ENGLISH READING AND THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN CHILD IN A SECOND GRADE BILtNGUAL PROGRAM ’ Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. ’ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY RICARDO R. CHAPA 1975 7 & LI??? ’ "KY I II III IIIIIIIIIII II III II III III [III I _ 55! ‘”;t.'f‘r';:'-' ’1 .J.'. ‘. "ah-n Y flux: ‘1», ". Z‘HWG7 '~.:,—: '-.--~ “*w“;; This is to certify that the . A.» .,.,.=-'.-'-“tliesis' entitled ‘“ “,AENGLIEH READING THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN CHILD in a second grade bilingual program presented by Ricardo R. Chapa has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . degree in will Administration W (,JW 1 Major professor Date July 16. 1 0-7639 . ' ' ' v "“9, I .' ‘ , .5, M - I . s ‘ v . In“. .AIIWIR ABSTRACT I ENGLISH READING AND THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN ’ CHILD IN A SECOND GRADE BILINGUAL PROGRAM BY Ricardo RTCChapa Purposes of the Study The purposes of this study are to test the following hypotheses: 1. There is no difference in the group mean i score in English reading achievement as measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills between Mexican—American children who have been in bilingual education, K-2, and Mexican-American children in the traditional program, K-2. 2. There is no difference in the group mean score in Spanish reading achievement as measured by the Inter-American Series Spanish Test between Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education, K—2, and Mexican-American children in the traditional program, K-2. 3. There is no difference in the group mean score in self-concept as measured by the Self Appraisal Inventory between Mexican- American children who have been in the bilingual education, K-2, and Mexican- American children in the traditional program, K-2. Ricardo R. Chapa Procedures The universe of this study was the second grade pupils in Region One Educational Service Center's bilingual program implemented in four different public school districts in 1973—74. These children had suc- cessfully completed their second grade and were classi- fied as beginning third graders at the time the study was conducted. A total of 185 children were identified as having participated in the program from kindergarten through the second grade. Only those children who had been in the program for the full three year term were included in the study. . The non-bilingual sample was selected from four different public school districts in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas, with consideration taken for the following factors: location of study, school environ— ment, family status, language facility, age, ability grouping, sex, test administration, and instructional program. The Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, Form R, Level I was selected as the instrument to study academic achievement in English reading. Only the vocabulary and comprehension portions of this Form were used to collect the necessary data. The Inter-American Series, Spanish Reading Test was used to determine the Spanish reading achievement. Ricardo R. Chapa The Self Appraisal Inventory, Primary Level Questionnaire was used to yield information with regards. to four areas, self-concept, family esteem of self, peer esteem of self, and general self—concept. The design used in this study was an experi- mental posttest only control group design described by Campbell and Stanley. T-tests for independent samples were used to test for statistical difference in scores between the bilingual group and the non bilingual group at .05 levels. Major Findings 1. There was no significant difference in the group mean score in English reading achievement as measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills between Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education, K—2, and Mexican-American children in the traditional program, K-2. 2. There was a significant difference in Spanish reading achievement between Mexican-American children who have been in the bilingual education pro- gram, K-2, and Mexican American children in the tradi- tional program, K-2. The findings favored the bilingual group. 3. There was no significant difference in self- , concept between the Mexican-American children in the Ricardo R. Chapa 'bilingual education program, K—2, and the Mexican- ,,.American children in the traditional program, K-Z. Questions for Further Study 1. What are teacher attitudes toward the bilingual program? Are there significant differences between Spanish speaking teachers and non-Spanish speaking teachers? 2. Do children who can read Spanish prior to formal school instruction score higher in English reading achievement tests as compared to children who cannot read Spanish? 3. What are the differences in children who can write in Spanish in bilingual education programs and those of children in tradi- tional programs? O I DEDICATORIA 4&3flfl guerida esposa, SHSIE y nuestros hijos, -. Ricardo Jr., Jose Miguel, Veronica, Victoria, y Patricia ~Ti5~o amor y sacrificios me dieron la fuerza para perseverar en theta meta. ". Wigmis padres, Jose Maria y Margarita M. Chapa. Sin su carino =5 a obra no seria un hecho. .7>“’- - - - - - — - - - - - - - - — - - — - - - - - - - - — - - DEDICATION i’;my dearest wife, §H§l§ and our children, ‘ Ricardo Jr., . Jose Miguel, Veronica, Victoria, and Patricia Se love and sacrifices gave me the strength to persevere in ”endeavor. aviather and mother, Jose Maria and Margarita Chapa. With- ,eir love and guidance this goal would not have become a ‘; 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Before all, I thank God for allowing me this experi- I am most indebted to Dr. Louis Romano, Chairman of “nw'Guidance Committee whose encouragement and understanding _gave me the courage to overcome some difficult periods. I To Dr. A1 Kloster, Dr. James McKee, and Dr. Dale Alam ‘ for their comments and advice as members of my Guidance Com- '1uittee. :7 To Dr. Vern Vincent, a special thanks for his kind :':advisory comments. To my brothers and sisters whose love was ever present, Ruby, Renato, and I Rosalinda To A.G. Greer whose unselfish dedication to education gh'same years back. And to Rene Carbajal, Jose Gamez, Luis Gonzalez, Cesar iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . CHAPTER I. LIST OF TABLES THE PROBLEM . Introduction Purpose of the Study Need For The Study . . Significance of The Study . Definitions of Terms . Delimitations of The Study Review of The Literature Hypotheses . . Procedures For Analysis of Data . Selection of Sample . . . Administration of The Instruments . Treatment of The Data . Chapter I Footnotes . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction . . . Historical Background . . . Need For Change In Educational Philosophy . Effects of Bilingual Instruction on School Achievement . . Problems of Assimilation and Acculturation Use of Mother Tongue As Medium of Instruction . \ Present Problems Faced by Bilingual- -Bicultural- Proponents . The Future of Bilingual- -Bicultural Education. Summary of Chapter II . . . Chapter II Footnotes DESIGN or THE STUDY ; Setting . History of Treatment Group Program . Components Region One Center Bilingual Program . . iv Region One Curriculum Kit (ROCK) . . Region One Literacy Lessons (Spanish ROLL) Transitional English Reading (English ROLL): Social Education-K, I, II, III, IV . . Identification and Selection of Population e . . . . . . . Selection of Comparison Sample . Source of TheD Data . . . Design of The Study The Hypotheses . . Statistical Model . . Summary of Chapter III . ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . Introduction . . Findings of The Study Summary of Chapter IV SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . Summary . . Conclusions and Discussion . . . Implications For Future Research . Recommendations . . LIST OF TABLES Page Overview of Region One Bilingual Program . . . . 66 Testing Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 f Comparison of Instructional Programs . . . . . . 72 Number of Pupils Identified in Each Group Meeting Criteria For Study and Percentage Selected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 English Reading Achievement Results on Comprehensive Test on Basic Skills, Form R, LevelI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 "I m “A A '» A“? Spanish Reading Achievement Results on the Inter-American Series Test, LevelI . . 81 Results of Self-Concepts as Measured by Self Appraisal Inventory, Primary Level . . . . 82 Overview of Hypotheses Tested--Academic Achievement in English Reading, Spanish Reading and Self- -Concept . . . . . . . . . 84 . —Wa.._—‘-w-« vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction The educational plight of the Mexican-American has been the subject of much consternation, discussion, review and legislative action in an attempt to improve overall educational conditions. Statistics unequivocably stress the need for pedagogical evaluation as to the most feasible approaches that should be undertaken with regard to this particular minority. The 1969 survey of Mexican-American education in the five Southwestern States of Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas conducted by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights yielded an enormous wealth of information that should assist educators in the implementation of curricular improve- nwnts in public schools. The results of this survey point to overwhelming differences in the educational achievement, drop out rates, and overall educational conditions between Anglos and minorities. "Without exception, minority students achieve at a lower rate than Anglos: their school holding power is lower; their reading achievement is poorer; their repetition of grades is more frequent; their overage- ness is more prevalent; and they participate in extra- curricular activitiei to a lesser degree than their Anglo Counterparts." 2 The Mexican-American in Texas fared very poorly in this survey as with other educational studies, in all five areas mentioned above. The holding power of the schools in Texas indicate that 13.9% of the Mexican-American children drop out of school by the eighth grade, 1.2% Black children have left school while Anglos have kept 100% of their children in school.2 Disproportionate statistics showing 22.3% of Mexican-American children repeating the first grade with 7.3% Anglo children also repeating are followed with startling figures of 47.3% drop out for Mexican-Americans compared with a 14.9% drop out 3 rate for Anglos. Of utmost importance to this study is read— ing achievement. "Two-thirds of the Mexican-Americans who remain in school through the 12th grade are deficient in their reading ability by the time they are ready to graduate from high school and about 44 percent suffer severe reading retardation."4 Negative statistics such as these and others were factors in the introduction of bilingual education as a possible deterrent to the educational ills of the Mexican-American. The Office of Education defined bilingual education as follows: "Bilingual education is the use of two languages, one of which is English, as mediums of instruction for the same pupil population in a well organized program which encompasses part or all of the curric- ulum and includes the study of the history and culture associated with the mother tongue. A com- plete program develops and maintains the children's self-esteem and legitimate pride in both cultures." With the introduction of bilingual education under Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1967, a multitude of curricular approaches have been 3 undertaken in order to assist the non—English speaker to achieve better in our traditional primary and elementary schools. Different regional, cultural, and linguistic needs of the various ethnic and minority groups undertaking bilingual education brought forth almost as many different approaches to "Bilingual Education" as there are programs throughout the U.S. As new, untried curricular materials were developed, opinions differed with regard to goals and purpose of bilingual instruction. Agreement on a definition for Bilingual Education has evaded educators. Discussions on terms such as "bilingual," "bilingualism,' and "bilingual schooling" reveal strikingly different concepts.6 Some of the criticisms pointed to federal waste of money, duplication of efforts on the part of federal programs, the "melting pot" philosophy of education by which all students are to learn English only in order to facilitate assimilation and accul- turation into the predominantly "Anglo" society, and to the theory that time spent in the classroom using a language other than English, will retard the student's progress in English language arts. In spite of general skepticism and critics' accusa- tions to the effect that: "too many bilingual programs are flying blind, supported only by the assumption that bilingual education must be the answer to the learning prob- lems of non-English speaking children--an assumption with much 10 ic but little demonstrable success to back it up." Bilingual education has expanded. It presently encompasses 4 213 different projects in 32 states and territories involving 19 languages other than English.8 Proponents for bilingual education point to successful projects with enthusiasm and promising curricular developments. Dade County, Florida initiated its bilingual program for Cuban children some ten years ago and their experience has been most successful. Mr. Hawkins, testifying before the General Subcommittee on Education, of the Committee on Education and Labor in June, 1967, stated, "The result (in Dade County) has been a highly unique and successful program, fully integrated both racially and culturally, in which children of neighboring cultures have been enabled to share their separate backgrounds and thus to 9 broaden their abilities and their understandings." Mr. Hawkins also spoke to the fact that Cuban children at grade five "were able to learn equally well through either of their two languages."10 Rough Rock, Arizona expresses great hope for even a more successful bilingual program using Navajo and English as mediums of instruction. Dr. Robert A. Roessel Jr., Director Of the Rough Rock Demonstration School, describing the bilingual-bicultural approach in their school and a new "Spirit in education" states, "We want to instill in our youngsters a sense of pride in being Indian. We want tO‘ShOW them that they can be Indian and American at the same time, that they can take the best from each way of life and combine it into something viable."11 Bilingual successes with Mexican-American children are related by Hawkins of projects in Laredo and El Paso, Texas, 5 and Merced, California, where "a majority of students in the Merced schools showed marked improvement in all skills-- reading, writing, and speaking, moreover, significant improve- ment has taken place in the children's general attitudes and self-concepts."12 As the responsibility for financing bilingual educa- tion has shifted or is in the process of shifting to the various states, it behooves us to research the effectiveness of bilingual instruction. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to compare English Read- ing achievement of Mexican-American children who originally were monolingual Spanish speakers and have received instruc- tion in English and Spanish from Kindergarten through the second grade with Mexican-American children, also monolingual at Kindergarten level, who have not received bilingual instruc- tion during the same period. A secondary purpose is to compare the self-concept of Maxican-American children who have participated in such a program.with a comparable group who has not received bilingual ins truction . Need for the Study Educational surveys and studies portray a sad picture ft“? non-English speaking children and other minorities. Federal programs in the area of education have intended to provide parity in educational opportunity with funds earmarked 6 to purchase equipment, texts, library resources, audio—visuals, and other such instructional tools. This piece-meal approach has gradually patched inequities traditionally found in schools "across the tracks." The patchwork of Titles I, II, III, IV, and others have not been able to attack the heart of the problem, the provision of an adequate curriculum which meets the needs of Mexican-American children. Educational philosophers have expounded for years the philosophy of taking the child where he is and guiding his interests and abilities to plateaus of achievement so that his experiences in the school setting may be as meaningful and successful as possible. Unfortunately for the Spanish-speaking child, this philosophy was blatantly neglected until the ad- vent of bilingual instruction, and then implemented very cautiously and somewhat reluctantly. ‘It is not the intent of this study to go into exten- sive detail as to the rationale for bilingual instruction as a means to curb the educational inefficiencies with Mexican- American children. "Educators have in recent years come to agree that the best medium for learning, especially for the illitial stages of a child's learning, is his dominant "13 language. Statistics overwhelmingly point to a need to reVise our approach to teaching the non-English speakers. BiJlingual education offers what appears to be a logical, . sequential, and transitional approach to learning English using the child's mother tongue, which in itself is an 7 accomplishment in communication and possibly an asset in the enhancement of positive self-concept in Mexican—American children. A need for additional research on the effects of bilingual education has arisen as educational programs on the state and federal level struggle for priority consideration. Critics of bilingual instruction claim that "the bilingual education movement has been so limited in effect that the impediments are not yet major obstacles and the fissures in philosophy have not yet widened into chasms? and "in the dis— tance one can see formidable problems looming and battle lines being drawn."14 Significance of the Study This study focuses on the Rio Grande Valley of Texas located in the southernmost tip of Texas bordering Mexico where approximately 75% of the population is Mexican-American. If Bilingual Education is to succeed, a greater thrust in our schools is needed than is presently being exerted. The great number of Mexican-American children, the drastic educational needs previously pointed out, and the strategic geographical 143cation of this study all coincide with the expressed pur- POses of bilingual instruction. A more favorable concept of the purposes of Bilingual EC.ll-Ication on the part of educational leaders and the general Ptfl>lic would be of benefit to all for several reasons. 