. 53...... T . . A .. .2. .3. 7.1:}: . T... 7.1...5 .... TIL . .2. . . . . .f......:-. .. .‘ v . . V . .. ; .. : nrjém emu 5A }. W“ w ”an" 3; H ‘ a . ‘ .. - . ‘ . .‘ , . . www.cuiwwwfiwfiwn Mm.- LIERARY '1 Michigan SW59 University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE RELATIONSHIP OF BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL INSTRUCTION TO THE ACHIEVEMENT AND SELFBCONCEPT OF SEVENTH GRADE MEXICAN-AMERICAN STUDENTS presented by Xavier A. Del Buono io .‘P . insr ‘ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoDo degree in Educational Administration fling” Mag r professor Date JUNE. /0,1 /91/ MIN 5 ‘ llMIIIII 3 1293 100 pal MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: P1ace in book drop to remove this checkout from ; LIBRARIES _ ‘ - your record. FINES W111 I be charged if book is returned after the date CW stamped below. F“ ‘ - ”2511 l . W ‘2 . P , ‘ 732-56 ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP OF BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL INSTRUCTION TO THE ACHIEVEMENT AND SELF-CONCEPT OF SEVENTH GRADE MEXICAN-AMERICAN STUDENTS BY Xavier A. Del Buono Introduction Mexican-American educators, parents, and community groups are seeking new and innovative ways to provide bet- ter educational opportunities for Spanish-speaking students. Since it is generally accepted that a major obstacle to educational achievement among students from this population is the differences in language and cultural background between themselves and the schools, emphasis is being given to bilingual/bicultural school programs. The literature in this field reveals many studies of the phenomenon of bilingualism but few studies relate directly to bilingual education and its effect on school achievement and student academic self-concept. However, the literature does reveal several basic constructs related to the achievement and self-concept of bilingual students. It is evident that students from bilingual backgrounds often lack essential communication skills and this has an adverse effect upon their achievement, as measured by standardized Xavier A. Del Buono tests. Bilingual students are culturally different from other, monolingual students and demonstrate that the values held in the home are different from those held in the commu- nity as a whole. These students may have somewhat higher potentialities than monolingual students from a similar environment, but may not be encouraged by their cultural background to value certain personality characteristics which contribute to school achievement in traditional schools. It is also evident from the literature that the student's self-concept may be affected by the conditions of poverty, language difficulties, and migration; and that teachers may have an influence on the self-concept. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to probe the relation- ship of a bilingual/bicultural school program and the achievement and academic self-concept of Mexican-American seventh grade students. The premise held was that Mexican- American students who were taught subject matter in their native language for a portion of the school day and received systematic, sequential instruction in English as a Second Language would achieve greater and have more positive self! concepts of their ability to achieve in school than a simi- lar group of Mexican-American students in a regular school program. Xavier A. Del Buono Design of the Study The design of this study was descriptive. Pre- existing groups were compared on their mean post-test scores on achievement in social studies, reading, language, and academic self-concept. Data were also gathered on socio- economic status and mental ability of the population sample. In the multivariate analysis of covariance the SES and mental ability were held as covariates and student scores on the Stanford Achievement Subtests, Social Studies, Paragraph Meaning, Language; and on the General Self-Concept of Abil- ity Scale were used as dependent variables. Findings Within the basic framework of this study and the population sample selected, the hypotheses tested provided certain insight as to the relationship of the bilingual/ bicultural instructional program and school achievement and academic self-concept of Mexican-American seventh grade students. In the multivariate analysis of covariance it was found that when the Stanford Achievement Subtests, Social §tpdies, Paragraph Meaning and Language; and the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale were used as the dependent variables to measure school achievement and academic self- concept, there were differences in the group mean scores between students in the program and students in the compari— son group. These differences favored the students in the bilingual/bicultural program. Xavier A. Del Buono The univariate analysis of variance indicated that differences occurred between the group mean scores in social studies, language, and academic self-concept, but no differ- ence was found in the test for paragraph meaning. There was no difference in the analysis between the sexes, nor was there significant interaction between sex and treatment. Although it cannot be stated that the cause for the differences found was the direct effect of the treatment, it can be concluded that MexicanrAmerican seventh grade stu- dents in the bilingual/bicultural program did significantly better in school achievement and had more positive self- concepts of their ability than did Mexican-American seventh grade students in the traditional program. THE RELATIONSHIP OF BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL INSTRUCTION TO THE ACHIEVEMENT AND SELF-CONCEPT OF SEVENTH GRADE MEXICAN-AMERICAN STUDENTS BY Xavier A. Del Buono A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 9 Department of Administration and Higher Education 1971 DEDICATION To my wife, Eunice, and my sons, Michael, Carlos, and David, whose love means everything to me. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express a special acknowledg- ment to Dr. Stanley Hecker for his support and guidance as his major professor; and to Dr. Louis Romano, Dr. Glenn C00per, and Dr. James McKee for their willingness to serve on his guidance committee. To Dr. Donald Leu for having provided the Opportu- nity and incentive to enter the doctorate program and for his teaching and counseling, the author expresses his sin- cere appreciation. The author is forever indebted to his wife, Eunice, for her love and encouragement; and to his sons, Michael, Carlos, and David, for their mature understanding during our year at Michigan State University. Finally, the author wishes to acknowledge his heartfelt appreciation to his mother, Esther, and his father, Antonio Del Buono, for their encouragement and support during all his years as a student. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 ii ACKNOWLEDGWNTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 iii LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Vi Chapter I 0 THE PROBLEM. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Significance of the Problem. . . . . . . . . 7 Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . 10 Summary and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . 11 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . 13 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 PART I Bilingualism and Intelligence. . . . . . . . l4 Motivational Factors Related to Second Language Learning . . Biculturalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Bilingualism and Biculturalism . . . . . . . 21 History of Bilingualism. . . . . . . . . . . 26 Bilingual Schooling. . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Needs Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Curriculum Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Community Involvement. . . . . . . . . . . 41 Program Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Teacher Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Mother Tongue Development. . . . . . . . . . 50 Second Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . 54 Biliteracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 iv III. IV. \ V. PART II Self-Concept and School Achievement. Factors Affecting the Self-Concept . The Teacher's Relationship to the Student's Self-Concept . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DESIGN OF THE STUDY. . . . . . . . . . Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of th Population Sample. The Junior High School Bilingual/ Bicultural Program . . . . . . . . The Comparison Junior High School Program. Source of the Data . Design of the Study. The Hypotheses . . . Statistical Model. . Summary. . . . . . . ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . Findings of the Study. . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . Conclusions. . . . Implications . . . Recommendations. . .APPENDICES A. B. C. D. CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT AND SWLE LESSON. 0 O O O O O O O I O CATEGORIES FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS INDEX GENERAL SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALE. STUDENT INTRODUCTION TO THE SPANISH SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM FOR BILINGUAL STUDENTS. BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Page 80 84 89 92 93 93 94 95 99 100 102 103 104 104 107 107 107 114 115 115 117 118 120 123 152 154 156 160 Table 3.1. 4.5. 4.6. LIST OF TABLES Sample of Students in the Study by Group and Sex . . . . . . . . Racial and Ethnic Composition of Schools in the Sample by Percentage . Mean Scores on Stanford Achievement Subtests, Paragraph Meaning, SociaIIStudies, and Lan ua e; and General Self-Conggpt of Ability Scale by Treatment and Sex. . . . . Multivariate Analysis of Variance . Univariate Analysis of Variance Social Studies. . . . . . . . Univariate Analysis of Variance Paragraph Meaning . . . . . . Univariate Analysis of Variance Univariate Analysis of Variance Self-Concept. . . . . . . . . vi for Language. Page 74 95 108 108 110 111 112 113 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction This investigation is aimed at determining the rela- tionship of bilingual/bicultural instruction and a unilingual instructional program to the school achievement and self- concept of Mexican-American children. A comparison is made of the results of two instructional programs for junior high school students in a Midwestern city. In one program Mexican-American students were taught social studies in their native language, Spanish. The social studies curriculum included units of study on the history and cultural heritage of the Mexican-American, as well as some instruction in Spanish language skills. One period a day was devoted to instruction in English as a Second Language (E.S.L.). Students in the comparison group were Mexican-American students placed in regular classes in different schools. They received no instruction in English as a Second Language. Educational statistics derived from Census data pro- vide a discouraging picture of the educational status of Mexican-Americans. Taking the Southwest and Midwest as a whole, Mexican-Americans on the average have about eight years of schooling, or four years less than Anglos. Educa- tional statistics must be scrutinized closely, however, by state and county and city. In Texas, for example, 40 per cent of all Mexican-Americans are functionally illiterate. Obviously, the drop—out rate among Mexican-Americans is very high, with most of the drop-outs occurring by eighth or ninth grade. High drop-out rates at the high school level then come as no surprise, and they appear more ominous when they occur in urban settings where occupations require rela- tively high levels of skill and education. Nor is it sur— prising that Mexican-American enrollments in college are low. About 2 per cent of California's college population, for example, is of Spanish surname. Educators generally agree that the cultural and lin- guistic differences between Spanish-speaking Mexican-American children and the language and value system of the school are major factors contributing to their relative lack of educa— tional success, and to the negative self-concept often observed in these children. The requirement of living in two cultures and communicating in two languages has created among Mexican-American youth many problems of identity and of learning. Their parents have attempted to preserve an honored and ancient legacy from Spain and Mexico, and at the same time, have tried to adapt their way of life to the cul- tural press of the dominant Anglo community. A significant barrier in the acculturation process between the Mexican-American and the culture-at-large is language. :ranuel (1935) commented directly on this barrier by stating: The first source of difficulty is one that really affects us all -- the division of the community into contrasting groups, English-speaking and Spanish- speaking, each with a lack of understanding of the other. After more than a century of living together, in many respects, we are still a divided people. (pp. 188-202) Another major barrier to the acculturation process and to school success of the Mexican-American child has been the schools' insistence on using English as the only lan— guage of instruction. In discussing this, Sanchez (1963) commented: . . . the schools have not only not seized upon Spanish as a natural cultural resource and means by which to bring about proficiency in the English lan- guage -- not only have we failed by this omission but, by commission, we have placed a stigma on the use by children of their mother tongue! We speak of Spanish- speaking children as having a language handicap, we forbid the use of Spanish and even punish children for speaking it -- while all the time we give lip service to the wisdom of learning foreign languages, and our government spends millions supporting programs that aim at teaching a foreign language to monolingual English- speaking students in high school and college. (p. 10) The literature in the area of sociolinguistics affirms the statement that language is both a vehicle of cul- ture and a reflection of culture. -Language is an important part of the characteristic behavior of a people bound together in a culture. It is intimately related to a particular way of feeling, thinking, and acting, and it is rooted in and reflects a commonly accepted set of values. There is, there- fore, an intimate relationship between the child, his family, his community, his language, and their view of the world. How to harmonize these with American English and with pre- vailing American culture patterns without damaging the self- concept of a non-English speaking child is a real challenge \‘ to educators:/ In bringing this message to the educator, Chavez and Ericksen (1957) stated: Unless teachers in bicultural communities understand the differences in values between the two cultures, they will define as unacceptable the many forms of behavior that are usually in the foreign culture. Living in a bicultural community should be viewed as an opportunity to develop international understanding. (p. 199) Another important factor affecting the education of the Mexican-American child is the proper ordering of lan- guage skills. There is general agreement that just as a child first learns to hear, understand, and speak his own language and then learns to read and write it, so should he learn his second language in the same way.;-What is not under- .- stood or accepted by many educators is that a Spanish-speaking child who has lived his first five or six years in a Spanish— Speaking family and community is ready to learn to read and write Spanish but not English.; The enactment of Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Bilingual Education Act, in January, 1968, has provided the framework and financial resources to promoteJexperimentation and planning of bilin- gual and bicultural educational programs. A review of the program pr0posals submitted for funding in California shows a wide range of stated goals and objectives for bilingual education. Three major classifications of purpose are readily identified: 1. To educate all children bilingually. 2. To educate the linguistic minority bilingually. 3. To transfer from one medium of instruction to another. The vast majority of the 26 approved projects fall into the third classification. A review of these programs indicates, as evidenced by the stated purposes of the exist- ing programs, that there is much ambiguity as to the bene- fits to be realized from a bilingual/bicultural educational program for Spanish/speaking children. There is a need for empirical evidence to profile the effects of bilingual/ bicultural programs on the educational status of Mexican- American children. 'The current literature on bilingualism gives limited information on the organization of bilingual schools, on the content and teaching-learning process, and their relationship to school achievement and self—concept of bilingual children. There is a need to organize and present- the research and writings related to effective program develOpment in bilingual education. Purpose of the Study This study investigated the relationship between bilingual/bicultural instruction and student achievement and self-concept of ability of Mexican-American seventh grade students. The following major hypothesis and subhypotheses were explored: Major Hypothesis: Mexican-American students enrolled in bilingual/bicultural instructional programs will tend to have higher achievement in school subjects and a more positive self-concept of ability than a similar group of Mexican-American students enrolled in traditional school programs taught only in English. Subhypothesis A: Mexican-American students in the bilingual/ bicultural program will have greater achievement in reading comprehension as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test, Paragraph Meaning than students in the comparison group. Sybhypothesis B: Mexican-American students in the bilingual/ bicultural program will have greater achievement in language as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test, Language_than students in the comparison group. Sybhypothesis C: Mexican-American students in the bilingual/ bicultural program will have greater achievement in social studies as measured by the Stanford Achieve- ment Test, Social Studies than students in the com- parison group. Subhypothesis D: Mexican-American students in the bilingual/ bicultural program will have more positive self-concepts of their academic ability as measured by the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale than students in the comparison group. This study also includes a review of the litera- ture and research in the various fields that are considered important elements in the development of bilingual education programs. Significance of the Problem Among the multitude of problems facing public educa- tion in recent years, none has demanded more attention than the question of deveIOping realistic and relevant programs for economically disadvantaged children from different cul- tural and linguistic backgrounds. The uneasiness of our national conscience is reflected in the many outpourings of legislation and monies for the specific purpose of improving educational opportunities for all_pupils, regardless of race, color, creed, or national origin. In the schools of Califor- nia and the Southwest a large percentage of these children from low-income families are of Mexican descent. For these thousands of Spanish-speaking children from Mexican families, the public schools have not kept the glibly made promise of an education which may prepare them for productive adult roles in the economic and social life of our nation.£[These children have brought their language and their cultural back- grounds to our classrooms with the same enthusiasm and high expectations that all children so trustingly place in the hands of their teachers. Many schools, however, have rejected their language, have minimized their culture, and have ignored their identity. They have insisted that the Spanish and Indian heritage of these children be left outside the class- room doors. They have stripped these Spanish-speaking pupils of many strengths; they have expected them to find their way in an instructional program that has been built upon a dif- ferent system of values, an unfamiliar culture, and an alien language:) LiThese school practices have had a significant effect I‘ on the concept Mexican-American students hold of themselves as school learnersgaiThe negative attitude toward their lan- guage and cultural heritage and the limited success of tra- ditional programs to teach them English has, in effect, convinced many that they are incapable of normal or superior achievement in school. This negative self-concept of his ability as a school learner functionally limits the learning of many students and is a factor that prevents them from I ; working at their maximum level.; Such educational practices are not consistent with the stated goals of respect for the unique worth of each individual, of the development of each pupil to his fullest potential, and of equality of opportunity for all children. Nor are such practices in keeping with the national need for linguists in government, in business, and in our schools. The present avenue of education, then, as a means of upward social mobility has become a dead-end street for far too many Spanish-speaking children. The Congress of the United States has found that one of the most acute educational problems in the United States is one which involves millions of children of limited English-speaking ability because they come from environments where the dominant language is other than English. It has now declared it to be the policy of the United States to provide financial assistance to local educa- tional agencies to provide and carry out new and imaginative elementary and secondary school programs designed to meet these Special educational needs. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined, as used in this study, for clarity to the reader: 1. Bilingual Education -- throughout this disserta- *3 tion this term shall refer to an instructional program which uses concurrently, two languages as mediums of instruction in any portion of the curriculum except the languages themselves. 2. Unilingual Instruction -- in this dissertation this term shall be used to describe an instruc- tional program which uses one language as the medium of instruction. 3. Culture -- in this dissertation this term shall refer to a system of meanings, methods, and values which develOp from the common frame of reference of a social group, and which remain relatively constant while the composition of the group changes. 4. Mexican-American -- this label shall be used in thIs dissertation in reference to Americans of Mexican descent. 