relationship Between Autonomy in the Destination, Route, and Lodging Decisions and Income Level . . . . 108 28. The Relationship Between Autonomy in the Destination, Route, and Lodging Decisions and Age Level . . . . . 110 viii LIST OF FIGURES Fi gure Page 1- The Sequence of Interest: Decision Making and Economic Development ................... 16 2 - Profile Presentation of Mean Scores on the Semantic Differential . . . . .............. 75 ix LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix IA. .0 Interview Schedules - Pre-Test and Final 1. Pre-Test Interview Schedule 2. Final Interview Schedule 3. Guide Map Given to Respondents Area of the Study and Selected Counties Letter Sent to Potential Respondents Matrices of Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Semantic Differential Scales - Michigan, Minnesota, Ontario, Wisconsin 1. Correlation Matrix Between Semantic Differential Scales Michigan Correlation Matrix Between Semantic Differential Scales Minnesota Correlation Matrix Between Semantic Differential Scales Ontario Correlation Matrix Between Semantic Differential Scales Wisconsin th Exposure to the Region by Different Educational Groups - Minnesota, Ontario, Wisconsin 1. Exposure to the Region by Different Educational Groups - Ontario 2. Exposure to the Region by Different Educational Groups - Wisconsin 3. Exposure to the Region by Different Educatibnal Groups - Minnesota Number of Children and Patterns of Decision Making Between Parents and Children 1. Nunber of Children by Response to the Route Decision between Parents and Children 2. Number of Children by Response to the Lodging Decision between Parents and Children Family Ideology Measure — Means and Correlation Matrix 1. Mean Scores on Each Scale of the Family Ideology Measure 2. Correlation Matrix between Family Ideology Scales X CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The attraction of non-resident travelers to an area is widely recognized as one of the means that can be used toward achieving the goal of more complete economic development at local, state, regional, and national levels. Travelers, directly and indirectly, stimulate the economies of destination areas through their expenditures. As a con- sequence of their presence and spending, levels of employment, income, and transactions are increased. Since changes in the economy lead to and reflect changes in the natural environment and other social institutions of any society, a review of traveler:' affects on areas should include a discussion of these two spheres as well as the economy. The interdependence of these three elements has long been known, but frequently neglected by reporters in each of the areas of inquiry. TraveleBased Economic Development Impacts in the Economy Travel-based development is most frequently justified on the basis that the residents of the destination locale will receive eco- nomic benefits from the spending of travelers. It has been written that economic benefits are one of few positive consequences of an 2 1 area's reliance on serving as a destination for visitors. A brief comparison between the travel industry and its related enterprises and other possible growth sectors should serve as a source of clarification on the travel industry's potential for creating and sustaining economic development in an area. First, the travel multiplier is generally low relative to other industries. Whether measured in terms of income generated or employ- ment induced, the travel industry's multiplier, the rippling effect that spending has through economic systems, is not particularly high.2 This is due to high leakage in the industry. This means that much of the return on the eXported product, travel and recreation, is lost through imports. A large proportion of the money coming into the area goes directly back out before circulating in the local economy. This leakage, however, varies under differing conditions. For example, locally owned EStablishments generate more local income and employment than do facil- ities of similar scale associated with regional or national franchise Chains. A second factor associated with travel development is its poten- tial for stretching local tax bases without adequate return. Infrastruct- ura1 costs required to service the travel industry are high and in some \ E 1Arthur D. Little, Inc., Tourism and Recreation (Washington, D.C.: CCONOmic Development Administratfim, United States Department of °mflerce, n.d.), p. 57. A S 2Wendell Beardsley, "The Economic Impact of Recreation Development: No yn0psis", in Recreation Symposium Proceedi_ngs (Upper Darby, Pa.: 19;theastern Forest Experiment Station, United States Forest Service, 1 ) . pp. 29-30. 3 areas the visitors, through sales taxes usually, do not cover the costs of providing the services and facilities that they necessitate. Examples of this are transportation facilities, public health measures, police and fire protection, and other services/facilities that may be necessary on a seasonal basis.3 It should be pointed out, however, that these cos ts are most often met through additional revenues generated by the travelers. A third consideration in evaluating the potential of the travel industry to lift local, regional, or national economies is the type of labor required by firms in the industry. This varies considerably by type of firm, but in general, tourism is a low-skill, labor-intensive industry. This is not true for many firms in the industry and does not reflect the situation in other sectors that may be travel dependent. In addition, the fact that many travel-based firms do largely rely on low- Skill or seasonal labor does not detract from their appeal in areas Where unemployment is high, wages are low, the labor force is poorly trained, and there are few development alternatives. Perhaps the most notable consequence of travel and recreation de- Velopment is increasing values of land. Beardsley observes that in- cT‘easing land values are distinctive economic changes caused by tourism de\Iel opments. Beardsley, in fact, reports that Cape Cod remained eco- nom‘i cally unchanged except for the rise in land costs when the national Seashore was created there by the Department of the Interior.4 \ (B 3Marion Clawson and Jack Knetsch, Economics 9: Outdoor Recreation a1 timore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), 'pwp. 247-248. 4Beardsley, "Economic Impact of Recreation", p. 31. 4 One of the areas upon which this study is focused, northern Michigan, is heavily dependent upon the travel and recreation industry. Since tourism has surpassed mining, agriculture, forestry, and other sectors and become "the leading industry of northern Michigan",5 it is appropriate to briefly discuss the impact of travel for pleasure on this particular area. As early as 1964, it was estimated that $118,400,000 was brought into and spent in Michigan's Upper Peninsula alone for tourism and rec- reational activities.6 If the northern part of the Lower Peninsula were included, if the substantial increases in levels of consumption were con- sidered, and if the influence of inflation were taken into account, then this figure would doubtlessly be higher today. Michigan ranks third in the nation in the number of second homes owned by its residents] A high proportion of these residences are loca- ted in northern Michigan on both peninsulas. In terms of per capita tourist spending, it was estimated in 1963 that northern Michigan re- ceived $175 per resident in expenditures by visitors. The figure for the remainder of the state was estimated at only $35 per year.8 5W. Paul Strassman, Economic Growth i_n Northern Michigan (East La"sing: Institute for Communfty DevElopment and Services, Michigan State University, n.d.), p. 5. M‘ 6Uel Blank and Clare Gunn, Guidelines for Tourism-Recreation i_n T‘\Chi1an's Upper Peninsula (Upper Peninsula Comittee on Area Progress, °Urism and RecreatTOn Subconmittee, 1966), p. 15. L . 7Conway Research, Inc., The Site Selection Handbook-Guide to Land, e1 Sure and Travel Investment, 1973 (Atlanta: Conway Research, Inc., 1973 , p. 6. A 8Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, ”\I) Economic Survey of the Northern Lake States Region (East Lansing: ‘Chigan Agricultural Experiment Station, 1967), p. 87. 5 Another statistic that adds perspective to the assertion of tourism's leading economic role in northern Michigan is the estimate that 13 per cent of the total sales and services generated in the area was due to spending by visitors. The level for southern Michigan was estimated to be only 2 per cent.9 Data such as these, despite legiti- mate questions as to their absolute accuracy, permits the observer to fully appreciate the reliance of this particular area on the travel trade. Other areas, around the Great Lakes, in Florida, and the Rocky Mountain West, are similarly dependent on visitors' spending. On the whole, tourism can seldom carry the economic development burden alone. Few, if any, industries are capable of doing so. In summary, however, it is clear that the attraction of non-resi- dents can contribute to the economic well-being of the distination area. The travel industry does carry with it several unique characteristics, such as seasonality, high elasticity of demand, and so on, which reduce its attractiveness as a primary growth sector. Yet in many areas where travel for pleasure is the major industry there are few other apparent Or feasible means of generating economic development. Impacts on Social Institutions It has been written that "institutions represent established a'I‘r‘angements in society and established ways of doing things. They 1."IVolve the working rules of society".10 Perhaps reflecting the \_ 9_I_tgj_d_., p. 88. C] , 10Raleigh Barlowe, Land Resource Economics, 2nd ed. (Englewood 1firs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972), p. 357. 6 priorities of economic growth, there has been little research devoted to assessing the institutional changes caused by or associated with reliance on travel as an economic base. Three reports, however, do merit atten- ti on. Each of the reports is primarily based upon observations of inter- national travel for pleasure and none of them are solidly supported by empirical research. Using the broad concept of institutional factors to apply to informal as well as formal arrangements between people in a society, each of these three reports can be appropriately considered under the heading of institutional changes brought on by travel develop- ment. The first report is directed toward the patterns of interpersonal relationships between host and visitor. Willis Sutton has attempted to illuminate the nature of the social bond that exists between the traveler and the residents of the distination area. He describes three unique "social qualities" of tourism. First, Sutton writes that both parties rtecognize the transitory and non-repetitive nature of their relationship. This mutual recognition of the temporary nature of the relationship can promote tolerance and forebearance. It can, however, also lead to attempts by either or both parties to exploit the other without fear of having to interact with the other person over an extended period of time.n The second characteristic of the bond between host and visitor, as discussed by Sutton, is the orientation to inmediate gratification. The host seeks to get a maximum return from the visitor while he can. \ S 11Willis Sutton, "Travel and Understanding: Notes on the Social 1“Cutture of Touring", International Journal g Comparative Sociolo ( 1967): 221-222. J! 7 The visitor, too, tries to pack all he can into a few days time. Oppor- tuni ties for a number of activities must be taken advantage of quickly or they are lost forever.12 The unbalanced level of knowledge of the two parties is the third distinctive characteristic of encounters between residents and visitors. The resident is usually familiar with local facilities and opportunities while the visitor may be quite ignorant of such matters. This assymetry in knowledge can produce suspicion, resentment, and exploitation. 