8 (1.) This area contains one of the heaviest concen- trations of Mexican-Americans in the country; although few children are participating in bilingual instruction, ten school districts offer a variety of versions of bilingual programs with somewhat similar goals and differences in pro- gram components. Doubting accounts of modest successes, many educational leaders, teachers, and parents are not convinced that bilingual education is serving its purpose. Clarifica- tion of some of the criticisms directed at Bilingual Education may assist schools and the different communities to a better perspective of their own individual goals and objectives and possibly erase some of those doubts through modifications, revisions, and possible reinforcement of curriculums. (2.) Pan American University, located in the Rio Grande Valley,may benefit from such study as it has, within the last year, initiated a Bilingual-Bicultural Studies com- ponent to its School of Education. Sixty-seven percent15 of Pan American University's 7,000 plus students are Mexican- American and results of such study may provide implications for teacher training. (3.) A somewhat silent fear on the part of Anglos of a Mexican-American "take over" of educational positions SiJnmers due to the requirement of bilingualism in English aruj Spanish in order to participate in such a program. Thus, tflae expansion of bilingual programs is met with opposition as it has characteristics of a change in the pendulum of echleation. Be it a "good" program or not, it poses a threat 9 to many Anglo teachers and administrators. Wright speaks of this fear on a nation-wide basis as he states, "Monolingual teachers searching for jobs find that the employment situa- tion, already bleak, is exacerbated further by the sudden demand for qualified bilinguals."16 This study may help to alleviate those fears as a need for multi-lingual and multi- cultural education requires experience and expertise from the two prevailing cultures. Children should be exposed to a variety of values so that they may select , adapt, and use those cultural qualities which best suit their will and style of life. (4.) Positive results from such study may encourage the extension of bilingual instruction to include the parti- cipation of Anglo children in Spanish As a Second Language (SSL) programs as already undertaken on a limited basis in other parts of the country. (5.) An encouraging report could provide for plans for tapping Mexican expertise readily available ten miles south in neighboring Mexico, an interchange of cultural values, students, teachers, and university personnel and other such developments could be of mutual benefit to both countries and 811 expansion of educational horizons. Definition of Terms Ehaxican-American. Mexican-American refers to persons whose Parents or ancestors immigrated to the United States from MeRico and to persons who trace their lineage to Hispanic or 10 Indo—Hispanic forebears and born in the U.S. Spanish surname. Spanish surname refers to all Spanish speak- ing ethnic groups in the U.S. which include Mexican-American, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and descendants of Latin countries. Angl_. The term Anglo refers to white persons other than Spanish speaking groups. Bilingual Education. Bilingual Education is used in reference to all recognized bilingual programs throughout the United States. Bilingual instruction is used synonymously, also referring to the teaching techniques of dual instruction with English being one of the languages. Monolingual. Monolingual refers to a person who speaks and understands one language only, when relating to a child four or five years of age who is generally not expected to be able to read or write. No consideration to ability to read or write when used in reference to adults. Bilingual and Bilingualism. Refer to people with ability to communicate at least orally in two languages with some degree of proficiency. Bicultural. Bicultural refers to the inclusion of instruction in.two cultures in a program, usually as an aspect of a social 8 tudies program . Pfillticultural. Multicultural refers to the inclusion of instruction in three or more cultures as included in some bilingual programs, usually in social studies. ll Holding power. Refers to the ability of public schools to hold or keep students from dropping out of school. Traditional program. Used to refer to regular school program excluding bilingual instruction. Self-concept. Self-concept refers to an individual's view of himself. Self esteem is used synonymously. Spapish as a Second Language (SSL). Oral Spanish program de- signed for non-Spanish speakers and speakers of limited ability to use Spanish. Epglish as a Second Language (ESL). Oral English program de- signed for non-English speakers and speakers of limited ability to use English. Delimitations of the Study l. The treatment group in this study is confined to one specific Bilingual Education program, Region One Education Service Center, Edingburg, Texas. As previously mentioned, bilingual instruction varies from program to program, thus results should be interpreted as related to commonalities of other bilingual programs. 2. The Self-Concept results compare a specific bilingual program with a traditional group, so generalizations ShOuld be confined to this specific population. The study did not provide for investigation of effects of specific vari- ables which may have caused either positive or negative findings, not was the data analyzed to look for differences in the total self—concept, i.e. family esteem of self, or, peer 12 esteem of self. REyiew of Related Literature The review of the literature includes: A. Studies conducted abroad comparing bilingual instruction with monolingual instruction in varied circum- stances. B. Studies relating to academic achievement of Mexican-American children in public schools, especially in the area of English reading. C. Studies relating to assessment of bilingual in; stzniction as it has affected the Mexican-American child. D. Studies regarding assessment of the Self-Concept of elementary pupils. E. Studies and research indicating general progress Of Bilingual Education throughout the United States. F. Studies justifying the need and benefits of Bilingual Instruction. Hypotheses There is no significant difference in English reading achievement between Mexican-American children who have been in Bilingual Education from K-2 grades and Mexican- American children in the traditional program, K-2 grades, at .05 level. There is no significant difference in Spanish reading achievement between Mexican-American children who have 13 been in Bilingual Education from K-2 grades and Mexican- American children in the traditional program, K-2 grades, at .05 level. There is no significant difference in the Self-Concept of Mexican-American children who have been in Bilingual Education from K-2 grades and Mexican-American children in the traditional program, K-2 grades, at .05 level. Procedures for Analysis of Data Selection of Sample The sample in this study for the treatment group was randomly selected from the ten second grade classes from four different school districts participating in Region ()ne Educational Service Center Bilingual Program. The (zontrol group sample was randomly selected from comparable (:1assrooms meeting the same socio-economic characteristics ernd factors employed for class grouping as the experimental sgroup. Children in the second grade, school year 1973-74 bilingual program, who have been in the program from kindergarten through the second grade were identified. Upon identification a random sample comprising 42% of the total population was used for the study (75). The same process was used to select the children for the control group. 32% of the total population of the traditional group was selected for the study. 14 Administration of the Instrumgppp The following three instruments were administered to the two groups in the study within the first two weeks of school year 1974-75: 1. Comprehensive Test for Basic Skills (CTBS), Reading section only, Form R, Level I, published by CTB McGraw-Hill, Del Monte Research Park, Monterrey, California, 1969 edition. 2. Inter-American Series, Level I Spanish Reading Test by Hershel T. Manuel, Guidance Testing Associates, Austin, Texas. This instrument tests vocabulary and Spanish reading comprehension. 3. Self Appraisal Inventory, Primary Level, designed 'ffl by the Instructional Objectives Exchange, Los Angeles, California. This instrument is primarily designed for group comparisons and yields information pertaining to four aspects of self-concept, family, peer, scholastic, and general. Proper precautions were taken in the administration of all test instruments taking into consideration testing conditions, scheduling of tests with each group, whether tests were to be administered during morning or afternoon sessions, size of groups tested, and other such factors, in order to insure equal treatment of both groups to be tested. 15 lbs Treatment of the Data The data was programmed by DEC System 10 at Pan American University, Edingburg, Texas. 1. T-tests for independent samples for statistical difference in group English reading achievement between bilingual groups at .05 level. 2. T-tests for independent samples for statistical difference in group Spanish reading achievement between bilingual groups at .05 level. 3. T-tests for independent samples for statistical difference in group were used to test mean scores in bilingual and non- were used to test mean scores in bilingual and non- were used to test mean scores in Self-Concept between bilingual and non-bilingual groups at .05 level. I A‘J 7hr 16 CHAPTER I Footnotes The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, "Mexican American Educational Series, Report II, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., Oct. 1971, p. 41. Ibid., p. 17. Ibid. Ibid., p. 34. Ibid., Report III, p. 21. Andersson, Theodore. Bilin al Schoolin in the United States, Vol. 1, Southwest EgucationaI DeveIopment EaBoratory, Austin, Texas, Jan. 1970, p. 7. Wright, Lawrence. "The Bilingual Education Movement At The Crossroads," Phi Delta Kappa, Nov. 1973, p. 183. Ibid., p. 184. Igfiwkins, Augustus F., and Hernandez, William J. Educatin e Mexican Amer1can, Judson Press, Valley Forge, Pa., . P- - IIbid. Ibid. , p. 280. ‘Ibid., p. 281. .Amdersson, op. cit., p. 44. ‘Wmight, op. cit., p. 185. Statistics from Pan American University, Edingburg, Texas, Registrar's Office, Spring Semester, 1973. ’Wright, op. cit. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction In the process of examining the literature related to this study an effort was made to focus attention primarily to these areas: (1) Historical background of bilingualism and its social and political implications. (2) Studies in which Mexican-Americans as well as other ethnic groups have undergone instruction in two languages. (3) Effects of bilingual instruction on academic achievement. (4) Principles of second language learning. (5) Effects of bilingual instruction on the self- concept of students. (6) Statistical data supporting the concept and need for Bilingual-Bicultural Education in the United States. Literature related to bilingual education in the united States is somewhat limited, although it appears that interest has been growing, especially since the introduction ‘31? liilingual Education through the availability of federal 'Eiltl ‘the life, culture, and values of the "disadvantaged child," be he white, black, or brown. Carter's study (1970) indicates that the majority of tiiea Ibeople interviewed, including some Spanish-speaking, still Ina:‘J-"ltain negative, stereotyped attitudes towards the Spanish- sI>Eaiilting. Carter interviewed over 250 school people including sch“>01 board members throughout the Southwest, concentrating primarily in California and Texas due to the great number of a‘54::an-Americans in that region. His interview questioned 21 many aspects of general education of Mexican—Americans and solicited personal views of the Mexican-American as a member of society. His findings proved so revealing that his per- sonal stereotypic views were startled. He confesses, "My eyes were opened. Some educators' statements and some school conditions truly shook my belief in school people and their works."6 Carter refutes the many negative attitudes held by many school people of the Southwest, but nevertheless, he maintains that these attitudes are real. He summarizes, Unfortunately, the cultural characteristics regularly ascribed to Mexican American children correspond all too often to the rather clearly defined and widely accepted Southwestern stereotype of "Mexican" in general. "Mexicans" are categorized as being lacka- daisical, individualistic (noncooperative), self- satisfied with their subordinate role, lazy, and imbued generally with a manana attitude. Much of the information available to teachers supports this stereotype, thus adding a measure of ”scientific" verification to their ideas. It behooves us to underline Carter's observation, "Much of the information available to teachers supports this stereotype." Without information there is no knowledge, without knowledge there is no conviction, without conviction there is no com- mitment. The question arises, what information is presently available to teachers? Riessman, in speaking of the "disadvantaged" child and misconceptions school people often have of him states, Some people seem to think that the culture of a group is equivalent to its environment.. There- ore, the culture of lower socio—economic groups is seen to include inadequate housing, limited access to leisure facilities, and the l1ke.8 22 Riessman distinguishes between the environment and the con- ditions of life of a group and the culture of the group. He conceives the culture of a specific minority, as the "culturally deprived" to include the traditions, values, and mores of the group. He further clarifies, "Values and attitudes of the underpriviledged that are relevant for the educator would include beliefs about punishment, authority, games, cooperation, competitions, introspection, intellectuals, etc."9 Unquestionably, it is vital that teachers and adminis- trators gain a sensitivity toward their students based on respect for cultural differences. Loretan and Umans describe the "deprived" or ”disadvantaged" youngster as possessing specific values all too often different from the average middlesclass student, The child whom we designate as ”deprived" or "dis- advantaged" differs from the "undeprived" or "advant- aged" in language development, self-concept, and social skills, as well as in attitude towards school- ing and society. He has fewer interests than the middle-class child. His form of communication, unlike that of other children entering school, tends to con- sist mostly of gestures, sounds (non—words), and local words. The disadvantaged youngster has experi- enced no logical pattern in life; things just happen. He lives now, not in the future. He has had little or no experience in setting and proceeding towards goals and in evaluating or reviewing past actions as to whether or not they were "worth it." When the dis- advantaged youngster acts, it is usually in response to an immediate stimulus; there is little room in his scheme for second thoughts, meditation or planning.10 Anderson also speaks of the need for change in edu- cational philosophy and to the fact that basic information on children of "deprived" and minority groups is obviously miss- ing, "We need more and better societal information, a sound La- H sp- n- U. ‘cc 0“ ti 9&1 “A M. {in II) "\. 23 guiding educational philosophy, better program designs, greater provision for research, and more effective dis- semination of basic information." Critics of present educational practices with regard to the Mexican-American abound, yet changes appear to be slow in becoming a reality. The statistics previously mentioned in Chapter I are but a few that point to a gross neglect of the Mexican-American in our schools. Criticizing the use of present history textbooks, Bailey exclaimed, ”even today our history texts suffer from being too American-centered, as though we were the hub of the universe and all other nations were barbarians swelling 12 The need for new program designs of in outer darkness." which Anderson speaks is also a voiced concern of Walser as he speaks of ill-planned foreign language programs in class- rooms that are adorned with pictures of traditional "charros," cockfights, and bullrings so that even the Mexican-American thinks of Spanish as a foreign language. To begin with, the course is labeled a foreign language by the administration and state agencies. Walser suggests that Spanish in our schools should be redirected towards a positive reinforcement of ethnic pride in Chicanos and other Spanish-speaking groups, "The idea is not only to reinforce the ethnic heritage of the Chicanos and other Spanish-speaking Americans, but also to educate the dominant majority on the realities of history."13 No one questions that which is "different" in Mexican- American students, that is, obviously it is recognized by A thv .lCtI In 1' ‘ (3. SAL \us. 1166 24 school people. The need to try different approaches to "reach" this minority has long been recognized. A number of approaches have been attempted to help the Mexican-American in his school work, from prohibiting the use of Spanish, ability grouping, remedial reading, "tracking" at the Junior High and High School level, segregating migrant students with a special six-month calendar to meet their migratory schedule, "watered-down" courses at the secondary level to Special Education as a level of tolerance in some cases. Many of these "curricular innovations" have resulted in worsening the sociological atmosphere of the school and thus, have promoted more failures. The different linguistic back- ground and cultural experiences the child brings with him to school should implicate a different pedagogical philosophy, as present educational conditions have failed to meet the needs of this minority miserably. John expresses hope that Bilingual-Bicultural Educa- tion may help to alleviate the failure of schools with Mexican- Americans. He indicated that the institution of bilingual programs have come "at a time when many minority communities, particularly the Spanish-speaking, had come to recognize that American schools had failed non-English speaking students even more severely than low-income children in general whose native h."14 Levine suggests that educators should language is Englis respect the culture of the child instead of attempting to change it, "it might be well if we teachers shifted in our point of view from assimilation to acculturation, to valuing a...