10 5. Self-Concept -- throughout this dissertation this term shall refer to the general self-concept of ability based on the proposition that the ways in which a student views himself and his world are (1) products of how others see him, and (2) pri- mary forces in his academic achievement. Delimitations of the Study The stated goals and objectives of existing bilingual education programs develOped under the guidelines for the Bilingual Education Act, ESEA Title VII include the improve- ment in school achievement and change toward a more positive self-concept for participating students. This study is an attempt to probe the correlation between the school achieve- ment and the self-concept of Mexican-American children in a Title VII bilingual/bicultural program and a similar group in a unilingual traditional program. Correlation is not inferred to be an index of causality. This study limits its considerations to school achievement in English language skills and social studies. No attempt is made to consider the effect of the treatment on other school subjects. An additional limitation of this study is that the ** self-concept measured is the general self-concept of ability to achieve in school (as defined in the study). The researcher does not intend to infer beyond the immediate population in the study. The results will have limited application elsewhere, except to the extent that other populations are comparable to the populations of inter— est to this study. Finally, other limitations are: 11 l. The length of time of the study, approximately one school year; and 2. The varying degrees to which the stated bilingual/ bicultural curriculum was implemented in the treatment schools. Summary and Overview {’It is generally assumed that the language barrier and "5 cultural conflict between Mexican-American children and the middle class, Anglo-oriented school program are major fac- tors contributing to their low achievement and negative self— concept. Bilingual/bicultural programs are being initiated in many schools in the Southwest in an effort to improve this \\ condition}? This study is designed to compare and correlate , the interrelationship between an existing bilingual/bicul- I, tural program, a traditional unilingual program, and school achievement and self-concept of Mexican-American children. A comprehensive review of related literature is pre- sented in Chapter II. This review includes the writings and research in areas considered to be important elements in the development of educationally sound bilingual/bicultural pro- grams. It also provides the necessary rationale for decision making relative to alternative programs for children for whom English is a second language. In Chapter III the design for the study is presented. This includes a description of the setting, the population sample, a discussion of the bilingual/bicultural program, 12 the source of the data, and the design and statistical model of the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The literature related specifically to bilingual edu- cation in the United States is limited, primarily because cultural and linguistic plurality have not been considered national goals in American education. With the exception of a brief period in California (1848-1872) and in the German communities in the Midwest at the turn of the century, the schools have attempted to assimilate the racial and ethnic minorities into the language and culture of the dominant Anglo majority. Carter (1970) presented the deleterious effect of this philosophy on the Mexican-American population. His list of recommendations for improvement included a high priority for bilingual/bicultural school programs. This chapter, then, attempts to review and present the literature in those related areas that are considered vital factors in the development of bilingual/bicultural edu- cation programs. The hope is that such a review will provide the rationale and pedagogical support for bilingualism as a goal in American education. 13 14 The literature related to self-concept is presented as Part II of this chapter and deals primarily with the relationship of self-concept and school achievement. PART I Bilingualism and Intelligence Numerous studies since the early 1920's have attempted to determine whether monolingual and bilingual persons differ in intelligence. Using standardized I.Q. tests, seven major studies concluded that bilingualism was detrimental to intel- ligence. Four of these studies had no controls for age dif- ferences, social background, or degree of bilingualism; thus their results are of dubious value. Three other studies, the Saer, the Pintner, and Jones-Stewart, did provide some evidence that monolinguals were superior in measurable intelligence to bilinguals. Using a Welsh translation of the Stanfordeinet scale, Saer (1923) tested 1,400 children in rural Wales. His results indicated that the monolingual children were statistically superior to the bilingual children. However, when only urban children were tested no significant differ— ences were discovered between monolinguals and bilinguals. Saer provided no controls for socioeconomic class. A study done in New York City by Pintner (1923) used the verbal and nonverbal Pintner tests. Three schools were used in the study, with one set of results indicating the 15 superiority of monolinguals, another their inferiority, and another proved inconclusive. The Jones and Stewart (1951) study incorporated both verbal and nonverbal tests. Their results, using 10 and 11 year olds, concluded that monolinguals were superior on both tests. Jones (1960) conceded that the lack of socioeconomic controls could have accounted for the differences. The study of Peal-Lambert (1962) provided evidence in support of the beneficial effects of bilingualism on intel- ligence. In the Peal-Lambert study, the research was designed to examine the effect of bilingualism on the intel- lectual functioning of children and to explore the relation- ship between bilingualism, school achievement, and student attitudes about the second language community. They administered a test standardized in French Canada to 110 French-Canadian children 10 years of age, one group monolingual in French and the other group bilingual in French and English. The bilinguals were equally fluent in their two languages; they were tested in their first language (French); and they were of the same socioeconomic status. The two groups were compared as to age, sex, intelligence (verbal and nonverbal), and literacy. The results of the study concluded that bilinguals were superior to monolin- guals on both the verbal and nonverbal tests. They surmised that the bilinguals' experience with two languages created superior concept formation because of the flexibility required to exist in two different cultures. I .. i l6 Spoerl 1944, Darcy 1963, Lewis-Lewis 1965) could find no significant differences between bilinguals and monolinguals. A review of many of these studies by Carroll (1962) led him to conclude facility in learning to speak and under- stand in a foreign language is a fairly specialized talent, relatively independent of those traits ordinarily included under intelligence. In light of the Spoerl, Darcy, and the Lewis-Lewis studies, this reviewer can only agree with Carroll since, at this time, the results of past research prove inconclusive, revealing for the most part that the structure of the intel- lect is not understood well enough to test the effects of bilingualism. Motivational Factors Related to Second Language Learning There are a number of interpersonal relationships that affect achievement in second language acquisition. The attitudes of the student, the teacher, the student's peers and parents, and the speakers of the language are all factors in the learner's motivation to acquire the language. A series of language studies done at McGill Univer- sity developed a socio-psychological theory of language learning. An individual successfully acquiring a second lan- guage, according to this theory, adopts various character- istics of the other linguistic-cultural group. The student's :A r . I A number of other studies (Seidl 1937, Arsenian 1937, 17 ethnocentric tendencies and his attitudes toward the other group are believed to determine his success in learning the new language. His attitudes and orientation toward learning a second language determine his motivation. A number of studies by Wallace Lambert and his col- leagues (Lambert l963a, Lambert and Gardner 1959, Lambert e: El- 1963, Anisfeld and Lambert 1961) drew attention to the major importance of what they called integrative motivation to the learning of foreign languages. Their studies indi- cated two classes of motivation for language learning, instru- mental and integrative, and that the presence of the latter is necessary to successful mastery of the higher levels of proficiency, indicated by the ability to think and speak like a native speaker. Politzer (1960) made a study on the amount of time- college students spent in voluntary language laboratory per- iods and compared this to the students' achievement on tests. He found that the students receiving the highest grades spent the least amount of time in the laboratory, but he offered no analysis of why this occurred. Carroll (1962) studied the influence of parents on second language acquisition. Carroll found that the greater the parents' use of the foreign language in the home, the higher were the mean scores of the students. 18 Biculturalism The intimate relationship of language and culture has been pointed out by a number of prominent linguists. Kenneth L. Pike (1954) described it in the statement: In sum, then, we may say that the linguist wishes to discover the structure of language behavior, and obtains its structuring only in reference to that larger behavior field, and relative to the structural units of that larger field, the linguist must on occasion refer to that larger field in order to get access to that frame of reference within which the linguistic units obtain part of their definition. (p. 27a) Charles C. Fries (1945), in his chapter titled "Contextual Orientation" from his book, Teaching and Learn- ing English as a Foreign Language, stated: "Every language is inextricably bound up with the whole life experience of the native users of that language." Gaarder (1967), testifying before a Senate sub- 74 committee, described language as: . . . the most important exteriorization or mani- festation of the self, of the human personality. It is like the water the fish swims in or the air around us. We are all unaware of it in a certain measure, and a little child is completely unaware of his language as something outside of himself. If the school, the all- powerful school, rejects the mother tongue of an entire group of children, it can be expected to affect serious— 1y and adversely those children's concept of their par- ents, their homes, and of themselves. There is no subject more elusive or more misunder- stood than the relation of language to culture. In part the difficulty is caused by a confusion between two basic mean- ings of the word culture. It is the anthropological meaning of culture as a total way of life, the learned and shared patterns of behavior of a group of people living together, 19 which is only slowly coming to be understood and accepted by language teachers. Culture in the anthropological meaning is also related to language in a very basic way. In expressing typical feelings, thoughts, attitudes, values, language is both a vehicle and a mirror of culture. It may be an overt expression of cultural values, at least at a given time and place. Or it may communicate a message which even contra- dicts the meaning of the words used: "I'm sure he's all right." As Hall (1961) demonstrated in his book, cultural patterns are revealed as clearly by what he called the "silent language" as they are in words. Hall asserted: Most Americans are only dimly aware of this silent language even though they use it every day. They are not conscious of the elaborate patterning of behavior which prescribes our handling of time, our spatial relationships, our attitudes toward work, play, and learning. In addition to what we say with our verbal language, we are constantly communicating our real feelings in our silent language--the language of behav- ior. Sometimes this is correctly interpreted by other nationalities, but more often it is not. (p. 10) One of the interesting aspects of anthropological study is to observe how different languages reflect in their structure and in their vocabulary different outlooks on the world around one and on life. Interpretations are made within the framework of one's own cultural patterns. Linguists have defined speech as a purely historical heritage of a group, the product of a long-continued social usage. It is very clear that speech 20 is a "cultural function." The study of language then becomes the study of a people and a culture. Brooks (1969), in an article entitled "Teaching Cul- A ture in the Foreign Language Classroom," developed a workable definition of culture for educators that is germaine to any discussion of biculturalism. He evolved his definition nega- tively, stating that "culture is not geography, history, 34 folklore, sociology, literature, or civilization." Rein- forcing his definition, he claimed that the most distinguish- ing characteristic of the study of culture, as opposed to these other disciplines, was the central importance of the individual. He expanded his discussion by identifying five positive components of culture, these being: growth, refine- ment, fine arts, patterns of living, and a total way of life. He viewed the fourth component as the most important, des- cribing it as "the role of the individual in life situations of every kind and his conformity to the rules and models for attitude and conduct in them" and stated that this was the most useful component in second language instruction. For Brooks, the third and fifth meanings came into effect as language competence increased. In having another language Brooks believed that a if complete understanding can occur only when the student com- prehends the unique native language and its relationship to a particular life style. He concluded his definition of culture, stating that: 21 No individual could create culture by himself; no individual escapes having the imprint of his culture deeply pressed upon him. One of the purest examples of the results of man's association with man is lan- guage. Not to recognize language, the simple ability to communicate in words, for the amazing creative pro- cess that it is, and to denigrate it instead, is to fail to recognize the very fulcrum upon which all humanism rests. (p. 25) Using this definition of culture as a guideline, one can readily perceive the intimate relationship culture plays in language acquisition, thus making it a necessary and vital component of any bilingual program. Bilingualism and Biculturalism The literature on bilingualism is concerned primarily with effects on the psychological and linguistic development of the student and his school achievement, as well as his personal and social adjustment. As a corollary, bilingualism also raises the question as to the advisability of teaching English as a Second Language, and that of the time and method of instruction. These questions have been discussed and investigated. The only point of agreement is that the find- ings so far are inconclusive and need further careful inves- tigation. The implication seems to be that bilingualism is a much more complicated condition of affairs than simply that of the use of two languages by an individual. If bilingualism is not a simple concept, then it needs further differentiation and clarification. The dic- tionary definition simplifies the concept of bilingualism "as able to speak one's native language and another with 22 approximately equal facility." The difficulty arises in applying this definition to specific cases, its value as a working concept is lost. Situations generally referred to as bilingual involve other factors with which the investi- gator must be concerned. Bilingualism refers not only to two distinct patterns of linguistic habits, but also to dis-; tinct patterns of cultural habits in all of their anthro- pological implications. The problem then is one of "bicul- turalism" as well as bilingualism. J. P. Soffietti (1955) noted that just as there are degrees of bilingualism, there are degrees of biculturalism.: To distinguish between various concepts of bilingualism and biculturalism, Soffietti developed a system of identification to explain most situations except multilingual and multicul- tural. The situations he identified are : (l) bicultural- bilingual (usually considered as the true bilingual, partic- ipates in two cultures); (2) bicultural-monolingual (this can be characterized by the child of an immigrant family who has given up his native tongue but not the native customs and beliefs); (3) monocultural-bilingual (the person who participates in one culture but has learned to use a second language); and (4) monocultural-monolingual (the most common situation in the United States). Studies of the effects of bilingualism on the intelf }.' lectual and social development of a child indicate that most of the difficulties and retardations are due to the bicul- tural aspects of the situation.‘ 23 It is the living in two distinct cultures, whether overtly or in one's internal life, that creates problems of \ adjustment. It is a conflict between ways of life, beliefs, ‘ customs, value systems, and not necessarily one between lan- i’ guage systems. A person learning a second language in a monocultural setting will not automatically learn a whole new set of cul- tural patterns and develOp cultural conflicts. As a matter of fact, it is seldom that a person studying a second lan- guage in the schools ever gets beyond the "synonym" stage of foreign language learning; all he usually learns is another way of referring to the same or similar thing, situation, or event. Studying the developmental aspects of second lan- guage learning, Lambert (1963b) concluded: The process of linguistic enculturation seemed to be the most advanced stage of language skill and took a long time to acquire. (p. 363) Since the meanings expressed in a language are deter- mined by the cultural behavior, one cannot understand a lan— guage fully without understanding at least the distinct cultural meanings expressed through it. Hence, the student of language cannot go into any significant depth of the tar- get language without considering differences in cultural Ineanings. A substantial knowledge of specific facts concern— ing the culture, thought patterns, traditions, the value Systems which account for life styles and behavior of a peo— ple is necessary. In learning a foreign culture, the student 24 tends to transfer also the patterns of his native culture to the culture to be learned, at both level of production as well as the reception level, as Lado (1964) stated: The student learns the target culture not from scratch as he learned his native one, but with the experience, meanings, and habits of his native culture influencing him at every step. The native culture experience will facilitate learning those patterns that are sufficiently similar to the function satisfactorily when transferred. The native culture experiences will interfere with those cultural patterns and meanings that are not equitable with similar ones or that are partly similar but function differently in the target culture. (p. 30) Learning to behave in conformity with the nonverbal culture patterns of another society is as much a task as learning verbal patterns, i.e., its language. To change the cultural pattern is as difficult as the linguistic ones. Both are based on deep-rooted systems of habit, some of which have strong emotional bases. Horacio Ulibarri (1970), commenting on the importance of including a cultural component in any bilingual program, felt that any program that does not take account of community needs and aspirations is doomed to failure. However, Ulibarri said: "A program encompassing the problems, hopes, and ideals of the situation becomes alive and vibrant and most likely Will receive widespread support." Looking at the positive aspects of a bilingual/ bicultural program, Ulibarri saw such a program as "a har- mouuious and controlled interaction between two cultures." He conceived of acculturation as a process consist— ing of four evolving stages of development. They are: (1) 25 confusion and nonacceptance of the new culture, (2) rejec- tion of his native culture in an imitative effort to acquire more mobility in the new culture, (3) superficial return to native culture stressing bilingual ability, and (4) truly understands both cultures and functions as an integrated per- sonality within both cultures. Of this process Ulibarri said: As he develops into the second stage of accultura- tion, the intonation patterns of the individual become definitely theatrical and, as he acquires more dexter- ity in his rhetorical mannerisms, he is likely to deny any knowledge of his native language or dialect. (p. 117) Joshua A. Fishman (1965), speaking at the University of Texas in favor of bilingual programs, commented: the Our political and cultural foundations are weakened when large population groupings do not feel encouraged to express, to safeguard and to develop behavioral pat- terns that are traditionally meaningful to them. Our national creativity and personal purposefulness are rendered more shallow when constructive channels of self-expression are blocked and when alienation from ethical-cultural roots becomes the necessary price of self—respect and social advancement regardless of the merits of the cultural components under consideration. . . . Certainly, now that the basic patterns of American nationhood are safely established and have momentum of their own, cultural and linguistic diversity deserves to be protected for its own sake, as a "good" of American reality and as a "given" of democratic sensitivity. (p. 152) And again, testifying in the Senate in support of Bilingual Education Act, Fishman (1967) stated: Biculturalism requires awareness of one's heritage, identification with it--at least on a selective basis-- and freedom to express this identification in a natural and uninhibited manner. (p. 125) 26 History of Bilingualism Bilingual schools were established by law in Ohio in 1840 as a result of a large number of German immigrants. Cincinnati, in the same year, made German an optional subject --a model with the addition of French used by New York in 1854 and St. Louis in 1864. By the turn of the century, 14 programs were in prog- ress with nearly 5,000,000 students. Though often identi- fied as foreign languages in the elementary school (FLES), these were actually bilingual. For example, Cincinnati in 1914 used this plan: . . . two teachers were assigned to two classes one teaching German and the other English to both classes, alternately. The German teacher, in addition, taking charge of such branches as drawing, music, and primary occupation work. (Cincinnati Public Schools, 85th Annual Report, 1914) Faced with a shortage of qualified teachers, a spe- cial training program for teachers of German was initiated in Cincinnati in 1871. Cleveland followed in 1875 and St. Louis started such a program in 1882. The social conditions created by World War I terminated nearly all of these pro- grams. The dominant culture in the U. S. has generally con- sidered bilingualism and biculturalism as somehow "un- American." Illinois, Texas, and until recently, California have laws prohibiting public school instruction in foreign lan- guages--restricting such usage to foreign language classes. 