0n the other hand, it can circumstantially lead to genuinely gracious assistance that is highly appreciated by the visitor.13 Taken as a group, Sutton's remarks reflect a certain ambivalence in the social consequences of travel upon an area. The interaction be- tween residents and visitors can be mutually satisfying or intolerable. The exchanges that develop in such a setting and the ramifications of such exchanges on the institutional patterns of resident relationships in the destination area have not received thorough empirical treatment. One rather casual attempt to generalize a sequence of the relation- Ship between visitors and residents is presented in Lundberg. The unit of analysis here is not individuals but rather different groups of per- sOns interacting over time. There is a continual turnover in persons "Eating one another because of the transitory nature of the travel exper- iehce. The sequence begins with a period during which visitors are warm- 13' received as benefactors by the residents. Later the residents realize that the travelers do not bring instant wealth to the host area and \ 12 13 I I U id. 0’ id. resentment of visitors increases. Lackadaisical treatment of guests, labor inefficiencies, and other manifestations of such resentment become apparent.14 This description was applied to the hotel and tourism development efforts of several underdeveloped countries. It was not created to point out the problems of tourism development in nations such as the United States. It does serve as a reminder, however, that the inter- action between residents and visitors can be quite strained. The final report to be covered was prepared by John Forster. For- ster also discusses the evolving changes in the attitudes of residents toward visitors but his paper is focused on the lifestyle impacts of tourism on residents. He charges that dependence on visitors' presence creates artificiality on the part of residents and changes culturally- 15 At the same time, travel devel- based behavior into mere performance. Opment does not necessarily serve as a source of cultural disintegration. Forster's remarks appear to be warranted for areas where travel reliance is excessive and where the cultural backgrounds of residents and visitors ill“£: widely disparate. These circumstances seldom exist in domestic des ti nation areas . Impacts on the Natural Environment The connections between the productive process and various natural s~3’=~‘.tems are well documented for many industries. Beyond research done .__““__ 1 9 14Donald E. Lundberg, The Tourist Business (Boston: Cahners Books, 72), .-192 193. 15John Forster, "The Sociological Conse uences of Tourism,“ Inter- ‘-~.e_§__onal Journal of Comparative Sociology 5 l964): 2l7- 227. 9 on different transport modes and on natural recreation areas, little analysis has been completed on the relationship between the productive units of the travel industry and the natural environment in which they are located. Much of the attention of observers has been focused on aesthetic issues associated with the travel industry. One chapter of historian Daniel Boorstin‘s book, Ihg_lmgge; 5.92199. tg_Pseudo-Events jn_America, is devoted to what he calls the "lost art of travel". Boorstin wrote of fundamental changes in American society which were largely due to advances in communications technology. He argued that pseudo-events had in large part replaced the genuine ob- servable reality of American life and places. Appearance, according to Boorstin, has displaced substance as the key to our evaluation of objects, persons, and places. Travel, he writes, is no exception. He writes of destinations which have evolved from an original attraction 16 to mere artificial substitutes of that attraction. The tourist's ex- pectations, created through exposure to various media, must be met or surpassed. Otherwise, he will be disappointed.17 As people are attracted to an area, firms to service them are also Pulled to it. The result is that many areas, in the words of Clare Gunn, ‘ 16Daniel Boorstin, The Ima e: A Guide to Pseudo- Events in America (New York: Harper and Row, 9 ,Chapter 3. 17The author is reminded of an incident that took place on a recent V1 511: to Everglades National Park in Florida. While walking along one of he elevated boardwalks out into the deep sawgrass, he overheard another V1 81 tor tell his wife that "it looks like just another marsh to me. " The °Uple was disappointed because it was during the rainy season and the :TT‘TM hole" was empty of alligators. Their expectations were not ful- ed. 10 have become "chaotic, awkward, and ugly".18 Gunn's professional life has been spent in trying to help localities avoid such problems. His point has been echoed by Lowenthal in his description of "visual schizophrenia" in American life.19 Overdevelopment and past construction of low quality and unsightly facilities now plagues many destination areas in the United States. These aesthetic concerns are shared by residents and visitors alike. The very qualities that appeal to both groups are ultimately destroyed by persons seeking to enjoy them. Concern with enhancement of a physical environment often emerges, however, when residents realize the way non-residents may perceive their area. In this way, the travel industry has contributed to the mainten- ance of the attractive features of many communities and wider geograph- ical areas. Several cities in the United States serve as prominent examples of these phenomena. These localities have sections, Fisherman's Wharf in San Francisco, the San Antonio riverfront, and the French Quarter in New Orleans, which have been preserved or developed to attract visitors. So again, it is clear that travel development can be attractive to areas in need of economic stimulation, cultural revitalization, and aesthetic guidance while at the same time potentially disruptive of these same elements of concern. This requires that great care be exer- cised in planning travel development projects of any type. The goal should be to minimize the negative and maximize the positive affects of _ 18Clare Gunn, Vacationscape: Desi ninT eTourist Re ions (Austin: Bureau of Business Research, universityo exas, 72), pp. 19David Lowenthal, "America as Scenery", Geographical Review 56 (1966): 115- 118. 11 travel on the economy, the social institutions, and the natural environ- ment of the destination area. Ih§_Role of Behavioral Research in_Travel Development If travel development is accepted as a development goal in an area, what potential roles could be played by social scientists, partic- ularly behavioral scientists, in the successful implementation of plans and reaching of goals? Behavioral scientists can fulfill two important functions in efforts of this type. They are the data-collection and the consumer study functions. The systematic collection of reliable information on the volume, characteristics, and patterns of visitors, facilities, and interaction between visitors and facilities/services has unfortunately been widely neglected in the United States during the past. Such data, if it is of sufficient quality and can be readily retrieved, is of great value to agencies and firms involved in the planning process. One observer of travel in the Upper Midwest has made several recommendations to the public sector regarding travel development. His first, and most heavily emphasized, suggestion involved building systematic data-gathering and 'research programs that would be coordinated with one another.20 Behav- ioral scientists can be useful in creating and maintaining such informa- tion systems. The second prominent role that can be played by applied behavioral Scientists involves study of travel consumers, their tastes, and their 20Donald 5- Lodge, The Development 9f Outdoor Recreation in thg_ QM Midwest (Minneapolis: Norfl Star Research and Development-Tnsti- tute, 19645, p. 123. 12 behavior. Qualitative and quantitative improvement of marketing and promotion activities are mentioned by Gray as one of two basic ways that areas can increase their share of the travel export market.21 The crucial role of promotion in travel development cannot be denied. Con- sumer, or visitor, research can be both conceptually and practically strong as it is done by the behavioral scientist. This study falls in the latter category of behavioral research as it relates to travel and recreation development and planning. It is a study of potential visitors to the Upper Great Lakes region in the United States and Canada. A genuine effort has been made in the develop- ment of this proposal to integrate conceptual concerns with the informa- tion needs of the sponsoring agency and other clients outside the academ- ic community. This is consistent with the approach called for by Hendee. This sociologist has ably presented arguments for the inclusion of both theoretical and applied questions in the planning of research on leisure behavior.22 Objectives gf_the Research This section is devoted to a brief discussion of the goals of the study. The points of attention are the decision making process between spouses in the family, the decision making processes between parents and children in the family, and travel opportunity perception by the indi- vidual. These comments will be followed by a short section which relates 21H. Peter Gray, International Travel-International Trade (Lexing- ton, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 197m, p. 126. 22John C. Hendee. "Sociology and Applied Leisure Research," Pacific Mlogical Review 4 (1971): 360-368. 13 the goals of the study to the broader goals of travel-based economic development. Decision Making Between Spouses Potential travelers face numerous choices in the planning and execution of travel for pleasure. The first of the major objectives, both conceptual and applied, of this study is to assess and analyze the patterns of travel decision making that exist between husband and wife. The decisions of interest are the selection of a destination, choice of a route, and selection of lodging facilities. Conceptually, patterns of decision making and sources of influence on the decision are of interest to observers of the nuclear family. The roles played by husband and wife in reaching a settlement on any type of issue before the couple reflect a good deal on the internal mechanics of their relationship. Travel for pleasure judgements, like selections of housing, employment, child-rearing procedures, and a myriad of consumer choices, involve mutual recognition of expertise or lack of expertise, trust, and role-playing between the spouses. In an applied sense, the determination of patterns of decision making is useful in preparing a product for the market and in developing awareness knowledge of its existence or utility. This is a fundamental concern to persons involved in the marketing aspect of private enterprise and, in a broader sense, the provision of services or facilities by the public sector as well. Knowledge of who makes the choice facilitates the efficient communication of information to the appropriate person. 