“ '6.- O. in. .6 ‘u. "c ;x- fl 25 the children for what they are, not what we would like them to be."15 He further comments on the rejection and inner turmoil the Mexican-American child suffers in school for lack of acceptance, ”Often the Spanish-speaking child stands be- tween two worlds, with no definite sense of belonging to either society. Having already received rebuffs from the Anglo group, he comes to school, only to suffer further dis- appointment.”16 Needless to say, the Mexican-American child will perceive covert and overt rejections of his language and» his culture. This will be discussed further in this chapter, suffice it to point out at this time that failure will foster failure just as success seeds success. Among the educators depicting the poor educational conditions for Mexican-American children, Jose A. Cardenas, former Superintendent of Schools for San Antonio, Texas and Mrs. Blandina Cardenas, Director of Intercultural Resources Lab, San Antonio, Texas discuss the disproportionate academic' achievement between Mexican-American and Anglo students in their city. They allude to a theory of incompatibilities which demands that the Mexican-American child conform to the School, "The incompatibilities have generally led to attempts to change the child rather than the program."17 In criticism of schools in general for labeling the Spanish-speaking "disadvantaged" due to the child's inadequate English vocabulary, Armando Rodriguez, former National Director for the Spanish-speaking Commission posits, 26 Few effective institutions consider their partici- pants 'disadvantaged.' This means that the school must accept the Spanish—speaking youngster based on these principles: 1. The Spanish-speaking child can learn. 2. The Spanish—speaking child and his parents have the same high aspirations and expectations as the Anglos and the Blacks. 3. Language—-Spanish in the case of the Spanish- speaking youngster is an effective tool for learn- ing. 4. Cultural heritage--a rich resource in the Spanish- speaking child-~must be a visible, viable part of his school experience. I 5. Training programs should be established which will enable the teacher and administrator to have con- fidence that they can be successful with the bilingual-bicultural child. 6. The parents and the community must be involved in the decisions that direct the education of their child.18 It is reasonable to assume that the inability of a child to communicate in English initially is a discouraging, if not traumatic experience. Where no provisions have been made to cope with this particular problem the Mexican-American has experienced high drop out problems due to continued grade retentions, unfair testing instruments and standards, and reading retardation through high school. Effects of Bilipgual Instruction on School Achievement Upon reviewing the literature on the effects that bilingual instruction may have or has had on school achieve- ment at specific locales, under specific circumstances, and attempting to seek those studies which yield similarities to 27 this study, the following proved most fruitful, though some proved contradictory. The area of relationship of bilingualism to intelli- gence has produced a great number of studies. Saer, in 1923, reported a statistically significant difference between rural bilingual children and rural monolingual children in Wales. Testing 1,400 children he found the bilingual children to be inferior to the monolingual children, furthermore, this in- feriority increased each year from age 7 to 11 years of age. When Saer compared urban bilingual children to urban mono- linguals, he found no difference on the effects of bilingual- ism to intelligence.19 Saer did not provide for socio-economic . class control on the study and he used a Welsh translation of Stanford-Binet to measure IQ which may not have been standard- ized for Welsh children or taken into consideration cultural factors which can be overlooked in literal translations of test instruments. Jones and Stewart, in 1951, also working with English and Welsh-speaking children concluded that monolinguals scored significantly higher than bilinguals on both verbal and non- verbal IQ tests. "It was therefore—concluded that the bilingual children were significantly inferior to the monolingual child- ren even after full allowance has been made for the initial "20 Lambert, difference in the non-verbal intelligence tests. in his discussion of bilingualism and intelligence makes refer- ence to the fact that "Jones later conceded that the signifi- cant difference in non-verbal test scores observed in all his 28 studies may have arisen from occupational rather than lin- guistic variations between groups."21 Other studies which reported detrimental effects of bilingualism on intelligence included (Wang, 1926; Mead, 1927; and Rigg, 1928). All compared American English-speaking groups with children of various foreign backgrounds and lack- ed control on factors such as age, socio-economic class, and bilingualism was measured inadequately in some studies. Studies which indicate that monolingual children appear to have an edge on verbal tests while bilinguals score higher on non-verbal performance include Seidl's doctoral dissertation study. Seidl's study in 1937 matched two groups on age, sex, and were tested for linguistic ability, but a disparity appears on the occupational level of parents.22 Sanchez strongly speaks of cautions that should be taken in interpreting mental measures as he discusses in- adequate test instruments and misapplication of tests in general, very especially with regard to the bilingual child and the environmentally handicapped. He states, "a test is ‘valid only to the extent that the items of the test are as common to each child tested as they were to the children upon whom the norms were based."23 Sanchez makes reference to a study he conducted; testing a second grade group of bilingual children, he found the median IQ to be 72. "Working on the assumption that the tests reflected a function of the school, remedial instruction in language and language arts was given over a two-year period with the result that the median IQ was ... - .Nu 5‘ R. V~ 9" PL 5.\- 29 l."24 Sanchez empha- "raised" to approximately 100 or norma sizes the fact that if original scores had been interpreted at fact value, many of the bilingual children could have well been placed in special classes for the "dull” or even in- stitutions for the feeble-minded! It is a well known fact that many test instruments presently used with minority students are inappropriate due to cultural and environmental or geographical biases. Sanchez looked at the Binet tests for vocabulary difficulty and after an evaluation concluded, When evaluated for vocabulary difficulty, the Binet tests have been found by the writer to contain many words that do not even appear in the best of recommended word lists for bilingual children--to say nothing of the possibilities that such lists do not represent actual word mastery on the part of the pupils. If many of the words of the tests are un- known, and many but casually familiar or just recently acquired, what can be said as to the ex- periences and operations, the background and rapport, presupposed by the very nature of the tests? 5 Peal and Lambert's study of 1962 is perhaps the most referred to study by protagonists of bilingualism as it appears to be a well controlled study and looked upon school achievement, students' attitudes to the second language com- munity, as well as to the relationship of bilingualism to intelligence. The children in this study were 10 year-old children from six French schools in Montreal, Canada. The groups were matched for age, sex, socio-economic class, and all were classified as coming from middle-class schools. Peal and Lambert concluded that when socio-environmental variables are controlled, bilinguals performed better than monolinguals on both verbal and non-verbal intelligence tests. 30 The investigators reported that the bilingual children had several advantages over their monolingual peers,26 (l) A language asset. (2) Greater cognitive flexibility. (3) A greater ability in concept formation than monolinguals. Peal and Lambert anticipated a higher score for monolinguals on verbal IQ due to indications of previous studies and express surprise at this finding. The study also revealed a corre- lation between bilingualism and attitude toward second language community as bilinguals were more favorable to English Canadians than monolingual French in the study. In a voice test designed to measure stereotypes, bilinguals were found to evaluate the English and French personalities in similar manner, while the French monolingual children evaluated the French more favorably.27 Bilinguals also proved to be further ahead in school than the monolingual children. More recent studies allude to additional positive results favoring bilingualism. Trevino's study in Laredo, Texas investigated the results of bilingual instruction in school year 1963. She used scores from the California Achievement Test over a three-year period and found that both Spanish-speaking and English-speaking children taught bilingually had higher scores; and in several cases the difference of the means was statistically significant. "The fact that all the differences were in the same direction (favoring bilinguals) indicates that the use of both languages 28 encourages, promotes, and accelerates academic achievement." She also joins the litany of critics who oppose the p .3. 'VFF It} ’A. .H A. 31 categorization of the Spanish-speaking as failures and vociforously resent the denial to use his home language as it robs him of part of his being. How can anyone say we consider individual differ- ences when we label the Spanish-speaking child a failure because he can not do as well as English- speaking children in a school where learning ex- periences are given to both in English only? In summary, a child's language is part of himself; it is the essence of his being and mental pro- cesses. To suppress his means of communication is to close the door to mutual understanding, trust, and cooperation.29 Linguists are concerned with the problems posed by learning two languages simultaneously and the use of two languages as mediums of instruction. The questions arise as to whether or not this practice will inhibit the child's pro- gress in reading and oral development, primarily with the use of English. Pena looked into the syntactical structures of oral language with first graders. He reported that bilingual first graders could utilize basic Spanish and English syn- tactic patterns, and that the bilinguals had little or no difficulty generating transformations in Spanish and English.30 Fundamental educational methods dictate that a child learns from the simple to the complex. The Mexican-American child with an oral vocabulary in Spanish has acquired some basic oral skills often overlooked and ignored. The Spanish vowels, A, E, I, O, U lend themselves to a transitional language program as their sound is constant, that is, Spanish vowel sounds do not change as the English vowels do from long to 32 short sounds with a range of varying sounds. Region One Educational Service Center in Edingburg, Texas, has produced a Transitional English Reading program that takes advantage of the short-sounding Spanish vowels to introduce English reading to a beginning reader. The purpose of such program is to take advantage and make use of the skills the child al- ready possesses. Tentative evaluations have proven success- ful.31 There also exists a great similarity in the pronunci- ation of the majority of the consonants in both Spanish and English, syllable formation, word formation, sentence structure, punctuation, reading order, and general reading readiness skills; consequently, Pena's study confirms the beliefs of enthusiasts of Spanish-English instruction that a well-planned program.3hould prove to be successful. Another study offering information to this study is Del Buono's findings on the effects of bilingual instruction on eighth grade Mexican-American students in school achieve- ment and self-concept. The study was conducted in a Mid- western city with a 6% Spanish-surnamed school population. Del Buono compared Mexican-American eighth graders with a non—treatment group of Mexican-Americans in the traditional school program. Students were matched on socio-economic data obtained from parents and on mental ability test scores. The bilingual group's experimental variables included the teach- ing of social studies in Spanish, instruction in English as a second Language, and the use of specially prepared materials developed to enhance the student's self-concept and knowledge 33 of his cultural and historical heritage. Using Stanford Achievement Subtests, Social Studies, Paragraph Meaning, and Language and the General Self—Concept of Ability Scales to measure self-concept, Del Buono's findings proved there was significant difference on all counts favoring the students on the bilingual program with the exception of Paragraph Meaning where no difference was found between groups.32 A study with implications and possibly a model worthy of consideration for any combination of language instruction in two languages is offered by Lambert, Tucker, and d'Anglejan. The investigators organized two pilot classes of Canadian English-speaking children whose parents consented to the pro- position that their children be taught exclusively in French during their kindergarten and first grade years. The experi- mental group was compared with two control groups, one follow- ing a conventional English language curriculum, the other a conventional French language curriculum. The groups were carefully matched on non-verbal IQ, social class background, parental attitudes toward each people and culture, and moti- vation to learning the other language. Yearly evaluations were conducted. Instruction for the experimental group in- volved a nearly complete switch of home and school languages. With the greatest portion of the day devoted to instruction in French (a second language for the pilot classes) through grade four and instruction in the fifth grade cut to a 50-50% level in English and French, the following results were gathered at the end of the fifth grade: 34 They performed comparably to English-Canadian controls on all measures of receptive and expressive features of English. At grade four, they have some- what more difficulty with punctuation and capitaliza- tion rules in English and they are judged poorer in English composition writing, but at grade five they seemed to catch-up. They do just as well as controls at the end of grade five on all measures of English language skills.33 The investigators continued their summary of findings by stating that-- By the end of grades four and five the children in the experimental classes have attained a stage of functional bilingualism that permits them to read, write, comprehend and speak French with fluency and naturalness. In Math and Science, the experimental group performed remarkably similar to that of pupils following the conventional English-Canadian program. There are no signs of negative effects on cognitive develOpment, measured by a diverse battery of in- telligence tests. In terms of creativity, the child- ren perform as well as,and on certain tests better than the controls.34 Balasubramonian, Seelye and Weffer directed their study to the question as to whether or not bilingual programs inhibit English language achievement. The investigators com- pared the results of pre- and post-testing for English language achievement of 213 Spanish-speaking students in grades kindergarten through third grade who received English As a Second Language (ESL) instruction within a bilingial pro- gram.to a group of 104 comparable students who received in- struction within the traditional school program. The groups were carefully matched according to socio-economic status, age, sex, and exposure to English. Consideration was taken into the matching process on factors such as attrition of the groups, economic level of the schools' student body, staff 35 teaching experience, staff ethnicity, and other such variables to insure as much control as possible on the study. Children for the study were selected from three "downstate" Illinois school districts with large total enrollments as well as large Spanish-speaking enrollments. The children in the bilingual group heard on the average 25% less English during the school day and this, according to the investigators, was the only variable differing the two groups as the two groups received the same ESL program in addition to traditional language arts program. Upon examination of results, it was found that regardless of grade level, both groups performed equally. The investigators concluded, "that students learning English in a bilingual program learn just as much English as students learning it through ESL classes within a traditional curriculum."35 Problems of Assimilation and Acculturation The Mexican-American has long been portrayed as un- assimilated with very strong tendencies to maintain his language and cultural heritage. The history of the Mexican- Merican, social factors such as discriminatory practices dil:ected at him by society, and the proximity of Mexico with a COIltinued migration of immigrants all have contributed to this lalikofassimilation. Speaking against proponents of the 'Tfiilting pot" theory of assimilation, Cardenas and Fillmore VeIlemently state, "Most immigrant groups have managed to wipe out evidence of 'foreigness' within a generation or two and to 36 the extent