27 Jack Forbes (1967) found in his research that: Southern California, for example, remained a Spanish-speaking region until the 1870's with Spanish- language and bilingual public schools, Spanish-language newspapers, and Spanish-speaking judges, elected offi- cials, and community leaders. The first Constitution of the State of California, created in part by persons of Mexican background, established California as a bi- lingual state and it remained as such until 1878. (p. 8) Additional hindrances to bilingual instruction include parents of non-English-speaking children who believe that bilingual instruction will retard their children's acquisition of English. Many children, influenced by their peer group and school, begin to view their mother tongue and attendant culture as a social stigma. Bilingual teachers 'educated in a biased atmosphere suppress their cultural and linguistic heritage to attain their position-and often believe that their students should follow the same path. Aligned with these difficulties are the pragmatic problems of staff— ing, materials, and methodology which plague any educational program, but have reached a critical point in bilingual edu- cation. Bilingual Schooling Yarborough (1967) stated: After Sputnik I, there was a fear that the Russians were getting ahead of us in science and engineering, and we were able to pass the National Defense Educa- tional Act of 1958 of which I was co-author. (p. 130) Not only did this historic space venture awaken the U. S. to its deficiencies in mathematics and science, but also to 28 rapid communication via satellite creating a global village that demands intimate knowledge of a multitude of languages. Congress, finally realizing the implications of developing second and foreign language abilities, passed the Bilingual Education Act, January 2, 1968. The Bilingual *¥€ Education Act of 1968 became Operational September, 1969, A in 76 selected educational agencies throughout the United States. Seven and one-half million dollars in federal fundsi finance these programs, the money coming from TitleiVII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. This program is designed to meet the special needs of children between the ages of 3 and 18 who have difficulty in speaking and/or understanding English. Of these 76 programs, 67 are for children whose mother tongue is Spanish. Twenty-six bilin- gual programs are located in California. For the 1970-71 school year 58 new programs have been funded. The funds are to be used in three areas: (1) plane ning and developing programs to meet the needs of children of limited English-speaking ability in schools having a high concentration of impoverished youths; (2) providing in- service and pre-service training for instructional personnel who will participate in bilingual programs; and (3) estab- lishing, maintaining, and operating programs, including the acquisition of teaching materials and equipment. Needs Assessment The Bilingual Education Act was designed to assist Students whose dominant language is not English between the 29 ages of 3 and 18. They must come from families whose income is less than $3,000 per year or who receive payments through aid to dependent children. An applicant for this program must prove that existing programs do not meet the needs of this group of students. The project area must have the highest population of students with a dominant language other than English. Four areas must be investigated to determine the need for a Bilingual program in a school district. Geographic and numerical data must be gathered on children whose domi- nant language is not English. The data gatherers should pro- vide data from actual or projected school enrollments that indicate the number of children whose dominant language is not English with a breakdown by school. Census data, commu- nity surveys, migratory labor information, and observations of the community may be used to determine the number of peo- ple in the community whose dominant language is not English. The grant proposal must provide proof that these students' educational needs are not being met. Relevant data in this area may include achievement and other standard— ized tests, locally prepared tests, classroom observation, school attendance records, dropout rate, unemployment rates for 18-25 year olds, percentage of high school graduates con- tinuing their education, surveys comparing the relationship of the English-speaking pOpulation to the target group. Linguistic ability can be determined from language tests in both English and the dominant language, classroom- 30 surveys, interviews of bilingual individuals, reports from teachers and/or administrators, and observation of children in their family environment. Information must also be collected on the socio- economic status of the target group. Relevant information in this area may be gathered from community surveys, census data, and unemployment data. The Office of Education (1970) reminded the writers of these preposals that: . . . if the assessment of needs presents a prob- lem for which adequate performance objectives cannot be readily constructed, the problem should not be shelved. This practice might lead to undue emphasis upon the more mechanical, easily designed program objectives rather than acceptance of the critical chal- lenges pin-pointed in the assessment of needs. Theodore Andersson and Mildred Boyer (1969), in their book, Bilingual Schooling in the United States, grouped their assessment of needs for a bilingual program under two categories, (1) urgency, and (2) feasibility. Under urgency they discussed using population data as a criterion for assessing need, adding that care must be exercised in using these data so that non-English language groups are not excluded simply on the basis of lack of num- bers, since in a given area the ratio may appear dispropor- tionate. They continued their discussion, pointing out that while most ethnic groups with a dominant language other than English come from low economic status, perhaps a bilingual program would be more successful if the middle class were 31 involved in the program, to convince them of the need and advantages of such a program. Their approach is much broader in scope than the guidelines set forth by the U. S. Office of Education, in that Andersson and Boyer considered such things as they political advantage or disadvantage of bilingualism and the prestige of bilingualism. Under feasibility they discussed materials, their availability, form, and interest at various age levels. Parental interest in a bilingual program is of pri- mary importance, since no program will be successful if par- ents doubt the need of acquiring a second language. Under this tOpic the "cultural dynamics" of the group must be assessed in terms of whether the group wants to join the majority culture or develop their own. The authors stressed that the most important factor in achieving literacy is an understanding of the students' cultural context since in some languages (they used Cherokee) literacy is reserved for adults--not for children. Concerning personnel, the authors stressed that the level of language competence in the target group must be assessed before assigning staff, since in some cases, "a non- native speaker may be more acceptable as a model in an area where parents think their own language is inadequate." (p. 103) William Mackey (1969) divided needs assessment into four categories: (1) the behavior of the bilingual at home, 32 (2) school curriculum; (3) the language distribution in the community, its immediate area, and the nation; and (4) the status of the languages. A complete understanding is necessary of how the bilingual student functions in his home since instruction, according to Mackey, should be based on the degree of usage and knowledge of the language used in the home and in the community. This information must be measured to form a foundation for research and curriculum planning. To develop an appropriate curriculum a project should gather data on the kind and degree of languages used in the school and the languages used by the children at play in the school and at home. Mackey added, "We need measures of the closeness and mutual intelligibility of the languages involved in the bilingual instruction and means of predict- ing the effects of these languages on the comprehension and expression of the bilingual learner." Also necessary for understanding the needs of these students is the distribution and degree of usage of the lan- guages in the nation, state, and community. To facilitate the gathering of such information, standardized screening tests must be devised, along with language proficiency tests. In addition, individual case studies must be collected and assessed. Mackey established five indexes to determine language distribution. These are (l) the degree of standardization; (2) census data; (3) economic indexes, such as the gross 33 national product; (4) the numbers and geographic areas in which the language is used; and (5) an index to culture, such as the annual production of printed matter. Concerning language status, Mackey indicated that the national role of the language is important and projects should know whether both or only one of the languages is rated as official or national. Horacio Ulibarri (1970), in his Bilingual Education: A Handbook for Education, stated very succinctly the impor- tance of assessing the need for such a program when he said: It must be remembered that bilingualism penetrates into the core of a society. Cultural difference, social class stratification, prejudices and discrimination, and power structure as well as social and personal disorgan- ization are all parts of the package that one may call "bilingualism." Therefore, a viable bilingual education? must be founded on a thorough analysis of these socio- } (i cultural phenomena. To do otherwise is to build a pro- “ gram on shaky grounds. (p. 129) // The pertinent data to be collected should establish, according to Ulibarri, a socio-cultural/socio-psychological model to assess individual needs, the type of program needed, and the degree of flexibility to account for individual needs. Also, to be established are the kind and extent of material and instructional support required, the degree and number of bicultural components in the program, the social patterns of the community and their effect on the school, the degree and context of in-service training for teachers in the program, and the effect of such a program on the community, parents, and students. 34 To establish such information, Ulibarri gave a model for a community survey that consists of a sociological com- ponent and a cultural component. An analysis of such a sur- vey would group itself around areas of high predictive values, such as social class, age groups, ethnic groups, and life styles. The purpose of gathering information on the societal functions of the non-English tongue in a given community is to determine whether the individual members can meet their needs in their non-English tongue. That is to say, if religious, recreational, and economic needs can be met in a given community without knowledge of English, then the lan- guage is being maintained. If, however, the non-English tongue is primarily used in the home and not in the streets, stores, or churches, there is a language shift in progress. Obviously, there is a greater need to learn English in a com- munity that fills religious, recreational, and economic needs only in English. Once it is determined whether the community is a language maintenance or language shift community, the bilingual educational objectives should be written to reflect the bilingual reality in the community. A curriculum which mirrors the maintenance or shift in a bilingual community, therefore, is not designed to change the bilingual reality. A decision to design the curriculum to change the societal functions of the languages in the community should be based on the expressed needs and desires of the parents of the children in the bilingual program. Often times, community 35 spokesmen are not parents of children in the program. School officials should make certain that members of the Advisory Council to plan and implement a bilingual program include parents of the target population. Such an Advisory Board could be instrumental in help- ing curriculum designers develOp a program that best fits the needs of the target population. For example, a student unable to meet his needs in his vernacular outside of his home should receive instruction which emphasizes acquisition of English speaking skills and delays the development of literacy in the vernacular until later; whereas a student who can meet his needs outside of his home in his vernacular should receive instruction which emphasizes the development of his vernacular and delays the development of literacy in English until basic reading skills have been acquired in the vernacular. It should be noted here that a program empha- sizing the acquisition of English speaking skills and intro— ducing the student to print in English must, nevertheless, include conceptual development through the vernacular. Thus one can see the tremendous importance needs assessment plays -.. M... Si... in developing a curriculum for a bilingual program. Curriculum Design Horacio Ulibarri (1970) defined three general curric— ulum patterns in his book, Bilingual Education: 'A Handbook for Educators. 36 One curriculum design would initiate instruction in A the native language, gradually phasing in English until the entire curriculum is in English. The second type would develop both languages simultaneously so that the student would be literate in both languages. The third type, which is the most comprehensive, would incorporate the second type and add a cultural component so that the student could func- tion in either cultural context with ease. Such a program would be divided into three areas: (1) language arts (devel- Opment of literacy in both languages), (2) content in both languages, and (3) a cultural component which would emphasize social studies and literature. In this type of program, the guidance and counseling activities are also carried out in whichever language it is easier to communicate. A. Bruce Gaarder (1965) suggested that a curriculum should be centered around the number of other language speak- ers and their degree of competency in their native language. He prOposed, as a minimal program in an area with few lan- guage speakers, a design that would include at least one course per day in language for other language speakers. This course would review the subject matter of the English curric— ulum. Double credit should be granted for such a course, as the student would be developing his skills in the language as well as gaining a competence in the subject matter. In a community with large numbers of speakers of other languages, a curriculum should be developed that would include ESL in the first grade for students. The ESL would 37 gradually be increased so that in the second grade half a day would be in English and half in the X-language. Thus, these students would become bilingual and bicultural. William Mackey (1969) made several distinctions in curriculum patterns to formulate a typology of bilingual pro- grams. A key distinction in curriculum planning, according to Mackey, is the language of instruction. A curriculum may be bilingual if the language of the school is different from the language of the home, community, state, or nation. Cur- riculums incorporating two languages use the language of the home plus a second language and may vary in content (i.e., physical sciences in English, social sciences in Spanish). Such a program can be classified by measuring the amount of instruction given in each language. Mackey's second classi- fication described two major time distribution patterns: (A) "transfer," in which the curriculum changes from one language of instruction to another, and (B) "maintenance," where both languages are developed. The cultural component of the curriculum may move the student toward incorporation with a larger culture or toward maintaining the culture of the home language. The content, dividing it in terms of language, yields three patterns: (A) distribution by subject, (B) alternating, or (C) overlapping material. Mackey also classified the distribution of the program in terms of change, the degree and amount of the languages used, and whether the shift will be abrupt or gradual. Mackey separated these com— ponents in terms of the medium (single or dual) of instruction 38 which yields 10 curriculum patterns. He expanded the typol- ogy to include the relationship of these components to the nation, community, school, and home, thus expanding the vari- ables nine more times, evolving 90 different curriculum pat- terns for bilingual education. Mackey added, ". . . a number of these curriculum patterns may be in operation Within the same school system, in the same area, or in the same country." (p. 19) Atilano Valencia (1969) developed 19 bilingual mod- els with six variables which are as follows: (1) content, (2) native language, (3) second language, (4) English as a Second Language, (5) Spanish as a Second Language, and (6) Spanish for Spanish-speakers. Placing these variables on a grid, an example would be a curriculum in which instruction is given in the native language up to a designated grade level, and then continues in the second language. Another model would incorporate this pattern with the addition of Spanish for the Spanish-speaking. The ultimate goal of this pattern would be a bilingual/ bicultural student. Commenting on his patterns, Valencia stated: . . . ESL can be conceived as an integral part of the vernacular and cultural elements that a child from a cultural setting different than the middle-class Anglo- American brings to the school setting. In this respect, English can be envisioned as a second language to this child. Here, the approach is not to forcibly remove the vernacular from the child's repertoire, but to introduce and develop in him the capability of functioning in a language that, in the beginning, is basically new to him. Further, the introduction of language programs other 39 than English, for example, can develop the child's abil- ity to function in two or more languages that are appli- cable in a larger society. In essence, a child might develOp into a trilingual person with an ability to use standard English and Spanish, or some other language, while also maintaining a vernacular style appropriate to his immediate home environment. (p. 9) Andersson and Boyer (1969) established four possible curriculum designs for bilingual education. The first one is for bilingual children who may or may not be balanced bilinguals. The intended goal of this design is to educate bilingual children bilingually. In this pattern, instruction would start in the child's dominant language, but very early (kindergarten, grade one) instruc- tion in the second language would begin. If the groups are mixed (dominant language English or dominant language Spanish) the language of instruction would alternate during the school day. The second design would be for English-speaking children in an upper-middle class environment. The purpose of such a design would be to make these children bilingual in a language recognized internationally. From three years to six years of age the language would be spoken at school 90 per cent of the time. At this point, reading and writing are introduced in English and the development of literacy in the X-language is delayed. The third program would be devoted to X-language speakers in a low socio-economic class in the United States, and would enable these students to be bilingual. From K to Six years of age the child would begin learning in his own 40 language with an ESL program beginning at the same time and expanding into a 50/50 ratio. The child would learn to read and write in his native tongue. As they acquired more Eng- lish the curriculum would shift learning only one time unit for the X-language. The fourth program is designed basically for immi- grants. The native tongue is used in pre-school and kinder- garten, but by the first grade all instruction is given in English. Andersson and Boyer dismissed this program since it could only render useless the child's first language. Professor Fishman (1970) based his typology on the community and the school objectives. He stressed the fact that bilingual instruction is different from an English as a Second Language program because ESL includes no instruction in the student's mother tongue. However, bilingual education includes an English as a Second Language component. Fishman identified four patterns of instruction, which are: (l) transitional bilingualism, (2) monoliterate bilingual- ism, (3) partial bilingualism, and (4) full bilingualism. Transitional bilingualism uses the students' mother tongue as the medium of instruction until their English is develOped to a level that facilitates a transfer into Eng- lish as the language of instruction. No further support is provided for the mother tongue, which should correspond to a community language shift pattern. Monoliterate bilingualism develops the oral-aural skills in both languages, but provides instruction in 41 literacy skills only in English. This pattern suggests, if the school is attentive to its students' needs, that the community is gradually shifting to the dominant language. The third pattern, partial bilingualism, indicates that the community is in a maintenance pattern because both fluency and literacy are taught in both languages. However, the student's mother tongue is used only in content areas related to culture and ethnic studies. The fourth pattern is full bilingualism, which develOps fluency and literacy in both languages in all sub- ject areas. Such a pattern reinforces and develops the minority language of the community and, in theory, will create a bilingual/bicultural society. Community Involvement Parents must have an active role in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of federally funded bilingual programs. Parental support will enhance their child's develOpment and make the project staff more responsive to community aspirations. Budgetary provisions may be formu- lated to support parental and community involvement activi- ties. At the earliest stages of the project's development a "project advisory group," consisting of parents and repre— sentatives from community organizations, should be formed to provide "first-hand knowledge of their children's [and com- munity's] problems in an English-speaking environment." 42 The USOE guidelines (1970) Specified a number of functions for this group, among them: . . . to establish a procedure by which grievances of parents and others can receive prompt consideration, and to participate in resolving grievances; to promote the project in the community; and to assist in mobiliz- ing community resources in support of the project. (Po 66) In addition to the advisory board, parents should be included in the project as paraprofessionals or volunteers. Parental observation schedules should be formulated to facilitate better understanding between project staff and parents. The guidelines suggest that the staff visit com- munity homes to strengthen lines of communication at all levels. The guidelines stress the concept that "local resi- dents must be convinced of the program's value in order for it to be successful," adding that "in some communities, local interest will be contingent upon the support of powerful community groups." (p. 68) Ulibarri (1970), in his Bilingual Education: A Handbook for Educators, also stressed the need for parental and community support and involvement, concluding that: . . . it is a worthwhile experience for the parent to come into the school setting and to participate in the teaching act. Often parents learn more than the children whom they set out to instruct. (p. 71) Saville and Troike (1970) stressed the fact that Parental involvement should be actively solicited at all levels of planning and implementation. They suggested that direct observation of the results of bilingual education will 43 convince most people it is sound policy, and the program can then be expanded. To facilitate this level of communication they suggested that a number of media, i.e. speakers, radio, pamphlets, be deployed in the community to keep the parents informed of the project's activities. They concluded their discussion of community involvement by saying that: . . . one of the most important factors in promoting parental involvement and better understanding between home and school is inherent in the nature of a bilingual program. The children are taught in the language of the home, and can express or apply what they have learned there. Furthermore, the parents are in a better posi— tion to understand what is going on at school, and to provide important support for the education of their children. (p. 72) Program Management Only the program manager can effect a congruency between the project's objectives so that there will be a direct relationship between components. It is critical that the components do not become distinct entities without articulation of purpose or coordination of functions between components. The program management process, as defined in USOE guidelines (1970), must perform the following functions: planning, organizing, staffing, staff development, evaluation, reporting, communication, coordination, and dissemination. An organizational chart must be formulated which indicates project positions and their relationship to local school administrative positions. A project time line should be developed to indicate the major events of the program named above, as well as USOE deadlines for the project's refunding. 