14 Decision Making Between Parents and Children If attention is directed only toward the spouses of the family, study of the patterns of decision making is incomplete. Children are also involved in such processes and cannot be neglected by the careful researcher. For this reason, travel decisions reached between parents and their child or children are included as an area of inquiry in this study. As before, the decisions selected for analysis are the destination, route, and lodging choices. The remarks made on the conceptual and applied uses of research done on decision making and spouses apply equally well in this case. The roles occupied by parents and children in travel decisions are of interest to persons involved in both concep- tual knowledge generation and practical knowledge use. Assessment of Place and the Destination Decision The third point of attention in this study deals specifically with the destination decision. Perception of alternative destinations influ— ences the destination ultimately chosen by the potential visitors or the member(s) of the group selecting the destination. As with the other main objectives of this study, assessment of place as a research concern has both scholarly and practical uses. The body of scientific literature dealing with man's perception of the various environments in which he finds himself is growing rapidly. Natural and artificial places have been analyzed in the way occupants Perceive them. Micro and macro environments have also been studied from the viewpoint of the human perceiver. Analysis of this assessment data permits researchers to continue to generalize on the relationship between man and his reaction to the settings in which he is located. 15 The applied uses of such information are apparent. Potential and past alterations of the environment, regardless of scale, can be sub- jected to research with pe0ple evaluating such changes. Planning can be done with this consideration optimized within the constraints of the project. In travel development particularly, data on assessment of place permits greater efficiency in promotion and allows planners to base their judgements on a greater amount of information. Travel research, and leisure research in general, has been primar- ily oriented toward the third of Clawson and Knetsch's five phases of the recreation experience.23 This is the on-site experiences and activities phase of the total experience. Less attention has been paid to the first two phases: anticipation and travel to the site. Included in the anticipation phase is trip planning. Selection of a destination is integral in trip planning. This is the influence that assessment of place has on the destination decision. Other factors being equal, persons are more likely to journey to areas that they perceive as capable of fulfilling their preferences than to alternative areas of less attractiveness. Travel Decision Making and Travel-Based Economic Development The relationship between the attraction of visitors and economic development has been documented. Likewise, the role of decision making in travel has been tied to the attraction of visitors. The ultimate impacts of these decisions lie clearly in the realm of travel-based economic development. The possible contributions of behavioral research 23Clawson and Knetsch, Economics 9: Outdoor Recreation, pp. 33-36. 16 are not far removed from economic development efforts if these efforts are holistic and systematic. FIGURE 1.--The Sequence of Interest: Decision Making and Economic Development DECISION MAKING —> TRAVEL DEVELOPMENT In) ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Figure 1 presents the model guiding this study. An attempt has been made to describe the sequence of concern, from decision making to travel to economic development, in such a way as to facilitate under- standing of the apparent leap from inter-and intra-personal choice patterns to economic change. The exercise of individual and group tastes is the basis of economic systems. The manifestations of these tastes are behavioral acts. Understanding of economic development requires knowledge of such behavior as well as economic models. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE Sources gf_Travel Motivation A useful approach for classifying the reasons people take trips for pleasure is the distinction between "push" and "pull". Discussions of travel motivation tend to be oriented in one or the other of these two directions. These reports share themes that are found in many analyses of human migration. "Push and pull" factors influence the permanent migrant as well as the traveler. Wolpert's paper on the con- cepts of stress and strain and their role in a migrant's response to environmental pressures reflects this conceptualization.24 From this perspective, travel for pleasure may be seen as a temporary form of migration and the "push-pull" idea is helpful in categorizing litera- ture on travel motivation. Several publications have been released which include material on the psychological sources of travel for pleasure. These are treated here as "push" factors. Grinstein, a psycho-therapist, has written a paper on this topic from a psychoanalytical viewpoint and stated that: vacations may effect a change in the situation so that either the demands of the external world are temporarily reduced or the situation is so altered that the possibilities of dealing actively with some segment of reality are increased. 4 Julian Wolpert, "Migration as an Adjustment to Environmental Stress," Journal_gf Social Issues 22 (1966): 92-102. 17 18 This serves to enhance the feeling of mastery over reality, either directly or symbolically.25 This report concluded with Grinstein's observation that vacation travel is merely one way in which persons may "extend their ego boundaries."26 This is similar to a more general set of reasons covered by Lundberg. This travel specialist has presented a series of "push" factors. Included are: the need for change, search for the exotic, learning, to experience power, beauty, and wonder, ego enhancement and sensual indulgence, rest, relaxation and/or excitement, and others.27 His terminology is somewhat vague and overly generalized, but the point is well made that persons travel for a great variety of conscious and expressable reasons. Kaplan takes a similar approach in distinguish- ing between the form and content of the travel experience. Form refers to attitudes, expectations, and planning. Content refers to contacts with different people, places, and objects.28 The form and content idea is a convenient bridge to "pull" factors as content may be thought of as "push" and form as "pull" in this present treatment. Others have approached the travel motivation issue from the view- point of the destination of the traveler, rather than the traveler him- self. These discussions are here labeled "pull" ideas. Gray uses the terms wanderlust and sunlust in describing the two basic appeals that destinations may satisfy. Wanderlust is defined as: 25Alexander Grinstein, M.D., "Vacations: A Psycho~Analytic Study," International Journal gf_Psycho-Analysis 36 (1955): 178. 26Ibid.. p. 184. 27Lundberg, Tourist Business, Chapter entitled, "Why Tourists Trainal". . 28Max Kaplan, Leisure in America: A_Social Inquiry (New York: ”Tleay, 1960), p. 212. 19 that basic trait in human nature that causes some individuals to want to leave things with which they are familiar and to go and see at first hand different existing cultures and places, or the relics of past cultures in places famous for their historical associations, ruins and monuments.29 Sunlust is described as "a special type of travel which depends upon the existence elsewhere of different or better amenities for a specific purpose than are available locally."30 Using this dichotomy, destina- tions may be categorized as either satisfying sunlust, wanderlust, or a combination of the two drives. Gray's reduction of the multiple sources of travel for pleasure behavior into two basic forms is quite useful in considering the appeal of commercial destinations. It has no utility in accounting for visits to non-commercial locations. A prominent example is the function that vacations can have in what Dumaz- edier loosely calls "tightening family ties."31 A final approach that has been used in attempting to explain the pull of commercial destinations is Plog's allocentric-psychocentric dimensioning. Plog believes that both travelers and locations can be categorized using these concepts. Psychocentricity is used to describe a person who is self inhibited, nervous, and non-adventuresome. Allo- centric persons are characterized by "adventuresomeness, self confidence, a lack of generalized anxieties common among psychocentrics and a will- 32 ingness to reach out and experiment.with life." It then follows, ¥ 29Gray, International Travel, p. 13. 301bid. 31Joffre Dumazedier, Toward a_Society of Leisure (New York: Free Press, 1967), p. 134. 325tanley Plog, "Why Destinations Rise and Fall in Popularity," a Dapeer presented before Southern California Chapter, The Travel Research ASSociation, October 10, 1972. pp. 2-30. 20 according to Plog, that these "personalities" are drawn to destinations with similar “personalities". Plog's research has apparently shown that the distribution of these characteristics in the American population approaches normality. Psychocentricity and allocentricity represent the ideal types, or extremes, of the distribution. This approach is along the same lines as other studies which describe product-consumer matchups and is the final discussion of travel motivation to be covered. This review can be summarized with the generalization that travel for pleasure is a result of simultaneous pressures on the individual. He is pushed out of one area and drawn to another for a number of reasons, several of which have been discussed. Decision Making jg_the Family Patterns of Decision Making Between Spouses Murdock writes that a nuclear family "consists typically of a married man and woman with their offspring, although in individual cases one or more additional persons may reside with them."33 He re- viewed a massive volume of ethnological reports and concluded that an intra-family division of labor between the sexes is found in every known human society. This included both conjugal and consanguinial family structures. The reasons for the apparent inevitability of such a div- ision of labor lie in the biological makeup of the sexes and all cultures have reinforced these differences with a great variety of norms, values, and beliefs. Approaching the conjugal, or nuclear, family from a functionalist Viewmint, Zelditch set down the basic dimension of expressive and ‘ v— 33 P- 11. George Murdock, Social Structure (New York: Macmillan, 1960), 21 34 instrumental functions in the family. These concepts have been widely applied both in family studies and research on other samll groups and institutions. Expressive-instrumental functions were reviewed by Parsons and Bales. They wrote that: the instrumental—expressive distinction we interpret as essentially the differentiation of functions, and hence of relative influence, in terms of 'external' vs 'internal' functions of the system. The area of instrumental function concerns relations of the system to its situation outside the system, to meeting the adaptive conditions of its maintenance of equilibrium, and 'instrumentally' establishing the desired relations to external goal-objects. The expressive area concerns the 'internal' affairs of the system, the maintenance of integrative relations between the members, and regulation of the patterns and tension levels of its component units.35 Typically, the male performs instrumental roles and the female accounts for the expressive roles. The influence of each, however, is relative and not absolute. This has been verified in a large number of studies.36 The relationship between the traditional roles of husband and wife in the family and patterns of decision making between them should be apparent from the discussion above. Husbands generally make decisions in the instrumental sphere and wives generally make decisions in the expressive sphere. This broad generalization, however, hides a number of conditional and variable influences. 