that a group is able to do this well, it is re- warded with economic and social mobility in the society."36 Studies of bilingualism shed some light into social conflicts experienced by people, primarily due to racial or ethnic misunderstanding or political conflict. Maza eluci- dates to this question as he speaks of harmony in Switzerland with the use of four languages while Belgium.is bursting at the seams with two because of political, religious, and economical problems. He seems to resolve the question simply, "Language is an index, where language differences are argued, the real differences will be found in contests about religion, "37 One has but to read Canadian news to wealth, or power. verify political reasons for language differences between English and French. Child's study in 1943 allows us to investigate results of some of the problems encountered by Italian-Americans in the process of assimilation which parallels to present condi- tions of Mexican-Americans though the process appears to be much slower-paced. Child found three different reactions to social pressures to assimilation into American society. Many second generation Italian-American youngsters from New England in the study, because of peer pressure rejected their Italian heritage, making themselves as American as possible. A second reaction was shown by those who rejected everything that was American and proudly associated themselves with their Italian background. The third group is described by Child as an un- decided, confused, and withdrawn from adopting either posture.38 37 A problem of self-identity was observed in this third group which carries with it implications of social dilemma, poor language development attitude, and most important, an attitude condusive to instilling a negative self-esteem. It is diffi- cult to arrive at conclusions with Child's study as it is with other such studies, without knowledge of factors such as the economic condition of the specific area, how essential is assimilation for upward mobility in the minds of the young- sters in the study, the desire of the particular ethnic group to maintain its home language, home influence, the national thermometer or racial and ethnic prejudices of the time, and other such factors. Gardner and Lambert's study is similar to Child's study. They do carry the problem with more depth. Three groups of English-speaking students and two groups of French- Americans were used in the study. All were high school students from Louisiana, Maine, and Connecticut. The main purpose of the study was to evaluate attitudes and motivation towards second language learning. It was determined that the attitude of a youngster toward his own linguistic group and the American culture in his environment does influence both his mastery and progress in both languages. If a student per- ceives himself primarily as French, his dominant language is French or visa versa with individual perception being dominant- ly American. If the student is able to assume a dual alleg- iance or loyalty, that is, accept a bicultural position, he is able to develop good linguistic skills in both languages. 38 It is interesting to note that upon comparing the French- Americans in Louisiana with the French-Americans in Maine, contrasting results were found. The French-Americans from Maine showed a definite superiority over the English-speaking students in their French Skills, whereas the French-Americans in Louisiana had little or no advantage over the English- speakers. In looking at stereotypes held of French peOple, all except the Maine group held unfavorable stereotypes. The investigators commented, The pattern of results for the French-American students in Maine is distinctively different from all the rest. These students have closer ties with both their linguistic and cultural background than do the French-Americans in Louisiana. Perhaps as a consequence of striving to remain French, the French-Americans in Maine show more of a sense of 39 affection and attraction for people who are French. The negative stereotype held by the French-Americans in Louisiana towards the French may be indicative of a will- ingness on their part to assimilate into the dominant American culture for reasons beyond the scope of this study. A parallel can be made of the positive linguistic results and attitudes of the French-Americans in Maine and Mexican- Americans in bilingual programs because of their similarities in attitudes towards their home language and strong feelings towards their first-learned culture. Use of Mother Tongue As Medium of Instruction Widespread confusion exists about the objectives, techniques, teaching approaches, linguistic programs, organi- zation of school schedules, who qualifies for bilingual-bicultural 39 instruction, and most basic, what constitutes a bilingual programn There is no indication that these questions have easy answers or are anywhere near to being resolved. With a continuum of opinions and philosophies, complicated by nation- wide differences in needs within the Spanish-speaking alone, the problem is paramount and at best local decisions must determine the direction Bilingual-Bicultural Education is to take. Carter defines a bilingual program as one in which two 40 not the teaching languages are used as media of instruction, of two languages for the purpose of becoming bilingual, al- though this may be a component of the program. ESL and Foreign Language in the Elementary Schools (FLES), and other such pro- grams designed to teach a new language are described as Second Languare or Foreign Language Programs. An additional program used in a few schools is Spanish As a Second Language (SSL). This is being used in schools where English—speaking and Mexican-American children whose dominant language is English, participate in a bilingual-bicultural program jointly or in an integrated classroom. Linguists generally agree and have long proclaimed that the most efficient manner to learn a foreign language is to follow the cognitive "sequence of understanding first, then "41 although speaking, before reading, and (lastly) writing; what is preached is not always practiced, as unfortunately, it is difficult to find Foreign Language programs in high schools who follow this technique. ESL programs at the 40 elementary level are still considered experimental and are relatively new. Their use is not universal with non-English speakers. Some ESL programs employ the "model" teaching approach whereby the teacher serves as a model with "repeat- after'me" exercises, use of games, toys, objects, picture drill cards, filmstrips, records, and other such teaching materials. Another approach recently introduced is the audio- lingual approach where again repetition and structured drills are emphasized with a phonetic analogy of sounds, words, sentences, and minimal pair drills is used. This approach also requires a good model. Similar approaches, such as the Miami Linguistic Series and others are being used with supporters for a number of programs designed to follow the natural sequence of second language learning. Krear speaks of the role of the mother tongue in school and at home, critizing the denial of its use as she points out, It is easy to understand how feelings of guilt re- garding the mother tongue can develop in a school where its use provokes ridicule or punishment. Not frequently, the non-English speaker learns to associate his mother tongue with disapproval and thus may develop serious emotional problems result- ing in a loss of identity.42 She continues her criticism of attitudes of school administra- tors who encourage Mexican-American parents to use "broken" English at home in order that Mexican-American children will practice oral English. She discourages such practice based on principles declared the following: Second-language teachers have declared the following to be doctrine: 41 l. Learners must have a perfect or near- perfect model to imitate. 2. Young learners are better language- imitators than are adults. If we believe both these principles to be correct, we would admit that: 1. Parents who practice their incorrect English with their children are providing poor language- models. 2. Children of a non-English-speaking family can acquire the second language with greater facility and realize a mastery nearly impossible for the adults in the family. 3 Krear offers the following diagram to summarize attitudes in school and at home toward the use of the mother tongue. Negative . Neutral Positive Taught Used as a S Prohibited Ignored Permitted to host medium of g group instruction 0 . O L H . . . 0 Ridiculed Used by Taken to g teachers Literacy Discouraged Ignored Encouraged Loretan and Umans add credence to the educational theory of using the language and vocabulary the child brings to school as they comment, Children from deprived homes may not have the ex- periences that give meaning to 'school' vocabulary. This does not necessarily mean that they may not have achieved a highly developed vocabulary from their own experiences; but this vocabulary is simply not the same as the schools. As one young- ster said, with tears in his eyes, to a teacher who repeatedly asked him to talk about a subject completely foreign to him, 'Ask me to talk about what I talk about.'44 42 As Loretan and Umans expound on teaching the verbally limited or different child, they speak of three approaches that are used by teachers in communicating with children: 1. Traditional approach--teacher is model-—described as 'direct transfer.’ (parrot the teacher) 2. Teacher might try to become facile in using the child's language. Two reasons for this, A. It gives the youngster the advantage of bring- ing something of his home and neighborhood environment into the school. If we begin sett- ing up models of behavior--in speech or in any other activity-~on the very first day the child enters school, we are, in effect, saying to him, 'Reject the things you bring with you from your home; they are not desirable. Learn to do things our way.‘ This, of course, is never verbalized, either by teachers or by curriculum guides, but the rejection is implicit in much that is done. B. A child does not need to change his speech pattern in order to learn how to read, Standard, printed English is the same whether one speaks the dialect of the North, of the South, of New England, or of the West. 3. Inner city children, who come to school with a dialect of the language, be taught standard English as 2 Second Language, side by side with the dialect. 5 From Loretan and Umans' discussion, one should note the emphasis placed on approach number two, "to become facile in using the child's language," although the authors do not explain their position as to the extent that a teacher should be prepared for communication purposes, very specially, with non-English speakers. Andersson and Boyer, in promoting the teaching in the mother tongue prior to beginning English language instruction summarize: Teachers of non-English-speaking children are urged to lose no time in teaching the children to read and write in their mother tongue, and are urged to 43 take all the time needed in an English reading-readiness program.46 In the process of analyzing a number of studies regard- ing bilingualism, Singer summarizes, This writer could find no evidence that a second language, which is learned sequentially, remains a second language and does not compete continuously with the vernacular, causes any detrimental emotional effect or damages the emotional organization of the individual.47 With stacks of studies analyzing the pros and cons of bilingualism and second language learning, resulting in both positive and negative findings, Fishman, Cooper and Ma take a stab at past negative findings. Fishman proposes that in the past, psychological and linguistic research as well as sociological research . . . viewed societal bilingualism as an inter- group phenomenon resulting from the contact between essentially separate monolingual groups,-—as basically 'unnatural,‘ they had to discover some 'price,’ some toll had to be revealed in comparison with monolingual normality. Linguists found 'inter- ference' at every level. It seems to me that the thesis which consciously or unconsciously guided so much past research on bilingualism in general, and societal bilingualism in particular, was, in large part, a result of erroneous generalization from limited Western experience. Bilingualism was con- fused with sme of its atypical concomitants: large scale immigration and other social or personal dis- locations related to disharmonious intergroup con- tacts. The Westernizing 'native', the struggling 'foreign language' student, the downtrodden but dedicated 'minority group' patriot, these were the bilingual subjects on whom bilingual research and bilingual theory were based. Voicing a concern of many Mexican-American educators, Garcia echoes the cries of the present inadequate language programs, "Not only has the educational system discouraged 44 Chicano bilingualism, but it also has not provided the Chicano "49 Mexican- adequate instruction in the English language arts. American educators seem to rationalize to the effect that any new approach must be better than what is presently being offered, a bilingual-bicultural approach to language learning should be refreshing and possibly beneficial as so much of the present literature indicates. Perhaps, Soffietti describes best the present dilemma facing many educators throughout the country as he summarizes what appears to be the only point of agreement, The literature on bilingualism is voluminous. It deals chiefly with its effects on the mental and linguistic development of the child and his school environment, as well as his personal and social adjustment. These problems have been discussed and investigated from many points of view, both in this country and abroad. On one sole point there seems to be general agreement, that the findings so far are inconclusive and that the problem needs further careful investigation.50 Present Problems Faced byBilingual-Bicultural Proponents Aside from the usual obstacles that are faced by the implementation of a new innovative program that requires change in the curriculum, such as the insecure status quo position often taken by some teachers and administrators who oppose any form of change, financial support, teacher prep- aration, lack of teaching materials and the like, bilingual education faces an uphill battle against generations of deep- engrained, covert, and often unrecognized prejudices against the minority of the locale. 45 Carter's findings, previously mentioned, confirm the need for better dissemination of information and better com- munity relations of which Andersson speaks, as negative views towards Mexican-Americans still prevail. Carter observes, Although current empirical evidence seems to argue against the idea that bilinguals have lower mental functioning, the majority of school people inter- viewed subscribe to the idea.51 John contends that the Office of Education in washington has continually mismanaged Bilingual Education during its fledgling years, that it has been burdened with constant evaluation, that the community has never had the freedom to develop a program.that was indeed based on the needs and experience of the community, that teachers organi— zations threatened by the possibility of having large numbers of non-English speakers eventually fill the job slots that their members held, created political and court decisions against hiring on non-licensed personnel. He further states, I think it is essential to know that the seeds of doubt, the problems, and possibly the likelihood of failure were built into the program from its beginning.52 Many educators have mixed emotions about bilingualism in the schools, not because they disagree with the theories of second language learning or of using the home language as a medium of instruction, but because too many programs have taken a remedial approach or are of compensatory nature. Cardenas and Fillmore make this observation, 46 Not all programs have been equal in their commit- ment to the notion of bilingualism, however. In many places, the programs turned out to be little more than compensatory programs in disguise. Al- though these programs used the children's home language in school, it wgs clearly to facilitate the learning of English. 3 Riessman enumerates overt forms of discrimination still present in too many of our schools which offer addi- tional evidence of the changes that need to take place in order to offer a positive, fruitful bilingual-bicultural pro- gram for all the school community: 1. The reading texts used in the classrooms which typically contain material far less attuned to the interests of the disadvantaged. 2. PTA's which often patronize or ignore under- privileged parents. 3. The intelligence tests, the applicability of which lower socio-economic groups is increasingly being questioned. 4. The school psychologists and guidance counselors, who frequently underestimate the possibility of the economically underpriviledged child going to college. 5. The friendship cliques and clubs which favor less the child from a poor neighborhood. 