44 "Time line dates should be linked directly to the plan for product outcomes and to the operational processes for each component." (p. 126) Project planning must include staff meetings to evaluate the success of the various components to allow the administrative staff to make appropriate modifications. The Guidelines state that maximum staff participation in plan- ning serves vital communication, coordination, staff develop- ment, and motivation purposes. The organizational structure of the project should dovetail with the parent-school system; it should not operate independently from the local schools. In project design the major concern is to make clear in writing the responsibilities of each organization unit and the essential contribution each staff member will be expected to make including his key operating relation- ships with other staff members. (p. 82) Thomas Carter (1970), discussing the school and its relationship with the community, believed that: It is not educators' altruism that is coming to the fore. Rather it is the controlling political groups who see that societal peace and balance are threatened and encourage or demand whatever school action is evi- dent. (p. 206) Thus a bilingual program director must be aware of the source of the program's development--did it come from political pressure, school pressure, or community pressure? Each one of these questions would require a different form of public relations by the director. He must be cognizant of who is committed to the program; he must know exactly how much sup- port the program has in the school, the community, and the 45 state. With this knowledge, a director can establish lines of communication between various groups and maintain interest and support for his program. Reporting should include classroom observation reports, evaluation of in-service training, evaluator's reports, curriculum and materials development, and financial reports for USOE. Communication, coordination, and dissemination of information should include a project newsletter or the use of an available publication to announce classroom schedules, testing dates, develOpment of new materials, recent research, and in-service workshops. This information could also be submitted to the State Departments of Education and other relevant professional organizations. Local educators should be invited to attend many of the project's planning and evaluation activities to facilitate greater understanding of the project's goals. Program planning and budgeting system (PPBS), while not a new concept in management science, is a relatively new concept for educational institutions. There are five key elements in PPBS: (1) program goals, (2) program descrip- tion, (3) Specific objectives, (4) evaluation, and (5) cost. The USOE guidelines follow these same elements in designing bilingual programs, but now, at least in California, all school districts will be required to develop their instruc- tional programs along these lines. The important function of this system, in the opinion of this researcher, is that 46 such a program will systematically identify ineffective as well as effective instructional programs, administration of these programs, and serve as a basis for modifying curricu- lum, materials, and staff roles to meet stated educational objectives. Stegeman (1970) in an article discussing PPBS, stated that PPBS . . . will provide for an orderly collection of data and transmittal of information beginning at the classroom or unit level and extending through each level of the organization. The end product will be a summary of district budget which clearly reflects the educational programs of the district. (p. 87) Teacher Preparation The teacher should meet the district and state requirements of preparation in addition to work in the cul- turally disadvantaged, educational sociology, learning theory, and child psychology. A teacher's ability to understand the unique abilities of bilingual students will enable him to avoid socio-cultural conflicts and the failure syndrome often prevalent in such children. Teachers in a bilingual program must be bilingual to such a degree that they can serve as good models for the stu— dents in both languages. Such a teacher must also be bicul- tural, which Ulibarri (1970) defined as ". . . one who knows the roles to be played in each culture and understands and appreciates the intended value of each role." (p. 20) Not only must the teacher be sensitive to the personalities of the students, each student's learning capacity must be con- sidered so that the child can progress according to his own 47 needs and abilities, not a set of priorities necessary for an established promotion system. Preparation of bilingual teachers is the responsi- bility of the colleges and universities, but, according to Andersson and Boyer (1969), local project directors can help by specifying the skills required for their program and help improve the preparation by reporting evaluations to the col- leges. Andersson and Boyer conceived of a long-range pro- gram in which potential bilingual instructors are identified as early as the first grade, but not in such a way as to discourage other forms of employment. Staff, according to U.S.O.E. (1970), in a bilingual program must be aware of the socio—economic and cultural factors that affect their students. Because of the impor- tance of developing good self—concepts in these students, the interpersonal and communication skills of the teacher are of great importance. Two factors are important in assessing the language ability of the teacher: (A) Can he speak the regional dia— lect?f and (B) Is he familiar and able to fulfill the lan- guage aspirations of the community? Qualified teachers native to the area should be given priority because this will help develop community support. Teachers must be hired who can use the dominant lan- guage of the child as a medium of instruction in such areas as science, math, and social studies. Also, instructors 48 involved in teaching English as a Second Language should be trained in the methodology of ESL as well as instructors teaching the X-language as a second language. All bilingual teachers must be aware and/or able to use a variety of test- ing techniques to evaluate the program and the students. In-service and pre-service training should be imple- mented if qualified personnel are not available.. Such training could consist of instruction in the areas mentioned above (i.e. ESL) plus practice teaching using the project's materials and orientation to the goals of the project. Trainers in these areas may be drawn from local colleges, district staff, or regional educational labora- tories. These trainers should be chosen for their ability to reach a specific skill and not general instruction in bilingual education. The pre-service and in-service programs should be designed around the staff qualifications. If staff members are highly proficient in the languages of instruction, course work and demonstrations should emphasize methodology, lin- guistics, and evaluation. However, if the bilingual staff 'is made up of native speakers of language X who have little, if any, formal education in that language, staff development should emphasize increasing language proficiency. Staff mem- bers who are required to use a language other than English as a medium of instruction often have an inadequate vocabu— lary in science, math, and social studies. 49 Saville and Troike (1970) said that: . . . not only must a teacher be fluent in both languages but a knowledge of the structure of both languages and a general knowledge of the nature of language, including the acceptability and inevita- bility of dialect variations in all living lan- guages. (p. 87) They also emphasized the point that a teacher should not be allowed to teach in his weakest language. Teacher preparation, according to Saville and Troike, must include study in the following areas: linguistics, second language instruction and methodology, curriculum, review and adaptation of existing materials, development of new material, child psychology, and socio-psychological studies of the cultures represented in the community. In addition to these areas of study, Carter (1970) would also add encounter or sensitivity training. He stated that these sessions act as catalysts to "hasten the process of interaction, force a reconciliation, or at least a con- structive encounter, between content taught by more formal methods and content learned through experience." Such an experience would force teachers to examine their own concepts about their role as a teacher, their function in their envi- ronment, and their concepts about race, achievement, status, and intelligence. Carter concluded his discussion of teacher preparation by saying that "drastic approaches are probably essential in order to achieve the institutional self-analysis and change so crucial to the school success of Mexican— American children." 50 Mother Tongue Development Bilingual schooling can be defined as the use of two languages in the curriculum. Typically, the non-English lan- guage is the vernacular or the mother tongue of the largest minority group in the program. Although non-English tongues have not historically been used in American schools as mediums of instruction and in many cases their use at home and at school has been repressed (Krear, 1969), the non-English tongue is the cen- tral focus in bilingual instruction. The amount of time given to the non-English tongue, the development of literacy in it, and the use of it as a medium of instruction are the variables which determine the curriculum patterns and the goals of bilingual programs. These areas will be discussed later in this review of the literature. The rationale for the use of the vernacular in Ameri- can schools has been discussed extensively in the literature. Most often quoted is the statement by a committee of intern national authorities convened by UNESCO (1953), in which they concluded, ". . . It is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is his mother tongue." (p. 6) The failure to include the vernacular as a medium of instruction in American education has been termed ineffective and cruel by leading authorities. Andersson and Boyer (1969) reported: We know that our past methods of educating chil- dren with linguistic handicaps in English have been ineffective. The chief reasons for this seem to be \4 51 i that (l) we have not taken advantage of the child's é ,Av best instrument for learning--his mother tongue--and ' that (2) we have failed to create in him a sense of dignity and confidence. (p. 179) Eleanor Thonis (1970) suggested: Probably the cruelest expectation of the school is that which demands that the pupil leave his native lan- guage outside the classroom door when his first lan- guage is different from that of the school world. (p. 28) Accepting these criticisms as justified raises the question of supportive evidence. Numerous studies have been conducted which lend support. For instance, Bell (1965, ' 1966), Richardson (1968), Robinett (1965), and Rojas (1965) described the Miami experiment at the Coral Way School and reported favorable results in achievement for both Cuban and 1 Anglo students. In addition, Horn (l966a,b) and Ott (1969),. in reporting the bilingual experiment in San Antonio, added support to the concept of bilingual schooling. In Califor- nia, Thonis (1967) studied a group of 19 students with a mean chronological age of 7.4 and a mean score of 3.6 on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. The students in the study had a mean mental age nearly four years lower than their mean chronological age; after six months of instruction in Spanish they made a mean gain of 1.1 on the Peabody Test administered in English. In the literature, descriptions of the various exper— imental programs are abundant. For instance, an early child- hood bilingual experiment in New York was reported by Finocchiaro (1966); Stanfield (1970) gave an account of the Laredo experiment in Webb County, Texas. 52 Ignorance of supportive evidence has led to skepti- cism on the part of educators, parents, and students with respect to the merits of instruction in a non-English tongue. The researcher has encountered criticism of bilingual pro- grams by educators who question the use of public funds for such an expensive endeavor, by conservatives who assume that to be a responsible American citizen means first of all to speak English, and by parents who want their children to learn English, the power language in this country. Andersson and Boyer (1969) discussed negative feel-f/ ings on the part of students: f X ; Some children react against being taught in their f ancestral language, having absorbed from the dominant culture the idea that minority ways of being are in some way undesirable. (p. 66) i x I F If students and parents are suspicious of the bilin- gual program, educators should ascertain whether the basis is a desire to learn English as quickly and efficiently as possible or whether there is a fear that using the vernacular for instruction is a way of keeping minority members in their place. In any case, the child belongs to his parents; if they do not want him in'a bilingual program they should be given a choice. Andersson and Boyer cautioned educators from becom- E ing overly zealous by stating: But speakers of other languages should not only be free to acquire an education in their mother tongue; they should also be free to reject their mother tongue if they so prefer. . . . Some educators and some par- ents feel that an education in two languages places on a child an undue burden. (p. 178) 53 After assessing the merits of giving instruction in the vernacular and respecting the right of students and par- ents to choose or reject bilingual instruction, educators are faced with decisions with respect to establishing pri- orities. If the vernacular is to be used as a bridge to English, a comprehensive develOpment of the mother tongue will probably not be included. However, authoritative sources have suggested that developing the mother tongue is essential to cognitive growth which, in turn, will facilitate second language acquisition. It is a basic assumption that the non-English speaker thinks in his mother tongue. It follows logically, then, that his cognitive processes are directly linked to the verbal symbols he uses. Enriching his experiential background and developing his mother tongue as a foundation for the learning of English seems to be a viable theory. Thonis (1970) concluded: "It may be wise to attempt to improve the mother tongue first so he will have verbal symbols to accompany his thought." (p. 262) Although all bilingual programs funded under Title VII must include the vernacular as a medium of instruction, there is little evidence that the non-English tongue is being systematically developed in the native speakers. The United States Office of Education Guidelines specify that the non-English tongue be taken to the literacy level. However, when one considers the percentage of the school day in a monolingual English curriculum that is devoted to the refine- ment of English in native speakers of English, it becomes 54 evident that development of the mother tongue means much more than the teaching of reading. Unfortunately, in the American bilingual programs there is no course of study or commer- cially prepared materials available, to the knowledge of this investigator, which systematically develops the four lan- guage skills in a non-English tongue. As a matter of fact, there is no such integrated approach commerically available for the teaching of English to English speakers as evidenced by the splintered sequences in unrelated readers, spellers, and language books used in a given grade level. If two languages are to be developed to full liter- acy, a prerequisite for successful accomplishment of the goals seems to be an integrated approach to the four language skills in each language. In view of the lack of expertise and materials for efficient develOpment of the mother tongue and considering Thonis' (1970) suggestion that the more extended and refined the native language, the more understanding and interest is brought to the learning of English, educational leaders in bilingual programs would be wise in giving high priority to the development of methods and materials in the development of the vernacular. Second Language Teaching Until recently, English had been acquired as a sec- ond language by generations of immigrants in a "sink or swim" process. During the last decade increased attention to 55 second language teaching for non-English speakers has brought about the development of specialized programs generally referred to as ESL. Current practices range from traditional grammar-translation approaches to audio-lingual to a combi- nation of both. The age-old lag between theory and practice exists in second language teaching as in any other field. ESL programs developed overnight have resulted in both good and bad practices. Many untrained teachers oblivious of the arguments with respect to traditional and modern approaches have nevertheless arrived intuitively at methods of teaching a second language through a humanistic process, thereby achieving good results. Others trained in more modern pat- tern practice have imposed on children army-like drills with efficiency but with unfavorable results. Unfortunately, there are too few teachers cognitively and affectively pre- pared to develop a second language in students efficiently yet charismatically. In a historical study of language teaching methods, Banathy and Sawyer (1969) found that for 300 years new meth- ods were being presented based on a neg discovery that lan- guage is a spoken phenomenon. The primacy of speech theory underlies the practice of delaying the teaching of reading and writing in a second language until an undefined level of speaking mastery is reached. Lado (1964) presented the principle of speech before writing as the basis of the Maudie-lingual approach. However, he qualified all of the language teaching principles with the following statement: 56 ". . . The principles are subject to change or elimination as new scientific facts are added to our knowledge." (p. 50) Although in the early 60's there was overwhelming support for delaying reading, the end of the decade brought about skepticism in some. Prator (1969) warned that pro— longed postponement of all contact with the written form of the language in a low second class could be counter- productive. There is evidence in the literature that most authorities would not advocate presenting the written form before the spoken one. The most modern approach permits either the spoken form presented before the written form, or simultaneously. This is one of the new "combined" approaches, accepting the merit of visual learning from the traditional approach and auditory learning from the audio-lingual approach. The primacy of speech principles has been replaced by Belasco (1969) with the primacy of receptive skills plac- ing emphasis on listening and reading over speaking and writing. The audio-lingual approach established patterns as habits through pattern practice. The "habit theory" has been under severe attack by linguists who believe language is not an accumulated mass of memorized data. Wardhaugh (1969) reported a lack of consensus: . . . there may well still be disagreement about whether actual language use is a EEill which is largely hgbifgzl or-an ability which is largely creative. Teachers who subscribe to the theory that language is 57 generated creatively will teach a second language very dif- ferently than those who cling to the "habit theory." Empha- sis has been placed on using real-life situations for meaningful language learning activities. Wardhaugh (1969b) recommended a humanistic approach: . . . Language is a vehicle for dealing with real- ity. All linguistic activity must be associated with meaningful activity so any techniques designed to encourage meaningful activity are obviously important in language learning. Consequently, movement, involve— ment, and situation, and the concomitants of these-- laughter, games, and stories--are important in teach- ing. (p. 114) Cooper (1970) suggested a method emphasizing content in realistic situations in which students would learn while testing their hypothesis about the new language by producing sentences freely. He challenged teachers with the following proposal: . . . By placing the student in realistic situa- tions that demand that the student use the target lan- guage, we would be attempting to simulate the conditions under which naturally occurring bilingualism takes place. . . . In such situations, people become bilingual by participating in situations which demand the use of the second language. (p. 314) In support of a situational or realistic approach to language teaching, Belasco (1969) proposed the use of "live" telecasts, interviews, and film soundtracks. Cole (1970) developed a problem-solving approach using goal—oriented buzz groups; he suggested the use of language games for beginners. Richards (1969) theorized that specially written songs and songs adapted for second language learners would provide meaningful practice. 58 Another basic premise of audio-lingual teaching is that methods and materials based on a contrastive analysis of two languages is imperative. The posture of many leading authorities on this hypothesis has changed. Wardhaugh (1970) expressed disbelief in the value of interference predictions derived from a contrastive analysis; however, he did not dis- credit the value of a contrastive analysis derived from empirical evidence. Such a study was conducted by Vbci (1971), which revealed a 66 per cent agreement between errors predicted from a contrastive analysis and error actually made by the target population. It is evident from this study that a contrastive analysis does not provide the classroom teacher with a reliable tool for predicting errors or writing lessons based on those predictions. This researcher has found through experience that allophones in the native language that approximate sounds being elicited from the student pro- vide a helpful transition. It follows then that teachers aware of interference points derived from actual evidence are equipped with powerful information for taking students from the Engyn to the unknown. A related area of contro— versy is the minimal pair drill for second language teaching. Wardhaugh (1969a) did not agree with the technique as a teaching tool because it is a technique for analyzing lan- guage rather than for teaching language. Nevertheless, many teachers who use the minimal pair technique creatively and have had success with it will be unwilling to relinquish it simply because it is a technique imported from another 59 discipline. In the same study of a contrastive analysis derived from a linguistic description of English and Canton- ese compared to an analysis derived from actual errors, VOci tested the minimal pair teaching technique against a control group receiving instruction based on imitation. The experi- mental group achieved significantly (.05) better than the control group on the post-test. More impressive is the evi- dence he gathered on a follow-up test where the students taught with minimal pairs retained significantly (.01) more of their achievement gains than the control groups. The traditional approach to second language teaching was based on learning by analysis using grammar rules; where- as the audio-lingual approach was based on learning by anal- oly. The modern approach, which combines analysis and anal- ogy, was described by Belasco (1969): . . . Furthermore, students practicing pattern drills will "know" beforehand what structural principles (grammatical, phonological, semantic) the drills are designed to "internalize." Contrary to the classical audio-lingual approach students will not have to "infer" generalizations about the language. They will practice only after they understand the principle involved. In other words, short explanations will always precede pat- tern drills. (p. 198) One of the hypotheses of the audio-lingual approach which has withstood attack is the insistence on good speech models. Although there is little research evidence to sup- port the theory that authentic models are imperative, authorities (Lado 1964, Andersson and Boyer 1969) continue to advocate adherence to the theory. In discussing the third year results of the bilingual experiment at Nye School in 60 Texas, Carter (1970) reported that only the children who were bilinguals at school entrance retained any noticeable accent in English. Both groups who entered the program as monolin- guals could speak unaccented standard Spanish and English at the end of the third year. This evidence supports a theory proposed by Krear (1969) that second language learners who are not exposed to poor English models in the home because the native tongue is used exclusively will develop a higher degree of bilingualism. The literature is replete with discussions of com- pound and coordinate bilingualism as social phenomena and as possible goals of bilingual programs. If coordinate bilingualism is the ultimate objective of a bilingual pro— gram, attention must be given not only to language models but also to second language teaching method and separation of languages. Fishman (1966) discussed both aspects: . . . it remains true that more modern ("direct") instructional methods have adopted the coordinate model as their own and that many teachers who are strongly convinced of the merits of the direct method explicitly aim at students who can keep their two languages apart, who can think independently in each, and who can "speak like natives" in each. (p. 128) Although the grammar-translation approach so strongly rejected by proponents of audio-lingual theories has had the grammar portion of its approach slowly rein- stated as previously discussed, there is no evidence in the literature that attacks against translation as a teaching practice have been retracted. Since Fishman (1966) has equated the old approach to language teaching with the 61 compound type of bilingual functioning, and since there are