34Morris Zelditch, "Role Differentiation in the Nuclear Family: A Comparative Study," in Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales, Family, Socialization, and Interaction Process (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955), Chapter 6. 35Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales, Family, Sggialization, and interaction Process (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955), pp. 46-47. 35Murdock, Social Structure. pp. 7-8; Wilson, Sociolo : Rules, Roles, and Relationships (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1971), p. 300; Goode, 13E; FamiTy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964), pp. 69-72. 22 One treatment of the household decision making process as it re- lates to spending patterns, in particular, was written by Kenkel. Kenkel relates purchasing of goods and services to Zelditch's concepts of ex- pressive and instrumental functions and follows with a discussion of the substantial variation produced in these patterns by such factors as social class, ethnicity, age of the couple, presence of children, pres- ence of wife in the external labor force, and others. For example, Kenkel discusses the greater rigidity of the sexual division of labor in lower status households and the impact of such definitions of proper responsibilities on spending decisions.37 In doing so, Kenkel took the concepts of instrumental and expressive functions out of their original context. Parsons, Bales, and one of their contributors, Zelditch, rather strictly used these terms to describe extra-familial and intra- familial functions. Apparently, they are flexible enough to be cross- bred with other dimensions of family life. This study will follow Kenkel's lead and utilize the particular concepts somewhat more broadly than their developers did. Komarovsky wrote of similar variations in expenditure patterns and focused on social class differences. Her interest was in autonomy of spending decisions and she created a master hypothesis that is stated as: "there is greater autonomy with regard to expenditures at the bottom and at the top of the socioeconomic hierarchy than among the 37William F. Kenkel, "Family Interaction in Decision-Making on SPending," in Nelson Foote, ed., Household Decision-Making (New York: N.Y.u. Press, 1961). pp. 140-164. 23 middle classes."38 This curvilinear pattern, cutting across status lines, is matched by a point made by Kenkel on the influence of age on expenditures. He reported young and elderly couples are more special- ized in decision-making than couples in the middle age range.39 Several propositions set forth or discussed by Kenkel, Komarovsky, and Wilkening40 have been developed into testable hypotheses in the context of travel for pleasure for this study. Some research has al- ready shown that around seventy per cent of couples jointly select a 41 The questions here, however, go well beyond this vacation destination. basic consideration and include a greater variety of decisions that are made prior to or during travel for pleasure. Choices of routes and lodging, as well as destinations, are each activities that involve decision making processes. Variations in these patterns by social class and other factors also deserve examination. The basic questions revolve around the maintenance or suspension of roles more firmly established while the couple is going about its usual routine in its permanent residence. For example, does the wife who has homemaking responsibilit- ies at home also select the lodging on a trip? Or, are such responsib- ilities clouded and shared? Since travel involves "coping with strange environments", a traditionally masculine or instrumental function, 38Mirra Komarovsky, "Class Differences in Family Decision Making on Expenditures," in Nelson Foote, ed., Household Decision-Making (New York: N.Y.U. Press, 1961). p. 260. 39Kenkel, "Family Interaction," p. 154. 40Eugene A. Wilkening, "Joint Decision-Making in Farm Families as iegunction of Status and Role," American Sociological Review 23 (1958): ~192. . 41Harry Sharp and Paul Mott. "Consumer Decisions in the Metro- POIT‘tan Family," Journal gf_Marketing 21 (1956): 152. 24 perhaps the husband's role is expanded to include more expressionistic functions during travel. These questions are of both conceptual and applied importance. Conceptually, they involve specific responsibilities in the nuclear family. In an applied sense, as Kenkel points out, effective promotion should be directed to the person making the decision or exerting the 42 strongest influence on the final decision made. The integration of applied and conceptual concerns is apparent. Patterns of Decision Making Between Parents and Children There has been relatively little research conducted on the roles children play in family decision making. Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell have observed that "most studies have not attempted to measure the in— fluence of children in purchasing decisions" in their review of family influences on consumer behavior.43 This appears to be the case in the sociological literature as well. The role of children in travel decision making is, however, part of this study. Kenkel has pointed out that the life cycle variable is a key factor in decision making patterns. Included in the consideration of this influence is the age of the children, particularly the oldest child?4 As children increase in age, it is more likely that they will be in- cluded in the process. It is for this reason that information on the 42Kenkel, "Family Interaction," p. 162. 43James Engel, David Kollat, and Roger Blackwell, Consumer Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968), p. 336-. “Kenkel, "Family Interaction,“ pp. 151-152. 25 impact of children on travel decisions and the variation of their impacts between age levels was collected for this study. The number of children in the household is also influential, but this factor is correlated with the age of the oldest child. Family Ideology and Role Definition Ideological orientations of members of family groups are related to the expressive-instrumental dimension of functional responsibilities. Persons who believe in the traditional sexual division of labor tend to behave in much the sane way. The study of family ideology can be direct- ly traced to The Authoritarian Personality, a classic of modern social psychology. Levinson and Huffman were interested in how people believe families should function and how families should be structured. Included are relations between man and wife, male and female, and parents and children. They used a democratic-autocratic continuum in approaching the problem and summarized the two extremes by writing that: the autocratic extreme is represented by various forms of 'traditional family ideology' -- viewpoints which involve an hierarchical conception of familial relation- ships, emphasis on discipline in child—rearing, sharp dichotomization of sex roles, and the like. The demo- cratic orientations tend to decentralize authority within the family, to seek greater equality in husband-wife and parent-child relationships, and to maximize individual self-determination. The terms 'democratic' and 'auto- cratic' refer not to a simple dichotomy but to antipodes of a broad and internally complex continuum. These authors developed a scale, the Traditional Family Ideology Scale, for assessing an individual's position on the democratic- autocratic continuum. Factors covered in the scale include 45Daniel J. Levinson and Phyllis Huffman, "Traditional Family Ideol- 359’ and Its Relation to Personality," Journal _o_f_ Personality 23 (1955): 1. 26 Conventionalism, Authoritarian Submission, Extreme Emphasis on Discipline, Moralistic Rejection of Impulse Life, and Exaggerated Masculinity and Femininity. In their pilot studies, as might be expected, this scale correlated highly with the more widely used Ethnocentrism, Fascism, and Religious Conformity scales.46 One attempt to use this scale in the study of decision making roles within the family was on the whole unsuccessful.47 Regardless, the concept does offer attractive potential for expanded examination for sCholarly purposes of the relationships discussed in the section on the sexual division of labor and other concerns of this study. For example, are persons who are more autocratic in their family orientation also more prone to use their opportunities for travel to visit their relatives? There is some evidence which suggests that the more traditional, but also less affluent, members of lower strata do use their travel exper— iences to visit their kinfolk more often than persons higher in the stratification system. Are these differences between strata due to a variable familial orientation or to the usual lower costs of such visits to relatives? The Assessment of Place Literature In both scholarly and non-scholarly settings, assessment of place is a rapidly developing area of inquiry. For this reason the field is being subjected to a wide variety of types of research. Rapid develop- ment also, unfortunately, brings with it considerable confusion in 451616., pp. 264-265. 47wi111am F. Kenkel, "Traditional Family Ideology and Spousal Roles in Decision Making," Marriage and Family Living 21 (1959): 334-339. 27 terminology and methods. This section is an attempt to sort out and systematically discuss the various viewpoints from which research in environmental assessment is being conducted. The focus will be on the assessment of what Beck has called ego space. In contrast to objective space, the space of physics and mathe- matics, and immanent space, the internalized space of fantasy, dreams, and the unconscious, ego space is “the individual's adaptation of observed to objective space." This adaptation produces "a coherent and logically consistent view of sizes, shapes, and distances."48 Ego space is influenced by both objective and immanent space and a con- scious subjective perception of the physical environment is the con- sequence of this interaction. The Attitudinal Perspective Attitude is a generic term used by social scientists to describe a number of psychological phenomena.49 The classical definition of these phenomena is by Allport. He wrote that: an attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response 60 all objects and situations with which it is re1ated.5 48Robert Beck, "Spatial Meaning and the Properties of the Environ- ment," in Harold Proshansky, William Ittelson, and Leanne Rivlin, eds., Envirogmental Psychology: Man and 515 Physical Setting (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970), p. 137. 