6. The teacher's unfavorable images and expectations which militate against the respect and encouragement so needed by the child.54 Contrary to positions taken by educators such as Riessman, Krear, Singer, Loretan, Umans, and others previously mentioned, who contend that the home language of the child be it a dialect, Spanish, or a combination of Spanish and English, the child does possess a vocabulary rich with home and neighborhood experiences, the majority of school people seem to disagree. Carter again reveals the negative stereotype held of the Mexican-American child in this respect: 47 Many interviewees regard Mexican-American Spanish as deficient. The language spoken at home is 'pocho' 'Tex-Mex' or 'wetback Spanish' really non- standard dialects. Such comments as these were commonly encountered: Their Spanish is of such an inferior quality that it does not warrent classifi- cation as a language. Some teachers stated that some children had a problem not so much because they spoke Spanish as because they spoke no language at all at home—-that is, that they were truly nonverbal and alingua1.55 The question of the quality of Spanish is often brought forth as an obstacle to bilingual instruction. Per- haps the problem is exaggerated. What language is being used to teach the French-Americans bilingually? Cajun French? What standard of English is used in the South to rid of a Southern drawl? Should it be annihilated? What standard of English is used with the poor Whites in the Appalachia region? Should we adopt Bostonian English? What is standard English? How do these alingual, nonverbal Mexican-American children communicate all over the country with their families as they migrate from state to state looking for jobs? This investi- gator contends that the vocabulary of a five-year old should be respected, accepted, and used within the framework of the school's curriculum in a positive manner. Barker's study in Tucson, Arizona explains to a cer- tain extent the range and use of Spanish by Mexican-Americans. His study in a Tucson "barrio" and the community was directed at evaluating the use of Spanish for socialization purposes. Barker found that when Mexican-Americans socialized intimately or informally among themselves they alternately used both English and Spanish. When formal socialization took place, 48 the bilingual native Tucsonans used English, while recent Mexican immigrants used formal "Mexican Spanish." When Anglo- Mexican—American socialized, the bilinguals used English even though the Mexican-American knew that the Anglo could speak Spanish. His study supports the hypothesis that there is a positive relation between social goals, cultural orientation, and individual linguistic behavior, and the fields of interpersonal relations in which the individual participates. As a means of understanding the role of linguistic behavior in this relation, it is suggested that acceptance in any given field of interpersonal relations depends to a large degree on the ability of the individual to master the idiom of that field.56 One can logically surmise that language increases within the individual's social environment. Spanish, like any language spoken over a wide geographical area, contains its colloquialisms and idioms typical of any given region and used according to the circumstances. Rodriguez identifies some pressing needs for Bilingual- Bicultural Education as follows: 1. Immediately train at least 100,000 bilingual- bicultural teachers and administrators. 2. To agitate for priority funding by the United States Office of Education to develop educational programs. 3. To develop testing instruments that will accurately measure the intelligence and achieve- ment potential of the bilingual-bicultural child. 4. To provide assistance through federal funding to Spanish-speaking students in the pursuit of a college education. 5. To help the various states to recognize the need for state-wide programs in bilingual-bicultural education.57 The area of teacher training and re-training and the development of adequate curriculums are most crucial as more 49 and more states are in the process of enacting legislation on bilingual education. Some universities and colleges are al- ready offering courses designed to prepare teachers to teach the bilingual child; others are at the planning stage. The Future of Bilingual-Bicultural EduCation More and more educators are beginning to implement programs of second language learning as they see positive results. One such advocate who visualized its benefits long before Bilingual Education came into being is Turner. He comments that upon traveling through Russia, he found English- speakers everywhere. "In Sweden and Denmark, students were 1."58 He learning a second foreign language by high schoo indicates that he would not teach Spanish as a special sub- ject but would use it in all subjects. Bilingual-Bicultural Education is at a very important crossroads and its success depends upon the clarification of many questions which still remain unanswered. Garcia views the present situation as one of uncertainty and depicts it as a battle of languages as he states, The subsequent result of this language battle has been the polarization between Anglo majority culture which has not been beneficial to either group since neither group has benefitted from the language diver- sity of the other.59 Rhode contends that for Bilingual-Bicultural Education to succeed one must hold to certain tenets or assumptions. He lists four main assumptions upon which bilingual instruction is based: 50 l. The education of a child should begin in his native language, or home language and he should be taught to read in his language before under- taking any other. 2. Although he may know some English, he should be taught to speak and read English as a Second Language by second language methods. 3. He should continue to develop skills in both languages, oral and written, using both languages in his content courses. 4. He should be sufficiently reinforced in his native culture to attain the self-image necessary to full achievement of his educational potential.60 Obviously, the implementation of a Bilingual- Bicultural program entails the consideration of many local factors which dictate the direction the program is to take and the priorities that need to be established. As previous- ly mentioned by several authors, the community should be in- volved not ignored. Oftentimes, Mexican-American parents have been depicted as not being educationally-oriented and to have low educational aspirations for their children, conse- quently, they are blamed for heavy drop-out statistics. Taylor's study dispels this stereotype. The purpose of her study was to determine whether rural Mexican-American working-class parents differed from rural Anglo-American middle-class parents and Anglo-American working—class with respect to value orientation, attitudes held toward education and effects upon school achievement of 3rd and 4th grade children. The sample, from San Joaquin Valley, California included 20 Mexican-American families, 21 Anglo working-class and 24 Anglo middle-class families. Results indicated that all three groups were on the positive side of attitude scale 51 with the middle-class group being the strongest. Achievement scores did show that parents attitudes affected school achievement, particularly in reading,except for the Anglo working-class.61 Gutierrez supports these findings as she studied Mexican—American parents' attitudes towards bilingual in- struction. She summarized, Parents enthusiastically approved of the on-going bilingual-bicultural programs to which their children were being exposed. The attitudes of the parents in this sample demonstrated a strong sentiment for becoming or remaining a bilingual- bicultural society. With new approaches to bilingual instruction being tried throughout the country, Andersson63 suggests a totally new approach to bilingual-bicultural education by which bilingual instruction is extended down to include children in the Early Childhood program. According to Andersson, Assuming that a community wishes to maintain its non-English home language and cultural heritage and that it is persuaded by such evidence as we have sampled that ages zero to five and indeed most propitious for various forms of learning two languages and cultures, art, music, literature, numbers, nature study, and human relations.64 Andersson's recommendation embraces the well-known Montessori philosophy. Montessori states, Only a child under three can construct the mech- anism of language, and he can speak any number of 65 languages if they are in his environment at birth. Developing an argument for starting reading at an earlier age, Stevens and Orem also add credence to the philosophy of earlier language learning. 52 It is generally acknowledged that between birth and about five years of age every normal child will learn to speak the native language or languages of his environment.66 Whether or not Bilingual-Bicultural Education will heed Andersson's suggestions remains to be seen. The future of this program can be bright or bleak, depending on the com- mitment that is to be exerted by many of our educational leaders. Commitment produces results. Cornett, Ainsworth, and Askins proved this as they set out to improve the in- tellectual abilities, language facility, and positive self- image of Mexican-American children ages three, four, and five from Clovis and Portales, New Mexico. Providing a series of planned learning activities, their results proved to be posi- 67 tive on all hypotheses. It is this type of initiative and dedication that will prove to be difference between the success and failure of Bilingual-Bicultural Education. In a multicultural society, all children need to learn early that cultural differences involve alternative ways of looking at and doing things, that the differences are not absolute or mutually exclusive, that acquiring a new culture does not mean giving up old ways, but rather that the new can be accomodated and integrated with the old, creating a new, unique whole. that in so doing, we may better understand differences among ethnic groups and use those qualities that unite us to pro- duce a better society. 53 SUMMARY In reviewing the literature related to Bilingual- Bicultural instruction, this investigator considers the following as the most pertinent points derived from the read- ings. (1) Although, historically, this country has suppressed a pluralistic philOSOphy of cultural diversity in an attempt to promote national unity through one language, a definite change in posture has been growing since the outbreak of WOrld War II. The military recognized foreign languages as an immediate, critical problem consequently, thousands upon thousands of dollars were channeled in order to meet this need. (2) The United States has experienced some traumatic years in the area of civil rights in the last decade, causing the mentality of the country to become more tolerant, if not more understanding with regards to social relationships among the many ethnic groups and minorities. A more receptive attitude towards the use of foreign languages in public schools has developed as a product of this experience. (3) The more recent studies of Bilingual—Bicultural programs in public schools and universities throughout the country and abroad reflect this general change in attitude; furthermore, greater advances in communications, common prob- lems among nations, and the rise of other "power" countries in the world have also tended to emphasize a need for an 54 expansion of foreign language instruction. (4) The literature on bilingual instruction prior to the growing interest in Bilingual-Bicultural Education in this country, project a general pattern revealing negative findings, although some studies have yielded positive results. In contrast, a positive pattern has developed with the most recent studies, indicating fruitful, educational benefits from dual language teaching, although conclusions are skeptic- ally regarded as inconclusive. (5) Despite an ever-increasing interest in Bilingual- Bicultural Education and the development of teaching materials for this program within the past decade, the pro- gram has yet to produce a clear definition of its purpose, identify specific nation-wide goals, determine long-range plans for its expansion and clarify target populations. Generally, critics point to a need for direction; perhaps this is indicative of the mass indecision with regard to its edu- cational benefits and willingness to fund such program. (6) General consensus among the most recent studies indicate a need for further research. Educators concede to the need to experiment with new, innovative approaches in an attempt to improve a traditional, white, middle-classed program. Curriculums are under constant scrutiny and they should be. Change is inevitable and our schools must reflect the sociological changes taking place in society. Bilingual- Bicultural Education is one such change that attempts to 55 bridge a gap for the child for whom English is a second language, as our curriculum's philosophy must change to fit our children. Children should not be forced to change to fit a curriculum as the results can prove to be socially and academically detrimental, if not damaging. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 56 CHAPTER II Footnotes MacNamara, John. "Problems of Bilingualism," The Journal of Social Issues, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, April 1967. Ibid. Mildenberger, Kenneth. "Language Development,” Selected papers from a Ford Foundation Conference on the State of the Art, New York, New York, Oct. 1968. Del Buono, Xavier A. "The Relationship of Bilingual and Unilingual Instruction to the Achievement and Self-Concept of Mexican-American Children," Unpublished Doctoral Dis- sertation, Michigan State University, 1971. Meyerson, Marion D. "The Bilingual Child," Childhood EduCation, Association for Childhood Education International, Washington, D.C., Vol. 45, No. 9, May 1969. Carter, Thomas P. "Mexican-Americans in School: A History of Educational Neglect," College Entrance Examination Board, New York, 1970, pg. 5. Ibid., pg. 62. Riessman, Frank. The Culturally Deprived Child, Harper and Brothers, New York, New York, 1962, pg. 6. Ibid. Loretan, Joseph 0. and Umans, Shelley. Teaching the Dis- advanta ed Teachers College Press, Teachers College, ColumEia University, 1966, pg. 4. Andersson, Theodore, "Bilingual Education and Early Child- hood," Hispania, Vol. 57, No. 1, Mar. 1974, pg. 77. Bailey, Thomas A. "Address to the Organizations of Ameri- can History," Dallas, Texas, April 18, 1968, Journal of American History. Walser, Leroy. "Ethnic Study of Foreign Language Educa- tion: Chicanos and Spanish Language," A paper presented on Nov. 1972, ACTFL-SCOLT Joint Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia. John, Vera. "Letter From the Southwest: On Bilingualism," The Urban Review, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jan. 1974, pg. 43. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 57 Levine, Harry. "Bilingualism: Its Effects on Emotional and Social Development," Journal of Secondary Educatiopy Vol. 44, No. 2, Feb. 1969, pg. 73. Ibid., pg. 71. Cardenas, Blandina and Cardenas, Jose A. "Chicano-- Bright-eyed, Bilingual, Brown and Beautiful," Todays Education, Vol. 62, No. 2, Feb. 1973, pg. 51. Rodriguez, Armando. ”Education For the Spanish-Speaking: Manana in Motion," National Elementary Principal, Vol. 49, No. 4, Feb. 1970, pg. 55. Saer, D.J., ”The Effects of Bilingualism on Intelligence," British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 14, 1923, pp. 25-38. Jones, W.R. and Stewart, W.A. "Bilingualism and Verbal Intelligence", British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 4, 1951, pp. 3—8. Lambert, Wallace E. Language, Psychology, and Culture, Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 1972, pg. 113. Seidl, J.C.G. "The Effect of Bilingualism on the Measure- ment of Intelligence," Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Fordham University, 1937. Sanchez, George I. "Bilingualism and Mental Measures: A WOrd of Caution," in Wagner, N.N. and Haug, M.J., Chicanos, Social and Psychological Perspectives, C.V. MoSby Company, 1971. Ibid., pg. 233. Ibid. Peal, Elizabeth and Lambert, Wallace. "The Relation of Bilingualism to Intelligence,” Washington, D.C., American Psychological Association, 1962. Lambert, Op. cit., pg. 131. Trevino, Bertha C. "Bilingual Education--A Psychological Helping Hand," Texas Outlook, Vol. 53, May 1969, pg. 24-25. Ibid. Pena, Albar A. "A Comparative Study of Selected Syn- tactical Structures of the Oral Language Status in Spanish and English of Disadvantaged First-Grade Spanish-Speaking Children," Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Texas, 1967. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 58 Ramirez, A.R. 1971-1972 Final Evaluation Report, Region One Educational SerVice Center, Edinburg, Texas, July 1972. Del Buono, Xavier A., Op. cit. Lambert, Wallace, Tucker, C. Richard, and d'Anglejan Alison. "Cognitive and Attitudinal Consequences of Bilingual Schooling: The St. Lambert Project Through Grade Five," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 65, No. 2, Oct. 1973, pg. 158. Ibid. Balasubramonian, K., Seelye, H. Ned, and Weffer, Rafaela Elizondo, Paper presented at Seventh Annual Convention, TESOL, Puerto Rico, May 9-13, 1973, pg. 16. Cardenas, Rene and Fillmore, Lily Wong. "Toward a Multi- cultural Society," Today's Education, Vol. 62, No. 6, Sept-Oct. 1973, pg. 83. Maza, Herbert. "Language Differenc-s and Political Inte- gration," The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 41, 1957, pg. 365. Child, Irving L. Italian or American, The Second Genera- tion in Conflict, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1943. Gardner, Robert C. and Lambert, Wallace E. Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning, Newbury House Publishers, Rowley, Massachusetts, 1972, pg. 103. Carter, op. cit., pg. 162. Meyerson, op. cit. Krear, Josefina E. "The Role of The Mother Tongue at Home and At School in the Development of Bilingualism," Chicanos: Social and Psychological Perspectives, Editors: Nathaniel N. Wagner and Marsha 32 Ring, C.V. Mesby Co., St. Louis, Mo., 1971, pg. 229. Ibid., pg. 230. Loretan and Umans, op. cit., pg. 40-41. Ibid. Andersson, Theodore, and Boyer, Mildred, Bilingual School- ‘ ing In The United States, Southwest Educational Lfiboratory, Austin, Texas, 1969, pg. 39. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 59 Singer, Harry. "Bilingualism and Elementary Education," Mbdern Language Journal, Vol. XL, No. 8, Dec. 1956. Fishman, Joshua A., Cooper, Robert L., and Ma, Roxana. Bilingualism In The Barrio, Language Science Monograph, gggiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, 1971, pg. 605- Garcia, Ricardo L. "Mexican-American Bilingualism and English Language Development," Journal of Reading, Vol. 17 Mar. 1974, pg. 468. Soffietti, James P. ”Bilingualism and Biculturalism," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 46, 1955, pg. 222. Carter, op. cit., pg. 50-51. John, op. cit. Cardenas and Fillmore, op. cit., pg. 86. Riessman, op. cit., pg. 17-18. Carter, 0p. cit., pg. 52. .Barker, George C. Social Functions of Language in a Mexican-American Community, The UnIVersity oflhrizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, 1972, pg. 44. Rodriguez, op. cit., pg. 56. Turner, Thomas, "A Foreign Language Program in Your Elementary Schools," School Management, Vol. 3, No. 10, Oct. 1959. Garcia, op. cit. Rhode, Robert D. ”Bilingual Education for Teachers," The Educational Forum, Kappa Delta Pi, West Lafayette, Indiana, Jan. 1974. Taylor, Marie E. Educational and Cultural Values of Mexican-American Parents: How They Influence the School AChievement oflTheirIChildren, Preparedlfor'Mexican- American Educational Research Project, Calif. State Department of Education, 1970. Gutierrez, Lorraine. Attitudes Toward Bilingual Education: A Study of Parents With Children in selected Bilingual Programs, Published dissertation, University of New MEXico, Y 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 6O Andersson, op. cit. Ibid., pg. 78. Montessori, Maria. Education For a New World, Kalakshetra Publications, Adyar, Madras, third impression, 1959, pg.40. Stevens, George L. and Orem, R.C. The Case for Early Readin , Warren H. Green, Inc., St. Louis,IMissouri, 1968, pg. 3. Cornett, Joe D., Ainsworth, Len, and Askins, Bill. "Effect of and Intervention Program on 'High Risk' Spanish-American Children,” Journal of EducatiOnal Research, Vol. 67, No. 8, April 1974. Cardenas and Fillmore, op. cit., pg. 87. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Setting This study was conducted in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas located in the southmost tip of Texas bordering Mexico. The Rio Grande Valley is a four-country area populated by a series of small towns and cities extending eastward along the Rio Grande River from Zapata to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of approximately 160 miles. This area of Texas contains the heaviest concentration of Mexican-Americans in the state with the latest Statistics showing approximately 80% of the total population to be of Mexican-American extraction. The overall public school population shows a slightly higher figure of Mexican-Americans at approximately 83%. A great number of neighborhood schools have traditionally been populated with 100% Mexican-American children. It is these neighborhoods, "barrios," that have produced the countless of migrants who feel compelled to board up their homes and seek employment by following the harvest of field crops throughout the country for months at a time, posing serious handicaps on their child- ren's progress in school. As stated previously in Chapter I, the Civil Rights Commission Report yielded shameful academic results from this particular ethnic group both migrant and non- migrant. 6l 62 The study was conducted in this particular setting with the intention of seeking data that might yield assist- ance in the planning and implementation of programs directed at those children in most need of academic assistance. History of Treatment Group Program In 1968, Region One Educational Service Center, Edinburg, Texas was federally funded for the purpose of in- itiating a pilot bilingual program which would specifically be directed to the Mexican-American classified as socially and economically deprived, as it was theorized that the correlation between social and economic deprivation and academic achievement would be high. Since its inception Region One Educational Service Center proceeded to establish pilot classes, develop materials, adapt and revise materials in the area of Spanish Reading, English Reading, English as a Second Language, and Social Education. Pilot classes were initiated in five different school districts, four of which are still following the program. The schools are all located in the Rio Grande Valley. The program presently extends from Kindergarten through grade four. Components of Region One Center Bilingual Program A. Region One Curriculum Kit (ROCK): This is an English as a Second Language program developed at the University of California at Los Angeles in collaboration with the California State Department of Education. 63 Region One personnel revised and adapted lessons and added a teacher's kit with teaching materials, tapes, records, songs, puppets, and other teaching tools to this program to improve its content and attempt to make the lessons meaningful to the children of this region. The lessons consist of system- atic, day to day lessons designed to teach oral English to the non-English-speaking child. The program is divided into two levels with its lessons increasing in linguistic and grammatical difficulty. Experience has proven that it will take from two and a half to three school years to complete the two levels of instruction. This program is not unlike the Miami Linguistic Program or the Distar English as a Second Language program used throughout the public schools of the Rio Grande Valley designed to serve the same purpose. B. Region One Literacy Lessons (Spanish ROLL): The Spanish ROLL component of the bilingual program consists of the greatest break from tradition, as it is a beginning Spanish reading program, previously not permitted in the public schools of Texas. Developed in its entirety by Region One personnel, it consists of eight beginning Spanish reading booklets planned and prepared for the Spanish-speaking child. It is the expressed intent of the Region One program to introduce Spanish reading to the Spanish-speaking child first, before exposing the child to a new or second language. The philosophical implications are both academic and sociological. The child is to meet success by progressing through a 64 transitional period with positive experiences which should prove linguistically and socially sound. Thus, the Region One program provides that the Spanish-speaking child achieves minimal proficiency in Spanish reading prior to being intro- duced to English reading. This Spanish reading program can be taught for one or both of two reasons: (1) To develop literacy skills among native Spanish-speakers, and (2) to prepare the Spanish-speaking child for a more rapid transition into English reading. C. Transitional English Reading (English ROLL): This component of the program consists of eight booklets also developed by Region One as an introduction to reading in English for native Spanish-speakers. It facilitates the transition from Spanish reading to traditional basal reading programs. This program is not initiated until the first four booklets of the Spanish ROLL have been successfully completed. The rationale for this suggystion is based on the assumption, tested internally by Region One, that the Spanish- speaking child, has, by this plateau, acquired the cognitive skills necessary for learning a second language, plus the ability to transfer Spanish sounds "mastered" to English phonetics. Radical changes from tradition highlighted by this program is the introduction of short vowels first, with consonants which sound the same or almost the same in both .English and Spanish. As the Spanish vowels are normally "short," the Spanish-reading child can associate the transition 65 much more easily. The program focuses attention on spelling patterns and can be described as an introductory phonetic approach to English reading. After the completion of its first five booklets, the district's own basal reading program can be initiated as children will have covered both short and long vowels. D. Social Education-K, I, II, III, IV: Also developed by Region One, the Social Education portion of the bilingual program is presently taught in Spanish. At the time the children in the bilingual group went through the Kindergarten level they were exposed to the conventional curriculum offered at each school. Their first grade program consisted of alternating units in Spanish lessons developed locally and a Social Studies program developed by the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory in Austin, Texas taught in English. Social Education instruc- tion in the second grade was the program's Spanish-conducted curriculum, similar in content to the conventional curriculum of the control group. The present content of Region One's’ Social Education Program in toto did not change much in the development of Spanish lessons and the addition of a kinder- garten level curriculum. Kindergarten and first grade curriculum is centered on the individual's role in the groups to which he belongs, primarily the family, the school, and the gradual changing of his role. In Level II, designed for usage at second grade, 66 children explore relationships between groups, the inter- dependence of families, how families form communities, and how each member in a family assumes different responsibilities. Level III, third grade, offer children the opportunity to apply the concepts previously learned to societies of other times and places, thus leading to a better understanding of Level IV in the fourth grade in which the history of the Rio Grande Valley and neighboring Mexican communities is studied. See Table 3.1 for graphic explanation of program. Table 3.1 Overview of Region One Bilingual Program Kindergarten , First Grade Second Grade ROCK Up to 3 hrs. Up to 2 hrs. Complete Level (English oral daily daily II if not language Level I Level II finished in lst develoPment) (128 lessons) (115 lessons) grade Spanish ROLL 1 hr. daily Complete all Complete all 8 (Spanish Complete at 8 books books if not Reading) least 4 of finished in lst the 8 books grade English ROLL l hr.daily Complete all 8 (English Not started books if not Reading) until Book 4 finished in lst of Spanish ROLL grade is finished. Social 2-3 hrs.weekly 2-3 hrs.week1y 2-3 hrs.weekly Education K Level* Level I** Level II (Spanish) Language Experience Daily Sharing Ti me One lesson per week. Lesson may cover 3 to 5 days. 67 TABLE.3:1.. ......... Creative writing (Spanish & English) *This program was not prepared at the time children in the study went through the Kindergarten. This is presently conducted in Spanish. Children in the study were exposed to Spanish and English units. Identification and Selection of Population Sample The universe for this study was the second grade pupils in Region One Educational Service Center's bilingual program implemented in four different public school districts in 1973-74. These children had successfully completed their second grade and were classified as beginning third graders at the time the study was conducted. Upon investigating the ten classrooms containing the bilingual subjects a total of 185 children were identified as having participated in the program from kindergarten through the second grade. Prior to random selection of subjects, children who had joined the program late or did not fully undertake the three years in the study were eliminated from consideration. The purpose of this step was to study a sample of children who had been in this program for the full three year term under study. Also eliminated from consideration were children who had been retained in a particular grade, 68 thus making their participation in the program a four year term.and a possible factor in the outcome of the results. As part of the initial criteria at the kindergarten level for participation in this program required that the children be monolingual Spanish-speaking and come from economically deprived homes, no screening process for these factors was necessary as it was for the control group. Proportionate random samples were made at each of the four elementary schools and tested as shown in Table 3.2. Forty-one percent of the total population of second grade children were selected for the study. Selection of Comparison Sample The non-bilingual sample was selected from four different public school districts in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas with consideration taken for the following factors: A. Location of Study As the children in the bilingual study were located in the Rio Grande Valley, the comparison group was also randomly selected from four different school districts, all within a thirty-five mile radius, similar in size, history, and economic support. B. School Environment All schools selected for the study, experimental and control, are located in poverty-stricken neighborhoods with approximately 99% Mexican-American children. 69 C. Family Status. School records were checked prior to selection pro- cess at all schools to eliminate a few children who could be classified as upper-middle class because of parents' employ- ment or position in an economic scale. Thus, children in the study are of low socio-economic background. D. Language Facility Interviews with principals and teachers convinced this investigator that all children were monolingual Spanish- speakers at the beginning of Kindergarten. E. Age Children who had been retained at least one year were not included in the pool for random sampling so as to insure homogeneity in age range. F. Ability Grouping Since ability grouping, primarily based on English linguistic ability at this level, is a common practice in the schools in this study, children from "top" groups were not in- cluded in the random selection. G. Sex The random sampling provided for balance in the number of females and males in the study. H. Test Administration All tests were administered by this investigator to assure uniformity in testing conditions. The testing schedule was arranged so as to alternate the administration of English reading achievement instrument and the Spanish reading instrument 70 from morning to afternoon administrations, as were the sessions for the treatment group and the control group. The alternating process was also followed in considering the actual time in school of the two groups by the termination of the data collecting period. See Table 3.2 for scheduling. I. Instructional Program Children in the comparison group were all in a tradi- tional classroom with no instruction conducted in Spanish or Spanish reading with only minimal use of Spanish at the kindergarten level to facilitate instructions. Children selected for the control group made normal progress from kindergarten through second grade. English as a Second Language programs such as the Miami Linguistic Program or the Distar Program were used at the kindergarten level and first grade similarly to the ROCK program employed in the bilingual program. Comparable English-conducted Social Education programs were also used by both groups at the first grade. See Table 3.3 for comparison of instructional programs. The random sample selected comprised 32% of the total sampling pool identified in the four non-bilingual schools. See Table 3.4. 71 Table 3.2 Testing Schedule Date Children English Spanish Tested Reading Reading Self- B NB Achievement Achievement Concept M F M F 9-5-74 AM 8 10 3 4 School A PM dexfl.A dexfl.A 9-9-74 AM 8 12 School B PM Sdmxfl.B Sdmxfl.B 9-11-74 AM 16 14 School C School C EH aflmpl(3 9-12-74 AM 9 11 School D School D PM Sdhxfl.D 9—13-74 AM 10 9 School E PM dexfl.E dexfl.E 9-17-74 AM 9 9 School F RH Sdmxfl.F Sdmxfl.F 9-18-74 AM 8 10 School G School G PM dexfl.G 35 4o 35 39 = Total Subjects B = Bilingual Group NB = Non-Bilingual Group 72 Table 3.3 Comparison of Instructional Programs K B NB ROCK (English as a second Language) X Comparable ESL Program, X 1 2 B NB B NB Spanish Reading X Transitional English Reading Reading Readiness X Basal Reading Bilingual Social Education Traditional Social Education X X Language Experience Sharing Time X Creative writing (Spanish & English) X Traditional Language Arts Show and Tell X Creative writing (English) Varies Varies Varies Self—Concept Curriculum B NB Bilingual l Non-Bilingual 2 First semester only Started upon completion of Transi- tional English Started upon completion of Reading Readiness 73 Table 3.4 NUmber of Pupils Identified in Each Group Meeting Criteria For Study and Percentage Selected No.Identified No. Selected % in Study Bilingual 185 75 41% Non-Bilingual 231 75 32% Source of Data As previously indicated in Chapter I, the primary purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of hinderance to the expected normal progress in English reading of Mexican-American children in a bilingual program. The vari- ables selected for the study were: (A) academic achievement in English Reading Vocabulary and Comprehension and, (B) academic achievement in Spanish Reading Vocabulary and Compre- hension. Of secondary importance in this study was the investi- gation of (C) effects of bilingual instruction in the self- esteem of children upon termination of the second grade. A primary Self Appraisal Inventory was used to compare groups on this variable. A. Academic Achievement--English Reading The Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, (CTBS), Form R, Level I was selected as the instrument to study academic achievement in English reading as it offered a reliable source with data to test the hypothesis. Only the vocabulary and comprehension portions of this Form were used to collect 74 the data necessary for the study. The reliability of this instrument is detailed in the Technical Report published by CTB/McGraw Hill, Monterrey, California, 1970. Other instruments such as the California Achievement Test or Stanford Achievement Test could have also served the purpose, but the investigator decided against their use as they are most commonly used in the region under study and the possibility of recent usage might have influenced the results. B. Academic Achievement--Spanish Reading The Inter-American Series, Spanish Reading Test has been used extensively as valid criterion to evaluate Spanish Reading achievement with a number of bilingual programs through- out the country. Its validity and reliability are discussed in the Technical Report published by Guidance Testing Associ- ates, Austin, Texas, and amply met the needs of this study. Nivel l, Primario, Forma L-l-CEs-DEs, (Primary Level 1, Form L-l-CEs-DEs) vocabulary and comprehension sections only were used for this study as with the English reading. C. Self-Appraisal Inventory The Self Appraisal Inventory, Primary Level, published by Instructional Objectives Exchange, Los Angeles, California is an orally administered questionnaire. Children are in- structed to respond by marking "Yes" or "No" to this instrument which is comprised of thirty-six questions designed to yield information with regards to four areas, self-concept, family 75 esteem of self, peer esteem of self, and general self-concept. Design of The Study The design used in this study is a "true" experimental Posttest-Only Control Group Design described by Campbell and Stanley (1963). It is experimental in that in order to determine the effects of treatment (X) to experimental group (01) a control group (02) was used for comparison purposes. Its form is as follows: R X 01 R 02 T-tests for independent samples were used to test for statistical difference in scores between the bilingual group (01) and the non-bilingual group (02) at .05 levels to test each of the three major hypotheses in the study. The Hypotheses Hypothesis #1: There is no difference in the group mean score in English reading achievement as measured by the Compre- hensive Test of Basic Skills between Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education from K-2 and Mexican-American children in the traditional program K-2. Hypothesis #2: There is no difference in the group mean score in Spanish reading achievement as measured by the Inter- American Series Spanish Test between Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education from K-2 and Mexican-American children in the traditional program, K-2. 