no modern proponents of translation as a teaching technique it seems safe to assume that for the present, the practice remains discredited. A theory that has gained support in the last decade is that attitude and motivation are critical factors in learning a second language. There are numerous references in the literature on the topic; only the most noted authori- ties will be quoted. Fishman (1966) pointed out that although the desire to be a member of the other culture is a powerful force which accelerates the learning of the new language, the minority group member learning English as a second lan— guage benefits more from ethnic-group pride than from a desire to acculturate to the dominant group. Anglo children in bilingual programs learning language X as a second language are predicted to perform better if their desire is derived from a solidarity basis rather than a power basis. Fishman (1966) Opined that students propelled by integrative motives would be more successful with a direct method; whereas stu— dents having utilitarian or power motives would profit from the older instructional methods. In a study involving students from 80 different countries, Spolsky (1969) reported his findings support the theory that a solidarity purpose or integrative motivation will lead to a higher degree of proficiency in the second language. He summarized his report with the following: 62 . . . This study, then, has reaffirmed the impor- i tance of attitude as one of the factors explaining 5 degree of proficiency a student achieves in learning l a second language. His attitude to speakers of the language will have a great effect on how well he i learns. A person learns a language better when he ( wants to be a member of the group speaking that ) language. (p. 281) In assessing the state of the art in second language teaching methods, it is necessary to recover the baby that was confused with the bath water as a result of the emergence of the audio-lingual approach. Many practices termed "tra- ditional" and condemned by proponents of the audio-lingual approach are now being reconsidered as not impractical nor illogical. The modern approaches presented in the litera- ture represent practices from the traditional, audio—lingual, and direct methods. A middle-of-the-road position drawing the best from each approach is proposed by several authorities. Belasco (1969) presented an audio-lingual method combined with a grammar-translation approach; he asserted the cognitive, verbal behavior approach would guarantee nothing unless it incorporated a primacy of listening and reading hypotheses. Valette (1969) and Wardhaugh (1969a) both referred to a modi- fied version of the polarized approaches, while Valdman (1970) reflected a tenacity for the audio-lingual approach, claiming it is the most dynamic language teaching method. He has attributed the failures encountered by teachers to disregard for the basic principles of the approach and sug- gested that if it were used with strict adherence to the 63 original methods used during World War II it would prove suc- cessful; furthermore, he rejected the comparisons made with approaches having different goals and made a plea for research comparing the audio-lingual and direct method, as they have similar goals. Bilingual schooling, as envisioned in Title VII Guidelines, has as its ultimate goal that children, whether monolingual in English or another language, will emerge edu— cated, bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural. The corner- stone of the total effort is second language teaching, yet the methods being brought to bear in language programs are not yet sufficiently developed to guarantee language learning for its gnn sake. Bilingual schooling demands a higher level of sophistication in language teaching where students will use the new language as a medium of instruction. Many edu- cators throughout the country have high hopes for the effects of bilingual schooling on many of our pressing educational problems. It behooves all persons involved to become conver- sant with the literature on second language teaching methods to prevent duplication of effort or rediscovery of discred- ited approaches. While searching for more humanistic processes and defining more realistic objectives, educators should be aware of a statement by Lado (1964): The urge to communicate, since man is social, is a force that increases language learning. The urge for fulfillment is a powerful force if language learning is shown to be a means. (p. 42) 64 Biliterany_ Respected authorities (Thonis 1970) have explained when literacy is developed in one language, decoding in a second language does not mean learning to read anew. The critical question in bilingual programs centers around the decision to introduce the child to reading in his native language. Such a decision implies knowledge of supportive evidence, awareness of a need to retrain teachers, a willing- ness to adapt and develop materials, and a commitment to a carefully articulated long-range program. Knowledge of supportive evidence is given highest priority because unless the educators in bilingual programs are conversant with the literature and can interpret research findings to the parents, the decision to teach reading in the- native language may be judged as "bandwagonism." To enlist the support of parents in these experimental programs, it is essential that bilingual staff be familiar with supportive research to develop a viable theory to support the experi— ment. In the minds of many uninformed sources, the sole reason for introducing reading in the native language comes from minority leaders' pressure on school authorities to effect change. Although this may well have been the incen- tive, coupled with the funding from Washington, educators must provide the community with sound theories as a basis for such a critical decision. Ample evidence indicates that American schools are unsuccessful in teaching reading in English to nonvEnglish 65 speakers; current alternatives are to postpone reading in English until English speaking skills are developed or intro- duce reading in the native language. Nancy Modiano's study (1966) in Mexico provides concrete evidence that learning to read in the native language establishes a firm foundation for success in second language reading. Experimental educators have noted achievement differ- ences between children who enter American schools already literate in their tongue and those non-English speakers who are illiterate. A consensus has been found by this research- er in discussing this issue with experienced educators. The literate non-English speaker seems to have much less of a problem than the illiterate one. It seems logical, then, to many authorities to introduce the child to reading in his native tongue. Andersson and Boyer (1969) summarized: Teachers of non-English-speaking children are urged to lose no time in teaching the children to read and write in their mother tongue, and are urged to take all the time needed in an English reading-readiness program. (p. 39) Most people who believe these things also believe that it follows that a child's mother tongue is the one in which he should first learn to read. The agreement is not universal, however, and among informed teachers three other factors are thought to require consideration: (1) the relative ease with which the mother tongue and the second—language writing systems can be acquired; (2) the cultural pattern of reading acquisition related to each of the two languages; and (3) the potential transfer--whether good or bad--to be expected from acquisition of one before the other. (PP. 104-105) When the mother tongue under consideration is Spanish, there seems to be little question with respect to the validity 66 of introducing reading in the native tongue. It is reason- able to assume that if teachers of reading in English have found linguistic readers (those controlling phoneme-grapheme correspondence) helpful in teaching the decoding process, then the teaching of reading in Spanish must prove less troublesome since the "fit" between sound and symbol is so much better in Spanish than in English. This significant difference between English and Spanish spelling systems is the basis for the need to retrain teachers for Spanish bilin- gual programs. The approaches in teaching reading in English are based on the idiosyncrasies of the English language and therefore should not be applied in total to the teaching of reading in another language. There are several reasons why the decision to teach reading in the native language may not be considered wise, namely, lack of qualified bilingual teachers, lack of exper- tise, lack of community support, lack of appropriate mater— ials. In the event that the decision is made to introduce reading in English first, there are several considerations which should be made. A young preliterate non-English speak- ing student should be given systematic instruction in developing audio-lingual skills in English. Thonis (1970) has indicated that a well-planned program of listening com- prehension and speaking fluency must precede the introduc- tion to reading and writing English. Although there is a consensus that the student not be asked to read anything which he has not already learned to understand and speak, 67 there is disagreement with respect to the amount of time lag required between speaking and reading. One second language reading series, Miami Linguistic Readers, introduces the student immediately to the printed version of the speaking lesson. Mackey (1965) has summarized the continuum in his statement: . . . Some courses are arranged so that the written form of a word or sentence is shown immediately after the spoken form is heard; other courses will want the learner to hear and speak the language for a couple of years before presenting it to him in print. (p. 233) Introducing reading in English in a bilingual pro- gram does not imply, however, that the vernacular will not be taken to literacy. It simply reverses the order of pre- sentation. In a bilingual program in which bilinguals lit- erate in English will read in their native tongue as a second priority, there is no great investment of time neces— sary with respect to retraining teachers in new readiness approaches. However, teachers should be trained to intro- duce the literate non-English speaker to English print skillfully. Silent reading in English is a particularly dangerous exercise for literate non-English speakers who know the Roman alphabet. Such a student can decode the Eng- lish print silently and keep himself occupied; however, if he were to read the lesson orally it would not be understood by the speaker of English because he is decoding English with a set of rules from another language. 68 The discussion thus far has treated the teaching of reading in the native language or the second language, assuming that the speech of the children was more or less the standard variety found in reading texts. If, however, the child's speech is a nonstandard dialect of the language in which he will learn to read, further considerations are necessary before designing the language arts program. Assum- ing that the languages in the bilingual program are Spanish and English, the following questions must be answered with respect to speakers of nonstandard Spanish: 1. Will audio-lingual instruction in SSD (Spanish as a Second Dialect) precede the introduction of reading if it is in standard Spanish? 2. Will audio-lingual instruction in SSE and ESL (English as a Second Language) precede the introduction of reading if it is in standard English? 3. Will materials be rewritten in the local dialect if reading is introduced in the native dialect with a transition to the standard language? 4. Will original materials be developed in the local dialect? 5. Will original dialect materials or language experience stories dictated by the students in dialect be spelled as in the standard dialect? The questions listed were to be asked about a nonstandard dialect of Spanish; they apply equally when 69 asked about speakers of nonstandard English in bilingual programs. Although there are authoritative statements to be found in the literature with respect to the teaching of reading in the local dialect in bilingual programs, the greatest source of experimentation is in the literature on nonstandard English dialects, most specifically Black Eng- lish. It seems reasonable to this researcher to consider the body of information available on dialect teaching to investigate possible similarities of problems encountered in bilingual programs. The theory proposed by many experts that learning to read in the native language while learning to speak English will more adequately insure success in learning to read English can easily be translated into a theory for a bidialectal approach. Simply stated, while students learn to read in their dialect they can learn to speak the standard version of their language as well as English as a Second Language. Since there is evidence of increased achievement in transferring from one language to another, as well as from a dialect to the standard, it seems possible that starting with the local non-English dialect with a gradual transfer to the standard language before reading in English might prove effective. The researcher has found no evidence of such experimentation. 70 Materials Ulibarri (1970) stressed the need for materials that are relevant to bilingual objectives, curriculum, and learn— ing activities. He pointed out that very few materials originate in Spanish, most materials coming from either translations or Spanish-speaking countries. Thus they are not usually close reflections of the child's socio-cultural milieu. Bilingual materials must consider the different interests and attention spans which vary widely among these students and shold make such materials as flexible and diversified as possible. This diversification will allow teachers to offer a variety of instructional strategies. These materials, in addition to reflecting the child's socio—cultural environment, should provide positivé support for the child's concept of himself, instilling a ! sense of pride and respect for his cultural heritage. Andersson and Boyer (1969) stated that student inter- est should be a primary concern in the selection of materi- als. In addition, recent advances in learning techniques should be incorporated into materials along with any improve- ments discovered through the incorporation of materials from other countries. Prereading materials should include a var- iety of toys, art supplies, and musical instruments. They added that parents should be included in the program and instructed in the program's activities to help their children at home. 71 The U.S.O.E., March, 1970, guidelines suggested six categories in the development of materials, which are: 6. Identification and review of existing materials Materials useful in present format Selection of adaptable materials Assessment of need of materials not existing Development of adaptable materials Development of new materials Each of these categories must be considered for each of the five components that U.S.O.E. identified: grouped 1. Dominant language - language arts Second language Culture and heritage Content Other Existing materials for bilingual programs can be into the following categories: 1. Imported materials published outside the United States Materials published in the United States in languages other than English Materials developed in bilingual programs in languages other than English A key issue concerning bilingual materials revolves around the issue of dialects. If an educator subscribes to the idea that the regional variety of a language he is deal- ing with in his school is probably different from that 72 language found in imported books, then he has two alterna- tives available to him. Either he does not accept foreign books as appropriate for his students because they do not represent the local dialect, or he decides to have curriculum writers adapt the materials for local use. Those educators who believe students should be schooled in a standard lan- guage regardless of the regional or social dialect they speak will feel very comfortable selecting books written in other countries. A strong argument favoring imported texts is that foreign books more accurately represent the culture. In other words, foreign books are necessary in a bilingual/ bicultural program; whereas American publications might be better suited for bilingual/monocultural projects. The yet unresolved questions which are seriously debated among bilingual specialists regarding teaching in the local dialect can be outlined as follows and should be investigated: 1. Should materials for teaching reading in the foreign language be written in the local dia- lect? 2. Should content areas be taught using the local dialect as a medium of instruction? 3. Should curriculum materials in content areas be written in the local dialect? 4. Should materials written in the local dialect be used with English-speaking students in bilin- gual programs? 73 5. Should transitional materials be developed that efficiently move the student from the local dialect to the standard language? 6. Should there be a compromise using the local dialect in the spoken language but the standard language in written materials? Importing materials not representative of the local dialect conflicts with a recognized bilingual premise which is that students learn more efficiently in their mother tongue. But because of the shortage of biliterate curriculum writers who are also dialectologists, this is not feasible for most school districts. Saville and Troike (1970) also noted that: . . . if bilingual instruction is to be effective, the preparation of materials and the organization of the curriculum itself must rely heavily on information about potential points of interference between the two languages. (p. 12) Thus it is necessary to base materials development on a con- trastive analysis of the two languages used in the project. They stated that: . . . the whole point of contrastive analysis is to determine what to teach and how much time to devote to the various linguistic features so identified. (p. 12) Evaluation Any goals set in a bilingual program must, because of education's dynamic, constantly changing activity, be reevaluated to reflect changes in the community and students. 74 Therefore, any evaluative process must include the community as well as the school. Evaluation must be defined in behavioral terms both in short-range and long-range objectives. Ulibarri (1970) divided these into three areas: the cognitive, the psycho-motor, and the affective domains. These goals, in relationship with the curriculum and teaching methods, reveal the importance of evaluation in a bilingual program. Through needs assessment one might discover a lan- guage shift pattern in a community. Such a pattern would tell a director that proficiency in English would be one of the cognitive goals of the program. A program could then be formulated in which specific goals are established for each grade level and these may be evaluated through standardized tests, interviews, observa- tions, etc. The data collected can then be used to identify and improve various components in the project. Specific psycho-motor goals should be established. For example, writing would fall in this area and levels of achievement could be established and measured. Again, these data could be used by the school and community to improve the program. According to the U.S.O.E. guidelines (March 20, 1970) for Title VII projects, every program will include an eval« uation component to facilitate revision of goals and changes in the projects' curriculum and teaching strategies. Such 75 information will also be used by the U.S.O.E. to ". . . iden- tify which projects warrant continuation as models that can be replicated." (p. 48) Such data should assess all components in the proj- ect, indicating both the level of achievement and the pro- cesses used by both the teachers and administrators to achieve these levels. To facilitate such a process the guidelines indicate five areas of evaluation. The first one involves the assessment of performance objectives that indicate a behavioral goal. Such data should include the levels of performance, the means of measurement, and conditions of measurement. The second component should evaluate the instruments of measurement, the tests, interviews, observations, and interest inventories. If such instruments are developed by the project, ". . . the performance objective must specify the testing criteria which will be incorporated in the new instrument." (p. 50) The U.S.O.E. requires that baseline data for the development of test instruments be included. This should detail: . . . the complete evaluation schedule, the target populations to be examined, those responsible for arrang— ing and administering the measurements, and any condi- tions of measurement not specified within the objec- tives. (p. 51) The fourth area of evaluation involves the techniques used in analyzing the data. For example, the correlations 76 discovered from an analysis of data should be indicated, along with tests for the reliability of such analysis. The reporting of the evaluation is the fifth area of consideration. The format, time, and recipients of informa- tion should be indicated, along with an evaluation of the effectiveness of providing such information in terms of enabling the people involved in the project to respond to the data. The evaluation may be performed by the director and/ or other project personnel, or it may be contracted to a consulting firm or university. The USOE expects an evaluation of the four functional components of a bilingual program: (1) community involvement, (2) the instructional component, (3) materials development, and (4) staff develOpment. On August 29, 1970, directors, evaluators, and audi- tors were invited to a conference in San Diego to increase the efficiency of the evaluation, to clarify the roles of evaluators and auditors, and to share information regarding test instruction appropriate for a bilingual program. Durn ing the three-day conference, evaluation models were pre- sented and discussed. Time was allocated to persons with serious concerns regarding accountability to bring before the group problems which might be common to all. Because of the lack of sophistication on the part of the participants, dur- ing the conference complaints were frequently registered regarding the esoteric nature of the presentations. There 77 was considerable argument that the concerns of USOE pertain- ing to evaluation and auditing were not the immediate con- cerns of the participants. It was evident that directors, evaluators, and auditors, as well as committee representatives, were far more concerned about the instructional program, per- sonnel training, and materials acquisition and development than they were with evaluation and auditing. It is the impression of this reviewer that these concerns are vital and realistic and should be attended to by the USOE before superimposing an unmanageable structure of research design on bilingual programs which are, as yet, struggling to define bilingual schooling as an educational concept. Andersson and Boyer (1969) expressed the need for evaluation, stating: . . . the great need is for the most advanced think- ing about evaluation to be communicated to the bilingual staff so that the statement of aims, the teaching and the testing may all be correlated. . . . Just how this is done should be carefully recorded and made available to others as needed. (p. 155) Saville and Troike (1970) believed that such tests must include a linguistic analysis of the student's language, the cultural conditions affecting his achievement, and his learning rate. These tests should be available to teachers to make on-going evaluations of the student's progress. This information will allow the teacher to make immediate adjust- ments in grouping and rate of instruction. Thomas Carter (1970) would add to a detailed linguis- tic analysis a longitudinal study of the student's school 78 behavior and behavior after leaving school. He stated that without these or similar measures there will doubtless be a continuation of inadequate decisions based solely on sub- jective rather than objective analysis. To facilitate the transmission of this information, Carter asked that stan- dardized master proposal forms and data-collection and eval- uation procedures be developed by USOE. Dr. Carter recommended that outside funds be with- held from districts that fail to comply with standardized evaluation procedures or