49.1.8. Cooper and J.L. McGaugh, “Attitudes and Related Concepts," in Marie Jahonda and Neil Warren, eds., Attitudes: Selected Readings (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966), pp. 26-31. 50Gorden W. Allport. "Attitudes," in Martin Fishbein, ed., Readings .iQJAttitude Theory and Measurement (New York: Wiley, 1967), p. 8. 28 For some reason, perhaps the term's "precondition to behavior" gener- ality, persons involved in research on environmental assessment appear to deliberately avoid using the concept of attitude. This is true despite the widespread use of attitude measures such as Osgood's semantic differential.51 Regardless, the term is seldom found in the literature on this subject. The Imagery Perspective In contrast, "images" and "imagery", as concepts, are haphazardly scattered across the landscape of the literature on environmental assess- ment. There are several indistinctly bordered disciplinary uses of these terms. A brief sorting procedure would appear to be of value at this point. Sensory Psychology and Psychotherapy Bugelski has written that "today we are taking images very serious— ly...but we still do not know what we are talking about."52 Bugelski has reacted to the casual use of the term and taken a rather conservative stance on what is and is not an image. He says images are "involuntary occurances, subject to no one's personal control."53 Furthermore, 54 according to Bugelski, they are not projected into the external world. He emphatically states that "reports of images are not images" and 51C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, The Measurement gf_Meaning (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957)} 523. R. Bugelski, "The Definition of an Image," in Sydney Segal, ed.,)Imagery: Current Cognitive Approaches (New York: Academic Press, 1971 , p. 51. 53Ibid., p. 56. 54Ibid., p. 53. 29 concludes his essay by writing that: I have tried to emphasize that imagery is an active process and not a thing in the sense of a object. If we think in terms of a verb instead of a noun, we will have made some progress. Perhaps we could reduce the frequency of usage of such terms as 'image' and 'imagery' while we raise the frequency of 'imaging'.55 To be more direct, the following viewpoints are presented on what constitutes an "image". Harrison and Sarre write that ”an image is an individual's mental representation of the parts of external reality known to him via any kind of experience."56 Others have placed images somewhere between hallucinations and perceptions on a scale of "correspondence to reality or perceived external reality". Both Short and Segal distinguish between percepts and images quite . clearly but are less precise in discussing the differences between images, hallucinations, dreams, and illusions.57 To this author, the use of the concept by Horowitz, a psychoanalyst, is the most attractive one found. This may be because of its breadth. Horowitz writes that images are "not mere imitations, but memory fragments, reconstructions, reinterpretations, and symbols that stand for objects, feelings, or ideas."58 He explains the development of images by saying that: 55Ibid.. p. 67. 56John Harrison and Philip Sarre, "Personal Construct Theory in the Measurement of Environmental Images," Environment and Behavior 3 1971 : 353. 57Segal, "Processing of the Stimulus in Imagery and Perception," in Ima e : Current Cognitive A roaches, ed. Sidney Segal, p. 97; Short, "The Objective Study of fintal Imagery," British Journal _o_f_ Psychology 44 (1953): 38. 58Mardi Horowitz, M.D., Ima e Formation and Cognition (New York: ARialeton-Century-Crofts, 1970 , p. T. 30 perceptions are retained for a short time, in the form of images, which allows continued emotional response and conceptual appraisal. In time, retained images undergo two kinds of transformation: reduction of sensory vividness and translation of the ima es into other forms of representation (such as words?. Or- dinarily, the transformation of images is automatic. 59 Horowitz has also phenomenologically typologized images, in what- ever form they take, according to their vividness, context, inter- 60 action with perceptions, and content. Underwood has related images in the visual sense to his broader concerns of memory attributes by observing that the visual attribute of a memory consists of images.61 This is consistent with the approach of Horowitz. It should be pointed out, however, that each of the discussions mentioned above tie images and imagery directly and closely to sensory mechanisms, usually visual. This is not particularly so for publications in other fields. Marketing and Travel A major concern of persons involved in marketing and promotion is brand, product, and company images. The use of the term in this field, however, is attitudinal, not sensory, in nature. Nelson used several fundamentals derived from sociological and psychological research on attitudes and called them “the Seven Principles in Image Formation“.62 61Benton Underwood, "Attributes of Memory," Psychological Review 76 (1969): 559-573. 62Bardin Nelson, "Seven Principles of Image Formation," Journal gf_ Marketing 26 (1962): pp. 67—71. 31 Others have used the semantic differential, an attitudinal measure, to study brand images.63 In the travel sphere, the semantic differential was used by Hunt to study the images of several Rocky Mountain states among residents of other parts of the country.64 A consultant group, working for the Texas Tourist Development Agency, conducted a similar study for that state.65 In both cases, the "product" was a spatial entity, just as the subject of this study is a geographical area. Geography Persons in geography have been active in the study of environmental assessments. Few, however, have used the term "image" in describing their conceptual concerns. Lowenthal and the previously mentioned Harrison and Sarre paper both have frequent references to this term. Harrison and Sarre‘s use of image has already been given and Lowenthal's is apparently based on a discussion in a book by Kenneth Boulding to be covered below.66 A brief review of the concept of image is needed at this point. What is meant by "image"? Is it a useful concept in the present research? First, it is now clear that "image" like "attitude", is a 63ui11iam Mindak, "Fitting the Semantic Differential to the Marketing Problem," Journal gf_Marketing 25 (1961): 28-33. 64John D. Hunt, "Image--A Factor in Tourism" (Ph.D. diss., Colorado State University, 1971). 65Belden Associate, Attitudes gg_Texas Among American Tourists (Dallas: Belden Associates, 1964). 66Harrison and Sarre, "Environmental Images," p. 353; Lowenthal, "Geography, Experience, and Imagination: Towards a Geographical Epistem- glggyég Annals gj_the Association 9: American Geographers 51 (1961 32 broad, generic term. The publication in 1956 of Boulding's The Igggg) in which the author used the term in an attitudinal sense,67 and its concommitant use by people in the media in contemporary American life have contributed to a broader use of "image". Outside of the sensory psychology field, its use is oriented toward attitudes and opinions held by observers, but with the retention of sensory qualities. Second, because of its shifting uses, it will not be conceptually used in this study. The lack of precision in its use substantially de- creases its utility in this kind of research effort. The Environmental Perception Perspective An emerging field at the interface of psychology and geography is environmental perception. Orientations toward environments at both extremes of the micro-macro continuum are being studied productively. The measures employed in these studies are frequently attitudinal, but unlike image studies, the environment to be evaluated is most often directly perceivable by the respondent. Canter investigated the judgements of persons toward living quart- ers. Subjects were shown pictures of an interior and exterior and asked to react to them through polar adjective descriptions. This is the semantic differential. The question pursued by Canter involved the clustering of the responses. Osgood's dimensions of evaluation, potency, and activity were not manifested. Instead, Canter found, using factor analysis, that character, friendliness, and coherence were 67Kenneth Boulding, Ihg_Image (Ann Arbor: University of Mighigan Press, 1956). 33 the dominant factors in judgements of these micro-level scenes.68 At an intermediate level, several studies have been reported on environmental perception. Lowenthal and Riel also used the semantic differential in comparative study. They compared responses to actual urban environmental settings and purely semantic relationships without environmental references. They found clusters on the following dimen- sions: beauty, ordered, fresh, smooth, rich, vivid, pleasant, clean, likeable, and light. These were differences between the "perceived" and the “imagined" studies, however, and the authors concluded that "the way we think we see the world is in many respects not the way we actually do see it."59 Calvin, Dearinger, and Curtin also examined, via the semantic differential, perceptions of locations intermediate in scale. They gave pictures of scenic areas to subjects and asked them to rate each area using twenty polar adjectives. Eight-five percent of the variation among scenes was accounted by two factors that emerged through factor analysis. These two factors were interpreted as natural scenic beauty and natural force. The authors pointed out the similarity between these two terms and the Osgoodian concepts of evaluation and potency.7O 68David Canter, "An Intergroup Comparison of Connotative Dimensions in Architecture," Environment and Behavior 4 (1972): 37-48. 69David Lowenthal and Marquita Riel, "The Nature of Perceived and Imagined Environments," Environment and Behavior 4 (1972): 206. 70James 5. Calvin, John Dearinger, and Mary Ellen Curtin, "An Attempt at Assessing Preferences for Natural Landscape," Environment and Behavior 4 (1972): 467. 34 The final group of studies involve grander Spatial entities - entire nations. Both Robinson and Hefner and Wish have examined, per- ceived or imagined similarities between nations around the world. Rob- inson and Hefner used a non-metric multidimensional analysis technique and showed definite clustering in two dimensions, level of economic development and democratic-communist.71 Wish's results were similar.72 The subjects were not stimulated by pictures of the objects in either case. One final task in this section remains. Four other reports should be covered before going to the next section. In the first one, by Golant and Burton, the semantic differential was applied in a study of the interpretation of various environmental hazards. Factor analysis displayed the emergence of four factors, stability, controllability, magnitude, and expectancy.73 Mercer and Lowenthal both review the uses and abuses of studies in environmental perception. Mercer's article is oriented toward the role of perception in leisure behavior.74 Lowenthal's is an overview of some of the energing empirical problems and problems in methods that should be given greater attention in 71John P. Robinson and Robert Hefner, "Perceptual Maps of the World," Public Opinion Quarterly 32 (1968): 273-280. 