76 Alternate Hypothesis #2a: The group mean score of the Mexican- American children who have been in the bilingual program from.K-2 will exceed that of the non-bilingual education participants. Hypothesis #3: There is no difference in the group mean score in Self-Concept as measured by the Self Appraisal Inventory between Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education from K~2 and Mexican-American children in the traditional program, K-2. Statistical Model Since there was no administration of a pre-test, careful consideration of random sampling was taken and the use of T- tests for independent samples was selected as an appropriate model for this study. The most critical assumption made by this investigator was that of a valid random sample. The considerations taken to enhance the validity of the samples have been previously out- lined in this chapter. Tables 3.2 and 3.4 depict such process. Summary The purpose of this study was to study English reading achievement of Mexican—American children who have been in a bilingual program, Kindergarten through second grade, and in- vestigate the possibility of hinderance in the normal reading achievement progress expected. 77 A secondary purpose entailed the investigation of the self-concept of children in the bilingual program to determine the effects of bilingual instruction on this factor of child development. To undertake this study, it was necessary to compare both academic achievement and the self-concept of these child- ren to a comparable group of Mexican-American children who had been following a traditional program. A control group was identified and randomly sampled from four different school districts, all from the same geographical location as that of the treatment group. Care was taken that children in the control group would meet the same criteria descriptive of the experimental group such as socio and economic background, language facility upon entering school environment of the school, age, sex, ability grouping, and content of the instructional program. The major experimental variable was instruction in Spanish reading at the kindergarten and first grade levels prior to commencement of reading in English. Developers of the Spanish reading program have theorized that the Spanish reading component serves the purpose of the reading readiness aspect of instruction for Spanish native speakers. In addition to the Spanish reading program, developed locally, the bilingual pro- gram is comprised of components in English as a Second Language, transitional English reading and Social Education. Children in the control group were exposed to comparable English as a Second Language and Social Education programs. The Transitional 78 English, also developed locally, was used with the bilingual program.only. A reading readiness program per se, normally found in the traditional program was not part of the instruc- tional program of the bilingual group. Instruments used to collect the data include the Com- prehensive Test of Basic Skills, Form R, Level I, Inter- American Series Spanish Test, Primary Level, Form L-l-CEs-DEs, and the Self Appraisal Inventory, Primary Level. Null hypotheses were made in each of the three areas of investigation, English reading achievement, Spanish reading achievement, and Self-Concept. A design described by Compbell and Stanley (1963) as "true" experimental Posttest-Only Control Group Design was used to test the hypotheses. T-tests for independent samples were used as the investigator felt this model was most appropriate for the study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction In analyzing the raw data collected for this study, it was determined that because of its experimental nature, t- tests for independent samples would most effectively yield the information sought to compare English reading achievement, Spanish reading achievement, and self-concept of the two groups in the study. Findings of the Study The main hypothesis tested was: There is no difference in the group mean score in English reading achievement as measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills between Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education from K-2 and Mexican-American children in the traditional pro- gram K-2, at the .05 level. The alternate hypothesis tested was: There is a difference in the group mean score in English reading achieve- ment as measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills be- tween Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education from K-2 and Mexican-American children in the tradi- tional program K-2, at the .05 level. 79 80 The data for English reading achievement, as shown in Table 4.1, are the combined raw scores for the vocabulary and comprehension sections of the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, Form R, Level 1. Table 4.1 English Reading Achievement Results on Comprehensive Test on Basic Skills, Form R, Level 1 Total Standard Critical Tested Mean Deviation t-Value t-Ratio Bilingual Instruction 75 28.4400 10.5897 Group Non—bilingual Instruction 75 25.2133 9.8876 Group 1.960 1.9287* * Not statistically significant at Alpha .05 level. Although the group mean scores for English reading achievement reveal a difference favoring the bilingual treatment group, the t-ration of 1.9287 was not sufficient to indicate statistical significance at the .05 level selected for this study, as alpha level of significance shows 1.960 for the 148 degrees of freedom in the study. The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of the findings. The second hypothesis tested was: There is no differ- ence in the group mean score in Spanish reading achievement as measured by the Inter-American Series Spanish Test between 81 Mexican-American children who have been in bilingual education from K-2 and Mexican-American children in the traditional program K-2, at the .05 level. The data shown in Table 4.2 indicate results for the English reading achievement combining raw scores for vocabulary and comprehension sections of the Inter-American Series Spanish Test, Level I. Table 4.2 Spanish Reading Achievement Results on the Inter-American Series Test, Level I Total Standard Critical Tested Mean Deviation t-Value t-Radio Bilingual Instruction 75 55.6000 17.0468 Group Non-bilingual Instruction 75 37.4533 15.2433 Group 1.960 6.8722* l.645** *Statistically Significant at Alpha .05 level. **Critical t-value on directional hypothesis. The mean score for the bilingual group in Spanish read- ing achievement was substantially higher than the non-bilingual group. Students in the bilingual program had a mean score difference of 18.1467 points higher than the non-treatment group, consequently findings indicate significant statistical difference between the two groups at the .05 level selected for the study. 82 The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of the findings. The alternate hypothesis numbered 2a in Chapter III read: The group mean score of the Mexican-American children who have been in the bilingual program from K-2 will exceed that of the non-bilingual participants. Based on the findings as depicted in Table 4.2 show- ing affirmative results with regard to the alternate hypothesis, the hypothesis was not rejected. The last hypothesis investigated read: There is no difference in the group mean score in self-concept as measured by the Self Appraisal Inventory between Mexican-American child- ren who have been in bilingual education from K-2 and Mexican- American children in the traditional program, K-2 at the .05 level. Results of this particular investigation are shown in Table 4.3 below. Table 4.3 Results of Self-Concepts as Measured by Self Appraisal Inventory, Primary Level Total Standard Critical Tested Mean Deviation t-Value t-Radio Bilingual Instruction 75 21.8000 4.6875 Group Non-bilingual Instruction 75 21.7067 4.1712 Group 1.960 .1288* if. Not Statistically Significant at Alpha .05 level. 83 Total raw scores and mean scores for both groups as measured by the Self Appraisal Inventory proved to be almost identical. No significant differences were found in results produced in the t-test analysis for the bilingual and non- bilingual groups. The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of the findings. Summary As stated earlier in Chapter I, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of bilingual instruc- tion on the English reading achievement of Mexican-American children who have been exposed to a particular bilingual pro- gram from grades K-2. The investigator explored the possibil- ity of hinderance to English reading achievement which could be attributed to participation in a bilingual program. Children in the bilingual program were exposed to a Spanish reading program prior to initiating their traditional English reading program and a portion of their social studies instruction was conducted in Spanish, consequently spending considerable less time, over the three year period, with English reading than children in the traditional program. Although the data cannot be considered conclusive, the hypotheses tested within the scope of the study do shed some insight into the many questions and assumptions made with regard to bilingual instruction. 84 The main question of possible hinderance to English reading achievement is seriously challenged as the data point favorably to bilingual education in this transitional program. Table 4.4 shows an overview of the hypotheses tested and the outcomes derived from t-tests for independent samples. Table 4.4 Overview of Hypotheses Tested-~Academic Achievement in English Reading, Spanish Reading and Self-Concept Hypothesis #1: Bilingual Non-bilingual Hypothesis #2: Bilingual Non-bilingual Hypothesis #Za: Bilingual Non-bilingual Hypothesis #3: Bilingual Non-bilingual Significance Mean Level Outcome There is no difference in the group mean score in English reading achievement. 28.4400 1.9287 NOT 25.2133 REJECTED There is no difference in the group mean score in Spanish reading achievement. 55.6000 37.4533 REJECTED ------b------—--- The group mean score of the children in the bilingual group will exceed that of the traditional group in Spanish reading. 55.6000 NOT 37.4533 REJECTED There is no difference in the group mean score in self-concept. 21.8000 NOT 21.7067 '1288 REJECTED The first hypothesis investigated English reading achievement with combined raw scores for the vocabulary and comprehension sections of the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, 85 Form R, Level 1. The null hypothesis was not rejected as no statistical difference was found in the group mean scores of the two groups. T-tests for independent samples showed a t- ratio of 1.9287 which was not sufficient to indicate signifi- cant statistical difference at the critical alpha level of 1.960 at the .05 level. The mean score for the bilingual group was 28.4400 as compared with the traditional group score of 25.2133. The second hypothesis investigated Spanish reading achievement. Raw scores for the vocabulary and comprehension sections of the Inter-American Series Spanish Test, Level I were combined. The data showed marked differences between the two groups as the group mean score for the bilingual instruction group was 55.6000 as compared to 37.4533 for the traditional instruction group. T-test for independent samples produced a t-ratio of 6.8722 which clearly indicated significant statistical differences as the critical alpha level at the .05 level is 1.960. The hypothesis was rejected on the basis of the findings. The alternate hypothesis predicting a difference in Spanish reading achievement favoring the bilingual instruction group was not rejected as the critical alpha level at the .05 level is 1.645 and the t-ratio was 6.8722. The third hypothesis tested was self-concept based on the total score obtained from the Self Appraisal Inventory Pri- mary Level. The data summarized in Table 4.4 indicated no significant differences in mean scores between groups with the traditional group mean score of 21.7067 as compared with the 86 bilingual group mean score of 21.8000. The null hypothesis was not rejected as the t-ratio of .1288 was not statistically significant. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The educational plight of Mexican-American children in our public schools has been the subject of much concern for educators throughout the country and particularly in the South- west where this minority is most prevalent. The underachieve- ment of the Mexican-American, based on traditional methods and curriculum is well documented by the 1969 survey conducted by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights as well as from many other sources. It is generally agreed that the Mexican-American child brings to school a different culture, some differences in values, and a different language. Where schools neglect to allow for these differences and the Mexican-American child is expected to hurdle these obstacles as though they were non-existent, un- doubtedly a traumatic experience confronts the child upon his introduction to school. Expecting instant acculturation to a foreign school environment has proven to be unsuccessful for the Mexican—American child. Bilingual-Bicultural Education was introduced for the purpose of providing a new, innovative curriculum to better meet the needs of the child learning EngliSh as a second language and 87 88 hopefully enhance the educational opportunities of these child- ren. Proponents of bilingual-bicultural education contend that bilingual instruction can facilitate the transition from home environment to the school community, that bilingual-bicultural instruction has proven to be pedagogically sound, that the self image of children can be enhanced, and that it offers an alter- native, a fresh, new approach which offers hope of success for the child learning English as a second language. Although historically, the U.S. has suppressed a pluralistic philosophy of cultural diversity by negating the use of languages other than English in our public schools, the historic introduction of bilingual education through the use of federal funds in 1967 initiated a trend towards acceptance of a multilingual and multicultural society. Much of the literature in bilingualism prior to the introduction of legislation approving bilingual instruction, deal with studies conducted abroad as well as with studies con- ducted in our country investigating and comparing bilinguals with monolinguals with regard to mental ability, academic achievement, and self esteem. Contradicting findings have been reported by several sources. Educators speculate and debate the pros and cons of bilingual-bicultural education and appear to agree only on the need for additional research. The more recent studies of bilingual programs in our public schools yield more positive reports formulating a pattern of fruitful edu- cational implications for future research that should enhance 89 bilingual-bicultural instruction in general. More and more positive findings favoring bilingualism have been reported in the last eight to ten years as bilingual teaching materials have been developed and a gradual increase in interest in bilingual instruction has grown throughout the country. The purpose of this study was to study English read- ing achievement of Mexican-American children who have been in a bilingual program, Kindergarten through second grade, and investigate the possibility of hinderance in the normal progress expected. As children in the bilingual program spent approx- imately 25% of the regular school day using Spanish as a medium of instruction or learning how to read and write Spanish before initiating their English basal reading program, it was imperativ- ely felt that such investigation was essential. A secondary purpose added to the study, entailed the investigation of the self-concept of children in the bilingual program to determine the overall effects of bilingual instruc- tion on this factor of child development although the program does not provide for specific emphasis in any form of instruc- tional preparation to enhance self-concept. The design used in this study was experimental post- test Only Control Group Design using t-tests for independent samples to test for statistical differences. Random samples were taken from the treatment and control groups to compare group mean scores on English reading achievement, Spanish reading achievement, and self-concept. As previously stated in Chapter I, 90 the limitations of the study were confined to the population in the study and the results should not be generalized to other programs although they may serve as reference inasmuch as their commonalities coincide. The results of the data have been fully detailed in Chapter IV. Summarizing the results, no significant difference in English reading achievement between groups was found as measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills. Mexican- American children in the bilingual program, as anticipated, scored significantly higher than the control group in Spanish reading achievement. On the Self Appraisal Inventory, measuring self-concept, no significant difference between groups was found- Conclusions and Discussion It is important that in arriving at conclusions and interpretations of the results of this study that the reader be reminded that the conclusions that follow are limited to the scope of this study and to its population. A. English Reading Achievement: Since no statistical significance was found between groups at the .05 level selected for the study, this investiga- tor concluded that Mexican-American children participating in the bilingual program were not hindered in English reading achievement over the three year period analyzed. Although, the data were not significant, the children in the bilingual program scored higher in English reading achievement in vocabulary, comprehension, and combined score than the traditional group. 