fail to modify conditions assumed or found to be detrimental to Mexican-Americans. He went on to say that this should only be used as a last resort since, generally, such an action would be detrimental to Mexican- Americans and not to Anglos. As an alternative, Carter sug- gested that schools willing to develop innovative and experi- mental programs should be monetarily rewarded. Dr. Stegeman (1969), the Assistant Superintendent in the San Diego City Schools, in his article "Evaluation in the Current Socio-Political Setting," believed that evaluation must be a constant process and must be able to change, pro- cedurally, along with the program. Failure to accommodate program changes in the evaluation component will result, in his opinion, in invalid analysis. He stated that the primary evaluation designs are set up to reveal only secondary prod- ucts (i.e. attitude of staff, smoothness of operation). Stegeman also emphasized the development of very precise behavioral objectives to facilitate the process of 79 determining the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of programs. To accommodate such an evaluation, he believed that more funds must be allocated to hire skilled staff or to train present staff. He stressed the need for longfterm evaluation, which should carefully study the effects of the program on individuals rather than groups. All of this evidence should be presented in a readable and understandable manner, which the public can use in legislative and community forums. Such interpretive reports should be backed up by detailed data which can be made available when needed. In conjunction with the ongoing evaluation, the Office of Education requires a pre- and post-audit of the evaluation report and project activities. To facilitate this, the auditor should have previous experience in this type of work, independence from the program, proximity to the project, and attendance at an Office of Education train« ing institute. With this background, the auditor should, after reading the evaluator's report, visit the site, observ- ing test procedures, classroom activities and sampling tests, observation schedules, materials, and curriculum to discover any discrepancies in specific evaluation instruments and to assess the evaluation procedures. Furthermore, these on-site visitations should occur twice a year. Any inconsistencies should be reported to the project director and the evaluator so that they may supply the necessary materials. Five copies of the final report will be submitted to the USOE within 30 days of its receipt 80 by the project director, school board, superintendent, and project evaluator. PART II Self-Concept and School Achievement In recent years many studies have been conducted to determine the relationship between self-concept and school achievement, particularly when the school achievement is not that which would be predictable for the student on the basis of his intellectual ability. In 1952, Barber (1952) com- piled a detailed case history for each of 23 retarded read- ers to determine whether a common personality pattern could be established. She found that each child had immature age development, accompanied by anxiety about himself which pre- dated his entering school. There was insecurity about his perception of himself in relation to other people. Again, in 1955, a study (Reeder, 1955) was made in 1 Texas which showed that children with low self-concepts achieved lower in comparison to their potential than the children with high self-concepts. Two years later, Bodwin (1957) conducted a study with 300 subjects (100 with reading disability, 100 with arithmetic disability, and 100 with no educational dis- ability) from the third and sixth grades. The subjects were given the Draw-A-Person Test. Achievement test scores were obtained for correlation. He found a positive and very .‘v ‘IamH... I 81 significant relationship existed between self-concept and I Q‘ reading ability, and also arithmetic ability. I In the same year, Bruck (1957) also did a study in Michigan to investigate the age and sex differences in the relationship between self-concept and grade-point average. He administered the Machover Draw-A-Person Test to 150 boys and 150 girls from the third, sixth, and eleventh grades. Grade-point averages were calculated and correlations were established. He found that a positive and significant rela- tionship existed between self-concept and grade-point average .5 on all grade levels. Sex differences were not consistent for different ages. Two years later, Robert Roth (1959) conducted a study of college students enrolled in reading improvement classes. He compared the progress made in these classes with the self-concept of the students and found: The data in this study clearly indicated that not only as self-concept related to achievement, but that, in terms of their conceptions of self, individuals have a definite investment to perform as they do. With all things being equal, those who do not achieve, choose not to do so, while those who do achieve choose to do so. (p. 281) Lumpkin attempted to find the relationship between self-concept and achievement in reading. He matched 24 overachievers in reading with 25 underachievers in reading. The matching was done on the basis of chronological age, mental age, sex, and home background. He found that the overachievers were viewed positively by themselves, their teachers, and their peers. "The concept of self which the 82 individual accepts influences his behavior qualitatively and may determine the direction and degree of his expression in academic work as well as in his social relationships." A study of the self-concept of bright underachieving high school students was conducted by Shaw (1960) using an adjective checklist. He found that the male high school underachievers, in describing themselves, more often marked the adjectives: immodest, reckless, relaxed, mischievous, argumentative, and restless. But the overachieving male high school students more often marked the adjectives: stable, realistic, optimistic, enthusiastic, reliable, clear think- ing, and intelligent. Bruck and Brown (1962), in using the self-concept scale of the Machover Draw-A-Person Test, found positive and significant correlation between educational disability and immature self-concept. Fifty-two first grade students from the University of Florida Laboratory School were studied by Combs (1962) through the use of interviews, observations, and a series of specially devised projective tests. He said, "Evidence sug- gests that a child's self-concept, and the perceptions he holds of himself in relationship to various aspects of his world are not only related to, but may be causal factors in his subsequent reading achievement." The idea that self-concept might be causal was explored by Wattenberg (1964). He devised a self-concept test for the young child and administered it to beginning 83 kindergarten students. He retested the same children two and / I I ! one-half years later when they were in the middle of the sec- ond grade. Reading tests were also given in the middle of the second garde. He found that "in general, the measure of self-concept and of ego strength taken at kindergarten were predictive of reading achievement two and one-half years later." On the other hand, Schwarz (1967) conducted a study of elementary students in 1967, in which the intensive case studies of the seven subjects revealed no observable rela- tionship between the child's self-concept and his achieve- ment assessed by standardized tests. Schwarz conducted this study in Nebraska for the purpose of finding the effect of teacher approval on self-concept and achievement. It is difficult to attach a large amount of significance to a study in which only seven subjects were examined. This is in contrast to a study done the same year in Pittsburgh with a much larger sample, which showed "high i I achieving boys and girls report significantly higher self-\ J K. ~ "J'. .<.. 1l concepts than do low achieving boys and girls." (Farls, 1967) Mohindra Gill (1969), working under the sponsorship of the American Educational Research Association, selected subjects from 1424 ninth grade students in five high schools in Toronto and grouped them according to discrepancies between predicted and actual levels of achievement. The Perceived-Self Scale was administered and correlations were 84 calculated. This study found that the pattern of achieve- ment, defined in terms of discrepancies between predicted and actual levels of achievement, is significantly related to perceived self as inferred by the Perceived-Self Scale. Brookover (1962) also found that "high-achieving groups have a significantly higher mean concept of ability than do low-achieving groups with comparable measured intel- i a ligence scores." (p. 73) Factors Affecting the Self-Concepn Many studies have been done to determine the rela- tionship between self-concept and various other factors. Sparling (1968) studied 135 children from third to eleventh grades in the University School in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He administered the Coopersmith self—esteem test and academic achievement tests. The results of these tests were statis- tically correlated with 26 personal, social, growth, and intellectual variables. He found significant correlations between self-esteem and flexibility of social climate, acceptance received, social climate index, absence of school anxiety, and mental health index. Many researchers feel that the influence of home and parents is by far the most important factor relating to the Oijp self-concept. Ruth Wylie (1961), in her book The Self Con- I SEES! said: All personality theorists who are concerned with 1 constructs involving the self accord great importance ‘ to parent-child interaction in the development of the self-concept. This notion follows from such general 85 ideas as these: (a) The self-concept is a learned constellation of perceptions, cognitions, and values. (b) An important part of this learning comes from { observing the reactions one gets from other persons. f (c) The parents are the persons who are present ear- / liest and most consistently. (p. 121) ’ C00persmith (1967) conducted an intensive study of 85 children, in which he utilized results from previous clinical and laboratory studies of these children, along with questionnaires given to the children, questionnaires given to the mothers of the children, and an intensive inter- view with each mother. The results were carefully cross checked; then the subjects were grouped by categories: high self-esteem, medium self-esteem, and low self-esteem. Responses to each item on the questionnaire and in the inter- view were tabulated for each category. He found that there is a very high correlation (p<.001) between the self-esteem of the child and the degree of mother-child rapport. Also at this level was the correlation between the self-esteem of the child and the extent to which he tends to agree with the other members of the family. Coopersmith stated: The findings are all consistent, regardless of the instrument or source of information. They reveal that the mothers of children with high self-esteem are more loving and have closer relationships with their chil- dren than do the mothers of children with less self- esteem. The mothers of children with medium self- esteem tend to respond in a fashion that is generally similar to those of children with high self-esteem, with both groups markedly different from the mothers of those low in self-esteem. The greater acceptance of the child with high and medium self-esteem is manifested by inter- est, concern about companions, availability, and con- genial joint activities. The child perceives and appre- ciates the attention and approval expressed by his mother and tends to view her as favoring and supportive. He also appears to interpret her interest and concern as an indication of his significance; basking in these 86 signs of his personal importance, he comes to regard himself favorably. (pp. 178-179) The Coopersmith findings would be compatible with the Wattenberg (1964) study cited above, which indicated that the self-concept of beginning kindergarten students is predictive of later achievement. The long-lasting effect of the parental influence is indicated by the results of a study done by Luck (1969) in Connecticut in 1969 with 152 white male subjects aged 27 to 64. He found that the self-esteem was associated with vari- ables affecting the person since early childhood, such as the quality of relationship with the parents, the position occupied in the family structure, and the amount of consen- sus or dissensus to which they were exposed in relation to their parents. In addition to parental influences, there are other factors which do appear to have an effect on the self-concept.; Social class, as it relates to the disdavantaged child, has ‘ been examined in several pieces of research. The findings do not seem to be consistent or conclusive. Soares (1969) conducted a study using 500 subjects in grades four through eight. Two hundred twenty-nine of the subjects were dis- advantaged (from families with less than $4000 per year income) and 295 were advantaged (from families with income over $7000 per year). An inventory using bipolar scales With four choices was given to both groups. This study found a higher percentage of positive personality traits 87 among the disadvantaged than among the advantaged students. ( The advantaged seem to have more pressure and higher levels ; of aspiration; therefore, they have a lower self-esteem if they don't measure up. This finding is related to the conclusion drawn by Eisenberg (1967). He said, "Most of them [lower class chil- dren] don't care whether they succeed, which is one defense I against the expectation that they will fail." (p. 9) / On the other hand, the Gillman (1969) study of 428 elementary students in five schools in the Lower Rio Grande Valley found that the self-concept appears to be affected by f poverty, minority group status, language deficiencies, and j migration problems. Ziller (1967) also found that geo- ; graphic mobility was associated with a general anxiety con- f cerning self-other relationships. Gezi (1969) took a sample of 40 fifth and sixth grade students from middle class background and 27 fifth and sixth grade students from lower class background and gave each sub- ject the Torrance Test for Creative Thinking, Figural Form A, and a self-referent questionnaire regarding self-concept. He found that the middle class group scored higher on self- concept than the lower class group. However, the lower class group scored significantly higher on all aspects of creativ- ity than the middle class group. Social acceptability within the peer group seems to be closely related to the self-concept. Ziller (1962) inves- tigated the relationship between the self-concept and the 88 social desirability of 50 sixth grade white children. Each student was given an adjective checklist to determine self- concept and each was asked to select the child in the class that he "would most like to take home with him," the one he would "like to have help him with his homework," the one he would "like to see chosen class president," and so forth. There was a very strong correlation between the number of adjectives a subject checked about himself and the number of times he was chosen by other members of his class. In fact, using a cutoff of 31 adjectives, 49 out of the 50 sub- jects would have been correctly categorized as highly chosen or unchosen. The influence that reaction of others has on the self-concept was demonstrated by Videback (1960), when he set up an experiment with 30 students in college speech classes. All 30 of the subjects chosen had been rated by their pro- fessors as being above average and about equally qualified. The subjects were told that they were a part of a study "to see if men or women were better in certain forms of oral communication." Each subject read six poems. After each poem was read, an "evaluator" read comments about the sub— ject's performance. Regardless of the objective quality of their performance, half the subjects received approving reactions from the "evaluator" and half received disapprov- ing reactions. These reactions were standardized, prepared statements which the "evaluator" read as though reading his own comments. Before and after each subject read his poems, 89 he was given a 24-item self-rating scale. Eight items were regarding aspects criticized by the evaluator; eight were regarding aspects related to aspects covered by the evalu- ator but not covered by him. The other eight items related to communication in general. Thirteen of the 15 approval subjects and 14 out of the 15 disapproval subjects changed their ratings in the predicted direction. In general, it would appear that the self-esteem is influenced to a much greater degree by parents, family, and the immediate environment than by social class or prestige in the community at large. The Teacher's Relationship to the Student's Self-Concept A large proportion of the young people now enter- ing adulthood are burdened with anxiety, hostility, defensive attitudes toward themselves and others, feelings of guilt, inferiority, or other forms of self-disparagement and self-distrust. They struggle not only with the real dangers and thwartings in our troubled world but with unresolved childhood problems. (Jersild, 1952, p. 5) The self is acquired. It is not ready-made. It develops as a person, with his inborn abilities and tendencies and all that is inherent in his make-up, meets up with the experiences of life. (Jersild, 1952, p. 16) Staines (1958) conducted an experiment to determine whether a teacher who consciously attempts to improve the self-concept of her students can actually raise the self- concept of her students more than a teacher who is unaware of the self-concept, even though the two are equally success- ful academically. He found that with the teacher who attempted to improve self-concepts, students made significant 90 changes in two dimensions of the self, certainty and differ- entiation. Standardized tests showed that the two classes made about the same gains academically. Staines said, "Amongst the peOple likely to be most influential in deter- mining the self—picture are teachers." (p. 97) Davidson (1960) carried out an investigation to determine the relationship between the children's percep- tions of their teachers' feelings toward them and their self- perception, school achievement, and behavior. The sample of 89 boys and 114 girls indicated that children's perceptions of their teachers' feelings toward them correlated posi- tively and significantly with self-perception. The more positive the children's perception of their teachers' feel- ings, the better was their academic achievement and the more desirable their classroom behavior as rated by teachers. The girls generally perceived their teachers' feelings toward them as more positive than the boys did. The Schwarz study (1967) referred to in the above section on self-concept and school achievement stated that: Teacher education programs that stress the impor— tance of teacher-pupil interactions, both verbal and nonverbal, and their effect on pupils, will produce teachers who are more effective in terms of pupils' self-concepts than will traditional teacher education programs which emphasize "methods." (p. 108) An experiment was conducted by Nichols (1968) in Indiana to determine changes that might occur in groups of children from culturally disadvantaged areas as a result of receiving tutoring by university students. There were no 91 significant differences found between gains made in self- concept by the experimental group (55 intermediate grade students) and the control group. In a study in Texas in 1968, Coleman (1968) attempted to identify and reduce negative self-concepts prevalent in fourth, fifth, and sixth grade classes. He found that these negative self-concepts are identifiable and that proper teacher-pupil relationships could improve them. Brookover (1966) found that positive communication 1 from parents relative to the child's ability led to improve-‘ ment in the child's self-perception, but such communication i 1 from school counselors did not have a significant effect. 1 Another study with counseling, conducted by Hugo (1969), utilizing six students in an experimental group in each of 15 different elementary schools, found no signifi- cant differences in self-concept as the result of group counseling experience. After conducting a study in self-concept and school adjustment, Williams (1968) concluded: It should be the business of the school to identify children with derogatory self-apprisal and to embark on a judicious program of amelioration. Few factors are more fundamental to a child's success and happiness than his evaluation and acceptance of himself. (p. 480) Gillman (1969), in the study cited earlier, recom- mended: "The development of positive self-concept should be a major objective of every educational program concerned with development of productive citizens." 92 People develop feelings that they are liked, wanted, acceptable and able from having been liked, wanted, accepted and from having been successful. One learns that he is these things, not from being told so but only through the experience of being treated as though he were so. . . . People become adequate; they are not born that way. . . . The self is learned. What is learned can be taught. We could not avoid affecting the self if we wanted to. We may ignore the self in our teaching. We cannot, however, escape the fact of our influence upon the self or our ultimate responsibility with respect to whether the effects of schooling are posi- tive or negative. (Combs and others, 1962, pp. 84, 97, 101) Summary This survey of research related to the self-concept shows that studies tend to indicate the following: 1) The self-concept is measurable. 2) The self—concept if fairly constant. 3) The self-concept is related to academic achievement. 4) The self-concept is related to the degree of love, acceptance, respect, and trust received from the parents. 5) The self-concept may be affected by the condi- tions of poverty, language difficulties, and migration. 6) The self-concept is affected by the reactions of signifi-. cant others. 7) Teachers may have an influence on the self- concept. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Setting This study was conducted in a Midwestern city with a population of 150,000 inhabitants. In the fall of 1970 there were approximately 32,500 pupils enrolled in the schools of the city. Of this number 2,853 were pupils whose dominant language was not English. The district Ethnic Count Report for 1970 indicates that Blacks were the largest minority, 12.5 per cent, followed by the Spanish-surnamed population, 6 per cent of the total school population. Rac— ial and ethnic count by school shows that Spanish—surnamed population, though somewhat concentrated in one geographic area of the city, were represented in all of the city's secondary schools. Reports for the years 1967, 1968, 1969, and 1970 show that the Spanish-surnamed population was the fastest growing minority in the district and that the white population was decreasing slightly each year.1 lEthnic Count Report, 1969-70 School Year; September 93 94 Definition of the Population Sample ‘The universe for this study was the seventh grade Spanish-surnamed student population in all five junior high schools of the district in 1969-70. Students selected for the study were those who were known to be of Mexican descent. Eliminated were Spanish-surnamed students of other Latin- American origin, such as Puerto Rico or Cuba. Inadequate school records and absences during testing were factors in eliminating students for whom other data were available. In the two treatment schools, 45 students were selected from the 86 originally enrolled in the bilingual/bicultural pro- gram. In the three schools that made up the comparison sam- ple, all Mexican-American seventh grade students for whom complete data were available were included in the study, a sample of 49 students. TABLE 3.1.--Sample of students in the study by group and sex. Sex Treatment Group Nontreatment Group Male 27 27 Female 18 22 Total 45 49 The racial and ethnic count conducted by the school district shows a higher concentration of Spanish-surnamed students in the two treatment schools than in the comparison 95 schools. However, Spanish-surnamed students are represented in all of the district's junior high schools. TABLE 3.2.