72Myron Wish, "Individual Differences in Perceptions and Preferences Among Nations," in Charles W. King and Douglas Tigert, eds., Attitude Besearch_Reaches New Hejggts (American Marketing Association, n.d.). 73Stephen Golant and Ian Burton, "A Semantic Differential Experi- ment in the Interpretation and Grouping of Environmental Hazards," figographi cal Analysis 2 (1970): 129. . 74David Mercer, "The Role of Perception in the Recreation Exper- ggnce: A Review and Discussion." Journal of Leisure Research 3 (1971): 1-276. '-----—- 35 research.75 In light of the material covered in this section, the concept chosen for use in this study is assessment of place. Image and imagery were rejected because of the multiple uses of these terms. Environ- mental perception was not acceptable because the spatial areas to be judged are not immediately perceivable. As will be shown in the section on measurement, attitude toward environments would be appropriate except that it is believed that the chosen concept should carry with it distinctly areal connotations. Craik uses the concept of assessment of place and despite its generality, it is a useful approach. Craik's process model for the assessment of places includes the elements of judges, presentation of displays, nature and format of judgements, and validational criteria.76 Assessment of place, or environmental assessment, is explicitly recognized as a broad, ambiguous term. The alternatives, though, are equally broad and perhaps more ambiguous. 75David Lowenthal, "Research in Environmental Perception and Behavior," Environment and Behavior 4 (1972): 333-342. 76Kenneth Craik, "The Assessment of Places,“ in Paul McReynolds, ed., Advances jg Psychological Assessment, Volume Two (Palo Alto, Calif.: Science andiBéhavior Books, 1971), p. 48. CHAPTER III CONCEPTS, THEIR MEASUREMENT AND HYPOTHESES Concepts and Their Measurement Discussed below are the major concepts of this study. Measurement procedures are included. These concepts, and the measures chosen to represent them, form the bases for the conceptual and research hypoth- ' eses that were tested. Decision Making Between Spouses This idea refers to habitual patterns of decision making, individ- ually or jointly made, between the head and spouse of the head of the household. For the purposes here, information was sought on the person or persons experientially or hypothetically making decisions on trip destinations, routes, and lodging facilities. This data was coded in two ways. First, the respondents were asked to indicate where, on a husband always - husband usually - joint - wife usually - wife always continuum, their spouses and themselves would be located regarding the destination, route, and lodging decisions. Second, their responses were placed into an "autonomous" versus "joint“ categorization. Husband always - husband usually and wife always - wife usually were considered as autonomous decisions. Joint decisions carried this label intact. Each of the three decisions of interest was treated in this way as well as in the first manner. 36 37 Decision Making Between Parents and Children Patterns of decision making between parents and children was ap- proached in a way similar to decision making between spouses. The con- cept refers to the roles that parents and children play in the de- cision making process and who makes the decision. Again, information was sought on the person or persons making decisions on trip destina- tions, routes and lodging facilities. The respondents were asked where, on a parents always - parents usually - joint - children usually - children always continuum, their family would be located regarding the decisions. Family Ideology Family ideology has already been reviewed as a concept. It refers to a person's ideals regarding relationships between the sexes, man and wife, and parents and children. Levinson and Huffman's Traditional Family Ideology (TFI) scale, short form, was used to assess the auto- cratic-democratic dimension of the respondents' family orientation. The TFI scale, short form, is composed of twelve Likert-type sub-scales. Numbers from one to seven were attached to the response categories which are strongly agree, agree, slightly agree, neutral, slightly disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree. The sum of the twelve re- sponses was used as the indicator of family ideology.77 Assessment of Place Assessment of place involves a person's subjective evaluation of the characteristics, both physical and non-physical, of a particular 77Levinson and Huffman, "Traditional Family Ideology." p. 268. 38 spatial entity. The semantic differential, a technique designed to measure the meaning attached to an object, area, person, or issue, was used to ascertain the poSitiveness-negativeness of the respondents' per- ception of potential destination areas. The semantic differential is made up of a series of polar adjectives. The adjectives that were chosen for this study are primarily reflective of perceived opportun- ities for pleasure travel in non-urbanized areas. Several attributes of the semantic differential make it an attrac- tive procedure for studies of this type. It has been productively used in several of the other studies of environmental perception and assess- ment that have been reviewed. Mean scores on any of the dimensions employed can be presented in profile form. Comparisons are thus facil- itated and easily understood. The individual scales can also be summed to represent the gross attractiveness level that the respondent possess- es toward the place or object in question. Exposure to the Region Extent of direct, physical exposure to the region in question may be an influential factor in assessment. Therefore, information was sought regarding the respondent's presence, at one time or another for any reason, within the area. An estimate of the number of nights, if any, spent in the area was also sought. Travel for Pleasure The concern of this study is intra-regional pleasure travel. Pleasure travel is travel undertaken under no formal obligation. Travel experiences of an intra-regional type are almost always accomplished in wheeled vehicles. Blank and Gunn's study of tourist development 39 reported that ninety-eight percent of visitors to Michigan's Upper Peninsula traveled by car.78 A Wisconsin study showed that eighty- six percent of that state's residents used cars to reach their va- cation destination.79 And Sebastian deGrazia flatly stated that "the fact remains that four out of five Americans do not go on vaca- tion where the family car won't take them."80 Given the areal bound- aries of this study and the well-established dependence on private transportation by Americans, only pleasure travel by car was con- sidered in this study. One study conducted in the Midwest showed that "about three in eight midwestern families took no 1968 vacation involving overnight stays away from home."81 This means that if data was sought on the respondents' travel for pleasure during the year previous to the study, almost one-half of them could not report. For this reason, questions were asked about the respondent's 1_a_s_t :c_r_i_p_ by car for purposes of pleasure, as well as the longest trip during the last year and the_ longest trip during the last five years. Longest here refers to dis- tance. Trip is defined as a journey during which the respondent was at least once more than one-hundred miles in straight line distance 78Blank and Gunn, Guidelines for Tourism-Recreation, p. 15. 79Nava Enosh, Rollin Cooper, Sydney Staniforth, and Rudolf Christianson, The Travel Behavior of the Wisconsin Vacationer (Madison: University6?"Wisconsin-E§tension, 1973), p. 14. 80Sebastian deGrazia, Q:_Time, Work, and Leisure (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1964), p. 106. 81William Rudelius, Allan Pennington, and Ivan Ross, "Analyzing State Tourism: A Case Study of the Midwest,“ Journal gf_Leisure Research 3 (1971): 254. 40 from his permanent residence. Business travel was not a subject in this study. Travelers moving about for purposes of business are an important source of revenue for several segments of the travel industry. However, they are not greatly influenced by promotional efforts and their travel tends to be routin- 82 ized to some extent. It is for these reasons that business travel was not included. Purpose of Pleasure Trip "The single most important reason given for taking the trip" is the definition of this concept. Examples include visiting friends or rela- tives, sightseeing, outdoor recreation, and similar motivations.83 If visitation of relatives was indicated as the purpose of the trip under consideration, note was taken as to whether it involved the wife's, husband's, or both sides of the family. Social Class Social class refers to a system of ranking, based on such factors as educational achievement, wealth, and family prestige, of persons in the social hierarchy. The income of the household in the year previous to the study and the educational achievements of the respondent were used as indicators of this concept. These variables were used both absolutely and categorically by levels of income and education. 82Western Council for Travel Research, Committee on Research Methods, Standards for Traveler Studies (Salt Lake City: Western Council for Travel Research, 1963), p. 7 83Michigan Department of State Highways, The Tourist in Mid- Michigan (Lansing: Management Services Division, MiChigan— Department of State Highways, n. d. ), pp. 43-45. 41 Background Factors The sex, age, and race of the respondent were also used in the an- alysis of the information gathered. These were collected to serve as bias checks and as influential factors on the levels of the other measures. The age of the oldest child and the number of children in the household were selected as variables with which to examine decision patterns between parents and children. Often they are taken as indi- cants of family life cycle or similar factors. Hypotheses tg_bg_Tested The hypotheses of this study have been developed from the litera- ture reviewed and involve the concepts just discussed. They are pre— sented below in the order of the analysis sections. Both the conceptual and operational or research forms are included. The Destination Decision 1. Conceptual: The selection of a pleasure travel destination is most often a joint decision. Research: More than fifty percent of the respondents will indi- cate that the destination decision is jointly made. 2. Conceptual: As children increase in age, their role in the destin- ation decision is greater. Research: The average age of the oldest child will be higher for the joint-children usua11y_- children always respondents to the destination question than the parents always or parents usually respondents. 