91 This indicates that this particular bilingual program not only proved to be successful in teaching Spanish reading, but also implemented an English reading approach that successfully made up for the approximately 25% less time spent using oral English in the classroom. It is interesting to point out that the data on English reading so favored the bilingual group that had the alpha level selected for the study been based on a .10 level of significance, the results would indicate a significant statis- tical difference favoring the bilingual group. Although no specific variables were identified to study their effects on the treatment group, the Transitional English Reading component of the treatment may have well proven itself a major contributing factor towards facilitating the transfer of reading skills learned in Spanish to English reading. B. Spanish Reading Achievement: Significant statistical difference was found between the two groups favoring the bilingual group. The results showed that Mexican-American children in the traditional program, who had no formal Spanish reading instruction, scored considerably lower than the children in the treatment group, consequently, it is concluded that the children in the bilingual program, attained successful proficiency in Spanish reading while main- taining a high degree of success in English reading achievement. It can be concluded that the transitional bilingual program has provided its participating pupils with the versatility of proficiency in reading in two languages, while not hindering 92 their English reading progress. Children in the traditional group would have to be classified as non-readers in the Spanish language with a few exceptions, and more than likely will continue their schooling in English until they get to the Middle School or High School where Spanish reading and writing may be taken as an elective for foreign language credit. C. Self-Concept: No difference in self-concept was found between the two groups as measured by the Self Appraisal Inventory. As shown in Chapter III, Table 3.3 neither group was exposed to any specific treatment or instructional program designed to enhance self-concept, such as Cornett, Ainsworth, and Askins' study described in Chapter II. At this particular point, it can only be theorized that the fact that no differences in self-concept between groups were found, may be attributed to the following factors or com- binations of factors: 1. School environments in predominantly Mexican- American populated public schools of the Rio Grande Valley of Texas have undergone some dramatic changes in the last decade which have promoted a more positive atmosphere for the academic and social growth of children. 2. The use of Spanish on the school grounds is per- mitted; although children are encouraged to practice oral English, they are not punished nor are there any intentional disciplinary actions or remarks made so as to convey a message of negativism.against the Spanish language or culture. 93 3. Teachers in traditional classrooms are permitted to use oral Spanish in the classrooms as necessary to clarify a concept or for the purpose of explaining directions to child- ren of limited English facility. 4. The majority of the teachers in predominant Mexican- American elementary schools are Mexican-American, so children feel free to communicate in Spanish in both bilingual and traditional classrooms until such time as their oral English is sufficiently proficient to conduct all their communication in English. 5. All the children in the study in both groups were assisted by Mexican-American teacher aides who were also at liberty to use Spanish as necessary. ‘As the school and home environment of both groups is very similar, this investigator can only conclude that the evidence points to no effect on the self-concept of the child- ren in this particular transitional bilingual program. It appears that the 25% of class time devoted to Spanish reading and/or the using of Spanish as a medium of instruction does not affect self-concept under the circumstances described. Implications For Future Research The need for additional research cannot be emphasized too strongly. Bilingual-Bicultural Educations appears to be suffering from growing pains; there are more questions than answers and the issues being raised deserve careful attention and scrutiny. 94 The findings and conclusions previously mentioned in this study indicate a need for extending the research. The Social Studies component of the bilingual group can be tested and compared to non-bilingual group(s) to evaluate its efficacy. Longitudinal studies would probably be most effective and can be most inclusive, if well planned. As this study investigated primarily the effects of bilingual instruction on English reading, a need exists to investigate particular achievements in the subject areas where Spanish is used as the medium of instruction such as Math , Science, and Social Studies achievement. How does achievement of bilingual instruc- tion compare to the achievement attained in a traditional English-instructed classroom? How does the achievement of Mexican-American children compare to that of monolingual Anglo children? How does the group mean score in English reading achievement of Mexican-American children in bilingual education compare to monolingual Anglo children at the end of grade two? In what grade level does the gap in oral English between English-speaking children and originally monolingual Spanish- speaking children close? What treatment can be atrributed for such improvement or lack of improvement? Bilingual-Bicultural Education has great implications for teaching training. Questions of certification have arisen and caused unrest with both bilingual and monolingual teachers and administrators. Future researches need to investigate 95 teachers' attitude as a variable which can affect any given study. This study did not investigate teachers' attitude to- wards bilingual education, very especially of teachers partici- pating in the bilingual program upon the instruction of their superiors and not by choice, as was the case with one school in the study, according to Mr. Alfonso R. Ramirez, Director of Bilingual Division Material C enter, Region One Educational Service Center, Edinburg, Texas and Director of the bilingual program in the study. Mr. Ramirez further clarified that leadership is a key factor in order to achieve success, that in cases such as in this study as well as two other studies con- ducted by his office, where a void in leadership existed, nega- tive results were found. Some of the teachers' reluctance to cooperate fully with the bilingual curriculum guidelines may have well proven the theoretical, self-fulfilling pr0phecy of failure in that the sample group from this treatment school scored 20.32 points lower in mean score in Spanish reading achievement and 7.15 points lower in mean score in English read- ing achievement than the combined score of the sample from the three other treatment schools in the sample. Ability to write in Spanish was not investigated in this study. For a more complete evaluation of the Spanish instructional program, it may behoove researchers to evaluate and compare Spanish writing facility of children in bilingual education with traditional groups. An interesting discovery of this study was the fact 96 that some children in the non-bilingual group have learned to read Spanish at home. Prior to the administration of the Spanish reading instrument used in this study, all children in the traditional group were asked if they could read Spanish. A few children responded that they could indeed read Spanish although they had not participated in any formal instruction in public schools. Upon questioning, children offered different sources of instruction, their mothers were most mentioned, others mentioned sisters, their fathers, and some stated that they had taught themselves. This contention was reflected in the data as 15% of the children in the traditional group scored above the group mean score of the bilingual group. Further investigation in this area as well as parental attitude towards bilingual instruction is necessary to give direction to all aspects of bilingual-bicultural education. The affective domain appears to present more complex and compounded problems for evaluation of Mexican-American children in that cultural differences, differences in values from one social class to another, parental attitude towards school in general, and principals' and teachers' attitude to- wards bilingual instruction and children of different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, all offer variables that must be con- sidered. Testing instruments which take into consideration these cultural differences must be sought and developed. The Self Appraisal Inventory used in this study provides for differentiation of self-concept in four areas, 97 self-concept, family esteem of self, peer esteem of self, and general self-concept. This investigator used a total score in analyzing the data. An analysis of each area of self-concept can be easily conducted and studied in conjunction with a survey or questionnaire probing into family's, administrators', and teachers' attitudes as related to the overall learning environment of children in a bilingual setting. Care and consideration needs to be taken in the implementation of bilingual programs on the possibility that administrators, teachers, and parents look upon bilingual in- struction as a remedial or compensatory process as described by Cardenas and Fillmore in Chapter II. Such attitude can be easily conveyed to children in such program, thus children can develop a negative attitude towards the program and s 001 as they are made to feel that they are being especially pi - I pointed as slow-learners, retarded, or negatively different from their peers. Recommendations Few educators,especially in Texas, would argue against the need to conduct additional extensive research in the area of bilingual education. Unfortunately, it appears to this investigator, that too many administrators, school trustees, and universities are adopting a wait and see attitude. Omission of action seems to reflect reluctance, distrust, and general lack of acceptance in spite of the many positive results reported from different regions of the country. 98 Recent amendment of Texas legislation reinforces the need for research and is perhaps reflective of the state's cautious and indecisive position on bilingual-bicultural education. Whereas the 1973 Texas Legislature had adopted legislation providing bilingual education through the sixth grade on a progressive basis, adding an additional grade of bilingual instruction, the 64th Legislature concluding its session on June 1, 1975, amended bilingual legislation to pro- vide funds through the third grade only with a provision to the effect that children in grades four and five who have not pro- gressed sufficiently to participate in the regular school curriculum.may be offered bilingual education. Criteria for identification of children eligible to continue in bilingual instruction, the adoption of an effective bilingual curriculum, funding formulas, and teacher training and certification all point to a much needed expanded research program. Such need was confirmed by Dr. Arturo L. Gutierrez, Director of Texas Education Agency, Division of Bilingual Education, as this investigator inquired on plans for present and future research in this area. Dr. Gutierrez discussed plans for a longitudinal study of the effectiveness of bilingual education in Texas which includes the preparation of a design for the study, the development of a data collection system, and the identification and compilation of a list of Spanish and English language pro- ficiency assessment instruments that are to be made available to bilingual education personnel in the public schools. This objective needs to be accelerated in order to better determine 99 the direction of bilingual instruction in the state. Very limited experimentation has taken place in Texas in studying the possibilities of offering Spanish as a second Language to monolingual English-speaking children as an en- riching experience, extending the present bilingual curriculum as this is not an objective of bilingual legislation. Perhaps the initiation of voluntary programs offering Spanish as a second Language and accompanied by research tools may offer additional information in second language learning while en- hancing a truly bilingual-bicultural society, very especially in areas such as the Rio Grande Valley of Texas where bilingual- ism is a reality and the implications for the blending of cultures and social betterment are so great. Lastly, this investigator would strongly recommend that a system of public information be adopted to better inform its public as to the purposes, goals, and objectives presently being undertaken by bilingual programs. A confused p0pulation can only fabricate negative reactions which can prove detri- mental to any program. Bilingual-Bicultural Education is not intended to remedy all of the ills of education. Its potential can develop and expand in proportion to the degree of effort and success that it experiences. It has provided hope of academic success and social acceptance to those who have participated in its curriculum. This hope can become a reality with the increased realization that living in a multilingual and multiethnic 100 society requires mutual respect and understanding of those differences that divide people, so as to better promote the ideals of democracy in an ever-increasing pluralistic society, and in so doing, a changing society can change for its own betterment. 101 It; " u . ‘- I ' l- - an a .. ' ‘9 ,: 19f ‘ I u y. ElTB' PUBLISHED BY BTIIIcBIAW-lllll, DEL MONTE RESEARCH PAR K, MONTEHEY, CALIFORNIA 93940 HAN D-SCORABLE BOOKLET 4:- " .4 R E A D I N G , ,3 a ""- ' : NAME 1 LAST FIRST mom: 42‘ SCHOOL CITY GRADE PUPIL'S AGE TEST DATE YEAR MONTH DAY TEACHER BIRTH DATE YEAH MONTH DAY 102 PRUEBA DIE lECTURA Nivel I—Primario—Forma CEs Serie Interamericana l-I-CEs III’Iulo cone) Nombre Grado ...... EdadrmUUH Escuela Ciudad , Fecha .. 1_H._Sexo .11 Ejercicios dc Practica érbol m R e PCI‘I’O 2 1a 11“ A A La casita. 3 H l.“ L © Capyright 1966 by Herschel T. Manuel. Printed in USA. Puntos Converlidos °/o iles Voc Com Tot Este es un libro. REST Maria tiene una mufieca. I'Ispvrl' aqui- \OGDVO‘ U'LbUDNH O C O O O 103 SELF'APPRAISAL’INVENTORY Primary Level Are you easy to like? Do you often get in trouble at home? Can you give a good talk in front of your class? Do you wish you were younger? Are you an important person in your family? Do you often feel that you are doing badly in school? Do you like being just what you are? Do you have enough friends? Does your family want too much of you? . Do you wish you were someone else? . Can you wait your turn easily? . Do your friends usually do what you say? Is it easy for you to do good in school? . Do you often break your promises? . Do most children have fewer friends than you? . Are you smart? . Are most children better liked than you? . Are you one of the last to be chosen for games? . Are the things you do at school very easy for you? . Do you know a lot? . Can you get good grades if you want to? Do you forget most of what you learn? . Do you feel lonely very often? . If you have something to say, do you usually say it? . Do you get upset easily at home? . Do you often feel ashamed of yourself? . Do you like the teacher to ask you questions in front of the other children? . Do the other children in the class think you are a good worker? . Are you hard to be friends with? . Do you find it hard to talk to your class? . Are most children able to finish their school work more quick— ly than you? . Do members of your family pick on you? . Are you any trouble to your family? Is your family proud of you? . Can you talk to your family when you have a problem? . Do your parents like you even if you have done something bad? NAME DATE SCHOOL TEACHER' Self-AppraisalInventoryffAnswer‘Sheet 1. YES .NO _13.‘ YES. .NO_ 25.. YES, NO 2. YES NO. 14. YES NO 26. YES NO 3. YES INO . '15.. YES ~NO 27. (YES NO 4. YES NO 16 YES_ No 28. 'YES NO 5. YES NO 17. YES NO 29. YES NO 6. YES NO 18. YES NO 30. YES NO 7. YES NO 19. YES NO 31. YES NO 8. YES NO 20. YES NO 32. YES NO 9. YES NO 21. YES NO 33. ‘ YES NO 10. YES NO 22. YES NO 34. YES NO 11. YES NO 23 . YES NO 35 . YES NO 12. YES NO 24. YES NO 36. YES NO 104 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Andersson, Theodore, and Boyer, Mildred. Bilingpal Schooling in ”The United States, Vol. 1. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, Austin, Texas, Jan. 1970. Barker, George C. Social FunctiOns of Language in a Mexican- American Community. The UniverSity ofIArizona Press, Tuczon, Arizona, 1972. ' Bloom, Benjamin. Stability_and Change in Human Characteristics. John Wiley andlSons, Inc., New York, 1964. Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental and ‘ Quasi-Experimental Designs for ResearEh. hRand McNally and Company, Chicago 1963. Carter, Thomas P. Mexican-Americans in School: A History_of Educational Neglect. College Entrance Examination Board: New York, 1970. Child, Irving L. Italian or American, The Second Generation in Conflict. Yale University Pfess, New Haven, l943l Gardner, Robert C., and Lambert, Wallace E. Attitudes and "Motivation in Second-Language Learning. NeWbury House Publishers. Rowley, MassaChusetts, 1972. Hawkins, Augustus F., and Hernandez, William J. Educating The Mexican American. Judson Press. Valley Forge, Pa., 1970. Krear, Josefina E. "The Role of the Mother Tongue at Home and at School in the Development of Bilingualism." Chicanos: Social and Psyehological Perspectives. Eaitors: Nathaniel N. Wégner and Marsha J. Haug. C.V. Mosby Co., St. Louis, Mo., 1971. Lambert, wallace E. Lan ua e Ps cholo and Culture. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California 1972. Loretan, Joseph 0., and Umans, Shelley. Teaching the Dis- advantaged. Teachers College Press. 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