--Racial and ethnic composition of schools in the sample by percentage. Junior % % Spafiish- Ame:ican % High School Caucasian Negro Surnamed Indian Other A* 83 8.0 9.0 0 0 B* 80 9.0 10.0 0 1 C 84 12.0 3.0 0 1 D 83 14.5 2.5 0 0 E 81 14.0 4.0 0 1 *Schools A and B were treatment schools. The Junior High School Bilingual/Bicultural Program In the spring of 1969 the district made application for funds under ESEA Title VII P.L. 89-10, the Bilingual Education Act for the junior high school bilingual program. The proposal was accepted by the United States Office of Education1 and funds were granted for a five-year pilot pro- gram. The program included four major components: instruc- tion, material development, staff development, and community involvement. Of concern to the study are the Spanish social 1United States Office of Education, Division of Plans and Supplementary Centers, 400 Maryland Avenue, Washington, D. C. 20202. Project Number 32-0271. 96 studies classes, the English as a Second Language classes, and the material development component. Spanish Social Studies The bilingual social studies program taught in Spanish at the secondary school level had two cardinal objectives. The first was to give students the Opportunity to maintain and develop the necessary skills for a command of general, standard Spanish. Acquisition of these skills was considered to be indispensable to anyone working toward a bilingualism with economic and personal value. In View of this objective, it was of primary importance that the student become aware of the differences between a general and a regional dialect, as well as between the various levels or styles of the language. With practice, students would learn to use the dialect and the style appropriate to the circum- stances. The study of social studies in the student's native language would also strengthen his knowledge of concepts and generalizations related to the subject, as well as improve- ment of his study skills. The second objective of major importance was that the program strive to offer the Mexican-American student the Opportunity to know as much as possible about his world, and also about pertinent present and past relations that he has with the cultural, social, and historical legacy of the extensive Hispanic world. 97 With this, the student would have a valid sense of what it means to be a Mexican-American. He would know and understand himself better; he would understand his experi- ences and contributions within the American society more clearly and objectively. If he came to feel proud of being a Mexican-American, it would not be unfounded, but solidly based. Nevertheless, it was not the intention of the program to impose upon the student certain attitudes and values, but to make him conscious of different perspectives of life and ways of being. He, personally, would be at liberty to accept or reject intelligently certain attitudes, values, and cus- toms. Materials Development The objective of the material development component of the program was to prepare a text specifically directed to the Mexican-American student of the Midwest. The teacher- writer team composed of three Mexican-American teachers did not attempt to abridge or review material in existence for students of Spanish as a foreign language. It was felt that level of difficulty and the orientation of these texts made them inadequate for bilingual Mexican-American students. Effort was directed to the selection of tOpics and develop? ment of lessons that would be explicitly related to the pres— ent and future of the students in the bilingual program. The teachers' knowledge of the students as a result of their 98 interaction and experience with them in the classroom was considered a valuable asset in the production of educational material relevant to the students. The criteria for mater rial development and a sample lesson are presented in Appen- dix A. Included in the proposal as general overall goals of the program are the improvement of academic achievement and the change toward a more positive self-concept on the part of participating students. English as a Second Language Students enrolled in the bilingual/bicultural program received one class period of instruction daily in the Spanish social studies program. These students were also enrolled in a special English as a Second Language class for one period a day. This program differed from the regular English cur- ciculum operational for all other seventh grade students in the district in the following ways: 1. Emphasis was given to the development and strength— ening of oral language skills, before students engaged in reading and writing activities. 2. Instruction was individualized, in that each stu- dent's linguistic strengths and weaknesses were assessed through the use of diagnostic tests and appropriate instructional experiences were provided. 99 3. Instruction for correcting language interference problems of students whose dominant language was Spanish was provided. 4. Materials were selected for their relevance to the linguistic and cultural orientation of the students. 5. Non-English-speaking students were provided system- atic, sequential instruction in the English language structure and phonetic system. ESL methodology emphasizing linguistically structured materials and transformations was used. 6. The teachers in this part of the bilingual program were monolingual English speakers, especially trained in English as a Second Language methodology. The Comparison Junior High School Program Students selected for the comparison sample were drawn from three nontreatment schools. As stated earlier in this chapter, they were Mexican-American seventh grade stu- dents enrolled in regular social studies and English classes. Socio-economic data and test scores on mental ability avail- able from school records were used as a basis for compara- bility with the treatment group. The social studies curriculum in the comparison schools differed from the treatment classes in the language of instruction used and in content. However, both groups were taught similar study skills. .. .(‘M-«Hflvr 100 The traditional English program differed from the English as a Second Language classes primarily in methods of instruction and materials used. Teachers in the comparison schools were not trained in ESL methodology nor in contras- tive phonology. Source of the Data The criteria used for the selection of variables in this study were limited by two rather pragmatic considera- tions: relation of the variable to the treatment, and pos- sibility of collecting data relative to a specific variable. While many other variables could have been added to this study, available data collection procedures limited the variables considered. The variables used were: academic W achievement in Paragraph Meaning, Social Studies, and Lan- a g; guage; general self-concept of ability; level of education E of the parents; occupation of the parents; intelligence; and: '1 : 86X. Academic Achievement The Stanford Achievement Test (advanced) is accepted #‘ as a valid criterion for the stated objectives of the dis- trict's curricular program and was administered to all seventh grade students. Scores from the sections Paragraph Meaning, Social Studies, and Language were used as the measure of academic achievement in this study. 101 Intelligence The district's standardized testing program uses the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test, Intermediate Form J. This II test was selected because of its correlation with the Stan- 4~ ford Achievement Test. The reliability of the instruments is discussed fully I . 2 in the Manual for Administration of the Otis-Lennon Mental } 9 Ability Test (1967) and the Stanford Achievement Test, Tech- nical Supplement (1966). There is considerable controversy as to validity of standardized tests when used with minority group populations. However, for the purposes of this study the tests used were deemed valid, inasmuch as the samples compared were both from the same ethnic background. Socio-Economic Status The SES index used in this study was based on school record data. At the time the parents enrolled a child in / the system, the educational level and current occupation of the parents were obtained. In cases where this information was missing or not current, parents were contacted to update the information. Where the place of employment was recorded in place of type of occupation, parents were contacted for the correct data. The categories for the variables "level of education" and "occupation of the parents" are shown in Appendix B. No attempt was made to classify the families /I into social class levels. 102 General Self-Concept of Ability A part of this study concerns the possible relation of the bilingual/bicultural program to academic self-concept. The instrument deemed most appropriate for this measure was the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale developed by yL Brookover (1962). A copy of this scale is found in Appen- dix C. §e_x Provisions were made in the data collection to analyze the data alone on the basis of sex differences. While not a formal hypothesis of this study, the possibil— ity of different reactions to the bilingual/bicultural pro- gram by boys and girls was considered. Design of the Study The design of this study is pre-experimental or % exploratory, described by Campbell and Stanley (1966) as thef Static Group Comparison design. This is a design in which I one group (01) which has experienced a special treatment (X)E is compared to another group (02) which has not, for the purL pose of establishing the effect of the treatment. 2 2£___91 02 The fact that there is no formal means of certifying that the groups would have been equivalent had it not been for the X 103 is indicated in the diagram by the dashed lines separating the two groups. The intent of this correlational design is to pro- vide a preliminary survey of the hypotheses. If a high cor-. relation is found between the bilingual/bicultural treatment and higher mean differences in academic achievement and self- concept of ability, the hypotheses can then be judged as valid for true experimental manipulation. The Hypotheses Major Hypothesis: There will be no difference in the mean group scores on the Stanford Achievement Subtests, Social Studies, Paragraph Meaning, and_Language; and the General Self-Concept of Ability Sgales between Mexican-American seventh grade students in a bilingual/bicultural program and Mexican-American seventh grade students in a traditional school pro- gram. Subhypothesis A: There is no difference in the group mean score in reading comprehension achievement as meas- ured by the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Paragraph graph Meaning between the treatment group and the comparison group. Subhypothesis B: There is no difference in the group mean score in language as measured by the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Language between the treatment group and the comparison group. 104 Subhypothesis C: There is no difference in the group mean score in social studies as measured by the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Social Studies between the treatment group and the comparison group. Subhypothesis D: There is no difference in the group mean score in academic self-concept as measured by the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale between the treatment group and the comparison group. The level of confidence for the rejection of all hypotheses was .05. Statistical Model As a method for controlling possible differences between the treatment group and the comparison group in achievement and self-concept of ability where there was not random assignment of the subjects, the mgltivariate analysis 3f covariance model was chosen. This type of analysis .91....“mr‘ _'“v allows for statistical control of differences which might exist in the two groups of the sample before experimental condition or treatment is begun. Because the two groups in the sample were in preassembled classes, no random assign- ment of students to treatment and nontreatment groups was possible. Summar The study of the effects of a bilingual/bicultural instructional program on the achievement and academic self- concept of Mexican-American junior high school students 105 necessitated the selection of a comparison sample. Mexican- American students enrolled in three nontreatment schools were selected and data related to their academic ability and socio-economic status were collected for use as covariates in the study. The experimental variable was instruction in social studies taught in Spanish, instruction in English as a Sec- ond Language, and the use of specially prepared material developed to enhance the student's self-concept and knowledge of his cultural and historical heritage. Teachers in the \ bilingual program were Mexican-American. The comparison group was enrolled in regular classes, and was taught the standard curriculum in language and social studies by teachers who were not bilingual and not specifically trained in ESL methodology. Data were collected from school records and personal interviews to determine level of education and current occu- pation of the parents, as well as the language spoken at home. The instruments selected for the study were the Stanford Achievement Test (advanced); the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test, Intermediate Form J; and the General Self- Concept of Ability Scale. One major null hypothesis was made concerning the relationship of the treatment to the four dependent vari- ables combined. Four null subhypotheses concerning the 106 achievement outcomes of each of the dependent variables were also tested. A design described by Campbell and Stanley (1966) as the Static Group Comparison was used, inasmuch as the pre- assembled groups used in the study did not permit random assignment of the population to treatment and nontreatment groups. To control statistically for prior differences in the two groups, the multivariate analysis of covariance was selected as the statistical model. The group mean scores on I.Q. and SES were held as covariates. The dependent variables were the group mean scores on Paragraph Meaning, Social Studies, and Language from the Stanford Achievement Test (advanced). The General Self-Concept of Ability Scale was administered to measure academic self-concept, the fourth dependent variable. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction In the analysis of the data collected for this study, 8 school achievement and academic self-concept were treated as 3 dependent variables. This was based on the assumption that the bilingual/bicultural instructional program would affect these two areas of the student's school experience. Infor- 2; mation regarding socio-economic status and the mental ability: of the students was treated as associated variables. School ‘ achievement data were collected from scores on the Stanford Achievement Subtests, Social Studies, Paragraph Meaning, and Language. Data concerning self-concept were taken from scores on the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale. In the multivariate analysis of covariance the group mean scores E on the above tests were treated as the dependent variables, / l with socio-economic status and I.Q. held as covariates. Findings of the Study The major hypothesis tested was: There will be no difference in the mean group scores on the Stanford Achieve- ment Subtests, Social Studies, Paragraph Meaning, and Language; and the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale 107 108 between Mexican-American seventh graders enrolled in a bilingual/bicultural program and Mexican-American seventh graders in a traditional program. The mean scores on the above tests by group for males, females, and combined are presented in Table 4.1. The result of the multivariate analysis of variance is shown in Table 4.2. TABLE 4.l.--Mean scores on Stanford Achievement Subtests, Paragraph Meaning, Social Studies, and Language; and Gen- eral Self-Concept of Abilipy Scale by treatment and sex. Paragraph Social Self- Group Sex Meaning Studies Language Concep Male 20.08 34.54 Treatment Female 23.32 35.47 Combined* 21.47 34.93 Non- Male 20.26 28.74 treatment Female 22.27 32.27 73.14 22.23 Combined* 21.16 30.32 68.22 21.76 *Combined mean score for males and females. TABLE 4.2.--Multivariate analysis of variance. Source df F P ( Sex 1 1.40 ' .24 NS Treatment 1 6.30 .01* S x T l .47 .76 NS *Significant at P(.01. 109 There were no differences in the analysis between K i i the sexes nor was there significant interaction between sex .1 and treatment. The F-test for significance of the treatment A with 1 degree of freedom was 6.30, significant at P less Ii than .01, below the .05 level selected for all F-ratios in the study. This indicates that statistically significant differences exist between the treatment and nontreatment groups in achievement and self-concept as measured by the Stanford Achievement Subtests, Social Studies, Paragraph ‘. Meaning, and Language; and the General Self-Concept of Abil-E l l ity Scale. The mean scores in Table 4.1 indicate that these differences favored the treatment group. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected on the basis of the findings. Subhypotheses A. The first subhypothesis tested was: There will be no difference in the group mean scores on the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Social Studies between the treat- ment and the nontreatment groups. The mean scores on social studies for males, females, and combined are shown in Table 4.1. The results of the uni- variate analysis of variance are listed in Table 4.3. There was no significant difference in the analysis between the sexes nor was there significant interaction between sex and treatment. The F-test for significance of the treatment with 1 degree of freedom was 9.34, significant p: 110 at P less than .01. This was below the .05 level selected for all F-ratios in this study. This indicates statistically significant differences between the treatment and nontreat- ment groups on achievement in social studies as measured by the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Social Studies. The dif- ference favored the treatment group. Students in the program had a mean score 4.61 points higher than the comparison group. The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of ”L// the findings. TABLE 4.3.--Univariate analysis of variance for social studies. Source df F P ( Sex 1 .39 .53 NS Treatment 1 9.34 .01* S x T l .29 .59 NS *Significant at P<.01. B. The second subhypothesis tested was: There will be no difference in the group mean scores on the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Paragraph Meaning between the treatment and nontreatment groups. The mean scores on paragraph meaning for males, females, and combined are shown in Table 4.1. The results of the univariate analysis of variance are shown in Table 4.4. 111 TABLE 4.4.--Univariate analysis of variance for paragraph meaning. Source df F P < Sex 1 1.20 .28 NS Treatment 1 .20 .65 NS S x T 1 .74 .39 NS '5 No significant differences were found in the analysis “VI between the treatment and nontreatment groups on achievement in paragraph meaning as measured by the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Paragraph Meaning. The F-test for significance of the treatment with 1 degree of freedom was .20, not signifi- cant at P less than .05, the level chosen for all F-ratios in this study. No differences were found between the sexes, nor was there significant interaction between sex and treat- ment. The null hypothesis was retained on the basis of the findings as measured by the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Paragraph Meaning. C. The third subhypothesis stated: There will be no differ- ence in the group mean scores on the Stanford Achievement Subtest, Language between the treatment and the nontreat- ment groups. Mean scores on language for males, females, and combined are presented in Table 4.1. The results of the univariate analysis of variance are listed in Table 4.5. 112 TABLE 4.5.-~Univariate analysis of variance for language. Source df F P < Sex 1 4.31 .04* Treatment 1 9.57 .01** S x T 1 .30 .59 NS *Significant at P .04. **Significant at P .01. The analysis of variance for language indicated no significant interaction between sex and treatment. There was, in this case, a slight difference between the scores on language for boys and girls in the study. Girls had a mean score on language 13.87 points higher than the boys in 1 the population sample. ‘ The F-test for significance of the treatment with 1 degree of freedom was 9.57, significant at P less than .ios oes+_3o o_ _ on o_:_Eop mm w<><§ mo; . .mmHst managecflo at was hoe m>aom ma op mm>msp m ho>os one cohofi>=p 65w mpcmwflw «pupae as: we conmfiown ma mmoosao moq .osocm we mofie mwom h «pupae mo mmwm o>wsc ocfls .oomwo coo newsman c: w 0 when :3 m endowmpmoh 05v .Hmmoaoo msonmo mama Los Aztecas -9 135 El Mundo Hispano w oucmuso cosmnmbmup monbaon Has News 030 ocmdsoamo an on coco:;_eome cm _om .mo me_ewz_a OE .ocooo:;_eom+ oes+.:o o_ on omc_eop _u on? zao<::_eome El Mundo Hispano 137 Los Aztecas .11 La Promesa de Quetzalcoatl La promesa de Quetzalcoatl es muy importente en la historia de Mexico por la manera en que influyo en el destino del Imperio Aztece. Quetzelcoetl quiere decir "serpiente emplumada".. Este fue el nombre de un gran rey de la civilizaoion tolteca. Los indios creian que él habia sido mandado por los dioses. l Segun 1a 1eyenda, 61 se presento ante su reino y prometio 2 que hombres blancos con barbas vendrian elgun dia del este a conquistar 1as tierras indies. DeSpués, Quetzalooatl desaparecio misteriosamente. Muchos siglos mas tarde, cuando Hernén Cortes 11056 a las tierras mexicanas, 1a leyenda todavia se recordaba. Mocterma, e1 emperador ezteca, respetebe mucho 1as tradiciones toltecas. E1 creyo firmemente que la pro- 3 mesa se habia cumplido y que Cortes ere e1 dios Quetzalcoatl. Ademas, como los indios nunca habien visto 4 hi caballos ni armas de fuego ‘5 eran dioses invencibles . Si no hubiera sido por la , pensaron que los espafioles fuerza de la leyenda tolteca y 1as creencias religiosas ‘1. reino: dominio, toda la gente y 1as tierras sobre 1as cuales tiene poder 2. barbas: beards 3. cumplido: (del verbo cumplir) habia llevedo a cabo h. armas de fuego: riflEBua pistolas 5. invencibles: que no se puede dominarlos, indomables 138 El Mundo Hispano Los Aztecas— 12 de Moctezuma, quiza Cortes no habria podido conquistar a los eztecas. En fin, casi se podrie pensar que la promesa de Quetzalcoatl se cumplib. Un hombre blanco y barbudo llego del Oriente a conquistar 1as tierras mexicanas y poner fin a1 gran Imperio Azteca. El Mundo Hispano 139 Los Aztecas- 13 Le culture de una sociedad El Cheque entre la se refiere a la religion, Culture Aztece y la los escritos, 1as artes, Culture Espafiola. los valores, los pensamientes, 1as costumbres y la manera E1 encuentro entre el de vivir de sus miembres. conquistador espefiol Hernan Cortes y Moctezuma, e1 emperador azteca, en 1520,11eg6 a ser un gran cheque entre la culture espefiola y la culture azteca. En esos tiempos, Espafia ere e1 pais mes poderoso“ e importante del mundo. Los espefioles querian egrandarl su imperio, conquistando mas tierras y adquiriendo mas riquezas. Esta era la mision de los espafioles a1 llegar a las tierras de Nexico. Después de conquistar a los indios, los eSpefioles quisieron ponerle fin a su religion primitive y convertirlos a1 catolicismo. Mientres que los espafioles creian en un solo dios, los aztecas adoraban a varies dioses, come a Huitzilopochtli, su dios principal del sol y de la guerre; Quetzalcoatl, dios de la creacion y de la sabi— duriaz; y Tlalec, dios de la lluvia. Para evitar que, l. agrandar: hacer mas grande, hacer mas extenso 2.- eebidurie: conocimiento, e1 saber El Mundo Hispano 140 Los azteces - lb 1 a estos dioses suyos, los azteces siguieran venerando los espafioles destruyeron sus idelos y sus temples, y, como casi todos los monumentos eran religiosos, tambien los destrozaron.2 Les indios no 5610 perdieron la religion de su culture, sine también su propia lengua nahuatl. Los espafioles los hicieron eprender espafiol para poder asi entender 1as doctrines cristianas. Poco a poco, la culture espafiola llego a impenerse sobre muchos aspectos de la gran culture y civilizecion avanzada de los azteces. 1. venerando: adorando 2. destrozaron: destruyeron mprimere vez en ese mercado, son muy conocides equi y en casi todo el mundo. T“ 1;"se asofibro: (del verbo asombrarse), se meravillé, 1e causo.admiracién, sorpresa. 