42 Conceptual: Visitation to relatives more often involves visita- tion to the wife's relatives than to the husband's relatives. Research: A higher proportion of respondents will give "visiting wife's relatives" as the most important reason for taking their last trip than "visiting husband's relatives." Conceptual: There is a positive relationship between the amount of exposure to a region and the favorableness of its assessment. Research: Persons who have not visited an area have lower attract- iveness scores in the semantic differential than persons who have visited an area. Conceptual: There is a positive relationship between social class and exposure to a destination area. Research: Higher proportions of persons in the upper educational levels will have visited the destination areas than persons in the lower levels. The Route and Lodging Decisions Conceptual: Males are more likely to select the route to be taken, an instrumental function, than are females. Research: More respondents will indicate that husband always or husband usually reflects their experience with the route decision than joint - wife usually - wife always. Conceptual: As children increase in age, their role in the route decision is greater. Research: The average age of the oldest child will be higher for the jgjgt_- children usually - children always respondents to the route question than the parents always or parents usually respond- ents. 10. 11. 43 Conceptual: Females are more likely to select commercial lodging facilities, an expressive function, than are males. Research: More respondents will indicate that wife always or wife usually reflects their experience with the lodging decision than joint - husband usually - husband always. Conceptual: As children increase in age, their role in the lodging decision is greater. Research: The average age of the oldest child will be higher for the joint - children usually - children always respondents to the lodging question than the parents always or parents usually respondents. Family Ideology and Autonomy Conceptual: Persons displaying a high traditional family ideology orientation are more likely to say that visitation of relatives was the most important reason for taking their last trip than are persons low in this orientation. Research: Persons who say visitation of relatives was the most important reason for taking their last trip will have lower scores on the Family Ideology questions than persons who traveled to non-family destinations. Conceptual: Persons in lower class level families are more likely to say that visitation of relatives was the most important reason fbr taking their last trip than are persons from upper class level families. , Research: Respondents with lower education will say that visita- tion of relatives was the more important reason for taking their last trip than respondents with higher education. 12. 13. 44 Conceptual: There is greater autonomy in decision-making regarding the destination, route, and lodging at both extremes of the class factor than there is in the middle levels. Research: Higher proportions of the destination, route, and lodg- ing responses will be autonomous in the extremes of the income level grouping, while the middle levels have higher proportions of jgiflt.responses. Conceptual: There is greater autonomy in decision-making regarding the destination, route, and lodging at both extremes of the age variable than there is in the middle levels. Research: Higher proportions of the destination, route, and lodging responses will be autonomous in the extremes of the age level group- ing, while the middle levels have higher proportions of joint respons— GS. CHAPTER IV RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Develgpment 9f the Instrument The data collection procedure for this study was the personal in- terview. The merits of this approach relative to other procedures are well-documented.83 The primary consideration which led to the selection of this method was the length of the instrument. It was believed that the desired instrument was of such length, in terms of number of quest- ions, that a mailed questionnaire was not feasible. The personal inter- view was chosen because it allows for greater complexity, variety, and length of time in questioning the respondent. Pretest One One part of what was to become the interview schedule was pretested with student subjects in two locations. Lower level undergraduates in parks and recreation courses at Clemson University in South Carolina and Michigan State University participated in the refinement of the semantic differential measure of assessment of place. Thirty-seven Michigan State and forty-four Clemson students were given fOur lists of thirty polar adjectives. Their responses were used in selecting the the ten most discriminating scales for the final interview schedule. 83Delbert Miller, Handbook gj_Research Desi n ang_Social Measure- ment, 2nd ed., (New York: McKay, 1970}, Far II. 45 46 The four areas assessed were the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan and the province of Ontario. These places are serving as the potential travel development areas in this study. The three American states are included because their northern sections are in need of economic rejuvenation and appear to possess the necessary resources upon which greater travel development can be based. Ontario was also studied in terms of assessment. Its travel industry is highly developed, its government Spends much money to promote it as a destination, and it is a principal competitor of the three American states for the attraction of Midwestern travelers. The students' responses were examined in two ways for each of the four assessed areas. Pearson correlation coefficients and differences in means were used to choose the ten scales that were most discriminat- ing within and between the scales on the fOur areas. The resulting ten- scale measure is the destination attractiveness or assessment of place variable used in the final survey. Pretest Two The other sections of the interview schedule were pre-tested in the East Lansing, Michigan, area. Chunk sampling was employed in the interviewing of twenty-one adult subjects. This procedure permitted the editing and refinement of the entire schedule except the assessment of place section. Appendix A1 contains the pre-test form of the questionnaire. Simple frequency counts, chi square, and Pearson correlation coefficients were used to look at the measures involved and the relationships between measures. The final schedule used may be found in Appendix A2. A map showing a ring with a radius of 100 miles around the principal city of the respondent's home county was attached. 47 It was designed to help the respondent determine if the trip being considered qualified as a "trip" using the definitions of this re- search. An example of this map is found in Appendix A3. Sampling Definition of the Area to be Sampled A combination of judgement based on traveler origin studies and a review of one of the region's travel promotion agency's expenditure patterns was used in designating the area in which to conduct this study.84 A map showing the counties in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio that were included is in Appendix B. A total of one hundred forty- six counties in northeastern Illinois, northern Indiana, and north- western and central Ohio represented the survey area. The 1970 census showed that the population of this area was 18,844,111 persons. This was roughly 60% of Ohio's total population, roughly 75% of Illinois' total population, and roughly 80% of Indiana's total population.85 This belt of population south of Lake Michigan, south of the state of Michigan, and south of Lake Erie is the origin of most of the non-resident visitors to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ontario. It is for this reason that this particular population area was chosen as the location of the study. Its residents are 4 8 Campbell-Ewald Public Relations, "Proposal of Public Relations Services for Michigan Tourist Council,“ July 25, 1972; Ross Roy Incor- porated, "1973-74 Michigan Tourist Council Winter Advertising Proposal," September 6, 1973. 85U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Population: 1970, General Social ang_Economic Characteristics, Final Re rt E§_(1) - C15 Illinois, 812 Indiang,)C37 Ohio, (Hashington, D.C.: U.£. Government FFThting ice, 1971 . 48 potential pleasure travelers in the four destination areas being con— sidered and travel development would largely depend on attracting them. Between County Sampling Using the 1970 census reports, all of the counties in the area of the study were arranged in order, from the county with the largest number of residents to the county with the fewest inhabitants. Without altering this sequence, ten strata with approximately the same number of inhabitants were created. One county, or primary sampling unit, was randomly selected from each stratum of the ten strata. It should be pointed out that the use of this plan would ideally involve stratum counts of approximately 1,880,000 persons each. This is 18,844,000 (total population) divided by ten (strata). Obviously, approximations to this figure within each stratunlwere required. Cook County, Illinois, with a population of 5,492,000, alone constituted three strata and Cuyahoga County, Ohio, with a population of 1,721,000, alone constituted a stratum. Four strata were thus automatically non- randomly composed of these two counties. Beyond this point, random selection was possible. Stratum five was composed of two counties, stratum six of four counties, stratum seven of seven counties, stratum eight of twelve counties, stratum nine of twenty counties, and stratum ten of the remaining one-hundred and nine counties. The distribution of population is widely imbalanced in the study area and the number of counties within each stratum reflects this fact. 49 TABLE 1.--The County Within Each Stratum Selected for Study Stratum County Principal City I Cook, Illinois Chicago II Cook, Illinois Chicago III Cook, Illinois Chicago IV Cuyahoga, Ohio Cleveland V Marion, Indiana Indianapolis VI Lucas, Ohio Toledo VII Lorain, Ohio Lorain-Elyria VIII Sangamon, Illinois Springfield IX Wayne, Indiana Richmond X Fulton, Ohio Wauseon Coincidentally, the selection of Ohio and Illinois counties in four strata each, and Indiana counties in two strata closely reflects each state's proportion in the area's total population. A map showing the locations of each of these counties is found in Appendix 8. Within County Sampling Households were randomly selected from the most recent telephone directories of each of the chosen counties. After the names were drawn from the respective directories, a list containing names, addresses, and phone numbers was created for each interviewer. The interviewers were instructed to try and arrange interviews with a set number of respond- ents while going through their lists in order. This was an attempt to avoid a sampling bias in the direction of the more affluent or accessible households. The hazards of sampling through telephone directories are well known. Transients, many students, the very poor, and the very wealthy or prominent members of a community frequently do not have telephone service or have unlisted numbers. In the states where the survey was done, about 93% of the households do have telephone service. There are 50 ninety-four main residence phones per one-hundred households in Illinois, ninety-three per one—hundred households in Ohio, and ninety per one- hundred in Indiana.86 These are state-wide percentages. In addition to the households lost through non-service, another 6.8% of the households in the country have either unlisted or unpublished numbers.87 These figures are reported in order to give recognition to the possible biases involved in the use of this sampling procedure. Generally, the lowest and highest households in the stratification system are excluded. This means that statistical inferences, strictly speaking, are limited to the households in the actual sampling frame. In this study, these matters are not of major operational consequence. Response to the Survey The original plan involved randomly selecting eighty-four households per stratum. This meant that the response rate would be set at about 60%, since fifty interviews per stratum were desired. Each county except Cook County would contribute fifty observations and the total size of the sample would be five hundred. Cook County constituted three strata and its share of the total was one hundred—fifty. The original plan, however, required alteration. Interviewers had considerable difficulty in almost every county in obtaining their quota of interviews. For this reason, additional households were randomly selected in seven counties. This second drawing was 86American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Corporate Planning Organization, "Telephone Development by States," New York: 1973. . 