2. Constantinople: Fue capital del Imperio Romano. Ahora se llama Estambul, 1a capital de Turquia. El Mundo Hispano 143 Los Azteces-l'Z Moctezuma y Cueuhtemec La Defense del Imperio Azteca Durante su primer viaJe basis 01 centre del Imperie Alsace, los conquistadores espafleles so hicieren aliedosl or nnos guerreros de Tlaxcale. Estes tlaxceltecas, eucmigos de los azteces, ecenpefiaron a los espefioles haste Mexico-Tenechtitlan. Al lleger a ese gran ciuded, Mectezume lee recibio con muchos honoree y los invite a alojarse2 en uno de los palacios. Sin respetar la hospitalidad azteca, Cortes y sus soldades hicieron prisienero a.Mectezuma. Esta traicion3 fue un gran insulto para los nexicash, quienes con gran eneje5 eitierenfi e1 pelecio dende estaban los espanoles. Moctezume, que estaba alli, salio a uno de los be‘.cenes para treter do specigeer7 a sus hombres Sin (:mbergo, los mexices, any disg zetados, le lenzeren piedras. L.na de ellas lo hirib en la cabana y poco tiempo deepues Iran‘iO . --~_ 1. aliados: los qm estAn en favor de tag:£ amigos, companeres (centrerio de en gos) 2. alojerse: quederse en un lugar a pasar la neche t s,e1 ". traicifin: engafio A. mexicas: azteces 5. enojo: furia, rebia, ire 6. sitiaron: (del verbo sitier) cerrer nudes Lee ea ;eas de una ciudad pare peder'cenquiStarle 7. apaciguar: calmer 144 E1.Mundo Hispano Les Aztecas ~18 Como la cemida, el agua y le pelvore se acababen repidamente, Cortes y los suyos pleneeron huir? Los guerreres azteces, entre los que estaba Cueuhtemoc, se entereron del plan y se prepareron para no dejerlos salir de Tenochtitlan. Puesto que la ciuded estaba rodeeda por las aguas de un lage, levanteren los cuatro puentes que la cenectaban con tierra firms. La noche del 30 de junio de 1520, los mil descientos eSpefioles y cerca de dos mil tlaxceltecas trataren de es- caper. Sin embargo, solo trescientos espefioles logrercn salir con vida del ataque azteca. Cuenten los historiedores que ese noche, llaneda La Noche Triste, Cortes se sentb debaje de un erbel a llorar la muerte de sus hombres en ese gran.denrota.2 Sin perder 1as esperanzas de conquistar sales azteces, Cortes y los pocos eSpefioles que quedaron, se refugieron en Tlaxcala para reerganizer sus fuerzas. Seis meses mes tarde, Cortes, ya listo, volvio a Tenochtitlén. Los azteces ahora tenien un nuevo emperador y lider 3 guerrero. El era el valeroso joven Cueuhtémoc que tan solo mania unos 18 efios de edad. Cueuhtémoc y sus hombres se ‘=fondieron lo mejor que pudieron. En este ocasién, sin . w“ m -, Lair: escaper ierrote: freceeo, vencimiento (e1 contrerio de vrnnvrla} . .aieroso: veliente, hombre con mucho valor (lo QUJWF%"FC de cebarde) ‘ “ P" - r-- . v-vw—qu-W ”I,"- u .1 7‘ .__I —~‘.. m-pn‘ 1‘ 'l 51 uunde Hispano 14? mos Aztecas—l9 embargo, los azteces perdieron la betalle. La gran Tenochtitlén qued6 totelmente destruida. Cuauhtémec cayb prisionero, y, un efio después, murio ahorcado per ordenes de Cortes. Asi termin6 1e poderosa civilizacibn azteoa y se implantaronl la lengua, la religion y el control del imperio espafiol. l. impisnteron: igdel verbo implantar), se estableci . L Q . ‘ I . 4"‘ \w" ‘ a I '. I I 10661:; (ICE: «WWI ‘5“: - (“Sac .1COS 1:126‘70'. aha-“a. 'mu.‘ :1. . :51 .-1'd..do Alispalu} 146 -313 .'_;;,';:_n,.<_~— '; LA TOMA DE TENOCHTITLAN Escribe, junte a cada canon, los nombres de los capitanes de Cortes que sitiaron a Tenochtitlan, teniendo en cuenta 1a calzada per donde atacaron. )Tepeyac ° LAGO ( Tacube 0 an 6% TERCOCO ,— m ‘3 l . Tenochtitlan rfl§33 (>/ . . fig) 3 ‘1 5% I "”' ' Ixtepalapa K§35\‘s /// \p. .‘ 1° 4%“ Ilumina con color rojo las calzadas, con azul 1as aguas del lago y con verde 1as tierras vecinas. (2 co 147 El Mundo Hispano Los Aztecas -21 A. Actividedes de Aprendizeje En 1as siguientes listas, acuél pelebre no pertenece al grupo? 1. Quetzalcoetl, hombre blanco, olmecas,' serpiente emplumede. 2. culture, artes, religion, dinero. 3. 1eyende, verdad, cuento, fantasia, tristeze. h. conquistador, Moctezume, emperador, Cueuhtemoc. 5. conquistadores, Bresil, espafioles, Hernén Cortes. 6. tierras, riquezes, Aguila, joyas. 7. elmeces, incas,chichimecas, toltecas. Llenen los especios con la pelebre 0 las palabras apropiadas. la. b. Los azteces domineban el. Y de Mexico. .‘ Eran un pueblo de , sacerdotes, . 'y_ - Otras cultures evenzedes antes de le'llegada de los espefioles fueron los _gg , 10$ 1 y los . Quetzalcoetl hizo una ' a su reino'ditiendo que hombres vendrien algfln die ab_ _g les tierras indies. El Mundo Hispano 5. 10. 11. 12. 13. 15, 148 Los Aztecas - 22 Cuando 11eg6 Herman , Moctezuma crey6 que la tolteca se habia cumplido. Los indios nunca habian visto ni . Los azteces pensaren que los espefioles eran _g invencibles. El encuentro entre Moctezume y Hernan Cortes tuvo lugar en el siglo . Los espafioles querien __ su imperio. Su mision en Mexico ere 1as tierras y adquirir 1as . Los espafioles querian a los indios a la religibn - Algunos dioses de los azteces eran ’ y . Para poner fin a la religion azteca, los espanoles destruyeron sus , Y . Antes de ester en el mercado de Tenochtitlan, los espafioles nunca habian visto __yg , 9 , Y . La noche en que Cortes llor6 su derrote se llama la . Los indios ayuderon a Cortes a capturar a Cueuhtémoc. El Mundo Hispano Los Azteces - 23 149 aQué piensas t0? Si t6 fueras Moctezuma, aqué hubieres hecho después de la llegada de Cortés? Si pudieras escoger entre los azteces, los toltecas y los espafioles, acual preferiries tfi ser? aPor que? aConsideras tu a Cuauhtémoc como un héroe? aTiene 61 caracteristicas en comun con Benito Juarez 0 Abraham Lincoln? El Mun do Hi SpanO if I O\ 150 [—1 es Aztecas - 2t ggué tanto aprendiste? Los indios que dominaben casi todo el centre de Mexico antes de la conquista eran los . El emperador de estos indios se llamabe El conquistador espafiol que puso fin a ese gran imperio fue La culture de una sociedad se refiere a ___ , Y Los indios adoraban a muchos En los tiempos de los conquistadores, Espafia era e1 pais mas _ de todo el mundo. Otras cultures evanzades de Mexico fueron y . Un cuento basado en eventos reales pero transformado “ e per la tradicion es una . Al principio los indios 1e dieron a la ciudad de M6 ico el nombre de Cuauhtémoc fue el ultimo de los azteces. El Mundo HiSpano 151 Los Aztecas- 25 Sugerencies_para Activigades Adicionales_ Hecer un cuaderno de dibujos de los azteces incluyendo: a. armas b. articulos religiosos c. joyas d. esculturas e. temples o 8dificios f. murales azteces 3. el vestido de los azteces Preparer reportes orales sobre los siguientes temas a. Moctezuma y la supersticion b. Los dioses azteces y el dios cristieno c. El sacrificio humane de los azteces y la Inquisicion en Espafia d. Hernan Cortes en Mexico haste su muerte e. Espafia en 1520 f. Los toltecas 3. Los olmecas Preparer una dramatizaci6n del encuentro de Moctezuma con Herman Cortes y mostrerlo en la clase. Construir un modelo de arcilla e de "paper maché" de Tenochtitlan. Investigar y dar un informs oral sobre el calendario eztoce y el sistema de matematices prehispénico. APPENDIX B CATEGORIES FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS INDEX 152 APPENDIX B CATEGORIES FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS INDEX The educational level of parents was coded as fol- lows: (Note: Parent was interpreted as the main person in the family who supports the child.) Completed grade 4 or less 1 Completed grade 5 or 6 2 Completed grade 7 or 8 3 Completed grade 9-10 4 Completed grade 11-12 5 Completed high school plus other noncollege training 6 Completed 1 or 2 years of college 7 Completed 3 or 4 years of college 8 Completed some graduate work 9 The occupational level of the parents was coded as follows: (Note: a hierarchical ordering was assumed only for codes 9-4.) Professional, Big Business Semi-Professional, Small Business Clerical, Sales Skilled Labor Service Occupations Semi- or Unskilled Labor Housewife Retired, Unemployed Other (Military, Student) I-‘NUJbUIONQmKO 153 APPENDIX C GENERAL SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALE 154 SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALE Form A: General COLLEGE OF EDUCATION MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Copyright © 1962 CIRCLE THE LETTER in front of the statement which best answers each question. 1. How do you rate yourself in school ability compared with your close friends? a. I am the best b. I am above average c. I am average (1. I am below average e. I am the poorest 2. How do you rate yourself in school ability compared with those in your class at school? a. I am among the best b. I am above average S" I am average d. I am below average e. I am among the poorest 3. W’here do you think you would rank in your class in high school? a. among the best b. above average c. average (1. below average e. among the poorest 4. Do you think you have the ability to complete college? a. yes, definitely b. yes, probably 0 . not sure either way 0... . probably not e. no Copies from: Educational Publication Services 202 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48823 5. 155 Where do you think you would rank in your class in college? 9 Q. a. among the best b. above average average . below average among the poorest In order to become a doctor, lawyer, or university profes- sor, work beyond four years of college is necessary. How likely do you think it is that you could complete such ad- vanced work? 9 Q. a. very likely b. somewhat likely not sure either way . unlikely most unlikely Forget for a moment how others grade your work. In your own opinion how good do you think your work is? a. my work is excellent b. c. d. 6. my work is good my work is average my work is below average my work is much below average What kind of grades do you think you are capable of getting? 9 Q. a. mostly A’s b. mostly B’s mostly C’s . mostly D’s mostly E’s APPENDIX D STUDENT INTRODUCTION TO THE SPANISH SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM FOR BILINGUAL STUDENTS 156 APPENDIX D STUDENT INTRODUCTION TO THE SPANISH SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM FOR BILINGUAL STUDENTS This is a unique program designed for bilingual stu- dents like you. You are special students because most of you have learned Spanish at home, yet you have never studied it at school. So this program will give you the opportunity to learn to read and write Spanish. You will have a great deal of practice in speaking it. And if you try your best, you will be taking a giant step towards becoming a completely bilingual person, a person with many job opportunities for the future. There are hundreds of meaningful, interesting, and well-paid positions which only a bilingual individual can fill. This is a language program which adds many more dimensions to the Spanish you already know. But it is not only a language program, it is also a program in which you will get to know many things about the Spanish-speaking people who live in the United States - we will talk and read about the important things that they have done, their con- tributions to this country, their leaders, their interests, their customs, their music, their art, etc. In short, we will practice and improve our Spanish as we listen, speak, read, and write about their cultural history and the experi- ence of the Spanish-speaking American in the United States. 157 158 These are some of the topics which we are going to study: 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Bilingualism in the United States Pastimes of the Mexican and the Mexican-American The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 Agriculture and Cesar Chavez The unity of the family Mexican-American music Hispano-American architecture Mexican-American dances Painters of today and of always Hispano-American sports and athletes Religious customs Mining Parliamentary procedures Opportunities for a bilingual person Hispano-American Social Movement Migration Hispano-American writers Movie industry Student council Hispano-American Educational Movements Whenever possible, we will invite guest speakers, listen to recordings, watch films or slides, take field trips, and participate in other activities that interest you. We encourage you to take advantage of the many activities that 159 take place in the community. You will enjoy the movies, dances, fiestas, speeches, plays, and musical and dance pre- sentations, which will make what we talk about in class come to life. Invite your friends. You will have more fun. We should remember that what we get out of this program will depend on how much all of us are willing to put into it. If we are all willing to work together, we will have a great year ahead of us. BIBLIOGRAPHY 160 ‘CWC SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 299:9: Arsenian, Seth. Bilingualism and Mental Development. New York: University of Columbia Press, 1937. Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966. Carter, Thomas P. Mexican-Americans in School: A History of Educational Neglect. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1970. Combs, Arthur W., and others. Perceiving, Behaving, Becom— ing: A New Focus for Education. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1962. COOpersmith, Stanley. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1967. Fishman, Joshua A. "Planned Reinforcement of Language Maintenance." Language Loyalty in the United States. 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The Journal of Genetic Research, 103 (December, 1963), 259-282. Davidson, Helen H., and Lang, Gerhard. "Children's Percep— tions of Their Teachers' Feelings Toward Them Related to Self-Perception, School Achievement and Behavior." Journal of Experimental Education, 29, 2 (December, 1960), 107-18. Eisenberg, Leon. "Some Children Are Convinced They Can't Win." Education Digest, 33 (September, 1967), 9-12. 164 Finocchiaro, Mary. Bilingual Readiness in Earliest School Years. A Curriculum Demonstration Project. Hunter College, City University of New York, December, 1966. (ERIC ED 012 903). Fishman, Joshua A. "Bilingual Education in a Socio- Linguistic Perspective." Paper presented at the TESOL Conference, San Francisco, California, 1970. Bilingual Education Part I. Senate Testimony. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. "The Status and Prospects of Bilingualism in the United States." Modern Language Journal, 49 (March, 1965), 143—155. Forbes, Jack D. Mexican—Americans: A Handbook for Educa- tors. Berkeley: Far West Laboratory for Educa- tional Research and Development, 1967. Gaarder, A. Bruce. Bilingual Education Part I. Senate Testimony. Eashington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. . "Teaching the Bilingual Child: Research, Devel— opment and Policy." Modern Language Journal, 69 (March, 1965), 165-175. Gezi, Kal 1. "Analysis of Certain Measures of Creativity and Self-Concept and Their Relationship to Social Class." Paper presented to the 47th Annual Meeting of the California Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, March 14-15, 1969. Gill, Mohindra P. "Patterns of Achievement as Related to the Perceived Self." A report to the American Edu- cational Research Association, Washington, D. C., February, 1969. Horn, Thomas D. "Three Methods of Developing Reading Readi- ness in Spanish-Speaking Children in First Grade." Reading Teacher, 20 (October, 1966), 38-42. Jones, W. R., and Stewart, W. A. C. "Bilingualism and Ver- bal Intelligence." British Journal of Psychology, 1951. Kelley, Truman L., gt a1. "Stanford Achievement Test, Tech- nical Supplement." New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1966. 165 Krear, Serafina E. "The Role of the Mother Tongue at Home and at School in the Development of Bilingualism." English Language Teaching, 24 (October, 1969), 2-4. Lambert, Wallace E. "Psychological Approaches to the Study of Language: Part II: On Second—Language Learning and Bilingualism." Modern Language Journal, 47 (March, 1963a), 115-121. , and Gardner, R. C. "Motivational Variables, in Second-Language Acquisition." Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13 (December, 1959), 266-272. , gt a1. "Attitudinal and Cognitive Aspects of Intensive Study of a Second Language." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67 (April, 1963b), 358-368. Lewis, Hilda P., and Lewis, Edward R. "Written Language Performance of Sixth Grade Children of Low Socio- Economic Status from Bilingual and Monolingual Back- grounds." Journal of Experimental Education, 33 (Spring, 1965), 237-242. Mackey, William F. "Bilingual Interference: Its Analysis and Measurement." Journal of Communications, 15 (December, 1965), 239-249. A Typology of Bilingual Education. Prepared for a Research Conference on Bilingual Education, June, 1969. Manuel, Hershcel T. "A Comparison of Spanish-Speaking and English—Speaking Children in Reading and Arithmetic." Journal of Applied Psychology, 19 (November, 1935), 188-202. Modiano, Nancy. A Comparative Study of Two Approaches to the Teaching of Reading in the National Language. New York University, 1966. (ERIC ED 010 049). Otis, Arthur S., and Lennon, Roger T. "Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test, Manual for Administration." New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1967. Ott, Elizabeth. "The Bilingual Education Program of the Southwest Educational Laboratory." Linguistic- Cultural Differences and American Education. Edited by Alfred C. Aarons. Florida FL Reporter, 7 (Spring/ Summer, 1969), 147-148, 159. 166 Peal, Elizabeth, and Lambert, W. E. "The Relation of Bilin- gualism to Intelligence." Psychological Monographs, 76, 546 (1962). Pike, Kenneth L. Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. Summer Insti- tute of Linguistics, Glendale, California, Part 1, 1954. Pinter, R. "The Influence of Language Background on Intel- ligence Tests." Journal of Social Psychology, 3 (1932), 235-240. Politzer, R. S. "Assiduity and Achievement." Modern Lan- guage Journal, 44 (1960), 14-16. Prator, Clifford H. "Adding a Second Language." TESOL Quarterly, 3 (June, 1969), 95-104. Richards, Jack. "Songs in Language Learning." TESOL Quarterly, 3 (June, 1969), 161-174. Robinett, Ralph F. "A Linguistic Approach to Beginning Reading for Bilingual Children." First Grade Read- ing Programs, Perspectives in Reading! No. 5. Edited by James F. Kerfoot. Newark: International Reading Association, 1965. Rojas, Pauline. "Instructional Materials and Aids to Facil- itate Teaching the Bilingual Child." Modern Lan- guage Journal, 69 (April, 1965), 237-239. Roth, Ruth. "The Role of Self-Concept in Achievement." Journal of Experimental Education, 27, 4 (June, 1959), 265-281. Saer, D. J. "Effect of Bilingualism on Intelligence." British Journal of Psycholpgy, 14 (1923), 25-38. Sanchez, George. "Spanish in the Southwest." A mimeographed report, 1963. Shaw, Merville C. "The Self-Concept of Bright Underachieving High School Students as Revealed by an Adjective Check List." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 39, 3 (December, 1960), 193-196. Soares, Anthon T., and Soares, Louise M. "A Comparative Study of Self-Image of Disadvantaged Children." A study done at Bridgeport University, Connecticut, February, 1969. ire 167 Soffietti, James P. "Bilingualism and Biculturalism." 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Language Learning, 19 (December, 1969), 271-285. Thonis, Eleanor. Bilingual Education for Mexican-American Children. California State Department of Education, 1967. UNESCO. The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education. Paris: UNESCO, 1953. U. S. Congress, Senate. Bilingual Education. Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Bilingual Educa- cation of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Ninetieth Congress, First Session on 5,428, Parts I and II. May-July, 1967. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. U. S. Office of Education. "Guidelines: Bilingual Educa- tion. Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Title VII." March, 1970. Valdman, Albert. "Toward a Better Implementation of the Audio-Lingual Approach." Modern Language Journal, 54 (May, 1970), 309-319. Valencia, Atilano A. Albuquerque: 168 Bilingual/Bicultural Education. Southwest Cooperative Educational Laboratory, Inc., April, 1969. Valette, Rebecca. "The Pennsylvania Project, Its Conclu- sions and Its Implications." Modern Language Journal, 53 (October, 1969), 396-410. "Self-Conception and the Reaction of Sociometry, 23, 4 (December, 1960), 351- Videbeck, Richard. Others." 359. Wardhaugh, Ronald. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages: The State of the Art. Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969a. "TESOL: Current Problems and Classroom Prac- tices." TESOL Quarterly, 3 (June, 1969b), 105-116. "The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis." Quarterly, 4 (June, 1970), 123-129. TESOL Wattenberg, William W., and Clifford, Clare. "Relation of Self—Concept to Beginning Achievement in Reading." Child Development, 35, 2 (June, 1964), 461-467. Williams, Robert L. "Self-Concept and School Adjustment." The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 46, 5 (January, 1968), 478-481. Yarborough, Ralph. Bilingual Education Part I. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. Ziller, Robert C., and Long, Barbara H. "Self-Social Con— structs of Children," a report to the National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C., 1967. Unpublished Dissertations Barber, Lucille Knecht. "Immature Ego Development as a Factor in Retarded Ability to Read." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1952. Bodwin, Raymond Franklin. "The Relationship Between Immature Self-Concept and Certain Educational Disabilities." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1957. 169 Bruck, Max. "A Study of Age Differences and Sex Differences in the Relationship Between Self-Concept and Grade Point Average." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1957. Coleman, George Woodie, Jr. "Negative Self—Concepts in Ele- mentary School Children Are Identifiable and to a Certain Degree Modifiable Under a Certain Syndrome of Teacher-Pupil Relationships." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Texas Technological College, 1968. Combs, Arthur W. "Relationship of Self-Perceptions of Early Primary Children to Achievement in Reading." Unpub- lished Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1962. Farls, Robert James. "High and Low Achievement of Intel— lectually Average Intermediate Grade Students Related to the Self-Concept and Social Approval." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1967. Gillman, Geneva B. "The Relationship Between Self-Concept, Intellectual Ability, Achievement, and Manifest Anxiety Among Select Groups of Spanish Surname Migrant Students in New Mexico." Unpublished Doc- toral dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1969. Hugo, Miriam Jeanne. "The Effects of Group Counseling on Self—Concepts and Behavior of Elementary School Children." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University, 1969. Luck, Patrick William. "Social Determinants of Self-Esteem. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1969. Lumpkin, Donavon D. "The Relationship of Self-Concept to Achievement in Reading." Unpublished Doctoral dis- sertation, University of Southern California, 1959. Nichols, William J. "A Study of the Effects of Tutoring on the Self-Concept, Reading Achievement, and Selected Attitudes of Culturally Disadvantaged Children." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Ball State Uni- versity, Muncie, Indiana, 1968. ‘——-, ‘t 170 Reeder, Thelma Adams. "A Study of Some Relationships Between Level of Self-Concept, Academic Achievement, and Classroom Adjustment." Unpublished Doctoral disser— tation, North Texas State College, 1965. Richardson, Mabel W. "An Evaluation of Certain Aspects of the Academic Achievement of Elementary Pupils in a Bilingual Program." Unpublished Doctoral disserta- tion, University of Miami, 1968. Schwarz, Mary Elisabeth Field. "The Effect of Teacher Approval on the Self-Concept and Achievement of Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Children: Case Stud— ies of Seven Children and Seven Teachers." Unpub- lished Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska Teachers College, 1967. Seidl, J. C. "The Effects of Bilingualism on the Measure- ment of Intelligence." Unpublished Doctoral dis- sertation, Fordham University, 1937. Sparling, Joseph James. "The Etiology of Self-Esteem in Childhood and Adolescence." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1968. Voci, Frank. "An Analysis of Linguistic Problems of Cantonese Students of English as a Second Language." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1971. MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 31293103131915