87Ibid. mtt he 51 accompanied by a personal letter to the respondent requesting that an adult member of the household participate in the survey. This facilita- ted collecting the data since the stationery used was from Michigan State University. A copy of this letter can be found in Appendix C. Elimination of respondent suspicions that the survey involved solic- itation was useful in increasing the total samplw size. Yet it also introduced a potential source of bias in the assessment of place variable on Michigan. An attempt had been made, through the inter- viewers, to not identify the university sponsoring the research. The letter seeking cooperation meant that it was not possible to strictly abide by this rule. Table 2 shows the total number of names, addresses, and phone nunbers drawn for each county. It also indicates the nunber of inter- views completed and the response rate for each county. TABLE 2.--Response by County Interviews Stratum Cgugty_ Total Drawn Completed Response Rate 1, II, III Cook, Illinois 409 150 36.7% IV Cuyahoga, Ohio 108 39 36.l% V Marion, Indiana 119 43 36.1% VI Lucas, Ohio 99 45 45.5% VII Lorain, Ohio 94 50 53.2% VIII Sangamon, Illinois 107 50 46.7% IX Wayne, Indiana 98 51 52.0% X Fulton, Ohio 84 50 59.5% Total 1118 478 42.8% 52 There are several basic reasons why the response rates are not equal to the planned levels. First, the method involved the inter- viewer's calling the household and seeking to arrange an interview appointment. Residents of the counties with higher population levels, where the response rates are lowest, were hesitant to allow strangers into their homes. The interviewers were instructed to try and overcome this mistrust by fully explaining the reasons for the study and topics included in the survey. Nevertheless, they were simply voices over the phone and urbanites remained fearful of possible criminal intent or mistrustful of possible solicitation attempts. Secondly, the interviewers were bothered by inability to contact many households. In Cook County, for example, only one hundred-three persons actually refused to participate while one hundred fifty-six households were never reached. These persons had moved, gone on va- cation, had died, or their name, telephone nunber, or address in the directory was erroneous. The within county sampling procedure did not adequately take into account the volume of such non-contacts. A third source of non-response was limitations placed on the interviewers. They were instructed to interview an equal number of adult men and women. It is generally more difficult to arrange a session with men than women. The respondent also had to be living in a household in which the head was twenty-five years old or older. In addition, the respondent had to have been married during his or her lifetime. This qualification was included because the decision making responses depend on the respondent having interacted with a spouse or children. Together, these requirements further eroded the response rate in all of the involved counties. 53 Personnel and Their Training Minor problems with personnel could be listed as the fourth reason for the lowered response rate. The project necessitated the hiring of over forty women as interviewers. With a group of this size, breakdowns are to be expected. Illness, illness in the family, and the simple quitting of a couple of interviewers led to the gathering of 478 observations rather than 500. The deficits, though not of ma- jor scale, are most prominent in the four most heavily populated count- ies except Cook County. In Chicago, a supervisor was hired to select interviewers and to see that the Cook County segment was completed. In the other counties the interviewers were employed in three ways. A reference from a survey researcher in Illinois led to the hiring of the interviewers in Sangamon County. Interviewers in Wayne County, Indiana, Fulton County, Ohio, and Lucas County, Ohio, responded to a classified newspaper advertisement. The interviewers in the other counties were from a temporary personnel agency. The interviewers' experience ranged from working on dozens of surveys to none at all. Regardless of experience, all interviewers were required to attend a training session held in each of the counties. This session usually lasted about four hours. Principles and guidelines discussed in the Survey Research Center's Interviewer Manual was used in the training of interviewers.88 These training sessions, and a subsequent interviewer evaluation done a week after the interviewers had been trained and given their respondent lists, were finished in late May, 1974. The data collection phase of the research ended in early July, 88Survey Research Center, Interviewer Manual (Ann Arbor: Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969). 54 1974. Overall, the performance of the interviewers was satisfactory. Interviewers from the personnel agency did not do as well as the interviewers chosen in other ways. Interviewers in the larger cities had more difficulty in obtaining respondents than interviewers in the less heavily populated counties. Yet the severely disruptive prob- lems that could be a part of a study of this scale, supervision level, and dispersed pattern of sampling did not emerge. Characteristics 9f_the Sample and the Population This section is devoted to an examination of the representative- ness of the respondents relative to all the residents in the counties from which they were chosen. Four basic characteristics are used to compare the sample with the population. These are educational achieve- ment, income level, racial composition, and breakdowns by sex. Educational Achievements Comparisons between the male and female respondents and the resi- dents of the counties in terms of education are in Table 3. It appears that a reasonably representative group was interviewed. In one or two counties the respondents' level of last year of school completed was considerably higher than the population's, but overall, the medians are close to one another. 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Conceptual: There is greater autonomy in decision making regarding the destination, route, and lodging at both extremes of the class variable than there is in the middle levels. Research: Higher proportions of the destination, route, and lodging responses will be autonomous in the extremes of the income level grouping, while the middle levels have higher proportions of joint responses. Not Supported Age and Autonomy Just as it was suggested that autonomy is greater in extreme status settings, a companion idea was presented that suggested a similar curvi- linear existed by age as well. It was hypothesized that "there is greater autonomy in decision making regarding the destination, route, and lodging at both extremes of the age variable than there is in the middle levels." The thinking behind this suggestion was similar to that which lay behind the previous one regarding social class. Spouses at an early age are unsure of their partners' abilities, then they later demonstrate greater sharing of decision making. Still later in their marriage they tend to specialize more as habitual tendencies become set.97 The table showing the response patterns to the three decision areas categorized by age groupings is Table 29. It shows no systematic differences in level of autonomy for the destination and lodging de- cisions by age level. 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APPENDIX B AREA OF THE STUDY AND SELECTED COUNTIES ILLlNOUS Counties. Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. and Selected Places l 2 3 0 5 6 1 8 9 10 A A 9 8 C DAVENPORTROCK C D D E E y F G G l .4 H I ' I I 1 J J K K L L :1 IV (III. M M N N LEGEND © Plans 0! 100.000 0: not: "mount; 0 0 Plans 0! 50.000 to 100.000 inhabmnu O a Coma! cities 0' 5913': mm tum than 50.000 mum-m . 0 Places 0' 25.W0 to 50.000 inhabitant. wind: SMSA's I l ip and 11 um: “m" P' g , Sufikcl Mas (8.02303) 52.1% I“. l ' l t I v Q 0‘ -... ! 2 3 4 5 6 7 s 9 no J HDlANA )ounties. Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. and Selected Places l 2 3 4 5 9 7 8 9 10 ‘l A 3 0 C c 0 o E E V r G 0 I" " ' l J J K K t l. M M N N ° 0 LEGEND Hun of l00.000 a we mm P mm cl some to loosen mun“ P Comm «in at snsu s um low than 50.000 W nuuvnmunmsownuuumnawasuum tun ; T===—“— . . .u & Quad law “its! Ana (“I'll L—‘ 2 3 4 s o 7 a s Jxo‘ 16 -3 r.) 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O I. h D - “hull - |_ I 37-873 APPENDIX C LETTER SENT TO POTENTIAL RESPONDENTS MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPAR'I'MI'N'I 0|" PARK ANI) RHLRI'ZA‘I'IUN RI’LSOURCI‘S liAS'I‘ [ANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824 NATURAL RI'ISOLERCI'ZS BUILDING June 10, 197a Nan Frank Belacek 3&29 West 60th Place Chicago, Illinois 60629 Dear Mr. Belacek: As part of its continuing effort to maintain economic prosperity in this country, the United States Congress created The Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission. The Commission's responsibilities include the attraction of desirable industries to the northern sections of“Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Nflchigan. It also sponsors research and.we are now conducting a study for the Commission in selected Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois counties. Cook County is one of these counties. Your household has been selected as one of the Cook County interview points. The interview takes about 30-h5 minutes to complete and is focused on travel for pleasure. ‘We have fOund that almost everyone interviewed has enjoyed the session since the topic is interesting and no sensitive informa- tion is sought. 'We are writing you to ask for your cooperation on this project. An inter- viewer will call your household in the next few days and seek to arrange a meeting with you at your home at your convenience. we believe that this is preferable to simply knocking on your door without notifying you. 'We need your help. Your assistance is very much appreciated. If you have questions about the study or your role in it, feel free to call us collect at 517-353-O6h6 and we will answer your questions. Sincerely, Pam... Paul B. Myers, Project Coordinator XTI’WW/ ‘Lewis F. Mbncrief, Project Director APPENDIX D MATRICES OF PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES-MICHIGAN, MINNESOTA, ONTARIO, WISCONSIN mow. ml mm“. mm“. OOI «me. new. 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